THE
UNITY OF LAW;
AS EXHIBITED IN THE
RELATIONS OF PHYSICAL,,SOCIAL, MENTAL,
AND MORAL SCIENCE.
BY
H. C. CAREY.
"Variety in unity is perfection."
Old Proverb.
PHILADELPHIA:
HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER,
406 WALNUT STREET.
1872.




Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by
H. C. CAREY,
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
COLLINS, PRINTER,
705 JAYNE STREET.




TO
PROFESSOR EUGENE DUIIRINGWORTHY SUCCESSOR OF
FREDERIC LIST
IN THE
GREAT WORK OF PROVING TO THE GERMANIC NATION
THAT
DOMESTIC INTERDEPENDENCE, NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE,
PUBLIC PEACE, AND PRIVATE HAPPINESS,
TEND ALWAYS TO MARCH HAND IN HAND TOGETHERE1's folumt
IS DEDICATED IN TOKEN OF ITS AUTHOR'S HIGH RESPECT.
Professor Diihring's field of action is that of the University of Berlin.
Of his many works none have yet been reproduced in the English language,
and therefore does the author deem it well to call to the attention of the
reader the two most recent, as follows:
First of these is, "A Critical History of Political Economy and Social
Science" (Berlin, 1871); a work remarkable for its critical acumen, and as
furnishing a more thorough exhibit of the course of sociological science,
from its earliest days, than any that, until now, has been given to the
world. It is much to be desired that it should be here translated.
Second. "A Critical History of the General Principles of Mechanical
Science from the days of Galileo to the present time." This work, not
yet published, was prepared in response to a public invitation from the
University of Gittingen, and was honored, March, 1872, by an award of
the highest prize that had been offered; that award, too, accompanied by
(iii)




iv                       DEDICATION.
a report, in which the faculty of that renowned institution state, that " not
only are the essential points discussed in a manner evincing a thorough
mastery of the subject, and an extraordinary amount of accurate literary
knowledge," but that thereto had been added sundry dissertations on
others less important; the whole bearing witness to the " great love and
care" given to the work. In conclusion, they congratulate themselves on
having called into existence "a beautiful performance;" one far surpassing
any anticipation they could have formed when adopting the measures that
had led to its production.
It is rare to find such varied knowledge combined with such extraordinary industry as has been exhibited by Professor Diihring throughout the
last decade.




CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAP. I.-A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS..  1
II.-OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS... 33
III.-OF MAN, THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 77
IV.-OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL LAWS.. 116
V.-OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.. 130
VI.-OF MATTER AND MIND.... 148
VII.-OF MATTER AND MIND, continued.. 174
VIII.-OF MATTER AND MIND, continued.. 198
IX.-OF MATTER AND MIND, continued.. 234
X.-OF MIND AND MORALS...294
XI.-OF MIND AND MORALS, continued.. 308
XII.-OF CIVILIZATION.               345
XIII.-OF SCIENTIFIC RELATIONS.... 374
XIV.-DEFINITIONS...... 375
APPENDIX.
A.-The Law of Distribution..... 379
B.-Occupation of the Earth..... 382
C.-Statistical Facts.....       392
D.-The Opium Trade...... 395
E.-Effects of an Exclusive Agriculture..   404
p.-The Proletariat.                  406
(V)








PREFACE.
DESIRING FULLY to understand and properly to appreciate the men around us, we study their antecedents, thereby
in some measure qualifying ourselves for predicting their
probable future. So, too, is it with nations. That we may
understand the direction in which they are moving, whether
toward civilization, wealth, and power, or toward barbarism, poverty, and weakness, it is needed that we compare
their present with their past, and satisfy ourselves as to
whether their course of action has tended in the direction
of developing the qualities which constitute the real MAN,
the being made in the image of his Creator, fitted for
becoming master of nature and an example worthy to be
followed by those around him; or those alone which he
holds in common with the beasts of the field, and which
fit him for place among men whose rule of conduct
exhibits itself in the robber chieftain's motto, "that they
may take who have the power, and those may keep who
can."  That it is proposed now to do; but preparatory
thereto, the author asks the reader's attention to a brief
exhibit of the very gradual steps by which, and almost
insensibly, he has been led to arrive at the idea of an UNITY
OF LAW, necessary complement as it is of that great idea
so recently developed, but already so universally accepted,
that of UNITY OF FORCE.
So far as regards Societary Science —the link connecting physical with mental science-the first step ever
made in that direction consisted in furnishing a theory of
(vii)




Viii                       PREFACE.
value so simple that, in the words of one of the highest
authorities in economical science, "there could arise no
case in which a man should determine to make an exchange
in which it would not be found to apply."        Here, as every
where, simplicity and breadth marched hand in hand
together; the law embracing every commodity or thing in
reference to which the idea of value could be predicated,
and thus contributing largely toward demonstration of the
universality of natural laws; the value of land having
been ascribed by all previous economists to causes widely
different from those which gave value to its products.*
Till then, amid the many suggestions as to the "nature,
measure, and causes of value," there had been none, to
quote again from the same high authority, that had not
proved itself "liable to perpetual exceptions."         The law
then furnished was that of the labor saved; the limit of
* "Carey, and after him Bastiat, have introduced a formula a posteriori,
that I believe destined to be universally adopted; and it is greatly to be
regretted that the latter should have limited himself to occasional indications of it, instead of giving to it the importance so justly given by the
former. In estimating the equilibrium between the cost to one's self and
the utility to others, a thousand circumstances may intervene; and it is
desirable to know if there be not among men a law, a principle of universal application. Supply and demand, rarity, abundance, etc., are all
insufficient, and liable to perpetual exceptions. Carey has remarked, and
with great sagacity, that this law is the labor saved, the cost of reproduction
-an idea that is, as I think, most felicitous. It appears to me that there
cannot arise a case in which a man shall determine to make an exchange,
in which this law will not be found to apply. I will not regard it as
equivalent, unless I see that it will come to me at less cost of labor than
would be necessary for its reproduction. I regard this formula as most
felicitous; because while on one side it retains the idea of cost which is
constantly referred to in the mind; on the other it avoids the absurdity to
which we are led by the theory which pretends to see everywhere a value
equivalent to the cost of production; and, finally, it shows more perfectly
the essential justice that governs us in our exchanges."-FERRARA:
Biblioteca dell' Economista, vol. xii. p. 117.




PREFACE.                          ix
value being found in the cost of reproduction.* Subsequently
adopted by an eminent French economist,t it has been
made known to tens of thousands who had never seen, or
even heard of, the work in which it first appeared.
Consequent upon this, was the discovery of a general
law of distribution, embracing all the products of labor;
whether that applied      to cultivation  or conversion-to
change of place or change of form. According to the
theories then most generally received, the profit of one
was always attended with loss to another-rents rising, as
labor became less productive, and profits advancing, as
wages retrograded; a doctrine said to come as natural
consequence of a great law instituted by the Deity for
man's government; but which, if true, tended to the production of universal discord.4
Directly the reverse of this, however, was the law that
was then announced, and now is reproduced; proving, as
it did, that both capitalist and laborer profited by every
measure tending to render labor more productive, while
losing by every one that tended to render it less so-and
thus establishing a perfect harmony of interests.
Likewise adopted by M. Bastiat, and characterized by
him   as "the great, admirable, consoling, necessary, and
* CAREY. Principles of Political Economy, vol. i. Philad., 1837.
t BASTIAT. Harmonies Economiques, Paris, 1850.
t " Low wages, as a consequence of competition for the sale of labor,
reduce the prices of the things to the production of which that labor is
applied; and it is the consumers of those products, the whole society,
that reap the profit. If, then, as a consequence of low wages, the latter
find themselves obliged to contribute to the support of the poor workman,
they are indemnified therefor by the reduced prices at which they obtain
his products."-J. B. SAY; Trait6 d'Economie Politique, t. ii., p. 292.
It is here supposed that society profits by a state of things that impoverishes the workman, and sends him to the hospital. The real and permanent interests of the employer and his workmen being one and the same,
such a state of things can not exist.
J See Appendix A. SeP also pp. 66, 67.




X                    PREFACE.
inflexible law of capital,"* it constituted a second step in
the direction of proving that in each department of the
social relations there was perfect unity; and, that the whole
were as much subjected to law, absolute and inflexible, as
were those of inorganic matter.
Thoroughly convinced of the truth of the laws then presented for consideration, the author felt not less certain
that the really fundamental principle remained yet to
be discovered; and, that until it could be brought to
light many societary phenomena must continue unexplained. In what direction, however, to seek it, he could
not tell. He had already satisfied himself that the theory
presented for consideration by Mr. Ricardo, not being
universally true, had no claim to be so considered; but,
it was not until ten years later he was led to remark the
fact, that it was universally false. The real law, as he
then was led to see, was directly the reverse of that
which had been propounded; the work of cultivation
having, and that invariably, been commenced on the poorer
soils, and having passed to those more rich as wealth had
grown and population had increased. Here was the great
fundamental truth of which he before had thought; the
one, too, that was needed for perfect demonstration of the
truth of those he previously had exhibited. Here, too,
was further proof of the universality of natural lawsthe course of man, in reference to the earth at large, being
thus shown to have been the same that we see it now to
be in reference to all the instruments into which he
fashions parts of the great machine itself. Always commencing with the poorest axes, he proceeds onward to
those of steel; always commencing with the poorer soils,
he proceeds onward toward those capable of yielding
larger returns to labor; increase of numbers being thus
* Harmonies Economiques, Paris, 1850.




PREFACE.                           Xi
proved to be essential to increase in the supply of food.
Here was a unity of law       leading to perfect harmony of
all real and permanent human interests, and directly opposed to the discords taught by Mr. Malthus.*
This great law was first announced nearly a quarter of
a century since.t     While engaged il its demonstration,
the author found himself constantly impelled to the use
of physical facts in illustration of social phenomena, and
hence was led to remark the close affinity of physical and
social laws. Reflecting upon this, he soon was brought
to expression of the belief, that closer examination would
* Adam Smith having assumed that the work of cultivation commenced
always with the richest soils, Mr. Malthus adopted the idea as basis for a
law of population requiring that large numbers of men, women, and children should "regularly die of want."  Mr. Ricardo next perfected the
system, furnishing a theory of rent by means of which he sought to
establish that precisely as it became necessary to cultivate the poorer
soils, and as labor became less and less productive, the landlord's share of
the products increased, leaving steadily less and less for the unfortunate
laborer; the tendency toward absolute enslavement of the latter becoming
necessarily greater with each successive hour. From that time forward,
all the distress, all the pauperism, of England, was treated as natural
result of a necessity for cultivating the "inferior soils."  So far indeed
was this idea carried out, that it was not unfrequently suggested that
the remedy for existing difficulties would be found in throwing out of
cultivation all such soils.
The time arriving, however, when the theory was shown to be wholly
without foundation, it came then to be discovered, that this fundamental
question-as important in furnishing a stand point in Social Science as had
been that of Copernicus in the astronomical one-was wholly unimportant,
and might be left entirely uaconsidered; the essence of the RicardoMalthusian doctrine being, however, still retained in that assumption
which constitutes the basis of the existing system, to wit: that the return
to agricultural labor, when population and wealth increase, is a constantly
diminishing one (see post pp. 17, 18); than which no assertion could by
any possibility have less of even the appearance of support from facts.
That the reader may judge for himself of this, as well as of the accuracy
of the views now presented, the history of the earth's occupation is here
reproduced in appendix B.
t The Past, the Present, and the Future, Philad., 1848.




Xii                   PREFACE.
lead to development of the great fact, that there existed
but a single system of laws; those instituted for the government of inorganic matter proving to be the same by
which that matter was governed when it took the form of
man, or of communities of men.
In the work then published, the discoveries of modern
science proving the indestructibility of matter were, for
the first time, rendered available to social science-the
difference between agriculture and all other of the pursuits of man having been there exhibited in the fact, that
the farmer was always employed in making a machine
whose powers increased from year to year; whereas, the
shipmaster, and the wagoner, were always using machines
whose powers as regularly diminished. The whole business of the former, as there was shown, consisted in making
and improving soils; his powers for improvement growing
with the growth of wealth and population.   To fully
develop the law of the perpetuity of matter, in its bearing
upon the law of population, was, however, reserved for
the author's friend, Mr. E. Peshine Smith, an important
passage from one of whose works will be found at page
150 of the present volume.*
Further reflection having confirmed him in the belief
that the laws thus far exhibited were but parts of a perfectly harmonious system instituted for the government
of matter in all its forms, whether those of coal or iron,
fish or birds, clay, corn, oxen, or men; that the Creator
of the Universe had not been obliged to institute different
laws for government of the same matter; that the physical
and social laws must, therefore, be in harmony with each
other; and, that the idea of unity of lawu must be as clearly
susceptible of proof as was that of unity of force; he
availed himself in a further work,+ of the familiar pheno* See also Manual of Political Economy, New York, 1853.
- Principles of Social Science, 3 vols. Philad., 1857-59.




PREFACE.                      Xiii
mena of heat, motion, and their effective forces in the
physical world, for illustration of corresponding facts and
forces in the societary one; the result having'been that
of showing that, with societies as with individual men,
physical and mental development, health, and life, had
always grown with growth in the rapidity of circulation
and declined as the circulation had been arrested or destroyed.
Since then, there have been many and important scientific discoveries, chief among which are those by means
of which it has been definitively established that"Power or energy, like matter, can neither be created nor destroyed: though ever changing in form, its total quantity in the universe remains constant and unalterable. Every manifestation of force
must have come from a preexisting equivalent force, and must give
rise to a subsequent and equal amount of some other force. When,
therefore, a force or effect appears, we are not at liberty to assume
that it was self-originated, or came from nothing; when it disappears
we are forbidden to conclude that it is annihilated: we must search
and find whence it came and whither it has gone; that is, what produced it and what effect it has itself produced. These relations
among the modes of energy are currently known by the phrases Correlation and Conservation of Force." *
The law thus exhibited might, as we are assured"' Well have been proclaimed the highest law of all science-the
most far-reaching principle that adventuring reason has discovered
in the universe.* Its stupendous reach spans all orders of existence.
Not only does it govern the movements of the heavenly bodies, but
it presides over the genesis of the constellations; not only does it
control those radiant floods of power which fill the eternal spaces,
bathing, warming, illumining and vivifying our planet, but it rules the
actions and relations of men, and regulates the march of terrestrial
affairs. Nor is its dominion limited to physical phenomena; it prevails equally in the world of mind, controlling all the faculties and
processes of thought and feeling.  The star-suns of the remoter
galaxies dart their radiations across the universe; and although the
* Youmans. Correlation and Conservation of Forces, p. xiii.




Xiv                     PREFACE.
distances are so profound that hundreds of centuries may have been
required to traverse them, the impulses of force enter the eye, and
impressing an atomic change upon the nerve, give origin to the sense
of sight. Star and nerve-tissue are parts of the same system-stellar
and nervous forces are correlated. Nay more; sensation awakens
thought and kindles emotion, so that this wondrous dynamic chain
binds into living unity the realms of matter and mind through measureless amplitudes of space and time."*
Spanning, as we are here assured it does, "all orders of
existence" the paramount law thus exhibited must, of
course, embrace within its field of operation that force
which enters into man's composition, and by so doing
gradually fits him for that elevated position for which, from
the first, he had been intended. That it is so embraced,
will become obvious to the reader after consideration of
the following facts:From the days of Caesar to the present time, a period of
almost 2000 years, there has been but slight, if indeed any,
increase in the numbers of mankind.t    Nevertheless, the
quantity of human force has so much increased, that single
individuals now accomplish service that before had required hundreds; and, that even the weaker sex has so far
grown in power as to be largely aiding in maintaining
throughout the world an interchange of ideas which but
half a century since could not have been maintained by the
united efforts of all mankind.  Whence, now, has come
the wonderful force that we see to be thus exerted? For
answer to this question we have the certainty that, as
"force can be neither created nor destroyed;" as "every
manifestation of force must come from     a pre-existing
equivalent force;" human force, whether physical, mental,
or moral, results necessarily from conversion to human
use of forces that have existed from all time; and, that
there is, in this respect, no difference between man and
* Ibid. p. xli.            t See note to page 407.




PREFACE.                   XV
the trees which adorn our parks; the cotton-plant which
furnishes the material of our clothing; or the shrub from
which we derive our fruits.
Throughout the inorganic world the variety in the manifestations of force is but very small indeed, great as is its
power in whatsoever shape it comes to be presented. When,
however it enters into organized forms it finds them each
and all to have been so constructed as to give occasion to
that almost infinite variety in the modes of manifestation
which exhibits itself in both the vegetable and animal
world, from the bramble to the oak, and from the ascidian
to the horse, the dog, and the almost-speaking elephant.
Thus far, differences have been generic or specific only;
individuals of a species being little more than a reproduction each of every other. Man, however, now coming on
the stage of life, we find individual differences almost as
numerous as are those of the human countenance; there
being scarcely any two members of the human family precisely alike in their capacities for absorbing and converting the force that everywhere awaits demand. In one, the
power of absorption is of a character tending to fit him for
practice of the law, while around are others whose organs
fit them for becoming farmers, merchants, physicians,
chemists, traders, and so on throughout the thousand other
pursuits of life. It is in variety there is unity, and the
more that each and every of these men is enabled to absorb
and convert the force supplied, the greater is the tendency
toward that association in whose absence the being known
as MAN can have no existence whatsoever.
Looking now to the early man, as he is being exhibited
to us by geologists, we see him to have been almost wholly
powerless in face of the wonderful forces in whose presence he had been placed. - Tracing him thence onward,
we find him gradually obtaining power for their direction,
until at length he is enabled to compel light and heat,




XVi                        PREFACE.
steam and electricity, to perform labors that would have
required the united efforts of hundreds, if not even thousands, of millions of unassisted men. At each and every
stage of progress the force thus converted to his use becomes part and parcel of himself; his various faculties
absorbing their several portions, and the man of power
coming gradually on the stage prepared to direct the
already acquired force to further development of the yet
latent powers of the earth, and further conversion thereof
to his own use and service.*      As numbers increase, men
are more and more enabled to combine together, and at
each such stage their faculties become more and more
strengthened for absorption of further aliment; the process here being precisely the same with that observed as
consequent upon steady exercise of the physical powers
with which the human animal has been endowed.
* A dozen hours from the delivery of a presidential message its contents
have been made known throughout the civilized world. Whence had come
the force by whose means this wonderful work had been accomplished?
From the types, the paper, the poles, or the wires, that had been employed?
Certainly not, all these having been perfectly quiescent.-The forces of the
pistol, the engine, and the telegraph, are in the men who control and direct
them, and not in the machines by which the work is done.-A horse's force
is said to be the equivalent of that of nine average men. The man who
subjugates him adds that force to his own, doing now ten times his original
work.-The force of the banker's millions, of the essayist's pen, and of the
astronomer's telescope, is in those who direct them, and not in the instruments directed.-That of the orator, or actor, who moves multitudes to
action, or to tears, differs only in its modes of manifestation from that
of the engineer who explodes the charge, and sends other multitudes to
their last account.-Aided by his sling, David felled Goliath to the ground.
Altogether unaided, Samson levelled the pillars of the temple.-One man
levels his opponent with a blow of his fist. Another does the same by aid
of a club. A third accomplishes the same object by means of a well-contrived trap. The force thus used is always the same; and so it is in those
larger operations which involve the use of the monster cannon, the ocean
steamer, or the fast-flying locomotive.-The soldier's knapsack doubles his
carrying power. Is the new force in him, or in the machine?




PREFACE.                  XVii
Side by side with the forces thjus converted travels
always the first of the great laws above referred to,
providing, as it does, that growth of force shall be accompanied by changes in the distribution of labor's products; present mental and moral force claiming a constantly increased proportion as compared with that appropriated to the merely material force resulting from accumulations of the past; labor thus tending to an equality
with capital, and man becoming from hour to hour more
free. In the whole range of law there is nothing more
beautiful than this; nothing furnishing more thorough
proof that that High Intelligence to which man stands indebted for the wonderful mechanism of each and every
part of his physical form, had not failed to provide for
the societary body laws fully fitted to prepare him for
becoming master of nature, master of himself, and prompt
to unite with his fellow-men in all measures tending to
thorough development of the highest faculties with which
he and they had been endowed.
Looking around, however, we see that throughout by
very far the largest portion of the earth there exists
little but poverty and wretchedness among the millions,
selfishness, extravagance, and waste among those by whom
their movements are directed; the rich becoming richer,
and the poor poorer, from year to year. As a consequence
of this, the world at large presents for observation little
beyond a constant series of wars, rebellions, and revolutions, with terrific waste of mental and physical force; of
property and of life. Seeking now to understand the
cause of a state of things so sad and so destructive, the
inquirer looks naturally for information to the works of
leaders of opinion in that country which claims to follow
in the footsteps of Adam Smith; there to find, however,
little beyond the assertions, that their science is limited to
the consideration of material wealth alone, to the entire
2




XViii                       PREFACE.
exclusion of mind and morals, skill and taste; that buying and selling constitute the chief end and aim of life;
that "to enable capital to obtain proper remuneration,
labor must be kept down;"       that carrying goods back and
* Huskisson.-For present confirmation of the idea that was then presented, the reader may take the following passages from two of the most
respected of British journals, and one of the most eminent of British authors.
" The English land system, as it exists at present, necessitates over the
greater part of England the misery of the peasant. Just as the events
of the period which is comprised within the outbreak of the Continental
war and the abolition of the corn laws, were based on the starvation of the
people, so if the present mode of letting and hiring land is to remain in
force, it is necessary that the agricultural laborer should be underpaid,
underfed, miserably housed, and so immovable as to secure to the tenant
farmer a constant supply of cheap labor."-British Quarterly Review, July,
1872; Article: "Agricultural Labor's Strike."
"From  these classes we hear already a protest against emigration.
Keep our people at home, they say, we shall want them when trade revives. There may be no work for them at present. Their wives and little
ones may be starving with cold and hunger. They may be roaming the
streets in vagrancy, crowding the casual wards, or besieging the doors of
the poor-houses; but still keep them,-all will be well by and by. Meantime let the poor-rate rise; let the small householder in Whitechapel, himself struggling manfully for independence on the verge of beggary, pay
six shillings in the pound to feed his neighbor who has sunk below the line.
The tide will turn; labor will soon be in demand again. Our profits will
come back to us, and the Whitechapel householder may console himself
with the certainty that his six shillings will sink again to three."-Froude.
Short Studies on Great Subjects, London, 1872, p. 164.
"The kindly feeling, as they call it, in the counties-that is, the half
contemptuous pity on one side and reverential deference on the other
which has for centuries marked the semi-feudal relations of village laborhas already died away, and the farmers are determined that the men shall
know what'contract' is like. They will not take the Bishop of Gloucester's advice, and duck the lecturers, because the laborers being ten to one,
and being told by a bishop that physical violence is a proper weapon to
employ, might duck the farmers.... They will endeavor this winter
to put the unions down, and we shall have all over the country villages in
which ten or fifteen farmers, angry, unreasonable, and well fed, will stand
face to face with a hundred or a hundred and fifty laborers, angry, unreasonable, and without food. The unionists will be locked out in heaps, and




PREFACE.                        XiX
forth is beneficial because it makes demand for ships; and
that, to the end of increasing such demand, it is right and
proper to employ the physical force at their command to
prevent elsewhere the growth of that domestic commerce
so highly valued by the great founder of their science;
that commerce by means of which alone can man be enabled to convert to his use the great forces so infinitely
abounding, and waiting but his demand to grant the aid of
which he stands so much in need.
Need we now wonder that a system so thoroughly
materialistic should have given rise to a school from
which we learn, that " survival of the fittest," and crushing
out of those less " fitted," constitute the bases of all natural
arrangements for promoting advance in civilization; and,
that it is in clear defiance of nature's laws to interfere
in any manner, whether by vaccination, by succoring of
when they apply to the parish will be told by the guardians that, as they
can have work at will, by'merely' giving up the union, they must take
the work.... The man has been, so to speak, morally whipped for
six months. He has found no friend anywhere, except in a press he can
neither read nor understand. The duke has deprived him of his allotment; the bishop has recommended that his instructor should be ducked;
the squire has threatened him with dismissal in winter; the magistrate has
fined him for quitting work, which is just, and scolded him for listening to
lectures, which is tyranny; the mayor at Evesham has prohibited him from
meeting on the green-and the lawyer-witness a recent case near Chelmsford -has told him that any one who advises and helps him to emigrate is
a hopeless rascal. He has been denied the most ordinary privileges of freemen-the right of listening to lectures he approves, the right of emigrating from county to county, the right of combining to improve his condition;
and this by men who, as he sees, listen to every lecture on their own side,
who emigrate whenever they please, to the ends of the earth, and who
form open and strict combinations to keep him in his place."-Spectator,
August 24,1872.
The reader who may desire to see for himself how far the tendency in
regard to skilled labor has been in accordance with the policy announced
by Mr. Huskisson, and with that above exhibited in reference to agricultural labor, will find himself enabled so to do by turning to page 408 of
the present volume.




XX                        PREFACE.
the maimed, or by aid of those who are deformed, to
prevent, or even to arrest, that "process of elimination"
by means of which the strong of body, and the rich in
purse, are to be enabled to rid the world of those who are
weak, poor, and incapable of self defence?* Assuredly
not. From the days of Malthus such has been the tendency of the teachings of the British school, and we have
but arrived at the goal toward which they have always
been directed-that of self-creation and self-worship; this
latter more and more exhibiting itself as the former idea
becomes more and more established. At what other, by
aid of such instructors, would it be possible that we should
arrive? As the Giver of all good, man has been accustomed to venerate the Creator of the Universe. Assured
now, however, that in accordance with His laws it is required that millions shall "regularly die of want;"t that
floods and famines, wars and revolutions, are but parts of
the machinery by means of which He works; that, to the
end that His laws may be fully carried out, it is needed to
refrain from acts which, beyond all others, tend toward
developing the best and highest feelings of the heart,
* " With savages, the weak in body or mind are soon eliminated; and
those that survive commonly exhibit a vigorous state of health. We
civilized men, on the other hand, do our utmost to check the process of
elimination; we build asylums for the imbecile, the maimed, and the
sick; we institute poor-laws; and our medical men exert their utmost
skill to save the life of every one to the last moment. There is reason to
believe that vaccination has preserved thousands, who from a weak constitution would formerly have succumbed to smallpox. Thus the weak
members of civilized societies propagate their kind. No one who has attended to the breeding of domestic animals will doubt that this must be highly
injurious to the race of man. It is surprising how soon a want of care,
or care wrongly directed, leads to the degeneration of a domestic race;
but excepting in the case of man himself, hardly any one is so ignorant
as to allow his worst animals to breed."  Darwin, Descent of Man, vol.
1, p. 161.
t James Mill. Elements of Political Economy, p. 42




PREFACE.                  xxi
assured, we say, of all these things, can he be otherwise
than led to doubt, if not even to deny, the existence of a
Being all of whose laws, as now generally exhibited, tend
toward reducing the millions to a condition of mere hewers
of wood and drawers of water for those few who are encouraged to eat, drink, and make merry, while providing
measures for securing, at the earliest moment, the "elimination" of those who, being poor and uninstructed, are incapable of self-protection? Most certainly not I
Such having been the sad results of a persistent use of
the d priori method of reasoning in reference to the most
important of all the sciences, it may now, we think, be
hoped, that at no distant day it will come to be admitted
that, in common with all other organized bodies, science
develops from within and never from without; that the
tree of science grows from the roots upward; and, that its
various branches are all co-operating for accomplishment
of one great object, to wit: that of giving to man increased
power for control of the great natural forces, and for development of those faculties, mental and moral, whose germs
have been incorporated into the system of every individual
of the race. When it shall have come, the world will cease
to be mystified by economic "assumptions" that are wholly
without a base on which to stand; and so little comprehended by even their very teachers, that these latter fail
totally when seeking to make them comprehensible by
those who would be taught.
* See p. 47, post.




XXil                       PREFACE.
NOTE.
As this sheet is passing through the press, the author
has received the inaugural Address of the new President
of the British Association, Dr. Carpenter, and finds therein
such coincidence in the views above expressed, that he is
led to place the closing paragraphs before his readers, as
follows:"Thus we are led to the culminating point of man's intellectual interpretation of Nature-his recognition of the unity of the power, of which
her phenomena are the diversified manifestations. Towards this point all
scientific inquiry now tends. The convertibility of the physical forces, the
correlation of these with the vital, and the intimacy of that nexus between
mental and bodily activity, which, explain it as we may, cannot be denied,
all lead upward towards one and the same conclusion; and the pyramid of
which that philosophical conclusion is the apex, has its foundation in the
primitive instincts of humanity.
"By our own progenitors, as by the untutored savage of the present day,
every change in which human agency was not apparent, was referred to a
particular animating intelligence. And thus they attributed not only the
movements of the heavenly bodies, but all the phenomena of Nature, each
to its own deity. These deities were invested with more than human
power; but they were also supposed capable of human passions, and subj ect
to human capriciousness. As the uniformities of Nature came to be more
distinctly recognized, some of these deities were invested with a dominant
control, while others were supposed to be their subordinate ministers. A
serene majesty was attributed to the greater gods who sit above the clouds,
whilst their inferiors might'come down to earth in the likeness of men.'
With the growth of the scientific study of Nature, the conception of its
harmony and unity gained ever-increasing strength. And so among the
most enlightened of the Greek and Roman philosophers, we find a distinct
recognition of the idea of the unity of the directing mind from which the
order of Nature proceeds, for they obviously believed that, as our modern
poet has expressed itAll are but parts of one stupendous whole,
Whose body Nature is, and God the Soul.
"The science of modern times, however, has taken a more special direction. (Fixing its attention exclusively on the order of Nature, it has separated itself wholly from theology, whose function it is to seek after its
cause.) In this, science is fully justified, alike by the entire independence
of its objects, and by the historical fact that it has been continually ham



PREFACE.                        Xxiii
pered and impeded in its search for the truth as it is in Nature, by the
restraints which theologians have attempted to impose upon its inquiries.
But when science, passing beyond its limits, assumes to take the place of
theology, and sets up its own conception of the order of Nature as a sufficient account of its cause, it is invading a province of thought to which it
has no claim, and not unreasonably provokes the hostility of those who
ought to be its best friends.
"For whilst the deep-seated instincts of humanity and the profoundest
researches of philosophy alike point to mind as the one and only source of
power, it is the high prerogative of science to demonstrate the unity of the
power which is operating through the limitless extent and variety of the
universe, and to trace its continuity through the vast series of ages that
have been occupied in its evolution."
PHILADELPHIA, OCTOBER, 1872.








THE UNITY OF LAW.
CHAPTER L
A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.*
~ 1. DISCOURSING of the wealth of nations, Adam
Smith clearly showed his high appreciation of the
importance of the moral and mental elements.
Rejecting the views thus presented, his RicardoMalthusian successors have assured their readers
that their-so called-science limited itself, and
necessarily, to an exhibition of causes affecting the
production, distribution, and consumption of material wealth alone, the economist allowing " neither
sympathy with indigence, nor disgust at profusion or avarice-neither reverence for existing
institutions, nor detestation of existing abuses-to
deter him from stating what he believed to be the
facts, or from drawing from them what appeared
to him to be the legitimate conclusions." Narrow
and contracted as was the science thus described
* "Political economy is a science based upon assumptions. "-Saturday
Vez'ietw.
Political economy "necessarily reasons from assumptions, and not
from facts."-J. S. Mill.
1                                (1)




2             THE UNITY OF LAW.
more than thirty years since by Mr. Senior, one of
the then most eminent of British economists, the
tendency from that time to the present has been
toward further contraction, until at length it has
come to be generally understood that it concerns
itself little, if at all, with any societary operations
outside of those of the mere trader-things that
cannot be bought and sold being thus wholly excluded from consideration. Moving onward in that
direction, Mr. J. S. Mill advises his readers that
"' the greater part in value of the wealth now existing in England," farmhouses, factories, a few ships
and machines, being, as he says, the only exceptions,
"' has been produced by human hands within the past
twelve months;" thus excluding from consideration
not only the moral and mental elements, but also
nearly all the accumulations of ages now existing
in the form of farms, parks, roads, canals, viaducts,
bridges, streets, mines, galleries, museums, buildings
public and private, the money value of these counting by thousands of millions of pounds. Following
closely in his footsteps, journalists-foreign and
domestic-fondly speak of raisers of corn and cotton,
miners of coal and smelters of ores, spinners and
weavers, tailors, shoemakers, and the like, as being
the sole "wealth producers;" thus wholly rejecting
the claims to consideration of men like Watt and
Stephenson, Morse and Henry, Liebig, Faraday,
and thousands of others to whom the world stands
most of all indebted for the wonderful growth of




A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.        3
wealth and power that marks the period in which
we live.*
Of all economic terms there is none that is just
now more frequently both used and abused than is
the apparently very simple one to which the reader's
attention has here been called. Of all, there is none
of greater real breadth; yet, of all, there is none that
has been so much narrowed and belittled; that, too,
having been done by men who, while claiming to be
disciples in his school, have carefully repudiated
the most essential portion of the teachings of Adam
Smith.
Of what, now, does wealth really consist? Let
us see!
Crusoe having made a bow, had thus acquired
wealth; that wealth exhibiting itself in the power
obtained over certain natural properties of wood
and muscular fibre, thereby enabling him to secure
increased supplies of food with greatly diminished
expenditure of labor. Having made a canoe, he
found his wealth much increased, his new machine
enabling him to obtain still further increase of food,
and of the raw materials of clothing, at still decreased
cost of personal effort. Erecting a pole on his canoe,
he now commands the services of wind, and with
each and every step in this direction finds himself
* " Scientific wealth," says Sir William Thomson in his recent address as President of the British Association, "tends to accumulate
according to the law of compound interest." Further even than this, it
carries with a higher rate of interest than any other kind of property;
yet is it wholly excluded from consideration by economists of the modern
trading school.




4             THE UNITY OF LAW.
advancing, with constantly accelerated rapidity, toward becoming master of nature, and a being of
real wealth and power.
The picture here presented of the doings of an
isolated individual is being now reproduced on a
scale of wonderful magnificence by men engaged
in erecting the poles, and stretching the wires, by
means of which the thousand millions of the world's
people are being enabled on the instant to communicate with each other, time and distance being in
this manner almost annihilated. We have here a
growth of wealth and power the value, moral and
material, of which is almost beyond calculation;
yet, according to the teachings of Mr. Mill and his
fellow-economists of the British school, no wealth
has been thus created except'so far as is made manifest in certain poles and wires distributed over the
earth's surface, or in certain other wires submerged
beneath the ocean.
But recently a British army was saved from ruin
by the fortunate presence of a little machine of
American invention, by means of which the services
of water, then greatly needed, had been almost at
once obtained. Here, as a consequence of growing
power over nature, we have wealth of almost inestimable money value; yet does it find no place in
the eyes of British economists beyond the mere
commercial estimate of the little machine itself.
Still further, the great men to whose successive
discoveries we have been indebted for knowledge
that has led to the production of such a machine,




A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.             5
must, according to Mr. Mill, be classed as non-producers of wealth, for the reason that, however beneficial their labors, an " increase of material'products
forms no part of that benefit."*
The landholder sinks a shaft upon his property
by means of which there are brought to light large
deposits of that material a single ton of which, during the period of its combustion, does the work of
thousands of men. Having thus obtained control of
a vast reservoir of force, he parcels it out among his
neighbors, claiming of them a royalty utterly trivial
when compared with the labor that by his aid is now
economized, thereby adding largely to the wealth
of all.  Furnaces and mills next taking their places
in the neighborhood of the fuel thus developed,
other natural forces are brought to the aid of man,
and now the farmer more and more obtains power
for diversifying his cultivation, substituting green
crops, which yield so largely and pay so well, for the
exhaustive white ones by means of which his land
* Discoursing of mind and matter, Mr. Mill defines the latter as being
a "perpetual possibility of sensation"-sensitive power being thus
placed in the chairs on which we sit, and not in those who occupy them.
Precisely the same erroneous transposition here again occurs-matter
in the form of a machine being, as we are assured, to be regarded as
wealth, wholly without reference to the knowledge how to use it. To
the man who roams over South American pampas there is, nevertheless,
more wealth in the possession of a single lasso than he could find in
ownership of a thousand locomotives. In all these cases sensation is
to be sought in the man who controls the matter, and not in the matter that is controlled.




6             THE UNITY OF LAW.
had been so much impoverished. Released thus
from all dependence on distant markets, his emancipation from the tax of transportation exhibits
itself in growing power to subdue to cultivation the
richer soils, and in great increase of the exchangeable value of the land itself; and here it is we find
the most important element of that rapidly growing
wealth which now exhibits itself in a duplication of
the money value of our material property in the
last decade. How such power of accumulation as
is thus exhibited can be made to accord with the
assertion of Mr. Mill, that nearly all the wealth of
such a country as Britain had been "the product
of human hands in the last twelve months," it is for
that gentleman, or his disciples among ourselves,
to explain.
The extent to which time and labor have been
economized by the use of steam employed in transferring, by land and water, both men and things,
can scarcely here be estimated; yet does the growth
of wealth thus exhibited find no recognition at the
hands of British economists, except so far as represented by the mere machinery by means of which
the saving is effected.
~ 2. Wealth consists in the power to command the
always gratuitous services of the great forces of
nature. That power grows as men are more and
more enabled to combine their efforts for nature's
subjugation. That such combination may be effected, there must be that diversification in the demands for human power which results from variety




A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.   7
in the modes of employment. The more thorough
this becomes, the greater is the tendency toward production of men like Fulton, Morse, Davy,.Faraday,
Bessemer, Scott, and Dickens, greatest of all the
"wealth producers," although wholly excluded from
consideration by men who restrict the domain of
economic science to material wealth alone.
The object of protection to domestic industry is
that of bringing about the diversification of employment above described. Without it, men cannot
combine together. Without it, they must remain
slaves to nature, and the societies of which they
are parts must exhibit the same weakness now
so clearly obvious in all those communities which,
like Ireland, India, Portugal, Turkey, and Carolina,
find themselves limited to the work of exhausting
the soil in raising rice, corn, and cotton, for the
supply of foreign markets. With it, there must be
daily increasing economy of muscular force, attended
with growing development of that brain power to
which we stand now indebted for the fact that each
individual in these Northern States may claim to
command the services of several willing slaves
engaged in supplying him with food, clothing, and
shelter, while consuming nothing whatsoever beyond
a trivial portion of the fuel that they themselves had
brought to light. Southern men, throughout the
war, could, on the contrary, command little beyond
the services of negro slaves for whose maintenance
there was required a large proportion of the things




~8        TTHE UNITY OF LAW.
produced; and hence the weakness that throughout
the South was manifested.
The more thoroughly the great natural forces are
subjected to human control, and the more numerous
those unconsuming slaves, the greater becomes the
power of production, and the greater the tendency
toward that accumulation of wealth which manifests
itself in the physical, mental, moral, and political
improvement of a people.
Such, very briefly stated, is sociological science as
derived from careful study of facts presented throughout the world for consideration. What is the nature
of that other science which has "assumptions" only
for its base, and which so entirely rejects the enlarged
and liberal views given to the world by the illustrious
author of the "Wealth of Nations," it is proposed
now to show, placing before the reader a brief view
of its actual condition, and thus enabling him to judge
for himself what are its claims to be admitted to a
place side by side with the sciences cultivated abroad
by Grove, Helmholz, and Carpenter, and among
ourselves by such men as Henry, Agassiz, Pierce,
and Lesley.
~ 3. First among the requisites of any and every
branch of science is a clear understanding among
its teachers of the precise value of the terms in use;
the indispensable preliminary to making others
comprehend them being that they themselves comprehend each other. That such has been the course
of proceeding elsewhere is proved by the fact that
the vocabulary of Hipparchus and Ptolemy now




A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.     9
makes part of that of Herschel and Le Verrier, as
that of Dalton and Lavoisier is embraced in those
of Huxley, Tyndall, and their associates.' The language of physics is one and the same for France
and England, Germany, Russia, and these United
States, perfect exactness being its essential characteristic.
Precisely the reverse of this is what we see to
be the case with regard to that so-called science to
which the reader's attention has now been called,
its professors having never yet determined the real
value of any single one of all its terms. That this
is so, was shown by the late Archbishop Whately,
one among the most eminent of its professors, when
telling his readers that " the great defect of Adam
Smith, and of our economists in general, is the want
of definitions," proof of this being given in the numerous and widely different significations attached
by the most distinguished teachers to the highly
important terms, Value, Wealth, Labor, Capital,
Rent, Wages, and Profits; then showing that for
want of clear conceptions the same word is used by
the same writer at one time in a manner totally inconsistent with that in which he uses it at another.
To that list he might, as he most truly says, add
many others "which are often used without any
more explanation, or any more suspicion of their
requiring it, than the words'triangle' or'twenty'"
-as a consequence of which it is that words of the
highest importance are used by distinguished writers




10            THE UNITY OF LAW.
as being entirely synonymous, when really expressilg not only different, but directly opposite, ideas.
Since the publication of the Archbishop's work
many years have elapsed, very many additions having meanwhile been made to British economic literature; but, as yet, scarcely even an attempt has
been made at correction of the error he there had
indicated. In a very recent work intended for use
in one of the chief English colleges, and highly
lauded, we find not even a suggestion of definition.
The fundamental question of value, the pons asinorum of the science, has been by one eminent writer
recently discussed at length, with the result of enabling him to assure his readers that " the value of a
thing means the quantity of some other things, or
of things in general, which it exchanges for." By
a second, we are told that "labor is the cause of
value;" a third, equally eminent, meantime assuring
his readers that "labor, in no case whatever, is a
cause of value;" and, that the idea of value, even,
can have no existence except when commodities or
things are bought and sold.
Mr. Mill tells his readers that "the question of
value is fundamental;" that "there is nothing in its
laws which remains for the present or any future
writer to clear up;" that " the theory of the subject
is complete;" and then leaves this "fundamental
question" precisely where it had stood at the date
at which Dr. Whately gave to the world the perfectly accurate view of economical deficiencies above
referred to. Professor Jevons holds that in so say



A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.   11
ing Mr. Mill had been "rash," value in his own belief depending "entirely on utility;" this conclusion
having been arrived at in face of the greatest of the
facts of our age, to wit: that as the utility of electricity has been more and more developed, its value
has so steadily declined as to have already brought
its services within reach of the common laborer desirous of communicating with his absent wife and
children.
Other varieties of opinion and expression might
here be furnished, all tending to prove the entire
accuracy of one of the writers above referred to,
when speaking with his readers of " the utter confusion of opinion, and inconsistency of conception
of the very nature of the subject, which prevails
among writers;" his own work, meanwhile, furnishing no reply whatsoever to the simple but fundamental questions-Whence comes the idea of value?
Of what does value itself consist? (See MIcLeod,
Elements of Political Economy, p. 8.)
So long as those questions shall remain unanswered
economists must continue to occupy a position
closely analogous to that occupied by astronomers
throughout the Ptolemaic regime, having no standpoint from which to make their observations; and
so long must the "confusion and inconsistency"
above described continue to exist. That such a
point may be obtained, they need to seek their old
friend Crusoe, standing alone on his desert island,
asking his views on this important question. Doing
this, they will learn that so high had been the value




12               THE UNITY OF LAW.
attached by him to the idea of moving on the water,
that he had expended many months in the effort to
obtain a mere canoe; that to other things he had
more or less attached the idea of value in the precise ratio of his estimate of the obstacles standing in
the way of their production or reproduction;      that
values greatly declined so soon as he and Friday had
come together, and had been enabled to exchange
with each other services and their products; that
their experience furnished proof conclusive that
exchanges tended to diminish, and not, as now constantly assumed, to increase the value of such products. Turning their eyes now homeward with a
view to test the accuracy of this idea, our inquirers.would find that when, a few centuries since, the
English people numbered less than three millions,
and when exchanges had but slight existence, labor
had so little value that two hundred and twelve persons stand recorded as having been hired for a day
to cut and bind fourteen acres of wheat; that food
had then so high a value as to cause deaths from
famine closely comparing with those so recently
* Value is the measure of the obstacles above described, of the power
of nature over man; as wealth consists in the power to compel nature
to do man's work. Mr. McLeod (p. 9) assures us that by reason of
the fact that all their exchanges were made among themselves, "no
such idea as value could enter the minds" of the Highlanders of olden
times. Nevertheless, those people so highly valued the cattle of their
lowland neighbors as to be always willing to peril liberty and even life
in their efforts to obtain possession of them. That idea came into the
world with the first man, and Eve gave proof of its existence when she
attached to the possession of an apple so high a value as to dispose her
to give the joys of paradise in exchange therefor.




A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.    13
observed in Ireland; that with a population of
20,000,000, and rapidity of exchange, agricultural
labor had become so much more productive that
half a dozen persons did the work that before had
required hundreds; that famines, such as had occurred even so late as the sixteenth century, had
wholly disappeared; that home experience thus furnished perfect proof of the accuracy of Crusoe's
views; and, finally, that all experience, home and
foreign, combined to prove that the greatest foe to
value, as this latter exhibits itself in its relations to
labor, is to be found in the rapidity of exchange
which always accompanies that diversity in the demands for human service to which the civilized people of our age stand indebted for such development
of their various faculties as has, more or less, made
them masters of those great physical forces by
which their predecessors had been so entirely enslaved; wealth and power growing always with
most rapidity as the commodities and things needed
for man's use tend more and more to decline in
value, and to become as gratuitous as is the air we
breathe.
To enter upon the inquiry here indicated would,
however, require reasoning upward from facts to
principles, a course of proceeding most distasteful
to those who so long have held, with Mr. Mill, that
the a priori method of reasoning downward from
" assumptions" to facts, "is the only certain or scientific method of investigation.
~ 4. As a necessary result of the total absence
above described of a recognized economic language,




14            THE UNITY OF LAW.
it is, that the economic world presents to view a
mass of confusion, each and every of its members
wishing to be heard, and scarcely any two of them
using precisely the same terms when desiring to
present the same ideas.
Of all those in the common use the broadest and
most expressive is that of COMMERCE, embracing, as
it does, exchanges of ideas, personally or by letter;
exchanges of services or commodities; exchanges
in the family or the state; in fine, the whole range
of human relations. Of all, perhaps the narrowest
and most contracted is that which brings before us
the mere TRADER, the man of one idea, always intent
on buying cheap and selling dear, and quite too
often overreaching both those of whom he buys
and those to whom he sells. The more frequent
the vicissitudes of trade, the more numerous, as he
knows, are his chances for accumulating fortune.
The farmer, the planter, and the miner, on the contrary, desire steadiness, needing, as they do, to make
their arrangements for years ahead. The cotton
mill requires much time for its construction, and
for the collection and organization of the people
required for work therein. The preparation of the
mine, the furnace, or the rolling-mill, demands long
periods of exertion and large expenditure before
their owners can begin to reap reward. The trader,
on the contrary, buys and sells from hour to hour;
and the greater his power to produce changes in the
prices of wheat, cloth, and iron, the greater is the
probability that he will ultimately enter upon pos



A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.         15
session of the land of the farmer, the mill of the
manufacturer, the furnace of the maker of railroad
bars, or the road of the man who has invested his
fortune in a great improvement; and at half the
cost at which the machinery had been constructed.
Trade and commerce thus look always in opposite
directions, the one desiring, and producing, frequent
and rapid changes, the other seeking and promoting
regularity of movement.    Of all the terms in use
among men there are no two representing more
opposite ideas; yet are they, without exception,
used by economists as being entirely synonymous,
and rightfully interchangeable with each other.
Having thus provided for the world's use a science
without a recognized language; one whose professors cannot understand each other; one that, being
merely "abstract or hypothetical," demands, as we
are assured, that we " reason from assumptions, and
not from facts"-the next step, as will now be shown,
has been that of assuming the existence of a being
in human form, but deprived, as far as possible, of
all human qualities, the modern political economy
requiring that we" Do not treat of the whole of man's nature as modified by the
social state, nor of the whole conduct of man in society. It is
concerned with him solely as a being who desires to acquire
wealth, and who is capable of judging of the comparative efficiency of means for obtaining that end. It predicts only such
of the phenomena of the social state as take place in consequence of the pursuit of wealth. It makes entire abstraction of
every other passion or motive; except those which may be regarded as perpetually antagonizing principles to the desire of




16                THE UNITY OF LAW.
wealth, namely-aversion to labor, and desire of the present
enjoyment of costly indulgences.  These it takes, to a certain
extent, into its calculations, because these do not merely, like
other desires, occasionally conflict with the pursuit of wealth,
but accompany it always as a drag or impediment, and therefore
inseparably mixed up in the consideration of it. Political economy considers mankind as occupied solely in acquiring and
consuming wealth, and aims at showing what is the course of
action into which mankind, living in a state of society, would
be impelled, if that motive, except in the degree in which it is
checked by the two perpetual counter-motives above adverted to,
were absolute ruler of all their actions. "-J. S. Mill.
Happily for mankind, the animal here exhibited
is as fanciful as is the Giant Despair of the " Pilgrim's Progress," its existence, according to Mr.
Mill himself, being an assumed and not a real one.*
~ 5. Ptolemy having assumed that the sun revolved
around the earth, his disciples at a later date furnished a planetarium, or instrument by which, as
they then asserted, the movements of all the celestial bodies could, in perfect harmony with their
master's great idea, readily be explained. Mr. Malthus having, in like manner, assumed that man had
always commenced the work of cultivation on the
richest soils, and that with increase of numbers it
had been, and always must be, necessary to have
recourse to those of an inferior description, with
steadily diminishing returns to labor, Mr. Ricardo
followed the theory up by assuming that constantly
* "Not that any political economist was ever so absurd as to suppose
that mankind is really so constituted, but because this is the mode in
which science must necessarily proceed."-J. S. Mill, Essays on Some
Unsettled Questions in Political Economy, p. 139.




A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.   17
diminishing production had been, and must be,
attended with power on the landlord's part to take
to himself a constantly increasing share of the diminished product, leaving to the poor laborer a
steadily diminishing share of a constantly declining
quantity; the growing inequality of the people of
England being thus proved to be the result of a great
law established by the Creator for government of the
human race. A tendency towards subjection of
the masses, or, in other words, towards slavery,
having been thus established as a necessary result
of divine institutions, Mr. Mill certainly did not
err when telling his readers that the law of the constantly decreasing productiveness of agricultural
labor whose existence had been thus assumed, was
"the most important proposition in political economy;" and that, "were the law different, nearly all
the phenomena of the production and distribution
of wealth would be different." So far he was entirely right. When, however, the baselessness of the
Malthusian assumption had been distinctly shown;
when it had been proved that the work of cultivation had in all ages and countries necessarily commenced on the poorer soils, passing steadily, as
numbers, wealth, power, and civilization grew,
towards those more rich, with constantly increasing
facility in obtaining supplies of food and other
products of the soil; when it had been shown that
such proceeding had been in full accordance with
the law in virtue of which poor and scattered men
find themselves, in every department of occupation,
2




18            THE UNITY OF LAW.
compelled to commence with poor machinery, passing
thence to that which is better; when these things
had all been proved by means of facts occurring at
every age and in every part of the world, it is certainly somewhat remarkable that a philosopher like
Mr. Mill should have contented himself with simply
denying the existence of any " invariable law," and
demanding proof that " the return to labor from the
land, when population and wealth increase, agricultural skill and science remaining the same, is not a
diminishing one."
How to treat such a suggestion as this it is difficult to determine, it being-and in so saying, it is
earnestly desired to avoid disrespect to its authorsimply absurd; more so, even, than his celebrated
"c wages fund" theory, now abandoned. As well might
he claim of an opponent to prove that had mining skill
and science remained the same from the days of the
Plantagenets, the return. to mining labor would not
have been a steadily diminishing one. Both cases
being alike impossible of occurrence, both are equally
unworthy of place in a work which professes to furnish scientific information. Growing wealth involves necessarily development of" skill and science,"
and the philosophy of the attempt to separate them
in the manner here proposed is strictly on a par with
one whose aim should be that of dissolving the
connection between the appearance of light and
the presence of the sun.
Discussing further the question of the order of
cultivation, Mr. Mill demands that his opponent




A SCIENCE BASED UPON        ASSUMPTIONS.         19
show " that in any old country the uncultivated lands
are those which      would pay best for cultivation,"
Dartmoor and Shap Fell being, as he tells his readers, thereby proved " to be really the most fertile
lands in England." The assumption here is, that
"the    uncultivated    lands" referred    to  had   always
remained in a state of nature; and yet no one better
than its author knows that from       Land's End to John
o'Groat's Britain abounds in evidence that large
portions of those very lands had been the chosen
seats of early cultivation; that in many cases they
had been abandoned even before the historic period;
that the lower and richer lands had been but very
slowly, and at a comparatively recent date, reduced
to cultivation; and that the now richest soils of the
kingdom    had been, but a century or two since, entirely unoccupied.*
* The picture of the occupation of the Scottish isles and highlands
furnished by the Duke of Argyll in his little volume recently published, and now here given, applies with equal force to the whole of
Britain, and her attendant islands:"At a time when artificial drainage was unknown, and in a rainy
climate, the flats and hollows which in the Highlands are now generally
most valuable portions of the land, were occupied by swamps and moss.
On the steep slopes alone, which afforded natural drainage, was it possible to raise cereal crops. And this is one source of that curious error
which strangers so often make in visiting and in writing on the Highlands.
They see marks of the plough high up upon the mountains, where the
land is now very wisely abandoned to the pasturage of sheep or cattle;
and, seeing this, they conclude that tillage has decreased, and they
wail over the diminished industry of man. But when those high banks
and braes were cultivated, the richer levels below were the haunts of the
otter and the fishing places of the heron. Those ancient ploughmarks
are the sure indications of a rude and ignorant husbandry. In the
eastern slopes oifIona, Columba and his companions found one tract of




20               THE UNITY OF LAW.
Proof having been furnished that land obeys
invariably the same law that we see to be true in
reference to all other commodities and things, its
value, like theirs, being limited within, and greatly
within, what would be its cost of reproduction;
that London itself, with all its advantages of situation, formed no exception to the rule; and that the
value, whether in money or in labor, of all England
is not even a tithe of what would be required for
restoring it to its present condition, were it to be
now restored to its original state; Mr. Mill assumes
the possibility of a convulsion of nature whose effect
should be that of at once doubling the size of the
island, asking then, triumphantly, if that additional
land could be supposed to have no value, for the
reason that no labor had been expended on it?
Had he reflected more carefully, he would have
arrived at the conclusion that no such assumption
could be needed, each successive year presenting
cases of addition quite as fortuitous as the one he
had here deemed it proper to suggest. Studying
the real facts in regard to such additions, he would
have been led inevitably to the conclusion that an
aerolite, however large and however fully charged
with gold, falling among the sands of Africa, could
land which was as admirably adapted for the growth of corn as the
remainder of it was suited to the support of flocks and herds. On
the northeastern side of the island, between the rocky pasturage and
the shore, there is a long, natural declivity of arable soil, steep enough
to be naturally dry, and protected by the hill from the western blast.
"And so here Colomba's tent was pitched, and his Bible opened, and
his banner raised for the conversion of the heathen." —Iona, pp. 81-3.




A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.   21
have no money value whatsoever; whereas, falling
among British workshops, its price would be very
large. So, too, with a discovery of coal or ore in
any one of thousands of places in these United
States, as compared with similar discoveries in Germany or France. So, again, with the land whose
sudden appearance he has here assumed. Added
to England, it would, like the coal or ore above
referred to, participate with all existing land in the
advantages resulting from close proximity to markets. Added to countries where no such markets
existed, it could have no value whatsoever.
The facts assumed by Mr. Mill, in preference to
real facts that had been always within his reach,
having been thus disposed of, it is proposed now to
look for a moment to his own arguments, given
to the world as being those of his opponents.
~ 6. In the sixth and last edition of his " Principles," Mr. Mill admits that what Malthus and his
followers had assumed as having been universally
true, had not really been so when applied to " soil
cultivated in a newly settled country. It is not," as
he continues, "pretended that the law of diminishing
return was operative from the very beginning of
society;" yet does it, as he further says, "begin
quite early enough to support the conclusions they
founded on it." This, be it observed, is asserted
by an author residing in a country whose earliest
cultivation we see to have been of lands so poor that
they long since had been abandoned to give place
to an agriculture like that of Lancashire, where the




22               THE UNITY OF LAW.
labors of a single individual furnish a larger yield
than could have been obtained in return to those of
almost a regiment of men in the days when the
centre of British population, wealth, and power was
found in the long since abandoned neighborhood of
Tintagel, when King Arthur there held his court;
and when its Celtic inhabitants were engaged " in
rendering the British islands for the first time fit for
the habitation of man."*
Rejecting all facts like these, Mr. Mill persists in
the assertion of diminishing returns to agricultural
labor, this time summoning his opponent into court,
to become witness in his favor, his call being made
in the following terms, to wit:" Mr. Carey unconsciously bears the strongest testimony to
the reality of the law he contends against; for one of the propositions most strenuously maintained by him is, that the raw
products of the soil, in an advancing community, tend steadily
to rise in price. Now, the most elementary truths of political
economy show that this could not happen unless the cost of production, measured in labor, of those products, tended to rise."t
In this there is a confusion of money and labor
values somewhat remarkable as coming from so
eminent a logician. Allowing it, however, to pass,
and at once admitting entire ignorance of the existence of any such " elementary truths," the reader's
attention is now invited to the fact that Mr. Mill
here entirely misrepresents the author he has pro* Miller, Chips from a German Workshop. Article, Cornish Antiquities.
t Principles, sixth ed., vol. i. p. 228.




A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.           23
fessed to cite, the words " raw products of the soil"
not having been used, and the tendency to rise in
price having been shown to be common-not only
to all such products, but also, and most especially,
to land and labor, both of which have been here
suppressed.    That this may be clearly seen and
understood, the whole passage here apparently
referred to is given below, as follows:The power of a commodity to command money in exchange is
called its PRICE. Prices fluctuate; much food and wool being
sometimes, or at some places, given for little money, while at
others much money is given for little of either wool or food.
What are the circumstances which tend to affect prices generally
we may now consider.
A thousand tons of rags, or wool, at the Rocky Mountains
would not exchange for the smallest piece of money; whereas a
quire of paper would command, perhaps, an ounce of silver.
Passing eastward to the plains of Kansas, their relative values
would have so much changed that the price of the rags would
pay for many reams of paper. Coming to St. Louis, a further
change would be experienced, rags having again risen, and paper
again fallen. So, too, at every stage of the progress eastward,
until in Massachusetts three pounds of rags would command
more silver than would purchase a pound of paper. The accompanying diagram exhibits these changes.
The price of raw materials tends to rise as we approach those
places at which men are most enabled to combine for obtaining
power to command the services of the great forces of nature.
That of finished commodities moves in an opposite direction,
both tending thus to more close approximation.  Cotton is low
on the plantation, but high in Manchester or Lowell. Corn in
Illinois is often so cheap that a bushel does not pay even for a
yard of coarse cotton cloth, whereas in Manchester it pays for
a dozen yards.




24                THE UNITY OF LAW.
PAPER.:   i  *  0  Z 
^ z              a               MASSACIUSETTS
RAGS.
Raw material tends to rise in price with the progress of men
in wealth and civilization. What, however, is raw material?
In answer to this question, we may say, that all the products of
the earth are in turn, finished commodity and raw material.
Coal and ore are the finished commodity of the miner, but the
raw material of pig-iron. The latter is the finished commodity
of the smelter, yet only the raw material of the puddler, and of
him who rolls the bar. The bar is again the raw material of
sheet-iron, that, in turn, becoming the raw material of the nail
and the spike. These, in time, become the raw material of the
house, in the diminished cost of which are concentrated all the
changes in the various stages of passage from the crude ore lying
useless in the earth, to the nail and spike, the hammer and saw,
used in the construction of a dwelling.
In the early and barbarous ages of society land and labor are
very low in price, and the richest deposits of coal and ore are
worthless. Houses are then obtained with such exceeding difficulty that men are forced to depend for shelter against wind and
rain upon holes and caves they find existing in the earth. In
time they are enabled to combine their efforts, and with every
step in the course of progress land and labor acquire power to
command money in exchange, while houses lose it. As the services of fuel are more readily commanded, pig-iron is more easily
obtained. Both, in turn, facilitate the making of bars and sheets,
nails and spikes, all of these in turn facilitating the creation of
boats, ships, and houses; each and every of these improvements
tending to augment the prices of the original raw materialsland and labor. At no period in the history of the world has




A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.             25
the general price of these latter been so high as in the present
one; at none would the same quantity of money have purchased
so staunch a boat, so fleet a ship, or so comfortable a house.
The more finished a commodity, the greater is the tendency to
a fall of price; and for the same reason, that all the economies
of labor of the earlier processes are accumulated together in the
later ones. Houses thus profit by all improvements in the making of bricks, in the quarrying of stone, in the conversion of
lumber, and in the working of the metals.  So, too, is it with
articles of clothing-every improvement in the various processes
of spinning, weaving, and dyeing, and in the conversion of
clothing into garments, being found gathered together in the
coat. The more numerous those improvements the lower will
be its price, while the higher will be that of the land and labor to
which the wool is due.* —Manual of Social Science, pp. 285-6.
Reasoning    "from    assumptions, and     not from
facts," Mr. Mill rejects all of these latter here presented, except the single one that seemed to suit his
purpose; even then, as has been shown, substituting
the comparatively narrow expression " raw products
of the soil" for the far more comprehensive "raw
material," covering, as does this latter, not only
land and labor, but also that from which we obtain
the plough, the ship, and the dwelling. In so doing,
he has certainly made a sad mistake. The best
evidence men can furnish of confidence in the accuracy of their own belief consists in frankly and
honestly presenting the arguments of their opponents.
* Views similar to these in effect occur necessarily in other portions
of the work; but, as it is believed, in no case so presented as to afford
even the slightest warrant for the use here made of them by Mr. Mill.
On the contrary, land,labor, and. the rude products of both are throughout most intimately connected.




26            THE UNITY OF LAW.
~ 7. Adam Smith laid the foundation of a science
far grander and more magnificent than any of those
whose cultivation has brought such fame and honor
to Murchison and Lyell, Tyndall and Huxley, Grove
and Faraday, Morse and Henry of our own time,
and to Franklin, Dalton, Fourcroy, and Berzelius
in the past. Looking to the future while teaching
the lessons of the past, he did not fail to caution his
countrymen against the dangers, moral, mental, and
physical, to which they must find themselves exposed should they continue onward in pursuit of a
policy looking to the conversion of the island into
a mere shop, and themselves into a " nation of shopkeepers." His immortal work was first published
in 1776, its essential object having been that of
enforcing upon the author's countrymen the great
truth, that trade and manufacture were useful only
so far as they contributed to the development of the
treasures of the earth, and to the promotion of commerce. IHe saw that the colonial system, looking
exclusively to trade, tended unnaturally to increase
the proportion of the British population employed
in the work of exchange and transportation, thereby
raising up "a nation of mere shopkeepers," and
forcing industry to run principally in one great
channel, instead of in a number of smaller ones;
and he warned his countrymen of the dangers they
thus incurred. Great, however, as were even then
those dangers, England had yet but entered on
the effort to reduce the world at large under the
system so long imposed upon her colonial depend



A  SCIENCE BASED     UPON    ASSUMPTIONS.         27
ents.*   The interdiction of the emigration of artisans
dated then back but a single decade, and the battle
of Plassey, by which the British power in India had
been established, was then not twenty years old.
Five years later came the prohibition of the export
of silk and woollen machinery; and before the close
of the century the policy had been perfected by the
extension of this prohibition to all other descriptions
of machinery, to artisans by whom it might be made,
and to colliers.
* How tyrannical and oppressive were those restrictions on colonial
domestic commerce which were denounced by Smith as not only il
themselves immoral, but as tending to the deterioration of his own
countrymen, is shown in the facts here given, as follows:In 1699, Parliament declared "that no wool, yarn, or woollen manufactures of their American plantations, should be shipped there, or even
laden, in order to be transported from thence to any place whatever."
In 1719, the House of Commons declared " that the erecting of manufactories in the Colonies tended to lessen the dependence on Great
Britain."
In order to protect British hatters from competition in America, Parliament passed an act in 1732, prohibiting hats from being laden upon a
horse, cart, or other carriage in the Colonies, with an intent to be exported
to any other plantation, or to any place whatsoever, under a penalty of
forfeiture of the hats so laden, and a fine of five hundred pounds I The
same act prohibited the employment of blacks or negroes in the Colonies,
in the business of making hats; and also prohibited any person from
engaging in the manufacture who had not served as an apprentice in
the business for seven years!
In 1750, Parliament passed an act prohibiting the erection or continuance of any mill or other engine in the Colonies, for slitting or rolling
iron, or any plating forge to work with a tilt hammer, or any furnace for
making steel in the Colonies, under a penalty of two hundred pounds.
And every such mill, engine, plating forge, and furnace in the Colonies
was declared a common nuisance, and the Governors of the Colonies, on
the information of two witnesses, were directed to cause the same to be
abated within thirty days, or to forfeit the sum of five hundred pounds!
Of all tyrannies the most debasing to both master and man is that of
the mere trader, as then and now exercised by Britain.




28            THE UNITY OF LAW.
From that hour to the present the British policy
has been in direct opposition to all the teachings of
the author of the Wealth of Nations, and in as
direct accordance with those of Messrs. Hume and
Brougham, the great object of whose desires, as expressed in Parliament, was that, at any cost, "foreign
manufactures should be stifled in the cradle," and
that the nations of the world might be thus compelled to make all their exchanges in the British
shop. From that hour, all that was really great
and good in political economy has more and more
tended to disappear, man being with each successive
day more and more treated as a mere machine, and
" the labor market" being more and more regarded as
subject to the same laws which govern those other
markets in which horses, oxen, and human cattle
are elsewhere bought and sold. Side by side with
this system the science here discussed has gradually
been perfected, giving to the world divine laws in
virtue of which all power tends naturally toward
the hands of those already rich and strong, all
responsibility being thrown on the shoulders of those
who are poor and weak. If the latter will marry
and will have children, why should they not be
allowed to starve, as have already done so many
millions of Irish peopled Gradually accommodating
itself to the policy denounced by the great Father
of political economy, the science of which he had
laid the foundations has become, to use the words
of more than one eminent authority, " the science
which treats of buying and selling;" one almost




A  SCIENCE BASED      UPON    ASSUMPTIONS.          29
equally eminent meanwhile cautioning the British
public against "advocating the rights oflabor," lest
they find themselves to have been " digging a grave
for free trade;" a third cautioning French authorities
against admitting the truth of the idea that the work
of cultivation had commenced on the poorer soils,
for the reason that "it led inevitably to protection."*
Such is the politico-economical science whose
foundations have now been placed in the grocer's
shop and the peddler's wallet; whose every suggestion  is opposed     to  that which     common      sense and
common humanity teach the British people should of
right be done;t whose one idea is found in the words
* Journal des Economistes, Dec. 1851, p. 297.
t " Proposals for legislative interference with a view to arrest some
of the most frightful evils of society are still constantly opposed not by
careful analysis of their tendency, but by general assertions of Natural
Law as opposed to all legislation of the kind.' You cannot make men
moral by Act of Parliament'-such is a common enunciation of Principle,
which, like many others of the same kind, is in one sense a truism, and
in every other sense a fallacy. It is true that neither wealth, nor
health, nor knowledge, nor morality can be given by Act of Parliament.
But it is also true that the acquisition of one and of all these can be impeded and prevented by bad laws, as well as aided and encouraged by
wise and appropriate legislation."-Duke of Argyll, Reign of Law, p. 404.
When a few years since it had been shown that in the bleaching
establishments of both England and Scotland men, women, and children
were required to work for sixteen to twenty hours per day under such a
temperature that their feet frequently became blistered by reason of the
heating of the nails in the floor, and that because of the waste of life
therein they had attained the name of "wasting shops:" when these
things had been officially certified to, Parliament rejected a bill providing
for putting them under the same restrictions as to hours of labor as had
already been established for cotton mills; so doing avowedly on the
ground that such measures were opposed to true political economy as
well as injurious to trade.
Mr. Ilerbert Spencer objects most positively to all such measures for




30                TEE UNITY OF LAW.
" free trade;" whose terms are so undefined that it
may safely be said of it, as has been said of metaphysics, that its language was that of one who did
not understand himself, addressed to another who
did not understand him; whose tendencies were well
described by the elder Napoleon when he said that,
carried into practical effect, " they would grind to
powder the most powerful empires;" whose result,
thus far, has been that of giving to England an
ever-rising tide of pauperism, and a rural population with, according      to  Edinburgh    Reviewers, no
future but the poorhouse; and whose professors
yet claim to be disciples in the school of Adam
Smith, the man who, were he now alive, would
stand before the world as chief opponent of the
science that has nothing but baseless " assumptions"
on which to stand.*
~ 8. The following passages from an excellent article on The Method of Political Economy, in a recent
British journal, are, in conclusion, here reproduced
for the reader's consideration:" So far we have considered political economy only as a mental
science, because economists will insist on treating the subject
protecting the poor and weak against the rich and powerful, on the
ground that it is the duty of government " to see that the liberty of each
man to pursue the object of his desires is unrestricted." In support of
this view he cites the late Mr. Cobden, but he might equally have cited
the whole slaveholding body of America, opposed, as it had been, to the
adoption of any course of action tending to prevent its members from
"' doing as they liked with their own," whether as regarded negro slaves
or bales of cotton.
* The reader who may desire to see a more full examination of some
of the details of the modern science will do well to consult an article on
"Economic Fallacies" in the London Quarterly Review for July, 1871.




A SCIENCE BASED UPON ASSUMPTIONS.            31
exclusively from a mental point of view. But political economy
is quite as much a physical science as a mental one. Wealth is
a material and tangible object, which is not to be secured by
wishing for it, but by acting in strict accordance with the physical conditions of its existence. The production of the simplest
commodity involves the operation of numerous laws of matter.
There is a perpetual action and reaction going on of mind on
matter and matter on mind. An effect which may appear as the
result of one cause, may in reality be the result of a whole series
of causes. To explain the effect, therefore, we must take into
account, not one, but every cause that might in the remotest
degree have had any influence in producing it. It so happens
that in political economy the effects are more accessible than
the causes, and this points to the inductive method as the proper
one for an investigation of this kind. Treated by the inductive
method, political economy is a science of the highest practical
value; treated a priori, it is not a science at all, but only a
scientific artifice, a mere theory of human action in one particular
direction, and which has not even the merit of being approximately correct.
"Political economy has not yet even arrived at the first or
preparatory period. We have not yet begun to collect and arrange our facts. Political economy is in the same state to-day
that geology was before the days of Hutton and William Smith,
or as the science of language was when comparative philology
was unknown, and Hebrew was supposed to be the one primeval
language of the human race.
"The charges brought against the science by Comte were not
altogether uncalled for. Political economy exhibits no sign of
progressiveness. Instead of discoveries, of which we have had
none of any consequence since Adam Smith's time, we have had
endless disputation and setting up of dogmas. It was so in
Comte's day, and so it is in ours. Whatever progress may have
been made in other sciences during the last century, there has
been none in this. The most elementary principles are still
matters of dispute. The doctrine of free trade, for instance,




32               THE UNITY OF LAW.
which is looked upon as the crowning triumph of political economy, is still very far from being universally recognized. Even
in England, after twenty years' trial under most favorable
circumstances, free trade has been put upon its defence. We
make no progress, and from the very nature of our method of
investigation, we can make none.  The political economist
observes phenomena with a foregone conclusion as to their
cause. His method, in fact, is the method of the savage. The
phenomena of nature, the thunder, the lightning, or the earthquake, strike the savage with awe and wonder; but he only looks
within himself for an explanation of these phenomena. To him,
therefore, the forces of nature are only the efforts of beings like
himself-great and powerful no doubt, but with good and evil
propensities and subject to every human caprice. Like the political economist, he works within the vicious circle of his own
feelings, and he cannot comprehend any more than the savage
how he can discover the laws which regulate the phenomena
which he sees around him. The savage would reduce the Divine
mind to the dimensions of the human; the political economist
would reduce the human mind to the dimensions of his ideal.
"Our conclusion is that the inductive method is alone applicable to the investigation of economic science, and that we shall
never be able to make any solid progress so long as we continue
to follow the a priori method-method which has not aided, but
clogged and fettered us in the pursuit of truth, and which is
utterly alien to the spirit of modern scientific inquiry."- Westminster Review, July, 1871.
That the views thus presented are correct is beyond
question. Political Economy, as now taught, is in
a position closely correspondent with that occupied
by Astronomy before the days of Copernicus, Kep-'
ler, and Galileo: There, too, must it remain until
its professors shall qualify themselves for furnishing
answers to the simple questions-Whence comes
the idea of valub'?    Of what does value consist!




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      3-3
CHAPTER II.
OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.
~ 1. THE first man, when he had day after day
even for a single week witnessed the rising and
setting of the sun, the former having invariably
been accompanied by the presence of light, while
the latter had as invariably been followed by its
absence, had thus acquired the first rude elements
of positive knowledge, or science. The cause-the
sun's rising-being given, it would have been beyond his power to conceive that the effect should
not follow. With further observation he learned
to remark that at certain seasons of the year the
luminary appeared to traverse particular portions
of the heavens, that then it was always warm, and
the trees put forth leaves, to be followed by fruit;
whereas, at others, it appeared to occupy other portions of the heavens, the fruit then disappearing
and the leaves falling, as a prelude to the winter's
cold. Here was a further addition to his stock of
knowledge, bringing with it foresight, and a feeling
of the necessity for action. If he would live during
the season of cold, he could do so only by preparing
for it during the season of heat, a principle as
thoroughly understood by the wandering Esquimaux
of the shores of the Arctic Ocean as by the most
3




34                 THE UNITY     OF LAW.
enlightened and eminent philosopher of Europe or
America.*
Earliest among the ideas of such a.man would be
those of space, quantity, and form. The sun was
obviously very remote, while of the trees some were
distant and others were close at hand. The moon
was single, while the stars were countless. The tree
was tall, while the shrub was short. The hills were
high, and tending towards a point, the plains being low and flat. We have here the most abstract,
simple, and obvious of all conceptions. The idea
of space is the same, whether we regard the distance
between the sun and the stars by which he is surrounded, or that between the mountains and ourselves. So, too, with number and form, which apply
* " These facts, that science and the positive knowledge of the uncultured cannot be separated in nature, and that the one is but a perfected
and extended form of the other, must necessarily underlie the whole
theory of science, its progress, and the relations of its parts to each
other. There must be serious incompleteness in any history of the
sciences which, leaving out of view the first steps of their genesis, commences with them only when they assume definite forms. There must
be grave defects, if not a general untruth, in a philosophy of the sciences considered in their interdependence and development, which
neglects the inquiry how they came to be distinct sciences, and how
they were severally evolved out of the chaos of primitive ideas. * * *
Is not science a growth? Has not science, too, its embryology? And
must not the neglect of its embryology lead to a misunderstanding of
the principles of its evolution and of its existing organization? There
are a priori reasons, therefore, for doubting the truth of all philosophies of the sciences which tacitly proceed upon the common notion
that scientific knowledge and ordinary knowledge are separate; instead
of commencing, as they should, by affiliating the one upon the other,
and showing how it gradually came to be distinguishable from the
o'her. We may expect to find their generalizations essentially artificial,
and we shall not be deceived."-Herbert Spencer, Genesis (f Science.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.     35
to the sands of the sea-shore as readily as to the
gigantic trees of the forest, or to the various bodies
seen to be moving through the heavens.
Next in order would come the desire, or the
necessity, for comparing distances, numbers, and
magnitudes, the means for this being at hand in
machinery supplied by nature, and always at his
command. His finger or his arm would supply
a measure of magnitudes, his pace doing the same
by distance; and the standard with which he would
compare the weights would be found in some one
among the most ordinary commodities by which
he was surrounded. In numerous cases, however,
distances, velocities, or dimensions proving to be
beyond the reach of direct measurement, there is
thus produced a necessity for devising means of comparing distant and unknown quantities with those
that, being near, can be ascertained, and hence arises
mathematics, or The Science-so denominated by
the Greeks, because to its aid was due nearly all the
positive knowledge of which they were possessed.
The multiplication table enables the ploughman
to determine the number of days contained in a given
number of weeks, and the merchant to calculate the
number of pounds contained in his cargo of cotton.
By help of his rule, the carpenter determines the
distance between the ends of the plank on which
he works. The sounding-line enables the sailor to
ascertain the depth of water around his ship, and
by aid of the barometer the traveller determines
the height of the mountain on which he stands.




36            THE UNITY OF LAW.
All these are instruments for facilitating the acquisition of knowledge; such, too, being the formulae
of mathematics by help of which the philosopher
determines the magnitude and weight of bodies
distant fiom him millions of millions of miles, and
is thus enabled to solve innumerable questions of
the highest interest to man. They are the key to
science, but are not to be confounded with science
itself, although often included in the list of sciences, and even so recently as in M. Comte's wellknown work. That such should ever have been
the case has been due to the fact that so much of
what is really physics is discussed under the head
of mathematics; as is the case with the great laws
for whose discovery we are indebted to Kepler,
Galileo, and Newton. That a body impelled by a
single force will move in a right line and with
a velocity that is invariable, and that action and
reaction are equal and opposite, are facts at the
knowledge of which we have arrived in consequence
of pursuing a certain mode of investigation; but,
when obtained, they are purely physical facts, obtained by help of the instrument to which we apply
the term mathematics-and which is, to use the
words of M. Comte, simply "an immense extension
of natural logic to a certain order of deductions."*
Logic is itself, however, but another of the instruments devised by man for enabling him to obtain a
knowledge of nature's laws. To his eyes the earth
* Positive Philosophy, Martinean's Translation, vol. i. 33.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      37
appears to be a plane, yet does he see the sun rising
daily in the east and setting as regularly in the
west, fiom which he might infer that it would
always continue so to do; but of this he can feel no
certainty until he has satisfied himself why it is that
it does so rise and set. At one time seeing the sun
to be eclipsed, while at another the moon ceases to
give light, he desires to know why such things
are-what is the law governing the movements of
those bodies; having obtained which, he is enabled
to predict when they will again cease to give light,
and to determine when they must have done so in
times that are past. At one moment ice or salt
melts; at another, gas explodes; at a third, walls
are shattered and cities are hurled to the ground;
and he seeks to know why these things are-what is
the relation of cause and effect? In the effort to
obtain answers'to all these questions, he observes
and records facts, then arranging them with a view
to determining the laws by virtue of which they
occur-and he invents barometers, thermometers,
and other instruments to aid him in his observations,
but the ultimate object of all is that of obtaining
an answer to the questions: Why are all these
things?  Why is it that dew falls on one day and
not on another? Why is it that corn grows abundantly in this field and fails altogether in that one 1
Wthy is it that coal burns and granite will not?
What, in a word, are the laws instituted by the
Creator for the government of matter? The answers
to these questions constitute science-and mathe



38            THE UNITY OF LAW.
matics, logic, and all other of the machinery in use,
are but instruments used by him for the purpose of
obtaining them.
Discussing the subject of rational mechanics under
the head of mathematics, M. Comte informs his
readers that we here " encounter a perpetual confusion between the abstract and the concrete points of
view; between the logical and the physical; between
the artificial conceptions necessary to help us to
general laws of equilibrium and motion, and the
natural facts furnished by observation, which must
form the basis of the science."* This, however, is
only saying that as "the natural facts," furnished
by observation, increase in number, there arises a
necessity for endeavoring to perfect the machinery
by help of which they are to be studied; and that
such is the case in the instance here referred to is
shown in M. Comte's admission that the science of
which he treats is " founded on some general facts,
furnished by observation, of which we can give no
explanation whatever."t  Passing from gate to gate
of science, we pass from simple to compound locks,
requiring additional wards in the keys by which
they are to be opened; but the key still remains a
key, and can never become a lock, even though the
wards become fifty-fold more numerous than those
of any yet constructed by Bramah, Chubb, or
Hobbs, and require years of study for acquiring its
proper management. There arises then what may
* Positive Philosophy, Martineau's Translation, vol. i. p. 107.
t Ibid.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.     39
be called the science of the key, but it constitutes
no part of natural science.  When D'Alembert
made, to use the words of Comte, "a discovery,
by help of which all investigation of the motion of
any body or system might be converted at once into
a question of equilibrium," he merely opened a new
ward in the key by which we were to unlock the
cabinet of nature, and thus enlarge the boundaries
of that department of knowledge which treats of
the properties of matter and the laws by which it is
governed, and known as physical science.
~ 2. Abstract mathematics necessarily took precedence of the more concrete physics, because they
were the sole product of logic, and dependent upon
those first principles which are in their elements
so nearly intuitive that when a boy commences the
study of geometry he finds that he had already
acquired a knowledge of much that is now being
given to him as science. Hence, too, it was that
moral science, poetry, the fine arts, and metaphysics
were so far advanced in Greece, while mechanical
science had scarcely an existence.
In default of observation, men of speculative habits
looked inwards to their own minds and invented
theories that were given to the world as laws, but,
as has well been said, "Man can invent nothing in
science or religion but falsehood, and all the truths
that he discovers are but facts or laws that have
emanated from  the Creator."  The men of the
Middle Ages-the philosophers of the schoolstaught the theories that had been invented by their




40            THE UNITY OF LAW.
Grecian predecessors, leaving it for Bacon to teach
the philosophy that leads to the search for truth
among the facts of nature and not among the speculations of men. From his day to the present there
has been a perpetual tendency towards the substitution of careful observation and induction for the
dreams of theorists, and as the Cartesian doctrine
of Vortices gave way to the discovery of gravitation,
so the imaginary phlogiston of Stahl, and the Plutonian and Neptunian cosmogonies, have yielded to
the discoveries of modern science. The former was
early displaced by the oxygen of Lavoisier, while
the latter held their ground until disproved by the
observations of geologists, whose branch of science
dates its existence but little beyond the present
century.
In physics, the more abstract and general has in
its development tended to take precedence of that
which is concrete and special, both, however, moving gradually onward, each aiding and aided by the
other. Astronomy, the science of the laws governing bodies exterior to our own planet, was studied
at an early period, the shepherds of Chaldea having carefully noted the movements of the celestial
bodies, and Babylonians having calculated eclipses
thousands of years before the commencement of the
Christian era. From a well in Syene Eratosthenes
obtained the observations required for determining
the terrestial meridian; and many centuries before
Copernicus, Archimedes taught the double motion
of the earth around its axis and around the sun.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      41
The precise length of the solar year was determinecl
by Hipparchus, corresponding within ten minutes
with the figures obtained by both Mexican and
Etrurian observations.
The motions of the celestial bodies were thus
early studied and comprehended, yet was it left to
Newton to discover the reason why the apple falls
to the earth; to Franklin to discover the identity
of lightning and electricity; to Cavendish to discover the composition of the air we breathe; and
to philosophers of our own day to discover the laws
in virtue of which we see and hear. Laplace's
great work of Celestial Mechanics was the product
of the same period that witnessed the birth of a new
science having for its object to determine the composition of the globe on which we live and move,
and from which we derive our daily bread. It is
thus, as we approach nearer to man, his uses and
purposes, we find the greatest retardation of that
positive knowledge so early attained in reference to
the method to be pursued in the effort for its attainment. The study of the history of science leads
inevitably to an agreement with Buffon in the
opinion that "however great may be our interest
in knowing ourselves," we probably "understand
better all that is not ourselves"-and with Rousseau
in the belief that " much philosophy is required for
observing the facts that are very near to us."
Passing from the more abstract and general laws
governing the movements of distant bodies towards
those determining the composition of the matter by




42               THE UNITY OF LAW.
which we are immediately surrounded, we find new
laws, but all in harmony with those first obtained.
Chemistry, following    physics which    deals with
masses, deals with the elements of which they are
composed, giving us atoms as obedient to the
law of gravitation as are the earth, the satellites
of Jupiter, and Jupiter himself. " The distinction
between physics and chemistry," says M. Comte,
"is much less easy to establish" than between chemistry and astronomy, and, as he continues, "it is one
more difficult to pronounce upon from day to day
as new discoveries bring to light closer relations
between them."*     That such is the case will readily
be seen by the reader who reflects how much of the
present great development of physical knowledge
has been due to the labors of Cavendish, Priestley,
Black, Davy, Lavoisier, Fourcroy, Gay-Lussac, and
other eminent chemists.
On another occasion M. Comte thus shows the
intimate relation between physics on one side of
chemistry, and physiology on the other:"By the important series of electro-chemical phenomena chemistry becomes, as it were, a prolongation of physics: and at its
other extremity, it lays the foundation of physiology by its
research into organic combinations. These relations are so real
that it has sometimes happened that chemists, untrained in the
philosophy of science, have been uncertain whether a particular
subject lay within their department, or ought to be referred
either to physics or to physiology."t
* Positive Philosophy, Martineau's Translation, vol. i. p. 216.
t Ibid., vol. i. p. 298.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.               43
As yet, he is of opinion that " the direct dependence of chemistry on astronomy" is very slight; but
"When the time shall come for the development of concrete
chemistry, that is, the methodical application of chemical knowledge to the natural history of the globe, astronomical considerations will no doubt enter in where now there seems no point of
contact between the two sciences. Geology, immature as it is,
hints to us such a future necessity, some vague instinct of which
was probably in the minds of philosophers in the theological
age, when they were fancifully and yet obstinately bent on uniting
astrology and alchemy. It is, in fact, impossible to conceive of
the great intestinal operations of the globe as radically independent of its planetary conditions."*
Passing thus from the masses of physics through
the atoms into which they are resolved by chemistry,
we next find those atoms arranging themselves in
organized and living forms, and constituting the
still more special subjects of vegetable, animal, and
human physiology, whose connection with chemistry
is thus described:" Physiology depends upon chemistry both as a point of departure and as a principal means of investigation. If we separate
the phenomena of life, properly so called, from those of animality,
it is clear that the first, in the double intestinal movement which
characterizes them, are essentially chemical.  The processes
which result from organization have peculiar characteristics;
but apart from such modifications, they are necessarily subjected
to the general laws of chemical effects. Even in studying living
bodies under a simply statical point of view, chemistry is of
indispensable use in enabling us to distinguish with precision
the different anatomical elements of any organism."t
Again, in treating of biology, he says:* Positive Philosophy, Martineau's Translation, vol. i. p. 299.
t Ibid., vol. i. p. 300.




44                THE UNITY OF LAW.
"It is to chemistry that biology is by its nature most directly
and completely subordinated.  In analyzing the phenomena
of life, we saw that the fundamental acts which, by their perpetuity, characterize that state, consist of a series of compositions
and decompositions; and they are therefore of a chemical nature. Though in the most imperfect organisms vital reactions
are widely separated from common chemical effects, it is not the
less true that all the functions of the proper organic life are
necessarily controlled by those fundamental laws of composition
and decomposition which constitute the subject of chemical
science. * * * Chemistry must clearly furnish the starting-point
of every rational theory of nutrition, secretion, and, in short,
all the functions of the vegetative life considered separately; each
of which is controlled by the influence of chemical laws, except
for the special modifications belonging to organic conditions."*
It is not, however, with chemistry alone that
physiology is connected. Remote from astronomy
as that department of knowledge appears to be, the
relation between them     "is more important," says
M. Comte, "than is usually supposed.          I mean,"
continues he" Something more than the impossibility of understanding the
theory of weight, and its effects upon the organism, apart from
the consideration of general gravitation. I mean, besides, and
more especially, that it is impossible to form a scientific conception of the conditions of vital existence without taking into the
account the aggregate astronomical elements that characterize
the planet which is the home of that vital existence. * * *
" It may at first appear anomalous, and a breach of the encyclopedical arrangement of the sciences, that astronomy and
biology should be thus immediately and eminently connected,
while two other sciences lie between. But indispensable as are
physics and chemistry, astronomy and biology are by their
nature the two principal branches of natural philosophy. They,
* Positive Philosophy, Martineau's Translation, vol i. p. 379.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.             45
the complements of each other, include in their rational harmony
the general system of our fundamental conceptions. The solar
system and Man are the extreme terms within which our ideas
will forever be included. The system first, and then Man,
according to the positive course of our speculative reason: and
the reverse in the active process: the laws of the system determining those of Man, and remaining unaffected by them. Between these two poles of natural philosophy the laws of physics
interpose, as a kind of complement of the astronomical laws;
and again, those of chemistry, as an immediate preliminary of
the biological. Such being the rational and indissoluble constitution of these sciences, it becomes apparent why I insisted
on the subordination of the study of Man to that of the system,
as the primary philosophical characteristic of positive biology."
Passing now toward the more concrete and special
department of knowledge treating of the relation of
man with his fellow-man, and with the earth from
which he derives his means of support, we find
chemistry laying the foundation for it when "abolishing the idea of destruction and creation,"* and
thus establishing the facts that the consumption of
food is but a necessary step towards its reproduction; that in all the processes of agriculture man is
but making a machine which supports him while
engaged in making it; that the more time and mind
he devotes to the development of the powers of the
earth, the greater must be his power of production;
and that the more rapidly the consumption of food
follows its production, the more prompt will be the
reproduction of the elements required for new supplies thereof. These views of the effect of the
principle thus established had not occurred to M.
* Positive Philosophy, Martineau's Translation, p. 305.




46               THE UNITY OF LAW.
Comte, but he shows clearly the direct connection
of chemical and     social science when    telling his
readers that" Before anything was known of gaseous materials and products, many striking appearances must inevitably have inspired
the idea of the real annihilation or production of matter in the
general system of nature. These ideas could not yield to the true
conception of decomposition and composition till we had decomposed air and water, and then analyzed vegetable and animal
substances, and then finished with the analysis of alkalies and
earths, thus exhibiting the fundamental principle of the indefinite
perpetuity of matter. In vital phenomena, the chemical examination of not only the substances of living bodies, but their
functions-imperfect as it yet is-must cast a strong light upon
the economy of vital nature by showing that no organic matter
radically heterogeneous to inorganic matter can exist, and that
vital transformations are subject like all others to the universal
laws of chemical phenomena."
The exhibit thus made by M. Comte of the close
relation of the various departments of science has
been not only confirmed but extended at every stage
of progress since he wrote. In his recent address,
delivered before the British Association, its President, Sir William Thomson, told its members, that
"the earnest naturalists of the present day," not
appalled by difficulties, were " struggling boldly and
laboriously to pass out of the mere natural history
stage of their study, and bring zoology within the
range of natural philosophy." The course of things
is thus upward and onward, chemistry aiding in the
development of physics, the researches of physiologists meanwhile making new demands upon, and




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      47
thereby promoting the growth of, chemical science.
Each helps and is helped by the other.
The root, the stem, the branches, the leaves, and
the blossoms of the tree are obedient to the same
system of laws. Colored water applied to the root
changes the color of the blossom, and stoppage of
nourishment to the root destroys the tree. It is
still but a single tree, and so is it with the tree of
science, whose root is found in physics, its stem
branching into those divisions which are based upon
observation and experiment, leaving us to find the
leaves, the blossoms, and the fruit in the less demonstrable departments of knowledge.
That this is true as. regards the more abstract
and general portions of science to which reference
has here been made, can scarcely now be doubted.
Wherefore, then, should we doubt that it would be
found equally so in relation to those more concrete
and special which treat of man in his relation with
the material world-of man in his relations with his
fellow-man-of man as a being capable of acquiring
power over the various natural forces provided for
his use, and responsible to his fellow-men, and to
his Creator for the proper use of the faculties with
which he has been so wonderfully endowed? If the
root, the stem, and the branches obey the same
laws, should we not find the blossoms and the fruit
of the tree of science equally obedient to them,
and will not the diagram opposite represent with
considerable accuracy the relation of the various
departments of knowledge and-having always re



48            THE UNITY OF LAW.
gard to the fact that each has aided, as it has been
aided by, each and every other-the order of their
march toward becoming perfect and exact science?
~ 3. "The distributions and partitions of knowledge," says Lord Bacon in his Novum Organum,
"are not like several lines that meet in one angle,
and touch but in a point; but are like branches of a
tree that meet in a stem, which hath a dimension
and quantity of entireness and continuance before
it comes to discontinuance and break itself into
arms and boughs; therefore," as he continues, " it
is good, before we enter into the former distribution,
to create and constitute one universal science by the
name of Philosophia Prima, or Summary Philosophy,
as the main or common way, before we come where
the ways part and divide themselves."
Concerned as he was with the order and division
of the sciences, and pledged as he was in the introduction to his work to furnish it, he failed to do so,
" the first part of the Introduction which comprehends the division of the sciences" being, says his
editor, " wanting." A study, so far as the idea of
the text appears to require elucidation, rather than
an attempt to supply the deficiency, is submitted
in its stead.
The several branches of natural science are commonly spoken of, but the figure has a larger parallelism with the subject-a tree having not only
branches but also roots. These latter are properly
underground branches, constituting the structural
support and furnishing the vital subsistence of the








1W1
XI IV,
~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~ N
7j/%




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      49
tree, which grows from its roots and with them.
Its stem, branches, flowers, and fruits, being converted aliment supplied by and through the roots,
the allusions of the figure are in good keeping with
the natural history of the subject intended to be
illustrated.
The central or tap root, as the reader sees, represents matter with its essential properties of
inertia, impenetrability, divisibility, and attraction.
The lateral ones stand on one side for mechanical
and chemical forces, and on the other, for vegetable
and animal ones; and from these substantive roots
of being rises the stem, man, so composed as to his
natural constitution. The soul, being the occult
life of the structure, is incapable of representation,
though manifested by its proper evidence in the
flowers and fruits, the emotions and thoughts of his
faculties.
We have now the stem-the man-" having
dimension and quantity of entireness and continuance before it came to discontinue and break itself,"
branching off into his diverse activities.  These
branches are his functions, ramifying into all their
specific differences of application. The first branch
on the material side is Physics, as represented in
the diagram.  Its ramifications are into natural
philosophy and chemistry-masses and atoms-and
the shoots from these are mechanics and chemical
dynamics; the one being the action of masses, and
the other that of atoms.
The main branch on the vital side of the tree,
4




50            THE UNITY OF LAW.
rising a little above Physics, must necessarily be
Organology, branching first into the science of vegetable beings, Phytology, then sending off the shoot,
Vegetable Physiology; and second, into that of
animal beings, Zoology, leading to Biology, or the
science of life.
Following the stem in the natural order of rank
and successive development, it is seen next giving'
off Sociology, which divides itself into Jurisprudence
and Political Economy, while on the corresponding
side of the main branch, Psychology ramifies itself
into Ethics and Theology-the tree finally topping
out with Intuition as the material branch and
Inspiration as the vital one. These highest and
last named are rightly the source of the other
science or sciences to which Bacon alludes as standing above Metaphysics, when he says that, " as for
the vertical point, the summary law of nature, we
know not whether man's inquiry can attain unto
it;" that is, so as to order and methodize its teachings.
In this scheme of the sciences of things there is
no place for either Logic or Mathematics, the respective regulative sciences of mind and matter.
Neither of these belongs to Natural History, being
both alike mere instruments to be used in the study
of nature.
Historically, the top branches of the tree of knowledge, as of all other trees, are first produced, and
the branches next below are soon put forth, but
mature later, the instincts of religion and reason




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.             51
appearing in their vigor in the childhood of the
race.  Social science necessarily, and metaphysics
spontaneously, extend themselves as early as societies
take form, and speculation is.awakened-bringing
quickly forth the flowers and fruits of music, poetry,
the fine arts, logic, mathematics, and those generalities of speculative truth which are the products of
imagination and reflection." The correspondence
between the figure chosen and the facts to be illustrated would seem to be complete.
In time, the branches nearer to the earth, more
material in their substance and more dependent
upon observation, obtain development in their larger
diversity of use.    The   sciences of substance, of
natural objects, grow and ramify themselves almost
indefinitely-physical philosophy and organology,
in their dependencies, shooting out in every direction
of observation and experiment, at first overshadowed
by the speculative branches above them, but always
vivified by them; while in their turn repaying this
service by affording substantive strength and corrective modification as they grow into maturity.
Such is the history of science, and such the
illustration of its orderly divisions, succession, and
co-ordination; it represents the compound nature
* Xenophon urged upon his Athenian countrymen that in default of
the domestic market for food that would have resulted from proper development of the mineral treasures with which their soil abounded,
agriculture had become impossible; many having been forced to abandon
it, becoming usurers or brokers. See Journal des Economzistes, Sept.
1S71, p. 365. This is probably the earliest exhibit on record of the dependence of agriculture on the mining and manufacturing industries.




52            THE UNITY OF LAW.
of man, the sources of his powers, and the order of
their development.
~ 4. Seeking to obtain power over matter, man
desires to obtain a knowledge of the laws instituted
for its government. To become the subject of law,
it is required that there be a regular and uniform
succession of causes and effects, the nature of which
may be expressed in distinct propositions-so that
when we observe the former we may be enabled to
predict the latter; or that when the latter are observed, we may safely assume the former to have
pre-existed.
In the early ages of society theories abound, and
for the reason that, in default of knowledge, almost
every occurrence is regarded as accidental, or is attributed to the direct interposition of mythological
powers whose qualities are so vaguely conceived as
to make the idea of the events depending upon their
action scarcely one remove from that of its being
absolutely fortuitous and irreducible to order and
rule. The Greeks of the days of Homer solicited
the aid of imaginary deities, themselves moved to
action by the same feelings and passions that influenced their worshippers; precisely as does now the
poor African who makes his oblations of corn or oil,
palm-wine or rum, to the stock or stone, the alligator, or the bundle of rags, he has chosen for his idol.
With time, however, the regular succession of effects
and causes comes to be understood, and at every stage
of progress theory tends to pass away, yielding place
to knowledge; this latter bringing with it power




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.           53
to direct the forces of nature to man's service. At
each such stage he obtains new evidence of the
universality of natural laws-new proof that where
exceptions appear to exist they are but appearances,
and will, when carefully analyzed and fully understood, but prove the rule; as does the smoke when
rising in apparent opposition to the great law in
virtue of which all the matter of which the earth is
composed tends towards its centre.*
To prove the universality of law, thereby establishing the unity of science, seemed at first to be
the intention of M. Comte, from whose work preliminary to, and intended as the basis of, the one
that was to be specially devoted to social science,
the preceding extracts have been made. The promised work subsequently appeared, but in it, as
before when treating of man and his operations, he
intentionally ignored that mathematical method to
which the earlier and more developed departments
of science had so largely been indebted. That he
should so have done would seem to have been a
consequence of regarding mathematics as a science,
and not as a mere instrument for the acquisition of
scientific knowledge. Thus, in treating of chemistry,
he tells us that " every attempt to refer chemical
* "We ought to conceive the study of nature as destined to furnish
the true rational basis of the action of man upon nature; because the
knowledge of the laws of phenomena, of which the invariable result is
foresight, and that alone, can conduct us in active life to modify the
one by the other to our advantage. In short, SCIENCE WHENCE FORESIGHT, FORESIGHT WHENCE ACTION, such is the simple formula which
expresses the general relation of Science and Art."-Comte.




54            THE UNITY OF LAW.
questions to mathematical doctrines must be considered, now and always, profoundly irrational, as
being contrary to the nature of the phenomena."*
What, however, are those doctrines? Are they
anything beyond simple formulae adapted to the
peculiar circumstances of the case under consideration?  Certainly not. The geometer tells us that
every whole is equal to all its parts, and that things
which are halves of the same thing are equal, axioms
of universal application, and equally true in relation
to all bodies, whether those treated by the chemist,
the sociologist, or the measurer of land, but involving
no question of doctrine whatsoever.
Occasionally M. Comte speaks of mathematics as
what it clearly is, an "instrument of admirable
efficacy," but being an instrument it can no more be
a science than can a key become a lock.  That
instrument, the mathematical method, is always
applicable, whatever may be the subject of investigation. That method is analysis-the study of each
separate cause tending to produce a given effect.
To it we owe all the discoveries of Copernicus,
Kepler, Newton, and their successors; such, too,
being the method of the chemist, who commences by
ascertaining the separate force of each of his various
ingredients, and ends by deducing the law of the
effect. When engaged in the study of the skeleton,
the physiologist uses the formulae of the physicist;
but when studying the composition of the blood, he
resorts necessarily to those of the chemist, in which
* Positive Philosophy, Martineau's Translation, vol. i. p. 299.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.             55
is embodied all the knowledge derived from the
observation of the philosophers by whom he had
been preceded. This method, however, is-discarded
by M. Comte in treating of social science, as will be
seen by the following passage:"There can be no scientific study of society, either in its conditions or its movements, if it is separated into portions, and its
divisions are studied apart. I have already remarked upon
this in regard to what is called political economy. Materials
may be furnished by the observation of different departments;
and such observation may be necessary for that object; but it
cannot be called science. The methodical division of studies
which takes place in the simple inorganic sciences is thoroughly
irrational in the recent and complex science of society, and can
produce no results. The day may come when some sort of subdivision may be practicable and desirable; but it is impossible
for us now to anticipate what the principle of distribution may
be; for the principle itself must arise from the development of
the science: and that development can take place no otherwise
than by our formation of the science as a whole."
" In the organic sciences, the elements are much better known
to us than the whole which they constitute; so that in that case
we must proceed from the simple to the compound. But the
reverse method is necessary in the study of man and of society;
man and society as a whole being better known to us, and more
accessible subjects of study, than the parts which constitute
them."*
To pursue the course thus indicated would be to
go back to what M. Comte was accustomed to denominate the metaphysical stage of science. The
philosopher of old would, in like manner, have said:
"These masses of granite are better known to us
than the parts of which they are composed, and
* Positive Philosophy, Martineau's Translation, vol. ii. p. 81.




56            THE UNITY OF LAW.
therefore we will limit our inquiries to the questions
as to how they came to have their existing form
and occupy their present position.".Without the
analysis of the chemist it would have been as impossible that we should be enabled to "penetrate into
the details" of the piece of stone, and thus to acquire
a knowledge of the composition of the distant mountain from which it had been taken, as it would now
be for us to penetrate into those of the communities
that have passed away, were we not in the midst of
living ones, composed of men endowed with the
same gifts and animated by the same feelings and
passions observed to have existed among those of
ancient times; and were we not, too, possessors of
the numerous facts accumulated during the many
centuries that since have intervened. It is the
details of life around us that we need to study,
commencing by analysis and proceeding to synthesis, as does the chemist when he resolves the piece
of granite into atoms, and thus acquires the secret
of the composition of the mass. Having ascertained
that it is composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica,
and having fully satisfied himself of the circumstances
under which it appears in the country near to him,
he feels entire confidence that wherever else it may
be found, its composition and its position in the order
of formation will be the same. He is constantly
going from the near and the known which he can
analyze and examine, to the distant and the unknown which he cannot; studying the latter by
means of formulae obtained by analysis of the former.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      57
Thus it was that by study of the deposits of Siberia
and California, the geologist was enabled to predict
that gold would be found among the mountains of
Australia.
Seeking now to understand the history of man in
past ages or in distant lands, we must commence
by studying him in the present, and having mastered
him in the past and present, we may then be enabled
to predict the future. To do this, it is required that
we do with society as the chemist does with the
piece of granite, resolving it into its several parts and
studying each part separately, ascertaining how it
would act were it left to itself; then comparing what
would be its independent action with that we see to be
its societary action. That done, by help of the same
law of which the mathematician, the physicist, the
chemist, and the physiologist avail themselvesthat of the composition of forces-we may perhaps
arrive at the law of the effect.  So to do would
not, however, be to adopt the course of M. Comte,
who gives us the distant and the unknown-the
societies of past ages-as a means of understanding
the movements of the men by whom we are surrounded, and of predicting what will be those of
future men. To us it seems that as well might
the teacher furnish his students with a telescope by
which to study the mountains of the moon, that he
might be thus enabled to understand the movements
of the laboratory.
The necessary consequence of this inverse and
erroneous method is that he is led to arrive at con



58            THE UNITY OF LAW.
elusions directly the reverse of those to which men's
natural instincts lead them; directly opposed, too, to
the tendencies of thought and action in all the
times of advancing civilization, whether in the
ancient or modern world; the result being that
he leaves his readers as much at a loss to understand the causes of disturbance that now exist,
or the.remedy needed to be applied, as would a
physician who should limit the study of his patient
to an examination of the body in a mass, omitting
all inquiry into the state of the lungs, the stomach,
or the brain. His system of sociology does not explain the past, and cannot therefore be used to direct
the present; the reason why it neither does nor can do
so being that he has declined to use the method of
physics, that philosophy which studies the near and
the known for the purpose of obtaining power to
comprehend the distant and the unknown; which
studies the present to obtain knowledge by aid of
which to understand the causes of events in the past,
and to predict those which are bound to flow from
similar causes in the future.
~ 5. Turning from France to Britain, we find
ourselves in the home of Adam Smith, whose most
essential doctrines have, however, been wholly repudiated by his successors of that modern school
which had its origin in the teachings of Messrs.
BMalthus and Ricardo. "Social Science," as the
world is there taught by one of its most distinguished
teachers, "is a deductive science; not, indeed," as
he continues, "after the model of geometry, but




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      59
after that of the highest physical sciences. It infers
the law of each effect from the laws of causation
upon which the effect depends; not, however, from
the law merely of one cause, as in the geometrical
method, but by considering all the causes which
conjointly influence the effect, and compounding
those laws with one another."*
Such is the theory. The practice under it consists in providing for the use of science a politicoeconomical man, or monster, on one hand influenced
solely by the thirst for wealth, and on the other so
entirely under the control of the sexual passion as
to be at all times ready to indulge it, however greatly
such indulgence may tend to prevent the growth of
wealth.t
What, however, is this thing in the quest for
which he is so assiduously engaged   What is
wealth? To this question political economy furnishes no reply, it having never yet been settled in
what it is that wealth consists. Were it suggested
that land constituted any part thereof, the answer
would at once be made, that, by reason of a great
law of nature, the more of it brought into use, and
the larger the quantity of labor given to its improvement, the less must be the return to human effort,
the poorer must the community become, and the
greater must be the tendency toward poverty and
death; the law of constantly diminishing returns
to labor applied to cultivation being, as Mr. Mill
* J. S. Mill. System of Logic, Book vi. ch. 8.
t See an:e, p. 15.




60            THE UNITY OF LAW.
assures us, the most important one in the whole
range of economic science. Were it next assumed
that wealth might be found in development of
the individual faculties, proof apparent could be
furnished that not only would search in that direction be vain, but that it would result in establishment of the fact that increase in the number of
teachers must be attended with diminution of the
quantity of wealth at the community's command.*
Foiled thus in all his efforts, the inquirer, after having
studied carefully all the books, would still be found
repeating the question-What is wealth?
Turning next to the being so sedulously engaged
in the pursuit of an undefined something that seems
to embrace so much, and that yet excludes so large
a proportion of the things usually regarded as
wealth, he would desire to satisfy himself if the
subject of political economy were really the being
known as man. He might perhaps be led to ask, has
man no other qualities than those here attributed
to him? Is he, like the beasts of the field, solely
given to the search for food, and shelter for his
body? Does he, like them, beget children for the
sole gratification of his passions, and does he, like
them, leave his offspring to feed and shelter themselves as they may?  Has he no feelings or affections
to be influenced by the care of wife and children?
Has he no judgment to aid him in the decision as
to what is likely to benefit or to injure him? That
he did possess such qualities would be admitted,
* See Mill, Principles, 6th edition, vol. i. p. 61.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      61
but the economist would maintain that his science
was that of material wealth alone, to the entire exclusion of that wealth of affection and intellect held
by Adam Smith in such high esteem; and thus
would he, at the close of all his search, discover
that the subject of political economy was not really
a man, but an imaginary being moved to action by
the blindest passion, and giving all his energies to
the pursuit of a thing in its nature so undefinable
that all the books would be vainly searched for a
definition that would be admitted by a jury of economists as embracing all that should be included,
and excluding all that should not.
The law of the composition of forces requires that
we study all the causes tending to produce a given
effect. That effect is MAN-the man of the past
and the present; and the social philosopher who
excludes from consideration his feelings and affections, and the intellect with which he has been
endowed, makes precisely the same mistake that
would be made by the physical one who should
look exclusively to gravitation, forgetting heat; and
should thence conclude that at no distant day the
whole material of which the earth is composed would
become a solid mass, plants, animals, and men having
disappeared. Such is the error of modern political
economy, its effects exhibiting themselves in the
fact that it presents for our consideration a mere
brute animal to find a name for which it desecrates
the word "man," recognized by Adam Smith as




62            THE UNITY OF LAW.
expressing the idea of a being made in the likeness
of its Creator.
It was well asked by Goethe —" What is all intercourse with nature, if by the analytical method we
merely occupy ourselves with individual material
parts, and do not feel the breath of the spirit which
prescribes to every part its direction, and orders or
sanctions every deviation by means of an inherent
law t" And what, we may ask, is the value of an
analytical process that selects only the "material
parts" of man-those which are common to himself
and the beast-carefully excluding those common to
the angels and himself?  Such is the course of
modern political economy, which not only does not
" feel the breath of the spirit," but even ignores the
existence of the spirit itself, and is therefore found
defining what it is pleased to call the natural rate
of wages as being " that price which is necessary
to enable the laborers, one with another, to subsist
and perpetuate their race, without either increase
or diminution;"` that is to say, such price as will
enable some to grow rich and increase their race,
while others perish of hunger, thirst, and exposure.
Such are the teachings of a system that has fairly
earned the title of the " dismal science"-that one
the study of which led M. Sismondi to the inquiry:
" What, then, is wealth everything, and is man absolutely nothing?" In the eyes of modern political
economy he is nothing, and can be nothing for the
reason that it takes no note of the qualities by which
* Ricardo.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      63
he is distinguished from the brute, led thus inevitably to regarding him as a mere instrument to be
used by capital for enabling its owner to obtain
compensation for its use. " Some economists," said
a distinguished French economist, shocked at the
material character of the so-called science, "speak
as if they believed that men were made for products,
not products for men;"* and at that conclusion
must all arrive who commence by the method of
analysis, and close with exclusion of all the higher
and distinctive qualities of man.
~ 6. In the progress of knowledge we find ourselves gradually passing from the compound to the
simple; from that which is abstruse and difficult to
that which is plain and easily learned. That simplicity and truth travel generally together is proved
by the beautiful simplicity and wonderful breadth
of propositions in science —themselves the result of a
long induction-leading to the knowledge of great
truths not at first perceptible, but when announced
so conclusive as to close, almost at once and forever,
all discussion in reference thereto. The falling of
the apple led Newton to the law of gravitation, and
to the discovery of that law we owe the astonishing
perfection of modern astronomy. The establishment
of the identity of lightning and electricity laid the
foundation of a science by help of which we have
been enabled to command the services of a great
power in nature that has to a great extent superseded
the contrivances of man. Kepler and Galileo, New* Droz. Economic Politique.




64              THE UNITY OF LAW.
ton and Franklin, would have failed in all their
efforts to extend the domain of science, had they
pursued the method of M. Comte in his attempt to
establish a system of social science.
Does this method, however, supersede entirely
the apriori one?   Because we pursue the method
of analysis, are we necessarily precluded from that
of synthesis? By no means. Each in turn makes
preparation for the other. It was by the careful
observation of particular facts that Le Verrier was
led to the grand generalization that a new and
unobserved planet was bound to exist, and in a certain part of the heavens, and there it was almost
at once discovered. To careful analyses of various
earths it was due that Davy was led to the announcement of the great fact that all earths have metallic
bases-one of the grandest generalizations on record,
and one whose truth is being every day more and
more established. The two methods were well
described by Goethe, when he said that synthesis
and analysis were "the systole and diastole of
human thought," and that they were to him "like
a second breathing process-never separated, ever
pulsating."
" The vice of the a priori method," says the writer from whom
this passage is taken, " when it wanders from the right path, is
not that it goes before the facts, and anticipates the tardy conclusions of experience, but that it rests contented with its own
verdicts, or seeking only a partial, hasty confrontation with facts
-what Bacon calls'notiones temerb a rebus abstractas.' "*
* Westminster Review, Oct. 1852: Article, Goethe as a Mlan of Science.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      65
Science being one and indivisible, so must the
method of study be. That this is so with regard
to all the departments of knowledge that underlie
social science-physics, chemistry, and physiologycannot now be doubted, yet is it but recently that
there has been reason to believe in any such connection. With each new discovery the approximation becomes more close, and with each we see how
intimately are the facts of all the earlier and more
abstract departments of knowledge connected with
the progress of man toward that state of high development for which he seems to have been intended.
From hour to hour, as he acquires further control
over the various forces existing in nature, he is
enabled to live in closer connection with his fellowman-to obtain larger supplies of food and clothing
-to improve his own modes of thought and action,
and to furnish better instruction to the generation
destined to succeed him. The knowledge that leads
to such results is but the foundation upon which
we are required to build when undertaking to construct that higher department denominated social
science, and the instrument that has been so successfully used in laying the foundation cannot but
be found equally useful in the construction of the
edifice itself.
Mathematics must there be used, as it is now in
every other branch of inquiry, and the more it is
used the more must sociology take the form of real
science, and the more intimate become its relations with other departments of knowledge. The




66            THE UNITY OF LAW.
AIalthusian law was the first instance of its application, and had it proved a true one, it would have
given a precision to political economy of which
before it had been utterly incapable, making the
progress of man directly dependent upon numbers
on one hand and the powers of the soil on the
other. So, too, with Mr. Ricardo's celebrated theory
of rent, by which was established what he deemed
to be the natural division of labor's products among
those who labored and those who owned the land on
which they were raised. The method of both these
great laws was right, and the fact of their having
adopted it has properly placed their authors in the
front rank of economists, giving to their works ail
amount of influence never before exercised by any
writers on economical science. That they fell into
the error above described, of " seeking only a partial,
hasty confrontation with facts," and, therefore, furnished the world with theories directly the reverse
of true, does not prevent us from seeing of what
infinite advantage to the progress of science it would
have been to have the facts brought under these
relations, if true, nor of how great importance it
must be to have the real facts brought under such
relations whenever possible.
Let us, for example, take the following proposition:In the early period of society, when land is
abundant and people are few in number, labor is
unproductive, and of the small product, the landowner or other capitalist takes a large proportioz,




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.       67
leaving to the laborer a small one. The large proportion yields, however, but a small amount, and
both laborer and capitalist are poor-the former so
poor that he is everywhere seen to have been slave
to the latter. Population and wealth, however,
increasing, and labor becoming more productive,
the land-owner's share diminishes in its proportion,
but increases in its amount. The laborer's share
increases not only in its amount, but also in its
proportion, and the more rapid the increase in the
productiveness of his labor the greater is the proportion of the augmented quantity retained by him;
and thus, while the interests of both are in perfect
harmony with each other, there is a constant tendency towards the establishment of an equality of
condition-the slave of the early period becoming
the free man of the later one.
Admitting this to be true-and if so it establishes
directly the reverse of what was propounded by
Messrs. Malthus and Ricardo-we have here the
distinct expression of a mathematical relation between the concomitant variations of power of man
and matter-of the man representing only his own
faculties, and of the man representing the accumulated results of human faculties exerted upon matter and its forces. The problem of social science,
and the one attempted to be solved, is: "What
are the relations of man and the outside material
world?" They change, as we see, men becoming,
in some countries, from year to year more and more
the masters, and in others, the slaves of nature. In




68            THE UNITY OF LAW.
what manner is it that changes in one tend to produce further changes in itself, or to effect changes
in the other?  To this question we need a mathematical answer, and until it be furnished-as it is
believed to be in the above very simple proposition
-political economy can bear only the same relation
to social science that the observations of the Chaldean shepherds bear to modern astronomy.
JSocial science can scarcely be said to have an existence.  That it might exist it was essential to
possess the physical, chemical, and physiological
knowledge required for enabling us to observe how
it is that man is enabled to obtain command over
the various forces provided for his use, and to pass
from being the slave, to becoming the master of
nature  "Man," says Goethe, "only knows himself
in as far as he knows external nature," and it was
needed that the more abstract and general departments of knowledge should acquire a state of high
development before we could advantageously enter
upon the study of the highly concrete and special,
and infinitely variable, science of the laws by which
he is governed in his relations with the external
world, and with his fellow-man. Chemistry and
physiology are both, however, of recent date. A
century since, men knew nothing of the composition
of the air they breathed, and it is within that period
that Haller laid the foundation of the physiological
science that now exists. In physics, even, the
Aristotelian doctrine of the four elements had yet
possession of many of the schools, and still probably




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.      69
remains il some of those on the outer borders of
civilization. In this state of things there could be
but little progress toward attainment of the knowledge how far it was in the power of man to compel the earth to yield the supplies required for a
steadily increasing population; and without that
knowledge there could be no such thing as social
science.
Science requires laws, and laws are but universal
truths-truths to which no exceptions can be found.
Those obtained, harmony and order take the place
of chaos, and we are led in every department of
knowledge as much to recognize effects as having
been the natural results of certain definite causes,
and to look for the reappearance of similar effects
when like causes shall again occur, as did the first
man when he had definitely connected the presence
and absence of light with the rising and setting of
the sun.
Where, however, is there in social science a proposition whose truth is universally admitted? There
is not even a single one.  A century since, the
strength of a nation was regarded as tending to
increase with augmentation of its numbers, but now
we are taught that growth of numbers brings with
it weakness instead of strength. From year to year
we have new theories of the laws of population,
and new modifications of the old one; and the
question of the laws governing the distribution of
the proceeds of labor between the owner and occupier of land, is now discussed as vigorously as it was




70               THE UNITY OF LAW.
half a century since.   Of the disciples of Messieurs
Aalthus and Ricardo, scarcely any two are agreed
as to what it was that they had really meant to
teach. On one day we are told that the RicardoMalthusian doctrine is dead, and on the next we
learn that it is an evidence of want of knowledge
to doubt its truth; and yet the parties to whom we
are indebted for all this knowledge belong to the
same politico-economical school.* The strongest
advocates for the removal of all restrictions on trade
in cloth are found among the fiercest opponents of
fieedom   of the trade in money; and among the
most enthusiastic fiiends of competition for the sale
of merchandise, are to be found the most decided
opponents of competition for the purchase of the
laborer's time and talents. Teachers who rejoice in
everything tending to increase the prices of cloth
and iron, as leading to improvement in man's condition, are found among the foremost of those who
deprecate advance in the price of the laborer's services, as tending to diminution of power for the
maintenance of trade.    Others who teach non-interference by government when it looks to the diffusion
of knowledge among the people, are among the most
* " We believe it (the Ricardo principle of rent) dominates in the
long run, and is the main cause of the decline of nations. * *  We
believe the law of population to which Malthus first directed public
attention, to be founded in fact."-London Spectator.
"Nobody, except a few mere writers, now troubles himself about
Malthus on population, or Ricardo on rent. Their error may yet indeed
linger in the universities, the appropriate depositories of what is obsolete."-London Economist, same date.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.        71
decided as to the propriety of such interference when
it looks to measures leading to war and waste. All
being therefore confusion, nothing is settled; as a
necessary consequence of which the world looks
quietly on, waiting the time when the teachers
shall arrive at some understanding among themselves
as to that first of all conditions incident to the existence of any branch of science, to wit: the real
value of the terms in use. As has been already
shown (see p. 10, ante), toward this first stage no
approach whatsoever has yet been made.
~ 7. The causes of the existence of this state
of things are readily explained. Of all, societary
science is the most concrete and special; the most
dependent on the earlier and more abstract departments of science; the one in which the facts are
most difficult of collection and analysis; and, therefore, very late in making its appearance on the
stage. Of all, too, it is the only one that affects the
interests of men, their feelings, passions, prejudices,
profits, and, therefore, the one in which it is most
difficult to find men collating facts with the sole
view to deduce from them the knowledge they are
calculated to afford. Treating, as it does, of the
relations between man and man, it has everywhere
to meet the objection of those who seek the enjoyment of power and privilege at the cost of their
fellow-men. The sovereign holds in small respect
the science that would teach his subjects to doubt
the propriety of his exercise of power by the grace
of God. The. soldier cannot believe in one that




72            THE UNITY OF LAW.
looks to the annihilation of his trade, nor can the
monopolist readily be made to believe in the advantages of competition. The politician, living by
managing the affairs of others, has small desire to
see the people taught the proper management of
their own concerns. All these profiting by teaching falsehood they therefore frown upon those who
seek to teach the truth. The landlord believes in
one doctrine and his tenant in another, the payer
of wages, meantime, looking at all questions from a
point of sight directly the opposite of the one occupied by him to whom the wages are paid.
WTe here meet a difficulty with which, as has been
already said, no other science has needed to contend.
Astronomy has wrought its way to its present prodigious height with but temporary opposition from
the schools, because no one was personally interested
in continuing to teach the revolution of the sun
around the earth. For a time the teachers, secular
and spiritual, were disposed to deny the movement
of the latter, but the fact was proved and opposition
ceased. Such, too, was the case when geology began
to teach that the earth had had a longer existence
than previously had been believed. The schools
that represented by-gone days did then as they had
done in the days of Copernicus and Galileo, denouncing as heretics all who doubted the accuracy
of the received chronology, but short as is the time
that has since elapsed the opposition has already
disappeared. Franklin, Dalton, Wollaston, and Berzelius prosecuted their inquiries without fear of




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.       73
opposition, their discoveries being unlikely to affect
injuriously the pockets of land-owners, merchants,
or politicians. Social science is, however, still to a
great extent in the hands of the schoolmen, backed
everywhere by those who profit by the ignorance
and weakness of the people.
The occupants of academic chairs in Austria or
Russia may not teach what is unfavorable to the
divine rights of kings, or favorable to increase in
the powers of the people. The doctrines of the
schools of France vary from time to time as despotism yields to the people, or the people yield to
it. The landed aristocracy of England was gratified
when Mr. Malthus satisfied it that the poverty and
misery of the people resulted necessarily from a
great law emanating from an all-wise and all-benevolent Creator; and the manufacturing one is equally
so when it sees, as it thinks, the fact established, that
the general interests of the country are to be promoted by measures looking to the production of an
abundant supply of cheap, or badly paid, labor.
Social science, as taught in most of the colleges
of this country and of Europe, is now on a level with
the chemical science of the early part of the last
century; and there it will remain so long as its
teachers shall continue to look inwards to their own
minds and invent theories, instead of looking outward to the great laboratory of the world for the
collection of facts with the view to the discovery of
laws. In default of such laws they are constantly
repeating phrases that have no real meaning, and




74                THE UNITY OF LAW.
that tend, as Goethe most truly says, to "ossify the
organs of intelligence" of their hearers and themselves."
The state in     which it now     exists is what M.
Comte is accustomed to denominate the metaphysical one, and there it must continue to remain until
its teachers shall waken to the fact, that there is
but one system of laws for the government of all
matter, whether existing in the form of a piece of
coal, a tree, a horse, or a main -and but one mode
of study for all departments of it.     "'lhe leat,' says
a recent writer, "is to the plant what the microcosm
is to the macrocosm-it is the plant in miniature; a
common law governs the two, and, therefore, whatever disposition we find in the parts of the leaf, we
may expect to find in the parts of the plant, and vice
versa."   So it is with the tree of science and its
many branches, what is true of its root cannot be
otherwise than true of the leaves and the fruit.      The
laws of physical science are equally those of social
science, and in every effort to discover the former
we are but paving the way for the discovery of the
* " The pagan, the idolater, the ignorant even of the Catholic church
worship their stocks and stones; and, instead of regarding these as
signs only shadowing forth what in its intellectual state the human
mind cannot otherwise express of its religious sentiments, takes the
signs for the things they represent, and worships them as facts. We,
too, worship our signs-our words. Let any man set himself to the
task of examining the state of his knowledge on the most important
subjects, divine or human, and he will find himself a mere word-worshipper; he will find words without ideas or meaning in his mind
venerated, made idols of-idols different from those carved in wood or
stone only by being stamped with printer's ink on white paper."-Laing,
Choniicle of the Sea Kings, Introd. Dissertation chap. ii.




OF SCIENCE AND ITS METHODS.       75
latter  "The entire succession of men," said Pascal,
"through the whole course of ages, must be regarded
as one man, always living and incessantly learning;"
and among the men who have most largely contributed toward the foundation of a true social science
are to be ranked the eminent teachers to whose
labors we have been so largely indebted for the
great development of physical, chemical, and physiological science in the last and present centuries.
The later man is, therefore, the one possessing
the most of that knowledge of societary operations required for comprehending the causes of the
various effects recorded in the historic page, and
for predicting those which must result in future
from causes now existing. The early man possessed
little of science but the instrument required for its
acquisition, and what of it he did acquire was purely
physical in its character and most limited in its extent. The existing one is in possession not only of
physical science to an extent that is wonderful compared with what existed a century since, but to this
has added the chemical and physiological sciences
then scarcely known, and has proved the existence
throughout of a harmony that before had been unimagined. If, then, there is truth in Pascal's suggestion, may it not be that the laws of all the earlier
and more abstract departments of science will be
found to be equally true in reference to that highly
concrete and special one which embraces the relations of man in society; and that, therefore, all science will prove to be but one, its parts differing as




76                 THE UNITY     OF LAW.
do the colors of the spectrum, but producing, as
does the sun's ray, undecomposed, one white and
bright light 1 To show that such is the case is the
object of the present work.*
Turning again to the figure, the reader will remark
that the branch of science of which it is proposed
to treat finds its place between those of material
and   mental life, organology and         psychology, and
that it is through it that both must look for their
development. That the mind may be active and
vigorous, the body must be properly cared for.
Social Science looks to the care of both.           It treats
of the relations of man with the physical world over
which    it is given    to  him   to  rule, and   with   that
social one in which it is given       to him   to perform   a
part. Upon the nature of those relations depends
the stimulation into activity of those qualities which
constitute the real MAN-those by which he stands
distinguished from      other animals.      What they are
it is proposed now to show.
* "The view propounded in this work allows, however, a greater
and more important part to the share of external influences, it being believed by the author, however, that these external influences equally
with the internal ones are the results of one harmonious action underlying the whole of Nature, organic and inorganic, cosmical, physical,
chemical, terrestrial, vital, and social."-Mivart, Genesis of Species, London, 1871.
"All science is but the partial reflection, in the reason of man, of the
great all pervading reason of the universe. And thus the unity of
science is the reflection of the unity of nature, and of the unity of that
supreme reason and intelligence which pervades and rules over Nature,
and from whence all reason and all science is derived."-Rev. Baden
Powell.




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.  77
CHAPTER III,
OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.
~ 1. MAN, the molecule of society, is the subject of
social science. In common with all other animals
he must eat, drink, and sleep, but his greatest need
is that of ASSOCIATION with his fellow-men. Born
the weakest and most dependent of animals, he requires the largest care in infancy and to be clothed
by others, whereas to birds and beasts clothing is
supplied by nature. Capable of acquiring the highest degree of knowledge, he appears in the world
destitute even of that instinct which teaches the
bee, the spider, the bird, and the beaver to construct
their habitations, and to supply themselves with
food. Dependent upon the experience of himself
and others for all his knowledge, he requires language to enable him either to record the results of
his own observation, or to profit by tho'se of others;
and of language there can be none without association. Created in the image of his Maker, he should
participate in His intelligence; but without language there can be no ideas-no power of thought.
Without it, therefore, he must remain in ignorance
of the existence of powers granted to him in lieu of
the strength of the ox, the speed of the hare, the




Tj~8 TTHE UNITY OF LAW.
sagacity of the elephant, and must remain below
the level of the brute creation.    To have language
there must be association and combination of men
with their fellow-men, and it is on this condition
only that man can be man; on this alone that we
can conceive of the being to which we attach the
idea of man.     "It is not good," said God, "that
man should live alone," nor do we ever find him
doing so-the earliest records of the world exhibiting to us beings living together in society, and using
words for the expression of their ideas.      Whence
came those words.    Whence came languageS With
the same propriety might we ask-Why does fire
burn?   Why does man see, feel, hear, or walk?
Language escapes from him      at the touch of nature
herself, the power of using words being his essential
faculty, enabling him to maintain commerce with
his fellow-men, and fitting him for that association
without which language cannot exist. The words
society and language convey to the mind separate
and distinct ideas, and yet by no effort of the mind
can we conceive of the existence of the one without
the other.*
* "Ever since the time of Wilhelm von Humboldt, all who have
seriously grappled with the highest problem of the science of Language
have come to the conviction that thought and language are inseparable
-that language is as impossible without thought as thought is without
language; and that they stand to each other like soul and body, like
power and function, like substance and form. The objections which
have been raised against this view arise generally from a mere misunderstanding. If we speak of language as the outward realization of
thought, we do not mean language as deposited in a dictionary or
sketched in a grammar; we mean language as an act, language as being




OF MAN-TtIE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.          9
The subject of social science then is man-the
being to whom have been given reason and the
faculty of individualizing sounds so as to give expression to every variety of idea; and who has been
placed in a position to exercise that faculty. Isolate him, and with the loss of the power of speech,
he loses the power to reason, and with it the distinctive quality of man. Restore him to society,
and with the return of the power of speech he
becomes again the reasoning man.
We have here the great law of molecular gravitation as the indispensable condition of the existence
of the being known as man. The particles of matter
having each an independent existence, the atom of
oxygen or of hydrogen is as perfect and complete
as it could be were it in connection with millions of
others like itself.   The grain of sand is perfect
whether flying alone before the wind or resting
with its fellows on the shores of the broad Atlantic.
The tree and the shrub, brought from distant
lands and standing alone in the conservatory, produce the same fruits and yield the same odors as
when they stood in the groves from which they had
been transplanted. The individual dog, cat, and
spoken, language as living and dying with every word that is uttered.
We might perhaps call this speech, as distinguished from language."Professor Miller in the Contemporary Review, December, 1871.
"We imagine we are altogether free and independent, and are not
aware that our thoughts are manacled and fettered by language; and
that, without knowing or perceiving it, we have to keep pace with those
who walked before us thousands and thousands of years ago."-Ibid.
Chips from a German Workshop, Article, Cornish Antiquities.




8              TTHE UNITY OF LAW.
rabbit possess all their powers in a state of entire
isolation. Such, however, is not the case with man.
The wild and isolated man, wherever found, has
always proved to be not only destitute of the reasoning faculty, but destitute also of that instinct which
in other animals takes the place of reason-and,
therefore, the most helpless of beings.
Man tends of necessity to gravitate towards his
fellow-man. Of all animals, he is the most gregarious, and the greater the number collected in a given
space the greater is the attractive force there exerted, as is seen to have been the case with the
great cities of the past, Athens and Rome, Nineveh
and Babylon; and as now is seen in regard to those
of both the Eastern and Western Continents. Attraction is here, as everywhere else in the material
world, in the direct ratio of the mass, and in the
inverse one of the distance.
Such being the case, why is it that all the
members of the human family do not tend to come
together on a single spot of earth' Because of the
existence of that same simple and universal law by
means of which is maintained the beautiful order
of the system of which our planet forms a part.
We are surrounded by bodies of various sizes, each
having its local centre of attraction by means of
which its parts are held together.  Were it possible
that that attractive force could be annihilated, the
rings of Saturn, the moons of our earth and of Jupiter, would crumble to pieces and fall inward upon
the bodies they now attend, a mass of ruins. So,




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.  81
too, with the planets themselves. Small as are the
asteroids, each has within itself a centre of attraction enabling it to preserve its form and substance,
despite the superior attraction of the larger bodies
by which it is everywhere surrounded.
So it is throughout our world. Look where we
may, we see local centres toward which men gravitate, some exercising less influence, others more.
London and Paris are now the rival suns of our system, each exercising a strong attractive force, and
were it not for the counter attraction of Prague and
Munich, Vienna and Berlin, Florence and Naples,
Madrid and Lisbon, Brussels and Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Stockholm, and St. Petersburg, Europe would
present to view one great centralized system, the
population of which was always tending toward
those two cities, there to make all their exchanges,
and thence to receive their laws. So, too, in this
country. It is seen by all how strong is even now the
tendency toward New York, despite the existence of
local centres of attraction in the cities of Boston,
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, St. Louis, New Orleans, Augusta, Savannah,
Charleston, and the numerous capitals of the several
States. Obliterating these centres, and placing a
centralized government like that of England, France,
or Russia, in New York city, not only would this
latter grow to the size of London, but soon would
far exceed it, with an effect similar to that which
would be produced in the astronomical world by a
6




82                THE UNITY OF LAW.
like course of operation. The local governments
falling to pieces, all the atoms of which they had
been composed would tend at once towards the new
centre that had been thus produced. Local and
voluntary association for the various purposes of
life, throughout what would then be the provinces
of a great centralized State, would be at an end,
but in its place would be found the forced association of dependents on one hand, and masters on the
other. Every neighborhood that required to have
a road or a bridge, to establish a bank, or to obtain
a redress of grievances, would be required to make
its application therefor at the great city, distant
many hundreds of miles, and to pay innumerable officers before it could obtain the desired permission,
as is now    the case in France.      Every community
that found itself suffering from heavy taxes, or from
other oppressions from which it desired to be relieved, would be found seeking to make itself heard,
but its voice would be drowned by those of the men
who profited by such abuses, as is now the case with
complaints to the British Parliament of Ireland and
India.*
* " Indian questions do not excite so much interest in the House of
Commons as the squabble about the cost of a road through St. James's
Park; and all this is taking place while the finances of India are getting into inextricable confusion, debt rapidly accumulating, expenditure
steadily increasing, and taxation becoming so burdensome that far and
wide the seeds of disaffection are sown."-Fortnightly Review, Oct. 1871.
In the last ten years the salt tax, already most oppressive, has been
five times increased; a heavy income tax has been imposed, and taxes
on feasts and marriages have been proposed; two and a quarter millions
of people have died of famine; the debt, including guarantees of badly




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.      83
Instead of going, as now, to the capital of the
State close at hand, and obtaining at little cost the
required laws, they would find themselves compelled
to employ agents for the negotiation of their business, those agents then, as now in England, accumulating enormous fortunes at the cost of poor and
distant suitors.  Much of this is already seen at
Washington, yet how trivial is it compared with
what it would be were all the various business
transacted by State Legislatures, and by County
Boards, brought within the sphere of Congress, as
to so great an extent it now is within that of the
British Parliament.
The centralizing tendency of State capitals is,
in its turn, greatly neutralized by the existence
of opposing centres of attraction at the various
county seats, and in the numerous towns and cities
of the Union, each managing its own affairs, and
each presenting places at which the people of the
various districts, and of the whole country itself, are
brought into connection with each other for exchange of the products of physical or mental affort.
Obliterate these-centralize the powers of towns
and counties in State Legislatures-and the power
of local association within the States would be
almost altogether annihilated. The State capital, or
that of the Union, would grow rapidly, as would
constructed and expensive railroads, has grown to nearly $1,000,000,000;
the sole reliance for payment of interest thereon being now found in
continued maintenance of the power to poison the Chinese people with
the produce of Indian opium fields.




84            THE UNITY OF LAW.
the sun were the local attractions of the celestial
bodies to disappear. The splendor of both might
be much increased, but in the space now traversed
by the planets motion would cease to exist, as would
be the case throughout this country were it made
dependent on a single centre; and without motion
there could be neither association, force, nor progress.
Further, with the growth of centralization there
would be seen a diminution in the counteracting
force by which families are held together, despite
attractions of the capital. Whatever tends to the
establishment of decentralization, and to the production of local employment for time and talent,
tends to give value to land, to promote its division,
and to enable parents and children to remain in
closer connection with each other; and the stronger
the ties that bind together the various families of
which the community is composed, the more perfect must be the attraction within the bosom of the
communities which constitute the State. Whatever tends, on the contrary, to the diminution of
local employment tends to the consolidation of land,
the breaking up of families, and the building up of
great cities at the expense of the country, as has
been the case in Italy, France, India, and Britain;
and as even here is seen in the rapid growth of cities,
accompanied, as it always is, by the expulsion of
our people to new territories, with diminution of the
power of association and combination.
The pages of history furnish throughout evidence




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 85
that the tendency towards association-without
which the human animal cannot become the being
to which we apply the denomination of ma-ihas
everywhere grown with increase in the number and
strength of local centres, declining, on the contrary,
with their diminution. Such centres were found in
nearly all the Grecian Islands, Laconia and Attica,
Boeotia and Argos, Arcadia and Elis, Megara and
Corinth, meanwhile, each rejoicing in its own.
Local association existed there to an extent that
had until then been unequalled in the world, yet
the tendency towards general association was exhibited in the foundation of the Isthmian and Nemean and the yet more celebrated Olympic games,
which drew together all that were distinguished for
physical or intellectual power, not only in the States
and cities of Greece itself, but in the distant Italy
and Asia. In the Amphictyonic league we find further evidence of the tendency to general as a consequence of local association; but here, unhappily,
the idea was not fully carried out. The attractive
force of this sun of the system was not sufficient
for the maintenance of order in the movements of
the planets, which frequently, therefore, shot madly
from their spheres and jostled against each other.
To the equal action of opposing forces it is due
that the celestial world is enabled to exhibit such
wonderful harmony and such unceasing motion. In
the application of this principle to the societary
movement the people of Greece had all this yet to
learn, the consequences being found in frequent




86            THE UNITY OF LAW.
wars among themselves, resulting in the establishment of a highly centralized government controlling the disbursements of a treasury filled by the
contributions of a thousand subject cities. Thenceforward the subject peoples lost the power of association for determination of their own respective rights,
and had to seek for justice among themselves in the
courts of Athens. To that city resorted all who had
money to pay to, or receive from, the State; all who
had causes to try; all who sought places of power
or profit; all who found themselves unable to obtain
a living at home; and all who preferred the work
of plunder to that of labor; centralization growing
with every step in this direction, until at length
Athens and Sparta, Samos and Mitylene, and all
the other states and cities, became involved in one
common ruin; Attica herself becoming, to a great
extent, the property of a single individual surrounded by hosts of slaves, the disposition for voluntary association, and the power to exercise it,
having wholly passed away.
Looking to Italy, we see a similar course of things.
In its early days Etruria and the Campagna, Magna
Grocia and the Samnite Hills, presented to view
numerous cities, each the centre of a district throughout which existed in a high degree the habit of
local and voluntary association. With time, however, we see it gradually disappearing, and first
among the people of Rome itself, perpetually engaged in disturbing their peaceful neighbors. The
central city growing by help of plunder, the local




OF MAN —THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.    87
centres gradually diminished in importance, with
constantly growing necessity for resorting to the arbitration of Rome itself.  As power thus centralized
itself within her walls her people became more and
more dependent on the public treasury, and the
power of voluntary association gradually disappeared;
Italy throughout, meanwhile, presenting the spectacle of great landlords occupying palaces, and surrounded by troops of slaves. So long as the opposing forces were in equal balance she furnished
the world with men; but with her decline she is seen
more and more to have presented it with slaves,
sometimes attired in the beggar's rags, at others in
the imperial purple.
Studying the history of the Republic and the
Empire, we see that their long duration is to be attributed to the fact that to so great an extent the
people of the provinces were left to govern themselves, subject only to the performance of certain
duties to the central power. Local association for
almost every purpose was for centuries left untouched, towns and cities imposing their own taxes,
determining their own laws, and selecting the
magistrates by whom they were to be carried into
effect.*
Modern Italy, from the days of the Lombards,
presented during many centuries striking evidences
* The extraordinary extent to which this system of localization was
carried, and its wonderful results, have been recently admirably exhibited by M. le Comte de Champagny, an account of whose works will
be found in the British Quarterly Review for July, 1870.




88            THE UNITY OF LAW.
of the connection between local attraction and the
power of voluntary association. Milan, Genoa,
Venice, Florence, Rome, Naples, Pisa, Sienna,
Padua, and Verona, were each centres such as had
existed once in Greece, but in default of a sun
with attractive force sufficient to maintain the harmony of the system they were perpetually warring
with each other, until at length the habit of association entirely disappeared.
India had numerous centres of attraction. Besides
its several capitals, each little village presented a
self-governing community in which existed the
power of association to an extent scarcely elsewhere
equalled; but with the growth of central power the
habit and the power of exercising it have almost
altogether disappeared.
Spain had numerous local centres. Association
there existed to a great extent not only among the
enlightened Moors but among the people of Castile
and Arragon, Biscay and Leon. The discovery of
this continent, of which the government became
the absentee landlord, greatly increased the central
power, with corresponding decline in local activity
and association, the result exhibiting itself in the
depopulation and weakness that have since ensued.
In Germany we find the home of the decentralization of Europe-of jealousy of central power-and
of the maintenance of local rights-as a consequence
of which the tendency towards association has always been strong among her people, bringing with
it in our own time a commercial union that has




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.       89
proved itself the foundation of the present magnificent and powerful Empire. Like Greece, Germany
has been until now deficient as regards' the sun
around which the numerous planets might peacefully revolve; and, as in Greece, powers exterior to
her system have been enabled to use one community against another to an extent that has greatly
retarded the progress of her own civilization,
although as as rule she has elsewhere interfered
little with its progress.* Strong for defence she
has, therefore, been weak for offence, and has exhibited no tendency to wars for conquest, or toward
the levying of contributions upon her poorer neighbors, as has been so much the case with her highly
centralized neighbor, France.t Abounding always
in local centres it has been found impossible to
create a great central city to direct the modes of
thought and action, and to that it is due that Germany is now so rapidly taking the position of the
great intellectual centre, not only of Europe, but of
the world at large.
Among the German States there is none whose
policy has so much tended to the maintenance of
local centres of action, as promotive of the best interests of both the people and the state, as Prussia.
* Austria is a compound of numerous bodies, a large portion of which
is entirely exterior to Germany. Her wars in Italy have been Austrian
and not Germanic.
t The occurrences of the last few years might seem to be in contradiction of this, but when properly examined such will not prove to be
the case. The object of both of the recent wars was the establishment
of German independence.




90            THE UNITY OF LAW.
All the ancient divisions, from the communes to the
provinces, have been carefully preserved, and their
constitutions as carefully respected; as a consequence
of which it is that we here find the people advancing
towards freedom with great rapidity, the State itself
meanwhile rapidly advancing in wealth and power.
Long before the recent wars the peaceful effects of
decentralization had here fully exhibited themselves
in the fact that, under the lead of Prussia, Northern
Germany had been brought under a great federal
system, by help of which internal commerce had
been placed on a footing almost precisely corresponding with that of these United States.*
Nowhere in Europe had decentralization more
existed, and nowhere had the tendency to peaceful
association, or the strength of resistance to attacks
from without consequent upon union, been more
fully exhibited than in Switzerland, notwithstanding
the existence of the widest religious differences.
The French Revolution annihilated, when it
should have strengthened, the local governmentscentralization being thus increased when it should
have been diminished, the consequences being seen
in a perpetual succession of wars and revolutions.
Much was done towards decentralization when the
lands of absentee nobles and of the church were
divided among the people, and to the counteracting
effect of this measure it is due that France so long




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.  91
continued to grow in strength notwithstanding the
extraordinary centralization of her system.
Belgium and Holland present remarkable instances
of the tendency of local action to produce habits
of association. In both, towns and cities are numerous, and the effect of combined action is seen
in the wonderful productiveness of what was originally one of the poorest countries of Europe.
In no part of Europe was the division of land so
complete, or its possession so secure, as in Norway,
at and before the date of the Norman conquest of
England; and in none, consequently, was the power
of local attraction so fully exhibited. The habit of
association, therefore, existed to an extent then
unknown in France and Germany, developing itself
in the establishment of " a literature in their own
language, and living in the common tongue and
minds of the people."* Elsewhere, the languages
of the educated and uneducated classes have differed
so widely as to render the literature used by the
former entirely inaccessible to the latter; and, as a
necessary consequence, there has been " a want of
that circulation of the same mind and intelligence
through all classes of the social body, differing only
in degree, not in kind, in the most educated and
most ignorant; and of that circulation and interchange of impressions, through a language and
literature common to all, which alone can animate a
* Chronicle of the Sea-Kings of Norway. Introductory chapter by
S. Laing, p. 33.




92            THE UNITY OF LAW.
population into a nation."*  They were in advance
of other nations, too, in the fact that employments
were diversified, affording further proof of the existence of the habit of association and combination.
"Iron," continues Mr. Laing, "is the mother of all
the useful arts; and a people who could smelt it
from the ore, and work it into all that is required
for ships of considerable size, from a nail to an
anchor, could not have been in a state of such utter
barbarism as they have been represented to us.
They had a literature of their own, and laws, institutions, social arrangements, a spirit and character,
very analogous to the English, if not the source
from which the English flowed; and were in advance of all Christian nations in one branch of the
useful arts, in which great combinations of men are
required-the building, fitting out, and navigating
large vessels."t The same habit of local association
has ever since existed, accompanied by a tendency
to union whose effects were fully exhibited in the
establishment, half ~i century since, of a system of
government in which the centralizing and decentralizing forces were balanced to an extent not
exceeded in the world.
The attraction of local centres throughout the
British islands, formerly so great, has, for a long
time past, tended steadily to diminish. Edinburgh,
once the metropolis of a kingdom, has become a
* Chronicle of the Sea-Kings of Norway. Introductory chapter by S.
Laing, p. 36.
f Ibid., p. 146.




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.  93
mere provincial city; and Dublin, once the seat of
an independent Parliament, has so greatly declined
that were it not for the fact that it is the place at
which a representive of majesty holds his occasional
levees, it would scarcely at all be heard of. Throughout the United Kingdom there is exhibited a constantly growing tendency towards centralization,
accompanied by diminution in the strength of local
attraction, increase of absentee proprietorship keep.
ing steady pace with the growth of emigration from
its shores. With every step in that direction we
see a steady increase in the necessity for invol.
untary association, manifested by the growth of
fleets and armies, and of the contributions required
for their support.
The Northern States of the American Union pre.
sent, as has been already shown, a combination of
the centralizing and decentralizing forces to an
extent that has never been elsewhere equalled,.and
here accordingly we find existing in a high degree
the tendency to local action for the creation of
schools and school-houses, the making of roads, and
the formation of associations for almost every imaginable purpose. The system of laws that maintains harmony throughout the Universe is here
closely imitated, each State constituting a body
perfect in itself, with local attraction tending to
maintain its form, despite the gravitating tendency
towards that centre around which it and its sister
States are required to revolve.
Looking to the Southern States the reverse of




94            THE UNITY OF LAW.
the picture has hitherto been presented to our view.
Masters there owned men who were altogether
deprived of the power of voluntary association, and
might not even sell their own labor, or exchange its
product for that of the labor of others. This was
centralization, and hence it is that throughout the
South there has been exhibited so strong a tendency
toward disturbance elsewhere of the power of association. All the wars of the Union have here had
their origin.
Barbarism is a necessary consequence of the absence of association. Deprived of this, man loses
the essential qualities of man, and ceases to be the
subject of social science.
~ 2. The next distinctive quality of man is INDIVIDUALITY. Each rat or robin, fox or wolf, is the
type of his species wherever found, possessing habits
and instincts in common with all his race. Not such
is the case with man, in whom we find differences
of tastes, feelings, and capacities almost as numerous
as those observed in the human countenance. That
such differences may be developed it is indispensable
that he be brought into association with his fellowmen; and where that has failed to be the case the
individuality can no more be found than it would
be were we seeking it among the foxes or the
wolves. The wild men of Germany and those of
India, Caspar Hauser being the type of all, differ so
little that in reading the description of the one we
might readily suppose we were studying that of the
other. Passing from these to the lower forms of




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.             95
association, such as exist among savage tribes, we
meet a growing tendency to development of the varieties of individual character; but to find-it in its
highest degree we must seek it in those places in
which there exists the greatest demand for intellectual effort; those in which there is the greatest
variety of employment; those in which, therefore,
the power of association most perfectly exists, in
towns and cities.     That this should be the case, is
perfectly in accordance with what throughout nature is everywhere else observed.
" The more imperfect a being is," says Goethe, "the more do its
individual parts resemble each other, and the more do the parts
resemble the whole.  The more perfect a being, the more dissimilar are the parts.  In the former case, the parts are more or
less a repetition of the whole; in the latter case they are totally
unlike the whole.  The more the parts resemble each other, the
less subordination is there of one to the other; subordination of
parts indicates a high grade of organization."*
This is as true of societies as it is of the plants
and animals in reference to which it was written.
The more imperfect they are-the less the variety
of employments, and the less, consequently, the
* " The differences are the condition of development; the mutual
exchanges, which are the consequences of these differences, waken and
manifest life. The greater the diversity of organs, the more active and
superior is the life of the individual. The greater the variety of individualities and relations in a society of individuals, the greater also is
the sum of life, the more universal is the development of life, the more
complete, and of a more elevated order. But it is necessary, not only
that life should unfold itself in all its richness by diversity, but that it
exhibit itself in its utility, in its beauty, in its goodness, by harmony.
Thus we recognize the proof of the old proverb,'Variety in unity is perfection.' "-Guyot. Earth and Man, p. 80.




96            THE UNITY OF LAW.
development of intellect-the more do the parts
resemble each other, as may readily be seen by any
one who will study man in the purely agricultural
countries of the earth. The greater the variety of
employments-the greater the demand for intellectual effort-the more dissimilar become the parts
and the more perfect becomes the whole, as may
readily be seen on comparing any purely agricultural district with another in which agriculture,
manufactures, and commerce are happily eombined.
Difference is essential to association. The farmer
does not need to associate with his brother farmer,
but he does need to do so with the carpenter, the
blacksmith, and the miller. The mill operative
has little occasion to exchange with his brother
workman, but he does require so to do with the
builder of houses, or the seller of food; and the more
numerous the shades of difference in the society of
which he is a part, the greater will be the facility
for, and the tendency to, that combination of effort
required for developing the various faculties of its
several members. All history, past and present,
furnishes evidence as to the extraordinary extent to
which, when a demand arises, peculiar qualities are
found whose existence had before been unsuspected.
Here, as everywhere else, it is demand that creates
supply. Thus, in our own revolution blacksmiths
and lawyers proved themselves distinguished soldiers; and that of France brought to light the military abilities of thousands of men that otherwise
might have passed their lives at the tail of the




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.  97
plough. It is the occasion that makes the man.
In every society there exists a vast amount of latent
capacity waiting but the opportunity to show itself,
and thus it is that in communities in which there
is no diversity of employment the intellectual power
is so largely wasted, producing no result. Life has
been defined as being a " mutual exchange of relations," and where difference does not exist there
can be no exchange.
So it is everywhere throughout nature. To excite
galvanic electricity, two metals need to be brought
into combination; but even then their latent capacities are made active only by help of a third body
differing totally from both. That accomplished,
what was before dull and inert becomes active and
full of life, and capable at once of entering into
new combinations. So, too, with the lump of coal.
Breaking it up into pieces, however small, and
scattering them in the ground, there they will remain, still fragments of coal. Let its atoms, however, under the favoring influences of heat, be
solicited by oxygen atoms to enter into combination
with them, and at once a new substance is formed
having other powers, and capable of entering into
new combinations, forming parts of the trunks,
branches, leaves, or blossoms of trees; or the bones,
muscles, or brain of man. The wheat yielded to
the farmer's labors might remain, as we know it to
have remained for numerous centuries, undecomposed and uncombined with any other matter. Let
it, however, pass through the stomach, and it
becomes resolved into its original elements, parts
7




98            THE UNITY OF LAW.
becoming bones, blood, or fat; parts again passing off in the form of perspiration; others meanwhile being ejected in the form of excrement, ready
to enter instantly into the composition of new vegetable forms. The power of association thus exists
everywhere throughout the material world in the
ratio of individualization.  So, too, has it everywhere been with man-the development of individuality, at all times and in all countries, having
been in the ratio of his power to act in obedience
to that prime law of his nature which imposes upon
him a necessity for association with his fellow-men.
That power, as has been already seen, has always
existed in the ratio of the equal action of the centralizing and decentralizing forces, and where such
action has most been found we should most find
individuality, as certainly has been the case. In no
country of the world had it ever so much existed as
in Greece immediately anterior to the Persian invasion, and then and there it is that we find the highest
development. To the men produced in that period
it is that the age of Pericles owes its illustration.
The destruction caused by Persian armies brought
with it the conversion of citizens into soldiers, with
steady tendency to increase of centralization and
decline of the power of voluntary association and of
individuality, until the slave alone was found cultivating the lands of Attica; the free citizens of the
earlier period having entirely disappeared.-So, likewise, was it in Italy, where the highest individuality was found when the Campagna was filled with
~YI~J ~~~  rVMII  I~V I  LV  ~IILUY 9~W II\  ~I~1~L~~bI




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 99
cities. Following their decline the great city grows,
filled with paupers, the capital of a land cultivated
by slaves.-So it is now throughout the East, where
society is divided into two great parts-the men
who toil and slave on one side, and, on the
other, those who profit by the labors of the slave.
Between two such masses there can be no association, and with the members there can be but little;
there being among them none of that difference of
pursuits which is required for producing exchanges
of relations. The chain of society being there deficient in the connecting links there is no motion
among the parts; and in the absence of motion there
can be no more development of individuality of
character than could be found in the pebble-stone
before it had been subjected to the action of the
blow-pipe.
The numerous towns and cities of Italy of the
Middle Ages were remarkable for their activity, and
for the development of individuality. So, likewise,
was it in Belgium, and in Spain prior to the centralization which followed close upon the expulsion
of the Moors, and the discovery of the gold and
silver deposits of this continent.-Such was the case,
too, in each of the kingdoms now composing the
united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Taking
Ireland separately we find her at the close of the
last century giving to the world such men as Burke,
Flood, Grattan, Sheridan, and Wellington; but
since then, centralization having greatly grown,
individuality has passed away. So, likewise, has it




100          THE UNITY OF LAW.
been in Scotland since the Union. A century since
that country presented to view a body of men occupying positions as distinguished as any in Europe,
but her local institutions have decayed and there are
now, as we are told, "fewer individual thinkers" in
that country than at any period " since the early part
of the last century."* The mind of its whole youth,
as the same journal tells us, is required to be " cast
in the mould of English universities," which exercise upon it "an influence unfavorable to originality
and power of thought."
In England herself centralization has made great
progress with consequent increase of pauperism,
a condition of things wholly adverse to individual
development. The little landed proprietors have
gradually disappeared to make way for the farmer
and his hired laborers, and for the great manufacturer with hosts of operatives-of whose names
even he has no knowledge; the power of voluntary association diminishing with every step in
this direction. London grows to an enormous size
at the cost of the country at large, centralization
thus producing the disease of over-population, to be
cured by a colonization tending at every step further to diminish the power of association.
Looking to France, we may see the steady decline of individuality attending the growth of centralization. In the highly centralized days of Louis
XIV. almost the whole land of the kingdom was in
* North British Review, Aug. 1853.




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 101
the hands of a few great proprietors and of dignataries of the chureh-mere courtiers whose faces
but reflected the expression apparent on that of the
sovereign they were bound to worship. The right
to labor was then held to be a privilege to be exercised at the pleasure of the monarch, and men were
forbidden, on pain of death, to worship God according to their consciences, or even to fly the kingdom.
Passing homeward, we find in these Northern
States individuality developed to an extent elsewhere entirely unknown, and for the reason that
centralization exists in a very limited degree, while
decentralization facilitates the rapid growth of associative power.  All the links of the chain are
here found, and as every man feels that he can rise
if he will there is the strongest inducement to strive
for intellectual development. In the Southern States
power centralized itself in the hands of the few, association among slaves was prohibited, and as a
consequence, but little individuality has been developed.
It is in variety there is unity, this being quite as
true of the social as it is of the material world.
Let the reader watch the movements of a city and
study the facility with which men so various in
their qualities combine their movements for the
production of a penny newspaper, a ship, a house,
or an opera; then comparing it with the difficulty
experienced throughout the purely agricultural por
tions of the country of combining for even thiF
most simple purposes, and he will see that it i:




102          THE UNITY OF LAW.
difference that leads to association.  The more
perfect the societary organization, and the greater
the variety of demands for exercise of the physical
and intellectual powers, the higher will be the elevation of man as a whole, and the stronger will be
the contrasts among men.
Individuality thus grows with the growth of the
power of association, preparing the way for further
and more perfect combination of action.
The more perfectly the local attraction tends to
counterbalance that of the centre-the more society
tends to conform itself to the laws we see to govern
our system of worlds-the more harmonious must
be the action of all the parts, and the greater
must be the tendency toward voluntary association,
and to the maintenance of peace abroad and at
home.
~ 3. Association and individuality growing thus
together, each aiding and aided by the other, with
correspondent increase in the rapidity of the societary
motion, and in the growth of societary force, man is
thus gradually enabled to assume the position for
which he had been from the first intended-that of
controller of the great natural forces by which he is
everywhere surrounded, and to which he had at first
been so entirely enslaved; the growing power for
direction thus exhibited being accompanied by corresponding development of that POWER FOR SELFDIRECTION which, when obtained, constitutes the
most important of all the faculties by which the
human animal is distinguished from the brute.




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 103
Being so, it waits on others for its own development,
at each and every stage of progress, however, aiding as aided by those other faculties to which the
reader's attention has above been called.
The law here is thus precisely the same that elsewhere is observed; the most productive soils, the
most useful of the metals, the strongest of the fuels,
the most pervading and most powerful of the natural
forces, having, in their subjection to human use,
invariably followed long after those of less utility
and still less power. In the effort at this subjection
of matter to mind the various human faculties are
at each and every step more and more stimulated
into action, the self-directing force growing with
every stage of progress toward more full and complete power for direction. From infancy to age,
from isolation to association, from poverty to wealth,
that faculty stands always present and waiting to
be called into vigorous and active life, the condition
precedent thereto being that the societary action
tend toward stimulating into greater activity the
subordinate human faculties above referred to; the
social heat and force consequent on rapid motion
being here as much required as is physical heat in
the case of the fig-tree and the orange. With every
step in that direction the circulation increases in its
rapidity, each and every stage of advance being accompanied by diminution in the value of all commodities and things required for man's use, and
corresponding increase in the value of man himself;
the real MAN, capable of acquiring power for both




104           THE UNITY OF LAW.
direction and self-direction, from day to day more
and more exhibiting himself on the stage of life.
That in the physical world the more rapid the circulation the greater is the force is a truth that becomes
more obvious to the common mind as the telegraph
from day to day tends to annihilate both time and
space, and as it more and more comes to understand
that the power which has thus been subjugated is that
of chief control throughout the universe. That so it
is, and so must be, throughout the societary world,
will be equally obvious to those who compare the
rapidity of movement in, and the force exercised by,
great cities, with those of the agricultural bodies of
which they are the centres; or who compare for
themselves the power exercised by a single great
community in which, as a consequence of producers
and consumers being enabled to act in concert with
each other, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce have been happily united, with that exercised
by all the exclusively agricultural communities of
the earth combined; thereby satisfying themselves
that these latter, with their hundreds of millions
of population, are but mere hewers of wood and
drawers of water for the more powerful of the earth;
and that not only do they exercise no power for
self-direction, but that nothing short of the most
vigorous resistance will enable them to obtain even
a shadow of independence.
The more thorough the diversification in the
demands for human service the greater becomes
the power of association, the more complete the




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 105
development of the various human faculties, and the
greater the tendency toward development of that
crowning human faculty, the power for self-direction; human freedom, whether as regards thought,
speech, or action, keeping steady pace with that
growing power over nature which everywhere exhibits itself as a consequence of that increased
development of heat and force which throughout
both the physical and social world results from
increased rapidity of circulation.
Reasoning thus upward from facts to principles,
the inquirer finds the highest of human faculties
waiting everywhere to be developed; thereafter to
constitute a force as susceptible of being weighed
and measured as are any of the properties of mere
brute matter.*
In that direction it is we are to look for obtaining
such really voluntary action as makes of man a being
responsible before his Creator and his fellow-men
for all his actions.
Reasoning, on the contrary, from assumed premises downward, metaphysicians          encounter that
* In his recent address to the British Association, President Thomson
speaks " of the grand conception of Lucretius, who," as he says, " admits no subtle ethers, no variety of elements with fiery or watery, or
light and heavy principles; nor supposes light to be one thing, fire
another, electricity a fluid, magnetism a vital principle; but treats all
phenomena as mere properties or accidents of simple matter."
To study men and things by means of occurrences passing daily before his eyes was more agreeable to the Roman philosopher than to do
so by means (f the invention of a being as fanciful as were any of those
of the heathen mythology, and facts that had no existence but in the
minds of those by whom they had been suggested. (See ante, note to
page 16.)




106             THE UNITY OF LAW.
pons asinoruni to which they have attached the name
of WILL-a thing so fanciful that although thousands
and tens of thousands have essayed at.explaining its
nature and extent, the world remains as ignorant
in regard to both as it had been at the commencement of the Christian era.     Utterly incapable of
being either weighed or measured, it finds no place
in science.
In both the moral and the civil law intelligence is
held to be an indispensable condition of exercise of
will.  That such intelligence may exist there must,
however, have been such previous exercise of the
power of association as had led to such development
of the peculiar faculties of the individual man as
has enabled him to acquire power for self-direction.  The views above      presented would seem,
therefore, to be in full accordance with those to
which common sense has led mankind in general,
however opposed to those who hold that the power
of WILL, and its accompanying responsibilities, attach themselves at birth to every aggregate of
material atoms that assumes the human form,
whether as earth-eating Digger Indians, or as pauper occupants, from birth to death, of an English
almshouse.:
* "If Will is changed into Volition it becomes an innocent word
which may receive any force that any particular teacher likes to give
it; which will fit without resistance into any corner of a system that is
not otherwise occupied. Retaining its old name, it has proved a most
disturbing force in the universe. What is it? Why will it appear
when all things could be arranged so comfortably if it were not there?
These are questions which philosophers have been obliged to ask them



OF MAN —THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 107
~ 4. Next among the qualities by which man is
distinguished  from   all other animals, is that of
RESPONSIBILITY before his fellow-man, and.before his
Creator, for his actions.
The slave is not a responsible being, for he but
obeys his master. The soldier, exercising no power
of self-direction, is not responsible for the murders
he commits, being but an instrument in the hands
of his superior officer, he in turn but obeying the
irresponsible chief of the State. The pauper is an
irresponsible being, though often held by man to be
responsible. Responsibility grows with the growth
of individuality and self-directing force, both of
these latter growing, as we have seen, with increasing power of association.
The savage slays and robs his fellow-men, then
proudly exhibiting their scalps, or the plunder he
has acquired, as evidence of his cunning or his
courage. The soldier boasts of his prowess in the
field, gladly enumerating the men who have fallen
by his arm; this, too, in a community whose laws
award fine and imprisonment as the punishment
for even the smallest violation of personal rights.
The warlike nation prides itself upon the glory
selves, because common men are asking them; because they are sure
that a will is in them if it is ever so impotent; that they are rattling
their chains if they are ever so much in bondage."-Professor Maurice,
in the Contemporary Review, Jan. 1872.-These men desire that their
" chains" may be removed, but cannot will it to be done. The exercise
of " volition" comes with growth of power for self-direction, that itself
coming as a consequence of power to control the forces by which we
are surrounded.




108           THE UNITY OF LAW.
acquired in the field at the cost of hundreds of
thousands of lives, and decorates its galleries with
pictures plundered from their rightful owners, generals and admirals meanwhile living in affluence
upon their respective shares of the spoils of war.
With growing individuality men learn to denominate such acts by their true and only legitimate
titles-robbery and murder.
The savage is not responsible for his children,
nor is the slave, who regards them as only his master's property,  With every step toward perfect
individuality-always the result of increase in the
power of voluntary association-men learn more
and more to appreciate their severe responsibility
toward society at large, and toward their Creator,
for careful preparation of their children for the
performance of their various duties. To that feeling, more than to any other, are due the vigorous
efforts made for acquiring that mastery over the
forces of nature by which the associated man is
distinguished from the isolated one; each distinguishing characteristic of man thus aiding, and
being aided by, each and every of the others. The
savage being indolent, destroys his female children.
The farmer extends his cultivation that he may
provide more fully for the moral and physical training of his sons, and so fit them better than he himself had been for the performance of their duties to
their fellow-men. The artisan improves his machinery that he may call to his aid the power of
electricity or of steam, each and every step in this




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 109
direction tending more fully to develop his own
peculiar powers. He thus becomes more individualized with great increase in the feeling of responsibility for both his children and himself, and in the
disposition for combination of his efforts with those
of his fellow-men-whether for increasing the productiveness of their common labor, or for administering the affairs of the community of which he is
a part.
Here again we find a development of the essential human qualities in the ratio of the equal action
of the centralizing and decentralizing forces. Permitting no responsibility for children the Spartans
endeavored to prevent the growth of wealth, while
surrounding themselves with slaves to whom all
individuality was denied. The helot had no will of
his own. In Attica, on the contrary, although
slaves were numerous labor was held in high respect, diversity of employment causing great demand for intellectual effort. There, consequently,
the rights of parents were respected, while those of
the child were fully cared for under the Solonian
laws.
In the East, and in Africa, where individuality
has no existence, parents kill their children, these
latter in turn exposing parents when unable to support themselves. In the highly centralized France,
foundling hospitals abound, and it is but quite recently that any effort has been made to diffuse the
blessings of education among the masses of the
people. The growth of centralization in the United




110               THE UNITY OF LAW.
Kingdom     has been accompanied        by growing disregard for the rights of children, child-murder now
occupying the place that in France is filled by the
foundling hospital.     Until now there has been not
even an attempt at provision for general education
of the people, as a consequence of which pauperism
and crime have kept steady pace with that decline
of individuality which has attended consolidation of
the land, and the substitution of day laborers for
small proprietors.
In decentralized Germany, on the contrary, there
has for half a century past been a steady increase
in the provision for education.*       It is, however, in
the  highly   decentralized    Northern    States of our
Union that we find the earliest and most persistent
manifestation of a feeling of responsibility in this
regard.    The system     of universal education commenced in Massachusetts by her earliest settlers has
made its way gradually through New England, New
York, Pennsylvania, and all the Western States,
aided throughout by grants of land from the general government expressly devoted to this object.
* "The Prussian nation is the most enlightened in Europe, owing to
the education so thoroughly distributed among every class of society.
* * * Large schools abound in great numbers, and while in France
the seats of learning and intellectual development are confined to a few
great cities, Germany is covered with such institutions, and to enumerate
them it would be necessary to include towns and cities of the third or
fourth order. * * * It is important that it should be known in
France that here unceasing efforts are made to bring every detail of any
institution, civil or military, to the greatest possible state of perfection."-Report of Baron Stoffel, French Military Attache at Berlin, 1868.
One of the first acts of the government after the great war of 1866 was
that of largely increasing the expenditures for educational purposes.




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 111
Directly the reverse of this, the highly centralized
States of the South have stood almost alone in the
fact that instruction of the laboring population has
been by law prohibited. As a natural consequence
of this, schools of any kind are few, and the proportion of uninstructed even among the white population is extremely great.
Responsibility, individuality, and association grow
thus together, each helping and helped by the other;
each and all aiding man in his efforts to obtain a
full and perfect power of self-direction.
~ 5. Lastly, man is distinguished from all other
animals by his CAPACITY FOR PROGRESS. The hare,
the wolf, the ox, and the camel are the same as
those that existed in the days of Homer, or in those
of Egyptian monarchs who left behind them, in
the pyramids, evidence of the absence of individuality among their subjects. Man alone records what
he has seen and learned, and man alone profits by
the labors of his predecessors. To do this he requires language, and to that end he must be enabled
to associate and combine with his fellow-men.
That there may be progress, there must be motion.
Motion is itself a result of the incessant decomposition and recomposition of matter, and the work of
association is but the incessant decomposition and
recomposition of the various human forces. In a
heap of penny newspapers we find portions of the
labor of thousands of persons, from the miners of
ores and coal and the collectors of rags, to the
makers of types and paper, the engine-makers and




112           THE UNITY OF LAW.
engineer, the compositor, pressman, writer, editor,
and proprietor5 and finally the boys by whom they
are distributed; this exchange of services going on
from day to day throughout the year, each contributor to the work receiving his share of the pay,
and each reader of the paper receiving his share of
the work.
To have motion there must be heat, and the
greater the latter the more rapid will be the former,
as is seen in the rapidity with which, in the tropical
regions, water is decomposed and returned again in
the form of rain; and in the rapid growth and development of their vegetable products. Vital heat is
the result of chemical action, the fuel being food,
and the solvent some of those juices which result fiom its consumption. The more rapid the
process of digestion the more healthful and perfect
is the motion of the machine. Social heat results
from combination, and that the latter may be produced there must be difference. " Everywhere,"
says a writer heretofore referred to, "a simple difference, be it of matter, be it of condition, be it of
position, excites a manifestation of vital forces, a
mutual exchange of relations between the bodies,
each giving to the other what the other does not
possess —the picture thus presented of the movements of the material world being just as true in
reference to the social one.
The more instantly the consumption of either ma* Guyot. Earth and JMan, p. 71.




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 113
terial or intellectual food follows its production the
greater will be the heat that must result, and the
more rapid the increase of power to replace the
quantity consumed. That consumption may so follow there must be association, and that there cannot
be without variety in the modes of employment.
That such is the fact will be obvious to all who see
how rapid is the spread of ideas in those countries
in which agriculture, manufactures, and commerce
are combined, compared with that observed in those
which are purely agricultural-Ireland, India, the
West Indies, Turkey, Portugal, Brazil, and others.
Nowhere, however, is the difference more strongly
marked than in the Northern States of the Union
as compared with those of the South. In the one
there is great heat and corresponding motion, and
the more motion the greater is the force. In the
other there is little heat, but little motion, and very
little force.
Progress requires motion. Motion comes with
heat, and heat results from association. Association
brings with it individuality, freedom, and responsibility, each aiding in the development of the other
while profiting by the help received from them.
~ 6. The laws here given are those which govern
matter in all its forms, whether of coal, clay, iron,
pebble stones, trees, oxen, horses, or men. If true
of communities they must be equally so of each and
every of its members, as are those relating to the
atmosphere at large in reference to all the atoms of
which it is composed. That they are so will be ob8




114            THE UNITY OF LAW.
vious to every reader who reflects to how great an
extent he profits, physically and intellectually, by
association with his fellow-men; and that the
severest of all punishments is universally recognized
as being deprivation of the intercourse he is accustomed to obtain by means of that association.
Further reflection will satisfy him that the more
perfect his individuality-the greater his material
or intellectual wealth —the more perfect is his
power to determine for himself what shall be the
extent of his association with his neighbor men.
Again, he will see that his responsibility for his
actions increases in the ratio of the increase of
power to determine for himself what shall be his
course in life; that if he be poor and perishing
far want of food he cannot be held to the same
rigid responsibility that might with propriety be
exacted were he in affluent circumstances. Lastly,
he will be satisfied that his power of progress is in
the direct ratio of his ability to combine his efforts
with those of his fellow-men; and that, materially
and intellectually, the power of production tends to
increase with every increase in that demand for
either commodities or ideas which results necessarily from an increased ability of others to furnish
commodities or ideas in exchange therefor.
Were the reader now to ask himself to what it
was that he had been indebted for being the man
he is, his answer would be that it had been to his
power of association with his fellow-men of the present, and with those of the past who had left behind




OF MAN-THE SUBJECT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 115
the records of their experience. Extending his inquiry with a view to determine what it was of which
he would least desire to be deprived, he would find
that it was the power of association. Next, and
only second to that, he would desire perfect power
of self-direction, determining when, how, and with
whom he would labor, and what disposition he should
make of the product. Deprived of that, he would
feel himself an irresponsible being. With it, knowing that it depended upon himself what should be
his future, he would feel responsible for the proper
use of the advantages that he possessed, and would
have every inducement so to strengthen his faculties as to qualify himself for rising in the world
and for providing for his wife and children; and
every step in this direction would be but the preparation for further progress.
Social science treats of man in his efforts for the
maintenance and improvement of his condition, and
may now be defined as being the science of the laws
which govern man in his efforts to secure for himself
the highest individuality, and the greatest power of association with his fellow-men.




116           THE UNITY OF LAW.
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL LAWS.
~ 1. IN the decade just now completed the accumulated contributions of leading physicists have
gone so far toward demonstration of the doctrine
of the correlation and conservation of the forces
known in their several distinctive manifestations as
heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and chemical affinity, that it may now be regarded as entirely established. The new, philosophy resolves all these subtle
agencies into modes of motion, asserting that they are
all capable of mutual conversion; that they are one
and the same force, differing only in its manifestations
and effects; that their various mutations are rigidly
subjected to the laws of quantity; that the force of the
form assumed is the precise equivalent of that which
disappears; and, therefore, that every manifestation of force must come from some pre-existing
equivalent force, and must give rise to some subsequent and equal amount of force in another form.
Originating with Count Rumford and Sir Humphrey
Davy, this grand idea was left to be rounded into
its present fulness and symmetry by a host of men
of the present day, among whom may here be men



OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL LAWS.        117
tioned Grove, Helmholtz, Meyer, Faraday, Liebig,
Henry, and Carpenter.*
The identity and convertibility of these subtlest
of forces have abundantly justified the analogies
which had thus far been assumed between the heat
and motion of matter and the forces of societary
life, but the choice of electricity, as the preferable
analogue would give us now a greatly larger and
happier application   of the correspondence.t   Retaining all the persistency of the heat into which it
is convertible, it presents a far more striking resemblance to the brain-power which is its correspondent
in the societary life. So striking indeed is it that
when we need to express the idea of rapid action of
the societary thought and will we find ourselves
compelled to look to the physical world for the
terms to be employed, availing ourselves of those
of electricity and magnetism.
So universal is this force that all the combinations and decompositions, all the processes of dissolution and reconstruction, are effected through its
agency. In organic structures, vegetable and animal, that agency is intimate, pervading, and essential.  Between it and the nerve force physiologists
scarcely find a trace of difference, except that
* The works of several of these writers on this subject have been collected and published by Professor Youmans, with an introductory preface to which the author here acknowledges his obligations.
t "THE SOUL OF INDUCTION," says the Rev. Baden Powell, " I ANALOGY;
and higher, more efficacious, and more enduring, as the analogies
adopted are more strictly accordant with the harmonies of nature."Unity of Worlds, p. 19.




118           THE UNITY OF LAW.
of absence of subjection to the human will. Ever
present, it serves to vitalize the globe, and in its
most obviously manifest movements, as in those
which as yet are most inscrutable, it stands for the
best correspondent to mental and moral action that
imagination could devise.
Franklin, assuming that the fluid was simple, or
uncompounded, gave the names positive and negative to its modes of manifestation. Other philosophers have preferred the names vitreous and resinous, thereby suggesting the idea of a compound
nature in the fluid, and all the analogies seem to
favor this presentation of the case. A mere disturbance of electrical equilibrium might perhaps
explain the movements of lightning in the atmosphere, but certainly does not at all account for electric affinities of the positive and negative manifested in the various processes of chemistry.
Rubbing and rubbed bodies acquire opposite electricities, the contact and interaction requiring the
sort of co-relation which subsists between an acid
and an alkali. That contact is combination, not
mere aggregration-distinctive individuality being
here, as in every department of societary life, the
condition of perfect association.
Substances assume vitreous or resinous electricity
in adjustment to the conditions or capacities acting
or acted upon. Woollen cloth is strongly vitreous
with zinc, but with gold or iron it is resinous. Such
mutations occur in all electric bodies, varying in
their intensities, also, under the influence of di



OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL LAWS.    119
versely related substances. Here again do we find
a beautiful correspondence with the law of societary
association-an infinitely varying adaptatibn to, and
influence upon, the infinitely varied individualities
required for giving rapidity to the societary circulation.
This force of immeasurable and resistless energy
flows silently, gently, imperceptibly, through perfect conductors, supplying its currents of vitality to
the whole organic world. Disturbed, resisted, or
misdirected, it blasts and crushes, on the contrary,
every obstacle encountered in its course; and here,
again, do we find a perfect correspondence to the
social force. The actual relation of each and every
member of a community, as giver and receiver,
teacher and learner, producer and consumer, is possitive and negative by turns and relatively to every
difference of function and force in his associates, the
whole mass constituting a great electric battery to
which each individual contributes his pair of plates.
Perfect circulation being established as a consequence of perfect development of all the various individualities, the economic force flows smoothly
through every member of the body politic, general
happiness and prosperity, improved mental and
moral action; following in its train. When, however, by reason of failure on the part of those charged
with exercise of the co-ordinating power of the
State, the circulation is obstructed, capital misused,
and labor abused, the gentle vital force is converted
into thunderbolts whose existence is made mani



120           THE UNITY OF LAW.
fest by the presence of consuming fires. The broken
balance rushes by a pathway of ruin to regain its
equilibrium, the war of elements thus presented
being the correspondent of the strife engendered by
resistance to the laws of human life.
The production of electricity, or its excitation for
use, requires order and relations that are full of
suggestiveness to those who desire fully to understand the conditions upon which alone there can
be a prosperous and permanent societary life. Zinc
and copper plates promiscuously piled are mere
rubbish, powerless as the fragments of any other
waste. Let them, however, be connected in orderly
alternation, and the range may continue indefinitely
with increase of latent force, ready upon the instant
when the circuit shall be completed to gather together at one extremity the whole accumulated
negative, and at the other the whole accumulated
positive, and thus present an active force sufficient
to bind and unbind the elements of matter; to
penetrate to the innermost parts of their constitutions; to subdue their resistance to its will; to
shatter to atoms the largest masses; or to enable
man to hold instant converse with his fellow-men
throughout the earth.
Turning now to the societary organization we
find the precise parallel to this, poverty and weakness being the lot of all those communities in
which, as in Turkey and in Ireland, the human
plates are promiscuously piled, and in which, as a
necessary consequence, there is little or no circula



OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL LAWS.   121
tion-wealth and power, on the contrary, growing
everywhere in the ratio in which each and every
pair of plates is placed in proper relation with each
and every other; the vitalized circuit being thus
established throughout the entire mass and made to
bear, with the concentrated energy of the whole,
upon every object of general interest.  For the
establishment of such order and consequent production of such action, it is that men, as is now being
shown in all the new communities of the world, are
of their own motion led to grant to certain individuals exercise of the power of co-ordination, a course
of proceeding directly opposed to the doctrine of
laisser faire. The more this power is exercised
in the direction of promoting rapid circulation
among the plates of which the great battery is composed, the greater is the tendency to development
of an inspiration and an energy closely resembling
the service of the lightning of heaven subdued to
human use. The more the reader shall make himself familiar with the wonderful force of which, even
yet, so little is known, the more certainly must he
be struck with its extraordinary correspondence
with the life forces that govern the destinies of the
race; and the more must he be led to arrive at the
conclusion that the author had not erred in taking
it as the force required for illustrating social action,
and for aiding in the study of social science.
~ 2. "To Nature," says Professor Tyndall,*
* Heat considered as a Mode of Motion.




122           THE UNITY OF LAW.
"nothing call be added; from Nature nothing can
be taken away; the sum of her energies is constant,
and the utmost man can do in the pursuit of physical
truth, or in the applications of physical knowledge,
is to shift the constituents of the never-varying
total, and out of one of them to form another. The
law of conservation rigidly excludes both creation
and annihilation. Waves may change to ripples,
and ripples to waves-magnitude may be substituted
for number, and number for magnitude-asteroids
may aggregate to suns, suns may resolve themselves
into florae and faunae, and florae and faunae melt in
air-the flux of power is eternally the same. It
rolls in music through the ages, and all terrestrial
energy-the manifestations of life, as well as the
display of phenomena, are but the modulations of
its rhythm."
We have here, according to Dr. Faraday, "the
highest law in physical science which our faculties
permit us to perceive, that of the conservation of
forces.' But recently discovered, it seems now to
have become the crown of the edifice of that great
system of law by means of which harmony is secured
throughout the whole range of matter, from coral
insects which build up islands destined to form the
nuclei of continents, to the innumerable suns, with
their attendant planets, of which the universe is
composed.
By unity offorce, and unity and universality of
lac, is here intended that persistency of impulse and
constancy of action in the multiform substances and




OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL LAWS.    123
subjects of natural law, which is above described;
and which is found to follow them through all mutations of form and modifications of office, exhibiting
an infinite variety of phenomena, yet without any
change of essence or of intrinsic qualities and necessary tendencies in action. The cohesive attraction
which produces and maintains the forms of material
things, though apparently controlling, cannot be
regarded as the abolition, or even the temporary
suspension of, that law of gravity which governs all
masses of matter at all distances; for it is not so
destroyed or suspended. It clings to every atom as
persistently and permanently as the existence of the
atom itself, for it is a condition of its existence.
The disintegrating force of gravitation abides, and
is as active in the integrity of the resistant forms of
things as it is when displayed in their decomposition.
Nay, cohesive attraction, thus exhibiting an apparent
opposition to, or difference from, the attraction of
the planet, is probably the very same force acting
with greater effect by virtue of the greater proximity
of the atoms in the defiant form; just as an underground water-current descends from its source in
one hill, and ascends from beneath the intervening
valley to the crest of the neighboring height, pressed
upward to its point of issue by the very same force
which carried it downwards from its spring-head.
In a multitude of familiar instances, we in like
manner learn to find unity and even identity
where, in appearance, we seem to see diversity and
opposition.




124            THE UNITY OF LAW.
It is certain that every atom of matter must carry
with it, through all changes of form and action, the
entirety of the properties which make-it what it is;
else the earth and the universe would have no constitution, and could not be the subject of any law.
This doctrine is not fate, but fact; not materialism, but order, organism, law, government. In its
extension to all its subjects it trenches neither upon
life, liberty, will, morals, religion, nor responsibility;
it affirms only that matter in the human form, as in
the rest of the universe, is subject to positive, permanent, and universal rules of action, and that all
of his functions which involve material agencies and
relations, fall under the laws which arise out of their
constitution. If by the terms mind, spirit, or immateriality, nothingness is meant, all inquiry, and
with it all discussion, is at an end, for of nothing we
know nothing: but if mind is a something, a substance, an entity, it too must have a constitution
and laws, and neither its will nor liberty is lawless.
Surely, therefore, we are safe in saying, that, if mind
bears any relation to matter or substance, however
transient in duration, it cannot be even conceived
of as totally exempt from, or unfurnished with,
such answering or correlative powers and properties
as are necessarily required to qualify it for such
co-ordinated existence and reciprocal action.
The unity of which we speak, as in all other instances in which the idea is used among men, is not
identity or sameness, but the harmony of correspondence-unity by relation, fitness, or co-operation,




OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL LAWS.       125
effected by such continuity of character and force of
all substances through all spheres of being, and all
adaptations of use, as alone can constitute.a universe
of the atoms and individualities which it embraces
-of that one entire system " whose body nature is,
and God the soul.'
Physiologists exhibit the functions of human life
as divided into individual or vegetable on the one
hand, and relative on the other; the organs of the
first of these classes being uniformly single, while
those of the latter are as uniformly double and symmetrical.  There are two kinds of blood to be
circulated, and for each there is a heart, the two
being joined together as by a party wall, but not in
any sense, as with the eyes and ears, a pair, of which
each performs the same office. The life of relative
functions consists in their connection with, and their
action upon, the physical and societary world; and it
is by means of that action that the real MAN is gradually developed.*  Deprived of these there would remain nothing proper to the man, and he could have
no existence beyond that of a mere vegetable lifesuch an one as would be that of a solitary individual
placed in the heart of the rich prairies of this
Western   continent.  Of power for self-direction
he could have none whatsoever, nature being there
all-powerful, and he himself being weakness per* Mr. Herbert Spencer regards psychology as the necessary predecessor to sociology. The real MAN, capable of acquiring the power of
self-direction, being, however, begotten in the societary womb, his study
should follow, and not precede, that of the societary body.




126           THE UNITY OF LAW.
sonified. Let him have a companion, and at once
his proper human life is awakened; the opposiig
electric states of consumers and producers, givers
and receivers, teachers and learners, having been
induced, as air awakens the quiescent lungs, and
as light kindles and informs the eye; the real MAN
then coming into existence, just as, by reason of
association with his fellow-man, he is enabled to
feel that he really has begun to acquire that power,
and has ceased to be the absolute slave of nature.
The closer and more intimate the contact of these
men, and the more rapid the circulation of ideas
and services, the greater is the tendency toward
development of the faculties peculiar to each, and toward further combination with accelerated rapidity
of circulation. Other men, their wives and children,
now arriving, the phenomena are with each and
every step in this direction repeated and intensified,
human force steadily growing at the cost of Nature,
and man obtaining by slow degrees that self-direction
so entirely at first denied. Population steadily increasing, there arises that diversification in the
demand for human force which leads to new developments of the various faculties of each and every
member of the association, but in order to such
development there must be that orderly arrangement
which we see to be required in a galvanic battery,
producers and consumers-the electric poles-being
brought in close relation with each other.  The
closer those relations the more rapid becomes the
motion, and the more the power of self-govern



OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL LAWS.          127
ment. The greater that power the more rapid is
the growth of man's ability to compel Nature to
yield in full abundance all the things required for
maintenance and enjoyment of life, and for further
development of human force; and the more rapid
the growth of that feeling of responsibility which
has so slight existence in the barbarian, the slave, or
the pauper of civilized life. The more these great
questions shall be studied the more will it become
obvious that man-the real MAN, capable of selfdirection, and responsible for his actions-holds his
existence in virtue of laws of universal force and
effect; and that the teacher who fails to familiarize
himself with them, and with their bearing on societary and Christian life, fails in the performance of
his duty to his Creator and to his fellow-men.
~ 3. The close relation of physical and social laws
is so well exhibited in a passage from an unpublished work by one of the author's friends,* that he
deems it well to place it before his readers, as
follows:" From the indestructibility of matter, as the physical premise, it obviously follows that what we term production and
consumption are mere transformations of substance. Whether
fossil coal is converted into heat, smoke, and ashes, corn into
hogs' flesh, turnips into mutton; corn, pork, turnips, and mutton into human muscle and brain; the uniform phenomenon is
alteration of matter in its quality merely, without increase or
diminution of its quantity.
"In every transition of matter from one condition to another,
* Hon. E. Peshine Smith, author of a "Manual of Political Economy,"
and now occupying a high position in the Japanese administration.




128              THE UNITY OF LAW.
force is employed, or, as we say, consumed, and force is also
evolved or produced. When we regard any commodity as an
object, the forces necessary for its production are summed up
and measured by value. When we regard it as an instrument,
the forces capable of being generated-set free would be the
more accurate expression-by its consumption are summed up
and measured by utility. Electricity, positive and negative,
magnetism, exhibiting the same force as attractive and repellant
at opposite poles of the same object, afford analogies which may
serve to illustrate the subject. If we look to mechanics for an
analogy, we may find the equivalent of value in inertia, and that
of utility in momentum. The consumption of a product is
nothing else than its passage from a state of inertness to one of
activity, as from the inorganic or mineral region to the vegetable
or vital. It is only through this transition, and at the moment
of its occurrence, that a commodity becomes the pabulum to
production, and that its utility, which was before latent and
potential only, becomes manifest and efficient.
" The amount of muscular energy resulting from the human
consumption of a certain quantity of food is an instance of the
convertibility of the terms force and utility, as the quantum of
human activity required to reproduce that food is, conversely, of
the same fact in respect to value. The forms of language, the
repository and interpreter of common sense, that is, of the general
deductions from universal experience, are such that we always
predicate value of a thing in reference to its production, and
utility in regard to its consumption. The sum of the forces
necessary to elevate a ton of coal from its bed at the bottom of
the mine equals its value; the quantity of force which, under the
boiler of a steam engine, it is capable of generating, equals its
utility; are only the formulae which express, after the method of
physical science, a truth which every spoken language implicitly
recognizes.
"Between the production of any commodity whatsoever, and
its consumption, the interval, long or short, is one of inertness.
It stands the monument of human power and natural forces
which. having expended themselves in bringing it into shape,




OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL LAWS.            129
slumber in suspended animation, communicating no impulse to
the incessant activity which, from the vegetable to the social
order, is the essential characteristic of vitality, but is itself a clog
and obstruction involving a draft upon the vital force to put it
in motion. It is like an inorganic body contained in and afflicting an organism. The space to overcome and the time to intervene before it evolves utility by its consumption, becoming then
an instrument and a FORCE, are co-efficients of its value, neutralizing in the same proportion the power of the community in
which it rests paralyzed.  The growth of wealth, therefore,
depends upon the rapidity of circulation; not the rapidity with
which products are transported in space, nor the frequency of
mere changes of ownership, but the continuity of transformations
through the immediate succession of actual consumption to production.  This involves the concentration and interfusion of
producers and consumers, the growth of population and diversification of industry. The spontaneous social tendencies are in
this direction, but they may be promoted, retarded or reversed,
according as a community adapts its intelligent and active
arrangements to co-operate with them, or suffers them to be
thwarted by the artificial arrangements of other communities.
The use of science is to give us the power of forecast with a view
to action. That is but idle disquisition which ends in abjuring
all determinate intervention of the collective sagacity of a nation
through its legislative organs-in laissez aller, laissezfaire-the
sum of the philosophy of the free-trade economist."
The more these facts are studied, and the more
the reader shall be led to appreciate the close intimacy of the physical and social laws, the more, it is
believed, will he be led to agree with the illustrious
Oersted in the belief expressed in his " Soul in Nature," that " the laws of nature are laws of reason;"
that they altogether form    "an endless unity of reason;" and that they are "one and the same throughout the universe."
9




130           THE UNITY OF LAW.
To what extent the views above presented have
been, or are being, carried into practical effect in
past or present societary organizations will next be
shown.
CHAPTER V.
OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.
~ 1. THROUGHOUT nature the rank and perfection
of organisms are in direct proportion to the number
and dissimilarity of the parts, proof of this being
found at every stage of progress from the simplest
composition of organic matter up to the structure
of MAN, in whom are reproduced all the forms and
faculties of being over which, for the service of his
needs, it has been given to him to rule. This law
not only marks the relative rank of classes of creatures, but it serves, also, to measure the respective
positions of the individuals of whom the several
classes are composed-the nearest approach to perfection being found in those men in whom the
distinctive human qualities are found most active
and most developed. Following out the rule, those
communities in which are found the largest variety
of differences, and their most effective development
into action, should present the nearest approach to
perfection of societary organization. Seeking these,
we find them where the demands for human powers
are most diversified; where the orderly arrangement




OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.   131
of societary positives and negatives is most complete,
enabling men most fully to combine their efforts;
rapid societary motion there stimulating into activity
all the power that thus far had remained latent, and
facilitating the passage of their members from the
brutifying labors of transportation, through those of
the workshop, to those of a scientific agriculture.
Subordination of specialties to a general inten.
tion-diversity of functions or uses, so combined as
to produce a perfect harmony of related action-is
at once the mark and test of organization. The
individual man is healthy and efficient within himself in proportion to the vigor and exactness with
which the bodily instruments of his will obey the
governing brain; those charged with carrying on
his automatic life meanwhile furnishing full support
to his voluntary powers. Absolute subordination in
the parts of a machine to the moving force is the
constant characteristic of inanimate organizations.
In a watch, steam engine, mill, or ship, all the parts
are in prompt and complete obedience, their perfection being measured by the exactness of their subordination.
In societary organizations we have the same law
modified, but not repealed, by that power of selfdirection which, more or less, accompanies human
life, bringing with it responsibility to both God and
man. The crew of a ship-the hands in a factory
— the thousands of human positives and negatives of
which an army is composed-are organized and subordinated, that they may accomplish the work for




132           THE UNITY OF LAW.
whose performance they have been brought together.
So, too, is it in civil government-subordination of
the subjects being essential to the well-being and
the progress of the community, and to those very individual liberties which it limits, as well as to the
national order for whose security it has been designed; the most remarkable case of societary
organization on record being that under which the
Hebrews sojourned in the desert, during the long
period that intervened between the passage of the
Red Sea and their entrance into the promised land.
Throughout nature, the more perfect the organization, and the more absolute the subordination,
the more harmonious and beautiful is the interdependence of the parts. A rock or lump of coal
being broken, each and every portion remains as
perfect as it had been before. Dividing a polypus
into a dozen parts the vital force is found existing
in each and all, and to such extent that each becomes again a perfect animal. Doing the same by
man, he speedily passes into dust. So, too, is it
with societies-the mutuality of interdependence
growing with every stage of progress, from that simplest of societary forms presented to view in the
history of Crusoe and his man Friday, toward that
high state of organization in which tens of thousands
of human positives and negatives combine to satisfy
the public want for a single newspaper; hundreds 
of thousands then profiting by its perusal at a cost
so small as scarcely to admit of calculation.
Throughout nature, the more complete the sub



OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.   133
ordination, and the more perfect the interdependence
of the parts, the greater is the individuality of the
whole, and the more absolute the power of selfdirection. The rock is chained to earth, obeying
but a single force; the bird, at will, rises in the air,
or skims across the lake. The dog obeys his master; the master has power to direct himself and
nature too. The man in perfect health, with all the
parts moving in perfect subjection to the directing
brain, determines for himself if he will go abroad
or stay at home; the invalid, on the contrary, being
compelled to keep his chamber. So, too, must it
be with society-independence growing with the
growth of interdependence among its various parts,
and the latter becoming developed as the organization becomes more perfect, and the subordination
more complete.
Organization and subordination, association and
individuality, responsibility and the power of selfdirection, travel thus together throughout the social
world.
~ 2. In man, the brain holds the office of co-ordinator of the whole system, the existence of a necessity for co-ordination on one hand involving the
duty of subordination on the other.
The more perfect the co-ordination of the whole
the greater is the development of each and every part,
the co-ordinating power itself included. Failing to
direct to the stomach a proper supply of food the
arms and legs lose their power, and the eyes become




134            THE UNITY OF LAW.
affected; the brain in turn participating in the loss
of strength until at length life ceases to exist.
The more perfect the development of the various
portions of the MAN, and the more numerous and
marked the differences of the qualities thus developed, the greater must be the power to maintain commerce within himself, and with the exterior world;
rapidity of the circulation being an essential characteristic of the highest organization.-So, too, must
it be with society-the more numerous the differences and the greater the power of association, the
more complete being the subordination, and the
more absolute that respect for the rights of others
in which consists the most perfect freedom. That
this is so is shown by the following diagram representing the American Union as it stood thirty years
since.
Slavery.                          Freedom.
Paper.               LABOR.
o.~              Paper.
M  -- 4 ~
K,       S    -        MASSACHUSETTS.
X  ou Z  (^ l        -      R; Bags.
a               Po
LAND.
Rags.
Land worthless.         Land high in money value.
On the left, there are few differences. Societary
organization having, therefore, no existence, force
furnishes the only law, the laborer is enslaved, and
land has no money value. On the right, differ



OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.   135
ences being numerous, society has become organized, co-ordination and subordination growing thus
together, and man becoming more free-exercising
from day to day more and more of the power of
self-irection.
Looking to early Attica we see, in the many little
communities by which the small and barren territory
had been occupied, the first rude efforts at societary
organization. The demand for human powers being
very limited differences were few in number-each
and every man uniting in himself the various characters of sailor, trader, soldier, and mechanic. Interdependence among men had but very little existence,
and, as a necessary consequence, there was little
among the communities of which they were a parteach and every of them being ready at any moment
to invade the territory, and annihilate the rights of
person and of property, in each and every other.Tracing them thence onward, we find differences
increasing as society becomes more developed-the
positives and negatives, producers and consumers,
coming now together;. co-ordination and subordination keeping steady pace with the growth of wealth
and population, until, at length, the well-formed
societary body, with Athens for its head, appears
upon the stage with Solon exercising the power of
co-ordination in giving to the people a constitution
in which freedom on one hand, and subordination
on the other, are provided for in a degree never
before equalled in the world.
As a consequence of tfis approach to order is it




136           THE UNITY OF LAW.
that Athens now occupies in history a position more
distinguished than has, even yet, been assigned to
any community of either ancient or modern times.The step thus made should, however, have been only
preliminary to another in virtue of which the interdependence of the various little communities of
Greece at large would have been promoted, and the
subordination of each and all to a central power well
established. Failing to carry out the idea here so well
begun Greece became a scene of perpetual war, and
differences disappeared; the once free communities
becoming resolved into masses of traders and soldiers on the one hand, and slaves on the other.
Comparing now the policies of Solon and Lycurgus,
we find the tendency of the former to have been in
the direction of the development of human faculties,
the production of differences, and the bringing together of the societary positives and negatives;
whereas the latter looked to the limitation of human
pursuits, the prevention of differences, and the wider
separation of the human plates. In the first, the
interdependence of the various portions of society,
for almost a century after Solon, was a constantly
augmenting force-stimulating all to effort, and
producing that high development of which Athens
was the scene. In the other, the system tended in
reverse direction, annihilating all desire for distinction other than that to be obtained by force or fraud,
and closing by the reduction of society to two great
classes, the great landholder on the one hand, and




OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.   137
the slave on the other. In the one, subordination
became, for a time, from year to year more perfect.
In the other, it declined as the small proprietors
diminished in number, until at length they wholly
disappeared.
Crossing the Adriatic, we obtain a reproduction
of Sparta, and not of Athens-fraud and force, and
not a growing interdependence, being the foundations of Roman power Those who would open for
themselves the road to fortune, must use the sword,
and that alone; and hence it is that while early
Italy presents for our examination numerous and
prosperous cities, placed among fields that were
owned by the men who tilled them, imperial Italy
exhibits so little beyond a single city, filled with
paupers, traders, and bankers, and owned by great
proprietors whose distant lands were tilled by slaves;
the human plates becoming from day to day more
widely separated. Seeking the cause of this, we
find in Roman history, from the days of the Tarquins to those of Marius and Sylla, Antony and
Octavius, but a record of growing brutality and
insubordination on one hand, and of declining
power of co-ordination on the other-the directing
brain becoming weaker as the land becomes consolidated, and the people more enslaved. Examine
that history where we may, we find a growing tendency toward separation of positives and negatives
-consumers and producers; toward augmentation
of the proportion of the class of middlemen; toward




138           TIIE UNITY OF LAW.
diminution in the demand for any of the human
faculties, that one excepted which man exerts in
common with the beasts of the field —-mere brute
force. The result is seen in the fact, that extended
as was her empire Rome contributes but little to
the general fund of art or literature, while the little
Attica constitutes the great treasury to which all
resort who delight in either.
With the downfall of the empire, and the general
ruin of towns and cities, the artisan and the mechanic
almost entirely disappear-society becoming resolved
into its original elements; insubordination becoming
universal, and anarchy taking the place of the little
order which had before existed  Later, we find
Charlemagne engaged in the effort at co-ordination
and seeking to command subordination; calling together assemblies composed of various portions of
the people, and instituting laws which all, both
great and small, were required to respect. At his
death, the power of combination suddenly disappears, anarchy and insubordination taking its place;
the feudal system, as it existed in both France and
Germany, recognizing fully the power of the master to command his slave, while practically denying
the necessity of subordination on the part of the
master himself. Here, again, we have a resolution
of society into its elements, accompanied by further
and more complete disappearance of differences
among its various portions-slaves and nobles
abounding, and physical force furnishing the law




OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.      139
in obedience to which all are required to bend.*
Following French history downward, we find a perpetual effort at the establishment of subordination,
followed by repeated failures consequent upon the
omission, until the days of the great Colbert, of attempt at bringing together in orderly arrangement
the societary positives and negatives, and thereby
so diversifying the employments of the people as to
make demand for the qualities by whose possession
the real MAN is distinguished from the brute.
~ 3. Turning now to other portions of Europe, we
meet with insubordination in the ratio of the absence of those differences without which society
cannot assume its natural form, nor can men acquire the power of self-direction-striking evidence
of this being presented by England in the days of
the Plantagenets-Scotland, in those of the Stuarts
-Denmark, in the period anterior to Frederic III.
-and Poland, down to the day of its partition.
Tracing history onward, any and everywhere, we
obtain evidence that in every case of advancing
civilization, as the latent human faculties have become more and more developed; as the power of
association has grown into strength; as man has
become more master of nature and of himself; as
society has tended to take its natural form; as competition for the purchase of labor has grown; sub* The insurrection of the Jacquerie, A. D. 1351, with its accompanying horrors, was a necessary consequence of the total disappearance of
subordination from among the nobles of France, during the English
war.-See SISMONDI: Histoire de France, vol. x. p. 530.




140           THE UNITY OF LAW.
ordination has become more complete, while all
have risen in the scale of being, and the man who
labors has more and more acquired the power of
self-direction. Examining, next, the movement of
declining countries, we find the reverse of thisuniformity taking place of difference-anarchy and
insubordination replacing order-and the laborer
becoming re-enslaved.-Looking now around us, we
find that men have become more free in all the
countries that have followed in the lead of Colbert,
seeking earnestly to bring about an orderly arrangement of human positives and negatives, producers
and consumers; land having become more divided,
and the laborer having become more master of nature and of himself, in France, and in all the countries of Northern and Central Europe, with constantly growing tendency toward development of
that respect for the rights of others without which
there can be no real power of self-direction.
Turning next toward those which follow in the
lead of, or in the direction indicated by, professors of that science which finds its base in mere
"assumptions," we meet, in Ireland, an insubordination resulting in destruction of life, property, and
happiness, to an extent that has rarely been exceeded; in Jamaica, an unceasing state of warfare
between the slave and his master, that has since
resulted in the ruin of both;* in Turkey, an almost
entire disappearance of the societary organization;
* See DALLAS: History of the Maroons, London, 1805.




OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.                 141
in Mexico, a great community that is being rapidly
resolved into its original elements; in Spanish
America generally, a constant series of wars, having
for their object the determination of the question as
to who shall control the societary movement; in
India, famines and rebellions, the last of which has
just now closed with the firing off, from the mouths
of cannon, of numerous prisoners.*
* " For years and years," wrote an Indian official, at the date of the
last great rebellion, "we have been acting as if we were under no
noral responsibility whatsoever-as if India were a thing made expressly
for our mere worldly advantage, and for nothing else-the natives of the
soil no better than the wild beasts of the jungles, or, of being more helpless, only
fit to be made hewers of wood and drawers of water, the slaves of the white
man-that any pretence on their part to a share of the inheritance God
had assigned them  was rank treason-that opinions, customs, and
usages, as old as these hills, and as fondly cherished as an Englishman's liberty, were to be given up, and cast aside, with as much ease
as you would throw aside an old bonnet, if they did not square with
John Bull's notions, or stood in the way of his selfishness and cupidity.
This is exactly what we have been doing for the last twenty years-we
have attempted many things which even the boldest and most daring
of their own native princes would never have had the madness to venture on. That cursed itch to annex; the vile and abominable corruptions,
bribery, and extortion, practised in our civil courts, and by the police; the
dislike of the natives to our system of land tenure, which, however fine and
specious in theory, and to write on, or to make a speech on in Parliament, was most distasteful to the native cultivators, and left them entirely at the mercy of merchants and money lenders, and was simply
ruin to the poor ryot. * * * All alike ignored their cries, and treated
them with contempt, till at last they had recourse to the only mode of
redress left to them-mutiny, insurrection, and rebellion! And I do
say, for all the horrors, and sad calamities which followed, England is
responsible." What were those "horrors" is shown in the following
passage from an article in the Westminster Review for January, 1867:"A historian of some promise has said that he knows nothing in
early English history, except William's devastation of the North, that
approaches the horrors that our troops have committed in putting down
the Indian revolt, a judgment that appears to be confirmed by Captain




142                 THE UNITY     OF LAW.
Coming now to England herself, we find a constant war of classes; one holding            with   Mr. Huskisson   that " to enable capital to obtain         a fair remuneration, labor must be kept down;" the other
meanwhile protesting against that doctrine as leading to enslavement of their children and themselves.
As a consequence of this, " strikes," attended with
immense loss to the community, and ending generally
in defeat of the laborer, are of constant occurrence;
the result being seen in the facts, that the land
becomes more and more consolidated; that the little
landowner and the little manufacturer gradually disappear from    the stage of action; that the power of association declines; and that the direction of the
Trotter's statement, p. 284, when, speaking of Lord Canning's clemency,
he says:"' When the gallows, the cat, the torch, were threatening to blot out
the last distinctions between guilt and innocence, to turn whole districts into grave-yards, deserts, haunts of beggared or fear-stricken outcasts, it was time for some voice of power to cry out upon the folly, the
savage meanness, of overdone revenge. In thirteen days alone of June
and July, one commissioner had sent to the gibbet forty-two wretches
guilty, all save one murderer, of nothing worse than robbery, rioting,
or rebellion. Some of them paid with their lives for having goods or
money-even bags of copper half-pice-about which they failed to
give any plausible account. In less than six weeks up to the 1st of
August, some hundred and twenty men, of whom none were Sepoys,
and only a few were of higher rank than villagers, servants, policemen,
had been hanged by the civil commissioners of one county alone. Of
course, in many cases, the evidence against the prisoners seemed strong
only to minds that saw all objects through a film of blood.  Of the numbers arrested, not one in ten appears to have escaped some form of punishment, not two to have escaped the gallows.'
" This is the way in which Englishmen sometimes recommend their
civilization and illustrate their Christianity in, British dependencies,
not without sympathetic applause from excitable compatriots at home."




OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.         143
societary machine becomes more difficult with each
successive year.*
Turning next to central Europe we find. Prussia
from the days of the great Frederick, with occasional
enforced intervals, to have been engaged in an effort
to lead consumers and producers, capitalists and
laborers, to take their places by each other's sides,
thereby bringing into orderly arrangement the positives and negatives of that wonderful battery whose
plates now count by tens of millions, and by whose
extraordinary performances the world has recently
been so much astonished.t Creating thus an attractive force such as has been but rarely equalled, the
great empire that has thence resulted stands now
a monument to the memory of the men who had
seen that wealth and power had gone always with
growth of the power of association; with development of the various individualities of a people; with
increase in that power for self-direction which it is
given to men to seek, and which comes as a necessary consequence of growth in power to compel the
great natural forces to become the slaves and cease
to be the masters of mankind.
Looking now to the American Union, we find
the diverse conditions above described, the South
* "We level the poor to the dust by our general policy, and take infinite credit to ourselves for raising them up with the grace of charity."
FONBLANQUE.
" " Such an achievement as the restoration of the germs of order and
prosperity which Frederick so rapidly brought about after the appalling
ruin which seven years of disastrous war had effected, is unmatched
in the history of human government."-Fortnightly Review, Oct. 1871.




144           THE UNITY OF LAW.
having sought the maintenance of an exclusive
agriculture, and the prevention of that great commerce whose growth is so wholly dependent on the
coming together of producers and consumers, societary positives and negatives. As a consequence of
this, the power of association there declined and
individualities remained undeveloped, with steady
diminution of the power for self-direction of both masters and slaves, employers and employed. Throughout the North, on the contrary, all was directly the
reverse; the general result of their strictly opposite
policies having recently most strikingly manifested
itself in the poverty and weakness of the one, and
wealth and strength of the other. Look where we
may, we find these latter growing in the direct ratio
of the exercise of that co-ordinative power on the
part of governments by means of which their people
are to be enabled most freely to combine together for
establishing that control over the great natural forces
to which alone can they look for obtaining for
themselves a perfect power for self-direction.
All the facts of history may now be cited in evi.
dence of the proposition, that the societary organization becomes more complete, subordination more
perfect, and man more free, in the direct ratio of
the approach of the consumer to the producer, the
development of a scientific agriculture, and consequent approximation of the prices of the rude products
of the earth to those of the finished commodities
into which they are converted.
~ 4. The more thorough the development of dif



OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.   145
ferences among men, and the more perfect the power
of self-direction, the more complete becomes their
interdependence; the greater the harmony in the
societary relations; the larger the production; the
more rapid the circulation; the more equitable
the distribution; the more absolute the subordination; and the greater the tendency toward growth
in the power of self-direction, whether among individuals or in the communities of which they are
parts. The less, however, is the tendency towards
the production of those "positive checks" to population relied upon by Mr. Malthus, and known to
the world as war, pestilence, and famine.
That this is so, must be obvious to all who see in
the individual man the type of that grand man to
which we apply the term society, and who appreciate
the fact, that this great law governs matter in all its
forms, whether in that of systems of mountains or
communities of men. Throughout our solar system,
harmony of movement-interdependence, is a result
of that local attraction which preserves a perfect
independence. So, too, is it with nations, the tendency toward general peace and harmony being in
the ratio of their interdependence; that, in its turn,
being in the direct ratio of their independence. As
among individuals, the power of association grows
with the development of individuality, and as this
latter grows with the growth of the habit of combination, so does the tendency towards peaceful action
among communities grow with the growth of local
centres, and with that of self-dependence; subordi10




146           THE UNITY OF LAW.
nation to the laws of right and justice among nations
growing with the growth of the power of self-direction
and protection. Here, as everywhere throughout
nature, action and reaction are equal and contrary,
harmony being the result of the perfect balance of
these opposing forces.
The reverse of this, however, is what we are told
in English books. From them we learn that universal peace is to follow in the train of a system that
seeks to establish centralization of the manufacturing
power of the world; thereby separating societary
positives and negatives, and thus depriving the various nations of all ability to develop the latent powers
of either earth or man; limiting the latter to the
work of scratching out the soil and selling it in distant markets, thus preventing the growth of agriculture Under that system, interdependence in the
bosom of the society dies away, dependence meantime
growing, with corresponding tendency to the development of insubordination, and toward production
of the " positive checks" of the " assumptions" school.
The effort now being made toward the establishment
of trading centralization-that system which now is
advocated by the men who teach that political economy relates exclusively to commodities that may be
bought and sold-tends to the general production
of a state of things similar to that exhibited in
France, in the days of the Jacquerie; in Germany,
in those of John of Leyden and his Anabaptists; in
England, in those of Henry VIII., when criminals
by tens of thousands were hanged in a single reign;




OF THE SOCIETARY ORGANIZATION.   147
in Scotland, in the days of Fletcher; in Ireland,
throughout the present century; in China and South
America at the present hour; that state of things
in which insubordination comes as the companion
of a division of society into two great forces-the
very rich and the very poor, the master and the
slave.  Hence it is that it has given rise to the
doctrine of over-population, which is simply that
of slavery, anarchy, and societary ruin, as the
ultimate condition of mankind; that, too, coming
as a consequence of laws emanating from an all-wise
and all-powerful Being who could, if He would, have
instituted laws in virtue of which freedom, order,
peace, and happiness, would have been the lot of man.
That these latter have been instituted-that the
scheme of creation is not a failure; that it is marred
by no such errors as those assumed by Mr. Malthus;
is proved by all the facts presented for consideration
by the advancing communities of the world-the
habit of peace, among both individuals and nations,
growing with growth of numbers, and increase in
power for self-direction. The more perfect that
power, the greater is the tendency towards increased
control of mind over matter; the wretched slave to
nature gradually yielding place to the MASTER OF
NATURE, in whom the feeling of responsibility to
his family, his country, his Creator, and himself,
grows with the growth of power to guide and direct
the vast and various forces placed at his command.
This last grows in all those countries in which the
societary energies, represented by their co-ordinating




148               THE UNITY OF LAW.
centres, are most directed to the removal of obstacles
to association and combination, and, therefore, most
in accordance with the great laws instituted by the
Creator of the universe for government of matter
in all its forms, whether in that of myriads of suns,
or of communities of men.
CHAPTER VI.
OF MATTER AND MIND.
~ 1. "THE laws of mind and laws of matter,"
says Mr. Mill" Are so dissimilar in their nature, that it would be contrary
to all principles of rational arrangement to mix them up as parts
of the same study. In all scientific methods, therefore, they are
placed apart. Any compound effect or phenomenon which depends both on the properties of matter and on those of mind,
may thus become the subject of two completely distinct sciences,
or branches of science; one treating of the phenomenon in so
far as it depends upon the laws of matter only, the other treating of in so far as it depends upon the laws of mind.
" The physical sciences are those which treat of the laws of
matter, and of all complex phenomena in so far as dependent
upon the laws of matter. The mental or moral sciences are
those which treat of the laws of mind, and of all complex phenomena in so far as dependent upon the laws of mind."*
"Political Economy, therefore, presupposes all the physical
sciences; it takes for granted all such of the truths of those
sciences as are concerned in the production of the objects
demanded by the wants of mankind; or, at least, it takes for
* Unsettled Questions on Political Economy, p. 130.




OF MATTER AND MIND.               149
granted that the physical part of the process takes place somehow. It then inquires what are the phenomena of mind which
are concerned in the production and distribution of those same
objects; it borrows from the pure science of mind the laws of
those phenomena, and inquires what effects follow from these
mental laws, acting in concurrence with those physical ones.
"The physical laws of the production of useful objects are
all equally presupposed by the science of Political Economy;
most of them, however, it presupposes in the gross, seeming to
say nothing about them. A few (such, for instance, as the decreasing ratio in which the produce of the soil is increased by
an increased application of labor) it is obliged particularly to
specify, and thus seems to borrow those truths from the physical
sciences to which they properly belong, and include them among
its own."*
The laws of two sciences having been separately
studied " seeming to say nothing" of the physical portion thereof, the results are then to be combinedthe general result thus obtained being the politicoeconomical science of our age and generation. How
far such separation and combination would be possible the reader may determine for himself after consideration of the facts already placed before him relating to the occupation and cultivation of the earth.
Referring thereto, he will see that to accord with
the doctrines of Mr. Mill and his disciples matter
must steadily obtain increased power over mind, the
control of the few over the constantly diminishing
product of labor steadily increasing, and that of the
many as steadily diminishing; the tendency towards
slavery thus established coming as necessary consequence of a great law assumed to have been insti* Unsettled Questions on Political Economy, p. 133.




150           THE UNITY OF LAW.
tuted by a wise and beneficent Creator for government of the human race. Were that different, "all
the other phenomena of the production and distribution of wealth would," as Mr. Mill assures us,
"also be different," labor then becoming more and
more productive, mind then becoming more and more
master over matter, and man then becoming with
each successive day more and more qualified to exercise that power of self-direction by which he is, or
should be, distinguished from all other portions of
the animal creation.
We have here that which is confessedly the most
important of all the questions which connect themselves with the movements of the societary world.
Looking always on one side of the shield Mr. Mill
assumes that, in obedience to his great law of constantly diminishing returns to agricultural labor,
all must eventually become dark as midnight. His
opponents, on the contrary, recognizing the fact that
there is "a silver side to every cloud," assert that
however intense the darkness the bright side tends,
with each and every stage in the growth of wealth
and population, more and more to present itself to
view.
Which of these is right? That answers may be
obtained to any or all such questions Mr. Mill requires us to assume that the "physical part of the
process takes place somehow," studying the remainder by aid of a science"Which presupposes the whole science of the nature of the
individual mind; since all the laws of which the latter science




OF MATTER AND MIND.             151
takes cognizance are brought into play in a state of society, and
the truths of the social science are but statements of the manner
in which those simple laws take effect in complicated circumstances. Pure mental philosophy, therefore, is an essential part,
or preliminary, of political philosophy."*
What, however, is there in this all-important question that needs for its proper comprehension the aid
of this "science of the nature of the individual
mind;" this latter itself so incomprehensible that
it is yet, in all its parts, as much open for discussion
as it was in the days of Socrates and Plato? Is
it the fact, that soils differ in their qualities in the
manner heretofore described     Or the fact, that
some are high and dry while others are low and
wet! Or the fact, that the early and isolated settler
is a poor man, with an almost unaided hand, about
to commence his contest with an all-powerful nature   Or the fact, that, poor and weak as he is, the
high and dry land presents the only soil from which
he can hope to obtain any supplies whatsoever   Or
the fact, that, as numbers increase and as wealth
more and more abounds, he and his neighbors
are enabled to subjugate those richer lands upon
which he must in the earlier days, had he undertaken their cultivation, have perished of famine?
Nothing of the kind, whatsoever! These facts no
more need for their examination "the whole science of the nature of the individual mind" than do
those other facts which relate to movements of the
heavenly bodies. Like to these latter they demand
* Unsettled Questions on Political Economy, p. 136.




152           THE UNITY OF LAW.
to be carefully studied with a view to ascertaining
what is the real law of the case, thereby enabling us
to determine whether or not the Creator had on the
one hand willed that with the growth of wealth and
population food and other raw material should become from year to year more difficult of attainment;
that with each successive year the rich should grow
richer, and the poor poorer, these latter becoming
as regularly more and more slaves to the caprices
and the passions of their masters: or, on the other,
that food and raw material should become more
abundant; that the poor and the weak should gradually come to take their places side by side and on
an equality with their heretofore rich and powerful
neighbors; and finally, that every stage of progress
in this latter direction should be accompanied by
new development of that power of self-direction in
whose absence there can be none of that real freedom of thought, or action, without which man cannot be held responsible for errors to whose commission he has been forced by means of action on the
part of others over whom he exercises no control
whatsoever.
Taking next the "fundamental question" of
value, we may here inquire to what extent "the
science of the individual mind" is required for enabling us to determine the real cause of the exist.
ence of that idea. Of that " science" Eve certainly
knew nothing; yet did she furnish a reply when
giving so high a price for a single apple.  Since
then, of all her descendants there has been not even




OF MATTER AND MIND.         153
one who has not on every day of his life proved that
he valued commodities of every kind more or less
in the ratio of the difficulty or the facility with
which they might be obtained. The poor Digger
Indian attaches so high a value to the wretched food
on which he so much depends that he gives his
whole time to the search therefor. The schoolboy
values the apple so highly that he risks his life
in the effort to climb the tree on which it hangs.
The trader attaches more or less value to commodities as the obstacles to their reproduction diminish
or increase. How much of the "science of the
individual mind" is required by these persons for
determining a question that so greatly puzzles
teachers of economic science? Is there one among
these latter who would not obtain an answer thereto
by merely looking around his library and satisfying
himself that the value he attaches to its various books
is greater, or less, in the precise ratio of the obstacles that would stand in the way of their replacement
in case of loss? Might he not then profit by studying facts rather than by exploring the recesses of
his "individual mind"? Would not such study result in convincing him that values declined as mind
obtained power over matter, and increased as this
latter grew in strength? Assuredly it would.
When John Smith first robbed a hen-roost he
did so for the reason that he attached to the eggs a
higher value than he was disposed to attribute to
the possible flogging that was to be their price.
Here we meet at once that " positive knowledge of




154           THE UNITY OF LAW.
the uncultured," which, according to Mr. Spencer,
constitutes the foundation of all real science; and
it is in its utter neglect by economists we are to find
the causes of those "artificial generalizations" to
which, as he tells his readers, such a course of action must inevitably lead. See p. 34, ante.
Reasoning from "assumptions," Mr. Mill denies
that such is the true method of this "abstract and
hypothetical" science. Laws having been invented,
facts must be made to sustain them. Hence it
is, that what in the hands of Adam Smith was the
commencement of the simplest and most beautiful
of all the sciences, has become now so complicated
and repulsive that every student rejoices when he
can throw his books aside, fully determined, as he
generally is, to forget forthwith all the economical
science with which his tutor had so sedulously sought
to cram him.
The life of man is a constant combat with nature,
matter sometimes triumphing over mind, but the
latter more frequently triumphing over the former,
and always using the power thus acquired as a means
of obtaining further triumphs. Throughout, matter, mind, and the laws of both, are so closely interwoven that any attempt at separate study thereof,
such as is above suggested, must prove, as thus far
it has proved, an utter failure.  How, indeed,
would it be possible even to enter upon such study
of the value of the eggs on one hand, and the possible flogging on the other, above referred to.
~ 2. There being but two sets of laws, those of




OF MATTER AND MIND.         155
mind and those of matter, and political economy finding no place under the latter, it must, of necessity,
according to Mr. Mill, be ranked among the former,
the material portion of the societary process being
assumed " somehow" to have " taken place." Lines
of separation so sharp as the one here indicated
are, however, of so rare occurrence as to warrant
doubt of the view thus presented. Nowhere does
the idea seem to have suggested itself to him that a
place might possibly be found intermediate between
the two; one in which matter and mind themselves
were being brought face to face with each other
contending for the mastery-action and reaction
becoming more instant as the heat of the fight becomes more and more intense-the former backed
by all the resisting power of the natural forces; the
latter standing at first alone, the very type of weakness, but gradually obtaining more and more control,
each successive step in that direction being accompanied by new development of its own latent powers, thus enabling it to pass from one triumph to
another, each succeeding one more important than
that by which it had been preceded. That such a
place does exist; that there such conflict rages; and
that the development of mind is in the direct ratio
of the fierceness with which it is maintained; it is
proposed now to show.
Throughout the whole range of organized life
the passage from lower to higher forms and structures is, with rare exceptions, so exceedingly gentle
as in many cases to be almost imperceptible, mak



156                THE UNITY OF LAW.
ing it at times difficult to decide if the individual
find its proper place in the animal or the vegetable
kingdom. Recent discoveries having-tended steadily toward bringing more nearly together than they
before had seemed to be, not only the several kingdoms but also their divisions and subdivisions, the
world has now been furnished with a theory of the
" Descent of Man," in which to the minute Ascidian
is assigned the honorable position of remote ancestor
to all vertebrated animals of both sea and land.*
* The foundation on which the Darwinian theory rests exhibits itself
in the assertion that there is and has ever been a "survival of the
fittest;" those least fitted for maintenance of a perpetual strife for life
having been steadily and necessarily trampled out of existence. This,
however, is but a new application of the politico-economical laissez
faire; the one denying all intelligent interference from above precisely
as the other insists that no such interference here below can be allowed.
With both, progress lies necessarily in the direction of that increased
power of matter over mind so well described by the Rev. Mr. Kingsley,
in his recent charming volume, as here given:" Throughout the great republic of the forest, the motto of the majority
is-as it is and always has been with human beings-' Every one for
himself and the devil take the hindmost.' Selfish competition, overreaching tyranny, the temper which fawns and clings as long as it is
down, and when it has risen, kicks over the stool by which it climbed
-these and the other'works of the flesh' are the works of the average
plant as far as it can practise them. So by the time the bamboo-vine
makes up its mind it will have discovered by the experience of many
generations, the value of the proverb,'Never do for yourself what you
can get another to do for you,' and will have developed into a true high
climber, selfish and insolent, choking and strangling like yonder beautiful green pest, of which beware-namely: a tangle of razor-grass."Christmas in the West Indies.
In all decaying communities-those whose members are being more
and more compelled to depend upon the rude labors of the field-the
course of things is precisely that here described, the soil fittest for
giving abundant supplies of food being the first abandoned; the plants
best fitted for man's purposes becoming the prey of useless or noxious








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OF MATTER AND MIND.                  157
Whether the view thus presented be true or false
-whether it come to be finally accepted or rejected
-does not now concern us, its only importance here
being found in the picture thus presented of the passage of the same particles of matter from the lowest
to the highest forms and structures, each individual
atom carrying with it, through all changes, the entirety of the properties which make it what it is;
and remaining, therefore, always subject to the same
laws by which it had at first been governed. That
the reader may trace this upward movement his attention is here again invited to the figure opposite,
having studied which he can determine for himself
at what point, if any, the great physical laws could,
by possibility, have been suspended in favor of the
few atoms entering into the composition of the human frame.
With the appearance on the stage of life of new
forms and more complex structures new laws present themselves, always, however, cooperating harmoniously with those previously observed. Here,
too, we mark the same gradual and quiet movement
weeds; the animals fittest for man's service disappearing before the
beasts of the forest; the faculties fittest for enabling man to become
master of nature becoming once again latent and unemployed; matter
thus resuming its control over mind. In all advancing communities,
on the contrary, those in which diversified employment gives power
for reducing to cultivation the richest soils-the strife for life declines,
and the weak are daily more and more brought to a level with the rich
and strong, as is proved by the daily increasing influence of the gentler
sex. Look where we may, societary life, ancient or modern, furnishes
no facts favorable to permanent adoption of the materialistic theories
-philosophic or economic-now so much in vogue.




158               THE UNITY OF LAW.
that had attended changes of form and structure,
organology following physics, and the instinct of the
coral insect and the oyster slowly expanding itself
into that of the beaver, the bird, the horse, and the
dog, the approach toward reason becoming now so
marked as to lead to hesitation in regard to classing
these latter with merely instinctive animals.* Thus
far, however, matter and its laws have continued
paramount, the slight mental activity above referred
to having been little more than had been needed as
preparation for approach to the stage of action above
described-that one on which matter and mind were
to be brought face to face with each other, contending for mastery of the world; the former armed with
powers so prodigious that words scarcely suffice for
their enumeration and description; the latter at first
so weak as to be deficient in many of the qualities
by means of which even the lowest animals had been
* " Whether this neurosis is accompanied by such psychosis as ours,
it is impossible to say; but those who deny that the nervous changes
which, in the dog, correspond with those which underlie thought in a
man, are accompanied by consciousness, are equally bound to maintain
that those nervous changes in the dog which correspond with those
which underlie sensation in a man, are also unaccompanied by consciousness. In other words, if there is no ground for believing that
a dog thinks, neither is there any for believing that he feels. * * *
For even supposing that in man, and in man only, psychosis is superadded to neurosis-the neurosis which is common to both man and
animal gives their reasoning processes a fundamental unity."-Prof.
Huxley in the Contemporary Review, December, 1871.
The dog, seeking help for his wounded master, passes back and forth
until he has gained the attention of those to whom he looks to grant
it, a mode of speech in full accord with the limited power of thought of
the animal by whom it is used. See note to p. 78, ante.




OF MATTER AND MIND.          159
fitted for self-preservation. A contest more unequal
could scarcely be imagined; and yet, step by step,
mind is seen gaining on its opponent, seizing his
outworks and on the instant turning upon him the
captured guns, each forward movement proving thus
but simple preparation for a new and greater one.
That such has been the case in the past, and must
be in the future, is proved by the fact that the subjugation of matter to mind in the last thirty years
has been greater than that of the previous century,
wonderfully great as even that had been.
Where matter is, there must the laws of matter
be. Where mind is, there must be found the laws
of mind. Looking once again at the figure the
reader will see both moving steadily upwards, the
former at first exercising supreme control, yet gradually yielding place and power to the latter; this
latter, too, slowly obtaining more and more development, with corresponding increase of force, until at
length we have THE MAN of the present armed on
one hand with power for direction such as even
half a century since could not have been imagined;
and on the other, exercising a self-directing power
which, though yet far more limited than could be
wished, is greater far than till now had been ever
known.
~ 3. Is it, however, the reader asks, possible that
while thus mastering the great physical forces he
should himself have remained subject to the same
laws by which they themselves are governed and




160           THE UNITY OF LAW.
directed? Walking, talking, riding, swimming, at
his pleasure; exercising, apparently, perfect freedom of will, can it be that he still remains as completely subject to those laws as do the sands of the
shore or the clouds of the heavens? Has he not,
indeed, been placed above the law, having eaten of
the fruit of the tree of knowledge, and thus qualified himself for the exercise of perfect volition?
Postponing for a moment answers to these important questions, the person here interrogated might,
and with some propriety, ask-if it could be deemed
possible that Infinite Wisdom had found it needful,
in regard to the few and insignificant atoms which
temporarily enter into the human frame, to suspend
the action of great laws then in full activity
throughout this wonderful universe, with its millions
of suns and their attendant planets? To the moment that such atoms had taken that direction their
subjection had been complete. From the moment
the body of which they are parts becomes resolved
into dust, subjection becomes once again complete.
Can it then be doubted that such subjection had
existed in the period that had intervened? Is it
not far more difficult to suppose it otherwise than it
can by any possibility be to arrive at the belief in
the unity and universality of divine laws?
The objection, nevertheless, is plausible, and
needs to be considered, bearing, however, always in
mind that the apparently true and the really false
most generally walk hand in hand together throughout the world. So plausible, thus, seemed to be the




OF MATTER AND MIND.          161
assumption-then made with confidence as perfect
as that now manifested by Mr. Mill and his disciples-that the sun revolved around the earth, that
centuries have been required for effacing it from
the mind of Europe alone; that the work even there
is not yet one-half accomplished; and that of the
earth's whole population four-fifths are yet believers
in the Ptolemaic doctrine, proved to Jews and
Christians as it has seemed to be by the words of
Scripture itself. Equally plausible appears now the
objection that thus is made, and yet, as it is proposed to show, it has certainly no foundation whatever on which to stand.
First, however, it is proper to remind the reader
that the science to which his attention has here
been called treats only of the relations between
mind and matter, having to do with mind or morals
themselves only in so far as is required for showing
how they are liable to be affected, favorably or unfavorably, by societary action, and how the latter is, in
turn, liable to be affected by them. Increase in the
power of association, and in that of self-direction,
tends towards mental and moral improvement; that
improvement meantime tending toward more complete association, and further increase in the power
for self-direction-mind, morals, tastes, feelings, and
affections, however, being, as shown by the figure,
subject to laws higher than those here discussed;
laws that cannot be studied with advantage until
the science of the relations between mind and matter shall first have been fully mastered. By their
11




162              THE UNITY OF LAW.
study it is that we are to be enabled to understand
the process by means of which it had been provided
that the higher human attributes should be stimulated into action, the real MAN, capable of commanding respect for his own rights, while fully respecting
those of others, now presenting himself on the stage
of life. That it has now, and for the first time,
become possible advantageously to enter on this
important study, is due to the fact that both physical
and biological science have attained such full development. They it is that constitute the foundation on which societary science now must rest; this
latter destined, in its turn, to furnish the foundation
on which the apex of the edifice may at no distant
period be at length constructed. For many centuries men have been laboring to that end, puzzling
themselves and their hearers with metaphysical
discussions whose latest result exhibits itself in
the grave assertions that matter is itself only "a
permanent possibility of sensation;" and that the
laws of the relations between that " possibility" and
the mind by which it is governed, have no foundation other than that of crude "assumptions" on
which to rest.* Organology could no more have
* "Matter, then, may be defined a Permanent Possibility of Sensation."
-Mill's Examination of Hamilton, p. 196.
"When I think of matter as a Potentiality of Sensation, I mean that
I think of it as having the power to awake sensations in me. I do not
think of it as having itself the capability of experiencing sensations. Mr.
Mill is confounding the active agent with the passive subject. There is
a well-known story of a country Scotchman, who, when he was asked
by a dentist to open his mouth, replied with characteristic caution:'Naa, maybe ye'll bite me.' This Scotchman, like Mr. Mill, was think



OF MATTER AND MIND.               163
been constructed in advance of physics than metaphysics can now be profitably studied in advance of
sociology. These things premised, the questions
above propounded may be now considered.
~ 4. In the whole range of physics there is no proposition whose truth more instantly commends itself
to the common mind than does that one from which
we learn that the strength and durability of any
body of matter is in the direct ratio of the base to
the elevation, a pyramid being of all the forms that
one which gives most assurance of its power of resistance to the attraction of gravitation, to the force
of the elements, and to the ravages of time. That
it is the most natural of all the forms must have
been clearly obvious to all who had ever seen a heap
of rubbish, a load of coal or stone, discharged, and
left to determine for itself the disposition of its several portions.
A bird's-eye glance at the earth brings before us
thousands of pyramids great and small, those of the
Eastern hemisphere finding their apex in the Himalaya, and those of the Western one in the Peaks
of Chimborazo.      Looking seaward, we see such
pyramids in process of erection, "the pigmies of
ing of teeth as a Potentiality of Sensation, but he forgot also, like Mr.
Mill, that the potentiality to cause that sensation lay in the man that
had the mouth in a position to bite, and not in the man who had the
finger in a position to be bitten. When will metaphysicians understand
that a short phrase does not always mean a simple idea? When will
they understand that they do not succeed in analyzing thought by
simply ignoring some essential part of it?"-DUKE OF ARGYLL. "Hibernicisms in Philosophy," in Contemporary R view, January, 1872.




164           THE UNITY OF LAW.
creation, the true world makers," being everywhere
engaged in enlarging the foundation of great islands
destined in time to be united into continents of
which as yet, however, the navigator has little knowledge beyond that arising out of the presence of the
dangerous coral reef.  Returning to the land we
find beavers providing for themselves conical habitations; the African termites, meanwhile, erecting
great sugar loaves a dozen feet in height and strong
enough to bear the weight of the heaviest cattle.
In all these cases the law above referred to is
blindly obeyed, there existing on the part of all
those animals no power for self-direction. Man, on
the contrary, may, if he will, set it at defiance, giving to his edifice, financial or architectural, the
form of an inverted pyramid, and doing this with
full knowledge that he thus exposes himself to utter
ruin.  That very many do so is proved on every
occasion of commercial crisis, great houses then
toppling over and burying in their ruins not only
their own honor but the fortunes and the hopes of
all connected with them, thus furnishing proof that
the minute atoms had carried up with them the great
physical law by which they had before been governed, and that its operation in the societary world
was as complete as it before had been in that of
matter.
"Admitting all this," says the advocate of the
"assumptions" doctrine,' are we at once to throw
out of view the fact that, while some of the parties
thus affected have been prompted to action by ava



OF MATTER AND MIND.         165
rice others have been misled by ambition, and yet
a third class, dazzled by the idea of advantage to result from great display and large expenditure on the
part of wives and children? For this, as they
continue, there is, and can be, no law whatsoever.
How, then, is it possible that we should admit the
presence of physical laws controlling the movements
of societary life?" Would, however-it may in reply
be asked-would such views be urged in reference
to other laws to which, as we certainly know, man
has been and is subjected  Let us inquire.
Of all the moral laws, there is no single one
whose violation excites so general detestation as
does that of parricide, or matricide. Whatever
doubt may exist in regard to any other there is,
and can be, none in reference to the one that is
here presented. Nevertheless, the crime occurs,
and at times under circumstances so atrocious as
almost to warrant the summary application of Judge
Lynch's law. Does that in any manner tend to
prove the non-existence of the law? Is it needed
that we inquire into the motives of the criminal
before admitting existence of the decree by which
such conduct had been made a crime? Scarcely so;
yet would there appear to be quite as much reason
for so doing as for pausing to study the motives
which had led to the wrong construction of an edifice, preparatory to determination of the question as
to whether there had existed any law in virtue of




166           THE UNITY OF LAW.
which greater security might be obtained by means
of the adoption of another form.
Again, first among the hygienic laws is that by
which it is provided that temperance, health, and
duration of life tend strongly to march together.
The horse and the ox yield obedience thereto; carefully avoiding, too, plants that would be hurtful.
Man, on the contrary, indulges in excesses of every
kind, at one time overfeeding himself and at another
filling his stomach with poisons carefully prepared to
suit his tastes, the general result being that of frequent disease and early death. Need we here inquire into the motives by which he is influenced to
such excess, preparatory to recognition of the existence of the great law above referred to?
Further, governing the relations between man and
his mother earth there is a law by which is provided
that raw products of the soil are but lent, and not
given; that when the farmer honestly pays the debt
contracted, returning always the refuse of what had
been supplied and thus establishing his credit at the
great bank, his land shall become more productive
from year to year. When, on the contrary, he declines to pay his debts, sending to a distance all the
soil extracted from his land, the loans diminish from
year to year and he himself is finally expelled. That
such law exists is proved by the experience of all
communities, past and present. That it is perpetually violated, and that punishment follows commission of the crime, are as fully proved. Do we, then,
need to know the motives by which men are led to




OF MATTER AND MIND.         167
its commission, before acknowledging the existence
of this great law determining the relations between
land and man?
Yet further, the pyramidal form, as has been
shown, is that of greatest strength and permanence,
the law applying to each and every form of edifice,
as well to the societary one whose figure is here presented, as to those of stone or brick. That a community may go steadily forward in the direction
of thorough development of its people and of the
land given for their use, the foundation must be
broad and deep, a great domestic commerce being
built upon a scientific agriculture. The deeper the
foundation the higher may the edifice be carried,
production and consumption growing steadily together and making demand for the productions of other
climes while providing means by which their producers may be paid, the harmony of all permanent
human interests being perfect. Looking, however,
throughout the world, ancient and modern, we see
that from the days of Tyre and Carthage communities have been everywhere doing precisely that against
which Adam Smith so strongly cautioned his countrymen, to wit, struggling and fighting for transportation and a distant foreign trade the extent of which
can never be otherwise than limited; and sacrificing
at its shrine that domestic commerce whose every
tendency is toward improving both mind and morals,
and toward bringing into direct communication with
each other all the positives and negatives of which a
society is composed. Failure, as a consequence of




168              THE UNITY OF LAW.
constantly growing dependence on trade, has been
the uniform result, Venice and Genoa, Portugal, and
Holland* having followed in the wake of the great
cities before referred to, and both France and England being now in train to furnish additional proof
of the fact that no stability can result from the creation of an inverted pyramid.      Must we then conclude that no physical law exists by compliance
with which such failures might be averted?
Does not, on the contrary, every page of history
furnish evidence that the more thorough the conformity of human action to those great laws by which
are governed all the atoms which enter into the human frame, the greater is the force by which men
are stimulated to act together; the greater their
power to compel the natural forces to do their work;
and the greater the tendency toward that development of the peculiar faculties of each societary atom
to which alone we are to look for attainment of the
power of self-direction; strict obedience on the one
hand, keeping steady pace with growing power on
the other?
~ 5. Governments institute laws, then providing
* The decline of Holland in naval power and importance has been
remarkable and furnishes an interesting subject to the student.
Within little more than two hundred years, she was the first naval
power of Europe. Dutch ships sailed up the Thames and threatened
to burn London, and Dutch admirals triumphed over the combined fleets
of England and France. Since that time her decline has been slow but
sure, until now the time seems not far distant when England will have
deprived her of all her colonial possession and thus of all her naval
importance.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                  169
houses of correction, hospitals, or prisons, for those
who fail to yield obedience to them. In this they
do but follow the example set by nature inproviding
punishment for those who fail to obey the laws
which accompany matter in its passage from the
lowest to the highest forms and structures. Go
where man may-let him          do what he may-those
laws pass side by side with him, and with the community of which he forms a part, offering rewards for
obedience, and threatening punishment in all cases
of disobedience.*    How is it, then, that these latter
are so numerous, seeing as we do that punishment
so constantly follows in their wake; that individuals,
states, and nations so severely suffer when a contrary
course of conduct would certainly have been attended
with results so very different? Let us inquire.
That all these people, and all communities, exercise perfect freedom   of will-mind thus controlling
matter-is assumed by those who interest themselves
in providing punishment, here or hereafter, for the
" Side by side, but not in him; only in the atoms of his corporeal
frame, which is not himself."  Such having been the remark of an
enlightened and friendly critic, and such being likely to be that of
others, it is deemed proper here to say, that the physical laws above
referred to no more enter into the composition of atoms than do human
laws enter that of the physical frame. As the planetary bodies are
controlled by laws in virtue of which their masses gravitate toward,
and their atoms from, the great centre of our system, so does man
travel side by side with laws in virtue of which he is attracted outward
toward the society of which he is a part, and inward toward the family
of which he is the head. The more complete the balance of these
opposing forces the greater is the tendency toward production of the
"himself" here referred to-the real MAN, master of nature and fully
capable of self-direction.




170           THE UNITY OF LAW.
crime that comes to be committed; yet where do
we find individual men, or societies, exercising,
with any approach whatsoever to completeness, that
power of self-direction without which there can be
no voluntary action whatsoever! Man, as we see
him, is a product of the societary womb, and if the
food assimilated throughout the period of gestation
be not calculated for development of that power, it
is little likely at any time thereafter to spring into
existence. "Just as the twig is bent, the tree," as
we are told, "will be inclined," and that such is the
case throughout the societary world we have daily
evidence.
Let the reader, for instance, take the child who
early finds his place among the denizens of Glasgow
wynds or East London parishes, tracing him thence,
his wits becoming gradually sharpened to fit him for
association with the Fagins and the Dodgers so well
described by Dickens, and then determine if the
poor animal has ever exercised, to even one-half
the extent of that exercised by the prairie dog, the
power of self-direction. Mere slave to circumstances
over which he could exercise no control, and having
mixed all his life with drunkards, he himself becomes
contributor to that internal revenue which owes its
existence to the dram shop, and upon whose growing
extent the British finance minister is accustomed to
congratulate himself as furnishing evidence of the
increasing prosperity of the working classes of England. Let him now look to the millions of whole
or half pauperized English people, remarking the




OF MATTER AND MIND.          171
treatment they receive at the hands of well fed and
well paid officers, and then determine how much selfdirection is exercised by them. Studying next the
course of things in Lancashire throughout the last
few years, finding hundreds of thousands of men,
women, and children suffering, even when not perishing, for want of food and clothing; passing
thence to the whole body of farm laborers, present
representatives of the hundreds of thousands of small
proprietors of the days of Adam Smith-having before them, as we are told by Edinburgh Reviewers, no
future but the poor-house-let him determine as he
goes to what extent they, or the tramps with whom
the country so much abounds, exercise such power.
Let him then look to the mass of traders, large or
small, dependent wholly on the chances of peace or
war, and liable to be swept from commercial existence on the occasion of financial crises such as have
so steadily accompanied the growth of the mere
trading movement, and see how slight is the selfdirecting power that can there be found. Slaves to
circumstances over which they have no control whatsoever, these people are yet held responsible for
crime, whether of omission or commission, precisely
as if they had that free exercise of will assumed by
metaphysicians to have come into existence with
each and every case of assumption of the human
form by material particles that had before been
purely passive in the presence of great laws by which
the universe is everywhere controlled.
So, too, is it with communities, and the farmers




172           THE UNITY OF LAW.
of whom they are in part composed.   In close
proximity to the English people those of Ireland
have never been permitted so to diversify employments as to cause Irish positives and negatives to
come together in such order as was required for
production of any societary force whatsoever. Directly the reverse of this, everything has been done,
both without and within, to maintain disorder and to
perpetuate the dominion of matter over mind; the
result being seen in constantly-recurring famines,
and in the expulsion of millions of men, women,
and children who, had they been allowed the power
of self-direction would before this time have constituted a nation of high intelligence, and great productive power. Have they at any time since the
days of Henry II. been capable of any real exercise
of will?
So, too, has it been with Portugal, Turkey, India,
Mexico, and other States, all of which have been
mere puppets in. the hands of traders whose duty
to their country and themselves required them, as
they supposed, to prevent by all the means in their
power the establishment of order among the many
millions of human positives and negatives of which
those communities are composed; thereby compelling
them to violate that law by which it is established
that the earth is a mere lender, and that those who
constantly withdraw from her the materials of food,
returning nothing back, shall in due season suffer
for want of food.
With whom now rests the responsibility for the




OF MATTER AND MIND.         173
maintenance of material power thus exhibited,
and for the evils thus described? Is it with the
poor boy, who has been sent from the societary
womb educated to become a forger or a thief  Is
it with the wretched pauper, who may all his life
have striven, but in vain, to obtain an honorable living for wife and children? Is it with the poor Irishman, part of a community that at times "starves
by millions," thus enabling a British statesman
(Mr. Disraeli) to congratulate his fellow-citizens on
the great famine " as having done more for the Irish
people than a long succession of statesmen had
been able to do?" Is it with the poor Turk, compelled as he is to stand idle while surrounded by
all the material elements required for diffusing the
highest prosperity among a population tenfold
greater than that which now occupies the territories
of the Turkish Empire? Is it with the poor Hindoo, compelled to send his cotton half round the
world to be spun and woven, he himself meanwhile
remaining unemployed? Is it with the poor Chinese, forced to become an opium-eating drunkard
that he may be thus compelled to contribute toward
the maintenance of British power in India? Is it
with the poor white of our Southern States, who has
been now so severely punished for allowing himself
to be controlled and directed by those whose every
effort had been given toward preventing that diversification of employment by means of which
societary positives and negatives would long since
have been brought in contact with each other, thus




17 4          THE UNITY OF LAW.
generating a social force which would peaceably
have brought freedom to the negro, and prosperity
to the white, whether laborer or planter? Is it not,
on the contrary, with the great and powerful whose
various modes of perpetuating and extending the
dominion of matter over mind will be now described?
CHAPTER VII.
OF MATTER AND MIND.-(Continued.
IN a perfect power of self-direction, bringing
with it absolute responsibility before both God and
man, we find the highest of human attributes.
That man may be enabled even to hope for its
attainment it is needed that, as a consequence of
that diversified demand for the various human
faculties which results necessarily from diversification of employments, he be enabled freely to associate and combine with his fellow-men, whether for
commanding recognition of his rights or for
enabling him more fully and completely to perform
his duties, these latter growing always in importance as the former become more perfectly assured.
At each and every stage of progress the societary
positives and negatives become more intimately connected; mind acquires new power over matter;
mere brute force tends to yield place to law; the
power and the habit of association become more
and more confirmed; exchanges become more rapid;




OF MATTER AND MIND.          175
values decline as utilities become developed; production increases as consumption follows more instantly on its path;* each societary atom.more and
more readily finds the place for which it had been
fitted-that in which it can best promote its own
true interests and those of the community of which
it is a part; an enlightened feeling of self-respect
gradually supersedes that blind selfishness which so
generally characterizes ignorant and isolated men;
morals, tastes, feelings, and affections become developed; and men become from day to day more and
more enabled, with advantage to themselves and all
around them, to claim the exercise of that perfect
freedom of speech, thought, and action which so
well befits the being that has acquired power to
control and direct those wonderful natural forces by
which we are everywhere surrounded.
Directly the reverse of this, the warrior, representing mere material force, seeks to prevent all
voluntary exercise of the power of association; to
prevent the growth of that feeling of security for
person or for property in whose absence employments
can never become diversified; to make of men mere
machines, and thus prevent development of any
feeling of individuality; to concentrate within himself all power for direction, thereby preventing
growth of power for self-direction; and thus creating an inverted pyramid.  As a consequence of
this it is, that the great empires of the world from
* See ante, pp. 127-29.




1 76               THE UNITY OF LAW.
the days of Semiramis to those of Charles V., exhibit
so almost total an absence of cohesive force; that
their existence has generally been so very brief;
that but little more than a century since matter
reigned so supreme over mind throughout the whole
of continental Europe; and that so little else than
ignorance, pauperism, and          crime   could   be found
among the various peoples; selfishness and weakness
meanwhile exhibiting themselves as chief characteristics of those by whom tax-payers were being
tortured for the purpose of maintaining their own
subjection.*
Look now where we may among the communities
of the past we see little else than collections of
inverted pyramids tottering to their fall, the magnificence of the few having been in the direct ratio of
* The anarchy prevailing throughout Germany in the days of Charles
V., and the consequent wretchedness of the people, pass almost beyond
conception. A century later came the Thirty Years' War of which
Wallenstein was the most conspicuous figure. Of this latter Baron
Bunsen said, some thirty years since, that such had been the ruin of
which it had been the cause that Germany had not even yet recovered
from it.-Looking to France after more than half a century of wars
abroad and dragmnnades at home, we find, in 1739, one of the king's
ministers thus describing the condition of the people: " Atthe moment
when I write, in the month of February, in the midst ofpeace, with
appearances promising a harvest, if not abundant at least passable,
men die around us like flies, and are reduced by poverty to eat grass."
He ascribes their condition to excessive taxation, declaring that the
kingdom was treated like an enemy's country laid under military contribution. The Duke of Orleans, to bring the condition of his people
to the knowledge of the sovereign, finally carried a loaf of fern bread
to the meeting of the king's council, and at the opening of the session
laid it before his Majesty, saying, "See, Sire, what your subjects live
upon."




OF MATTER AND MIND.                  177
the poverty and wretchedness of those by whom they
were surrounded; all this resulting necessarily from
the fact, that blind and ignorant selfishness in the
former had prevented them from seeing that the road
toward wealth, strength, and power led in a direction
tending toward giving mind control over matter,
and not in that which tended to the maintenance,
if not even increase, of the proportions of mere
material force.
Coming down to recent times, we find the first
Napoleon to have been engaged in creating, by
means of mere brute force, an inverted pyramid of
which at the date of his deposition the ruins alone
remained.     Looking now on France, the chief memorials extant of his reign are those which present
themselves in a codification of the laws that has
given to legal proceedings throughout the empire
an uniformity that previously had not existed; in a
highly developed industry; and in a sugar manufacture that has proved itself the most important
of all the contributions of science toward the creation of a real agriculture.*
* The general result of the protective policy in regard to sugar may
briefly thus be stated. Thirty years since the production was less than
30,000 tons. Before the late unhappy war it had reached 300,000, and
although the consumption of foreign and domestic products had been
doubled, there had arrived a necessity for finding exterior markets
to which to send the surplus. Agriculture meanwhile had so much
benefited that cattle in the sugar districts counted by thousands where
before had been but hundreds. Seeking elsewhere evidence of the
advantages to mankind at large that have resulted from this most
beneficient measure of protection, we find in Germany mind triumphing
over matter to such extent that the sugar product has already reauhet
12




178              THE UNITY OF LAW.
Simple and quiet as have been all these latter
operations, they have furnished great and permanent
results; and for the reason that their tendency has
been that of removing obstacles which before had
stood in the way of association; of promoting development of the various individualities of the
French people; of bringing into orderly arrangement
the societary positives and negatives; and of giving
to all the members of the societary body a power
for self-direction that previously had had no existence
whatsoever; or, to sum up all in a single brief expression, of giving   to mind   that power over matter
which France had before so greatly needed.
Looking to the younger Napoleon we find him
to have been steadily engaged in destroying the
power of home association by means of constantly
increasing demand for men to be employed in maintaining wars abroad; by stimulating his people to
huge investments in a distant canal, in foreign railroads, and in loans to Mexico and other States;
the canals of France herself remaining in a condition disgraceful to both the people and the State;
her farmers and manufacturers to a great extent
deprived of the advantages that would have resulted
250,000 tons, having nearly doubled in the last decade; that its contributions for the support of Government have reached $10,000,000; and
that the consumption per head is now twice what it was thirty years
since. Throughout much of Europe similar results have been obtained,
making it now quite safe to say that the grandest and most enduring
monument to the Napoleonic memory-that by which a century hence
he will best be known-is that of which he laid the corner-stone when
ordaining the naturalization of the sugar culture.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                    179
from rapid railroad intercourse;* her population
becoming almost stationary; her agriculture suffering for want of hands to do the work; her people
remaining ignorant to a supreme degree, millions
on millions being meanwhile spent on places of
amusement;t and the whole system           exhibiting in its
highest perfection the idea denounced by Mirabeau
when cautioning his countrymen against centraliza* Belgium and France together constitute the great highway of the
world; yet has the latter, with its 38,000,000 of people, fewer miles of
railroad than are possessed by the three States of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, with less than a fourth of the population.
t- "Who does not know the immense sacrifices that Germany has made
for the advancement and diffusion of knowledge; spending, for instance,
twenty thousand pounds sterling at Bonn in a chemical laboratory, forty
thousand at Heidelberg in a physical laboratory? Little Wurtemberg
devoted more money to superior instruction than big France. A thing
unheard of, France made the very fees of the university students a
source of revenue. She gave, without counting it, more than a couple
of millions of pounds sterling (between fifty and sixty million francs)
for the new Opera, and she refused forty thousand pounds for school
buildings. Last year on the deck of the steamer which was conveying
us to the inauguration of the Suez Canal, M. Duruy, the one man of
merit who ever served under the imperial government, told me the tale
of his griefs in the ministry of public instruction. He wanted to introduce compulsory education; the Emperor supported him; he had all
the other ministers against him. He had organized fifteen thousand
night schools for adults; it was with difficulty that he succeeded in
carrying off forty thousand pounds against the fatuous resistance of the
Council of State. There was the whole system of public instruction to
reorganize, and he could get nothing. They preferred to employ the
gold of the country in maintaining the ladies of the ballet, in building
barracks and palaces, in gilding monuments, the dome of the Invalides,
the roof of the Sainte Chapelle. It was in vain that men like Jules
Simon, Pelletan, Duruy, Jules Favre, cried out year after year,' There
must be millions for education, or France is lost.' The Government
was deaf. It denied nothing to pleasure, to luxury, to ostentation. It
denied everything to education."-M. de Laveleye in the Fortnightly
Review, Dec. 1870.




180             THE UNITY OF LAW.
tion, and telling them that "when the head grows
too large the body becomes apoplectic and wastes
away," losing power to perform its necessary work.
Of all this the result is seen in the fact that the
legacy bequeathed by the second empire to its posterity consists in an almost ruined State; in a
population that in point of numbers has almost
ceased to grow; in a magnificent capital abounding in unoccupied houses; and in a taxation so
severe as to make it doubtful if the country that had
been thus misgoverned and demoralized can ever
resume the position it so long had occupied among
the powers of the world. The price at which all
this ruin has been accomplished is found in the fact
that the national debt has grown in less than twenty
years fiom $1,200,000,000 to $5,500,000,000; this,
too, notwithstanding a great increase in the amount
of public contributions.*
That the policy of the merchant princes of the
earth has in like manner been exhaustive has been
already shown.t
Dealing, as they did, in slaves and other merchandise they discouraged combination among their
subjects, and, as a necessary consequence, left behind
them little beyond the ruins by means of which we
* Five years since, the author, in a "Review of the Decade" then published, showed that the Napoleonic policy was exhaustive in its character, and that without a radical change France would soon cease to be
counted among the great powers of the earth. The result thus predicted
has since come dangerously near to being realized.
t See pages 167-8 ante.




OF MATTER AND MIND.         181
are now enabled to see that they had once existed.
That "curses, like young chickens, always come
home to roost," is a Hindoo proverb, evidence of
whose truth is found in the history of all communities whose rulers have looked to the establishment
of permanent power by means of measures tending
towards giving to matter increased control over mind
-to capital increased control over labor.
~ 3. To another mode of warfare the reader's
attention will be now invited, to wit: that modern
one by means of which like results have been sought
to be obtained by means of laws prohibiting that
combination among societary positives and negatives
by aid of which alone mental force could be developed; thereby compelling the employment of ships,
wagons, and other machines in carrying rude products of the earth to distant countries, to be there
so changed in form as to be fitted for consumption
and thence returned to the place of production, reduced by this circuitous operation to a fifth, if to
even more than a tenth, of the quantity that had been
first supplied.
How destructive must be the effects of such a
" warfare" will at once be obvious to all who reflect
that it is by means of combination such as is
here prohibited, and by that alone, that labor can
be economized; that the infinitely various human
faculties can be developed; that power to control
the great natural forces can be obtained; or, that
man can attain that power of self-direction which




182               THE UNITY OF LAW.
manifests itself in freedom of thought, speech, or
action.
To England is due the honor of having first invented a course of action so obviously tending to
retain man in the condition of slave to nature, and
the weaker portion of mankind in that of slaves to
their fellow-men. First commenced in Ireland, and
there continued under various forms-with the exception only of the period of Irish legislative independence from    17S2 to 1800-to the present time,
its effects exhibit themselves in a subjection of mind
to matter without parallel in any country claiming
to be civilized; men, women, and children perishing
at times by millions; and poverty, wretchedness,
and slavery far worse than that of the well-fed
American negro, having been the normal condition
of the Irish people.
Transplanted to distant countries, this colonial
system proved so oppressive in what are now the
States of the American Union, as to compel that resistance whose final result was seen in the establishment of independence at the close of a seven years'
war in 1783.*
* See note to page 27, ante. How destructive was the system thus
established is shown by the fact that while thus debarred from all power
to diversify their employments the taxes for the profit of middlemen of
all descriptions, and for the public uses, were so severe that Virginia
planters hesitated to send their crops to England, fearing that they
might thereby be really brought in debt to their distant agents. So
was it, and so did it continue, in the sugar producing colonies to the
date of emancipation; the effect exhibiting itself in a destruction of life
wholly without precedent, except in the case of actual war. Of almost
2,000,000 of slaves that had been imported, nearly two-thirds had dis



OF MATTER AND MIND                   183
Theoretically, this system has been since abandoned; how, practically, it is now enforced is shown
in a Report to Parliament made some dozen years
since, an extract from which is here submitted, as
follows:" The laboring classes generally in the manufacturing districts
of the kingdom, and especially in the iron and coal districts, are
very little aware of the extent to which they are often indebted
for their being employed at all to the immense losses which their
employers voluntarily incur in bad times, in order to destroy
foreign competition, and to gain and keep possession of foreign
markets. Authentic instances are well known of employers
having in such times carried on their works at a loss amounting
in the aggregate to ~300,000 or ~400,000 in the course of three
or four years. If the efforts of those who encourage the combinations to restrict the amount of labor and to produce strikes
were to be successful for any length of time, the great accumulations of capital could no longer be made which enable a few
of the most wealthy capitalists to overwhelm all foreign competition in times of great depression, and thus to clear the way for
the whole trade to step in when prices revive, and to carry a
great business before foreign capital can again accumulate to
such an extent as to be able to establish a competition in prices
with any chance of success.  The large capitals of this country
are the great instruments of warfare against the competing capitals of foreign countries, and are the most essential instruments
now remaining by which our manufacturing supremacy can be
maintained; the other elements-cheap labor, abundance of
raw materials, means of communication, and skilled labor-being
rapidly in process of being equalized."
appeared, leaving behind no children to furnish proof that they ever
had existed. Contrary to the Darwinian theory, the " fittest" had rebelled, and had perished in the fastnesses to which they had retired,
leaving those least fitted for the strife for life to carry on the work of
procreation.




184                 THE UNITY OF LAW.
What now is the object of the " warfare" here so
accurately    described        Does    it look   to   development throughout the world of man's peculiar faculties?   Does it look to that economy of human force
which results from combinationl* Does it look to
promotion of that habit of association so essential
to development of the various individualities of the
thousand millions of the world's people? Does it
look to enabling those toiling millions to obtain
that control over the great natural forces in whose
default they can never hope to arrive at that power
for self-direction which manifests itself in perfect
freedom     of thought, word, and          action?     Does it
look to bringing about that orderly arrangement of
societary positives and negatives so necessary to the
* Of all commodities or things the only one that disappears on the
instant of its production is labor power, or human force, mental or material. If not instantly utilized it passes away, lost forever. The more
prompt the utilization the greater of course is the economy of force, the
larger is production, and the greater the laborer's share of the increased
product. See ante, pp. 66,127.  How diversification of employments
tends to bring about such result is shown below in a passage from a
recent article on " wages" by a member of the Ricardian school who
certainly has not fully appreciated the fact, that what is here described
as so beneficially occurring in an English county is precisely that
which England herself is seeking elsewhere to prevent, and which other
nations are seeking by means of protection against her system to obtain for themselves, to wit: that rapidity of circulation in whose absence
there can be neither economy of labor power, nor growth of societary
force.
" The manufacturing industry of the county offers a ready explanation
of these greater facilities [for raising food], since it enables the farmer
to obtain better instruments at the same, or a lower, price, to obtain
more easily a supply of manure, and by scattering towns more thickly
through the country places brings the markets within easier reach."
-Shadwell in Westminster Review, Jan. 1872, article Theory of Wages.




OF MIND AND MATTER.          185
development of force? Does it look to giving to the
minds of those millions increased control over matter, thereby placing those who are physically weak
more and more on a level with those who are physically strong?  Does it look to the creation of local
centres whose attractive powers shall tend to counterbalance the attraction of the great central sun of
the trading system? Does it look to relieving the
world's people from that most oppressive of all their
burdens, the tax of transportation? Does it look to
enabling them not only to maintain but to further
develop the powers of their land? Does it not, on
the contrary, look to prevention of association; to
preventing positives and negatives from taking their
places by each other's side; to preventing development of individuality; to preventing anywhere
the growth of power for self-direction, whether in
individuals or in the communities of which they are
parts; to increasing the burthen of transportation,
and thus more and more subjecting mind to matter;
to maintaining, even when not increasing, the barbarism that now exists?
For answer to this question let the reader look
to India, Portugal, Turkey, Mexico, Jamaica; to
Ireland with its continually recurring famines; to
China devastated as it has been by rebellions that
have had their origin in opium wars; to the world
at large, studying there the question as to whether
there now exists a single community that by reason
of its poverty, ignorance, or weakness has continued
subject to the tyranny of this monstrous system,




186                THE UNITY OF LAW.
and that yet has made any essential advance in the
direction of giving to mind that increased control
over matter in which consists a real civilization.*
~ 4. Appreciating fully the destructive character
of the policy above described, Prussia commenced
as early as 1819 an organized resistance thereto,
seeking to promote association within her own
borders and with her immediate neighbors, while
preventing interference from abroad on the part of
those whose potent instrument of warfare is above
described. For many years progress was very slow,
her every effort having been met with resistance on
the part of Hanover, then German representative
of the    foreign  trading   influence.    Step   by   step,
however, she grew      in attractive force, that of the
foreigner meantime declining, until at length and
at the close of sixteen years of effort, nearly the
whole German nation became united             for maintenance of the resistance that had been so well com* The people of Australia having found that under the system of
laissez faire the country was rapidly becoming "a huge sheep-walk;"
that " their farmers could no longer struggle in the face of discouragement and disaster;" that "their youth were growing up in a state of
semi-barbarism, without education, without employment, and without
hope for the future;" that " their manufactories were falling into decay,
their capital was idle, and the whole body in the saddest state;" have
now adopted measures for bringing together the societary positives and
negatives-producers and consumers; a course of action in which they
naturally find themselves opposed by all those who heretofore have profited by means of buying wool cheap and selling dear the cloth the
shepherds needed. Canada tends now in the same direction, the necessity therefor becoming from day to day more clearly obvious as emigration to the protected country south of the lakes tends more and more to
arrest the growth of population.




OF MATTER AND MIND.             187
menced.   From and after that date progress became
more rapid from year to year, mind daily obtaining
increased power over matter, and to such extent
that more than a dozen years since the present author was led to express the opinion that Germany,
whose "national sin for the last two centuries,"
according to Chevalier Bunsen, "had been poverty,
the condition of all classes with few exceptions;"
Germany which but thirty years before had been
held to be so greatly overpopulated as to warrant
suggestion of a resort to infibulation as the only
remedy:* then already stood "first in Europe in
point of intellectual development," and was "advancing in the physical and moral condition of her
people with a rapidity exceeding that of any other
portion of the Eastern hemisphere."t
Since then, an empire has been created embracing a population little short of 40,000,000, among
whom education is universal; with an admirable
and rapidly-growing system of internal railroad
communications; with a commerce as perfectly organized as any in the world, and growing from day
to day with extraordinary rapidity; with a market
on the land for nearly all its products, and, as a
necessary consequence, with an agricultural popu* WEINHOLD. Von der Uebervolkerung in Mittel Europa. Halle, 1829.
-He proposed that infibulation should be established by law, and
accomplished by means of soldering up all males at their 14th year,
and so retaining them until they could prove that they had the means
required for supporting a family.
t Principles of Social Science. Chap. xxiv. ~ 11.




188           THE UNITY OF LAW
lation that grows daily in both intelligence and
power; with a public treasury so well provided
that not only have the expenditures of recent wars
been readily provided for, but that large additions
have been made to the provision for public education; and with private treasuries so well supplied as
to enable her people not only to build their own
furnaces and factories and construct their own roads,
but also to furnish hundreds of millions to the improvident people of America, to be by them applied
to the making of roads in a country the abundance
of whose natural resources should long since have
placed it in the position of money lender, rather
than that now occupied of general money borrower.
How rapid has been, and now is, progress in those
mechanic arts in whose absence there can be no
economy of labor, no increase in the power of selfdirection, will be seen on an examination of the
following facts in regard to iron, that one commodity
in whose greater or less consumption we find the
most conclusive evidence of advancing or declining
civilization. In 1850, the product of steel was
valued at $350,000. Since then, having meantime
endowed the world with the great gift of the Bessemer process, it has grown to $17,000,000. In 1850,
the total product of pig and wrought iron was but
$15,000,000; whereas, in 1869, it was considerably
in excess of $100,000,000, the growth becoming
more rapid from year to year.
From year to year the tendency to combination,
as exhibited in the creation or enlargement of indus



OF MATTER AND MIND.                    189
trial, co-operative, and educational associations, becomes more and more fully developed; and it is as a
necessary consequence of this that the whole community has in the recent war manifested a power so
terrific. From year to year mind obtains increased
power over matter; the land becomes more and
more divided;* and the people more and more obtain that power for self-direction which follows always in the wake of increase of power to control
and direct the great forces of nature to man's service.t
* "In Prussia, by the law of 1850, the small3st occupier of peasant's
land acquires the proprietorship at twenty years' purchase, the amount
being paid to the landlord, not in money, but in rent debentures issued
by the authority of the State, and bearing four per cent. interest; and
gradually redeemable by means of the one per cent. difference, which
at compound interest extinguishes the principal in a little over fortyone years. The Prussian peasant has, however, two other options: he
may pay less by one-tenth to the State bank than the rent he formerly
paid to his landlord, in which case the purchase debentures take fiftysix years to redeem; or he may, if he can raise the cash, compel his
landlord to accept eighteen years' purchase-money to the annual rent.
By this means nearly 100,000 peasant proprietors have been created in
Prussia. Rent debentures to the extent of many millions have been
issued to the landowners, and in less than eighteen years more than
one-eighth of the debentures issued have been entirely redeemed and
extinguished."
t The extraordinary growth of the associative force, its influence in
developing the various individualities, and its tendency toward development of power for self-direction, are all well exhibited in the
following paragraph, giving particulars of the practical operations of
the largest co-operative German bank, in Silesia. "It is a loan bank, the
loans being advanced to the members on easy terms of payment, secured
by mortgages which it but rarely forecloses, encouraging members by aid
and counsel when they are in difficulties. It deals with laboring people;
fines and forfeitures are not imposed for delinquencies. A weaver, for
instance, having learned his trade, pays his initiation fee, subscribes
for shares in the bank to the amount of the loan he expects to ueed,




190                THE UNITY     OF LAW.
Out of the shattered fragments which half a century since were marked on the map as Germany,
there has now been created the most powerful
empire of the Eastern world; one in which the
power for self-direction, whether on the part of the
people or their government, is a constantly increasing force; and one that promises to do more for the
final emancipation of mind from the control of matter than any the world until now has seen.
To what, however, has this all been due? To the
quiet and simple operation of the protective features
of the system of the Zoll-Verein, long regarded by
and in the course of a month or two the bank enables him to purchase
directly the yarn that he proposes to weave, the loom that he will
weave it upon, perhaps the house which will contain the loom a:d
in which he and his family will reside. A dozen weavers clubbing
together, similarly helped, may start a cloth factory. In general the
bank endeavors to enable its members to be the merchants and managers of their own labor. Co-operative stores for provisions receive its
assistance, in all cases dispensing with intermediate dealers. The aid
that it supplies to farmers and to students in difficulties, is comparable
only in its beneficence to the highest form of benevolence, since it
sustains the recipient without degrading him. It has no dealings with
the wealthy. Not only in Breslau itself, but also in the towns around
it, co-operative stores and small factories spring up; some of them have
already paid back their loans and are returning dividends to their
stockholders. The bank has 3500 members who clear 9~ per cent. on
their money, besides a percentage of benefit funds. Its cash capital,
made up of small initiation fees and instalments on shares, is upward
of $1,000,000, and its profits last year exceeded $100,000. This bank
is one of a confederacy of 1500 banks, having 300,000 members,
100,000,000 money on hand, making loans last year of not less than
139,000,000 thalers, and a common centre in the Genossenschafts Bank
in Berlin, which itself assists in turn these banks, and aids in preserving
the financial equilibrium of this vast system from its own resources,
which include 16,000,000 thalers circulating, and nearly 40,000,000 permanent capital."




OF MATTER AND MIND.          191
the author as the most important measure of the
century, and among the most important ever adopted
in Europe. Under it, as in France under the system
of Colbert, internal commerce was free, the laborer
meanwhile being protected against the destructive
system of warfare invented by England, and above
described. Under it labor was everywhere economized. Under it, the positives and negatives of a
whole nation were brought into communication with
each other, and thus has been created a great battery
of 40,000,000 pairs of plates throughout which there
is a rapidity of circulation scarcely elsewhere on so
large a scale exceeded; and destined ultimately, in
all probability, to produce effects throughout the
Eastern continent fully equal to any that may, by
even the most sanguine, be hoped for in this Western
one.
The lion and the tiger-the Caesar and Napoleon
of the animal world-leave behind no evidences of
their ever having existed. The little coral insect
creates islands that endure forever. So is it like to
be with that great monument just now erected to the
memory of FREDERIC LIST and his associates, the
humble laborers to whom the world at large stands
indebted for the formation of the Zoll-Verein.
~ 5. The "Continental System" of the first Napoleon gave to Russian manufactures a temporary
impulse, but at the close of the great war, in 1815,
resistance to the system of trading " warfare" above
described was altogether abandoned; the results
speedily exhibiting themselves in the closing of




192             THE UNITY OF LAW.
manufacturing establishments; in paralysis of the
domestic commerce; in bankruptcy of the public
treasury; and in the daily increasing poverty and
wretchedness of all who needed to sell their services.
Foreign bankers, manufacturers, and traders, meanwhile grew rich as matter thus increased in its
power over mind, and as the power of association
and combination among the Russian people more
and more tended to disappear.
There, however, as everywhere has been the case,
but few years of such sad experience were required
for teaching the Emperor Alexander, theoretical
freewtrader as he was, that further abstinence from
an intelligent exercise of the co-ordinative power
could end in nothing short of absolute and entire
ruin to both his people and himself. Trherefore
was it, that almost simultaneously with the Prussian
movement above described, and the American one
to be hereafter noticed, a policy of resistance to
trading " warfare" was entered on, the results whereof are exhibited in a work by an English gentleman
whose position as head of one of the most extensive
industrial enterprises of the empire, and whose extensive travels, have enabled him to bring before
the world a large collection of highly interesting
facts, to some few of which we here give place, as
follows:"The manufacturing industry of Russia increases rapidly,
whilst it is curious to observe that, although a Russian workman
is capable of imitating everything that is shown to him, his
power of initiation is generally nil. Still there are manufactures
in which Russians excel. The printed cloths, for instance, are




OF MATTER AND MIND.                 193
unique, well-made, and of good designs: well known in the
Eastern markets, throughout Central Asia and China.
"In the manufacture of woollen goods they also. have made
some progress, and a very respectable kind of cloth is now produced in Russia, which has superseded the manufacture of our
own country in many Oriental markets. China, Afghanistan,
Persia, and the northwest borders of India are now supplied
with the produce of Russian looms, which, if not so good in
quality, is as well liked by the Eastern people as English cloth,
and is considerably cheaper.
"Her manufactures in the precious metals are celebrated
throughout the world for elegance and beauty. Her productions
in leather are unrivalled, and the versatility of her manufacturing
genius is so unbounded that it would be difficult to name an
article of modern invention that is not made somewhere in her
empire.
" And with all this it must be remembered that the manufacturing industry of Russia is not yet fifty years old. It required
nursing under a system of protection, but is now so far developed
as to admit a great deal of competition, and the gradual introduction of a liberal policy.
" The great annual fairs, Nijny-Novgorod and Isbit, are now
crowded with Russian manufactures. In the former alone the
turnover exceeds 17,000,000 pounds.
" Everything now is done to stimulate trade. Every inducement held out to encourage manufacture. * * * Fabrics are
now springing up fitted with native-made machinery. Branches
of industry are started which before were thought to be impossible
for Russian ingenuity to master, and trade flourishes as it never
flourished before. Ever since the Crimean war the amount of
interchange of commodities has been increasing; this in the face
of a tariff that was the worst in Europe* must show what a power
this empire has in herself.
" For one article of manufacture, that of sugar from beet-root,
Russia possesses more establishments than any other country in
the world.
* That is, the most protective.
13




194             THE UNITY OF LAW.
"See what they have, done in cotton spinning. There are
now upwards of three hundred establishments in which this staple
is prepared, and where something like 400,000 bales are worked
up annually. The import of raw cotton last year was one-quarter more than in 1868. * * * The prints are capital in
quality and beautiful in design. I think, take the same quality,
the designs are far prettier and neater than our own; and from
experience the Russian prints wear as well as ours.
"The manufacture of silk has attained considerable proportions, and in Moscow and the neighborhood are some two hundred
establishments where this industry is developing itself."*
As a necessary consequence of the great movement thus described, there has been an increase of
the domestic commerce without a parallel in the
Eastern hemisphere to have been so speedily brought
about. Steam vessels now abound, all built at home;
from year to year new river routes are opened; locomotives are now of domestic manufacture; railroads
have already so far grown that their extent now
equals that of France; local centres increase in
number and importance as consumers and producers
are more nearly brought together; land increases
rapidly in its money value as cultivation is extended
and improved; the demand for labor so much increases that the day is held to be not far distant when Russia will make demands on central
Europe for its surplus population; the government
meanwhile "straining every nerve in the effort to
become independent;" that is to say, to secure for
itself that power for self-direction whose growth in
all countries has been, and must ever be, ill the
* Barry, Russia in 1870. London 1871.




OF MATTER AND MIND.          195
ratio of the orderly arrangement of the human
positives and negatives submitted to its direction.
Throughout the long period of forty years the
efforts of the first Alexander, of his brother Nicholas, and of his nephew the present Emperor, were
directed toward the substitution of a true pyramid
for that inverted one which previously had existed
-the results having recently exhibited themselves
in a measure of emancipation the most remarkable
of all that the world yet has seen; one whose success is here described as having been in all respects
most complete; one that has given to the societary
structure a broad base of admirably disposed, though
as yet but very ignorant, body of workingmen free
to sell their labors in the dearest market; and one
that has proved but the precursor of other and most
"important reforms," tending to enable the Empire
"to move forward with a steady progress that promises in this generation to make up for much wasted
time in the past."
" In no country of Europe," says Mr. Barry, "has
the march of civilization and progress in modern
times been more rapid, decided, and systematic than
in Russia;" all this, as he continues, " having been
effected by the energy and wisdom of a few master
minds; and to become a matter of astonishment to
future generations; proving, when fully revealed,
one of the most instructive chapters of history;"
proving further, as it does, the utter worthlessness
of that trading policy of laissez faire by means of
which the societary body is proposed to be denied




196             THE UNITY OF LAW.
all power of intervention for promoting association
among the individuals of which it is composed.*
That the broader the base the higher may the
building be carried is a truth as certain in social as
it is in architectural science. Having, as above described, laid the foundation in a great and rapidly
increasing domestic commerce, Russia carries steadily up the apex of her edifice; her foreign commerce having grown with the growth of power
amongst her people to pay for the products of other
climes, and the day being now held to be fast approaching when Moscow will be the grand centre of
commerce between the various peoples of Asia and
those of Europe. That such will be the case is
highly probable, transportation throughout the empire being even now effected at a cost that is
wonderfully small, and Russian transportation ranking among the best the world can furnish.
For nearly half a century Germany and Russia
have been engaged in the effort at bringing into orderly arrangement their hundred millions of human
positives and negatives; that effort having been
maintained in absolute defiance of gentlemen who
have sought to enlighten the world by means of "a
science based upon assumptions;" a science by whose
* In one of his pamphlets Mr. Cobden told his countrymen that in
the free trade period, 1815-24, Russia had been so entirely dependent
upon foreigners that stoppage of intercourse with them would have been
" to doom a portion of her people to absolute nakedness." By promoting interdependence at home the government has secured for itself independence abroad, the two marching every where together throughout
the world.




OF MATTER AND MIND.         197
present teachers they are daily taught that national
prosperity and happiness must inevitably result fiom
submission to a system of "warfare" having for its
object that of enabling a few of the "most wealthy
English capitalists" to annihilate foreign competition, and thus prevent every where outside of
Britain the growth of that habit and those powers of
association to which alone can we look for such development of human force as is required for enabling man to become controller and director of the
great natural forces, and to obtain for himself full
exercise of that greatest of human faculties, the
power for self-direction.
The Russian statesman looks to giving mind a
mastery over matter, the result exhibiting itself in
the fact, as stated by our author, that "starve the
peasants don't, and beg they don't." The English
policy, now so generally taught, looks on the contrary to maintaining and increasing the power of
matter over mind, its results exhibiting themselves,
as has been already shown, in a rapidly rising tide
of pauperism, and in an agricultural population
having before it no future but the poor-house.
The tendencies throughout the two great empires
of the eastern continent having thus been shown to
be in the former direction, we may now with advantage study the course of events in these United
States, constituting as they do the great empire of
the West.




198                THE UNITY OF LAW.
CHAPTER VIII.
MATTER AND MIND.-(Continued.)
~ 1. WHEN Lord Chatham asserted his determination that Englishmen who had gone to countries beyond the Atlantic should not be allowed to make
for themselves even so much as a "hob-nail," he
merely gave to the bankers, brokers, trading and
manufacturing capitalists of England assurance
that they should continue to be protected in their
already existing right to demand and receive threefourths of the produce of American labor.* The
colonists might, if they would, exhaust their soils
and thus ruin themselves in the effort at furnishing
the world's supply of tobacco, provided only, that
their products passed outward by aid of the ships,
sailors, traders, and brokers of England. They
might, if they would, raise sheep, but to enable
them to convert their wool into hats or coats they
must ask the aid of British ships and mills, paying
to their owners the accustomed tribute. They might
* "If we examine into the circumstances of the inhabitants of our plantations, and our own, it will appear that not one-fourth of their product
redounds to their own profit, for, out of all that comes here, they only carry
back clothing and other accommodations for their families, all of which is of
the merchandise and manufacture of this kingdom....  All these
advantages we receive by the plantations, besides the mortgages on theplanters' estates and the high interest they pay us, which is very considerable."Gee on Trade, London, 1750.




OF MATTER AND MIND.           199
convert timber and ore into crude iron, but before
they could be allowed to use it for construction of
a plough, a wheel, or a house, it must twice cross
the ocean. Diversity of employments was thus by
law prohibited, and thus were the unfortunate colonists deprived of all exercise of that power of association to which alone could they look for such development of their various faculties as was required
for enabling them to become masters and directors
of the great natural forces, thereby acquiring for
themselves power for self-direction.* Capital, as its
owners were assured, was to remain master over labor, and matter was to be maintained in its mastery
over mind, precisely as was then the case throughout
the British West India Islands, and as it since has
been in both India and Australia. Then, as now, the
positives and negatives of society were to be everywhere prevented from so taking their places side by
side together as would give occasion to any development whatsoever of mental force.
The grievous subjugation of labor to capital thus
established compelled a resistance that was followed
by revolution so complete that the right to independent legislation became at length secured. That
it should be profitably exercised it was, however,
needed that all the late provinces should be brought
to act together, thereby forming "a more perfect
union" than that by which their people had been
carried through the troubles of the past. For ob* See note to p. 27, ante.




200           THE UNITY OF LAW.
taining this much time was yet required, and it
proved a period of the severest trial, the domestic
markets having been so flooded with. the produce
of foreign workshops that poverty and wretchedness every where prevailed; the farmer finding no
market for his products, and the workman no demand for the services he desired to render. From
day to day the suffering became more intense, until
at length they found themselves compelled to adoption of a Constitution, by means of which they
were to be enabled to present a united front in resistance to the trading monopolists by whom they
had been so long oppressed, and were then being
ruined.
With the year 1789 came the so-much-desired
Union, and among the earliest of the phenomena
attendant on its arrival was the appearance of Washington in the halls of Congress arrayed in clothing
all of which had been the produce of American fields
and workshops. Following in the same direction
we find Franklin exhibiting to the people the advantages to result from diversified employments;
Hamilton, the Statesman of the age, whether at home
or abroad, meantime urging the adoption of measures tending to the establishment of that domestic
interdependence in whose absence there could
be neither political nor industrial independence.
Among the earliest proceedings of Congress, therefore, we find the adoption of a resolution calling on
this last, then Secretary of the Treasury, for " a
plan or plans," of measures looking to the " encour



OF MATTER AND MIND.               201
agement and protection of such manufactures as
will tend to render the United States independent
of other nations for essential, and particularly for
military supplies." In the following year such measures were adopted, the axe having thus been laid at
the root of that colonial dependence by means of
which association had been prevented, and with it
that diversification in the demands for labor, mental
or physical, so essential to the development of freedom, whether of thought, speech, or action.    Mind,
henceforth, was to be allowed to exercise that dominion over matter which in the past had been by
law prohibited.
Thenceforward, however, for nearly a quarter of
a century, mere brute force was more widely triumphant than at any previous period of the world
since the fall of the Roman Empire. French armies
time and again ravaged and plundered the various
countries of Europe; English fleets in turn ravaging
and plundering on the ocean, and gradually driving
therefrom  every flag but that of Britain.*    Of all
the triumphs then secured of capital over labor,
matter over mind, there was, however, none so enduring in effect as that accomplished by means of
* As the result of a single decree of Sir William Scott, then Admiralty
Judge, a thousand American ships and cargoes were confiscated, to the
ruin of thousands, if not even tens of thousands, of American citizens,
their wives and families. Since then Lord Chancellor Campbell has told
his countrymen that not only had the Orders in Council been "grievously
unjust to neutrals," but also that it had come to be "generally allowed
that they were contrary to the law of nations and to our own municipal
law "




202                 THE UNITY OF LAW.
measures whose effects soon after exhibited themselves in the utter ruin of that wonderful cotton
manufacture which had made demand for labor and
skill in almost every household of Hindostan; a
change attended with ruin and distress to which,
as official documents testify, "no parallel can be
found in the annals of commerce."* The interdependence that previously had existed was thus annihilated, an absolute dependence far worse than
that of the American negro slave being established
in its place.
Driven from the ocean by means of measures so
discreditable that none could now be found so hardy
as to utter a word in their defence, the American
people resorted first to measures of protection in the
form of non-intercourse laws; but at length to a war
that for nearly three years closed their ports against
all British products. The effect of this policy of
resistance was that of so stimulating the domestic
commerce that at the close of the war, in 1815, they
had better reason than had ever before existed for
* The process by means of which this revolution was accomplished was
a very simple one, consisting, as it did, in prohibiting the export to India
of either machinery or of artisans by which it might be made; in prohibition of duties on British cottons imported into India; in the imposition of
heavy duties on India cottons imported into England; and in the imposition of heavy taxes on all the poor machinery then used in India. Of all the
tyrannies recorded in the historic page there is none that has proved so
searching and so destructive-none that has so greatly tended to maintenance and extension of the already existing control of matter over mindas that exhibited in British India. On this continent, and in all other of
the British possessions, the end in view has been only that of preventing all
combination of effort and therewith all growth of civilization; but in India
it has been that of annihilating an already existing civilization.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                 203
looking to the future as promising complete emancipation of labor from the tyranny of distant capitalists, and the establishment of an interdependence
at home by means of which they would be enabled
to make of their political independence a reality
never to be obtained pending the existence of industrial dependence.      Unfortunately, however, as
shortly previous had been done by both Germany
and Russia, they wholly forgot the lessons of the
past; levelling the barriers by which their great
industries had been defended and placing themselves wholly in the power of the very men who,
throughout so many years, had heaped upon them
injuries that had compelled resort to war; doing
this, too, in face of the fact that Mr. Brougham
had from his place in Parliament just then told his
countrymen that "it was well worth while to incur
a loss upon the first exportation, in order by the glut
to stifle in the cradle those rising manufactures in
the United States which the war had forced into
existence, contrary to the natural order of things."*
The policy of resistance having been thus abandoned,
furnaces and factories were everywhere closed; producers and consumers, societary positives and nega* Almost simultaneously with the delivery of this speech, Mr. Jefferson
was writing to one of his friends as follows: " You tell me I am quoted by
those who wish to continue our dependence on England for manufactures.
There was a time when I might have been so quoted with more candor.. We have since experienced what we did not then believe, that
there exists both profligacy and power enough to exclude us from the field
of interchange with other nations-that to be independent for the comforts
of life, we must fabricate them ourselves. We must now place the manufacturer by the side of the agriculturist."




204              THE UNITY OF LAW.
tives, were separated; and the nation was thus remanded to the position of submissive dependence
on the will of those same foreign bankeis and traders
in whose favor the "Great Commoner" had, less
than half a century before, announced his determination not to permit that diversification of pursuits
to which alone could it look for obtaining power
for self-direction in either the people or the State.
Matter was now to be reinstated in its control over
mind, capital in its control over labor.
What were the results of the policy of non-resistance, now so unhappily re-inaugurated, is shown in
a passage here below    given from   the works of an
eminent statesman of that day, Senator Benton,
whose persistent opposition to measures of resistance forbids the idea of exaggeration:"The years of 1819 and 1820 were a period of gloom and
agony. No money, either gold or silver; no paper convertible into specie, no measure of, or standard of, value left remaining. The local banks (all but those of New England), after
a brief resumption of specie payments, again sank into a state of
suspension. The Bank of the United States, created as a remedy
for all those evils, now at the head of the evil, prostrate and
helpless, with no power left but that of suing its debtors and
selling their property, and purchasing for itself at its own nominal price. No price for property or produce; no sales but those
of the sheriff and the marshal; no purchaser at the execution sales
but the creditor or some hoarder of money; no employment for
industry; no demand for labor; no sale for the products of the
farm; no sound of the hammer but that of the auctioneer knocking down property. Stop laws, property laws, replevin laws,
stay laws, loan-office laws, the intervention of the legislature
between the creditor and the debtor, this was the business of
legislation in three-fourths of the States of the Union-of all




OF MATTER AND MIND.                205
south and west of New England. No medium of exchange but
depreciated paper; no change even but little bits of foul paper
marked so many cents, and signed by some tradesman, barber, or
innkeeper; exchanges deranged to the extent of fifty or one hundred per cent. Distress, the universal cry of the people; relief,
the universal demand, thundered at the door of all legislatures,
States and Federal."
That the state of affairs here described was to a
great extent an enduring one, and that its cause was
to be found in the waste of labor, and of its rude
products, that follows necessarily in the wake of
measures tending towards production of an exclusive agriculture, are shown conclusively in an extract from a letter of General Jackson's of later date,
here given, as follows:" I will ask, what is the real situation of the agriculturist?
Where has the American farmer a market for his surplus products? Except for cotton, he has neither a foreign nor a home
market. Does this not clearly prove, when there is no market,
either at home or abroad, that there is too much labor employed
in agriculture, and that the channels of labor should be multiplied? Common sense points out at once the remedy. Draw
from agriculture the superabundant labor; employ it in mechanism and manufactures, thereby creating a home market for
your breadstuffs, and distributing labor to a most profitable
account; and benefits to the country will result. Take from
agriculture in the United States six hundred thousand men,
women, and children, and you at once give a home market for
more breadstuffs than all Europe now furnishes us. In short,
sir, we have been too long subject to the policy of British
merchants. It is time we should become a little more Americanized, and instead of feeding the paupers and laborers of
Europe, feed our own; or else, in a short time, by continuing
our present policy, we shall all be paupers ourselves."




206            THE UNITY OF LAW.
Like to the solvents of the electric battery the
converters of a community-makers of cloth and iron,
books, instruments, ships, houses, mills, and furnaces
-constitute a body of conductors of an electric force
whose action becomes more and more intense as
societary positives and negatives, producers and consumers, are brought into closer relations each with
every other. Withdraw the former and circulation
ceases, the metallic plates becoming as inert and lifeless as had been the material of which they are composed when it still remained embosomed in the earth.
Withdrawing the latter-closing mills, furnaces,
and workshops-similar results are everywhere produced; the circulation ceasing; power, whether physical or mental, being wasted; and paralysis taking
the place of activity and life, precisely as has been the
case in Ireland, India, and all other countries that,
under the control of the trading monopoly above described, have been compelled to look to a semi-barbarous agriculture for the means of life. To that
end tended the policy of the Union when non-resistance had been adopted, the result here exhibited
having been precisely that which might in advance
have been predicted.
~ 2. Sad experience having proved that in that
direction lay poverty, wretchedness, and growing
subjection of mind to matter, labor to capital, we
find in 1824* a return to measures of resistance,
* Prussia commenced the work of resistance in 1818, but to this date had
had but little success in her effort at constructing that " Customs Union"
to which she since has owed the wonderful power that now is manifested.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                 207
and with results such as are here described by Mr.
Clay, another of the eminent men of that important
period:"Eight years ago it was my painful duty to present to the
other House of Congress an unexaggerated picture of the general distress pervading the whole land. We must all yet remember some of its frightful features. We all know that the people
were then oppressed and bowed down by an enormous load of
debt; that the value of property was at its lowest point of depression; that ruinous sales and sacrifices were everywhere made
of real estate; that stop laws and relief laws and paper money
were adopted to save the people from impending destruction;
that a deficit in the public revenue existed which compelled Government to seize upon and divert from its legitimate object the
appropriations to the sinking fund to redeem the national debt,
and that our commerce and navigation were threatened with a
complete paralysis. In short, sir, if I were to select any term
of seven years since the adoption of the present Constitution which
exhibited a scene of the most wide-spread dismay and desolation,
it would be exactly that term of seven years which immediately
preceded the establishment of the tariff of 1824.
" I have now to perform the more pleasing task of exhibiting an
imperfect sketch of the existing state of the unparalleled prosperity
of the country. On a general survey we behold cultivation extended, the arts flourishing, the face of the country improved,
our people fully and profitably employed, and the public countenance exhibiting tranquillity, contentment, and happiness. And
if we descend into particulars, we have the agreeable contemplation of a people out of debt; land rising slowly in value, but
in a secure and salutary degree; a ready though not extravagant
market for all the surplus production of our industry; innumerable flocks and herds browsing and gambolling on ten thousand
hills, and plains covered with rich and verdant grapes; our cities
expanded, and whole villages springing up as it were by enThe adoption by Russia of measures of resistance was simultaneous with
that of the United States, like causes having thus produced like results.




208              THE UNITY OF LAW.
chantment; our tonnage, foreign and coastwise, swelling and
fully occupied; the rivers of our interior animated by the perpetual thunder and lightning of countless steamboats; the currency sound and abundant; the public debt of two wars nearly
redeemed, and, to crown all, the public treasury overflowingembarrassing Congress not to find subjects of takation, but to
select objects which shall be liberated from the impost. If the
term of seven years were to be selected qf the greatest prosperity
which this people have enjoyed since the establishment of their
present Constitution, it would be exactly that period of seven years
which immediately followed the passage of the tariff of 1824."
To the testimony that has thus been furnished of
three eminent statesmen of that date, all differing
in regard to other questions of high importance but
all concurring in their exhibitions of the destructive
tendency of the non-resistant policy, might here be
added that of Madison, Jefferson, and many other
men of high position. In proof of the perfect accuracy of Mr. Clay's exhibit of the benefits resulting
from adoption of the resistant one we need but look
to the fact that so abounding were the public resources that the Treasury found itself compelled to
redemption, at par, of the last remaining portion of
the national debt, though bearing an interest of but
three per cent. To those now living who had been
then familiar with the occurrences of the day it is
scarcely necessary to say, that throughout the whole
country there was a rapidity of the societary circulation, and a development of power for the subjugation of matter to man's control, wholly without
parallel to have been accomplished in so brief a
period.
~ 3. Results so brilliant, and so entirely unparal



OF MATTER AND MIND.                         209
leled, would certainly have had the result of establishing resistance as the permanent policy of the
nation, had it not been, most unfortunately, that by
the whites of nearly one-half of the States it was
held as a part of their confession of faith, that of
right capital should own labor, the laborer himself
having "no rights that his owner was bound to respect;" and being liable to be bought and sold in
open market, with or without his wife and children,
at that owner's pleasure. Directly the reverse of
this, it was held throughout the other States that
all had been "born equal," and that all were alike
entitled to claim perfect volition in reference to
speech, thought, and action. As a consequence of
this essential difference, their industrial tendencies
were directly the opposite of each other-those of
the one looking to an exclusive agriculture; to exhaustion of the soil;* to dispersion of their popula* " An Alabama planter says that cotton has destroyed more than earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Witness the red hills of Georgia and South
Carolina, which have produced cotton till the last dying gasp of the soil
forbade any further attempt at cultivation; and the land turned out to
nature, reminds the traveller, as he views the dilapidated condition of the
country, of the ruins of ancient Greece."
Dr. Daniel Lee, in his Progress of Agriculture, in the United States
Patent Office Report for 1852, says;" Cotton culture presents one feature which we respectfully commend to
the earnest consideration of southern statesmen and planters, and that is
the constantly increasing deterioration of the soil devoted mainly to the
production of this important crop. Already this evil has attained a fearful magnitude; and under the present common practice it grows a little
faster than the increase of cotton bales at the South. Who can say when
or where this ever augmenting exhaustion of the natural resources of the
cotton-growing States is to end, short of their ruin?
"Of the land cultivated in this country, one hundred million acres are
14




210            THE UNITY OF LAW.
tion; to prevention of association among the chattels
as among the masters; and to consequent maintenance of material power: the other, on the contrary,
looking to the creation of a scientific agriculture;
to development of the powers of the soil and of the
various individualities of the people; and to subjection to human control of all those great natural
forces by whose aid labor and its rude products
could be so much economized. The one dispersed
its people and left its roads in a state of nature.
The other sought to concentrate its people and to
improve its roads. The one prohibited education
among its toiling millions; the other, meanwhile,
expending tens of millions on schools and colleges.
The one favored emigration from the centre to the
south and southwest, with constant decrease of power
for either mental or material improvement. The
other favored immigration from abroad as tending to
give daily increase of power for the building of furnaces and mills, for the maintenance of roads, and for
the establishment and support of schools, churches,
libraries, and all other of the appliances of a constantly advancing civilization.  The one desired
maintenance of mere material power, and to that end
sought return to that policy of non-resistance under
which they but a few years previously had so severely
suffered. The other desired that mind should obtain increased power over matter, and therefore
damaged to the extent of three dollars per acre per annum; or, in other
words, a complete restitution of the elements of crops removed each year
cannot be made short of an expense of $300,000,000."




OF MATTER AND MIND.                 211
advocated maintenance of that resistance by means
of which they had now so greatly prospered. The
one desired continuance of dependence on distant
traders, and to them it was that it looked f6r
material and mental aid in all political contests.
The other desired the establishment of domestic
interdependence as a means of securing both political and industrial independence, and therefore did
it look always homeward for support.          The one,
in short, advocated the policy of barbarism; the
other meanwhile giving all its efforts in the direction
of an advancing civilization. This last as a necessary
consequence grew steadily in strength, becoming fiom
year to year more self-reliant. The other, fearing decline in its power for controlling the societary movement, found itself from day to day more and more
compelled to look for help to that people whose
journals most abounded in denunciations of its
peculiar system.*
To the contest here exhibited between matter and
mind   the world    stands now    indebted for having
witnessed the formation of an organization for the
maintenance of material power differing from all
that had ever before existed; and formidable to a
* As a counterbalance to denunciations of slavery in the abstract, the
great advantages resulting to England from its maintenance in practice were
constantly exhibited to the English people in articles of which the one here
given may be taken as a specimen.
"When his (the Manchester operative's) blood boils at the indignities
and cruelties heaped upon the colored race in the'Land of the Free,' he
does not always remember that to the slave States of America he owes his
all-that it is for his advantage that the negro should wear his chains in
peace." —ousehold TUords.




212                  THE UNITY OF LAW.
degree    that could      scarcely have     been    imagined by
any who had not seen how almost infinite had been
the injury of which it had been the cause. Southern planters stood now side by side with poor
southern whites who could neither write nor read;*
the ignorance, the vice, and the intemperance of
both North and South furnished an army arrayed in
opposition to the resistant policy;t the trader,
whether in negroes or in merchandise, made common cause with the aristocratic planter, who thought
and spoke of him only with contempt; Irish immigrants combined with men who held that the laborer
might righteously be both bought and sold; the
extraordinary alliance thus formed being backed
by British capital, at all times ready to be used for
aiding in reducing to subjection those of the American
* "Whether the North Carolina'dirt-eater,' or the South Carolina'sand-hiller,' or the Georgia' cracker,' is lowest in the scale of human existence would be difficult to say.  The ordinary plantation negro seemed
to me, when I first saw him in any numbers, at the very bottom of not
only probabilities, but also possibilities, so far as they affect human relations; but these specimens of the white race must be credited with having
reached a yet lower depth of squalid and beastly wretchedness."-Correspondance of the Boston Daily Advertiser.
t For very many years the whole majority of Virginia favorable to the
non-resistant policy came from a single district-then denominated the
" tenth legion"-in which reading and writing were almost as rare as in
Central Africa. In like manner, the great northern centre of the submissive policy is found in a city whose population largely represents the ignorance and intemperance of foreigners; and whose officers, municipal and
judicial, are now under trial for offences of the most grievous and disreputable kind. Of the regular frequenters of the grog shop throughout the
Northern States, nine-tenths are men whose votes may be always counted
on as adverse to that policy of resistance which finds its most ardent advocates where schools and churches most abound.




OF MATTER AND MIND.         213
people who believed in an universal diffusion of
education, and in the most full development of the
various individualities of a rapidly growing population; but who, unfortunately for " wealthy capitalists"
abroad, had arrived at the conclusion that it was in
the direction of resistance to trading monopoly, and
in that alone, that men could look for obtaining
such power for direction of the great natural forces
as was required for enabling them even to hope for
final establishment of the equal right of each and
every man before the law, and for growth in the
power of self-direction in either the people or the
State.
Controlled and directed by this remarkable proslavery combination, Congress readopted the policy
of non-resistance, to begin to take effect at the close
of 1835, and thenceforward, until 1860, with the exception of a single brief and brilliant period to be
hereafter noticed, the country presents to view a
series of industrial, financial, and agricultural crises
so serious as to have been almost adequate to realization of the wish which soon thereafter came so
near accomplishment; to wit: that of shattering to
atoms an Union in whose formation had participated
Washington, Adams, Franklin, Hamilton, Jefferson,
and other eminent men, whose ante-revolutionary
experience had fully satisfied them that the road
toward political independence led through those
same measures of resistance which have been required
for the production of domestic interdependence.
Throughout the generally dreary quarter of a




214                  THE UNITY OF LAW.
century thus described the centre, of American commerce more and more tended to find its place in
British ports, southern planters daily more and more
effecting    their    exchanges      with    northern     farmers
through Manchester and Birmingham                     workshops.
Throughout, southern men were united                 in  preventing the growth of northern manufactures, desirous
to so depress the prices of agricultural products as
to enable them cheaply to feed the slaves who were
needed for enabling them to drive from European
markets the cotton that the poor Hindoo was, in
effect, prohibited from converting into cloth at
home.* Throughout, domestic commerce being in
effect prohibited, no roads running north and south
* "lWe must prevent the increase of manufactories, force the surplus labor
into agriculture, promote the cultivation of our unimproved western lands, until
provisions are so multiplied and reduced in price that the slave can be fed so
cheaply as to enable us to grow our sugar at three cents a pound. Then, without protective duties, we can rival Cuba in the production of that staple,
and drive her from our markets."  "While then the bounds of slave labor
were extending from Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia westward over
Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas, the area of free labor
was enlarging with equal rapidity in the Northwest, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. Thus within these provision and cotton regions were
the forests cleared away or the prairies broken up simultaneously by those
two antagonistic forces. Opponents no longer, they were harmonized by
the fusion of their interests, the connecting link between them being the
steamboat. Thus also was a tripartite alliance formed, by which the western
farmer, the southern planter, and the English manufacturer became united in a
common bond of interest, the whole giving their support to the doctrine of
free trade."-Elliott. Cotton is King, Augusta, Georgia, 1860.
Of all conspiracies on record for the maintenance of slavery and barbarism, this is the most remarkable for the heterogeneous nature of the
elements of which it was composed   Most innocently, the leading antislavery advocates, in and out of Congress; gave to it their aid, and in the
most effective manner. In the absence of knowledge, enthusiasm causes
mischief rather than good.




OF MATTER AND MIND.           215
could possibly be made. At every stage of progress
in this direction discord grew, the general result
of more than twenty years of non-resistance being
found in that rebellion whose cost has been hundreds
of thousands of lives and thousands of millions of
money; and in the almost entire ruin of those communities which had allowed themselves to be misled
into acquiescence in that trading system which looks,
both at home and abroad, to perpetuation and extension of the control of capital over labor, matter over
mind.*
~ 4. As the reader has been already told, the
generally dreary quarter century through which we
now have passed presents to view a single brief and
brilliant period, constituting an oasis on which the
eye can rest with pleasure, as exhibiting an increase
in the power of mental over material force that even
yet, as it is believed, is without a parallel to have
been so speedily, and under circumstances so adverse,
accomplished. To its examination we now proceed,
as follows:
The non-resistant policy, established by the end
of 1833, became first effective at the close of 1835.
Thenceforward, crisis succeeded crisis with such
rapidity that the year 1842 presented a state of
affairs worse even than that which had characterized
the same system in the period 1817-24.   Then,
utter as was the demoralization throughout the
land, the national credit remained almost unirn* " To enable capital to obtain its proper remuneration, labor must be
kept down." —Huskisson.




216            THE UNITY OF LAW.
paired, and loans, when needed, could be negotiated;
this, too, notwithstanding the existence of a very
considerable debt, consequent upon heavy expenditure in two great wars. Now, not a dollar could be borrowed either at home or abroad; and yet the public
debt had been entirely extinguished at the date of
entrance on the non-resistant system. This of course
compelled a change of policy, that of resistance being now again re-inaugurated by aid of the act of
August, 1842. At that date, however, everything
was out of joint, producers and consumers having
long been separated; skilled labor having been compelled to seek employment in the field; mills and
furnaces needing to be refurnished, even when not
rebuilt; the whole body of societary positives and
negatives requiring rearrangement previous to the
production of any force whatsoever; and the whole
society presenting to view a state of weakness absolutely inconceivable as having resulted from erroneous policy throughout so brief a period.
In the year following, 1843, the resistant policy
became to some slight extent effective; but it was
not until 1844 that its stimulative power came to
be somewhat fully felt.   By law, non-resistance
was re-established at the close of 1846, but it was
not until the spring of 1848 that it came into effective action, giving thus five years only as the whole
period of resistance.* Brief, however, as it was,
* The Irish famine made large demands in 1847 for American food, and
thus gave to the farmers a prosperity whose effects were felt in an enlarged
demand for products of the workshop and the mill.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                217
the consumption of iron was carried up to nearly
1,000,000 tons, or thrice that of the closing years of
the non-resistant period; thus affording conclusive
proof of advancing civilization.*     Mind was now
obtaining control over matter, as matter under the
non-resistant system had steadily grown in power.
Throughout the closing years of this brilliant period
there was consequently an increase in the rapidity
of circulation, and in the growth of force, comparing
wonderfully with the paralysis by which it had been
preceded.
Most important, however, of all the changes of
that great period, the domestic consumption of
cotton now rose to more than half a million of bales,
having been almost doubled; with a growth six
times more rapid than that of population. Now,
for the first time, as a consequence of the resistant
policy, the spindle and the loom were being enabled
to plant themselves in close neighborhood to cotton
fields, and with such effect that early in 1848 it
came to be predicted, and by a southern statesman
of high authority, that before the lapse of another
decade consumers and producers would be brought
so near together as to close for all the future the
export of southern land and labor's staple product
in its rudest form.   Had the resistant policy been
* Notwithstanding an addition to the population from 1835 to 1842 of
nearly 20 per cent., neither the production nor consumption of that great
commodity which constitutes the test of growing civilization had much increased. In the five years that followed, with a growth of population not
exceeding 15 per cent., consumption almost trebled, and of this greatly increased quantity more than seven-eighths were made at home.




218           TIlE UNITY OF LAW.
maintained, this prediction would have been largely
verified, and with every step in that direction the
control of capital over labor-matter over mindwould have tended downward; the slave becoming
fiee as land more and more acquired a money value;
and the master becoming more and more independent at every stage of progress toward interdependence among the societary positives and negatives by
which he was surrounded.
Unhappily, however, the "great capitalists" of
England had been then most busily engaged in the
effort at "destroying foreign competition," with a
view to " gaining and keeping possession of foreign
markets."  Their "large capitals," constituting the
"great instrument of warfare against the competing
capital of other countries," had been lavishly applied
in the work of corruption, with the result of once
again breaking down all resistant barriers, and once
again re-inaugurating the passive policy of non-resistance. From that hour southern manufactures
declined; the internal commerce more and more
tended to disappear before the assaults of foreign
traders; discord grew; the whole culminating in a
great rebellion, all the losses consequent upon which,
whether of property or of life, are chargeable against
the men whose "warfare" for maintenance of material power, and for annihilation of that of mind, has
been, and by their own agent, above so well described. It was a great responsibility to assume, but
the war of elements now existing within the British




OF MATTER AND MIND.                219
Islands furnishes proof conclusive that at some not
distant date it must be fully met.
~ 5. With constantly declining interdependence,
and as constantly growing dependence on distant
traders, each and all of whom believed that his private interests, as well as those of the whole body of
" great capitalists," were to be promoted by means of
fanning the flames of discord, we meet in the closing
years of the non-resistant period a paralysis of the
body politic, an arrest of the circulation, and a waste
of physical and mental force, closely corresponding
with those to which the reader's attention has above
been called, as having occurred in the non-resistant periods which had closed in 1824 and 1842.
For the products of northern agriculture there
was almost literally no demand among the manufacturing nations of Europe, the average of three
years' export of food in that direction having been
but $10,000,000. Corn in the west was then being
used for fuel, and thus was the producer compelled
to lose not only the interest upon his capital, but
the very capital itself that had been invested. Labor
power was in excess, and men were everywhere
wandering in search of such employment as would
enable them to purchase food.* Mills and furnaces
* "1860 and 1861, and from 1857 to the autumn of the latter year,
was one of the darkest periods ever seen by the laboring people of America.
Not one out of five of the skilled workmen of the country was steadily employed. In Philadelphia, when they wanted to build a street railroad they
advertised for two hundred and fifty hands at sixty cents a day, and more
than five thousand offered, a majority of whom were skilled artisans who
could find no other employment. In the neighborhood of one of the estab



220               THE UNITY OF LAW.
stood idle, and so trivial was the domestic intercourse that the average price of railroad investments
was less than fifty per cent. For years the country,
under the non-resistant system, had been trying the
experiment as to how large an outlay of labor could
be made for the accomplishment of any given result;
the effect exhibiting itself in the fact that the community was paralyzed, and so wholly destitute of
force that had the government then found occasion
to call upon the whole nation for a sum so small as
even a single hundred millions, it could scarcely
have at all been furnished.      Here, as is everywhere
else the case, diminished rapidity of circulation had
been attended with diminution of force.
Such was the state of things when the mind of
the nation-that portion of it which believed in the
creation of schools; in the extension of the benefits
of education to every portion of the community; in
the diversification of employment and development
of all the various individualities of the toiling millions; in the necessity for obtaining control over
the great physical forces as the means required for
securing to themselves the power for self-directionfound itself called, at a moment's notice, to a conlishments, the statistics of which go into this report, a rolling mill, the
number of unemployed men was so great that the county authorities, to
save its skilled workmen from open pauperism, determined to build a turnpike, and experienced hands from rolling-mills were employed at breaking
stone and road-making at fifty cents a day rather than become paupers.
For the comparatively few who had employment the wages are, I assume,
honestly given in the report; but of the many who were picking up a precarious living by getting an occasional day's work at half wages or quarter
wages no account is taken.-Hon. W. D. Kelley's Speeches, p. 257.




OF MATTER AND MIND.         221
test with that portion of the nation which had in
the past maintained that capital should own labor;
that the laborer's education should be prohibited;
and, that the road to civilization, wealth, and power
lay in the direction of an exclusive agriculture
whose results were every day being more and more
exhibited in the exhaustion and abandonment of
lands that under a different system would have been
daily growing in productive force. A contest the
most remarkable that the world ever yet has seen,
it required, on an average, throughout four long
years, the services of more than a million of men,
or more than five per cent. of the total northern
population, male and female, sick and well, young
and old. Not only were those services given, but
during all that time the men employed were well
clothed, abundantly fed, and furnished with transportation to an extent and in a perfection till then
unparalleled in the history of the world.
Whence, however, came the extraordinary force
that we see to have been thus exerted 1 How was
it that a people which just before had been so very
feeble could then have made donations to the extraordinary extent of a thousand millions of dollars a
year 1 The answer to this question is found in the
fact that the conditions of national existence had
wholly changed, almost perfect circulation having
been established throughout a gigantic battery of
20,000,000 pairs of plates, activity and life having
succeeded to paralysis, and the societary movement
having become strong and vigorous to an extent




222           THE UNITY OF LAW.
that had never before been known. For the first
time in the history of the world there was then presented for examination a nation in which the demand
for labor and its products went ahead of the supply,
enabling both farmer and planter to stop the interest
upon capital that had so long been petrified in the
crudest forms of agricultural production; and, as
a necessary consequence, to make demand for the
products of other labor applied to development of
the mineral wealth that so much abounded, and to
the conversion into commodities fitted for human
use of the products of hills and valleys, farms and
mines. The secret of all the force that was then so
well exerted is to be found in that simple principle,
evidence of whose truth is found in the books of
every trader, the records of every nation; embodied,
as it is, in the simple words from which we learn
that the power of accumulation exists in the ratio
of the rapidity of circulation and of the economy
of human force. To what, however, was the nation indebted for that rapid circulation which furnishes, whether in the societary or the human
frame, the most conclusive evidence of health and
life? To nothing other than the fact of the readoption by the intelligent mind of the country of
the ideas, that exercise of the co-ordinating power
was first among the duties of the government; that
the produce of the farm ought no longer to be compelled to remain inert and losing interest while
* See ante, pp. 127-129.




OF MATTER AND MIND.          223
waiting demand in distant markets; that the capital which daily took the form of labor power ought
no longer be allowed to go to waste; that the fiel
which underlaid the soil ought no longer to remain
to be a mere support for foreign rails; that the
power which lay then petrified in the form of coal
ought everywhere to be brought to aid the human
arm; that the vast deposits of iron ore should be
made to take the forms of engines and other machinery to be used as substitutes for mere muscular
force; that all their wonderful resources, material
and moral, should be at once developed; and,
that for the prompt accomplishment of all these
objects, the policy of resistance to trading domination must be re-established. To the change then so
promptly made does the world stand now indebted
for the fact that the people of America, in less than
five years, and at a cost of thousands of millions of
dollars, were enabled to retrieve the downward steps
of more than twenty years; to establish freedom
throughout the land; to save from destruction a
nation of more than 30,000,000 that, by long practice on the pernicious doctrine of non-resistance,
had been brought so near the verge of ruin that its
escape therefrom constitutes now the most remarkable event in the world's history; and to accomplish all this in the face of constant and most vigorous effort on the part of the " great capitalists" of
England for giving to an aristocracy, whose cardinal
principle of action was to be found in the assertion
that capital should own labor, an effectual control




221             THE UNITY OF LAW.
over the actions of those who held that the laborer
should not only own himself, but that he should be
in every manner aided in his efforts for obtaining
for his wife, his children, and himself, a perfect
power for self-direction.
To what extent, under the resistant policy above
described, mind was then, and since has been, obtaining control over matter, is well exhibited in the
following statement, now several years old, of the
late Revenue Commissioner:" Within the last five years, more cotton spindles have been
put in operation, more iron furnaces erected, more iron smelted,
more bars rolled, more steel made, more coal and copper mined,
more lumber sawed and hewn, more houses and shops constructed, more manufactories of different kinds started, and more
petroleum collected, refined and exported, than during any equal
period in the history of the country; and this increase has been
greater both as regards quality and quantity, and greater than
the legitimate increase to be expected from the normal increase
of wealth and population."
That the great movement thus exhibited has been
since continued, and that labor, physical and mental, has been steadily advancing toward equality in
its relations to capital, is shown by facts which will
here be given connected with the recent census just
now published, as follows:The " true value" of the real and personal property of the Union, as given by the census of 1860,
was, in round numbers, $16,000,000,000.
In this, however, was included as the value of
colored men who now own themselves, and are, for




OF MATTER AND MIND           225
that reason, no longer returned as property, an
amount not varying materially from $3,000,000,000.
Deducting this, we have as the value of all property, slaves excluded, $13,000,000,000.
The " true value," as now given by the census of
1870, is $30,000,000,000, giving as the increase of
the last decade an amount greater, by 30 per cent.,
than the total accumulation since the first settlement of Virginia and Massachusetts.
The result thus presented is a very remarkable
one, yet is it proposed now to show that it gives less
than half the truth, as follows:The greater the competition for the purchase of
human service, physical or mental, the more does
man himself rise in value. At the date of the census of 1860, there being then no such competition,
wages had so greatly fallen that the average immigration of that and the two previous years had been
less than half that of 1849, the last of the years in
which this important question had been beneficially
affected by the resistant tariff of 1842. Of the few
who then arrived thousands wandered over the
country, seeking employment that was nowhere to
be obtained. Now, the reward of labor has so much
increased that immigration has already more than
doubled, each and every man finding prompt demand
for the service he is prepared to render. Adding to
this the increased value resulting from increased
facilities of obtaining education and from the conversion of common into skilled laborers; and the
increased reward of the mental labors of merchants,
15




226           THE UNITY OF LAW.
manufacturers, and professional men generally; it
would appear scarcely unsafe to say that the annual
average value of the American people, old and
young, skilled and unskilled, laborers with the head
and with the hand, was $50 greater than it had been
ten years since. Putting it, however, at but $30,
and population in round numbers at 40,000,000, we
have $1,200,000,000 as the increased annual value
of labor; that sum representing a capital larger than
that represented by the increased material wealth;
the two combined giving, as the growth of a single
decade, the wonderful amount of $37,000,000,000.
In the previous decade, 1850-60, the growth, allowance being made for that which had resulted from
increase of negro'population, was but $8,00000,000,000.
From its commencement to its close wages had so
greatly fallen that the desire to bring labor here to
sell had more than one-half declined. Two hundred
and fifty laborers being advertised for in Philadelphia, the claimants for employment at sixty
cents a day, very many of them skilled workmen,
proved twenty times more than had been called for.
Railroad property throughout the Union having
fallen to less than half its cost there was little demand for labor, physical or mental, to be given to
construction of new roads, or to enlargement of the
capacities of those already in existence. To take,
therefore, the annual average value, in 1860, of physical and mental service as being the precise equivalent of that which had existed in 1850 is doing
it, as it is believed, the extremest justice. Admitting




OF MATTER AND MIND.          227
this, the growth of wealth in the last decade, much
of it a period of war and waste, has been more than
four times greater than that of the previous one,
although to the latter it was that we had stood first
indebted for the vast influx of California gold.
To what now are these facts due?  Plainly, to
readoption of that policy of resistance to the British monopoly system  to which the country had
been so largely indebted in the brief periods of the
tariffs of 1828 and 1842-that policy which looks
to giving mind increased control over matter, and
to bringing the laborer more and more to a level
with the capitalist.*
~ 6. That the pyramidal form is the one which
tends most to quiet permanence is a truth which
here and everywhere forms part of that "positive
knowledge of the uncultured," to which, as has been
shown, we need to look for the basis of all scientific
knowledge. To the attainment of that form it is
that the resistant policy is directed, a great domestic
commerce being regarded as the foundation on which
to rest that foreign one which constitutes the apex,
rising always in its height in strict proportion to
enlargement of the base. That such was its tendency in the two periods which found their terminations in 1835, and in 1847-8, becomes clearly
obvious to those who study the peaceful and quiet
extension that then occurred in American relations
with the outside world. So precisely has it been
* See Appendix C. for some details of the changes above described.




228           THE UN!ITY OF LAW.
throughout the last decade, and so must it be in all
the future, that policy continuing to be maintained.
In none of those periods have there been any crises
to affect injuriously those abroad with whom exchanges have been made. All, consequently, have
profited by the prosperity of each and every other.
Directly the reverse of this, the non-resistant policy
looks to sacrifice of the domestic commerce in the
vain hope of thus establishing a great foreign one,
the result being that of creating an inverted pyramid always tottering to its fall, and threatening to
involve in ruin all around-laborers and capitalists;
producers and consumers; positives and negatives;
alike the guilty and the innocent. That such have
been the results of its adoption is shown by the
financial crises with which its periods have always
closed, and most especially by that last great crisis
by which the Union was threatened with ruin so
complete as must, had it been accomplished, have
compelled it to abdicate its position among the
powers of the world. In all these cases punishment
has followed commission of the crime involved in
violation of a great law to which obedience so implicit is rendered by that great " world builder," the
coral insect, and so rarely obeyed by man.
~ 7. Of the three countries which have been thus
described, those in which mind is advancing most
rapidly toward the control of matter, labor toward
equality with capital, and the whole toward that
point at which measures of resistance will have
ceased to be required-protection of their own labor




OF MATTER AND MIND.             229
against those "wealthy capitalists" who now are so
actively engaged in the "warfare" above described,
having resulted in the establishment of a'domestic
interdependence so complete as to secure to them
both industrial and political independence —the
American Union is the one which most has been
exposed to the assaults of those wealthy men; the
one whose policy has been most vacillating; and the
one, therefore, which now most needs maintenance
of the resistant policy.  More stable than America,
but less so than Germany, Russia stands next in
the necessity for such resistance. Most of all consistent and regular in its action, the German Empire seems to be the one which will soonest find
itself prepared to say to the world that resistance
had fully done its work; diversification of employmernt having resulted in such development of the
various faculties of its people, and such orderly arrangement of the positives and negatives of its great
battery, as had been required for enabling it to
present itself in the great industrial field as fully
prepared for action as it so recently had done in
those of both Sedan and Sadowa. That such is
likely to be the case seems proved by the following
extracts from a German letter given in a recent English journal, and here received as this sheet is passing
through the press:" Manufacturing in all its branches is extraordinarily brisk;
so brisk that our railway traffic has proved insufficient. For
months and months passenger trains have been suspended to
give room for additional goods trains, and, in despite of that,
goods have often been on the way as many weeks and months




230              THE UNITY OF LAW.
as they ought to have been days. *  *  *  Many railroads
this winter refused to take any other goods but those which
were paid for at the rate of passenger trains. *  *  *  That
everything has increased in price, and that money has decreased
in value, might of itself account for the advance in wages which
has taken place; but another thing which has acted, and which
is acting even more powerfully in that direction, is the scarcity
of hands in all branches  *  *  The pressure of trade causes
employers in competition with each other to bid higher and higher
for work, and at last wages are forced up even in those few
branches, and there are very few, where trade is not so very
brisk. *  *  *    Iitherto, they have always got what they
asked for, and the steps they have taken have not been small.
*  *   It was thought they might feel contented; but, actually,
these last months they have raised the new prices again,
and makers are obliged to pay the fresh advance. Handle
and haft makers, turners, &c., have not been behind their fellows, the grinders, in asking an advance. Their work has been
paid, since last autumn, about 50 per cent. more than before.
Smiths, filers, not to forget the file-cutters, have all managed to
secure their share."
The more the diversification in the demand for human force the more rapid is the growth of that domestic interdependence which enables a nation to direct
its blows, when such are needed, with full effect; and
to acquire for itself, as for all the individuals of which
it is composed, that power for self-direction which
constitutes the highest of all those faculties by which
the human animal is distinguished from the brute.
NOTE.
Since the above was put in type the author has found in the
Cobden Club Papers for 1871-1872, a Chapter in Economical
History, by the late Revenue Commissioner, Mr. D. A. Wells,
differing so widely from statements of his own of earlier date,




OF MATTER AND MIND.                     231
here above given, and so utterly at variance with the real facts
as above presented, that he deems it well, by examination of
a single case to enable his readers to determine the value of the
rest; to that end submitting for their consideration the following
paragraph:
" But, notwithstanding this limitation of the sources and amount of income, the requirements of the National Government for military, naval,
and civil expenditures, and the payment of the principal and interest of
any debt, were so moderate, that the receipts of the Treasury continually
tended to exceed its disbursements; and the difficulty which most frequently presented itself to the financial administrators was, not the customary one of how to avoid an annual deficit, but rather how to manage to
escape an inconvenient and indispensable surplus. And it is a curious
fact, and one perhaps altogether unprecedented in history, that, from the
years 1837 to 1857, there was not a single fiscal year in which the unexpended balance in the National Treasury-derived from various sourcesat the end of the year was not in excess of one-half of the total expenditure
of the preceding year; while in not a few years the unexpended balance
was absolutely greater than the sum of the entire expenditure of the twelve
months preceding."
Before entering on the proposed examination he asks the
reader's attention to the fact, that the twenty years here
lumped together consist of three widely different groups, to wit,
the non-resistant one of the years 1837-42; the resistant one,
1843-48; lastly, that of the Californian golden age 1849-57.
This premised, we may now advantageously compare the real
facts as given below,* with the impression intended to be produced on the minds of the Commissioner's readers, as follows:* Amount of moneys derived from loans and treasury notes, as exhibited
in the published statements of the Treasury Department.
NON-RESISTANT PERIOD.
1837......................................................  $2,992,000
1838..................................... 12,716,000
1839...............................  8,857,000
1840......................................................  18,659,000
1841.............................................  14,809,000
1842..........................................  12,551,000
RESISTANT PERIOD.
1843-44................17.....................   $1,878,000




232                 THE UNITY      OF LAW.
Of these it may safely be affirmed, that not even one has failed
to be impressed with a belief that the " revenue" had throughout been all sufficient; that not one has imagined that the words
"various sources" had been inserted for the purpose of covering
up large receipts from loans made necessary by great deficiencies
of " revenue;" that not one has supposed that the first six of these
20 years had brought with them a constant need for loans; that
a nation which just before had extinguished its debt could
have found itself in 1842 wholly unable, either at home or
abroad, to borrow a single dollar;* that the need for loans had
disappeared almost on the instant of the re-adoption of the resistant policy;t that the California discoveries had for a time
adjourned the period of suffering under the then existing nonresistant one; that the brilliant years 1858-1860, than which,
MEXICAN WAR YEARS.
1846-47.....................................  $28,900,000
1847-48................................................  21,293,000
1848-49.............................................  29,075,000
1849-50..................................................  4,056,000
CALIFORNIAN PERIOD.
1850-57........................................  none.
NON-RESISTANT PERIOD.
1857-58........................................ $23,717,000
1858-59.................................................  28,259,000
1859-60..................................................  20,776,000
* "After a failure in the American market, a citizen of high character
and talent was sent to Europe with no better success; and thus the mortifying spectacle has been presented of the inability of this Government
to obtain a loan so small as not in the whole to amount to more than onefourth of its ordinary income; at a time when the Governments of Europe,
although involved in debt, and with their subjects heavily burdened with
taxation, readily obtained loans of any amount, at a greatly reduced rate
of interest."-President's Message, December, 1842.
t " The credit of the Government which had experienced a temporary
embarrassment, has been thoroughly restored. Its coffers, which for a season were empty, have been replenished. A currency, nearly uniform in its
value, has taken the place of one depreciated and almost worthless. Commerce and manufactures, which had suffered in common with almost every
other interest, have once more revived; and the whole country exhibits an
aspect of prosperity and happiness."-President's Message, December, 1844.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                   233
as they had been assured, there could be none that would afford
a more happy illustration of the influence of the "non-interference," or "non-obstructive" policy of Government, had been excluded for the reason that their revenues had proved so greatly
deficient as to have required loans to the extent of more than
70 millions; or, finally, that there had then arrived a state of
things so desperate that money could no longer be obtained except at rates so usurious as indicated a total loss of the public
credit.  Nevertheless all these things were so.-Ex pede Herculem.   From  commencement to close this "Chapter" is all
alike. No one could imagine from its perusal that the reward
of labor had, in the decade 1860-1870, so much increased as to
have caused a duplication of immigration; that the consumption
of wool by the people of the Union had so greatly grown as
now to exceed two-thirds of the whole manufacture of Britain,
in 1864, for home consumption and for the world at large;*
that the consumption of cotton had grown nearly 75 per cent.,
as compared with the average of the three-so-called-prosperous years 1858-1860;t that cotton producers were profiting of this by obtaining a large increase of price; that the
consumption of cottons, of home or foreign manufacture, had
arrived at half the British production for the thousand millions of
the world's people, those of Britain herself included; that
POUNDS.
*  Domestic wool consumed, 1870........................  163,000,000
Foreign wool, 1870-71....................................  68,000,000
Imported worsteds and woollens, 1870-71...........  35,000,000
266,000,000
Total British manufacture, in 1864...................  384,000,000
BALES.
t Average cotton consumption of 1858-60.............  666,800
1871.....................................................  1,153,900
POUNDS.. Total British cotton consumption, 1871.............. 1,207,000,000
Average British consumption, 1869-71 about....... 1,100,000,000
American for 1871.......................  520,000,000
Net import, $26,000,000................ 30,000,000
-, —      550,000,000




234                 TilE UINITY   OF LAW.
railroad tonnage had quadrupled; that the consumption of
iron had grown to half the production of Britain for herself
and for the world at large; or, finally, that the growth of material wealth had been far greater than all the accumulations since
the date of the Mayflower's arrival on the coast of Massachusetts.*
CHAPTER IX.
MATTER AND MIND.-(Continued.)
~ 1. As has been already shown, the first attempt
at subjecting to cultivation the soil of England was
made in the bleak and barren Cornwall, and there
was found for many centuries the centre of English
power. Later, in the days of the earlier Plantagenets, a population of less than two millions was
thinly scattered over the higher, drier, and comparatively unproductive soils of the kingdom; Gurth and
Wamba then wearing           around their necks the collars by which the world was made to know that they,
alike the jester and the clown, were " born thralls"
of their compatriot, the Saxon Cedric.-Passing now
* On the treasury books the States of the Union stand severally charged
with their shares of $28,000,000 nominally deposited with, but really given
to, those States in the year 1836. This was done at a time when the effects
of a non-resistant policy, then recently readopted, were exhibiting themselves in a general deluge of British merchandise, furnished on long credits,
and thus stimulating a speculation that, for the moment, caused large excess of the public revenue. Counting as money the figures representing
those deposits the Commissioner may, perhaps, find some justification for
his statements; and yet none better than himself should appreciate the
fact that they are but the shadow of moneys long since expended.




OF MATTER      AND   MIND.                235
onward a couple of centuries, population having
meantime much increased, and Edward III. having
instituted measures by means of which local centres
had been made to greatly grow in both number and
importance, we find the descendants of Saxon churls
on   the field   of Agincourt, freed        from   all outward
mark of slavery and sending their cloth-yard shafts
among the chivalry of France with a force and effect that since then have never been exceeded, and
rarely, if     even   ever,    equalled.*      Simultaneously
therewith, landlords are everywhere seen praying for
protection against their so recent serfs, to be secured
to them by means of laws regulating the prices at
which labor should be sold, and imposing heavy
penalties on any who should pay or receive more
than those to be thus established.t
Passing again onward, we reach the brilliant
* Discussing the period immediately anterior to the day of Agincourt,
Prof. Rogers speaks as follows:" In fifty years, then, the tenant farmers were able to accumulate, in order
to supersede stock and land leases, not much less than treble the value of
the land they occupied, and this even in despite of somewhat unfavorable
times, for agricultural produce was low in the last ten or twelve years of
the fourteenth century. Is it wonderful, therefore, that men who in the
early part of the century had no place in the political history of the times,
assert their rights with so much vigor in the latter part, embrace Lollardism, delight in'Piers Plowman,' adopt his style, inveigh bitterly against
the friars and great ecclesiastics, and crowd'tumultuously' to county
elections?"-History of Agriculture and Prices in England, vol. i. p. 688.
t The first Statute of Laborers bears the date of 1349.-Thenceforward
throughout a whole century we have constant repetitions thereof, each and
all tending to prove how futile had been the previous efforts at maintaining
even qualified slavery in face of a policy looking to increased diversification in the demand for human service, and manifesting its powers by causing
great increase in the societary circulation.




236               THE UNITY OF LAW.
period when the mind of England was being illustrated by Bacon and Shakspeare, Bunyan, Hale,
Hampden, and        Milton;    her stalwart yeomanry,
under the lead of Cromwell, meanwhile advocating
the cause of labor on the fields of Naseby and Marston Moor.*     The change thus indicated in the relations of mind and matter, labor and capital, is one
of the most remarkable phenomena of modern
Europe; and is attributable to the fact, that from
the day of Bosworth (1485) the country had been
steadily engaged in home-development, its wars,
with slight exceptions, having been of a purely defensive character. Side by side with it, however,
now stands another of even greater moment, to wit:
that indicated by the fact that, notwithstanding a
wonderful growth of wealth and power, the relative
positions of labor and capital have since then wholly
changed; a proletariat constantly imploring protection against its masters, standing now in the place
once occupied by those men of Agincourt protection
against whom had been so often sought by their then
recent masters at the hands of Parliament.t The
* The general character of the English people at this period stands
proved by the fact that so great a revolution was accomplished at so little
cost of life, or of interference with private rights. As there was then no
proletariat, there was then no jacquerie. Speaking of the action of the
government that was then established, Macaulay says: "Property was
secure. Even the cavalier who refrained from giving disturbance to the
new settlement enjoyed in peace whatever the civil troubles had left him.
* * * Justice was administered with an exactness and purity not before
known."
t The frequent use now made of the discreditable and humiliating word
"proletaire," and the sanction just now given to its naturalization, as being
one "much needed," by a leading English journal (See Quarterly Review,




OF MATTER AND MIND                         237
growth of material at the cost of mental power-of
capital as against labor-thus indicated, has been accompanied by a decline of physical force' so complete that throughout the whole realm of England
there would now be found few, if even any, capable
of drawing      "to    their heads"      those   terrific   shafts
which down even to the day of Flodden (1513)
constituted the essential instrument of English warfare.*   What has been that" deteriorating influence"
by means of which changes so remarkable have been
brought about we may now inquire.
~ 2. Throughout the brilliant period above reJan. 1872, article, " The Proletariat on a False Scent"), warrants some
inquiry into its real import. Turning now to his dictionary, the reader
will probably find a definition corresponding with that of Ainsworth in the
volume now before us, as follows: " Proletarius-Of a poor, mean, condition; poor, vulgar, beggarly."-The proletaire is not a slave, for he may
not be bought and sold in the open market. le is not a freeman, having
no power for self-direction. His physical powers having been exhausted
by overwork he may, if he will, seek refuge in the almshouse. Dying
of over-exertion and want of proper sustenance, the services of the coroner are not demanded; and yet the case is often one of murder as
absolute and complete as if the poor man had been shot to death. The
incorporation into the language of a word so depreciatory, on the score of
its being " needed" for bringing properly before us the toiling millions of
the English people, is one of those "straws" which indicate clearly the
direction in which the wind is blowing; one that invites for its careful consideration all those who interest themselves in the question of the future of
mankind at large.
* "WVhy, for example, has it been found necessary at the Horse Guards
to lower the standard of recruits? Because through a series of deteriorating influences, beginning at bad times, the breed of Englishmen has
miserably gone down. The recruiting standard has been lowered and
lowered again; and men at this moment, it is declared,'cannot be got of
the minimum height.'' The present recruiting prospect,' it is stated,'is short companies to the line regiments, companies of men scarcely exceeding five feet in height.' "-Contemporary Review, 1871, p. 549.




238              THE UNITY OF LAW.
ferred to the richest soils of England remained uncultivated, the now so highly productive Lancashire
having been then a wilderness so formidable as to
have daunted the antiquary Camden even so late as
the days of James 1. Of the natural forces other
than those required for the production of food there
was but little known, and power for their direction
was then so limited as to claim but slight consideration. Ships were few in number, and the aid of wind
was but little called for.  Gunpowder was then in
its infancy, and the guns then used were difficult of
proper management      The use of mineral coal for
smelting ores had not yet been thought of. Steam
had yet to wait throughout a century before being
subjected to human use. So, too, with even that
poor tram-road which proved the precursor of the
iron rail and the locomotive, and of thousands and
tens of thousands of improvements by means of
which human labor has been so greatly aided that it
may with safety be asserted that Britain alone commands now the services of 500,000,000 non-consuming laborers, capable of a larger amount of work
than could have been performed by the whole human race in the days when the Marquis of Worcester was experimenting on the powers of steam, and
when Charles II. sat on the English throne.*
* The coal now used in the production of force is estimated as being
the equivalent of 300,000,000 of men. Add to this the wind power utilized
for the propelling of 5,000,000 tons of shipping; the tractive power obtained by means of the iron rail and the locomotive; the telegraph which
annihilates both time and space; the utilization of human force consequent
upon the invention of various machinery now in use; and the estimatewill
certainly be found within the mark.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                 239
Of the wonderful industrial army here exhibited,
by far the greater part has been created within the
last half century, the rate of progress from the days
when mineral coal was first used in smelting furnaces, and when Watt first utilized the powers of
steam, having been a constantly accelerated one.
Equally divided among the whole population of the
British Islands it might a century since perhaps
have given some two or three non-consuming slaves
to each, male and female, the infant and the aged,
the enlightened and the ignorant. So divided now
it would give nearly 80 to each and every family
consisting of father, mother, and three children, or
five in all.
For whose profit, however, have these most productive slaves labored in the somewhat distant past?
For that of American colonists?         That such was
not the case stands proved by the fact, that these
latter labored through seven years of great privation
for the sole purpose of securing to themselves and
their children power to command the services of just
such non-consuming laborers.        Was it in the service of the then highly civilized people of India 1*
That the facts were directly otherwise is shown by
* "I do not exactly know what is meant by civilizing the people of
India. In the theory and practice of good government they may be deficient; but if a good system of agriculture-if unrivalled manufacturesif a capacity to produce what convenience or luxury demands-if the establishment of schools for reading and writing-if the general practice of
kindness and hospitality-and above all, if a scrupulous respect and delicacy towards the female sex, are among the points that denote a civilized
people, then the Hindoos are not inferior in civilization to the people of
Europe."-Sir Thomas Munro.




240              THE UNITY OF LAW.
Lord Macaulay in the passage here given, as follows:
"The misgovernment of the English was carried to a point
such as seemed hardly compatible with the existence of society.
They forced the natives to buy dear and sell cheap. They insulted with impunity the tribunals, the police, and the fiscal
authorities of the country. Enormous fortunes were thus rapidly
accumulated at Calcutta, while 30,000,000 of human beings
were reduced to the extremity of wretchedness. They had been
accustomed to live under tyranny, but never under tyranny like
this. They found the little finger of the Company thicker than
Surajah Dowlah's loins. Under their old masters, they had at
least one resource: when the evil became insupportable, the
people rose and pulled down the government. But the English
government was not to be so shaken off. That government,
oppressive as the most oppressive form of barbarian despotism,
was strong with all the strength of civilization. It resembled
the government of evil genii, rather than the government of human tvrants."
Was it, then, in behalf of the toiling millions of
the British Islands that such labors then were
given 1 That such was not the case is clearly shown
by the fact, that Mr. Malthus then was led to invent
a law of population by means of which to relieve the
rich and powerful from all responsibility for the existing state of things; giving them assurance that
the poverty and wretchedness by which they were
everywhere surrounded had resulted from the fact
that the Creator had sent upon the earth large numbers of people for whom He had provided no table
at which they might be allowed to eat, no materials
by aid of which they might be clothed; thus furnishing  the theory by aid of which        subsequent
writers have been enabled, as they supposed, to




OF MATTER AND MIND.                241
prove that, in the British Islands, man had become
"a drug," and "population a nuisance."
Failing thus, at that early period of the now-existing system, to find among the working people of
the British empire, whether home or foreign, the
persons in whose behalf the labors of non-consuming
slaves were being given, the search may be now
continued by looking altogether homeward among
the British and Irish people of half a century since.
Doing this, we may here inquire if such labors had
been in any manner given in aid of Scottish Highlanders, compelled, as they were, to relinquish their
little holdings under circumstances so atrocious as
to have called forth a shriek of horror both abroad
and at home.* Were they then being given in aid
of the millions of impoverished Irish before whom
there lay but the choice between " land at any rent,"
on the one hand, or " starvation" on the other? In
aid, perhaps, of the wretched men, women, and
children, who then were laboring together, often
wholly naked, in the coal mines of England? Or in
that of the wretched Birmingham workmen whose
condition was then so well described by Southey ia
his admirable Letters?t     Failing in that direction,
* See Loch's work on the Clearances in Sutherlandshire, London, 1820.
Mr. Loch was the agent under whom all this had been done, and he
published his account thereof under the extraordinary impression that he
had been thus aiding in the advancement of civilization.
t " The poor must be kept poor, or such a state of things could not continue; there must be laws to regulate their wages, not by the value of their
work, but by the pleasure of their masters; laws to prevent their removal
from one place to another within the kingdom, and to prohibit their emi16




242                THE UNITY OF LAW.
may we find      the masters of these non-consuming
slaves in Lancashire children of the tenderest age
who were being then employed in breaking down
the great India cotton manufacture; and to that
end, as was stated by Sir Robert Peel, were compelled to labor ninety-six hours per week; giving
further six hours of Sunday to the work of cleaning
the machinery, and doing all this for less than a
dollar per week 1
That it is not in the cause of these most wretched
people that the non-consuming slaves have labored
in  the past seems very certain.         How    then   is it
in  the   present, when     those slaves    have   become
more than thrice as numerous as they had been
in the days of Peel and Southey above described.
Are those who profit by all the gratuitous service
that now is rendered to be found among that third
of the Scottish people which lives, or tries to live,
in houses of but a single room. Among the very
youthful, and the aged, of Ireland left behind by the
lithe and active who have been          driven   from   the
homes in which their parents and themselves had
gration. They would not," he continues, "be crowded in hot task-houses
by day, and herded together in damp cellars by night; they would not toil
in unwholesome employments from sunrise until sunset whole days and
quarters, for with twelve hours' labor the avidity of trade is not satisfied;
they would not sweat night and day, keeping up this laus perennis of the
Devil, before furnaces which are never suffered to cool, and breathing in
vapors which inevitably produce disease and death;-the poor would never
do these things unless they were miserably poor, unless they were in that
state of abject poverty which precludes instruction, and by destroying all
hope for the future, reduces man, like the brutes, to seek for nothing bebeyond the gratification of present wants."-Espriella's Letters; Letter
xxxvii.




OF MATTER      AND   MIND.                 240
first seen    the  light l      Among      the  almost million
surplus English and Scottish females who have been
in like manner left behind, having now             before them
little other choice than that between hard labor at
starvation wages on the one hand, and prostitution
on the other t      Among the millions who can neither
read nor write.  Among the serfs of the loom           who
have now replaced the serfs of the glebe?. Among
spinners and weavers who have so severely suffered
throughout the last decade, and whose whole future
is dependent on the power to compel competition
among American and Indian laborers for supplying
cheap cotton on which to work1~ Among farm
X Of foreigners arriving in the United States, 82 per cent. are over 5
and under 40 years of age.
- " I saw young women, with bright and intelligent faces, as bright as any
of those we meet in our daily walks, who were earning but five shillings
per week, and most of which they had to pay for their clothes and living.
How it is possible to do this is more than I can tell. It would probably
be best for poor, downtrodden, and oppressed humanity in this country not
to inquire. Of course, there are others who get higher wages; but the
average wages earned by the female operative in this country probably
would not exceed eight shillings and sixpence to nine shillings per week. It
is impossible for a person, who only has this, to pay for clothes, lodging
and food, to eat meat every day, or to subsist on anything but the coarsest
and most common food."-English Correspondence of New York Tribune.
I "< A vassalage in manufacture and trade is succeeding the vassalage in
land, and the serf of the loom is in a lower and more helpless condition
than the serf of the glebe, because his condition appears to be not merely
the effect of an artificial and faulty social economy, like the feudal, which
may be remedied, but to be the unavoidable effect of natural causes."Laing: Notes of a Traveller, p. 177.
"' The feudalization going on in our manufacturing social economy is
very conspicuous in some of the great cotton factories. The master-manufacturer in some districts, who employs eight hundred or a thousand hands.,
deals in reality only with fifty or sixty sub-vassals, or operative cotton.
spinners, as they are technically called, who undertake the working of so




244                 THE UNITY     OF LAW.
laborers, male and female, "whose            sustenance,"    as
public documents assure us, " bears no due proportion to the toil to which they are reared;" who have
before them, according        to Edinburgh Reviewers, no
future but the poor-house; and "whose condition,"
according to Quarterly Reviewers, " is growing worse
from   year to year V"t Among the children who work
many looms, or spinning-jennies. They hire and pay the men, women, and
children, who are the real operatives, grinding their wages down to the
lowest rate, and getting the highest they can out of the master-manufacturer.
A strike is often the operation of these middle-men, and productive of little
benefit to, and even against the will of, the actual workmen. They are, in
the little imperium of the factory, the equivalent to the feudal barons."Ibid.
* The Reports on the Employment of Women and Children in Agriculture
inform us that " Beef and mutton are so rarely tasted by farm laborers
and their families, that they may be said to form no part of their diet; that
bacon is not partaken of more than, if so often as, once or twice a week,
and not in any proportion amounting to a meal; and that bread and cheese
form the main food of adults." The cheese is described to be of the worst
possible quality. "The children mostly exist on bread soaked in water,
or, at the best, are obliged to put up with thrice-skimmed milk. The
house accommodation is of the worst possible description. But without
going into details that would prove tiresome, let us take the chief features
of the summing up of the report. It declares that the sustenance of the
peasantry at all ages bears no due proportion to the toil to which they are
reared, and the privation is sadly and needlessly aggravated by the distances
which many of them have daily to walk, through the decay or actual destruction of cottages.  There have been too many instances in which,
before the termination of a lifetime of labor, men have, through this cause,
been compelled to perform a foot penance equalling, in many a case, a
journey once around the world: in some, even twice! and in some, thrice!"
t "The condition of the agricultural laborer in most districts is an opprobrium and a calamity to the nation. Hle ought not to be suffered to remain
in it; and he cannot (unassisted) raise himself out of it. We need not
describe what has been over and over again depicted and proved usque ad
nauseam. The thing is a disgrace and a danger-and we need say no more.
We are not sure that the condition is not even growing worse year by year.
Certainly it is worse in many essentials than it was a century or a century




OF MATTER     AND MIND.                  245
in " gangs," and under slave "overseers" throughout
the eastern    counties?      Among the "proletaires" of
western counties, whose condition has been so well
described by Canon Girdlestone?            Among the hunand a half ago. The wages these laborers obtain are a shame. The condition of their cottages is a shame. The general and inescapable prospect
of the poor-house for their old age is a shame. Their often having no cottages at all in the parish where they work is, perhaps, the greatest shame
of all."-Jan. 1872, Article, the I'roletariat on a false Scent.
* "The gang system," as recently exhibited in Parliament, "in brief is
this: In the Fen districts, covering nearly a million of acres of the richest
land in England, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, Nottinghamshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and in parts of the counties of Northampton, Bedford, and
Rutland, about seven thousand children, from five years of age and upwards, besides persons of both sexes of from fifteen to eighteen years of
age-are employed in gangs numbering from fifteen to twenty laborers in
each gang, under a master, and in a condition differing from slavery only
because it is infinitely worse.  *  *  *     *
"This exhibition, shocking as it is, is by no means the most frightful
phase of the gang system. The gangs are under no moral restraint whatever. Oftentimes at night both sexes are huddled together in barns, where,
among the older boys and girls, the most shameful events naturally follow.
Clergymen and other respectable witnesses testified to the Commission of
Inquiry that the gang laborers are' beneath morals.' They have no consciousness of chastity, and do not know the meaning of the word. Medical
directors of infirmaries state that gang girls, as young as thirteen years,
have been brought to them to be confined. Their language and conduct
are so depraved that dozens of parish clergymen, surgeons, and respectable
laboring people, declared to the commission that the introduction of gang
labor in any village extinguishes morality."-Evening Post.
t " Wages are low; fuel and provisions are dear; education has become
a necessary of life for a family; the poor rate is so administered as to
quench every feeling of independence. In the west of England an agricultural laborer had till lately only 7s. or 8s. a week, and now only 8s. or 9s.
Unless he is a housekeeper or a shepherd, he has to pay out of this Is. to Is.
6d. or more a week for house rent, and provide food, clothing, medical attendance, fuel, and every other necessary for himself, wife, and family. Potatoground he pays a high rent for, and fuel he seldom gets, except at the cost of
as many hours of hard work of getting it as its full value. He has three pints
or two quarts of cider a day, and has a portion of his wages often paid in




246                  THE   UNITY    OF' LAW.
dreds of thousands who, as we             are   assured, "must
either emigrate or die"* Among               the  tens of thousands    of paper-makers, printers, shipbuilders, and
other skilled     laborers that but recently have            been
described as out of work, and as "now               going    upon
the poor rate?" Among the almost infant females
who labor in English brickyards, required, as they
are, to carry nine tons of clay a distance of fifty yards,
and to walk twenty-two miles, for eighteen pence of
quit, which, when corn is dear, is an advantage, but otherwise a loss to
him. He is often not allowed to keep a pig or poultry, for fear of stealing
food for them from his master. He works nominally ten or ten and a half
hours a day with an hour and a half deducted for meals. He is almost
always, however, in reality kept a much longer time than this, and is seldom paid anything for overtime, except by bread and cheese in harvest
time. Women get 7d. or 8d. a day for out-door work, with a quart of
cider, and boys small sums in proportion. The men breakfast before they
leave home on tea-kettle broth, which consists of an infusion of bread and
water, with a little milk, if, which is not often the case, it can be got. For
luncheon and dinner, which they take with them, they have coarse bread
and hard, dry skim-milk cheese, at 3d. per lb. For supper, on their return home, they have potatoes or cabbage, with a very small slice of bacon,
sometimes to give it a flavor. Butcher's meat they seldom see, except it
is given to them."
* " There are now above 70,000 souls in the east end of London who must
emigrate speedily or die. They are being shipped off as fast as charity and
government can transport them to North America. Above 25,000 of these
are workmen more or less skilled in engineer and shipbuilding occupations.
These are not shepherds, nor are they ploughmen, nor will they ever be
to any great extent one or the other. They are mechanics, and will be so
go where they may. In the vast hives of industry in Lancashire there are a
greater number who must emigrate or die. These are getting off as fast as
they possibly can to Massachusetts to find full occupation in cotton. Not
one is either pastoral or agricultural, and few are likely ever to be either.
Irishmen and Scotchmen can be anything, but not so Englishmen; and they
will not need to be anything in the world but what they have been."Kirk: Social Politics in Great Britain and Ireland, page 112. London and
Glasgow, 1870.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                       247
wages? *     Among the tens of thousands of railroad
employes compelled, as they are, to labor sixteen or
twenty hours per day, and under circumstances such
as almost insure loss of life as consequence of inattention or neglect?t        Among the hundreds of thousands of a better class with           whom     "the    wolf" is
always "at the door "+               Or, finally, may   they   be
found among the almost countless hosts of paupers,
tramps, and vagrants so well described by Hoyle in
his work on the "National Resources," as exhibiting
"t an  amount of demoralization          and   destitution"     so
* " Children are found working in brickyards at as early an age as
three and a half years. What they can do at that age we are not told;
but at nine years old the toil imposed on them is so severe and prolonged
that nothing but the most unimpeachable evidence could render it creditable. There is, however, no doubt whatever of the facts, and we commend
them to the reflection of the anxious parents of well-fed and tenderly-nurtured children. These unhappy little creatures, many of them girls, are
engaged for thirteen hours a day in carrying on their heads lumps of clay
weighing forty pounds from the clay heap to the table on which the bricks
are made. *    *  *  Boys and girls grow up together in conditions of
immodest and almost animal association, until it is no exaggeration to say
that'men, women, and children are brought down to a point of degradation and suffering like the beasts of the field.' "-Smith: Cry of the Children
in the Brickyards of England. London, 1871.
tj " Many of the engineers had been kept on continuous duty for twentytwo and twenty-three hours; indeed until some of them fell exhausted on
the floors of their engines. On Saturday, eighteen hours was on several
roads the regular period of labor, and signal men were often found asleep
in their boxes. Accidental deaths of employes exhausted by too much
labor frequently happened, the overwork having rendered them incapable
of taking care of themselves. The meeting was convened to devise some
method of reforming this bad system."-English Journal.
I "Those who themselves are at present above want or poverty, nevertheless are still looking down at that abyss of misery and destitution
beneath them, and, while congratulating themselves at their own escape,
they do not, and dare not, complain of evils of a less terrible character.
They are silent on that anxiety which besets their own position, and robs




248                 THE UNITY      OF LAW.
"perfectly appalling" as to constitute " a lasting disgrace to our civilization and our Christianity."*
That it is not among the toiling millions of the
British Islands we need to look for those who profit
by the altogether gratuitous services of an army of
non-consuming laborers, whose numbers count by
hundreds of millions, is very certain. Clear does it
seem, that so far are they from benefiting by such
services, their condition, physical and moral, is
greatly lower than it had been at the time when the
industrial utility of coal, the powers of steam, and
those still more remarkable of electricity, yet reevery household of its peace; they are silent on that perpetual contest and
strife of commerce which sow the seed of hatred so abundantly through
every town and village. Is not the wolf still at the door?"-Thorndale;
or, the Conflict of Opinions.
* Referring to this subject, Mr. R. Dudley Baxter, in his work on National Income, speaks as follows:" The average number of paupers at one time in receipt of relief in 1866
was 916,000, being less than for any of the four preceding years. The
total number relieved during 1866 may, on the authority of a return of
1867, given in the Appendix, be calculated at three and a half times that
number, or 3,000,000. All these may be considered as belonging to the
16,000,000 of the manual labor classes, being as nearly as possible twenty
per cent. on their number; but the actual cases of relief give a very imperfect idea of the loss of work and wages. A large proportion of the
poor submit to great hardships, and are many weeks, and even months,
out of work before they will apply to the guardians. They exhaust their
savings; they try to the utmost their trade unions or benefit societies;
they pawn little by little all their furniture; and are at last driven to ask
relief."
"But even the figures which have been given do not by any means represent adequately the pressure of our poverty. There are a very large
number of persons who are dependent upon their friends and relations;
and there are a number who submit to great-hardships sooner than apply
for relief. If all who are thus situated be summed up, it cannot amount
to less than one-third of the entire population of the manual labor class,
or from fifteen to twenty per cent. of the entire population."-Iloyle.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                249
mained to be developed; \lhcn hundreds of thousands of small proprietors-the yeomanry long so
justly prized-could proudly boast of "their own,
their native land;" and when northern and southern
Britain could send forth armies such as were led to
the field by Cromwell and Montrose.*
Seeking elsewhere the people who profit by the
labors of these non-consuming and never-tiring slaves,
may we hope to find them now in Portugal, once
the most profitable of all the customers of Britain 1
In Jamaica, where, in defiance of all understanding
to the contrary, new-born freedmen, yet disorganized, were required almost at once to compete on
equal terms with armies of Brazilian negro slaves?
In Turkey, where the foreign peddler has driven
out the manufacturer, and where millions of men
are almost starving in the sight of mineral treasures
by whose development they would be enriched; the
nation itself meanwhile acquiring force to assert its
rights? In India, where the salt and the cotton
manufactures have alike been ruined; and where
millions of men stand idle waiting the return in the
form of cloth of the raw cotton they had been compelled to send to Britain ft    In China, where an* "The agricultural laborer of those times was not the overworked slave
that he is now. * * * He was better treated in the last old days of a dying
feudalism than he is now under the new laws of supply and demand."H. Kingsley.
t "A great part of the time of the laboring population in India is,"
says Mr. Chapman, " spent in idleness. I," as he continues, "don't say
this to blame them in the smallest degree. Without the means of exporting
heavy and crude surplus agricultural produce, and with scanty means,
whether of capital, science, or manual skill, for elaborating on the spot




250                  TIIE UNITY    OF LAW.
archy prevails as a consequence of opium wars, and
of perpetual interference of foreign agents whose
every effort is being       given   toward     bringing    about
an   entire   dependence      on   British   ships and mills?
In Spanish America, throughout the whole of which
exists a chronic state of revolution consequent
upon absence of that power of association for
whose     development       there   is  required    a  diversity
of employments whose existence it is the object
of foreign traders to prevent? Is there, indeed, any
part of the world's laborers, outside of those few
countries which have effectually resisted this monstrous system     of "warfare," to which we can safely
point as now      profiting, or as having profited, by the
great discoveries of the past and present centuries;
any that is not now        suffering under the constantly
reiterated attacks of the wonderful army now gathered together in Great Britain?t             That none      such
articles fitted to induce a higher state of enjoyment and of industry in the
mass of the people, they have really no inducement to exertion beyond
that which is necessary to gratify their present and very limited wishes:
those wishes are unnaturally low, inasmuch as they do not afford the
needful stimulus to the exercise requisite to intellectual and moral improvement; and it is obvious that there is no remedy for this but extended
intercourse. Meanwhile, probably the half of the human time and energy
of India runs to mere waste. Surely, we need not wonder at the poverty
of the country."-Chapman: Cotton and Commerce of India, p. 110.
"It is calculated that there are often 10,000,000 qrs. of fine wheat
rotting in the Punjab alone for want of demand, utterly useless except to
feed hogs, which the prejudices of the people forbid them to breed. If
science ever succeeds in banishing the weevil from wheat ships and preserving mutton for six months, the English people may yet be fed to the
throat on flesh and flour at less than the cost of their present insufficient
food."-English Journal.
i For some years Australia profited largely by that diversity of em



OF MATTER AND MIND.             251
can be found has been admitted by Mr. Mill, his
readers having been assured that he regarded it as
"questionable if all the mechanical inventions yet
made had lighted the day's toil of any human
being;" their only effect, in his view, having been
that of enabling a greater population to live the
same life of drudgery and imprisonment, and an increased number of manufacturers and others to make
fortunes." Such is the sad admission of a writer
who, in face of the fact that the world at large is
now almost as little peopled as it had been in the
days of Caesar, proposes, as the essential remedy for
all human suffering, and as preventive of a decline
of wages, "a limitation of the size of families in
the laboring classes;" that limitation to be brought
about, not by means of moral improvement, but by
conversion of the " moral obligation" not to have
too many children "into a legal one;" courts and
judges being authorized to punish all who contribute more than their fair share to the production of
beings whose duty it had been made to "subdue
the earth and occupy it;" and who have scarcely yet,
after the lapse of so many centuries, fairly entered
upon the performance of their appointed work.
To whom, then, may we look, hoping to find the
men who really do profit by the labors of a body of
non-consuming slaves so wonderful as that which
ployment which resulted from the gold discoveries, as Canada benefited,
and now does benefit, by her close relations with protected neighbors.
Both, however, are now preparing for a resistance by means of which to
bring about interdependence among themselves, preparatory to claiming a
place among the independent nations of the earth.




252              THE UNITY OF LAW.
Britain has brought together? For answer, we
have to say that here, as in all other wars, it is to
the class embracing the marshals, generals, colonels,
and other officers of this industrial army, titled
and untitled; to the bankers, brokers, and other
middlemen who control and direct the warlike
movements above described; to those "wealthiest
capitalists" whose predecessors have for centuries
been engaged in preventing everywhere outside of
England that growth of the habit of association,
which finds its cause in development of the individual
faculties, and to which alone can we look for increase
in the power of mind over matter; for improvement
in the relations of capitalist and laborer; for development of artistic taste and mental force; and for
growth of that power of self-direction which, wheresoever found, has come as a consequence of having
the positives and negatives of society-producers
and consumers-brought into more intimate relations, each with every other.*'o what extent, however, do even these officers
profit by the ruin of which they are the cause?
To that of the hundred millions of pounds now       assunmed to be annually added to capital, and exhibiting itself mainly in the form of enlargement of that
* " The whole mass of human life, as seen in England at the present day,
presents violent extremes of condition, huge mountains of wealth and luxury, contrasted with awful depths of poverty and wretchedness; but in
respect of mental ability, we find immense flits of uniformity, dead levels
of respectable talent, with scarcely any such thing as originality, freshness,
or high creative genius in any department of literature, art, science, or
even trade."-Johnson: Engcland as it is, vol. 1, p. 217.




OF MATTER      AND   MIND.                253
non-consuming army by means of which the world at
large is to be kept in check; all advance in civilization being thus prevented. Outside of this trifling
sum the whole labor of this vast army is WASTED in
an unnecessary and relentless " warfare" on the mind
and labor of the world for the profit of a trivial
number of capitalists, foreign and domestic, who
make their home in Britain." How that army is
directed with a view to accomplishment of the results desired it is proposed next to show.
~ 3. The more the diversity of employments, and
the greater the competition for the purchase of
labor, the more is the laborer enabled to negotiate
on equal terms with those who need the commodity
* "As in the Tudor epoch it became an oligarchy of landlordism, now
it has become an oligarchy of wealth. The new nobility in this case are
the capitalists who, after a temporary antagonism caused by the Corn
Laws, and a certain amount of coy resistance on social grounds, have been
recognized by the land-owners, and in their turn are decking themselves
with the titles of feudal barons, ordering Norman pedigrees with their
equipages and liveries, doubling the crush and the deliquescence of St.
James's, and thinking it a part of their rights as millionaires to make
public honor and national government their family property, and to hand
them down, with the other fruits of successful speculation, to their aristocratically educated sons. The great Elizabethan mansions, reared in their
day among the hovels of a wretched peasantry, are the graceful monuments of Tudor land-grabbers. England is now being covered with the
palaces of this new aristocracy of wealth; piles as huge as the workhouses
in which labor ends its days, and filled and surrounded with such hosts of
flunkeys, such paraphernalia of luxury as a man of sense and spirit would
blush to see devoted to his own enjoyment, much more to create for himself. In the days of the Tudors, when the country was still wild and unprovided, the builders of such piles had at least the excuse of needing room
for a body guard and a train of artisans, nor had they entirely given up the
ancient custom of eating in the same hall with the crowd that lived under
their roof."-Professor Goldwin Smith, in the Fortnightly Review, March,
1872.




254           THE UNITY OF LAW
he has to sell; to wit: physical or mental service.
Man thus grows in freedom with every step in that
direction; becoming, on the contrary, more and
more enslaved with every increase of competition
for the sale of service; matter then obtaining increased control over mind, capital more control over
labor. So, too, is it with nations, their power for
the purchase of the labor of other nations, in whatsoever form, growing with growth of their own
power for production, and declining as this last declines; each and all being therefore interested in
the prosperity of each and every other. At each
and every stage of progress in the one direction
man tends more and more to rise in the scale of.being, with rapid increase in the demand for those
of labor's products requiring the exercise of skill or
taste, and exhibiting advance in mechanical or scientific knowledge; progress in the opposite direction, on the contrary, being attended by decline in
the demand for such commodities, as well as in
power for their production.
In what direction, now, tends the British system?
In that of increasing competition for the purchase
of labor, with growing tendency toward freedom?
Or, is it in that of increasing competition for its
sale, the tendency toward serfdom becoming more
and more obvious at each and every stage of progress'? That the reader may be enabled to answer
to himself these questions, his attention is now invited to an extract from a speech of Mr. Ernest




OF MATTER AND MIND.                255
Jones, made some years since on an election ground
in Yorkshire, as follows:"That system is based on foreign competition. Now I assert,
that under the buy-cheap-and-sell-dear principle, brought to
bear on foreign competition, the ruin of the working and small
trading classes must go on. Why? Labor is the creator of all
wealth. A man must work before a grain is grown or a yard
woven. But there is no self-employment for the working-man in
this country. Labor is a hired commodity, a thing in the market that is bought and sold; consequently, as labor creates all
wealth, labor is the first thing bought.'Buy cheap! buy
cheap' Labor is bought in the cheapest market. But now
comes the next:' Sell dear! sell dear' Sell what? Labor's
produce. To whom? To the foreigner-ay I and to the laborer
himself; for labor, not being self-employed, the laborer is not
the partaker of the first fruits of his toil.'Buy cheap, sell
dear!' How do you like it?   Buy the working-m-an's labor
cheaply, and sell back to that very working-man the produce of
his own labor dear  The principle of inherent loss is in the
bargain. The employer buys the labor cheap; he sells, and on
the sale he must make a profit; he sells to the working-man himself; and thus every bargain between employer and employed
is a deliberate cheat on the part of the employer. Thus labor
has to sink through eternal loss, that capital may rise through
lasting fraud. But the system stops not here. This is brought
to bear on foreign competition-which means, that we must ruin
the trade of other countries, as we have ruined the labor of our
own. How does it work? The high-taxed country has to undersell the low-taxed. Competition abroad is constantly increasing, consequently cheapness must increase also. Therefore,
wages in England must keep constantly falling. And how do
they effect the fall? By surplus labor. How do they obtain
the surplus labor? By monopoly of the land, which drives
more hands than are wanted into the factory. By monopoly of
machinery, which drives those hands into the street; by womanlabor, which drives the man from the shuttle; by child-labor,
which drives the woman from the loom. Then planting their




256               THE UNITY OF LAW.
foot upon that living base of surplus, they press its aching heart
beneath their heel, and cry:' Starvation I Wllo'1 work? A
half loaf is better than no bread at all l' and the writhing mass
grasps greedily at their terms. Such is the system for the working-man. But, electors, how does it operate on you? how does
it affect the home trade, the shopkeeper, poor rate, and taxation?
For every increase of competition abroad, there must be an increase of cheapness at home. Every increase of cheapness of
labor is based on an increase of labor surplus, and this surplus is obtained by an increase of machinery. I repeat, how
does this operate on you? The Manchester liberal on my left
establishes a new patent, and throws three hundred men as a
surplus in the streets.  Shopkeepers I three hundred customers
less I Rate-payers! three hundred paupers more! But, mark
me, the evil stops not here. These three hundred men operate
first to bring down the wages of those who remain at work in
their trade. The employer says:' Now I reduce your wages.'
The men demur.    Then he adds: "Do you see those three
hundred men who have just walked out? You may change
places if you like; they are sighing to come in on any terms, for
they're starving.' The men feel it, and are crushed. *  *  *
But the evil stops not yet. Those men, driven from their own
trade, seek employment in others, when they swell the surplus,
and bring wages down."
Sad as is the picture here presented, none can
doubt its accuracy who may have noted the proceedings in Parliament on every occasion when its
intervention has been claimed        in behalf of overworked and under-paid men, women, and children,
wholly unable to protect themselves, and constantly
assured of the existence of a "foreign competition"
that forbids attempt at improvement of their condition.* Gloomy as it is, the same painter, were he
* Referring to the question of limitation of the hours of labor, Quarterly
Reviewers thus speak with the " Proletariat" to which their recent article
is addressed:



OF MATTER      AND   MIND.                 257
yet living, might now          present it far more         darkly
shaded-exhibiting, as he might, the Saxon weaver,
the   Swedish      carpenter, the      Belgian     founder, the
Spanish miner, competing with British workmen
for possession of a home market steadily diminishing in its absorptive power, as the poor-house more
and more becomes the goal toward which the footsteps of these latter tend.* Compared with their
condition, as now constantly described in works of
high authority, that of the American negro slave
was an enviable one, his master having had a direct
interest in preservation of his health and life, and
" Now, if the cost be thus increased foreign nations will produce cheaper
and undersell us in the articles in which we come into competition with
them, and where will our trade and the wages for our artisans be then?
And who, that knows how vast a proportion of our industries are supported
by foreign demand, dare face the slightest risk of such results?"
The utter helplessness here exhibited on the part of a nation recently so
powerful is most suggestive. Very different would this article have been
had the writer observed the fact, that the "competition" so constantly
alleged to exist is precisely that of the cock-pit, where unfortunate birds
are being stimulated by their masters "to pluck out each other's eyes."
* Weight and value of cleaned cotton in manufactures retained for home
consumption, as given by Mr. Hoyle in his chapter On the Falling off in
Trade:Weight.          Value.
1858.................................... lbs. 145,006,000  ~  9,306,163
1859.................................  168,630,000  11,443,371
1860....................................  217,973,000  14,971,330
1867....................................  112,424,000  10,657,361
1868....................................  107,463,000  9,332,629
1869....................................  95,271,000  8,501,737
With a population only 20 per cent. greater than that of the United
Kingdom the American Union consumes five times as much cotton. Its
mere imports, mainly of the very fine descriptions, are more than twothirds as much in value as the total British and Irish consumption. See
Ante. p. 233.
17




258             THE UNITY OF LAW.
in caring properly for his wife and children; the
bleacher, on the contrary, who works his hands, old
and young, male and female, a hundred hours a week
in a temperature higher than blood heat, knowing
well that when his slaves die there will be abundant
others competing for the places thus rendered vacant
in the terrible " dance of death" that is being now
performed.*
To what, however, is all this duel How is it that
a wretched "proletariat" now occupies the place
that had once been filled by men against whom
the aid of Parliament had so frequently been invoked by the powerful predecessors of those who
now own the land of Britain?    Let us inquire.
When the Parliament of England prohibited domestic competition for the purchase of Irish wool,
and of Irish labor to be employed in its conversion
into cloth, it in effect prohibited Irish competition
for the purchase of English labor applied to the preparation of those commodities and things requiring
the exercise of mechanical skill or artistic taste, for
which a prosperous Irish people would have made a
market constantly growing in its extent as producers and consumers, positives and negatives, were
more nearly brought together; and as agricultural
labor necessarily became more and more produc* "When I hear of men recommending clubs for recreation, is it possible that they mean cutlers? When is it to be, what part of the day? for
there are plenty who work sixteen hours a day and can scarcely live. Why
do men insult us like this? To talk to cutlers about recreation is like holding a loaf to a hungry man that is bound, and showing it to him increases
his misery by mockery."-Sheffeld Daily Telegraph. See note to p. 29.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                  259
tive.  Thenceforth, so far as Ireland was concerned,
the English people were to be retained in the condition  of mere spinning       and  weaving -machines
employed in satisfying the lowest needs of their
Irish neighbors, the two co-operating constantly for
their own abasement; whereas, under other circumstances, they would have been combining with
each other for promotion of the general good.      With
each   and   every step in this direction     capital increased in its power over labor-matter in its power
over mind-with results such as are now exhibited;
the poverty and wretchedness of Lancashire weavers
and spinners, and their weakness for self-protection,
keeping    steady pace with those of Irish laborers
whose only choice in the past has been that between
C land at any rent," on one hand, and " starvation"
on the other.'''
Later, we find American colonists in like manner
to have been deprived of all power for domestic
competition as regarded the purchase of wool, or of
labor to be applied to its conversion into hats or
coats; power for purchase        of commodities of a
higher order steadily diminishing        as competition
* "Every man who will take the statistic spectacles off his nose, and look,
may discern in town and country, that the condition of the lower multitude
of English laborers approximates more and more to that of the Irish competing with them in all markets; that whatsoever labor, to which mere
strength with little skill will suffice, is to be done, will be done, not at the
English price, but at an approximation to the Irish price; at a price superior as yet to the Irish, that is, superior to scarcity of third-rate potatoes
for thirty weeks yearly; superior-yet hourly, with the arrival of every
new steamboat, sinking nearly to an equality with that."-Carlyle.




260           THE UNITY OF LAW.
for the sale of wool became more intense, and as
labor became more unproductive. Thenceforth Irish
and American wool-growers were to be in constant
contest with each other for possession of a market
whose power for absorption of their product declined
as Englishmen became more and more compelled to
limit their labors to those required by the spindle
and the loom; and more and more deprived of power
for engaging in employments requiring exercise of
mind and display of taste.
From that time to the present the course has been
always onward, and in the same direction, the army
of non-consuming laborers-growing constantly in
number and force until it now counts by hundreds
of millions-having been steadily employed in destroying everywhere outside of England that power
of association and co-operation to which alone could
English working-men look for such demand for skilled
labor and its products as would tend toward full development of their various faculties, and increase
of self-directive force. The more that power could
be destroyed abroad, the more became the necessity for forcing textile materials on the little market,
and for converting a once stalwart people into a
nation of mere weavers and spinners, powerless to
protect themselves, and constantly compelled to beg
for protection at legislative hands. At each and
every step there has been increase of competition
for the sale of labor in all the countries controlled
by the great non-consuming army, accompanied by
that constantly diminishing power for purchasing




OF MATTER AND MIND.          261
even the ruder products of British labor to which
the "proletaires" stand now indebted for that cry of
"foreign competition" with which their ears are so
invariably dinned when compelled to seek protection
against " great capitalists" whose power for mischief
grows with the growth of power to compel the earth's
people to limit themselves to the rudest works of
cultivation; to exhaust their soils by constant export of its products; and to compete in the limited
market of England for the sale of their labor in the
rude forms of cotton, wool, flax, and hemp, none of
which can be made available for human use until
after having been passed through mills that by those
"capitalists" themselves are owned.
How the English laborer profits by this war of
capital on the labor of mankind at large has well
been stated by Mr. Ruskin in a paragraph that
here below is given, and that is remarkable for its
condensation of a great truth which demands consideration at the hands of all who desire to witness
that advance in civilization, and that tendency toward peaceful action, which become so clearly manifest among nations whose positives and negatives
are being brought into closer connection each with
every other, to wit: those which resist with all their
force that trading monopoly which controls a great
non-consuming army always employed in rooting o-ut
civilization where it exists, and preventing its development in countries that have yet to wait for its
first appearance.
" Though England is deafened with spinning-wheels, her people




262            THE UNITY OF LAW.
have not clothes; though she is black with digging of fuel, they
die of cold; and though she has sold her soul for grain, they die
of hunger."
In no portion of the world that is controlled by
the great army above described does there exist
any competition for the purchase of labor, and hence
the lamentable state of affairs at home that Mr.
Ruskin has so well described.
~ 4. The village shopkeeper rejoices in the prosperity of his customers, knowing that his own
profits must increase as, materially and mentally,
they grow in wealth and strength. The farmer,
his neighbor, rejoices when the mason, the carpenter, and the sav-miller take their places near him;
clearly seeing that, while lessening the cost of improvements he may desire to make, their presence
will create demand for many of his products that
now are wasted. All alike rejoice when the little
woollens-mill is started to make demand for the services of women and children now unemployed; and
for wool that would otherwise need to seek the
distant market. At each and every step in this direction the societary circulation becomes more rapid;
utilities are more and more developed; labor grows
in value as compared with the commodities needed for
consumption; mind gains new control over matter;
exchanges become more and more numerous; and
men are more and more enabled to combine together
for the execution of works likely to be promotive
of the common good.
We have here the simple, sound, and practical




OF MATTER AND MIND.          263
political economy at which men are led to arrive
who reason from facts to principles. Among these
villagers there is probably not even one'who has
for an instant thought of that "science of the
nature of the individual mind," which constitutes,
according to Mr. Mill, so " essential" a part of "political philosophy;" and which, in his view, must
certainly be mastered before we can hope to arrive
at any proper comprehension of the societary movement. What, however, they do possess, is that "positive knowledge of the uncultured" which, says Mr.
Spencer," must necessarily underlie the whole theory
of science, its progress, and the relations of its parts
to each other;' and with which, therefore, we need
to commence when, as now, desiring fully to comprehend what are the real and permanent interests
of those larger bodies of men of which towns, cities,
states, and nations are composed. Doing this, we
are led inevitably to the conclusion, that as in this
peaceful village each and all profit by the growing
wealth of each and every other, so the great nations
of the earth should each and all profit by development of the powers, mental and physical, of each
and every other; each and all growing in power for
self-direction as each and every other more and more
obtains power for controlling and directing the great
natural forces; the harmony of all international interests being as perfect and complete as'we know to
be that of the individuals of which nations are composed..That such harmony does exist; that trading "war



261              THE UNITY OF LAW.
fare," such as has been described, is a grave mistake; and, that its effects on those by whom it is
made are as injurious and destructive as they are
so well known to be on those against whom it is
directed, it is proposed now to show.*
The period of American non-resistance which
commenced in 1835, and closed with 1842-3, stands
conspicuously out as having been that in which
the "warfare" of great British "capitalists" had
been productive of changes more frequent and destructive that those of any previous one; the general
result on this side of the Atlantic having exhibited
itself in so entire a stoppage of the societary circulation as to deprive our people of all power for aiding
in restoring that which, in like manner, had elsewhere so nearly disappeared.t How great was the
destruction which had then been caused, and how
much was at its close the British need for foreign
aid, are well exhibited in a passage from a work of
high authority given here below. After describing
the bankruptcies, the ruin, the poverty, and the
wretchedness that had fallen on Bradford, Leeds,
and Birmingham, the writer thus continues:"Of the vast trade in iron which Wolverhampton formerly carried on with the United States, only one-sixth remained. From
injuries sustained in the same quarter, Sheffield had lost more
than a fourth of its staple industry; wages had declined some
* Slavery is as injurious to the master as to the man. Recent events,
indeed, seem to prove that the injury to the dominant class had been even
greater than that inflicted upon the subjected one.
t See note to page 232 for evidence of the total disappearance of American credit at this date.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                 265
forty per cent., pauperism was doubled, and in the course of five
years no less than ~20,000 was expended by four trades alone
in the relief of unemployed workmen. Transferring ourselves
into the woollen districts of Gloucester, Somerset, and Wilts, we
meet the same picture. At Frome, from 1831 to 1841, population had considerably decreased, rents were fifty per cent.
lower, one-sixth of the houses were unoccupied, and the only
item of increase was the poor-rate.  Of Bradford, Stroud, Uley,
Wootton, the same tale could be told. Comparing the whole
county of Gloucester at the two periods just mentioned, we find
a diminution of fifty per cent. in the number of looms employed,
and the number of manufacturers who still held their ground
was less than the number of those who had failed during that
short interval. In Coventry one-third of the population was unemployed; in Spitalfields 8000 looms were idle, and 24,000 persons thrown upon parochial relief; in the whole of the metropolis one thousand letter-press compositors and nine thousand
tailors were altogether without work. Other trades throughout
the kingdom were in the same condition. To visit the iron
works of Scotland, the colliers of Staffordshire, the glovers of
Yeovil, the carpet-weavers of Kendal, the glass-blowers of Warrington, the shawl-weavers of Paisley, and the flax-spinners of
Dundee, would only be to encounter similar proofs of the entire
prostration of industry. In Paisley, for example, no less than
thirty failures took place within a few weeks; in less than a year
two-thirds of the whole number of manufacturers became insolvent, while one-third of a population which is distinguished,
even at the north, for industry and ingenuity, were thrown upon
the public for support.
" It was, however, in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire
that the vials of wretchedness seemed poured out to their last
dregs. It is unnecessary, after the facts we have given, to look
at the commercial statistics of the case; we will confine ourselves
to a few of their social results. In Bolton, only a third of the
people were fully employed, the poor-rate had been tripled in
five years, fifteen hundred houses within the borough were unoccupied, and wages had experienced an immense decline. We




266               THE UNITY OF LAW.
might infer from these facts alone the condition of the working
classes, but we have at hand the surer test of figures.  The net
earnings of 1003 families averaged only Is. 2d. a head per week;
more than half the beds in their possession were filled with straw;
they had among them 466 blankets, not quite one to every ten
persons-while only one-half could boast the humble luxury of
a change of lineh. At Stockport, Ashton, Oldham, and the
other large towns, the picture of misery was but slightly varied.
In Wigan, the receipts of 2000 families were only sufficient, if
all laid out in bread, to buy each individual 22 ounces a day.
The spectacle of distress which meets us when we turn to Manchester is projected on a gigantic scale, and filled up with more
harrowing details. At the instance of a number of charitable
gentlemen, 12,000 families were brought under visitation, and
the mass of destitution which was thus brought to light almost
exceeds belief. To buy themselves bread thousands had parted
with every stick of furniture and every rag of clothing beyond
the merest wants of decency. The value of the property thus
pledged by the section of the population just mentioned was probably not less than ~28,000.'It was indeed a touching spectacle,' says the philanthropic gentleman to whom we are indebted
for some of these facts,'to see the care with which the poor
creatures brought forth from some concealed part of their scanty
dress, or from some hidden corner of their wretched abode, the
bundles of tickets which formed their humble title-deeds to articles of personal or household use with which, one after another,
they had been obliged to part, and of which they had little
chance of ever becoming again possessed.' "'*
A constant series of financial earthquakes having
resulted in destroying the best of Britain's customers, the British people at large were now discharging the bill of costs for the " warfare" of previous
years; "wealthy capitalists" meantime augmenting
* Dunckley. Charter of the Nations. London, 1854. This work received the gold medal offered as a prize by the Anti-Corn-Law League,
thus receiving that body's fullest endorsement.




OF MATTER AND MIND                    2 7
their already enormous fortunes by taking for themselves, at their own prices, the works of smaller capitalists who had now been ruined; capital thus acquiring new power over labor, matter over mind,
and traffic over modes of thought, always the result
of irregularity of the societary movement such as is
now exhibited in that of Britain.*
~ 5. In the thirty years that since have passed
there have been several occasions on which this terrific story has been more or less repeated, stoppage
of motion at the financial centre having been fol.
lowed by ruin and desolation in all dependent countries, and among the less wealthy masters at home;
wretched "proletaires," abroad and at home, meantime perishing as a consequence of constantly increasing competition for the sale of their one commodity, physical or mental effort. Desiring, however, to find the crisis most nearly approaching in
its horrors to the one above described, we must look
to that of 1866, fresh as it still is in the memories
of so many thousands of English men and women
who then lost their little alls; and in those of the
* "It is not the dress-maker we consider, but the dress; it is not the
butcher whose well-being we care for, but the meat; it is not the grocer
whose moral and physical condition is the object, but the grocery; it is
not the baker or the bread-eater whose sole satisfaction we seek, but the
bread. Nor is it even these goods for the sake of their utility to man, it
is the goods as saleable commodities alone. The bread may be adulterated,
so that it passes and gets the price of a loaf; it is the same with the
butcher's meat, it may rot; with the gown, it may be of counterfeit stuff.
But it is the trade in the gown, the meat, the grocery, the bread, etc., that
is the object of existence; and it is that to which our law-makers look, not
the tradesman, the working-man, or the consumer."-Leader.




268                  THE UNITY OF LAW.
"great capitalists" who         then, as always theretofore,
had profited of the occasion largely to swell their
already prodigious fortunes, and in a correspondent
degree to diminish competition for the purchase
of human service.* Doing this, we find, not only
a similar state of ruin and desolation, but also a permanence of stagnation greatly exceeding that of the
terrible   period    above    described, proof thus being
furnished     that societary disease       had    become     more
deeply seated than had been the case at any previous period.t
* A case has been mentioned to the writer in which an eminent manufacturer, as a consequence of repeated crises, has been enabled to become
owner of all previously competing works throughout a circuit of many
miles.
- " The lamentable depression of trade, and consequent want of employment which have recently prevailed, have now reached a most serious
magnitude in many of the larger towns, and most of all in London and its
far-spreading suburbs. The intensity of the distress in the metropolitan
districts has not been equalled in recent times. And the break down of
our Poor-law system, despite all efforts of voluntary associations, has been
appalling in its results. Not a week passes without several cases of'deaths
from starvation,' duly attested by the verdict of coroners' inquests, where
the medical and other evidence reveals an amount of unaided wretchedness and starvation which one would suppose impossible in a civilized
country. Men, women, and children dying from sheer famine in the heart
of the wealthiest city in the world!"-Blackwood's Magazine, April, 1870;
article, " The State, the Poor, and the Country."
Never before had the Government had occasion to utter a cry of distress like that uttered in a circular dispatch addressed to the Governors of
British Colonies by Earl Granville, in April, 1870, from which the following
is an extract:"The distress prevailing among the laboring classes in many parts
of the United Kingdom has directed public attention to the question
of Emigration as a means of relief. It has been urged on Her Majesty's
Government that while there are in this country large numbers of well-conducted and industrious laborers, for whom no employment can be found,
there exists in most of the colonies a more extensive demand for labor than




OF MATTER AND       MIND.                269
To whom, now, in her distress, could Britain look
for help?     To   any of her dependents?           Assuredly
not, each and all of these now finding themselves
in a condition closely correspondent with that occupied by Americans in 1842.          To whom, then, did she
look? To that American Union for whose destruction throughout the previous half dozen years she
had labored with an earnestness not readily to be
surpassed. From whom was the so much needed
aid obtained?       From    that Union which, happily for
England, had five years previously re-entered             upon
a policy of resistance by means of which a growing
interdependence among its people had given the
strength    required    for enabling it not only to        look
with calmness on the storm then raging throughout
the  British   Islands, but also to      take   therefrom    an
amount of merchandise till then without a parallel,
paying therefor in the gold that was there so greatly
needed.*
the laboring class on the spot can supply. The result of emigration would
therefore, it is said, be equally advantageous to the emigrant and the colonies-to the former, by placing him in a position to earn an independence;
to the latter by supplying a want that retards their progress and prosperity.
Under the circumstances, Her Majesty's Government are anxious to be
furnished with your opinion as to the prospects which the colony under
your government holds out to emigrants, both of the agricultural and the
artisan class."
* Forthwith, on reception of news of the crisis the Treasury vaults were
opened, and gold to the amount of twenty or thirty millions sent abroad
to aid in sustaining British credit. The "British produce and manufactures" sent in that year to the United States amounted to twenty-eight
and a half millions of pounds sterling, exceeding by nine millions, or
$45,000,000, the average exports of the four closing years of the nonresistant period, 1857-60. Further than this, all received in 1866 was paid
for; whereas, of that received in those other years no inconsiderable




270            THE UNITY OF LAW.
To the aid thus rendered was England then indebted for great alleviation of the troubles under
vwhich her people then so severely suffered.  But for
that they would probably have thrice exceeded those
of any previous period. It is indeed scarcely possible to conceive of a state of things more awful than
that which would have been presented had the dependence of the Union on foreign traders been as
great as that which had existed in 1842 and 1857.
Wholly forgetful of the aid thus rendered; and as
wholly unable to appreciate the fact that for it they
had been indebted to the resistant policy of 1861;
those traders have since spared no expense in the
effort for re-establishing here the system under which
they themselves had so severely suffered in all the
periods in which Britain's great army of non-consuming laborers had proved successful in crushing
out the American domestic commerce.
~ 6. The more that matter tends to take upon
itself the form of a true pyramid, the greater is its
tendency towards stability and permanence. The
more, on the contrary, it tends to take that of an
inverted one the greater is the danger to all in
any manner whatsoever, material or social, therewith connected. In this latter direction it is that
British policy tends, and therefore is it that all in
any manner thereto subjected so severely suffer by
her frequent and rapid changes; those, on the conportion went to swell the British account of American bad debts. The
bankruptcies of the Union in 1857 were for $299,000,000; whereas, those
of 1866 amounted to but $53,000,000.




OF MATTER AND MIND.          271
trary, who retuse to be so subjected, growing steadily
in wealth, strength, and power.
Such being the case with her dependents, how is
it with herself? Let us inquire.
The basis of a true social pyramid is to be found
in a prosperous and intelligent agricultural population. Have the labors of her hundreds of millions
of non-consuming slaves tended toward further elevation of the stalwart and intelligent men of earlier
date   E Have they not, on the contrary, tended to
substitute therefor a "proletariat" which, whether
in the field, the mine, or the workshop, is becoming
daily more and more dependent on its masters; and
daily less fitted for entering into competition with
the people of other nations for production of commodities demanding exercise of taste or intellect?
That such is the fact has been a thousand times admitted; the artistic and mental powers of these
"proletaires" declining daily as the grand army of
the "great capitalists" grows in numbers and in
force. Looking next to those material forces which
constitute the base of the industrial pyramid, we
find these " proletaires" busily engaged in exhausting the stores of coal and ore; and so compelled
from year to year to go to greater depths, thereby
incurring greater risks, that already it has become
more profitable to look abroad for ores of various
kinds than to draw from mines at home; each and
every step in this direction rendering more and more
helpless the unfortunates who are too poor to seek
refuge in other lands whose people resist this perni



272                THE UNITY OF LAW.
cious and destructive system."        With each, British
society tends more and more to take the form of an
inverted pyramid, and hence it is that crises become
so steadily more enduring and more destructive, both
at home and abroad.
What, then, of the future?        For answer to this
question the reader needs but to remark, that notwithstanding the wars with which Germany and
America have recently been so much afflicted, mind
in both is obtaining increased power over matterlabor increased power to negotiate on equal terms
with capital; whereas, in the comparatively peacefill Britain the power of capital over labor has in
the last decade much increased, the growth of pauperism having kept steady pace with that of the
fortunes of "great capitalists" who control and direct the non-consuming hosts.t        In both the former
the social edifice takes daily more and more the true
pyramidal form; that of the latter, on the contrary,
becoming from year to year more top-heavy and more
dangerous to all around, whether states or people,
capitalists or working-men.          Let this exhaustive
* Vast quantities of iron ore are now expected to be supplied from
Spain at less than the cost of obtaining them at home, giving large employment to low-priced Spanish labor at the further cost of that of Britain.
What Chilian labor has already done for Cornish men, that of Spain is
now about to do for those of Cumberland.
t "The severance between the rich and the poor is to me an even sadder
thing than the wretched state of the labor market. I can fancy a remedy
possible for the one, I can foresee no remedy for the other. The gap between them seems widening every day, as trade and land fall into the hands
of large capitalists, who absorb all smaller concerns, all smaller holdings."
-Rev. Brooke Lambert.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                   273
policy be continued, and the day will then prove
to be not far distant when Britain will be required
to take her place among the merely secondary powers
of the world; thereby verifying the suggestion of
Lord   Macaulay     here below    given, and furnishing
proof conclusive that destructive as had been the
"warfare" on foreign peoples, it had          proved    still
more    destructive   to  the   British   nation   itselffarmers and laborers, peers and peasants.*
~ 7. For the evils above described where may
the remedy now be sought?          Such is the question
tlat has for many years been asked, receiving at
successive    periods widely     different answers, but
always with the same result, to wit: a daily growing tendency of the toiling millions, whether in
the field or the workshop, whether male or female,
young or old, in the direction of that' proletariat"
at which they are now admitted to have arrived.
Half a century since, Catholic emancipation and
representative reform were regarded as panaceas for
societary disease. Later, the world was assured that
the millenium would be close at hand could the corn* " I remembered that Adam Smith and Gibbon had told us that there
would never again be a destruction of civilization by barbarians; the flood,
they said, would no more return to cover the earth. And they seemed to
reason justly, for they compared the immense strength of the civilized part
of the world with the weakness of that part which remained savage, and
asked from whence were to come those Huns and Vandals that were again
to destroy civilization? Alas it did not occur to them that in the very
heart of great capitals, in the very neighborhood of splendid palaces, and
churches, and theatres, and libraries, and museums, vice, ignorance, and
misery might produce a race of Huns fiercer than those who marched under
Attila, and Vandals more bent on destruction than those who followed
Genseric."
18




274           THE UNITY OF LAW.
laws but be repealed.  Quite recently the same resuits were to be obtained by means of a much more
widely extended suffrage. Still, howeyer, the movement has been in the same direction; pauperism
having grown with great rapidity; and governmental difficulties having much increased. Where, then,
shall the panacea now be looked for. To the ballot,
answers one; his neighbors simultaneously asserting
that what is needed is that schools be increased in
iumber; that industrial education be established;
that the Church be disestablished; that the Government become the great landlord, the universal rentcollector; that all future increase in the value of
land be confiscated to the public use; and so on, the
prescriptions being almost as numerous as are the
doctors who so confidently believe themselves qualified for treating the various sores which now distress
the body politic.
With great respect for the eminent gentlemen
to whom the English people stand indebted for such
prescriptions, we here suggest for their consideration the-ideas, that the obstructions they would thus
remove are but the flowers and fruits of a tree whose
roots are much diseased; and, that so long as that
shall continue to be the case their labors must prove
as vain as had been those of the reformers by whom
they had been preceded. Seeking to restore the
social body to a state of health they need to study
the disordered root. That this may advantageously
be done we here present some figures drawn from




OF MATTER AND MIND.                 275
official tables quite recently given to the world by
the Treasury Department, as follows:Of the exports of British produce and manufactures for the decade 1861-70, there went to the
British Possessions in the first of those years ~42,000,000, and in the last ~52,000,000; the increase
having been less than 25 per cent.
To other foreign countries whose policy has, to a
greater or less extent, been       in  accordance with
English teachings, there went in 1861, ~41,000,000;
and in 1870, P64,000,000; the increase having been
56 per cent. To those countries which have in the
past opposed a determined resistance to         the monopoly system, there went in 1861, but ~42,000,000;
whereas the amount in 1870 was ~83,000,000; exchanges with those countries having thus almost
doubled.*
That the movement above described is still onward, and with accelerated force, is shown in facts
just now given to the world, to wit: that the exports to resistant countries had risen in       1871 to
~106,000,000, thus exhibiting a further increase of
1861.       1870.
*  Russia....................................  ~  3,041,000  ~  6,991,000
Germany.................................  12,968,000  20,416,000
Netherlands............................  6,434,000  11,220,000
Belgium.................................  1,925,000  4,481,000
France....................................  8,920,000  11,811,000
U. S. America..........................  9,064,000  28,335,000
~42,352,000  ~83,254,000
The Netherlands in this respect are little else than an outport of Germany. The existing French tariff is more intelligently resistant than
that of the United States.




276          THE UNITY OF LAW.
28 per cent.; those to non-resistant ones showing
no increase whatsoever.  The former have now
grown to be 47- per cent. of the whole, the latter
meanwhile declining to 52~ per cent.
At the opening of the decade, commerce with the
countries of resistance was little more than a third
of the whole amount. In the last year it has been
nearly half of the whole.
Comparing now the present with a more distant
period, we find that, notwithstanding the gold discoveries of Australia, and the large export thereto
of British men and women; notwithstanding, too,
the great expenditure on roads in Canada and India;
the exports to British colonies have grown so very
slowly that the ~17,000,000 of 1840 have become
but ~51,000,000; whereas those to the resistant
countries'above referred to have grown from ~19,000,000 to ~106,000,000.
Having carefully studied this exhibit the reader
may now, perhaps, be led to the conclusion, that the
chief employment of the hundreds of millions of
non-consuming slaves who constitute the essential
British army has been that of crushing out the power
of the world at large to make demand for the labors
of millions of men, women, and children now employed in the mills and mines of Britain; and compelled to daily competition with each other for employment, at starvation wages, at the hands of the
" wealthy capitalists" to whom those mills and mines
belong. Further than this, he may, perhaps be led
to ask if the " Science of Exchanges," that has now




OF MATTER AND MIND.              277
replaced the humane and Christian-like teachings of
Adam Smith, might not more properly be styled the
"Science of preventing Exchanges by means of Annihilation everywhere of Power for producing Commodities to be made the Subjects of Exchange"?
That he will be so, we feel assured, whensoever he
shall have studied the further figures that will now
be given, as follows:The last decade has been favorable to India to an
extent that can scarcely ever again be looked for,
the cotton famine having given to its people a market at high prices for a great commodity that previously had been a drug; and yet, the increase of
power to compete for purchase of the products of
British labor has been less than ~3,000,000, or $15,000,000.* Throughout the whole century the force
of Britain's great army of non-consumers has been
brought to bear on that unfortunate country, yet is
its whole power of purchase now but 70 cents per
head; that, too, in great measure limited to cotton
that had been forced to travel half round the world
in search of spindles and looms operated by people
so poorly paid that the market for cotton made
by the population of the British Islands, rich and
poor, male and female, averages but about three
* The cause of this will readily be understood when the reader sees that
the whole quantity of India cotton converted into yarn, in 1871, was but
202,000,000 pounds, the equivalent of about 440,000 American bales;
the world at large, through Great Britain, thus making on India but six
times the demand made on Texas and Alabama by the few mills of the
little city of Lowell, with its 40,000 inhabitants mainly engaged in other
pursuits.




278           THE UNITY OF LAW.
pounds per head.': Here, as everywhere, the "' coipetition," of which so much is said in Parliament,
would seem to have had little other object than that
of deciding which of the two could accomplish most
in the direction of diminishing the productive force
of the other, thereby lessening the power to make
exchanges. Let us now suppose the British people
to arrive at the conclusions, that the past had been
one long mistake; that the world was not meant to
be a scene of universal discord; that there really
was a harmony of international interests; that all
would be benefited by the adoption of measures calculated to enable the unfortunate people of India
once again to combine together for enabling each
and all to find a market for service, physical and
mental; that in this manner a beginning should
be made in the direction of bringing societary positives and negatives into orderly arrangement; and
that there should thus be generated a productive
force in some degree approaching that which in so
brief a period has been brought about in Germany
and Russia; and in others yet more brief in these
United States on each and every occasion of resumption of the resistant policy; let us, we say, suppose
all these things, and then inquire what might then
reasonably be looked for as the results most likely
to be obtained.
Were this done, would there not be thus created
a demand on Britain for machinery that would make
* See ante, p. 257. The American consumption per head is nearly five
times as great.




OF MATTER AND       MIND.               279
demand for both physical and mental effort greatly
superior in its quality to that now required for spinning and weaving the trivial quantity of cotton now
converted?     Would it not make demand for Englishmen fitted to operate machinery, and to instruct the
Ilindoos themselves in this necessary work; and
would not this tend toward diminution of competition for the    sale of British    labor?    Would     British
operatives not then consume more Indian rice and
cotton, and would not India then           make greatly increased demand for the infinitely varied productions
of British skill and taste          Such, assuredly, would
be the results; society thereafter tending in both
countries toward greater steadiness and regularity
of movement, with constant diminution of the necessity for maintaining armies, and for crushing out
rebellions."
More than half a century has now            elapsed   since
Mr. Canning boasted of having, as he said, " called a
new world into existence;" having freed from Spanish
domination the whole of the wonderful region that
* Among the most intelligent and energetic advocates of the existing
system was Mr. Wilson, so long editor of the London Economist. The day,
however, came when he found himself placed in the financial direction of
India, and then but little time was needed for satisfying him that, in the
absence of a resistant action, Indian labor could not be made productive.
To the end that it might so be made, he imposed a duty of ten per cent.
on foreign cottons; but the clamor among the officers of Britain's nonconsuming army became so great that he was compelled to abandon his
poor subjects to the tender mercies of men who were even then rejoicing
at having suppressed diversification of employment, and competition for
the purchase of labor, "from Smyrna to Samarcand."  Since then, the
Government has been compelled to heap internal taxes on the heads of poor
IHindoos who can find no market for their labor; and with what result
has been already shown in the note to page 82, ante.




280           THE UNITY OF LAW.
extended northward from  Magellan's Straits to
the western boundaries of these United States.
Throughout all that period the great British army,
so often above referred to, has been engaged in trampling out the associative power where it previously
had existed, and prevented it from anywhere arising,
the result exhibiting itself in the facts, that labor
has everywhere been wasted; that ignorant and
idle men have been always and everywhere ready
for revolution; that mines have everywhere remained unwrought; that agriculture has made no
progress; that schools have had little or no existence; that labor has remained unproductive throughout a land abounding in the material required for
production of the greatest wealth; and that, as a
necessary consequence, the power of an almost continent to pay for the labor of the United Kingdom
is now less than two dollars a head for that kingdom's population. Had a different course been
pursued; had efforts been made to naturalize there
the arts of civilization; had societary positives and
negatives been encouraged to come together; it is
safe to say that the demand of that continent for
products requiring display of taste, and exercise of
intellect, would be tenfold greater than that which
now exists for those. of the wretched operatives who
have been so steadily falling to the condition of a
mere "proletariat;" indebted, as we are assured,
" for being employed at all," to " sacrifices" of their
masters in the effort "to gain and keep possession
of foreign markets."




OF MATTER AND MIND.         281
Of all the South American States, Brazil is the
one whose progress has been least affected by
wars or revolutions; and yet so trivial has been the
growth of power to purchase the products of British labor that her demands therefor, in 1870, were
less than $30,000,000; the increase of the decade
having been less than $4,000,000.
With the gold discoveries of Australia her demands rose speedily to $70,000,000. Since then,
her population has largely grown, yet does she furnish now a market for less than $50,000,000; that,
too, with every reason for believing that if the nonresistant system be maintained it must decline from
year to year.
Having studied the figures that have thus been
given, the reader may now with advantage compare the wonderful power exercised by Britain with
the pitiful results obtained. From the days when
Adam Smith cautioned her against conversion of
her people into "a nation of shop-keepers," her
grand army of non-consuming laborers, now counting
by hundreds of millions, has been everywhere engaged in destroying that power for combination in
whose absence there can be no economy of human
labor; no development of individual faculties; no
increase in the productiveness of human effort; no
tendency toward orderly arrangement of societary
positives and negatives; no increase of power for
self-direction; no advance toward civilization; the
general result exhibiting itself in the fact, that the
few resistant, and therefore advancing, nations of the




282           THE UNITY OF LAW.
world promise soon to make demand for the produce
of iBritish labor greatly larger than that of all those
lnon-resistant peoples for whose subjugation have
been expended almost countless millions, with a
waste of human happiness and life, at home and
abroad, the like of which the world has never known.
Having reflected on these facts, he may perhaps be
led to the conclusions, that equally with individuals
nations profit by improvement in the condition of
their neighbors; and, that the British policy, so long
maintained in defiance of the advice of the great
father of political economy, has been a mistake so
great as to make it doubtful if it may not prove to
have been a fatal one.
The engineer who constantly and largely adds
fuel to his fire, meanwhile increasing the weights
upon his safety valve, prepares thus for seeing
his engine, and perhaps his ship, blown to atoms.
This, however, is precisely what the British people
now are doing, adding daily to the non-consuming
army while seeking everywhere to destroy the
power either to purchase British products, or to
absorb the labor thus deprived of the employment to
which it had been accustomed. Happily for them,
the resistant nations of Europe do much toward correcting the error that thus is indicated; American
resistance co-operating largely by making increased
demand not only for the products of labor, but also
for the surplus labor itself. Butfor this, the explosion would long since have come. In now endeavoring to bring about a change, Britain is seeking




OF MATTER AND       MIND.                283
to destroy the friends who, thus far, have done her
the largest service.*
~ 8. Thirty years ago we were assured that repeal
of the corn-laws would be followed by peace and
harmony througllout the world, and the elevation of
the   laborer wheresoever found.           So   far, however,
have we been from        witnessing    verification of those
agreeable    prophecies that the        quarter century       of
"free corn" has been so marked by wars, rebellions,
famines, financial and       commercial crises, that whig
and tory journals now unite in representing the condition of the toiling millions at home as being worse
than at any previous period; and, that a " proletariat" now definitively occupies the place which even so
late as the days of Adam         Smith had been filled       by
men the like of those who had followed to the field
Cromwell, Hampden, and Montrose.
Thirty years since the contributions of those millions toward maintenance of that "warfare" on               the
labor of the outer world to which, as they are being
* Of all economic phrases, the one now most in fashion is that from
which we learn that the laws of supply and demand are paramount, and
are therefore to be held accountable for all the evils above described.
The "labor market" being oversupplied, "why," it is asked, "should not
that commodity fall as beef and mutton do?" The laborer perishing for
want of proper food, "why should he not suffer for the sin committed by
his parents in bringing into the world beings for whom no place had been
prepared at the table of the great Giver of all good?" To none of these
persons does it seem to occur that paralysis in India, Australia, or America,
tends to produce paralysis in Britain; that deprivation of power to sell
labor in any one country tends, more or less, to produce similar effects in
all the countries of the world. To none does it occur to remark that rapidity of the societary circulation anywhere tends, more or less, to cause
similar rapidity everywhere.




284                THE UNITY OF LAW.
now assured, they themselves had always oeen "indebted for being employed at all," but little exceeded
~20,000,000=$100,000,000. Now, they are more
than twice that sum; consumers of tea, coffee, spices,
beer, spirits, and other commodities of which             the
"proletaires" are chief consumers, furnishing more
than ~40,000,000 as their contribution toward carrying on a war for reducing the laborers of the world,
themselves included, to the condition of mere hewers
of wood and drawers of water for the benefit of a few
thousand persons who control and direct that nonconsuming army which grows in number and in force
as the British community becomes more pauperized.*
Of the great increase of expenditure thus exhibited, not even a single shilling has been needed in
reference to the countries by which this barbarizing
system has been opposed; and yet, as has been shown,
their power to purchase British labor and its products has more than quintupled          in 30 years.t     To
what then, have those contributions been directed?
* Totalexpenditures for 1837, excluding interest on the debt, ~21,600,000
"         i"    1870,     "      "      "       42,000,000
Of this nearly the whole appears to have been paid by articles mainly
consumed by those who have labor to sell. The contributions of those who
need to purchase labor appear to do little more than pay interest on debts
contracted for maintenance of war upon the general industry of the world.
t Of the exports to British American possessions, and to Mexico, a considerable proportion is intended for smuggling into the United States. So,
probably, it is with regard to the resistant countries of Europe. This
allowed for, British exports would be very nearly equally divided between the two hundred millions of the world's people who are growing
rich by means of resistance, and the nine hundred millions who are being
impoverished by the officials of the great non-consuming army of Britain.




OF MATTER AND MIND.                   285
To nothing whatsoever but the maintenance of
sailors, soldiers, diplomats, officials of all descriptions, engaged in carrying into practical'effect the
decree that labor was to be everywhere subjected
to capital, mind to matter; and in the effort at giving to bankers, brokers, and other traders, all the
profit resulting from an import of raw materials
to be returned in a finished form to the places
whence they had come; the men, women, and children employed in the work of conversion, and taxed
to the whole amount required for paying such
officials, meantime gradually declining toward that
degraded condition for whose indication the word
"proletaire" is now so much in use.         In the world's
history there can be found no case in which the
forces of a nation have been so well directed toward
destruction of the foundation on which its power
had rested, subjugation of labor abroad having been
accompanied by similar subjugation of labor at
home; matter thus obtaining increased control over
mind in all the countries, home and foreign, subjected to the British system.*
* That the reader may more clearly understand how it is that "proletaires" abroad and at home are made to co-operate for their own subjugation, and for maintenance of the power of capital over labor, a few facts
derived from Mr. Jenkins's recent work "The Coolie," are here presented,
as follows:The population of British Guiana is, in round numbers 150,000, a third
of whom are coolies who have been "recruited"-in other words, kidnapped-in India, by aid of official documents certifying that men can
readily earn from 50 cents to $1 per day; the real fact being that their
average earnings are less than half the lowest of those sums; those of
women and children being low in proportion.
For superintending exchanges between home and colonial laborers the




286                  THE UNITY      OF LAW.
Thirty years since       the military and naval expenditures required      for maintaining order among             subjects at home, and dependents abroad, -wer                covered
by   a dozen     millions, or $60,000,000.            Now     they
are twice that; and        yet, at no     time   since the days
of the Armada has the idea of invasion so seriously
occupied     the   British    mind.     Then, Britain        stood
first among the nations of the world. Now, she is
claims of the home government on the products of this little colony are as
follows, to wit:On 90,000 hogsheads of sugar...  ~676,000
30,000 puncheons of rum...       1,769,000
" 15,000 casks of molasses.                   26,200
~2,471,200
Equal, in dollars, to 12,356,000; giving no less than $82 per head of the
total population, old and young, rich and poor, male andfemale, sick and well,
as the contribution of these wretched people toward maintenance of oficials engaged in carrying on the "warfare" above described on the labor of the world,
foreign and domestic. The larger the tax thus imposed the less is the
power of the English proletaire to purchase colonial products, and the
lower must be their prices. The less those prices, the less is the colonial
laborer's power to purchase the products of English labor; producers and
consumers suffering thus alike by reason of the necessity for paying men
employed in keeping them asunder. Such is thefree-trade system now so
strongly commended for the use of the world at large.
Absentee proprietorship being almost universal, the direction of the
colony is, of course, in the hands of agents who accummulate fortunes
and control the local legislature.  The governor of these few thousand
people has a salary of $25,000 per annum, toward whose payment the
wretched coolie contributes by means of a tax on his rice of $5 per ton;
the wealthy legislator's coal meantime paying but 36 cents per ton. Working hours vary from 12 to 22, overwork not being generally paid for. Discontented, the poor laborer sometimes rebels; thereby earning months of
imprisonment at hard labor. At times he is led to ask the aid of Justice;
with little effect, however, beyond that of satisfying himself that the good
dinners and fine wines of the rich tend strongly toward closing the eyes
and ears of her ministers to the complaints of miserable bondmen like
himself. Notwithstanding all this, slaveryis, as we are assured, abolished
in all the countries under the sway of Britain.




OF MATTER AND MIND.          287
overshadowed by powers which have sought independence by means of measures calculated for establishing domestic interdependence; for -diffusing
among their several peoples the kpowledge required
for obtaining control and direction of the great
natural forces, and for themselves the power of selfdirection.  Then, Russia, Prussia, and America,
scarcely anywhere found place in the Palmerstonian
correspondence that has now been published. Now,
as a consequence of having created political and industrial pyramids, they constitute a trio capable of
assuming an almost entire direction of the world at
large.
Of all the communities the world yet has known
there has been none that, as an outpost of Europe,
and as freed by insular position from dangers of invasion, has enjoyed advantages equal to those of that
British one whose past and present have been here
examined.  Of all, there is none that so early
learned to control the great physical forces of nature.
Of all, there is none in which that control has become so great. Of all, therefore, it is the one that
has held in its hands the greatest power for evil or
for good. That it has not been used in this last
direction is very certain, there being no community
in the world that has profited of Britain's friendship;
no one that has not profited when making determined resistance to the monopoly its capitalists
have sought to institute; no single one in which the
power for self-direction-for freedom of thought,
speech, and action-has not grown in the ratio of




288               THE UNITY OF LAW.
emancipation from the control that half a century
since appeared to have been so well established.
Widely different would be now        the case had her
course been other than is here described; diffusing
intelligence and a love of peace, instead of seeking
everywhere to prevent advance in civilization. Then,
it would have resulted in securing to her troops of
admiring friends. Now, she is as friendless to a
degree scarcely to be exceeded; and hence the extreme anxiety in reference to "Alabama Claims."
~ 9. "A nation," says a distinguished English writer, "which
resists in principle the just social impulses natural to its history
and position-which discourages those honorable social emotions with which men regard the proceedings of men-is sure to
find, sooner or later, that the forces which she has thus kept
back from their regular modes of expansion have found outlets
and channels within her own borders less regular, and therefore
more perilous and uncertain. Adherence simply to negative
precepts [laissez faire] seldom obtains in any sphere of policy
without being, in a greater or less degree, the mark of all the
rest. And it is so here. * * * We fail to set to work with
will and indomitable resolution at the task of relieving Ireland
from anarchy. We fail to perform, or even to see clearly the pressing necessity of performing, the positive duty of devising some
means, and means there must be somewhere in the minds of men,
for finally uniting Ireland to ourselves and removing our heaviest
reproach in the eyes of Europe.* We are innocent, again, of
wishing the poor and ignorant any ill, but there is no.sign of a
diligent and determined national action to ameliorate their condition and diminish their numbers. And so on throughout all
the spheres of government.  To that watery self-satisfaction
which comes of the discharge of negative duties we are entitled.
* Still more is the case with regard to India; and still greater is the
danger that there threatens in the not distant future.




OF MATTER AND MIND.               289
* * * An energetic, full-blooded, and generous initiative is
no more seen. Under our present set of social conceptions it
is forever impossible. The idea of the two great functions of
the State is torpid or extinct. The nourishment of a strong and
harmonious national life, in the first place; in the second, the
maintenance of a wise, unselfish, and upright international life;
these are the two ideas at present fatally wanting in English
policy. * * * If anybody thinks that we are playing that
powerful and beneficent part in our relations with Europe to
which our material strength and moral disinterestedness entitle
us, or rather which they demand from us, let him reflect that the
counsels which Lord Stanley is said to be pressing both at Berlin
and Paris count for about as much as if they came from the cabinet of Sweden or of Portugal." —Morley; Fortnightly Review,
May, 1867.
Forty years since there was in Britain what was
called a " reform;" limited, however, to changes of
form, leaving the national policy untouched. Other
changes in the same direction have since been made;
yet others now being called for. Admitting that
they be obtained, will they, can they, prove more
successful than those by which they had been preceded?   Assuredly not, if it shall continue to be
held that " those who advocate the rights of labor
are digging the free-trade grave." Not, if the grand
army of non-consuming laborers shall continue to
be employed in compelling the poor and weak communities of the world to confine themselves to the
work of raising rude produce for distant markets,
the proper work of the barbarian and the slave, and
of those alone.     Not, if the work of her great
army shall continue to be that of destroying the
power of other states and nations to become com19




290            THE UNITY OF LAW.
petitors for the purchase of Iritish labor.  Not, if
Britain shall continue to set at defiance, as she now
daily does, that great law which teaches that duty to
both God and man demands of us to do by others
as, under similar circumstances, we should wish
them to do by us. Not, if it shall continue to be a
cardinal maxim   of British policy, that "the end
sanctifies the means."   Not, if that policy shall
continue to be directed toward prevention everywhere, at home and abroad, of that orderly arrangement of societary positives and negatives, producers
and consumers, by which alone there can ever be
brought about that domestic interdependence which
so evidently tends toward maintenance of harmony
at home and peace abroad. Not, if it shall continue
to be overlooked, that in the social as in the physical world the more rapid the circulation the greater
is the force exerted in whatsoever direction it may
be most required. Not, if the wonderful power now
accumulated in the hands of a few thousand bankers
and traders shall continue to be given toward increasing the power of capital over labor, matter over
mind; thereby preventing advance of civilization in
all the countries subjected to British irfluence.
~ 10. M. de Tocqueville, writing tc Mrs. Grote,
speaks as follows:" In the eyes of the English, that which is most useful to England is always the cause of justice. The man or the government
which serves the interests of England has all sorts of good qualities; he who hurts those interests, all sorts of defects, so that
it would seem that the criterion of what is right, or noble,




OF MATTER AND MIND.             291
or just, is to be found in the degree of favor or opposition to
English interests. The same thing occurs to some extent in the
judgment of all nations, but it is manifested in England to a
degree which astonishes a foreigner. England is often accused
on this account of a political machiavellism which, in my opinion,
not only does not exist any more, but rather less, than elsewhere."
That this is so none can doubt who have had
occasion to observe how little disposed are Englishmen, when abroad, to look at anything through
other spectacles than those with which they had
left home provided. Further, however, than this,
they are generally most unwilling to make themselves familiar with any idea that comes in conflict with their accustomed modes of thought.   In
proof of this, many facts could readily be adduced;
none, however, quite so remarkable as that presented in the case of Mr. Sumner's celebrated speech,
discussed by all England, yet read by none; no single British journal having ventured on its reproduction. Commenting on this trait of the English
character, and replying to an assertion of Mr. Helps
as to "the safety of holding exceptional opinions,"
a writer in the Contemporary Review" asserts
that, greatly lauded as had been Mr. Mill's work
" On Liberty," no newspaper " would dare to fly in
the face of Providence" by reproducing certain of
its expressions in regard to Mormonism and the
"peculiar institution" of the lately Confederated
States.  Further even than this, he says that "so
safe is it to hold exceptional opinion in this coun* Holbeach, Article, The State and Scientific MJorality. Number for
April, 1872.




292           THE UNITY OF LAW.
try, that if Mr. Mill had dared to utter at a public
meeting that particular protest of his, neither his
years, nor his achievements, nor his disinterested
career, nor his special detestation of the'peculiar
institution,' would have saved him from  being
mobbed, to the danger of his limbs or his life; and
that in six days it would have been generally believed in England that he had been in the habit of
retiring to Avignon every year expressly for immoral
purposes." Recent proceedings within and without
the walls of Parliament seem, certainly, to prove
that the view thus presented has something better
than mere "assumptions" on which to stand.
Such being the case, it can scarcely here be hoped
that they now, or at any future date, will find themselves prepared to enter carefully on consideration
of the great fact, that they control the operations of
hundreds of millions of non-consuming laborers, to
none of whom does the world stand now indebted
for even the slightest movement in the direction of
advancing civilization, whether abroad or at home.
On whom now rests the responsibility for the disturbed condition of the world; for a growth of material at the cost of mental power among hundreds
of millions of the world's people; for a growth of
capital at the cost of labor so clearly obvious among
those millions; for an arrest of civilization everywhere? Assuredly, on those bankers, brokers, traders, and manufacturers who control a power so wonderful for good, if rightly used; so infinitely promo



OF.MATTER AND       MIND.                 293
tive of evil when used as thus far has been the case
with that at their command.
Russia, Germany, and the American Union, selk
to bring    about an     orderly arrangement of the positives   and    negatives    of which      their   societies    are
composed; and         with   every    stage   of progress the
social edifice tends more and more to take that form
which secures the greatest strength, stability, and
permanence.        Britain, on the contrary, seeks everywhere    to  prevent such       arrangement from         coming
into existence; and        at every stage of progress her
own edifice tends more and more to take upon itself
a form    similar to     that of defunct societies of the
past.*
* "It is dawning on the public mind," says a journalist of the day,
"that the growing of corn is a waste of time, land, labor, and capital;'
"that it is the manufacture of meat that keeps English agriculture alive;"'
that, "this must be made the prime object;" and, "that all agricultural
operations must be made subservient to it."-The Scottish Highlands
have been converted into sheep walks and deer parks, their former occupants having been sent to seek for refuge in Glasgow wynds or Canadian
wilds. Ireland is being converted into a great pasture field, preparation
therefor having been made by repeated famines and enforced emigration.
England is now, as we are told, to follow suit, oattle cultivation having become more profitable than that of corn. With each and every step thus
far made in that direction pauperism and vagrancy have grown; capital
has obtained more and more control over labor; matter over mind. So
must it be in all the future, the societary edifice becoming from hour to
hour more and more top-heavy, and the day of its downfall coming more
and more near to hand. Never until now has it been supposed that a permanent society could be established on a basis of sheep and cattle, shepherds, deer stalkers, and cattle drivers.




29 4          THE UNITY OF LAW.
CHAPTER X,
MIND AND MORALS.
~ 1. THE early man, wheresoever found, has been nature's slave. Unable to compel the earth to labor in
his service, he is seen to have been everywhere dependent on his power to appropriate such of her products as she may have volunteered to place at his
command. At times, the supplies thus furnished exceeding his demands, he has gorged himself to repletion, leaving then to perish what remained unconsumed. At others, they have been short, and then
he has suffered from want, even when not perishing of
famine. From hour to hour the question has been
as to what he could do, and not of what he would;
power for self-direction having thus far not attained to even a shadow of existence. Matter reigns
supreme, whether in his relations with the earth on
the one hand, or with his fellow men and women
on the other; the only law then recognized being
that of mere brute force, and the weaker portions
of the race, infant or aged, male or female, having
no rights that the strong of body need respect. The
"fittest"-i. e., those whose physical forces are
greatest-now almost alone survive the strife for
life; this, too, at a moment when millions upon
millions of acres, capable of affording nourishment
to tens of millions, are wandered over by mere thou



MIND AND MORALS.                         295
sands of wretched        beings who      have    yet to acquire
such development of mental force as is required for
enabling them       to combine together for any purpose
beyond that of trapping birds or beasts; or of plundering, even where nbt murdering, others who have
been more fortunate in the chase, or more provident
in reference to its products.*
Passing now onward, we find men gradually increasing    in  numbers and in        the   power to combine
together for waging that war with nature by whose
result it is to be determined whether they are to re* Mr. Malthus exhibits the strife for life as growing with increase of
numbers and consequent increase of power to co-operate together for compelling the physical forces to labor in man's service. Following in his
footsteps, Mr. Darwin gives us a " survival of the fittest," and a trampling
out of the weak, as necessary consequences of inability of the earth to
meet the large demands upon her of an increasing population. In the
natural course of things, directly the reverse of this should be the case, the
strife for life being greatest when a thousand acres scarcely furnish the
supplies required by a single individual; and least, when a single wellcultivated acre can be made to furnish more than all the food he needs;
greatest, when men are least able to combine together for obtaining power
over the natural forces, and least when combination has enabled them to
control the wonderful powers of steam, and to exchange ideas on the instant with other men from whom they are separated by broad oceans and
almost pathless continents. That so it is, is proved by the fact, that man
is daily rising in the scale of being in those countries whose population
grows most rapidly, to wit: Russia, Germany, and these United States;
as steadily declining in all those countries of the East in which population
decreases with correspondent decline of the associative power. Where,
however, may we look to find the "fittest?"  In Ajax, representative of
mere brute force and of the early man? Or, in the wise Ulysses, representative of mental force, and of the present man? In this last most certainly: yet is it in the wealthiest societies-in those exercising the largest
power for controlling the natural forces-there will be found, as we are
assured, the most conclusive proof of the truth of the Malthusian and Darwinian laws. As has been already said, modern theories fiad little support
in social phenomena, when these last are carefully analyzed.




296              THE UNITY OF LAW.
main her slaves, or to become her masters. By slow
degrees they acquire power to compel her to furnish
food in return to labor applied to cultivation, and
now the weaker portions of the family are enabled
to contribute to its support, the stronger continuing
to follow the chase. At once the former, male or
female, young or old, becoming less and less burthens to be carried, acquire a value in the eyes of
the latter that before they had not possessed; and
thus, as necessary consequence of a growing power
of mind over matter, the first step toward EQUALITY
is made.* Passing further, other natural forces are
now pressed into man's service; the canoe, susceptible of being managed by weaker hands, enabling
him to control the powers of water and of wind. At
another step, the ox and the horse are reduced to
service, lessening the need for mere muscular force,
and making that new demand for the powers of the
physically weak by means of which they are to be
brought more nearly on a level with the strong and
active. Numbers still increasing, we meet the village community, in which each man has a house
wherein to shelter his wife and children while
uniting with his neighbors in cultivation of their
common land; inter-dependence thus growing at
* "The only school of manners," says a recent English writer whose
name the author now fails to recollect, " is equality; equality, in which no
sense of the defects in the political constitution of the United States, or of
the evils which beset a vast commercial community and one annually
flooded by a torrent of half-civilized immigration, no manifestations of
anti-British feeling, however disagreeable to one whose heart is with England, can prevent a fair observer from recognizing the true element of social
morality and social happiness to all, but especially to the rich."




MIND   AND    MORALS.                   297
each and every stage of progress toward that control
of the natural forces which tends to lessen his dependence on nature's merely voluntary action, and
more and more enables him to exercise a power for
self-direction.*
As mind thus grows in           power for the control of
matter societary positives and negatives are brought
more and more nearly together; kindly feelings become stimulated into action; the husband clings
more closely to the wife; the parent feels more and
more responsibility for proper care of the little beings
by   whom     he   is surrounded;       the  master becomes
more careful of his servant; he himself, meantime, more and more acquiring that feeling of SELFRESPECT    which, while       forbidding     that   he   should
truckle   to  the   strong, prompts him         to hold out a
helping    hand    to others who, being       poor and weak,
stand in need of aid       from    those who     influence the
* "6 When the Germanic tribes first advanced from the life of wandering
shepherds to dwelling in more settled habitations, they divided the land
upon which they settled among the communities of which they were composed, but reserved a superfluous portion as the common possession of the
whole tribe. *  *  *  Of the portions of land allotted to the separate
communities, a part in each was divided off on which to build dwellings.
To each house a smaller piece of land was attached, large enough for a
courtyard, a garden, and a bit of pasture, on which the flocks took refuge
in case of need, all of which, together with the house, was inclosed by a
hedge. The dwelling-places of a community were generally together, and
all surrounded by a village hedge. These inclosed dwelling-places were
the only strictly private property of the Germanic landowner, over which
he had unlimited control. He had only the use of the rest of the land in
common with the other householders of the district."-Nasse. Village Communities, in the Contemporary Review, May, 1872.




298             THE UNITY OF LAW.
movements of the community of which they are
component parts.*
At each successive triumph of mental force, from
the distaff to the power-loom and the telegraph,
inter-dependence grows; at each, there is increased
substitution of the fingers and the eyes, the skill and
taste, of the weak woman for the muscular force that
thus far had been required; at each, the strong man
becomes more and more dependent for his comfort
and his ease on the wife he has chosen as his life's
companion; at each, as steam is substituted for the
human arm, his own labors are lightened; the demand for service becomes more regular; service
becomes more and more productive; the strong and
the weak are enabled more and more to come together on terms of strict equality, with constant
growth in all of that feeling of HOPE which stimulates to exertion; truth, honesty, and loyalty come
to be held in higher esteem; the real MAN-the
being made in the image of his Creator, and capable
of acquiring power for self-direction-stands more
fully out, prompt on one hand to assert his rights,
and on the other, to recognize the fact that there are
duties to be performed toward those around him,
however humble their condition, and however little
they may be capable of self-defence.
* "Natural affections and instincts are the most beautiful of the Almighty's works; but like other beautiful works of His, they must be
reared and fostered; or it is as natural that they should be wholly obscured,
and that new feelings should take their place, as it is that the sweetest
productions of the earth, left untended, should be choked by weeds and
b:ricrs.'"-Dickens.




MIND AND MORALS                          299
The tendency toward equality is thus in the
direct ratio of the growth of power in mind to control mere     brute   matter; that itself growing as the
societary positives and negatives are more and more
brought into orderly arrangement, and as the interdependence of the various parts becomes more and
more complete. The more that tendency, the more
rapid is the development of that self-respect-or
moral feeling-which            forbids our doing        to  others
that which, under similar circumstances, we should
not desire them       to do by us.*
~ 2. Of all the nations of whose history we have
* Mr. Herbert Spencer assumes the existence of a "moral sense" that
is "at work universally;" then making of it the foundation on which to raise
a sociological structure. (See Social Statics, London, 1851, pp. 23, 25.)
Further reflection, however, might perhaps satisfy him that its development
into vigorous and active life is as much a consequence of sound social
action, as is that of a plant a consequence of sound agricultural action.
Desiring to understand how results such as he has described have been,
or are being, brought about, we need to commence with that "positive
knowledge of the uncultured" which, as he assures his readers, "constitutes
the basis of all true science." (See note to p. 34, ante.)
Reasoning downward, metaphysicians have been led to assume the
endowment of each and every member of the human race, however ignorant and helpless, with a power of will (see p. 105, ante) and an intuitive perception of reciprocal rights and duties, of neither of which, beyond
the merest germs, can any trace be found in miserable beings, past or
present, all of whose energies have been, or are, required to be given to
the search for food. Reasoning upward, from facts to principles, we
find a self-directing force, and a self-respect, coming gradually into existence and growing side by side-aiding and aided by each other; the
process closely resembling that by means of which male and female plants
concur in the work of reproduction.
Of the "utilitarian" doctrine, now somewhat in vogue, little need here
be said; it being but fit associate of a science by means of which the
world is being taught that buying cheaply and selling dearly are, and
ought to be, the chief aims and ends of man's existence.




300           THE UNITY OF LAW.
any record, that of England is the one whose movements have been most freed from outward interference; and, as a consequence, that one which may
most advantageously here be studied. Of the eight
centuries that have elapsed since the Norman Conquest, there have been no less than six (1066-1660),
throughout which the tendency was uniformly toward giving to mind increased control over matter;
toward equality among men; and toward increased
development of that feeling which prompts to
respecting other's rights while demanding like
respect for those of which we ourselves claim the
exercise. Directly the reverse of this was the picture presented across the Channel, the freemen of
an earlier period having been there replaced by a
proletariat whose members had no rights which those
above them were required to respect; and whose
eldest sons were regarded as more noble than the
rest, the presumption being that they were of noble
birth and might properly claim to be descendants
of their lords and masters. As a consequence of
this, rebellion, in 1358, gave to the world all the
horrors of the Jacquerie, but left the starving wretches
more enslaved than they had been before. But
little later (1381), came the Wat Tyler outbreak of
England, and its suppression; followed, however,
by a grant of the laborer's demands which, though
silent, proved so effectual that at the close of the
century the small freeholders, and probably the tenants, had become "such important personages in
the social order," that they were held fitted for ex



MIND AND MORALS.                301
ercise of large political rights soon after embodied
in an election statute.*
Thirty years later, sons of such men, self-reliant
and self-respecting, fought at Agincourt, " representatives of a nation of heavy archers and spearmen;"
divided by no artificial lines from those above them,
and therefore constituting, says Macaulay, a "democracy the most aristocratic," standing side by side
with an " aristocracy the most democratic" that the
world had ever known.t      Moving on in the same
direction, we find the wars of the Roses to have
had little other effect than that of promoting the
circulation upward of men of low condition to take
the place of those above them who had lost their
fortunes and their lives on fields of battle. Tewksbury and Towton, Barnet and Bosworth, witnessed
the gathering together, and the subsequent dispersion, of considerable bodies of men; " and yet," says
Macaulay, " at the close of another week the farmer
was driving his team, and the squire was flying his
hawks over their fields, as if no extraordinary event
had interrupted the course of human life."
Throughout that period, which looks so very
stormy when studied in histories that record little
beyond the doings of kings and nobles, the nation
* Rogers, History of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 8. See also note to page 235,
ante.
t i" The small freeholder was, in his way, better off than the lord. He
was liable to no wardship and its concomitant waste; he was unrestrained
in the disposition of his property; in his parental authority, in the selection of occupations for his sons, and the gift of his daughter's hand."Ibid. p. 67




302                 THE UNITY      OF LAW.
grew steadily in wealth and power, with constant
improvement in the material condition of the people
at large, and a constant increase, on the part of
both poor and rich, of respect for each other's
rights.i
~ 3. Manufactures being          then   but few    in  number, and field labor constituting the laborer's main
dependence for employment, the demand for service
was irregular; very many persons being needed at
harvest time for whom at other periods little employment could        be   found.t      Suppression     of   the
monasteries now throwing upon the public large
numbers who had         been accustomed to derive         their
support from       the   revenues     of   the  Church, and
vagrancy and crime much increasing, resort was had
for their repression to the severest and most disgraceful modes of punishment.            Wealth and population, however, continued to increase, bringing with
them better modes of thought; these latter exhibiting themselves in efforts, continued throughout
* "Comines was one of the most enlightened statesman of his time.
He had seen all the richest and most highly civilized parts of the Continent. He had lived in the opulent towns of Flanders, the Manchesters
and Liverpools of the fifteenth century. He had visited Florence, recently
adorned by the magnificence of Lorenzo, and Venice, not yet humbled by
the confederates of Cambray. This eminent man deliberately pronounced
England to be the best governed country of which he had any knowledge.
Her constitution he emphatically designated as a just and holy thing,
which, while it protected the people, really strengthened the hands of a
prince who respected it. In no other country, he said, were men so effectually secured from wrong. The calamities produced by our intestine wars
seemed to him to be confined to the nobles and the fighting men, and to
leave no traces such as he had been accustomed to see elsewhere, no ruined
dwellings, no depopulated cities." —Macaulay.
j See page 12, ante.




MIND AND MORALS.            303
the reign of the Virgin Queen, at instituting measures for securing support for the "impotent poor,"
and employment for those capable of work. The
whole at length culminated in the celebrated act
known as the 43d Elizabeth; one whose passage
furnished proof conclusive that steady growth of the
power of mind over matter had brought with it a
national feeling of self-respect which now compelled
recognition of the fact that those who by reason
of disease, of wounds received in their country's
service, or of acts of God, had been rendered
incapable of self-support, might rightfully look to
their more fortunate neighbors for aid; and that to
afford it was the bounden duty of these latter.
The peaceful reign of James was one of so great
prosperity that the legal rate of interest was reduced
from 10 to 8 per cent., to the great advantage of
sellers of mental or physical force; mind thus gaining further power over matter. Societary positives
and negatives were now assuming a more orderly
arrangement, and the demand for service was becoming from year to year more regular, with steadily
diminishing tendency toward looking to the public
for support; and as steadily increasing disposition on
the part of those in power not only to give full
effect to the act of Elizabeth, but also so to amend
it as to make it more efficient for accomplishment of
the good work that had been proposed. While
providing thus for bodily needs, much attention was
given to suppression of those habits of intemperance which theretofore had so greatly tended




301              THE UNITY OF LAW.
toward promoting the growth of pauperism, vagrancy, and crime.
Throughout the five and thirty years which intervened between the death of James and the restoration of the Stuarts (1625 to 1660), there prevailed
an activity of life such as never had before been
known. Occasionally, and locally, interrupted by
military operations, these latter exercised little more
influence over the general social movement than
had been the case in the wars of the Roses above
referred to. Daily more and more did societary positives and negatives tend to take their places by each
other's sides, with constant increase of productive
power; and with such a growth of wealth that while
capital declined in its control over labor to the
extent of a reduction of the rate of interest from 8
to 6 per cent., labor so rapidly advanced toward
equality with capital that wages, whether by the
day or year, nearly doubled in the half century from
1610 to 1660.* As a consequence of this, the poor
law question ceased to be agitated; the feeling of
self-respect meanwhile so extending itself throughout all portions of society as to enable England to
exhibit to the world such an army as is here described:
"That which chiefly distinguished the army of Cromwell
from other armies was the austere morality and the fear of God
* See Nicholls's History of the English Poor Law, vol. i. p. 284.
Since that date much richer lands have been brought under cultivation,
and machinery has so much improved that agricultural labor has become
very many times more productive, yet have money wages been but very
slightly changed.




MIND AND MORALS.                  305
which pervaded all ranks. It is acknowledged by the most zealous Royalists that, in that singular camp, no oath was heard, no
drunkenness or gambling was seen, and that, during the long
dominion of the soldiery, the property of the peaceful citizen
and the honor of woman were held sacred. If outrages were
committed they were outrages of a very different kind from
those of which a victorious army is generally guilty. No servant girl complained of the rough gallantry of the redcoats.
Not an ounce of plate was taken from the shops of the goldsmiths. " —Alca ulay.
When but a little later, at the Restoration, these
men came to be disbanded, there was exhibited a
spectacle the most remarkable of its kind the world
till then had ever known, 50,000 men having quietly
returned to the bosom    of society in the manner here
described:
"In a few months there remained not a trace indicating that
the most formidable army in the world had just been absorbed
into the mass of the community.  The Royalists themselves
confessed that, in every department of honest industry, the discarded warriors prospered beyond other men, that none was
charged with any theft or robbery, that none was heard to ask
an alms, and that, if a baker, a mason, or a wagoner, attracted
notice by his diligence and sobriety, he was in all probability
one of Oliver's old soldiers."-Ibid.
Such were the men protection against whose
ancestors had been so often asked of Parliament
by those who so recently had been their lords and
masters. The growing tendency toward equality
of rights had brought with it a mutuality of respect.
* That like causes tend to produce like effects would seem to be proved
by the close resemblance to this presented by the dissolution of American
armies, counting almost by millions, in the summer of 1865.
20




306             THE UNITY OF LAW.
~ 4. Of that "positive knowledge of the uncultured"
which constitutes the basis of all true science, there
is no single part of more universal acceptance than
that which prompts to seek development of physical
force by means of steady and careful use. "So
universally," says a writer of the day,
"has this principle been recognized and acted upon, that in every
half-civilized community, or under all circumstances which give
an unquestioned superiority to bodily strength, we may find
evidences of special care to foster and increase it. The'games'
obligatory upon the little Spartans, the exercise of'gentle
youth,' during the age of chivalry, the description given by
Mr. Catlin of the early training of the American aborigines,
are all instances in point; and all show the recognition, under
circumstances widely dissimilar, of the principle that the powers
of the human organism are bestowed only on possibility-to be
developed by culture, or to dwindle under neglect."*
Than the view thus presented nothing could be
more strictly accurate, applicable as it is to all
human powers, whether those of the body, the
mind, or the heart.    What, however, is the process by aid of which it had been provided that
development of these latter should be attained?
Seeking a reply to this question, the reader needs
but to study carefully the brief review that has been
above presented. Doing this, he can scarcely fail
to see that growth of moral feeling had kept steady
pace with that increase of mental force which
had been    required   for bringing   the physically
weak to a level with the physically strong, thus
establishing throughout society that inter-depend* Popular Science MIonthly, June, 1872, p. 130.




MIND AND MORALS.            307
ence which constitutes the base of independence and
tends to diffuse that feeling of self-respect which
prompts to recognizing in others those rights for
which we claim respect as being inherent in ourselves. Of all the nations the world yet has seen,
there has been none in which that process had been
so fully carried out as was the case in England in
the period above described; and hence it was that,
notwithstanding her limited extent and the almost
triviality of her numbers, she so early occupied a
distinguished place among the powers of the earth.
Louis X. proclaimed (1315) that Frenchmen
should of right be free. But little later, Englishmen strenuously asserted for themselves their right
to freedom." The one proposed to sell to wretched
proletaires certain paper rights. The others peacefully took possession of substantial rights, thus
daily more and more approaching to an equality
with their recent masters. The societary edifice of
the one nation, as a consequence of perpetual wars
at home and abroad, daily more and more assumed
the form of an inverted pyramid; and hence the demoralization that existed down to the days of the
Reign of Terror. That of which the others were the
base, comparatively peaceful in its action, took more
and more the form of a true pyramid; and hence
that development of mind, and that improvement in
morals, which exhibited themselves in the community
which gave to the world the founders of the great
Republic of the West.t
* See page 235, ante.   t See page 236, ante.




308               THE UNITY OF LA;T.
Closing here a chapter of the world's history more
worthy of careful study than any other that stands
recorded, we now enter upon a brief sketch of the
crusade that has since been waged of matter against
mind, capital against labor, the initial steps of
which are found in the prompt expulsion of thousands of ministers of religion;* in the crowding of
gaols with men who differed from      the ruling powers
in their modes of religious thought; and in the reestablishment of semi-serfage by means of an " Act
of Settlement."
CHAPTER XI.
MIND AND MORALS.-(Continued.)
~ 1. OF all the gospels, that which stands first in
chronological order is the one by which it is provided
that "in the sweat of his brow" man "shall eat
bread;" that one which has been so well denominated the BLESSED GOSPEL OF WORK; that which imposes a necessity for such exertion of man's various
faculties as shall enable him to obtain control of the
various natural forces, and for himselfa self-directing
* " The dominant party exultingly reminded the sufferers that the Long
Parliament, when at the height of power, had turned out a still greater
number of Royalist divines. The reproach was but too well founded; but
the Long Parliament had at least allowed to the divines whom it ejected a
provision sufficient to keep them from starving; and this example the
Cavaliers, intoxicated with animosity, had not the justice and humanity to
follow." —Macaulay.




MIND AND MORALS.           309
force fitting him to come before the world a real
MAN, free of speech, thought, and action; capable of
directing, with advantage to himself and to all around
him, the wonderful power to be thus acquired. To
the end that this may be fully brought about, it is
needed always that he be enabled freely to circulate
among his fellow men; exchanging thoughts and
services; imparting to others what he knows and
acquiring from them ideas that as yet he had not
possessed. At every stage of progress in that direction we obtain further proof of the universality of
that great law by which it is provided, that the
more rapid the circulation the greater must be the
force exerted.
Turning now again to England of an early period,
we find that so limited had been then the self-directing force that her people were being sold to slavery
in Ireland. At a later date, they are found attached
to the soil and liable to be sold with, though not
without it. At another stage of progress, we see
them freely circulating throughout the land, the
" industrious poor" seeking employment wherever
it might be had;* the " impotent poor" being alone
restricted to the parishes on which they had a legal
claim for aid. Under that new system on whose
consideration we are now about to enter, strangers
of lower degree than that made manifest by a contract for paying ~10 of yearly rent-four times
more than was then usually paid by men of the working classes-might at once be seized upon and re* Eden, State of the Poor, vol. i. p. 174.




310           THE UNITY OF LAW.
turned to the places to whliich they legally belonged;
there to accept such wages as employers might be
disposed to grant. As a consequence of this stoppage of the societary circulation marriage was much
discouraged; bastardy increased with great rapidity;
capital grew in its control over labor; and the question as to what should be done with the poor and
unemployed, so rarely presenting itself in the records
of that previous half century in which labor had
doubled in its price, became now more the subject
of discussion than it had been at any previous date.
From year to year the line dividing the sellers and
buyers of labor became more clearly marked, with
diminution of self-respect in all; the sovereign becoming pensioner of France; maids of honor obtaining grants of Englishmen to be sold to slavery in the
tropical regions of the west; and the laborer becoming more and more chained to the soil on which he
had been born, more and more compelled to look to
his parish for support.
Following closely on the revolution of 1688 we
find Locke attributing the great increase of pauperism
since the restoration to the "relaxation of discipline
and corruption of manners" which had then commenced; and which, as the reader has seen, had come
as necessary consequence of reduction of the toiling millions to a state of semi-serfage. Not discouraged, however, by such results of a system that
was giving to capital daily increase of power over
labor, to matter power over mind, Parliament now
pledged itself to the manufacturing capitalists of




MIND AND MORALS.              311
England that it would "discountenance the woollen
manufacture of Ireland;" simultaneously therewith
prohibiting intercourse between that country and the
world at large, except so far as it might be carried
on by means of British ships and shops, carriers and
traders. Irish labor having thus been placed at the
mercy of distant capitalists by whom, as a cardinal
principle of their religious faith, it was held that
Irishmen had no rights which they themselves were
bound to respect, we next find that principle applied to their fellow countrymen beyond the Atlantic,
and with such effect as to have brought about, at a
later date, a rebellion which, as we know, found its
termination in a revolution.
Trade now reigned supreme. Colonies were to
be acquired by fair means or by foul, that their unfortunate people might be compelled to contribute
three-fourths of the product of their labors toward
augmentation of the fortunes of British capitalists.*
What were the measures by aid of which they were
acquired, is shown in a passage from    Macaulay,
relative to India,t already placed before the reader,
and exhibiting a course of action worse even than
that of Pizarro and his successors toward the people
of Peru, so strongly censured in all English books.:
What was then the state of morals among the
higher classes at home is shown in the facts, that
* See page 198, ante.
t See page 240, ante.: In 1789, a minute of the Viceroy in Council declared that one-third
of the province of Bengal was a "jungle, inhabited only by wild beasts."Torrens's Empire in Asia, London, 1872, p. 77.




312              THE UNITY OF LAW
while lesser robbers purchased seats in Parliament,
and were everywhere welcomed, the greater Clive,
loaded with crimes, was rewarded with a peerage;
that  the   wife of Hastings, "captain-general of
iniquity," as he was styled by Burke, was "received
at court, and with every mark of distinction," by the
wife of George III.; that, he himself, despite the
evidence furnished of his guilt, was not only acquitted, but congratulated thereon by "nobles, prelates, courtiers, soldiers, India directors, and fiiends
of every sort;" East India proprietors, participants
in the plunder that had been obtained, then voting
him a large amount of money " for the purchase of
IDaylesford, the darling object of his boyish dreams,
for which he had gone so far afield, and waded so
deep in sin and shame."*
What was the character of that Hindoo people
which   was then    being  ruined, may be inferred
from facts thus given by Mr. Torrens:"The Governments of Southern Asia, when we began to
meddle in their affairs, were strangers to the system of penal
laws, which were then among the cherished institutions of our
own and nearly every other European State. While no Catholic
in Ireland could inherit freehold, command a regiment, or sit on
the judicial bench; while in France the Huguenot weaver was
driven into exile beyond sea; and while in Sweden none but
Lutherans could sit as jurors; and in Spain no heretic was
permitted Christian burial;-Sunis and Sheahs, Mahrattas and
Sikhs, competed freely for distinction and profit in almost every
city and camp of Hindustan. The tide of war ebbed and flowed
as in Christian lands, leaving its desolating traces more or less
* Torrens's Empire in Asia, London, 1872, page 182.




MIND AND MORALS.                313
deeply marked upon village homesteads or dilapidated towers.
But mosque and temple stood unscathed where they had stood
before, monuments of architectural taste and piety, unsurpassed
for beauty and richness of decoration in any country of the
world." * * * "Though the supreme Governments were
nominally absolute, there existed in the chieftains, priesthood,
courts of justice, the municipal system, and above all, in the
tenant-right to land, numerous and powerful barriers in the way
of its abuse." * * * "Property was as carefully protected by
laws as in Europe, and their infringement sometimes cost a
prince his throne or life." p. 107.
Passing now over the terrible chapters of Ireland
and the western Indies, abounding as they do in
proofs, that "the end" had always been regarded as
"sanctioning the means;' that the object sought
had been always that of increasing the distance
between producers and consumers, positives and
negatives, with constant increase in the power of
capital for control of labor; that the few were
steadily becoming greater, and the many less; we
may now look to the state of things among the
British toilers themselves, as follows:Steam had been then impressed into the service
of the capitalist, with steady displacement of the
laborers who thus far had been employed. Mineral
coal was being applied to the manufacture of
iron. The services of wind were being daily more
and more rendered available for the propulsion of
ships, and the transport of merchandise. The addition, in these and other forms, thus made to the
productive power might at the close of the century
be counted as having been the equivalent of not




314           THE UNITY OF LAW.
less than that of sixty to eighty millions of men;
and ought to have been marked by steady improvement of the laborer's condition: Unhappily,
however, the direction of the social machinery having fallen altogether into the hands of "wealthy
capitalists," each and every increase of power had
brought with it new regulations having for their
object the further subjection of nind to matter,
labor to capital;* the result exhibiting itself in the
facts, that the miners and salters of North Britain
were held as property; that miners and artisans
everywhere had so far become subjected to their
masters that they could neither freely apply their
labors at home nor go abroad; that the settlement
laws were being enforced with greater strictness;
that crime so much abounded that, notwithstanding
a frequency of capital punishment without parallel
in any nation claiming to be civilized, the prisons
became so crowded as to have produced a necessity
for one of larger dimensions at Botany Bay; and
that, as the poor became from day to day poorer
and less self-dependent, the rich became richer and
more luxurious; the gulf dividing masters and men
becoming thus daily wider, with daily diminution
of self-respect in all.
Such was the state of things when the Rev. Mr.
Malthus, minister, as he professed himself to be, of
of an all-wise and all-merciful God, gave to the
world a theory by means of which he satisfied the
rich and powerful that the misery and wretchedness
* See page 27, ante.




MIND AND MORALS.           315
by which they were everywhere surrounded were
necessary results of error in divine laws; that population tended to increase faster than food; that all
attempts at alleviating the miseries of the poor
would prove to be sad mistakes; that rise in wages
could have no effect other than that of stimulating
the growth of numbers; that they themselves were
free from responsibility for any and all these things;
and, that they might, therefore, properly and safely
eat, drink, and make merry, while closing their eyes
to the fact that the condition of their fellow-men
was deteriorating in the direct ratio of their own
increased power for controlling the great forces that
had been given by his Heavenly Master for man's
use and service.
The poor, on the contrary, were advised that the
cause of all their trouble was to be found in an
excessive tendency toward contraction of the marriage tie and consequent increase of numbers; and
that for any improvement of their condition they
must look to abstinence from that mode of association
which, above all others, tends to stimulate into activity the best feelings of the human heart. Simultaneously, however, with this prescription came further regulations on the part of the chiefs of the great
non-consuming army, each and all tending toward
annihilation of that feeling of self-respect to which
alone could we look for temperance in that direction, or in any other whatsoever.* Faith in the
future-HOPE-brings with it prudence in the pre* See p. 27, ante.




316                 TIHE UNITY     OF LAW.
sent. Despair, such as was being then produced,
brought with it, as yet it brings, that recklessness
of which the reverend gentleman's disciples still so
much complain.
Of all evidences of the demoralization that then
existed    there   is none    more    conclusive     than   that
which is furnished in the prompt acceptance of a
doctrine so detestable, and so directly contradicted
by all real facts, as is the Malthusian Law           of Population.
~ 2. Throughout the present century the story of
India has continued nearly as it had commenced,
presenting, as it does, a constant series of violations of the most sacred pledges given to native
chiefs and princes;* plunder of their widows and
children, carried so far even as confiscation of
personal    ornaments      in   cases   where    their   money
values sufficed as warrant for such proceedings;t
* How a right-minded Englishman, and there have been many such in
India, viewed the conduct of his Government in one of the many cases of
the kind above described, is shown in the following passage given by Mr.
Torrens in the volume above referred to:" I have all along said, and ever shall say under all circumstances, and
in all societies and places where I may hear it alluded to, that the case
of the Amirs is the most unprincipled and disgraceful that has ever
stamped the annals of our Empire in India. No reasoning can, in my
opinion, remove the foul stain it has left on our faith and honor; and as I
know more than any other man living of previous events and measures
connected with that devoted country, I feel that I have a full right to exercise my judgment and express my sentiments on the subject. I cannot
use too strong language in expressing my disgust and sorrow."-Sir Henry
Pottinger.
t "Our historians are never weary of reprobating the sudden and summary decree of Bayonne, in which Napoleon informed the world that in
the Peninsula the house of Bourbon had ceased to reign, and in repro



MIND    AND   MORALS.                    317
oppression of the weak wheresoever found;* and
"warfare"      of   "great     capitalists"     on   defenceless
native industries that for duration           and    extent, and
for the ruin of which it has been the cause, is wholly
without parallel in the annals of the world.t That
" half the labor of India goes to waste," we are assured   by   Mr. Chapman,$         a  most reliable      witness,
there being no more strenuous advocate of the maintenance, and even extension, of the existing dependbating the duress under which an imbecile sovereign was driven into an
act of formal abdication. And many severe things have been justly said
of the pictures taken from the Escurial, and of the bronze steeds borne
away from the Piazza of San Marc. But at least Napoleon cannot be
upbraided with stealing or selling the gems and apparel of his victims. It
was bad enough to appropriate the sword of Frederick, but Napoleon,
unscrupulous though he was, would have been ashamed to make away with
rings and necklaces of the Prussian Queen, and then to have put them up to
the highest bidder among the brokers of the capital. If vice loses half its
hideousness by losing all its grossness, it may likewise be said that public
violence becomes more hateful when it is tarnished with the reproach of
base cupidity. At the very time when the Queen's Lieutenant-General in
Asia was thus playing the freebooter and auctioneer, our Foreign Secretary was addressing to the court of St. Petersburg remonstrances against
the sequestration of the revenues of certain Polish noblemen upon suspicion of their complicity in seditious designs. Well might the minister of
the Czar scornfully retort:' Physician, heal thyself.' "-Torrens, p. 374.
* " At first the lieutenant of the Queen demands restitution of ~990, and
an apology, from the governor of a Burmese town; without giving tine
for fair discussion, he raises the terms of his requisition to ~100,000 and
an apology from the Burmese Court; and while a temperate letter from
the King, offering to negotiate, remains unanswered, he hurls an invading
force against his realm, drops all mention of compensation or apology,
and seizes an extensive province, with threats of further partition of his
dominions if he will not pay the expenses of the war, the world being asked
the while to believe that all has been done unwillingly, in self-defence.Ibid. p. 356. Numerous other cases of a similar kind are given by Mr.
Torrens.
t See note to p. 202, ante.
I See note to p. 249, ante.




318               THE UNITY OF LAW.
ence of Indian people on British ships and mills;
and thus does he exhibit a loss that might alone
account for the poverty and wretchedness which
now exist. When, however, we come to study the
case more carefully, we find that it has not been
even half presented, no reference having been made
to the waste of mental force which has resulted
from an almost total annihilation of that power of
association which everywhere else has followed so
closely upon the creation of a diversified industry;
and to which Britain herself stands to-day indebted
for that control of the natural forces which          has
given to her for every man, woman, and child of the
United Kingdom       from   fifteen to twenty laborers
who make no demand for food, raiment, shelter, or
education.* As a consequence of this waste of
force, material and mental, the whole product of the
labor of 120,000,000, if not even 150,000,000, of
people, occupying a territory not exceeded in its
capabilities by any other in the world, has a money
value of but ~300,000,000 (Torrens, p. 408), or, at
the utmost, $12 per annum per head; and out of
this trivial sum, each one is required, on an average,
to contribute not less than $2 for payment of in* At a mill in the writer's neighborhood ten hours' work gives 33,000
miles of cotton thread, seven tons of coal furnishing all the power
required. To do this by hand would require the labor of 70,000
women, or more than half the number of men, women, and children that,
as shown by the census, are employed in Philadelphia in her various
manufactures, the value of whose product is $400,000,000; more than
one-fourth of the total product of the vast population of British India. In
the one, mind is constantly obtaining new control over matter, labor over
capital. In the other the power of capital is constantly on the increase.




MIND AND MORALS.                    319
terest on a debt contracted by their masters for
accomplishment of their own especial purposes; for
maintenance of officials, civil and military, now
employed in preventing any growth of diversified
industry, chief among whom         is a Viceroy with an
allowance of $250,000 per annum; and for payment
in Britain of numerous persons whose performance
of similar service in the past is recognized as having
established claims on the oppressed and plundered
Hindoo race.*
Students of Roman history are accustomed to regard proconsular administration as the perfection
of all that is discreditable and destructive in the way
of government; yet is the little finger of British
traders in India more oppressive and more ruinous
than were the hands and arms of Verres and Fonteius, as exercised in Sicily and Gaul. That these
latter largely robbed the subject peoples is very certain; equally so, however, is it that, unlike to what
has so steadily been done in India, they never struck
at the sources of production. Happily for the provincials the Senate sought dominion, and not a
* "Nineteen-twentieth of our taxes are annually, monthly, it might
almost be said daily, respent among us; while of the revenues of India
a large portion is exported hither to furnish us with extra means of
comfort and of luxury. The manure is thus continually withdrawn from
Eastern fields to enrich the island gardens of the West. It has been
variously estimated that, irrespective of interest on debt, six, seven, and
even eight millions a year are drawn from India, to be spent by English.
men either there or at home. The process of exhaustion may be slow,
but it is sure....  We have laid the people and princes of India under
tribute, and after a century of varied experiments, the only limit of exaction seems to be the physical capacity of the yield."-Torrens, p. 408.




320            THE UNITY OF LAW.
mere monopoly of trade and manufacture. Nowhere do we find it following up rebellions, thus
provoked, by measures so mercilessly- vindictive as
those given on a former page.*  Among its members there were many who had " itching palms," but
nowhere does it stand recorded that they had invoked
the aid of law for compelling subject nations to deal
with them for pins and needles, cloth and iron.t
Nowhere does the Government present itself as allied
with smugglers for forcing, despite all opposition,
supplies of poison on a neighboring and friendly
nation, thus making itself from hour to hour more
dependent on a trade debasing to its subjects, and
destined in the end to prove a cause of utter ruin.
Look where we may in the history of British
India, we find no evidence of the existence on the
part of masters of that self-respect which might
be expected to cause, among their slaves, any feeling other than that servile one which everywhere
is manifested; and which is no more natural to the
Hlindoo than it is to the Japanese or Caucasian races.
What the former is, he has been made.    What,
as a consequence, may be looked for in the future,
is thus exhibited by the Viceroy who but now has
paid, by aid of the assassin's dagger, for some of
the crimes of the Government of which he has been
the head:
"A feeling of discontent and dissatisfaction exists among every
class, both European and native, on account of the constant in* See page 141, ante.
t See note to p. 87, ante.




MIND AND MORALS.                321
crease of taxation which has for years been going on. My belief
is that the continuance of that feeling is a political danger, the
magnitude of which can hardly be over-estimated; and any sentiment of dissatisfaction which may exist among disbanded soldiers of the native army is as nothing, in comparison with the
state of general discontent to which I have referred.
We can never depend for a moment on the continuance of general tranquillity; but I believe that the present state of public
feeling, as regards taxation, is more likely to lead to disturbance
and discontent, and be to us a source of greater danger, than
the partial reduction which we propose in the native army can
ever occasion. Of the two evils I choose the lesser."-Lord
jlayo.
~ 3. Eighty years since Lord Macartney was sent to
China to sue for further grants of commercial privilege. There arrived, he found a government strong
in the affections of a people counting by hundreds
of millions, and happy in the enjoyment of peace
and comfort to an extent greater than could be
found among any similar number on the surface of
the globe. To-day, the once happy country is to
a great extent a scene of desolation consequent
upon repeated wars from abroad that have demoralized the Government; and rebellions at home resulting from  the demoralization   that had thus been
brought about. Among all the transactions of the
century, monstrous as have been those of India,
those of Britain with China stand out conspicuous
as having been most unworthy of any community
claiming on one hand the possession of any feeling of self-respect; or on the other, a right to the
respect of the world at large.  So believing, we refer
the reader to the appendix for a brief view of the
21




322                THE UNITY     OF LAW.
case as recently presented in one of the most respected of English journals;* here contenting           ourselves with    presenting    a passage from      a letter of
Lord Elgin, written during his second mission to
China, as follows:" Can I," he writes to Lady Elgin, "do anything to prevent
England from calling down on herself God's curse for brutalities
committed on another feeble Oriental race? Or, are all my exertions only to result in the extension of the area over which
Englishmen are to exhibit how hollow and superficial are both
their civilization and their Christianity?"...  The tone of
the two or three men connected with mercantile houses in China,
whom I find on board, is all for blood and massacre on a great
scale.  I hope they will be disappointed."...    "No human
power shall induce me to become the oppressor of the feeble."t
"That capital may        obtain its proper remuneration,"  said   Mr. Huskisson, "labor must be kept
down." So we are now assured by those English
colonists of the neighborhood of the Southern Cross,
who are so busily engaged in enslaving the defence* See Appendix D. The reader will there see that the Chinese Government has been compelled in self-defence to sanction the cultivation of the
poppy; and that, as a consequence, there has been so large a diversion
of land and labor from the production of food as to threaten famine.
t Letters and Journals of Lord Elgin, London, 1872.
The reader who may desire to become acquainted with the extraordinary extent of the yet latent mineral resources of China, and with the
course likely to be pursued in advancing "the common cause of civilized
mankind," will do well to study an article on those subjects in the Quarterly Review, for April last. Doing this, he will scarcely fail to arrive at
the conclusion that the trade which had been "created by force, naked
physical force," would still " look to force in some form, latent or
expressed, for the result." China is there shown to be very weak, and
there is no reason for supposing that self-respect will stand in the way of
re-enaction of the drama that has been so well performed in India.
Here, as there, the end must be regarded as sanctioning the means.




MIND   AND    MORALS.                   323
less people of all the lesser islands; cheap labor
being   regarded     as essential for enabling         them    to
compete     in  British   markets with       the   products of
such labor elsewhere employed.*             Look thus where
* See British Quarterly Review, January 1872, article: Kidnapping in
the South Seas.
" A feeble effort has recently been made in the British Parliament to
induce Government to stop the Chinese coolie trade. It failed, for the
ostensible reason that the depot from which the victims were shipped was
a Portuguese colony, although the parties concerned in the infamous traffic
were English, and the majority of the coolies sent to British Guiana. (See
page 285, ante.) The Pall Mall Gazette acknowledges that the pretence of
emigration bonds is the merest farce and fraud. It is never intended that
the wretches shall be paid or returned to their native country.
"The British conscience was but so lately sensitive with regard to our
short comings in the matter of negro slavery that its present obtuseness must
be noted, even by Englishmen, as a remarkable case of sudden ossification.
Who does not remember the thrill of indignation that ran through all
England at the mere mention of American bondage; the angry protests in
Parliament; the shudder of horror with which Dickens and the other
literary voyagers touched the accursed thing; the acclaim of welcome
which greeted Uncle Tom, and the contributions from pounds to pennies
which flowed in upon its author?
T Where, however, are they now? In Queensland and British Guiana
slavery and the slave traffic exist in as brutalized shapes as in the worst
days of negro degradation. Besides this direct participation, 20,000
coolies are annually exported from China by a system which the slightest
interference on the part of England could prevent, but this is now refused.'Who touches British soil, is free,' was the boast but a few years since.
Now, British colonies are so many caverns of death; like the lion's den of
old, many footsteps go in, but none return.
"' The Pall Mall Gazette argues on the right side of the question, but with
a noticeable lack of appeal to any of the principles of justice and humanity
which were held to be all-powerful in reasoning with us. Not a word is
said of the rights of the heathen coolie, as one of God's creatures, to life
and liberty at the hands of the Christian; there is no picture of the Chinese holding up his fettered arms, crying out,' Am not I a man and a
brother?' In its place, we have a sound, practical exposition of the fact
that the Chinese slave trade'won't pay.' It has jeoparded, we are told,
the English position in China, and all its material interests. The flood of
emigration has overflowed upon the shores of California, while it obsti



324                  THE   UNITY    OF LAW.
we may, the system tends in the direction of giving
to matter increased control over mind; to capital
increased control over labor.
~ 4. Turning now       westward, we find that although
more than thirty years since the colored people of
Jamaica were declared to have been emancipated,
so little has British policy tended to the production
of real freedom that, until recently, the poor producers could not even so far diversify their employments as to subject their own sugar to the first and
simplest processes        of refinement.        The    result exhibits   itself in    the fact, that but a few        years since
oppression      was    followed      by   an   insurrection       in
whose     suppression      were     perpetrated      cruelties    of
which, said      the   London      Times, "it      is  impossible
to  speak    without shuddering."*
nately turns aside from British and Spanish colonies.'From the former,'
as it continues,' the Chinese see living men return; hear news of relatives
and friends, and know that there are work and pay for more; but from
the latter they hear no reports, see no returning emigrant. If they hear
at all, it is of ill-usage, suicide, and death.' "-North American.
* "It is now certain that scores, and perhaps hundreds, of prisoners
were flogged before being hung, and often before being tried. It is certain
that some, though it is uncertain how many, were compelled to run the
gauntlet, after being flogged, through a crowd of brutal spectators, who
were allowed to insult them, or pelt them as they pleased. It is certain
that several, at least, were shot or hung without the pretence of a trial, at
the caprice of an officer or subordinate. It is certain that Mr. Bamsay,
the Provost Marshal, stands charged by a multitude of witnesses, black
and white, with excesses for which a parallel must be sought among the
infamous eccentricities of Oriental despots. It is certain, at least-for the
statement rests on the authority of the resident magistrate at Bath-that
he flogged with his own hand fifteen men who had never been sentenced,
and were to be sent before the court-martial at Morant Bay. It is probable, moreover, that men were bribed with the hope of life-a hope not
always realized-to betray their accomplices; that persons accused of




MIND AND MORALS.             325
Passing northward, we come to these United
States, so long objects of the bitterest comments
on the part of British journalists and statesmen,
as claiming to represent the principles of freedom
while maintaining in subjection millions of the
negro race. The time came, however, when proslavery and anti-slavery, matter and mind, met face
to face on the field of battle, contending for the
mastery; and then, as so well is known, the chiefs
of the non-consuming army, directors of capital in
its war upon labor, were found almost united on the
pro-slavery side; that being, as was then supposed,
the direction in which might be found the cheapest
cotton, to be used in giving employment to " serfs
of the loom" the like of those whose condition has
already been placed before the reader.*
~ 5. As has been shown, the British edifice takes
from year to year more and more the form of an
inverted pyramid, the great agricultural base, held
by Adam Smith in so high regard, steadily diminishing in its proportions; the apex steadily enlarging
as the chiefs of Britain's great non-consuming army
grow in wealth and power. As a natural consequence of this, crises become more frequent and
more enduring; societary operations, as a necessary
result, throughout   resuming   more  and   more
that gambling character which characterizes societies of an earlier period, but which tends to disapcrimes were refused permission to call witnesses in their defence, and that
some were executed, the only proof of whose guilt was their being found
wounded. "-Times.
* See pp. 264-266, ante.




326                  THE   UNITY    OF LAW.
pear as positives and negatives are enabled              to come
more and      more near together.          On each successive
occasion the great become greater, and the "proletaires" more numerous and more dependent;
their ranks being swelled by constant accessions
from    those   intermediate      classes, composed       of men
of smaller      means,     who    have    now    been     ruined;
"too proud to work, although to beg they are not
ashamed."l To such men, gambling in some one
or other form comes as a necessity, to be followed
* Professor Fawcett in the Fortnightly Review, Jan. 1871, says: "It
would be difficult to overestimate the acute suffering which was caused to
tens of thousands of artisans by the vicious system of speculation fostered
by such a firm as Overend and Gurney. One undertaking may be cited as
an example. The Millwall Iron Ship Building Company obtained from the
great Lombard Street discount house advances exceeding half a million.
For a time a large business was carried on, and the company gathered
together from different parts of the country many hundreds of artisans.
These poor fellows exhausted a considerable portion of their hard-earned
savings in removing their families to Millwall. At first everything seemed
to flourish; the company, however, gradually became so deeply involved
that the discount house, afraid that the nature of its business should be
exposed, was compelled to continue the advances. The company was
never really solvent; the crash at length came; hundreds of shareholders
were ruined; the real offenders were, of course, not punished. But amidst
all our sympathy for too-confiding investors, there has scarcely been an
attempt made to trace what has become of these artisans, many of whom
were attracted from long distances to embark their labor in this unsound
undertaking. They have no legal claim for redress; their savings have
been sacrificed, but they cannot appear as creditors; they were left helpless and stranded, so completely ruined that they had not the means to
return to localities where their labor might be wanted."
The facts thus exhibited correspond precisely with those which have
here occurred at the close of each and every period of the non-resistant
system. None such have ever occurred when the opposite policy has been
pursued. Extraordinary as have been the changes, here and abroad, since
the re-adoption in 1861 of the resistant one, there has never been even
the slightest approach to financial crisis.




MIND    AND   MORALS.                    327
by   the   frauds   and    forgeries    which    now    so  much
abound. Self-respect, as we know, grows as men
are more and more enabled to meet on terms of
strict equality. It declines as the gulf is widened
that divides those who have labor to buy from those
who need to sell it.*         Throughout Great Britain it
widens daily, and hence it is, that men whose connections are such as would warrant hope for better
things, are found so ready to lend their names to
gambling schemes on condition of being paid there* The following passages descriptive of the extremes of society, are
from recent numbers of one of the most respectable of English journals:
" It is coming rapidly to this-that a first-class leader of society with a
first-class fortune, to be'on a level with his position,' wants, or chooses
to think he wants, a house in London, a house on the river, two palaces at
least in the country, a shooting-box in the Highlands, a hotel in Paris as
costly as his London house, a villa at Como; a floor in Rome, an establishment in Cairo or Constantinople, a yacht, a theatre, and a racing stud,
and then thinks that life is as monotonous as it was when'in his cool hall,
with haggard eyes, the Roman noble lay.' "-Spectator.
" Children of both sexes and of all ages, from five up to sixteen, are, in
fact, sold by the wretched laborers to the gang-masters at so much per
head per week, generally, we are bound to add, out of the direst poverty.
The ganger having collected his children, takes them away to his job,
forcing them to walk, or if needful, to carry each other, for distances,
which often involve of themselves great cruelty. Five miles out and five
back is thought nothing of, in addition to almost continuous labor for at
least ten hours a day.... The laborers in many English parishes are
coarse enough, but among these poor wretches civilization disappears..
The single amusement is obscene talk, which becomes so shocking that the
very laborers are revolted, and declare they would sooner turn out of the
road than meet the gangs returning. All the offices of nature, say twenty
witnesses, are performed in public by both sexes, without the faintest
effort at concealment. Boys and girls of all ages bathe together stark
naked, and the most infamous actions are boasted of with a shamelessness
rarely found among savages."-Ibid. Mar. 23.
Splendor on one hand and squalor on the other, have never, in any
country, been more strikingly exhibited.




328            THE UNITY OF LAW.
for at the moderate rate of a guinea for each and
every hour's or day's attendance. Money must be
had, at whatsoever sacrifice of feeling or of honor.
More than in any other country has Mammon now
become the God at whose altar all are required to
worship.
~ 6. The material condition of the toiling millions
who now constitute the "proletariat," has been already placed before the reader. How far it tends to
produce in them that feeling of self-respect which
exhibits itself in propriety of dress and of general deportment, he will decide for himself after reflecting
on the few facts that will now be briefly given. The
total production of cotton throughout the world cannot vary materially from 4,000,000,000 pounds, the
equivalent of more than three and a half pounds per
head of the population, old and young, slave or free,
rich or poor; from the Hindoo who needs little beyond a cloth around the loins, to northern men who
need to be covered almost from top to toe.* Of those
thousands of millions but 101 were, on an average
of 1868-9, consumed by the 30,000,000 of the population of the British Islands;t giving but about
the average of the world, from the barbarian negro
of Central Africa to the owner of almost counties
of British land.  Cleanliness and godliness being
close relations, where the one may not be found,
* " No species of raw material is produced more abundantly in China
than cotton, and if there is one class of manufacture for which the people
have peculiar facilities, and which is more extensively followed than any
other, it is that of'coarse cottons.' "-Quarterly Review, April, 1872.
t Hoyle, Our National Resources, Chap. IV.




MIND AND MORALS.                     329
the other will in vain be sought for.          "Moral purity," says a recent writer,
"is incompatible with bodily impurity. Moral degradation
is indissolubly united with physical squalor.  The depression
and discomfort of the hovel produce and foster obtuseness of
mind, hardness of heart, selfish and sensual indulgence, violence
and crime.  It is the home that educates the family.  It is the
distinction and the curse of barbarism that it is without a
home; it is the distinction and blessing of civilization that it
prepares a home in which Christianity may abide, and guide,
and govern."*
The total wool production of the world may be
taken at 2,000,000,000 pounds; giving an average
of about two pounds per head for its entire population; for the hundreds of millions who never need
it, as for those who find it difficult to obtain
the quantity required for meeting the vicissitudes
of temperature. Among these latter are included
the people of the British Islands, whose average consumption of woollens for the years 1866-69 is given
at 78,572,000 pounds, or two and three-fifth pounds
per head;t being less than the average of the world
outside the tropics.
We are thus presented with the extraordinary
* Baker, The Common Nature of Epidemics.
"Our laborers' dwellings are a national disgrace."-Contemporary Review, March, 1872.
"England, with its wealth, its intelligence, its poor laws, and its enormous charities; Scotland, with its high-sounding religious and educational
pretensions; are all alike.... No abjectness in any city in Europe
sinks to the dismal level of rags and wretchedness observable in the fetid
alleys of Edinburgh and Glasgow."-Chambers's Journal.
The deaths in London, of starvation, in 1871, were 100 in number.
t Hoyle, Our National Resources, chap. iv.




330              THE UNITY OF LAW.
fact, that of the two essential materials of that covering which is required by both decency and comfort, the consumption does not exceed, if indeed it
equals, the average of the world from the Digger
Indian on one hand, to the London or Paris millionaire on the other; this, too, in face of the fact,
that Britain controls a productive force equal in
power to that of the population of nearly all the
world beside.
~ 7. Self-respect makes demand for temperance in
all things, but most especially in the consumption of
those fluids which "steal away men's brains" and
make them, for the time, almost as irresponsible for
their actions as is the tiger or the rattlesnake. How
far it is thus exhibited throughout the British Islands
is shown by the facts, that the consumption, in 1869,
amounted to 930,000,000 gallons; the equivalent of
more than thirty gallons for every person, old and
young, male and female, of the entire population;
and that it had grown to that from 707,000,000 in
1860, the rate of increase in the decade having been
more than 30 per cent.*
In the same decade the consumption of cotton had
* CONSUMPTION OF INTOXICATING LIQUORS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.
1860.      1869.   Increase
Gallons.  Gallons.  per cent.
Spirits, foreign and domestic..26,926,011  30,114,624  11.84
Beer, ale, and porter....  674,170,326 885,004,412  81.27
Wine.........  6,718,585  14,723,534  119.31
Aggregate..... 707,814,922 929,842,570  31.37
The population in this period increased 71 per cent.




MIND AND MORALS.               331
fallen 36 per cent.-the average of 1858-9 having
been 157,000,000 pounds, against but 101,000,000
for 1868-9.* The average expenditure for liquors
in the years 1858-61, was ~92,000,000. For those
of 1866-69, it was ~112,000,000.t In the same
period, 1859-69, the value of cotton goods consumed
had fallen from ~11,443,371 to ~8,511,737.+
Facts like these prove a downward tendency
almost unparalleled; finance ministers at home,
nevertheless, rejoicing in the increase of revenue, as
those of India rejoice in a growing Chinese demoralization manifested in an increased demand for
opium, to be followed by a rise of price. Greatly,
however, would it shock those statesmen to be
told that their policy tended toward increasing barbarism, and not in the direction of an advancing civilization.  When they shall have studied the facts
given here below, and shall then have compared the
poverty and demoralization there exhibited with the
power for good, if rightly directed, of the wonderful
non-consuming army now controlled by Britain, they
must, assuredly, arrive at the conclusion, that in
their system there exists some error demanding
prompt and careful investigation.~
* Hoyle, chap. iv.
t Ibid., chap. vi.
$ Ibid., chap. iv.
& On one side of the Atlantic the toiling millions have become a mere
"proletariat." On the other, they are tending daily toward an equality
with the capitalist; and are more and more acquiring a feeling of selfrespect. That the reader may appreciate the moral results of the two systems, the following figures are submtted for his consideration:



332                 THE UNITY      OF LAW.
~ 8. More than any other European country England has sought by dissemination of the Holy ScripCONSUMPTION OF INTOXICATING LIQUORS IN THE UNITED STATES IN THE
FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1871.
Gallons.
Domestic and foreign spirits.....   54,489,297
Beer, ale, and porter, foreign and domestic. 223,307,156
Wine imported.........   10,700,000
Aggregate........... 288,496,453
CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND IN THE UNITED
STATES.
UNITED KINGDOM IN 1869.     UNITED STATES IN 1870-71.
Gallons.                     Gallons.
Spirits....    0.978    Spirits.... 1.397
Malt liquors.. 30.500     Malt liquors.. 5.726
Wine...   0.470    Wine.. 0.274
Aggregate.. 31.948       Aggregate... 7.397
Population in 1869, 30,000,000    Population in 1871, 39,000,000
Remarkable as is the difference here exhibited, it tells but little more
than half the truth as regards spirits. In England, alcohol used in the
arts is deteriorated by being mixed with a certain spirit, after which it
passes free of duty and is not included in the returns from which the above
table has been made. Here, nothing of the kind being done, all alcohol is
included, although nearly half is estimated as being used in manufactures.
Allowing for this, the American consumption of spirits is greatly less than
a gallon per head.
The British consumption of cotton, as we have seen, but little exceeds 3
pounds per head. The American is 13 and likely soon to reach 20. [Of linen
the British consumption is greatly larger than the American one, the average of the years 1866-69 having exceeded 3 pounds per head.] The value
of the one is but $42,000,000. That of the other is scarcely less than
$300,000,000. In the one, thirty per cent. of those who sign the marriage register are said to make their mark; a fact not to be charged altogether to illiteracy, a clergyman having recently explained that one in five
of those who thus sign themselves do so because they are too drunk to
write! In the other, nearly all of American birth both read and write. In
the one, for every thirty gallons of liquor there is consumed less than one
pound of coffee. In the other, for every five gallons of the one there are




MIND AND MORALS.                         333
tures, and by missions, to familiarize benighted
heathens of the East with that religion whose base
is found in the great command, that we do to others
as  under similar circumstances             we    would    desire
them to do by us. That the persons thus employed
have been active and earnest in the performance of
their duties, is not to be questioned. As little, however, is it to be denied, that their progress has borne
a proportion absolutely infinitesimal to the risks
that have been so cheerfully incurred, to the labors
which so faithfully have been performed. Seeking
now   the cause     of this we      can  scarcely fail to     find
it in the fact, that so few have seemed to appreciate
the idea    that the     " blessed   gospel of work" lay at
the root of all morals; that the decree which had
imposed upon man a necessity for obtaining his
bread    by the    sweat of his brow        had    made    it THE
DUTY of each and all to facilitate, as far as possible,
consumed six pounds of the other. Throughout the recent war the soldiers of the Republic, being allowed no spirits, used coffee everywhere on
their weary marches, and found in it their best comforter. It was the remark of an old campaigner, that if a halt of a few minutes were called anywhere the men would at once set to work to make a pot of coffee. In this,
the workmen who enlisted in the service merely carried with them the
habits of home.
As a consequence of the self-respect thus indicated it is, that an Englishman, writing in Frazer's Magazine, is enabled to assure his readers that after
" a residence of upwards of 17 years in New York," he " cannot call to
mind a single instance of any native American citizen appearing at the bar
of a police court on the charge of wife beating." Further than this, as he
continues, "more intoxicated men, and women too, may be seen in the
streets of London in one day than in those of the United States in six
months." Contrasting the manners of the toiling millions of the two countries, he says, "the American, however humble in position, has a keen
sense of personal dignity: no taste for horse play; and, prompt to resent
an impertinence or insult, is equally slow, unprovoked, to offer either.




334           THE UNITY OF LAW.
the application, by all, of labor, whether bodily or
mental, to the work; that measures tending to prevent such application tended to the production of
crime, and were, therefore, criminal in all by whom
they were employed; that all the acts of the nation
they represented looked in that direction; and, that
the first step toward accomplishment of their benevolent purposes lay in the direction of inducing their
own employers forthwith to adopt such a course of
policy as would tend to enable the poor unbelievers,
with advantage to all, at home or abroad, to avail
themselves of the powers that God had given them,
and of whose use they had been so long deprived.
Had such been their course of action-had they
commenced by instilling sound Christianity into the
minds of the officers in command of Britain's grand
non-consuming army-and had their efforts in that
direction been crowned with success-the labors of
early Christian missionaries to the East would today be so completely overshadowed as scarcely at all
to be now held in recollection. As it is, these latter
stand most brightly out; and for the reason, that in
the days of the Apostle of the Indies it yet remained to be discovered that buying cheaply and
selling dearly were the essential aims and ends of
life; that for their attainment it was justifiable, if
not indeed honorable, so to direct the wonderful
force of a non-consuming army counting by hundreds of millions as gradually to annihilate the
societary arrangements of other hundreds of millions of poor and defenceless men; that in all




MIND AND MORALS.                335
cases where submission might be refused it was
right and proper to set at defiance the laws of
resisting peoples, the smuggler being publicly recognized as the " great reformer of the age;" or that,
as a rule, the end might be regarded as sanctioning
whatsoever means, foul or fair, might be deemed
essential to its attainment.*
Happily for Xavier he lived at a time when the
working men of England were becoming from day
to day more free, and when growing self-respect was
prompting all to the adoption of whatsoever measures might be required for giving practical effect to
the fundamental "Gospel;" securing employment
for the able-bodied while granting aid to those
who by reason of age or infancy, deformity or disease, found themselves compelled to look to their
more fortunate fellow-men for supplies of food and
raiment.
The movement thus suggested is precisely that
which now is needed. The heart of the tree being
diseased, it is waste of time to attempt any pruning
of the branches. Let then the suffering peoples of
the world set themselves to work to prove to British
masters-to those especially who now so freely give
their time and means to support of measures look* The missionary has lately entered into such close partnership with
the trader that the people of the countries they wish to' open up' must be
in doubt whether it is our Bibles or our broadcloth, our cotton or our Christianity that we most desire to force upon them; and the attempt to compel
them to accept a spurious Christianity and shoddy manufactures by means
of bayonets and cannon is not likely to be permanently successful."-London Free Press.




336               THE UNITY OF LAW.
ing to enlightenment of the heathen-that their
war upon labor, abroad and at home, is not more
unjust than it is impolitic; and, that a proletariat
like to that which now exhibits itself throughout
the British Islands, must become from day to day less
fitted for contending on equal terms with men of
other nations in whom the feeling of self-respect is
a steadily growing one, as is the case in all those
countries which protect their people against the
"warfare" that so long and so bitterly has been
waged.*    In proof of this, let them     point to the
fact that the name of Morse now travels on telegraph wires throughout the world; that that of the
German Bessemer travels in like manner with the
steel railroad bar; that the American axe is heard
in nearly all the forests of the world; that to an
American do the sewing women of the world stand
indebted for emancipation from the necessity for reenacting that terrible drama, one of whose scenes
is so well described in Hood's sad "Song of the
Shirt:" that the American piano now goes
throughout the world; that the latest improvements
in many departments of manufacture have travelled
eastward from America to England; that the Eng* " Great and worthy exertions," says the Rev. Mr. Kingsley in his
recent work, " are made every London season for the conversion of the
negro and the heathen, and the abolition of their barbarous customs and
dances." "It is," he continues, "to be hoped that the negro and the
heathen will some day show their gratitude to us, by sending missionaries
hither to convert the London season itself, dances and all, and assist it to
take the beam out of its own eye in return for having taken the mote out
of theirs."




MIND   AND    MORALS.                   337
lish locomotive has been perfected here;* closing
with a request to the chiefs of the great army that
they should      furnish   answers to     the questions: "If
all this has been done in the green wood, what will
not be done in the dry!" "If a people among
whom manufactures but recently had scarcely an
existence have already gone so far ahead, what will
they do in the half century that stands before us 
What at its close are to be the relative positions of
the now chief nations of the world, if Russia, Germany, and America shall continue to move onward
in the direction of carrying their toiling millions
upward      toward    equality    with    capitalists,   Britain
meantime wasting         her wonderful powers in           a war
upon those millions wheresoever found, abroad or
at home."t
Than these, questions of higher importance have
* On a recent public occasion an eminent English engineer, Mr. Fairlie,
spoke with his friends and associates as follows, to wit: " You may take
your best English locomotive with its maximum train, and the American
will go before it; drawing it and its train, and one-half more beside." An
American engineer now controls the whole railroad system of India.
t The Emperor of France proposed ten awards of 10,000 francs each
or 100,000 francs in the aggregate, to ten different individuals or associations, who, in a series of years, had accomplished the most to secure a
state of harmony between employers and their work people, and most successfully advanced the material, intellectual, and moral welfare of the
same. A special jury was appointed from the different countries represented in the exhibition, C. C. Perkins, of Boston, representing the United States. Five hundred applications were received from  France and
other countries on the continent of Europe, from Great Britain, and the
United States.
Nine of the awards were given to France, Germany, and other countries
in Europe, one to the United States-(the Pacific Mills, of Lawrence, Massachusetts)-and none to Britainu
22




338           THE UNITY OF LAW.
never been submitted to the consideration of any
people whatsoever. Let then the men who are so
sedulous in their efforts to carry the'gospel to men
and women of distant countries now turn their atten.
tion homeward, giving their labors to an effort at
placing themselves in a position to be enabled to
point to England as the country that, more than any
other, furnished practical proof of the physical,
mental, and moral advantages resulting from adoption of the religion of Christ, and they will accomplish more in a single decade than will be accomplished in centuries under the existing system.
~ 9. To the end of enabling them to prove
conclusively that worldly advantage marched hand
in hand with obedience to that great law which
so especially requires the rich and powerful to do by
others as, were they weak and poor, they would
desire should be done by themselves, let them
turn to a file of the Times and study carefully its
highly instructive admission, that "when the Celt
has crossed the Atlantic he begins for the first time
in his life to consume the manufactures of this
country, and indirectly to contribute to its customs."
Turbulent, improvident, and unprofitable, while remaining at home, he becomes almost at once, after
landing in America, a peaceful citizen and most
profitable customer. Such having been, and such
being now, the case, the question naturally arises as
to what had been the circumstances under which,
and the times at which, American attraction had
been greatest, enabling England most largely to




MIND AND MORALS.                    339
profit by transfers of population such as are above
described. Seeking a reply thereto we find, as
shown in the figures given below, that they have
invariably been in periods of resistance to the
British system; the reverse presenting itself as
regularly in those at which submission has been
most complete.'
Such having     been the facts, we may now, with
some advantage, inquire-why it is that emigrants
from the British islands so generally seek the
American, and not the Canadian or Australian
shores 1 To this the answer is, that in the first
they are efficiently protected against the "warfare"
of capital upon labor so actively carried on by the
officers of Britain's great non-consuming army;
whereas, in the     other they are not so protected.
Why then should not all the British colonies, and
all the Spanish American States, be made as useful
as America has been, is, and is likely to be in all the
future; absorbing people now unemployed, and thus
relieving Britain from her grinding and oppressive
taxation for the support of hundreds of thousands,
of all ages and sexes, who abroad would be enabled
* From 1825 to 1834, a period of resistance, immigration rose from
10,000 to 63,000.
From 1834 to 1842-43, a period of submission, it remained so nearly
stationary that the average of these latter years was but 78,000.
From 1843 to 1848, a resistant period, it rose from 78,000 to 226,000.
From 1848 to 1854, the great California period, it rose to 427,000.
Notwithstanding the gold discoveries, the decline from 1854 to 1860-61, a
period of submission, was such that the average of these latter years was
but 122,000, or little more than half the numbers of a dozen years before.
Throughout the resistant period 1861-70, the figures have risen steadily
until from 91,000 in the first, they have become 378,000 in the last.




340             THE UNITY OF LAW.
to purchase and pay for millions of pounds, in value,
of commodities of an order greatly higher than that
of those now furnished by hospital managers and
poor-law guardians?    An army of working Englishmen, 100,000 in number, employed in introducing
machinery of every kind into India, and in teaching
Hindoos its proper management, would of themselves make larger demand for the products of
British industry than now is made by the 150,000,000 of Hindostan.    Further than this, they would
speedily treble the productive power of that country,
thereby enabling its people not only to purchase
largely of British products of the higher order, but
also so to increase their contributions for the support of government as to free those of England
from all necessity for continuing participants in the
crime involved in maintenance of the opium trade;
productive, as it has already been, of a demoralization
compared with which all the damage to the cause of
civilization resulting from the invasions of Alaric and
Attila combined, sinks into utter insignificance.* Let
them next apply the same idea to Canada, Australia, Spanish America, and ask themselves what
would be the effect of an annual demand for
hundreds of thousands of men and women capable
of instructing those already there in the various
* The rapid resuscitation of France in the last twelve months furnishes
proof conclusive of the triviality of damage caused by the soldier, compared with that inflicted by the trader with hundreds of millions of nonconsuming laborers at his command. The one limits himself to destruction of the flowers and fruits of the societary tree; whereas the other tears
up its roots.




MIND AND MORALS.            341
industries, agricultural, mining, chemical, and mechanical, suited to the circumstances in which
those countries now are placed? Would it not
clear the way at home for thousands and tens of
thousands of " proletaires," capable of filling positions higher than those now open to them? Would
it not produce a desire for education such as now
has no existence? Would it not make large demand for the peculiar faculties of the weaker sex?
Would not, at every step, the weak of body find
themselves coming more and more to an equality
with the lithe and active? Would not men and
women more and more be enabled, profitably to
themselves and to all around them, to unite together
for carrying into effect the great command which
requires that the earth become more fully peopled?
Would not such a course of action speedily bring
to a close that infamous slave-trade now so abounding throughout the South Pacific, and so destructive
of all moral feeling among British colonists 
WTould not every step in these directions be attended
with growth of that feeling of self-respect which
would induce the practice of temperance in all
things, and especially in the consumption of intoxicating liquors? Would not then the Malthusian
theory be dismissed to take its place among the
thousands of other absurdities by means of-which
the growth of real civilization has been so much
retarded?.* Assuredly it would, and as assuredly
* Since the re-adoption by the United States of the resistant policy,
the demand made by them on the population of Continental Europe has




342                 THE UNITY OF LAW.
would the eyes of those who control the movements
of Britain's non-consuming army be opened to the
facts, that the course hitherto pursued had been
a mistake destined, perhaps, to prove a fatal one;
that the results thus far obtained had been those
of poverty and demoralization at home and abroad;
and, that at every stage of progress their countrymen and themselves had been more and more
tending in    the  direction    indicated by Macaulay in
the passage already placed before the reader.*
To the end that his anticipations may not be
realized it is essential that men of influence begin
to appreciate the facts, that the harmony of interests
among communities is as complete as is that among
individuals of which they are composed; and that
failure to respect the rights of the weak, such as is
now exhibited throughout the Asiatic world, furnishes proof conclusive of the absence, within themselves, of that feeling of self-respect to which alone
can we look for evidence of advancing civilization.s
assumed such large proportions as to have compelled several of the powers
to study carefully the measures required for inducing their people to remain
at home. No where in Europe was the Malthusian theory more fully accepted than in Germany. (See ante, note to p. 187.) No where is its
refutation becoming more complete.
* See note to page 273, ante.
"Men, habitually starved in mind or in body, are not the stuff out of
which to make either good saints or good subjects."-Freeland.
t Describing the present unhappy condition of France, the Athenceum
(London, May 26) has just now told its readers that "centralization with
cold palsy at its extremities, and frequent attacks of apoplexy at the head,
has been there set up as the only beau ideal of government." Describing
the present position of England, the same precise words might here be
used; with the addition, that the beau ideal of trading centralization is as




MIND   AND    MORALS.                   343
~ 10. To the "positive knowledge of the uncultured"
we are required to look for the foundation of every
rational " theory of science," and " of the relations of
its parts to    each other."      So is it everywhere, the
base of operations for the development of both mind
and   morals being      found    among     the  mass and     not
among the few by whom that mass is to so great
much more productive of physical, mental, and moral deterioration, as
is the British army which counts by hundreds of.millions more powerful for evil than that French one which counts by hundreds of thousands.
Seeking evidence of this, the reader may here advantageously study some
facts in regard to Orissa, that scene of perpetually recurring famines in
which men perish almost by millions, derived from the new volume
(London, 1872) of Hunter's Annals of Rural Bengal, as follows:Situated directly on the Bay of Bengal, Orissa has been a chief seat
of the salt manufacture, but so heavy are the salt duties (see ante, note
to p. 82) that its peasantry "consume great quantities of fish imperfectly
dried in the sun, and more or less rotten. The decomposing mass is stored
up in baskets, and sparingly doled out to the household as the only dish
they can afford to their monotonous rice diet....  The estuaries
of the great Orissa delta yield an endless supply of fish; and all that is
wanting to give to the people a great additional security against famine is
the means by which the fish may be kept for eating throughout the year."
Further than this, the Mahanadi, one of its rivers, is the natural channel
through which the rural products of Central India should be sent to the
coast to be exchanged, but the salt duty of Bengal and Orissa so greatly
exceeds that of Madras, that, as we are here informed, "the peasants of
inner India find it cheaper to send their goods by a long and costly land
route to the Madras district of Ganjam than to float them down the Mahanadi to Cuttack on the Orissa side of the customs line... It is as
if we had thrown a wall across one of the finest trade routes in the world.
Our salt duty just as effectually blockades the Mahanadi as if we had
filled it up with rocks."-This is what is now known as free trade; a
trade that imposes measureless restrictions on a domestic commerce that
under other circumstances would count by thousands of millions, while refusing to permit the adoption of any measures of protection against that
grand army of non-consuming laborers to which India stands indebted for
the annihilation of a cotton manufacture whose history, as so well is
known, "involved no less than a description of the lives of half the people of Hindostan."




344           THE UNITY OF LAW.
an extent controlled. Charlemagne labored assiduously for the advancement of civilization, but his
institutions found no soil in which they might take
root and be matured. Watt and Howe, inventors
of the steam-engine and the sewing-machine, have
done more for the advancement of mankind than
has been done by all the sovereigns by whom the
mighty emperor has been succeeded. In the brain
and the heart of lowly men, wheresoever found,
exist the germs of all those qualities, mental and
moral, by which man is distinguished from the
brute. That they might be developed in all their
strength and beauty the thrice-blessed GOSPEL OF
WORK was instituted; and it is to those who
aid in its dissemination that mankind is to be indebted for every advance that may be made in the
direction of promoting the establishment of that
independence on one hand and inter-dependence
on the other, among both individuals and nations,
which tends to bring about a reign of peace
throughout the earth.  The more the tendency
in that direction the more are the physically weak
and the physically strong brought to stand on a
level with each other; each and all becoming fiom
hour to hour more dependent on the kindly feelings
of each and every other, as they, each and all, grow
in independence and in power; standing before the
world as controllers of the great natural forces;
capable of perfect self-control; and animated always
by a feeling of self-respect.




OF CIVILIZATION.          345
CHAPTER XII.
OF CIVILIZATION.
~ 1. AMONG the terms enumerated by Archbishop
Whately as standing in need of definition, and as
being constantly "used without any more explanation or suspicion of their requiring it, than the words'triangle' or'twenty,'" is not embraced that important one which heads this chapter; yet is there
none, wealth alone excepted, that is more frequently
both used and misused. Of the many who have
undertaken to furnish civilization's history, in our
own and other languages, not one has even essayed
to supply a definition of the thing itself that
might enable his readers to recognize it whensoever and wheresoever it might be found.  Mr.
Guizot, it is true, gave to his readers certain fancy
sketches by whose aid they were, as he thought, to
be enabled to make at the least some approach
toward its identification; but that he himself had
not attained to any clear idea of the constituents of
a real civilization would seem to be proved by
the fact that, when desiring to bring before his
readers the period when Rome was most rapidly
advancing in that direction, he should have selected
one at which the small proprietors had almost
disappeared from the land; when the soil of Italy
had become the property of a few great houses;




346                THE UNITY     OF LAW.
when palaces abounded, filled with slaves; when the
elder Cato fattened slaves for market; when to propitiate the gods human sacrifices were renewed;
when the city population was hourly becoming more
dependent on free distribution of the corn of subject
provinces; and when gladiatorial games, maintained
at the public cost, were more and more required for
their amusement; preparation thus being made for
the barbarism so speedily thereafter exhibited in the
destruction of the great cities of Corinth and Carthage; in    the proscriptions of Sylla and         Marius;
in proconsular tyranny like to that of Verres and
Fonteius; and in the almost universal pauperism
and demoralization of that people which           in earlier
and better times had given to the world men and
women of whom Cincinnatus and Lucretia might be
taken as the types.* Facts like these being accepted
as proofs of advancing civilization, in what direction
should we look when seeking evidence of its decline?
The question is one to which the venerable historian
would certainly find it somewhat difficult to make
reply.* " Take, for example, Rome in the splendid days of the Republic, at the
close of the second Punic war; the moment of her greatest virtues, when
she was rapidly advancing to the empire of the world-when her social
condition was evidently improving."-Hist. of Civilization, p. 14.
t That like causes tend to produce like effects, and that history tends
constantly to reproduce itself, will be obvious to all who remark the
close correspondence of the results at different periods of unceasing " warfare," as exhibited in the Rome of the past and the Britain of the present.
As was then the case, the small freeholder has now disappeared from the
land, his place being filled by the day-laborer, with "no future but the
poorhouse." As then, a proletariat now fills the place that had once been
occupied by men like those of Naseby and Marston Moor. As then, the




OF CIVILIZATION.                   347
~ 2. Voluminous as is Mr. Buckle's work, he
nowhere finds place for any definition of the thing
whose history he seeks to place before his' readers.
In lieu thereof they are told that progress is greatly
dependent on the question as to whether men eat
rice as in India; potatoes, as in Ireland; maize, as
in Mexico; bananas, as in the countries further
south; or meat, as in Northern Europe. The reward of labor, as they are told, is always low in hot
climates where vegetable food abounds; always, on
the contrary, high in those colder climates where
animal food is a necessity of life; these assertions
being made in face of the facts, that close on his
right and left stood      two little countries, Belgium
and Ireland, the one ranking among the most prosperous of Europe, the other meanwhile exhibiting
famine as almost the normal condition of Irish existence; just as is now the case with those unfortunate Hindoos who, as has been shown, habitually
eat putrid fish because of a tax on salt so heavy as
to preclude them from availing themselves of its
services for preservation of the animal food with
which their rivers so much abound.t
space between the higher and lower orders of society is now a constantly
widening one. The facts of the earlier and later periods of civilization above
referred to are one and the same, with little exception other than this:
that considerable portions of the contributions of subject Provinces and
States were then applied to maintenance of games by which the Roman
people could be amused; whereas, no part of the contributions of the poor
Hindoo, none of the profits of the opium trade or salt monopoly, is applied
to the amusement, and little to the instruction, of those of Britain.
* History of Civilization, vol. i. pp. 46, 47.
t See ante, note to page 342.




348              THE UNITY OF LAW.
Of all European countries there is none that more
strenuously than Belgium has resisted the tyranny
of the British system, and hence it is that civilization has there so steadily advanced. Of all the
countries of the world there are none that equally
with India and Ireland have been compelled to blind
submission, and hence it is that, widely separated
as they are, and widely different as are their climates
and their national characteristics, the facts presented
are of so close resemblance; the Irishman selling his
pig because too poor to eat it, and the Hindoo
allowing his fish to run to waste because too poor
to pay the tax on salt.*
Turning his eyes westward, and back to the days
of Cortes, Mr. Buckle might have seen maize-eating
Mexicans cultivating    the land, living   in towns,
and fabricating cloth; the meat-eaters of northern
prairies meanwhile being driven by actual want to
frequent robbery and murder of their more prosperous
and civilized southern neighbors.t
Elsewhere, at the moment of writing, he might
have seen Pennsylvania and Virginia standing side
by side, perfectly agreed in the consumption of
both animal and vegetable food; but differing as
did the poles in reference to the reward of labor.
The one had been consistent in its efforts at bringing together societary positives and negatives, and
* See ante, note to page 342.
t Mr. Buckle's theory having made it necessary to place Indian corn, or
maize, among the products of hot climates, he seeks to restrict its cultivation within the limits of 40~ north latitude; doing this in face of the fact
that the chief seat of its cultivation on this continent is north of 38~.




OF CIVILIZATION.            349
had, therefore, grown in force. The other had been
equally consistent in its efforts at keeping them
asunder, and hence the weakness that has since
been manifested.
Most of all important, however, in our author's
eyes was that "general aspect of nature" which, as
he assures his readers, "produces its principal results
by exciting the imagination, and by suggesting
those innumerable superstitions which are the great
obstacles to advancing knowledge."* On the fanciful basis thus established he erects his edifice;
then exhibiting it in huge volumes abounding
in expressions of opinion on the part of himself
and others, but presenting for consideration no
single one of the important facts in reference to
the English movement that have been here submitted. Those of his readers who seek for information relative to the " theological basis of predestination, and the metaphysical basis of free will"t may
perhaps be gratified; but widely different will be the
case with such as desire to know how it had been
that Saxon churls had freed their necks from the
degrading collar; that their descendants, self-reliant
and self-respecting, had been enabled to do battle
for their rights at Worcester; that the chain of
serfdom had so soon thereafter been fitted to the
ankles of those very men by means of an Act of
Settlement; or why it is, that a "proletariat"
clamoring for protection against its masters now
fills the place once occupied by men against whom
* Ibid., p. 29.           t Ibid., p. 10.




350           THE UNITY OF LAW.
those masters had so frequently sought to be protected. To such inquiries our author will prove to
be a guide so dumb as not to furnish even a word
in answer to any questions having reference to that
"blessed gospel of work" which constitutes the
foundation on which alone anywhere the grand edifice of civilization can be erected.
Reasoning always downward, Mr. Buckle looks
for the causes of change in improved modes of
thought. Had he pursued a contrary course he
might perhaps have been led to the conclusion, that
the societary tree, like all other trees, grows from
the roots upward; that modes of thought are but
its flowers and fruits; and that any attempt at study
of these latter to the exclusion of the former must
result in the failure that his ponderous, and already
almost forgotten, work has proved to be. It is to
the "positive knowledge of the uncultured," and
not to the disquisitions of metaphysicians, that we
need first to turn when seeking to understand the
development of those beneficial influences which
may properly be characterized as indications of a real
civilization.
~ 3. Mr. Mill assures his readersFirst, of the existence of an all-controlling law,
in virtue of which the return to agricultural labor
tends to diminish in its relation to population.*
WTere that different "nearly all the phenomena of
the production and distribution of wealth would,"
as they are told, "be other than they are."
* Principles, vol. i. p. 221.




OF CIVILIZATION.           351
Second, of " another agency" that is in habitual
antagonism to that all-pervading law, and which he
characterizes by the term " progress of civilization."
Third, that under that head are included improved
methods of cultivation, better modes of transportation, in short, "every possible improvement of the
arts of production" resulting from increased subjection of the forces of nature to man's use and
service.t
The great "law" here enunciated tends, as the
reader will readily perceive, necessarily to increased inequality of conditions. The counteracting
"agency" tends, as we are assured, toward correction of this, and toward equality of condition. At
another stage of the process, however, we learn that
while this antagonistic "agency" has " enabled an
increased number of manufacturers and others to
make fortunes," it has done nothing for the working
man; civilization having failed "to lighten the
day's toil of any human being," and "drudgery
and imprisonment" being the sole reward thus far
reaped by those who have need to sell their service, whether physical or mental.+
Admitting the accuracy of the views thus presented, we now reach the remarkable fact, that
discoveries, which have placed under British control an army of 500,000,000 non-consuming slaves,
have not only not tended toward counteraction
of the injurious tendencies of Mr. Mill's great
* Ibid., p. 228.  t Ibid., p. 232.  4 Ibid., p. 232.




352             THE UNITY OF LAW.
law of diminished returns to labor; but that, on
the contrary, they have combined with it for increasing the power of masters for the control of
mind, capital for the control of labor; thus carrying
the nation forward in the direction of proletairism
and barbarism, and not in that of freedom and
civilization.
Of what, however, does this last really consist?
Let us inquire.
~ 4. Of all animals, the early man is the most
helpless, each and every other coming forth from
nature's womb filly armed with the powers needed
for their support and preservation. Directly the reverse of this, he not only needs to be clothed, fed,
and sheltered during a protracted infancy, but also
to have developed within himself the germs of those
faculties by whose aid alone can he be enabled to
command the services of even that simplest of the
great natural forces which furnishes the heat required for so changing the raw produce of the earth
as to fit it for man's consumption.  How wretched
must have been his condition we may to some extent imagine after studying that of the now existing dirt-eaters of the western continent, and bushmen of the eastern one.*     How almost infinitely
worse than even this it must at very remote periods
have been, is being proved by geologists who are
* " The savages of New Holland never help each other even in the most
simple operations; and their condition is hardly superior, it some respects
it is inferior, to that of the wild animals that they now and then catch."Mill, Principles, vol. i. p. 145.




OF CIVILIZATION.           353
now so steadily penetrating into the facts of that
primitive life when cultivation had not even yet
commenced; when men dwelt in caves and gladly
sucked marrow from the bones of animals they had
been enabled to overcome. In a state of things like
this, the one law recognized is that of'; every man
for himself," allowing who will to "take the hindmost;" i. e., the infant and the aged, the tender woman
and the yet more tender child. That under such
circumstances the race should have been at all preserved seems so nearly miraculous as to merit, at the
hands of gentlemen who discourse with the world
upon the "Descent of Man," an amount of consideration far greater than it has yet obtained. Sufficient for the present purpose, however, it is, that
SELF-LOVE and the desire for SELF-GRATIFICATION are
shown to be, and to have been, the essential characteristics of savage, as of barbarian, life.
Passing onward, we find that as with increase
of numbers, and increased ability to combine together, societary positives and negatives are brought
to somewhat orderly arrangement, with constant
growth of power for direction and self-direction,
man becomes more self-reliant and self-respectingmore capable of commanding respect for rights
inherent in himself, more and more self-compelled
to do by others as he would they should do by him.
Selfishness and self-respect, antipodes of each
other, are the essential characteristics of barbarism
on the one hand, and of civilization on the other.
~ 5. The gradual development, throughout the
23




354               THE UNITY OF LAW.
centuries which intervened      between    the Norman
Conquest and the Restoration, of the feeling of
self-respect has been already placed before the
reader.   What has been the tendency in that direction, whether individual or national, in those which
have elapsed since the restoration of semi-serfage,
and since the time when England struck down the
woollen manufacture of Ireland, is shown in the
fact, that from that hour to the present this latter
has been but a mere instrument to be managed by
the former, wholly without reference to the feelings
or the interests of the Irish people.*       Turning to
India, and leaving entirely aside the discreditable
proceedings of the last century so well described by
Macaulay,t we are struck at once with the annihilation of a great manufacture that had, more or less,
given employment to the hundred millions of its
people; the work of destruction having been accomplished by means of measures so oppressive as to
make it cause of wonder that there could exist any
community of the world capable of their adoption.+
Looking further, we see a salt manufacture ruined
by oppressive taxation; coal, lime, and ores waiting
to be mined; a people susceptible of the highest
* A slight exception to this is found in the period from 1782 to the passage of the Act of Union, in 1800: that one in which the legislative independence of Ireland was recognized, and throughout which there existed
protection to Irish manufactures. Of it Lord Clare, then Chancellor of
Ireland, spoke, in 1798, as follows:" No nation on the habitable globe advanced in cultivation, in commerce,
in agriculture, so rapidly in the same period." Of the accuracy of the
view thus presented, it would be easy to furnish most conclusive evidence.
f See ante, page 240.          [ See ante, note to page 202.




OF CIVILIZATION.                   355
cultivation, and numbering 150,000,000, nine-tenths
of whose powers, physical and mental, are so utterly
wasted that the average annual product of labor and
capital combined is less, per head, than the fortnightly wages. of an ordinary factory girl in these
United States.*     Turning next to the ruling powers
of that unfortunate country, we find that, as a consequence of the annihilation of domestic commerce
that has thus been brought about, so pressing have
been, and are, their needs, and so small the productive force of the great Hindoo population, that the
whole British people, by their government, have
been made parties to acts of oppression in regard to
those of China the like of which the pages of history
furnish no record whatsoever.t
Passing now to other countries, we find them to
have   been   subjected    to  a systematic    "warfare,"
having for its object the prevention of that diversity
of employment which gives value to labor and land;
of that orderly arrangement of positives and negatives in whose absence there can arise no power
for self-direction, no self-respect, no societary force.t
* See ante, p. 318.
t See ante, p. 322, and also Appendix D.
1 The following passage from an official document has been already
placed before the reader, but its importance in reference to the views here
presented seems to warrant its reproduction.
"The laboring classes generally in the manufacturing districts of the
kingdom, and especially in the iron and coal districts, are very little aware
of the extent to which they are often indebted for their being employed at
all to the immense losses which their employers voluntarily incur in bad
times, in order to destroy foreign competition, and to gain and keep possession of foreign markets. Authentic instances are well known of employers having in such times carried on their works at a loss amounting




356                   THE UNITY OF LAW.
An    eminent English         agriculturist has just now
told his readers that " it is precisely because British
farmers have their customers-the British manufacturers-almost at their doors, and              that other cornproducing countries have not such manufacturers,
that British agriculture is rich and thriving."* That
such is the fact is not to be questioned. Would it
not then be advantageous to other " corn-producing
countries" to obtain manufacturers X Assuredly, it
would.      Why do they not               Seeking a reply to
this question, let the reader study carefully the terrible " warfare" just above described as being maintained by men who control hundreds of millions of
non-consuming laborers, and then determine for
himself if a course of proceeding that is now causing
a waste of four-fifths of the physical and mental
forces of so many hundred millions of people is
to be regarded as favorable to the growth of civilization or to that of barbarism.t
in the aggregate to ~300,000 or ~400,000 in the course of three or four
years. If the efforts of those who encourage the combinations to restrict
the amount of labor and to produce strikes were to be successful for any
length of time, the great accumulations of capital could no longer be made
which enable a few of the most wealthy capitalists to overwhelm all foreign
competition in times of great depression, and thus to clear the way for
the whole trade to step in when prices revive, and to carry a great business before foreign capital can again accumulate to such an extent as to be
able to establish a competition in prices with any chance of success. The
large capitals of this country are the great instruments of warfare against the
competing capitals of foreign countries, and are the most essential instruments
now remaining by which our manufacturing supremacy can be maintained;
the other elements-cheap labor, abundance of raw materials, means of
communication, and skilled labor-being rapidly in process of being
equalized."
* Mechi, How to Farm Profitably.      t See Appendix E.




OF CIVILIZATION.          357
In those English days when self-respect was
daily more and more manifesting itself, and when
the word " proletaire" had not been even. thought
of in connection with the language, Shakespeare
taught his countrymen that however " excellent" it
might be to " have a giant's strength," it was " tyrannous to use it like a giant"-a lesson that their
descendants, controlling a force greater than that of
all mankind in Shakespeare's time, have long since
totally forgotten. It had not then been taught that
to buy cheaply and sell dearly was the chief end and
aim of man.
~ 6. That the England of the period preceding
the Restoration and that one which since has followed-the England which struck the collars from
Saxon necks and that which rivetted the chains
around English ankles-have been, and are, two
widely different bodies, must, to the reader, now be
clearly obvious. How the two were transplanted
to the western shores of the Atlantic, and how they
are now there represented, will next be shown, as
follows:The Mayflower (1620) brought with her a spirit
of freedom which promptly manifested itself in the
establishment of local self-government; in town
meetings and in public schools; but not in the recognition of the right of every man to worship God
according to the dictates of his individual conscience.
But few years later, however (1637), Roger Williams,
in Rhode Island, set the example of perfect religious
freedom, as further south was almost simultaneously




358           THE UNITY OF LAW.
done by Lord Baltimore in his Province of Maryland.
To New York it was brought by descendants of
men who had fought for liberty of conscience under
the guidance and direction of William of Orange;
Penn following suit thereto in 1680; each and all
of these thus giving to the world conclusive evidence
of the existence of that self-respect which requires
of us that we grant to others that perfect freedom
of thought in reference to spiritual matters that we
claim to have respected in ourselves. By slow degrees the common school conquered religious prejudice in Massachusetts, thereafter making its way
south and west until it had at length become the
accepted doctrine throughout the whole country
north of Mason and Dixon's line,* and of the Ohio,
that, for the general establishment of that feeling
which prompts to recognize in others all those rights
for which in ourselves we claim respect, each and
all the members of the community, poor and rich,
male and female, should be placed on a common
level so far as regarded facilities for acquiring the
primary elements of knowledge. The poor boy, thus
prepared for a start in life, becoming rich, next
manifests his gratitude by appropriating a part of
his means to further extension of that magnificent
system to which he feels himself to have been so
much indebted; and hence the liberality that in this
respect is now exhibited throughout the Northern
States.t
* An imaginary line dividing the free and slave States.
t Many years since Captain Lyell, the eminent geologist, expressed




OF CIVILIZATION.                     359
Directly the reverse of this, Virginia, type of all
the Southern States, was settled by men representing a London Company composed of noblemen and
gentlemen, soldiers, traders and manufacturers;
bringing with them a church establishment, tithes,
and religious intolerance; a landed aristocracy with
its laws of entail and primogeniture; poor whites in
abundance, but no middle class; no towns or townmeetings; no common schools. Differing thus in
both their composition and their modes of thought,
they, of course, differed in their modes of employment; Northern men          seeking, so far as was then.
permitted, to establish diversity of pursuits and thus
to create a market for the products of the field;
Southern men, on the contrary, exhausting the soil
of their large plantations in raising tobacco for a
distant market controlled by masters by whom              they
themselves were prohibited from converting food
and wool into     hats, food and     crude iron into nails
or spikes.*
himself as having been greatly struck by the number of donations and bequests to charitable and educational institutions. Since his time, however, the increase in both has been so great that where they then represented tens of thousands of dollars, they now count by millions; and with
each successive year their growth is probably thrice that of the population requiring to be instructed. Contrasting this remarkable feature of
American life with the corresponding one among his own fellow-citizens,
Mr. Mill speaks as follows:"In England whoever leaves anything beyond trifling legacies for public
or beneficent objects when he has any near relatives living, does so at the
risk of being declared insane by a jury after his death; or, at the least,
of having the property wasted in a chancery suit to set aside the will."Principles, vol. i. p. 283.
* See ante, pp. 27, 198.




360                THE UNITY OF LAW.
As early as the arrival of the Mayflower in Massachusetts, cargoes of negro slaves had been received
in Virginia, and thenceforward human animals,
black and white, became regarded as chattels liable
to be bought and sold in open market. Forty years
later, that same class to which this latter had stood
indebted for its distinctive characteristics, gave to
their countrymen at home an "Act of Settlement"
re-establishing a state of semi-serfage.*       Thenceforward, mother and daughter travelled side by side
together, the Virginia planter gradually becoming
a mere trader engaged in raising slaves for exportation; the officers of Britain's great non-consuming,
army meanwhile paving the way for adoption of
the foul word "proletaire" as one "greatly needed"
for indication of that vast proportion of the British
people who must sell their labor, physical or
mental, if they would have food for their children
or themselves.
Throughout all this period the tendencies of
those Americans who believed in public schools,
and in the gradual elevation of man, were in the
* " Surely it is a great imprisonment, if not slavery, to a poor family to be
under such restraint by law, that they must always live in one place whether
they have friends, kindred, employment, or not, or however they might
mend their condition by removing, and all because they had the ill luck to
be born or to have served or resided a certain time there. Such persons,
if they had spirits, have no encouragement to aspire to a better condition,
since, being born poor and in a place which gives no means to be otherwise, they are not allowed to go and search it elsewhere, and if they find
it they are not permitted to entertain it. Then their spirits sink, and
they fall into a sottish way of living, depend on the parish, who must,
however wretchedly, maintain them."-Hon. Roger North, quoted by
Nicholls, History of English Poor Law, vol. i. p. 300.




OF CIVILIZATION.                  361
direction of resistance to that monopoly system
which was being maintained by aid of the destructive measures above described; Virginia. and the
South, on the contrary, gradually becoming more
and more submissive to the distant masters.* Step
by step the two became more widely separated, the
North travelling steadily forward in the direction
of regarding all men as equal before the law; the
South as steadily pressing on toward full belief
in the idea that the inferior race had "no rights
which white men were required to respect;" until
at length it came to be there asserted, that the
highest evidence of civilization was to be found
in the establishment of the right of capital to own
labor, and to buy and sell the laborer with or without his wife and children.
Differing thus widely, the day at length arrived
on which the great question was to be settled by
force of arms. On which side, then, did the officers
of Britain's great non-consuming army then place
themselves?     On that of common schools and the
equal rights of man; or on that of crass ignorance
and the right to treat the laborer as a mere chattel
liable to be bought and sold? On that of civiliza* In the earlier and better days of Virginia, i. e., before her chief
employment had become that of raising slaves for market, her Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and others among the most eminent of
her people, were energetic advocates of the resistant policy, seeing clearly
that political independence and industrial dependence could not coexist.
These men, and others like them, had sought before the Revolution the
passage of laws prohibiting the import of slaves, but they had been
defeated by a government that was then busily engaged in enacting laws
providing for the enslavement of artisans at home. See ante, p. 27.




362                  THE UNITY OF LAW.
tion, or that of barbarism. Where could they
place themselves, seeing that all home tendencies
were then in      the   direction of the establishment of
a  "proletariat"      as   the  normal condition         of   that
class which     had    given   to  the world     a Shakspeare,
a Bunyan, and        a Burns; a Watt, a Stevenson, and
an   Arkwright.        On    that of barbarism         assuredly,
and there at once were they found.*
~ 7. The more       orderly the arrangement of societary positives and negatives, and the more intimate the relations of producers and consumers, the
greater becomes the economy of physical and mental
* The reader may now readily understand why it is that between Americans of the free States and the now dominant portion of the English people
there exists, on either side, so little of that kindly feeling which should
prevail throughout the world. So far as the former claim descent from
England, they represent the country of Hampden and Milton, and not that
of Charles II. and his successors. So far as they are Scottish, or ScotchIrish, they more or less represent the men who so severely suffered at the
hands of Lauderdale and Claverhouse. So far as they are Irish they represent the only nation on record that, in effect, has perished in a time of
profound peace. So far as, together, they are Americans, they have,
throughout the past and present centuries, been constant sufferers under
that "warfare" which has had for its object that of compelling the sale of
food and raw materials at low prices, and the purchase of cloth and iron
at high ones. Seeking for evidence as to how they otherwise have been
made to suffer, he may now advantageously turn to the note at page 201.
Of all arts, the one in which Britain is most deficient is that of conciliating
friendship, whether that of her own provincial subjects, or that of independent nations. Why the fact is so, will be seen on turning to a passage
from a letter of M. De Tocqueville given at page 290.
Contrasting his countrymen and the Spaniards at Manila, in this respect, Lord Elgin tells us that these latter " are not separated from each
other by that impassable barrier of mutual contempt, suspicion, and antipathy which alienates us from the unhappy natives in those lands where
we settle ourselves among inferior orders of men."-Letters and Journals,
p. 379.




OF CIVILIZATION.                     363
force; the larger is the production; the more instant becomes the COMMERCE; and the more thorough
the development of that feeling of self-respect which
promplts to actions tending to bring into full activity
the best feelings of the human heart. The less,
on the contrary, that order, and the greater the
separation    of positives    and   negatives, the     greater
is the waste of labor, the smaller the production,
and the more is the tendency toward increase of
the power of that TRADING          CLASS the end and       aim
of whose lives are those of buying cheaply and selling dearly; of disposing at will not only of the produce of the land, but also of the laborer himself, to
the sweat of whose brow that production had been
due.    At each and      every stage of progress in        this
direction master and slave become more widely
separated, and the former is more and more led to
think of the latter as a mere machine bound to obey
his orders, and liable to be punished at his own
discretion for any failure so to do.* Just as self* How injurious is the moral effect of a course of policy tending
toward converting the toiling millions into bands of mere "proletaires,"
is thus exhibited by an eminent German manufacturer quoted by Mr.
Mill:"' Whilst in respect to the work to which the English workmen have
been specially trained they are the most skilful, they are in conduct
the most disorderly, debauched, and unruly, and least respectable and
trustworthy of any nation whatsoever whom we have employed; and in
saying this, I express the experience of every manufacturer on the Continent to whom I have spoken, and especially of the English manufacturers,
who make the loudest complaints. * * *  When the uneducated English
workmen are released from the bonds of iron discipline in which they
have been restrained by their employers in England, and are treated with
the urbanity and friendly feeling which the more educated workmen on




364                THE UNITY OF LAW.
respect grows at every stage in the direction of
placing the physically weak on a level with the
physically strong, so does the necessity for selfindulgence grow with every movement toward increasing inequality, whether between the sexes, or
between those who are rich and strong and those
who, being poor, are little capable of self-defence.
That so it is in England would seem to be proved
by the fact that in no country claiming to be held as
civilized does the feeling of kindliness less than there
enter into the relations of buyers and sellers of service, whether mental or physical. That in none is
the feeling of contempt for the toiling masses more
freely expressed is very certain; and yet, among
those millions there are thousands who, under other
and more favorable circumstances, would probably
shine before the world with a light far brighter than
that of those who now speak of them in terms more
contemptuous than are used in any other part of
Europe.* How that same feeling exhibits itself in
the East was thus described         in  Parliament some
years since by the now     Earl Russell:the continent expect and receive from their employers, they, the English
workmen, completely lose their balance: they do not understand their
position, and after a certain time become totally unmanageable and useless.
This result of observation," says Mr. Mill, "is borne out by experience
in England itself. As soon as any idea of equality enters the mind of an uneducated English workingman, his head is turned by it. When he ceases
to be servile, he becomes insolent."-Principles, vol. i. p. 136.
* The reader may accept, as specimens, the "mob;" the "rabble;"
the "great unwashed;" and now the "proletariat;" terms most generally used to indicate any gathering of the " lower orders" of what is claimed
to be the most wealthy and most civilized country of the world.




OF CIVILIZATION.                     365
"That very morning he had received a long letter from Sir
F. Bruce, lamenting the insolence and disregard for Chinese
customs and feelings, which were exhibited by Englishmen in
that country.  He lamented their want of courtesy, and improper behavior to the Chinese, whom they regarded as an inferior
race.  He (Earl Russell) was afraid the same was the case in
Japan.   But conduct of that kind was not exhibited to the Chinese and Japanese alone; for he found, in a book recently published, that the same kind of conduct was practised towards the
Indian race."*
Of all tyrants, the trader, whether in men or
things, is the most relentless-the most implacable
in cases of disobedience. Of this, no better evidence
need be desired than that exhibited in the treatment
of Northern prisoners in Georgian and Virginian
prisons, as compared with that granted to Southern
captives at the North. Seeking elsewhere the parallels of these phenomena, the reader may now with
advantage study the vindictive character of the
closing measures of the recent Indian and West
Indian rebellions;t the sacking of great cities and
* Full confirmation of the view thus presented is furnished in Lady
Duff Gordon's charming volume, as is shown in the following extracts:" What chokes me is to hear Englishmen talk of the stick as being the
only way to manage Arabs."-Letters from Egypt, p. 105.
" It is really heart-breaking to see what we are sending to India now.
The mail days are dreaded. We never know when some brutal outrage
may excite'Mussulman fanaticism.' They try their hands on the Arabs
in order to be in good train for insulting the Hindoos."-Ibid., p. 309.
Confirming all this, Lord Elgin tells his readers, that he had seldom in
the East "heard a sentence which was reconcilable with the hypothesis
that Christianity had come into the world. Detestation, contempt, ferocity,
and vengeance," as he continues, "whether Chinamen or Indians be the
object."-Letters and Journals, p. 199.
t See ante, notes to pp. 141, 324.




366           THE UNITY OF LAW.
the distribution of " loot" among the men in chief
command; the bombardment of Canton and the
destruction of the wonderful Summer Palace at
Pekin; the execution and expulsion of recent Irish
rebels; then remarking the great fact, that, of the
millions of persons more or less engaged in the recent Southern rebellion, not one has, since the war
was closed, suffered in property, limb, or life; nor
are there more than half a dozen scores who are,
at this moment, not as free to exercise every political
right as they had been in the days when slavery
ruled triumphant throughout the land. Conscious
strength, magnanimity, and civilization have here
thus marched hand in hand together, and to an
extent wholly without parallel in the world's
history.
The more the reader shall study the views above
presented, the more must he become convinced that
nations grow in self-respect as positives and negatives are brought into closer relation with each and
every other, and as they themselves grow in strength;
declining therein as producers and consumers become more widely separated, and they themselves
become more subjected to the trading power.
~ 8. "To prohibit a great people," said Adam
Smith, " from making all they can of every part of
their own produce, or from employing their stock
and industry in the way they judge most advantageous to themselves, is a manifest violation of the
most sacred rights of humanity." Further than
this, he showed most clearly that the policy thus




OF CIVILIZATION.          367
denounced tended in the direction of creating a
" nation of mere shopkeepers," and that the results,
whether as regarded individuals or the nation at
large,must prove in the end most disastrous; making,
as it must, the whole societary body more and more
liable to injury from causes occurring in distant
lands, and over which it could exercise no control
whatsoever. Most firm was he in his belief that
the road to independence, at home or abroad, was
to be found in the establishment of that interdependence among the members of a community by
means of which a market should be made on or near
the land for its products; the domestic commerce
thus created tending to bring into activity all the
best feelings of the human heart. He was no mere
trader, nor had he learned to believe that the science
whose foundation was then being laid was so soon
to become limited to the questions of "material
wealth alone," and as how to buy in the cheap.
est market, and sell in the dearest one; those
which, above all others, tend to produce the narrowness which is the chief characteristic of most
of that now given to the world as economic science.
Greatly lauded was his work, but so entirely did
it fail to carry to its readers conviction of its truth
that from that hour to the present, as has been
shown, Britain has been so earnestly engaged in
warring against labor that, while her own capitalists
have reaped large profits from the great discoveries
of the almost century which since has passed, no
advantage has thence resulted to that great working




368           THE UNITY OF LAW.
British world in whose future, as so well is known,
the immortal author of the Wealth of Nations both
felt and expressed so warm an interest.
That the few were becoming greater, and the
many more and more enslaved, became from day
to day more clearly obvious, until at length, twenty
years later, Mr. Malthus undertook the task of conciliating the blindest selfishness with an enlightened
self-respect; to that end assuring capital that all the
privations, all the suffering, of the laboring multitude were consequent upon an error of his own
Divine Master; provision having been made for a
geometrical increase in the number of human beings
and for only an arithmetical increase in the supply
of commodities required for their use. This all important law, as he assured them, was absolute, and
any attempt at interference with its action, whether
by exercise of charity or liberality, must prove a
mere absurdity, productive of evil and not of good.
Here was a great discovery. Need we wonder that
capital gladly clutched it, feeling thereafter that it
might, most piously, eat, drink, and hoard up money,
while closing its eyes and its ears to the fact that
the more its growth, and the greater its power, the
greater became the tendency toward that "proletariat" at which the laboring masses seem now to
have arrived! Assuredly not! Of all contrivances
for crushing out all Christian feeling, and for developing self-worship, that the world yet has seen,
there has been none entitled to claim so high a




OF CIVILIZATION.          369
rank as that which has been, and yet daily is, assigned to the Malthusian Law of Population.
Passing on, we find Mr. Ricardo assuring his
readers that the "natural rate of wages is just that
price which is necessary to enable the laborers, one
with another, to subsist and perpetuate their race,
without either increase or diminution;" not, however, explaining why he himself, who never labored,
should be entitled to claim any higher " rate" than
that he thus established for the class which had given
to the world men like Shakspeare and Luther,
Guttenberg and Franklin, Arkwright and Watt.
In like manner, the planter assures himself that
the " natural rate of wages" is just so much "hog
and hominy," or rice and molasses, as will enable
the laborer, and the laborer's wife, to perform their
daily work in the field and to perpetuate their race.
Being mere chattels why should they, or those
others of whom Mr. Ricardo speaks, ask for more?
In what, however, are his claims superior to those
of Uncle Tom, or little Topsy?
Next came Mr. M'Culloch, bringing balm to be
applied to the tortured feelings of great landholders,
in form of an assurance that absenteeism should
be regarded as a blessing rather than a curse; and
that they might, with perfectly clear consciences,
continue to subject tens or hundreds of thousands
of " proletaires" to the "tender mercies" of agents
whose duty it had been made to extract from labor
and land all that could be extorted out of either, the
proceeds to be then applied to the support of singers,
24




370           THE UNITY OF LAW.
actors, and dancers abroad; their own poordependents
meanwhile starving at home for want of power to
sell their labor. We have here a great step toward
conciliation of self-indulgence, the characteristic of
barbarism, with self-respect, that of civilization; and
how admirably it has done its work is proved by the
coolness with which capital regards the famines and
desolations of Ireland; the sheep-walks and deerparks of Scotland; the approaching universality of
cattle farming in England; and the fact that English agricultural labor has before it no future but
that of the poorhouse.
~ 9. Thus far the tendency of the great scientiAic
discoveries above described had been only that of
misleading the public mind in reference to facts
occurring within the bosoms of societary bodies,
leaving to a later day their application to the relations of the world at large. For this the time has
now arrived; that extension of the Malthusian doctrine which exhibits itself in "survival of the
fittest," and consequent crushing out of those least
"fitted" for life's contest, having already come to be
regarded as being as applicable to communities
whose numbers count by hundreds of millions, as
it originally had been to towns and villages whose
numbers were limited to tens or hundreds of thousands.
Being weak, why should not the Hindoo or Chinese race now give place to the powerful Caucasian
one    Suffering as the former do, may not the
reason therefor be found in the fact, that nature is




OF CIVILIZATION                        371
thus providing place for the " fitter" race by whom
they   are   to  be  succeeded         So, as we are      told, it
must    assuredly     be, the    whole    earth   having     been
intended     for that superior race         which, for all the
centuries that have elapsed since the days of Vasco
de   Gama, has        been    engaged     in  plundering       and
murdering those less instructed people who make
their   homes on      the   borders of the      Indian     Ocean,
and in the lands of the South Pacific.*
Throughout that long period, the traders of civilized    Europe,     Portuguese      and    Spaniards,     Dutch,
French, and English, have been engaged in making
* Commenting upon the scientific issues thus presented, an eminent English naturalist invites attention to the fact that the brain of the savage is
much in excess of his present needs, following this up by the question:"Does this not read to us another and a greater lesson? Does it not
tell us, that the savage.has organs of mind which require development by
education and civilization? Can any language be plainer than that shown
by the brain of the savage? Does it not show that these beings are not
to be slain and exterminated because they are savage? Ay, plainer, I say,
than language can describe, or eloquence illustrate, does this grand biological fact tell us that the savage has the means given him by his Creator,
by which the blessings of education can evolve within him the thoughts,
the feelings, the actions, the responsibilities, and the hopes of civilization."
-BREE, Fallacies of Darwinism, p. 267.
What is the process by means of which civilization is now being carried
among such people may be seen by turning to the exhibit as made, p. 323.
The community toward which civilization is now directing its most earnest efforts is that Japanese one recently described by Lord Elgin, in the
words that follow:"A perfectly paternal government; a perfectly filial people; a community entirely self-supporting; peace within and without; no want; no
ill-will between classes. This is what I find in Japan in the year 1858,
after one hundred years excluding foreigners. Twenty years hence, what
will be the contrast?"-Letters and Journals, p. 271.
Seeking an answer to this question, the reader may now, with advantage, review the facts here above given in regard to India and China.




372            THE UNITY OF LAW.
of those vast territories, homes as they are of more
than half the human race, a scene of horrors such
as elsewhere find no parallel whatsoever. Throughout, everything has been done to destroy that power
of association and combination in whose absence
there can be obtained no increased control of the
great natural forces, no growth in that power for
self-direction so essential to development of the
feeling of self-respect; and now, when oppression is
being carried to a point that till now had never
even been imagined, science most happily steps in
to give countenance to immoralities the like of which
the world has never known; assuring us of a great
law in virtue of which the fittest, i. e., the strongest,
are to inherit the kingdom of the earth to the exclusion of gentler races which practise virtues that
are taught in Christian edifices whose founders
to so great an extent find in buying cheaply and
selling dearly the one end and aim of life.* For all
these barbarizing doctrines the world stands indebted to English teachers; but, happily, not to
those of that earlier England in which the Saxon
churl was freed from the degrading collar, thus enabling his descendants to stand as freemen on the
fields of Agincourt and Marston Maoor. On the contrary, to that England it is that it stands indebted for
the present existence of a nation numbering forty millions, that has been engaged in an almost unceasing
effort at resistance of the British " warfare" above
described; one that in all international relations has
* See ante, p. 312, and note to page 239.




OF CIVILIZATION.                  373
manifested an obedience to the great law of Christianity such as is without parallel in history;* and that
now, as a consequence of that obedience, may claim
to stand as equal with any community of the world,
whether considered in regard to the intelligence of
its people, or the material wealth at their command.
~ 10. Civilization consists in that self-respect which
comes as necessary consequence of growing power
to command the great natural forces; and which
manifests itself in respecting in others, whether
individuals or nations, those rights whose exercise
we claim   as inherent in ourselves.      Barbarism    exhibits itself in that self-indulgence, on the part of
those   who   are  strong   and    rich, whose    effects,
throughout all those portions of the world subjected
to the control of Britain's great non-consuming
army, now     manifest themselves in       growing    tendency toward the establishment of serfage as the
condition of the toiling millions; and whose best
apologists are found in men who teach that in quiet
submission to the orders of that army's chieftains
is to be found the panacea for all human ills.t
* The single exception to this is found in the treatment that the Red
Men of the west have so often met at Christian hands. Of this, much has
been due to the fact, that the non-resistant policy has so greatly tended
toward exhaustion of the soil, with steadily growing necessity for seizing
on new and more distant lands.
t " Nothing is more adverse to the tranquillity of a statesman (says the
author of an eloge on the administration of Colbert), than a spirit of
moderation; because it condemns him to perpetual observation, shows
him every moment the insufficiency of his wisdom, and leaves him the
melancholy sense of his own imperfection; while, under the shelter of a




374                  THE UNITY     OF LAW.
CHAPTER XIII.
OF SCIENTIFIC RELATIONS.
THROUGHOUT nature, the            power of combination
is in the direct ratio of the individualization of the
several parts. The more perfect it becomes, the
more rapid is the circulation and the greater the force
exerted. So precisely is it with man. The more societary positives and negatives are brought together,
and the more his power of association, the greater
is the tendency toward development of his various
faculties; the greater becomes his control of the
forces of nature, and the more perfect his own power
for self-direction;. mental force thus more and more
obtaining control over that which is material, the
labors of the present over the accumulations of the
past. The physically weak, and the physically strong,
whether male        or female, youthful        or   aged, tend
few general principles, a systematical politician enjoys a perpetual calm.
By the help of one alone, that of a perfect liberty of trade, he would
govern the world, and would leave human affairs to arrange themselves at
pleasure, under the operation of the prejudices and the self-interests of
individuals.  If these run counter to each other, he gives himself no
anxiety about the consequence; he insists that the result cannot be judged
of till after a century or two shall have elapsed. If his contemporaries,
in consequence of the disorder into which he has thrown public affairs, are
scrupulous about submitting quietly to the experiment, he accuses them of
impatience. They alone, and not he, are to blame for what they have
suffered; and the principle continues to be inculcated with the same zeal
and the same confidence as before."-Quoted by WAKEFIELD: Preface to
Wealth of Nations.




DEFINITIONS.                        375
more and more to meet on terms of strict equality;
the circulation increasing in its rapidity at each
and every step in that direction, with daily
growth of that feeling of confidence which prompts
to maintenance of our own rights when these are
threatened to be invaded; and of that self-respect
which demands compliance with the divine decree
by which we are required to do to all others as,
under like circumstances, we should desire to have
them do by ourselves.
Such are the relations of physical, social, mental,
and moral science.*
CHAPTER XIV.
DEFINITIONS.
A TRUE definition is one that embraces all which
should be included while excluding all that should
not. Those here given, as it is believed, fulfil these
conditions.
* " That the scientific method of inquiry is inadequate, and inapplicable
to the higher study of man, is a widely prevalent notion, and one which
seems, to a great extent, to be shared alike by the ignorant and the
educated. Holding the crude idea that science pertains only to the material world, they denounce all attempts to make human nature a subject of
strict scientific inquiry, as an intrusion into an illegitimate sphere. Maintaining that man's position is supreme and exceptional, they insist that he
is only to be comprehended, if at all, in some partial, peculiar and transcendental way. In entire consistence with this hypothesis is the prevailing
practice; for those who, by their function as teachers, preachers, and lawgivers, profess to have that knowledge of man which best qualifies for




376               THE UNITY OF LAW.
rUtility is the measure of man's power over nature.
Value is the measure of nature's power over man;
of the resistance she offers to the gratification of
his desires.   Its extent is limited within the cost of
reproduction.
Wealth consists in the power of man to command
the always gratuitous service of nature-in the
sum of the utilities developed.
Production consists in directing those forces to
man's service.
Capital is the instrument by help of which the
work is done, whether existing in the form        of land,
ships, wagons, houses, mental or physical force.
Trade consists in the performance of exchanges
for other persons, being the instrument used byCommerce, which consists in the exchange of services, products, or ideas, by men, and with their
fellow-men.
As the power of association grows, utilities increase, while values decline.
As the value of commodities declines, that of
man rises, with increase in the development of individuality, and in the security of property and of
person.
directing him in all relations, are, as a class, confessedly ignorant of
science. There are some, however, and happily their number is increasing, who hold that this idea is profoundly erroneous; that the very term'human nature' indicates man's place in that universal order which it is
the proper office of science to explore; and they accordingly maintain
that it is only as' the servant and interpreter of nature' that he can rise
to anything like a true understanding of himself."-Youmans, Lecture on
the Scientific Study of Human Nature.




DEFINITIONS.             377
As person and property become more secure, men
and capital tend to become more fixed, and a smaller
proportion of both remains in the floating state.
As men and capital become fixed, and the powers
of nature are more and more developed, local centres increase in number and importance, with daily
tendency toward establishment of the same beautiful system by means of which the harmony of the
universe is maintained.
As local centres thus increase in number and
attraction, societary positives and negatives are
brought to more intimate association, each with
every other; each and every stage of progress in
this direction being attended with diminution of
necessity for the trader's services, increase in the
power of production, in the growth of capital, and
in the rapidity of its circulation-with corresponding increase of commerce.
Conpetition may be for the SALE of human force,
physical or mental, or its products; or, it may be
for the PURCHASE of each and all of these. The
first increases as societary positives and negatives
become more widely separated; as labor becomes
less productive and more controlled by capital; and
as matter thus obtains power over mind. The
second grows as positives and negatives are brought
into more intimate connection each with every
other; as labor becomes more productive, and as the
laborer of the present grows in power as compared
with the accumulations of the past; mind thus obtaining increased control over matter. In the one




378           THE UNITY OF LAW.
case the tendency is in the direction of inequality
of condition, growing selfishness and barbarism, and
daily diminished societary force. In the other it is
toward equality of condition, growing self-respect,
cicilization, and daily growing societary force.
The British system looks to annihilation of competition for purchase of labor or its products elsewhere than in Britain. The resistant one looks to
production of such competition throughout the world.
Hence it is, that while the former tends everywhere
toward subjection of mind to matter, and toward
the subjugation of labor to capital, the latter tends
equally toward perfect freedom of thought, speech,
and action among all mankind.




APPENDIX.
THE LAW OF DISTRIBUTION.
~ 1. CAPITAL, the instrument by means of which man acquires
power over the forces of nature, is a result of the accumulated
mental and physical efforts of the past.  The fibre of the wood
which Crusoe required for his bow had been at all times equally
capable of rendering service; but without an exercise of mental
effort the bow would have remained unmade. Once made, its
value was great, having been obtained at the cost of serious
labor; its utility was, however, small, for it was capable of little
work.
Friday had no canoe. Had he desired to borrow that of
Crusoe, the latter might have said: "Fish abound at a little
distance from the shore. Without the help of my machine you
will scarcely obtain food enough for yourself; whereas with it
you will, in little time, take enough to supply us both. Give me
three-fourths of all you take, and the remainder shall be your
own."
Hard as this might seem, Friday would have accepted the
offer, profiting of Crusoe's capital though paying dearly for its
use. Reflecting, however, that if he can become owner of a boat
he will then retain the entire product, he next makes terms with
Crusoe for the use of his knife, and by its aid succeeds in making
one. Both being now capitalists their conditions have much
approximated, notwithstanding the advances that Crusoe may
himself have made. At first his wealth stood at 10, while that
of Friday was at 0. The former has now reached 40, but the
latter has attained to 10. Tendency toward equality is thus the
certain result of that growth of wealth by means of which man
is enabled to substitute mental for merely physical force. Every
increase in his power over nature is but the preparation for
greater progress in the same direction; here as everywhere,
it being the first step which is the most costly yet the least productive. Look where we may, we find man passing from the weaker
to the more powerful instruments of production; the poor settler
using wood in the production of iron, though surrounded by
( 399)




380                  APPENDIX-A.
mineral coal capable of performing thrice the service at a cost of
half the labor. The more the capability of rendering service the
greater is the resistance to be overcome, whether we desire to
command the aid of things or of men. The laws of nature are
thus, as we see, of universal truth.
~ 2. The bow and the canoe enabling Friday to economize
his time, he gives his leisure to construction of a knife and a
sail-all now combining to give him power to construct a house;
the quantity of labor required for reproducing and increasing
capital diminishing with every stage of progress. The first stone
knife had been the fruit of far more effort than is now required
for making one of bronze, and yet the latter is by very far the
more efficient instrument. The axe of stone has now no value,
though its services had at first been held as equal to three-fourths
of those of the man who used it. The still more efficient axes
of iron and steel coming into use, the bronze axe, in turn, declines in value. Mind obtaining command over matter the great
natural forces become centred in man, who now discards the
earlier instruments; preserving specimens only as curious evidences of the inferiority of his predecessors.
Measuring himself against his products, man attributes to
himself every increase of utility in the materials by which he is
everywhere surrounded. The greater that utility the higher is
his own value, and the less that of the things he needs. The
cost of reproduction steadily declining, he himself as steadily
rises, every reduction in the value of existing capital being so
much added to the value of the MAN.
~ 3. Little as was the work that could be done with the axe
of stone, its value to the owner was very great; and the man
to whom he lent it might, therefore, profitably pay largely for
its use. The latter, cutting with it more wood in a day than
without it he could have done in a month, though paying threefourths of his product finds his wages largely increased, large as
is the proportion claimed by its proprietor, his neighbor capitalist.
The bronze axe being next obtained and proving far more
useful, its owner, being asked to grant its use, is required to
recollect that not only has the productiveness of labor greatly
increased, but the quantity required to be given for its reproduction has greatly decreased. He therefore demands but twothirds of the product of the far more useful instrument.  The
distribution now may thus be stated:Total product.  Laborer's share.  Capitalist's share.
Axe of stone...  4....  1....  3
Axe of bronze... 8..  2.66.....  5.33




LAW   OF DISTRIBUTION.            381
The reward of labor has more than doubled; being an increased
proportion of an increased quantity. The capitalist's share has
not quite doubled, he receiving a diminished proportion of the
same increased quantity. The position of the laborer, which had
been at first as 1 to 3, is now as 1 to 2, with great increase of
power to become himself a capitalist.
The axe of iron coming next, the cost of reproduction again
diminishes, while labor again increases in its proportion as compared with capital.  The new instrument cuts twice as much as
had done that of bronze, yet is its owner compelled to be content
with claiming half the product.  The new distribution will be as
follows:Total.      Laborer.  Capitalist.
Axe of stone....    4.... 1... 3
Axe of bronze....  8....  2.66...  5.33
Axe of iron.....  16....  8...  8
The axe of steel now coming, the product is again doubled,
with further diminution in the cost of reproduction; and now
the capitalist must content himself with a less proportion, the
distribution being as follows:Total.       Laborer.  Capitalist.
Axe of steel...  32....  19.20..  12.80
The laborer's share has increased; and, the product having
largely increased, the augmentation of his quantity is very great.
Tlat of the capitalist has diminished in proportion; but, the
product having so much increased, this reduction of proportion
has been accompanied by large increase of quantity, both thus
profiting by the improvements that have been effected.
Such is the great law governing the distribution of labor's
products. Of all recorded in the book of science it is perhaps
the most beautiful, being that one in virtue of which there is
established a perfect harmony of real and true interests among
the various classes of mankind. Still further, it establishes the
fact that, however great may have been the oppressions of the
many at the hands of the few, however large the accumulations
resulting from exercise of the power of appropriation, however striking the existing distinctions among men, all that is
required for establishing everywhere perfect equality before the
law, and for promoting a general equality of social condition, is
the pursuit of a system tending to establish in the highest degree
the power of association and the development of individuality;
thereby maintaining peace and promoting the growth of wealth
and population both at home and abroad.




382                  APPENDIX-B.
B.
OF THE OCCUPATION OF THE EARTH.
~ 1. TiE first American settlers of English race established
themselves on the barren soil of Massachusetts, founding the
colony of Plymouth. The continent was before them, but they
had to take what, with their small means, they could command.
Other settlements were formed at Newport and New Haven,
and thence they may be traced following always the course of
the rivers, but taking the higher lands and leaving the clearing
of timber and the draining of swamps to their successors. The
most productive New England soils are those reclaimed within
the last half century.
In New York the process has been the same. The unproductive soil of Manhattan Island, and the higher lands of the
opposite shore, claimed early attention, while richer lands, close
at hand, remain even yet uncultivated. Thence we trace the
settlers along the Hudson to the Valley of the Mohawk,
where they established themselves near the head of the stream
on lands requiring but little of either clearing or drainage.
Geneva, and other towns and villages now seen in the rich
western lands of the State, scarcely existed sixty years since;
while the high lands bordering on Pennsylvania were early
settled; those on Coshocton Creek having been described as
very valuable because of "their total exemption from all periodical disorders, particularly fever and ague."
In New Jersey we see the Quakers occupying the high lands
towards the heads of rivers, or selecting along the Delaware
the light soils that bear the pine, while avoiding the heavier
ones on the opposite shore of Pennsylvania, and neglecting
altogether rich lands that still remain covered with the finest
timber. Passing through sandy districts of the State we find
hundreds of little clearings long since abandoned, attesting the
character of the land that men cultivate when population is
small, and land is most abundant
On the sandy soil of Delaware, the Swedes settled Lewistown
and Christiana; and in the now decaying little towns of Elkton
and Charlestown, near the head of the Chesapeake Bay, we
find evidence of the poverty of the soils first occupied, when
fine meadow lands, now the richest farms in the State, were
wholly worthless.




OCCUPATION OF THE EARTH.              383
Penn follows the Swedes, first selecting the high lands on the
Delaware, about twelve miles north of the site of his future
city, but afterwards taking the tongue of land near the confluence of that river and the Schuylkill. Thence we find population extending northwest along the ridge running north and
between the rivers, where miles of early settlements still remain.
On tie maps of a somewhat later period, the fertile lands near
the river, almost to the head of tide water, are shown as held
in large tracts and yet uncleared, while those more elevated
are divided into little farms. Further on, cultivation almost
leaves the river bank, but at a distance therefrom we find
farms that have now been cultivated for more than a hundred
years. The old road, made to suit the early settlers, is seen
winding about as if in search of hills to cross; the new roads
keeping near the stream, on the low lands which have but
recently been subjected to cultivation. Crossing the mountains,
we see near their tops the'habitations of early settlers, who
selected the land of that pine whose knots afforded a substitute
for candles they were too poor to purchase. Beyond, we find,
in the valley of the Susquehanna, meadow lands, still uncleared,
and covered with heavy timber. Everywhere, we find cultivation to have commenced on the hillsides, and gradually to have
descended, the valleys becoming more cleared of timber, and
meadows and cattle appearing, the most certain signs of increasing wealth and population.  Passing west, at the foot of
the Muncy hills, we find fine limestone land, whole tracts of
which were exchanged for a jug of whiskey, or a dollar. Taking
a bird's eye view of the country, we trace the courses of the
little streams by the timber standing on their banks, conspicuous
among the cleared, but elevated, lands that are everywhere
around.  Crossing the ridge of the Allegheny'to the headwaters of the Ohio, we see a scattered population occupying
the higher lands; but as we descend, those near the river
become cleared, until at length we find ourselves at Pittsburg,
in the midst of a dense population actively employed in bringing into connection the coal, the limestone, and the iron ore, with
a view to preparation of the machinery required for enabling
the farmer to plough more deeply, and to drain the fertile lands
of the river bottoms.
The early settlers of the West uniformly selected the higher
lands, avoiding the valleys of streams on account of the fevers
which even now sweep off so many emigrants.  Seeking a dry
place for his dwelling, the settler always selected the ridges,
as affording a facility for obtaining speedily some small crop;
the same reason which prevented him from attempting artificial




384                  APPENDIX-B.
drainage in reference to his house, operating with equal force in
regard to the land required for cultivation.
In Wisconsin the traveller finds the first white settler placed
oh the highest land, known by the title of "The Blue Mound;"
and he follows the early roads along ridges upon which are found
the villages of the primitive settlers; occasionally crossing a
"wet prairie," the richest land of the State, and always the
terror of the early emigrant.
Arrived at the confluence of the Ohio and the Mississippi, we
find only the poor wood-cutter who risks his health while providing wood for the numerous steamers which pass the place.
For hundreds of miles we pass through fertile lands clothed
with the heaviest timber, as yet of no value for cultivation, for
the reason that the air around is filled with gases that are destructive of both health and life.
Descending further, we meet population and wealth ascending
the Mississippi, from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Embankments, or levees, keep out the river, and the finest plantations are seen on land corresponding with the uncultivated region
left behind, while to seek the habitations of the early settlers we
must leave the river bank and ascend the hills. If, instead of
descending the Mississippi, we ascend the Missouri, the Kentucky, the Tennessee, or the Red River, we find, invariably,
that the more dense the population, and the greater the mass of
wealth, the more are the rich soils cultivated; that as population
diminishes with our approach to the head-waters, and land
becomes more abundant, cultivation recedes from the river bank,
and the undrained meadow and timber lands become more
abundant-scattered inhabitants obtaining from the superficial
soils a scanty return to labor, with little power to command the
necessaries and comforts of life.
In Texas we see the town of Austin, the seat of the first
A'erican settlement, to have been placed high up on the
Colorado, millions of acres of the finest lands having been passed
over as incapable of paying the cost of simple appropriation.
In the Spanish colony of Bexar, we see further illustration of
the same universal fact, that colonization tends always toward
the head-waters of the rivers.
So, too, in the Southern Atlantic States.  The richest lands
of North Carolina still remain undrained, while men waste labor
on those which yield but three to five bushels of wheat per acre.
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, have millions
of acres of the finest lands unoccupied and waiting the growth
of population to yield immense returns to labor.
The facts are everywhere the same: for the same reason that




OCCUPATION OF THE EARTH.             385
the settler builds himself a log-house, to provide shelter till he
can have one of stone, he begins cultivation where he can raise
some small crop. Whenever settlements have been attempted
on rich lands they have either failed, or their progress has been
very slow indeed. We see this in the repeated failures of the
French colonies of Louisiana and Cayenne, compared with the
steady growth of those formed in the region of the St. Lawrence; and in the slow progress of the colonies planted on the
rich lands of Virginia and Carolina, as compared with that of
those begun on the sterile New England soils. The former
cannot compensate men working for themselves, and hence it is
that we find the richer colonists purchasing negroes and compelling them to perform the work, while the free laborer seeks
the light sandy lands of North Carolina. No man, left to himself, will begin the work of cultivation on the rich soils, because
it is from them that the return is then the least; and it is upon
them that the condition of the laborer is worst, when the work
is undertaken in advance of the habit of association that comes
with the growth of wealth and population. The settler on the
high lands obtained, at least, food; had he attempted to drain
the rich soils of the Dismal Swamp he would have starved, as
did those who had sought to occupy the fertile island of Roanoke.
~ 2. Passing now into Mexico, we find further illustration
of the universality of this law of occupation. Near the mouth
of the river, but at some distance from its bank, is Matamoras,
a city of recent date. Passing upward, through rich lands
in a state of nature, he reaches the mouth of the San Juan,
ascending which he finds himself in a somewhat populous
country, with Monterey for its capital. Northward, on the high
land of Chihuahua, he sees cultivation keeping away from the
river banks; while westward from Monterey, through Saltillo,
his road lies over sandy plains which yet are occupied. Arriving
in Potosi, he finds himself in a country in which failure of the
periodical rains is followed by famine and death; yet downwards towards the coast, he sees a magnificent territory, watered
by numerous rivers, in which cotton and indigo grow spontaneously, and which could supply the world with sugar; but there
he sees no signs of population. The land is uncleared, for those
who should undertake the work, with the present means of the
country, would either starve, or perish by reason of the fevers
that there so much prevail.
Passing on, he sees Zacatecas, high and dry, like Potosi,'yet
cultivated. Tlascala, once the seat of a wealthy people, occupies the high lands whence descend little streams flowing to
both the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.  The valley of
25




386                  APPENDIX-B.
Mexico, in the time of Cortez, supported forty cities; but
population has declined, and the remaining people have retired
to the high lands around to cultivate the poorer soils from which
the single city that yet remains derives its supplies of food.
Fertile land is superabundant, but the people fly from it;
whereas, according to Mr. Ricardo, it should be the first appropriated.
Passing southward, the fertile lands of Tabasco are seen
almost unoccupied; but in Yucatan, a region in which water is
a luxury, we find a prosperous population, near neighbors to the
better soils of Honduras, still a wilderness affording subsistence
to but a few miserable logwood and mahogany cutters.
In the Caribbean Sea we find the litle rocky islands of Monserret, Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and others, cultivated
throughout; the rich soil of Trinidad remaining even yet almost
in a state of nature, and the fertile Porto Rico but now beginning to be subjected to cultivation.
Looking now southward, we see, in Costa Rica, and in
Nicaragua, lands of incomparable fertility totally unoccupied,
Indian villages meantime abounding on the mountain slopes.
Further south, are seen the cities of Santa Fe and Quito,
centres of population, where men cluster together on high and
dry lands leaving the valley of the Orinoco unoccupied; the
same facts being here exhibited, which, on a smaller scale, have
been shown to exist in Pennsylvania. The only civilized people
of the days of Pizarro, occupied Peru, the rapid course of
whose little streams prevented the formation of marshes where
decaying vegetable matter might give richness to the soil.
On the east is Brazil, watered by the largest rivers in the
world, and capable of yielding in untold abundance all the
products of the tropics, and with the precious metals lying
near the surface; but yet a wilderness. Having no elevated
table lands, it affords no eligible site for European colonists.
On the steep slope of Chili, we find a people advancing in population and wealth, the fertile valley of the La Plata remaining
plunged in barbarism.
~ 3. Crossing the ocean, and landing in the south of England,
the traveller finds himself in a country where the streams are
short and the valleys limited; and, consequently, fitted for
early cultivation.  There, Csesar found the only people of the
island who had made any progress in the art of tillage, the more
inland tribes living on the spoils of the chase, or on the milk
yielded by their flocks. In the barren Cornwall he sees marks
of cultivation of great and unknown antiquity; anrd in a part
thereof now seldom visited are found the ruins of Tintagel, the




OCCUPATION OF THE EARTH.              387
castle in which King Arthur held his court. He finds the seats
of early cultivation in the sites of rotten boroughs, or in those
parts of the kingdom where men who can neither read nor write
still live in mud-built cottages, and receive but six or eight shillings for a week of labor. He sees the palace of the Norman
kings at Winchester, and not in the valley of the Thames; while
in South Lancashire, with its rich fields of waving grain, he finds
the country whose morasses had nearly swallowed up the army
of the conquering Norman on his return from devastating the
North; and which daunted the antiquary, Camden, so late as the
age of James I. Asking for the lands most recently reduced to
cultivation, he will be shown the fens of Lincoln and Cambridgeshire, now yielding the best crops of England; but which were
without any money value until the steam-engine had been brought
to aid the labors of the agricultulist.
To find the seats of the earliest cultivation in Scotland he
must visit remote districts, now abandoned to a few black
cattle; the newest soils being found in the Lothians, or on the
banks of the Tweed, but recently inhabited by barbarians whose
chief pleasure was found in plundering expeditions into England-the forests and swamps of the days of Mary and Elizabeth
presenting the finest farms of Scotland. We find the poorest
people in the Western Isles, or in the Orkneys, once deemed so
valuable as to be received by the King of Norway in pledge for
repayment of a sum of money far greater than would now purchase the fee-simple of the land.
~ 4. In France, in the days of Caesar, we see the most powerful tribes seated on the flanks of the Alps, and the centres of
trade in the rich cities of Bibracte, Vienne, and Noviodunum;
the now fertile Belgica presenting but a single place of note,
and that at the passage of the Somme, where now stands
Amiens. Amongst the Alps themselves, the Helvetii had a
dozen cities and nearly four hundred villages. Seeking the cities
of the days of Philip Augustus, Chalons, St. Quentin, Soissons,
Rheims, Troyes, Nancy, Orleans, Bourges, Dijon, Vienne,
Nismes, Toulouse, or Cahors, this last once the centre of the
banking operations of France, we find them far towards the
heads of the streams on which they stand, or on the high ground
between the rivers. The centres of power at a later period are
found in the wild Brittany, where wolves even yet abound; in
Dijon, on the flank of the Alps; in Auvergne, but recently " a
secret and safe asylum of crime;" in the Limousin, which gave
to the Church so many popes that the Limousin cardinals
almost dictated the proceedings of the Conclave; or on the
slopes of the Cevennes, where literature and art flourished when




388                 APPENDIX-B.
the richer soils, vast tracts of which even yet remain undrained,
were wholly waste.
In Belgium we find the poor Luxemburg and Limburg to
have been cultivated from a remote period; the fertile Flanders
remaining until the seventeenth century an impenetrable desert.
Even till the thirteenth century, the forest of Soignies covered
the site of Brussels, and the fertile Brabant was almost uncultivated; while in the now almost abandoned Campine of Antwerp
were found the ancient cities of Gheel and Heerenthal, and the
castle of Westerloo, one of the oldest in Belgium, whose ditches
even yet supply their visitors with implements of war dating
back to Roman days. In the time of Caesar, Maestricht was
known only as the place of passage of the Maes, as the Broecksel of a later period, now Brussels, was but the passage of the
Senne.
In Holland, we see a miserable people, living on islands of
sand and subsisting chiefly on fish, whose poverty exempted
them from the grinding taxation of Rome. Slowly they increased
in numbers and in wealth. Chief among the provinces was the
narrow and barren Hauptland, which gave its name to the entire
region. Unable to obtain food by means of agriculture, the
Dutch sought it in the direction of manufactures and trade; but
with the growth of population and wealth came the clearing of
woods and draining of marshes, and we see them then becoming
the richest nation of Europe.
~ 5. Further north, we find a people whose ancestors, passing from the neighborhood of the Don through the plains of
Northern Germany, selected the barren mountains of Scandinavia as the land best suited to their then condition. Everywhere throughout this country the marks of early cultivation are
found on high and poor lands long since abandoned. To such
an extent is this the case, that it has afforded countenance to the
belief that this must have been the seat of the great " Northern
Hive" by which Southern Europe was supposed to have been
overrun. The facts, however, are but a repetition of those described in regard to North and South America, England, Scotland, France, and Belgium, and which recur again in Russia,
where, as an English traveller tells his readers, " we see the
poorest soil selected for cultivation, while the richest remains
neglected in its close vicinity."
Germany, in the country watered by the Danube and its
tributaries, exhibits a population abounding at the heads of
streams, but diminishing as we descend that great river until,
on reaching the richest lands, we find them to be entirely unoccupied.  In Hungary "the Puzta," the cradle of Hungarian




OCCUPATION OF THE EARTH.               389
nationality, presents to view a wide plain consisting-of wavelike sand hills; while beyond the Theiss rich lands abound, destitute of human life.
In Italy, a numerous population occupied the highlands of
Cisalpine Gaul when the rich soils of Venetia were yet unoccupied. Southward, along the flanks of the Appenines, we find a
gradually increasing population, and towns whose age may
almost be inferred from their situation. The Samnite hills were
peopled, Etruria occupied,, and Veii and Alba built, before
Romulus gathered together his adventurers on the banks of the
Tiber.
In Greece, we meet the same universal fact. On the hills of
Arcadia were settlements which long preceded those of the lands
of Elis watered by the Alpheus; and the meagre soil of Attica
was early occupied, while the fat Boeotia followed slowly in the
rear. On the hill-tops, in various quarters, the sites of deserted
cities presented in the historical times of Greece evidences of
long previous occupation. On the short slope of eastern Argolis, early abandoned, are found the ruins of the palace of Agamemnon; and north of the Gulf of Corinth, we see the Phocians,
Locrians, and JEtolians clustered on the high and poor lands,
while the rich plains of Thessaly and Thrace remained destitute
of population.
The mountainous Crete, likewise, was occupied from a period
when the Delta of the Nile was a wilderness. Ascending that
river, cultivation becomes at each step more ancient, until we
reach Thebes, the first great city of Egypt. With the growth of
population and wealth, Memphis became the capital, the Delta not
having been reclaimed until a still later period.
Along the north of Africa, the most civilized portion of the
people are seen clustering on the slopes of Mount Atlas; and
farther south, the capital of Abyssinia is found at an elevation
of eight thousand feet above the sea, while lands of the greatest
fertility remain entirely uncultivated.
~ 6. In the Pacific Ocean we find innumerable islands whose
lower lands are unoccupied, their richness rendering them fatal
to life; while population clusters round the hills. The valleys
of Australia are inhabited by tribes the lowest of the human
race; while on the little high-pointed islands around are found
a superior race, with houses, cultivation, and manufactures.*
In the dominions of the King of Candy, in Ceylon, the people
show the same aversion to the low and rich lands as is felt by
those of Mexico and Java. Entering India by Cape Comorin,
* Professor Hearne, of Melbourne College, in his Plutology, recognizes
the accuracy of these views as to the order of Australian occupation.




390                  APPENDIX-B.
and follawing the range of high lands, we find the cities of Seringapatam, Poonah, and Ahmedmugger, while below, near the
coast, are the recent European cities of Madras, Calcutta, and
Bombay.   The Indus rolls its course through hundreds of miles
almost without a settlement on its banks; the higher country,
right and left, presenting a numerous population.  The rich
Delta of the Ganges is unoccupied, but far towards the head of
the river we meet Delhi, the capital of India while the government yet remained in the hands ofnative sovereigns.  lere, as
everywhere, man avoids the rich soils that need drainage, and
raises his food on the higher lands which drain themselves; and
here, as always where the superficial soil alone is cultivated, the
return to labor is small; and hence it is that we find the Hindoo
working for a rupee or two per month, sufficient only to give
him a handful of rice per day, and to purchase a rag of cotton
cloth with which to shield his nakedness. The most fertile soils
exist in unlimited quantity close to that which the laborer
scratches with a stick for want of a spade, gathering his harvest
with his hands for want of a reaping-hook, and carrying home
on his shoulders the miserable crop for want of a horse and
cart.
Passing northward, by Caboul and Affghanistan, leaving to
the left that Persia, whose dry and barren soil has been for ages
cultivated, we find amongst the Himalayas the villages placed
on slopes which yield but scanty crops of millet, maize, and
buckwheat. Here we have the cradle of the human race, and
may trace hence the course of successive tribes passing toward
more productive soils; sometimes stopping to cultivate such
hilly lands as can be made to yield a small supply of food; then
crossing the sea to place themselves on little peaked islands like
those of the EEgean, so early cultivated.  Some -of these tribes
reach the Mediterranean, where civilization is first found, and
soonest lost under successive waves of emigration: others,
passing further west, enter Italy, France, and Spain, while still
others reach the British Isles. After a few centuries of rest, we
find them crossing the Atlantic, and ascending the slope of the
Alleghany, preparatory to the ascent and passage of the great
range which divides the waters of the Pacific from those of the
Atlantic.  In all cases we see the pioneers seizing on the clear
dry land of the steep hill-side, tlence, as population increases,
descending towards the rich lands of the river bottom; or penetrating to the lower soils, combining the upper clay or sand with
the lower marl or lime, and thus compounding a soil capable of
yielding large returns to labor. Everywhere, with increased
power of union, man exercises increased power over land.




OCCUPATION OF THE EARTII.              391
Everywhere, as new soils are brought into activity, we find more
rapid increase of population, producing increased tendency to
combination of exertion, by aid of which the powers of men
are often fifty-fold increased, enabling them to provide better
for their immediate wants, while accumulating the machinery
needed for bringing to light the vast treasures of nature. Everywhere, we find that with increasing population the supply of
food becomes more abundant and regular, clothing and shelter
are obtained with greater ease, famine and pestilence tend to
pass away, health becomes more general, life more prolonged,
and man more happy and more free.
In regard to all human wants, except the single one of food,
such is admitted to be the case. It is seen that with the growth
of population and wealth men obtain water, iron, coal, and
clothing, and the use of houses, ships, and roads, in return for
diminished labor. It is not doubted that the gigantic works
by means of which rivers are carried through our cities enable
men to obtain water at smaller cost then when each man took a
bucket and helped himself on the river bank. It is seen that
the shaft which it took years to sink supplies fuel at far less
cost of labor than had been required when the settler carried home
scraps of half-decomposed timber, for want of an axe with which
to cut the already fallen log; that the gristmill does the work
of thousands of human arms; and that the gigantic factory supplies cloth more cheaply than has done the little loom; but it
is denied that so it is in reference to the supply of food. In regard to everything else, man begins with the worst machinery,
and proceeds upward to the best; but in regard to land, and
that alone, he begins, according to Mr. Ricardo, with the best
and proceeds downward toward the worst; and with every
stage of progress finds a decreasing return to labor, threatening starvation, and admonishing him against raising children
to aid him in his age, lest, like the people of India, or of the
Pacific Isles, they should bury him alive or expose him on the
river bank, that they might divide among themselves his modicum
of food.
How far this is so the reader will now determine for himself.
All the other laws of nature are universally true; and he may
now agree with us that there is but one law for food, light,
clothing, and fuel-that man, in all cases, commences with poor
machinery and proceeds onward to the better; being thus enabled
with the growth of wealth, population, and the power of association, to obtain with constantly diminishing labor an increased
supply of all the necessaries, conveniences, comforts, and luxu.
ries of life.




392                  APPENDIX-C.
Whenever population and wealth, and the consequent power
of combination, are permitted to increase, there arises a tendency
toward abandonment of the poor lands first cultivated, as is
proved by the experience of England, Scotland, Sweden, and
some of our Northern States. Whenever, on the contrary, these
decline, it is the rich soils that are abandoned, men flying to the
poorer ones to obtain the means of subsistence. With every step
in the former direction, there is an increase in the value of man
as compared with the commodities required for his use, accompanied by a growing facility of accumulation; whereas, with
every movement in the latter one, he becomes more and more
the slave of his fellow-man, with constant increase in the value
of commodities, and as constant decline in his own.
C.
STATISTICAL FACTS ILLUSTRATING THE WORKING OF THE RESISTANT
AND NON-RESISTANT POLICIES IN THE UNITED STATES.
THE decade of 1850-60, was one of quiet submission to the
British system, and of somewhat quiet preparation, on the part
of the advocates of non-resistance, for the great rebellion. In
that period POPULATION increased 35 per cent., having grown
from 23,200,000 to 31,450,000. Of this, no inconsiderable portion was the result of attractive gold discoveries in the now
Pacific States. Of the decade that followed, nearly half was
given to a war that greatly affected the growth of numbers; and
as a consequence, the ratio of increase was but 231 per cent.;
giving 38- millions as the population of 1870.
The non-resistant decade commenced with an IMMIGRATION of
310,000. By 1860 it had fallen to 153,000. In 1870, under
the resistant policy, it had grown to 373,000. That of 1872
promises to be nearly half a million, with a money value of
$500,000,000.
The WEALTH of the country, by the census of 1850, corrected,
slaves excluded, was probably $8,000,000,000.* In 1860it had
but reached $14,000,000,000. In 1870 it was $30,000,00,000;
the increase in the decade having been greatly more than the
* "The increase of property from 1850 to 1860, according to the estimates of the census, was from $6,174,000,000 to $14,183,000,000, or 129
per cent. Much of this large increase, however, is known to have been
due to more accurate methods of enumeration, and to the inclusion of many




STATISTICAL FACTS.                393
accumulations of the centuries since the "Mayflower's" arrival.
To this may now be added, an increase in the value of human
service representing a capital nearly equal to that exhibited in
the growth of material capital in the same decade.
FOREIGN COMMERCE.
Domestic exports, gold included.  Imports retained for consumption.
1850, $137,000,000              $163,000,000
1860, 373,000,000                335,060,000
1870, 513,000,000                513,000,000
Customs, Revenue.-1850, $40,000,000; 1860, $53,000,000;
1870, $206,000,000.
PUBLIC DEBT, created in the last three years of the non-resistant period, $70,000,000; extinguished in the last three of the
resistant one, $300,000,000.
RAILROADS, miles of, in 1850, 7000; in 1860, 31,000; in
1871, 62,000.
In 1860 the money value of railroad property averaged less
than half its cost. Now, it is probably considerably more than
cost; and yet, the amount that has been applied within the last
decade toward increasing the efficiency of the various works is
perhaps as great as their original cost had been.
IRON PRODUCTION, 1847-8,* 800,000 tons; 1858-60, average,
820,000; 1870, 1,900,000.
IRON CONSUMPTION, of foreign and domestic products, 1847-8,
900,000 tons; 1858-60, 1,200,000; 1870, 2,500,000.
WOOL PRODUCTION, 1850, 52,000,000 pounds; 1860, 60,000,000; 1871, 171,000,000.
WOOL CONSUMPTION, foreign and domestic manufacture, 1850,
87,000,000 pounds; 1860, 125,000,000; 1870-71, 266,000,000.
COTTON CONSUMPTION, 1847-48, 540,000 balls; 1858-60,
666,000; 1871, 1,154,000.
MANUFACTURES, 1850, $1,019,000,000;t 1860, $1,885,000,000; 1870, $4,306,000,000.
elements previously left unnoticed. A careful review made at the request
of the Secretary, by the Commissioner, * * resulted in the conclusion
that the then rate of increase was about 65 per cent.; * * or certainly
not in excess of 80 per cent."-Report of Commissioner Wells, 1869, p. 1.
* This was the closing year of the resistant policy, the tariff of 1846
having gone into effect at the opening of 1847.
t For the reasons above given in reference to the wealth of the country,
this is probably considerably below the truth. It was a first attempt at
obtaining such information and much was overlooked. The figures might,
perhaps, be more correct if made to read $1,200,000,000.




394                  APPENDIX-C.
COFFEE CONSUMPTION, 1850, 130,000,000 pounds; 1860,
182,000,000; 1871, 312,000,000.
TEA CONSUMPTION, 1850, 27,000,000 pounds; 1860, 26,000,000; 1871, 45,000,000.
SUGAR   CONSUMPTION, 1850, 606,000,000 pounds; 1860,
930,000,000; 1870, 1,469,000,000.
ORCHARD FRUITS; production, 1850, $8,000,000; 1860, $20,000,000; 1870, $47,000,000.
SAVING FUND DEPOSITS.-In the closing year of the nonresistant decade (1860), the deposits in the four New England
States, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode
Island, and the two cities of Philadelphia and Newark, amounted
to but $66,000,000. In the following year they were still less.
Seven years later (1868), they amounted to $153,000,000. In
New York, in 1860, the depositors numbered 300,000, and tile
amount at their credit was $67,000,000. Eight years later, the
former had grown to 537,000, and the latter to $151,000,000.
As here is shown the only important advance made in the
first of these decades, that of submission, was in the foreign
trade, and in railroad construction for carrying raw produce to
the ports, and finished commodities back to the farmer and the
planter. Unprofitable to the country at large, this latter proved
to the capitalist most disastrous, ruin having been the result of
the major part of the work thus performed. Of manufactures,
allowance having been made for tie census errors of 1850, the
growth had been but little in excess of that of population. In
regard to all other of the figures we have the great fact; that in
no case, of sugar and wool alone excepted, had consumption
kept pace with the growth of numbers. Nevertheless, to this
decade it was that the country had stood indebted for the marvellous increase of the gold supply by which the world at large
had been so greatly stirred.
What, under these circumstances, was the condition of the
working man, may be inferred from the fact that, despite the gold
attractions of the Pacific States, immigration had fallen in 1860
to less than half the figures of 1850.
Turning now to the remarkable decade which so recently has
closed, distinguished on one hand as it has been by terrific waste
of both property and life; and on the other by a perseverance
in the resistant policy such as the country before had never
known; we find that while population has less than one-fourth
increased, the customs' revenue has almost quadrupled; the
growth of manufactures having meantime been greatly more than
had been their total amount at the opening of the war. So, too,
as the reader sees, has it been with regard to the consumption
of nearly all the commodities that have been here referred to.




THE OPIUM TRADE.                  395
More than all remarkable, however, are the facts, that so great
has been the demand for human service, and so abundant its
reward, that immigration has already almost thrice increased;
and that it promises now to grow with more rapidity than it has
done at any period we have ever known.
The difference between the two periods consists in this: that
in the first, positives and negatives were daily becoming more
widely separated, with constant diminution in the rapidity of
circulation and in the societary force; whereas, in the other they
have been coming daily more and more near together with constant increase in the economy of human effort, and as constant
growth in the rapidity of the circulation and in the manifestation
of societary force. Throughout the one, self respect so rapidly
decreased that slavery was allowed daily to grow in power.
Throughout the other, self respect has grown with steady growth
as the equal rights of all have been more and more acknowledged.
D.
[From the Fortnightly Review, London, September, 1871.]
TIHE OPIUM TRADE.
MR. GLADSTONE, in speaking of the opium war with China,
once remarked that "justice was on the side of the Pagan."
Never was this more true than at the present time, when a
Pagan government, in spite of domestic anarchy, of the paralyzing influence of official corruption, and of the perpetual
menace of foreign intervention, yet nobly endeavors to exert
what remains of its shattered authority on the side of virtue and
the good order of the State. On the other hand, I know of
nothing more ignoble than the heartless indifference with which
the failure of these patriotic efforts is regarded by so-called
civilized nations, or the immoral cynicism with which English
statesmen not only excuse but justify our share in entailing the
greatest of calamities on one-third of the human race. If it
were possible for us to escape from the responsibility which
must ever attach itself to the authors of the first Chinese War;
if we could prove that in forcing the legalization of the opium
trade by the treaty of Tientsin we yielded to iron necessity; if,
moreover, we could demonstrate that our duty to India compelled us to prefer the temporary exigencies of revenue to the




396                  APPENDIX-D.
lasting interests of morality-it would still be incumbent on us
to face the fact that our position is at once shameful and humiliating. But when we know that the direct responsibility of
every act that has led to the degradation and rapid decline of the
Chinese Empire lies at our own door, and that the policy which
has borne these evil fruits is still being, in a great measure,
carried out by the concurrent action of Anglo-Indian administrators and British statesmen, the ignominy demands some fortitude for us to bear it. We, however, do bear it; and, at the
same time, lose no opportunity of ministering to our self-love by
pretending that wherever English commerce extends, or English
influence penetrates, both confer untold benefits upon the lessfavored nations of the world.
A few historical facts will show how entirely Great Britain is
answerable for the desolating effects of the opium trade in
China. Before the East India Company executed the project
of embarking in the trade, the only opium exported into China
was conveyed thither by the Portuguese from Turkey. The
annual supply did not exceed 200 chests, and it was used
strictly for medicinal purposes. In 1773, the company first engaged in the traffic, but for many years the Chinese regarded it
with so little favor that it proved very unprofitable. The Company, in fact, had to create the appetite, which has since given
the extraordinary stimulus to the demand for the drug which we
see existing in our own day. The Chinese Government, from
the outset, exhibited a resolute determination to restrain its
subjects either from carrying on the trade, or from becoming
personally addicted to the use of opium. The severest penalties
were imposed by law, and, in many instances, actually enforced.
The punishment of the bamboo and the pillory not sufficing to
curb the appetite of the opium-smoker, far severer punishmentsincluding that of death-were added. The persistence of the
Celestials in resisting the encroachments of the East India Company was only equalled by the perseverance with which the latter
prosecuted its designs. A government monopoly in the drug
was established. Large districts of fertile territory were confiscated to the cultivation of the poppy, and the ryots were openly
coerced into growing it. The finest and swiftest vessels were
employed to convey the prepared drug from India to China.
How "the foreign devils"-and surely the phrase is not altogether misapplied-violated the laws of the empire is graphically
described by Heu Naetze, Vice-President of the Sacrificial
Court at Pekin:
" At Canton," he says, "there are brokers of the drug, who are called
melters; these pay the price of the drug into the hands of the resident
foreigners, who give them orders for the delivery of the opium from the




THE OPIUM TRADE.                  397
receiving-ships. There are carrying-boats plying up and down the river,
and these are vulgarly termed'fast-crabs' and'scrambling-dragons.'
They are well-armed with guns and other weapons, and are manned with
some scores of desperadoes, who ply their oars as if they were wings to
fly with. All the custom house and military posts which they pass are
largely bribed; if they happen to encounter any of the armed cruisingboats, they are so audacious as to resist, and slaughter and carnage
ensue."
The war of 1839 was the natural outcome of these lawless
proceedings.  The authorities at Canton, in the exercise of a
strict right, required the British merchants to send away the
" receiving-ships;" but these persons would neither send away
the ships nor deliver up the opium.  Commissioner Lin then
ordered the merchants to be imprisoned until the opium was
surrendered-a measure which had the effect of placing the
whole of the drug then in Chinese waters, amounting to 20,000
chests, in his possession. Even in the light of the tragical
events which ensued one may be excused for exulting in the
moral courage which the Chinese Commissioner displayed.  He
might have retained the opium, to be given up under pressure;
or he might, as easily, have confiscated it, reserving to himself,
according to Eastern fashion, a lion's share of the plunder. Instead of adopting either of these courses he caused the entire
stock-the estimated value of which was three millions sterling
to be thrown into the sea, and thus gave to the world an example of thoroughness in dealing with a great abuse which, fatal
though it proved to China, may not be without its use hereafter.
In this way originated the opium war, the parent of all the succeeding wars with China-a struggle in which British grape-shot
mowed down the Celestials like grass, and our men-of-war made
equally short work of the Chinese junks. We compelled the
Chinese to sue for peace, and to pay an indemnity of upwards
of four millions sterling; but there was one thing which they
stubbornly refused to do-they would not legalize the trade to
which all their misfortunes were due. It was pointed out to the
Emperor that if he insisted on declaring the trade contraband,
smuggling would still go on; whereas if he consented to impose
an import duty on the opium, he might derive therefrom a
revenue of ~1,200,000 a year. His answer merits the attention
of those Indian administrators who argue that they ought not to
give up the traffic because of the princely revenue it yields. " It
is true," he said, "I cannot prevent the introduction of the
flowing poison; gain-seeking and corrupt men will, for profit
and sensuality, defeat my wishes, but nothing will induce me to
derive a revenue from the vice and misery of my people."  It
needed two other wars, as well as the moral impression produced
by the sack of the Summer Palace and the fall of Pekin, to break




398                  APPENDIX-D.
down what some people are disposed to regard as the stupid
prejudices of the Chinese against the legalization of the noxious
drug.
Lord Elgin's treaty apparently placed the trade upon a secure
footing. At last the ban of Celestial law was withdrawn from it,
and opium was enabled to take its place side by side with the
products of Lancashire looms and Birmingham workshops. The
opium smuggler was transformed into an opium merchant. No
pirate could have been made more respectable if the Admiralty,
besides condoning his past offences, had appointed him to the
commission of one of Her Majesty's ships. As for the Imperial
Government, nothing could have been more opportune than the
legalization of a trade for the prosecution of which, on the political extinction of the East India Company; it necessarily became
largely responsible. That Government was enabled to cultivate
opium under the Indian monopoly, and even to extend.the area
of cultivation as the now lawful appetites of the Chinese were
enlarged, without any further apprehension from prohibitory
laws, which the sword had cut in twain, and which, indeed, Lord
Elgin's treaty had formally abrogated.  There was, however,
one fly in the pot of ointment. The Chinese, from eating opium
in ever-increasing quantities (for since the year 1800 the exports
from India have multiplied nearly forty-fold), have taken to
cultivating it on a large scale. I have the authority of a gentleman who recently made a journey of more than three thousand
miles in the west of China, traversing the provinces of IHoo-pih,
Sze-chuen, and Shen-se, "and found nearly everywhere evidence
of extensive cultivation." This home cultivation has all grown
up during the last twenty years. It has already driven out the
opium which formerly enriched Burmah at the expense of Western China  Chinese opium has two qualities which render it a
formidable competitor to the Indian poppy. It only costs half
the price, and is not nearly so deleterious. It therefore seems
probable that while the rich epicure will still consume the foreign article, the poorer slaves of the vice will be content with
wasting their substance on the drug of native growth and manufacture.
The Imperial edicts prohibiting the cultivation of the poppy
in the provinces of the empire are still unrepealed, but for the
present they remain a dead letter. What adequate motive can
the Emperor and his council have for enforcing these edicts so
long as they are not permitted to deal with the foreign trade?
The money expended on opium, if spent in the country, would
not be so absolutely unproductive as if it were all sent abroad in
exchange for the Indian drug.  On the other hand, the Chinese
Government is naturally alarmed at the extent to which the




THE OPIUM TRADE.                  399
good lands of the empire are being used up by the cultivation
of the poppy.  China is an excessively poor and overcrowded
country, and cannot afford to give to opium land which ought
to yield food for the people.  Choo-Tsun, a statesman who
lived long enough to foresee, but not long enough actually to
witness, the downfall of the empire, many years ago put this
pertinent question: " If all the rich and fertile ground be used
for planting the poppy, and if the people, hoping for a large
profit therefrom, madly engage in its cultivation, where will
flax and the mulberry-tree be cultivated, or wheat and rye be
planted?"' Two years ago the answer to this inquiry was virtually given by one of the censors at Pekin, who, in a memorial to
the throne, complained that there had been " a great scarcity of
food in Shensi and Kiangsu, where the opium-farming mostly
prevails," and that "the laborers give their strength and time
to the poppy, while wheat and miliet are neglected."
Last year the Under-Secretary for India was somewhat despondent at the falling off in the opium revenue. This session
his tone is more hopefll.  The revenue has revived, and the
prophets of evil-who were, however, chiefly connected with the
Indian Department-stand rebuked.  It is not impossible that
the new-born confidence may be as premature as the recent depression. It is true that Mr. Grant Duff plumes himself on
"the excellent" quality of Indian opium. It is indeed so "excellent" that it destroys the Chinese more quickly than the
homemade drug; and if the object be to decimate China, or to
multiply the number of sensual imbeciles and paupers, no one
can deny that this end is likely to be attained. But unfortunately
for the prospects of Indian opium, Mr. D. B. Robertson, her
Majesty's Consul at Canton, has lately discovered a marked improvement in the quality of native opium which is now, he says,
equal to Malwa-a tribute calculated to induce Mr. Grant Duff
to look well to his laurels. M. Hue, who published his " Chinese Empire" sixteen years ago, anticipated this very state of
things, and, indeed predicted that when the Chinese made at
home all the opium necessary for their own consumption,
" British India would experience a terrible blow-one that
might possibly even be felt in the British metropolis." In allusion to the increasing use of laudanum in our manufacturing
towns, the learned French traveller even speculated upon the
possibility of England one day sending to China for the means
of gratifying the depraved tastes of her own people. Those
who have read Dr. Bridge's remarks on the prevalence of this
evil in our northern towns, will hardly regard M. Huc's idea as
so fanciful as to be absurd.
In the debate on Sir Wilfrid Lawson's motion, the Under



400                  APPENDIX-D.
Secretary endeavored to produce the impression that the evils of
opium-smoking and opium-eating had been enormously exaggerated. Mr. Gladstone, in a more cautious temper, argued
that the question was an open one; and by resorting to what I
must call a species of casuistry, gave just offence to many of his
supporters, who thought that he, at any rate, would not fail to
recognize the value of those moral considerations to which the
originators of the discussion had appealed. The time has gone
by for impeaching the facts upon which the exceptional enormity
of the traffic is based. In China, from the Emperor and his
chief officers down to the native painter who, after the manner
of Hogarth, has depicted the successive stages of the opiumsmoker's progress from prosperity to ruin, there has been but
one testimony as to the frightful injury which the use of opium
is inflicting on the people. It may consist with official ideas of
expediency to represent the assailants of the trade as drawing
upon their imaginations for their facts, but it must not be forgotten that there is the strongest official evidence in support of
even the extreme views which found expression in the speeches
of the minority in the House of Commons. A select committee
of that House is not a bad witness in such a case, and the select
committee which sat in 1840, reported that "the demoralizing
results of the opium trade are incontestable and inseparable
from its existence;" while the East India Company, in a notable
access of candor, declared that " were it possible to prevent the
use of the drug altogether, except strictly for the purpose of
medicine, we would gladly do it in compassion to mankind." A
sentence like this conclusively reveals the existence of those
mortal perturbations which secretly disturb the equanimity of
even the most confirmed offenders against public morality.
Similarly the slaveholders of the Southern States would sometimes admit that their "peculiar institution" was an evil of
colossal magnitude, although, like the East India Company,
they never sufficiently turned from their evil ways to resist the
temptation to extend the system of which they professed to be
unwilling supporters.
The opium trade has vitiated the whole of our relations with
the Chinese Empire.  That trade simply embodies in its most
odious form the pretended right of the strong to ride rough-shod
over the weak. The mob who, in driving a missionary out of a
Chinese city, taunted him with hypocrisy in coming to teach
them virtue when his countrymen "had burned their palace,
killed their emperor, and sold poison to their people," may have
been as brutal and unreasoning as mobs of the lowest class generally are, but it would be absurd to deny that their shout had
in it a painful element of truth. The horrible spirit of fanaticism




THE OPIUM     TRADE.                  401
which resulted in the recent massacre at Tientsin merited a
severe example of retributive justice; but it should, nevertheless, be remembered that during the last few years the French
have dragooned the Chinese Government into making concessions which were eminently calculated to inflame the passions of
an ifnorant populace.   To mention only one fact-the French
Government has compelled the Chinese to restore to the Jesuits
property which, although granted to them two centuries back,
was confiscated at the time of the Christian persecution a hundred and fifty years ago.  An observant Englishman, writing to
me from China, says that "the right of beating Chinese servants
is openly claimed by the English masters, and our consular
agents shrink from restraining this violence by proper severity."
If the European, intoxicated with the pride of race, behaves in
this lawless manner to his Chinese dependants, is it surprising that
the latter should avail themselves of the first opportunity to
retaliate?  Professor Pumpelly of Harvard University, in his
work "Across America and Asia," relates an incident which, if
he did not speak with the authority of an eye-witness, one would
be disposed to read with incredulity.  After remarking that to
the average foreigner " the teeming population around him is
simply a swarm of chattering animals useful as producers of tea
and consumers of opium," he says:"A steamboat which had been undergoing repairs made a trial trip,
crowded with most of the leading foreigners of Shanghai, all, like myself,
invited for a pleasure excursion up the Wusung River. As we were steaming at full speed we saw some distance ahead of us a large scow, loaded
so heavily with bricks as to be almost unmanageable by the oars of four
Chinamen who were propelling it. They saw the steamer coming, and
knowing well how narrow was the channel, worked with all their force to
get out of it and let the boat pass. As we all stood watching the slow
motion of the scow, which we were rapidly approaching, I listened every
instant for the order to stop the engine. The unwieldy craft still occupied
half the channel, the coolies straining every muscle to increase her slow
motion, and uttering cries which evidently begged for a few instants'
grace. There was yet time to avoid collision, when the pilot called out,'Shall I stop her, sir?''No,' cried the captain,'go ahead.' There
was no help for it. Horrified at hearing this cold-blooded order, I waited
breathlessly for the crash, which soon came. The scow, striking under
the port bow, veered around lengthwise, and was almost instantly under
the paddles. A shriek, a shock, and a staggering motion of our boat, and
we were again steaming up the channel. Going to the stern I could see
but one of the four Chinamen, and he was motionless in the water. Among
the faces of the foreigners on the crowded decks there were few traces of
the feelings which every newcomer must experience after witnessing such
a scene. The officers of the boat looked coolly over the side to see
whether the bow and paddles had suffered any daamnge, and such remarks
as were made on the occurrence were certainly not in favor of the 7ictims."
26




402                  APPENDIX-D.
This being the temper of many of the Europeans in China, it
is impossible that we can regard the future of our relations with
that empire with a feeling of confidence or of hope, unless indeed
we believe that a day will come when the British public will
insist upon conferring on the Chinese a community of rights as
well as of duties. If that day should ever dawn the doom of
the opium traffic-let its abolition cost Great Britain what it
may-will be sealed. Indian financiers, ignoring the dictum of
the Dutch Commissioners, who, in 1830, declared that "no consideration of pecuniary advantage ought to weigh with a European Government in allowing the use of opium," appear to
think that in preferring revenue to morality they are clearly performing their duty to India. English statesmen, who are or
should be something more than the guardians of the State
money-bag, may well be excused if they think of the honor of
their country and of her moral influence, which has been so
rudely shaken by the selfish and aggressive character of her policy
in the East. The silk and tea which we export from China
render her the benefactress of the world. The opium which we
introduce into the Flowery Kingdom is of a value nearly equal
to the two commodities with which she enriches the commerce
and the homes of the civilized world. To suppress the opium
traffic, now that its roots have struck so widely and so deeply,
may appear to be a Quixotic enterprise; but, at all events,
there can be no just reason why the Indian Government should
not be divorced from its present indefensible connection with
the cultivation, manufacture, and sale of the poison, or why the
Chinese Government should not be at liberty to prohibit or to
restrict its importation into the empire in such manner as it may
consider practicable.
In the debate of last session Mr. Grant Duff based his defence
of the Bengal monopoly mainly on two grounds: first, that a
revenue of seven or eight millions could not be sacrificed without gross injustice to the people of India; and, secondly, that
the evils of opium smoking had been enormously exaggerated.
Upon the second point I might have heaped authority on
authority-Ossa upon Pelion; but enough has been said to show
that the Chinese themselves entertain a very different opinion
from that expressed by the Under-Secretary, and also that the
Indian Government itself formerly held language which it is
impossible to reconcile with the new theory of the comparative
harmlessness of the drug.  With regard to the question of
revenue, while I cannot admit that the moral argument is affected
by considerations of this nature, it must yet be admitted that,
it the Indian Government were to retire from the monopoly and
to substitute for it a system of export duty, the nation itself




THE OPIUM    TRADE.                403
would be relieved from that direct complicity with the traffic
which appears to me especially odious and indefensible.  Sir
William  Muir, the Lieutenant-Governor of the   Northwest
Provinces, strongly advocates the abolition of the Government
monopoly; and he does so, partly because he believes it would
greatly tend to diminish the spirit of gambling which, he says,
"has ruined many a firm in Western India," and also because
he is of opinion that " the change would relieve the British Government from the odious imputation of pandering to the vice of
China by over-stimulating production, over-stocking the markets,
and flooding China with the drug, in order to raise a wider and
more secure revenue to itself."  Nor does Sir W. Muir stand
alone in urging these views.  Mr. George Campbell, late ChiefCommissioner of Oude and now Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal,
in speaking at the Newcastle Social Science Congress, declared
himself in favor of abolishing the monopoly and of limiting the
export from India; the Chinese Government, on its side, undertaking to do all in its power to restrict the use of the drug
among its own subjects.   The major question is one which
comes properly under the purview of Mr. Fewcett's India Committee, which will render a service to the empire if it takes into
serious consideration the present fluctuating and unstable character of the opium revenue.  I so far agree with Mr. Campbell,
that I believe our statesmen could not do themselves or their
country more honor than by giving the Chinese Government to
understand, that if it really desires to abate this great evil it
would meet with every encouragement at our hands, and that no
financial considerations on our part would be allowed to stand
in the way of restricting or abolishing the use of the drug in the
Celestial dominions.
F. W. CHESSON.
NOTE.-Since this article was written, the Indian Finance Committee
has held numerous sittings. When the Blue Book reporting its proceedings is published, the reader will find in the evidence of Sir Rutherford
Alcock, Dr. George Smith, of Calcutta, and the Rev. Dr. Wilson, of Bombay,
ample corroboration of the statements I have made.




404                  APPENDIX-E.
E.
EFFECTS OF AN EXCLUSIVE AGRICULTURE.
THE exhaustive character of the system by means of which
so large a proportion of the world's population is compelled to
limit itself to the barbarizing work of raising raw produce for
distant markets, is well exhibited in a paragraph from a journal
of the day descriptive of the state and prospects of the great
COFFEE TRADE, as follows:"Since the emancipation of the negroes in Jamaica, where
formerly large crops were gathered, coffee culture has almost
entirely ceased. Cuba has changed from coffee to sugar, though
that island has exported as high as fifteen thousand tons per
annum. The production in the French colonies has almost
ceased, amounting to less than two hundred tons per annum.
St. Domingo's production, in consequence of the disorganized
condition of public affairs there, is also yearly decreasing.
Porto Rico yields gradually less every year, while the plantations of Surinam, Berbice, and Demerara have not been worked
for several years. Venezuela maintains about an average crop,
but cannot be counted on for any portion of the increase necessary to meet an increased demand. Maracaibo produced twentyfive hundred tons in 1867, and may be counted upon for something near that figure constantly. Trinidad orchards are worn
out and abandoned. Coro and Curacoa produce an insignificant quantity. It was at one time supposed that Costa Rica
would become a large exporter of coffee, but the scarcity of
capital and hands has reduced the quantity expected from that
quarter very much.  Brazil has unquestionably reached her
maximum production, and will not average more than two millions of bags per year, during any decade of ten years, with the
probability of falling below that figure, owing to the edicts of
emancipation promulgated there recently. In Ceylon there is
some increase probably. The production of Manila is steadily,
though slowly, on the decline. In Hindostan English energy
and capital are employed in planting hundreds of new orchards,
but the result is in the future. In Java and Sumatra the cultivation depends upon the forced labor of the inhabitants, who
are not allowed to participate in the profits; hence the supply
has reached its maximum, and it is maintained at its present
height with the greatest difficulty. In Liberia a number of coffee
orchards have been planted, and a source of new supply, of
more or less extent, will in time come into being. In the mean




EFFECTS OF AN EXCLUSIVE AGRICULTURE.           405
time consumption increases at the rate of twenty per cent. in
this country, and ten per cent. counting the civilized nations of
the world; and higher prices and adulteration seem almost certain to follow."
Throughout the whole century there has been an unceasing
effort at crushing out the COTTON MANUFACTURE of India, and
thus compelling export of the raw wool to Britain; and yet
the whole consumption, in this latter, of India cotton, in 1871,
was but 202,000,000 pounds.    Nevertheless, as the highest
British authorities assure us"The soil of India is one of the richest in the world; its productions
are of the most various and most exchangeable kind; and several of its
tribes show remarkable capacity for both industry and war. Altogether,
the resources of this country are immense."-Greg. Political Problems.
Quoted in Contemporary Review, July, 1872, p. 230.
Notwithstanding all its advantages, the total product of
capital and labor, by its 150,000,000 of people, is stated at
$1,500,000,000, or $10 per head. See ante, p. 318.
Strongly contrasting with this are the facts in regard to the
French SUGAR TRADE here given, as follows:CANE SUGAR IMPORTED.
Francs.         Equal to about
1862...~.   40,311,000         $8,060,000
1872...       22,928,800          4,600,000
RAW BEET EXPORTED.
1862....   1,826,000            365,000
1872....   23,298,000          4,660,000
REFINED EXPORTED.
1862....  11,632,000          2,326,000
1872....     36,994,000          7,400,000
A judicious system of protection has thus, as we see, not only
enabled France to supply all her own needs in regard to this
important commodity, but also to contribute largely to the supply of other countries.
It is safe to say that under a system of perfect protection to
American and Indian industries, like to that which in France
has been given to the beet root culture, the cotton production
of the two countries would be now treble what it is; enabling
their people to consume thrice more largely of the products of
European skill and taste than they do of the inferior manufactures with which they are now supplied.




406                   APPENDIX-F.
F.
THE PROLETARIAT.
THE general adoption by English writers of the word " proletaire" as indicating the man who lives by the labor of his
hands, and the danger that the bad example may be elsewhere
followed, seem to make it proper here to show how essentially
different are the conditions of the " proletariat" of the past, and
that of the present, as this latter is now exhibited in Britain
herself, and in her dependencies.  That it is which it is proposed here to do, as follows:The Roman Census and the Assessment Roll were one and the
same.  Therein, the proletaire figured as a citizen of the lowest
class, paying revenue to the state only by means of begetting
children for its service.* That he was, on that score, considered
a valuable member of the community, is a fact which exhibits
itself in works of the chief writers on the Roman law. The
time had yet to come when, under the trading dispensation, man
was to be regarded, and treated, as "a drug," and population
as " a nuisance;" yet is it doubtful if, in the long period that has
since elapsed, there has been any material, if indeed any, increase
in the numbers of mankind.t
Looking now to the " proletaire" of that chief of the British
possessions, India, we find him to have been so entirely deprived
of power for combining with his fellow men, that of the physical
and mental power with which he has been endowed by far the
larger portion is absolutely wasted. As a consequence of this,
production is so insignificant that the government, although
sole rent-receiver, finds itself wholly unable to meet the demands
upon it except by aid of taxation on one hand, and monopoly on
another, destructive beyond anything that is elsewhere known.t
Still unable to cover the constantly recurring deficit, it has now
* " Proletarius, according to a division of the people by Servius Tullius,
a citizen of the lowest class, who served the state, not with his property,
but only with his children."-ANDREWS's Latin-English Lexicon.
t The Western Continent seems then to have been far more fully peopled
than it is at present. Such, too, was the case with Africa, with Eastern
Europe, and with Western, Central, and Northern Asia. The increase in
Southern and Eastern Asia, and in Western Europe, may have sufficed to
make amends for diminution elsewhere, but that it cannot have done much
more than this is very certain; Mr. Malthus's remedies for the disease of
over population, war, pestilence, and famine, having throughout the whole
period been in most active operation.
t See pages 82, 318, 343, ante.




THE PROLETARIAT.                     407
been found necessary to introduce that latest invention of the
trading school of economists, an income tax, whose very idea
as applied to a country in which the total product of labor and
capital is but about $10 per head, seems pre-eminently ridiculons.*  What is its operation is well exhibited in a pamphlet
just now published, from which the following is an extract:"Many days ago, we wrote, a poor man was assessed in the Koomaik.
halle Subdivision at 6 rupees ($3).  Not able to pay it,'the judge'
fined him 12 rupees ($6), and in default he was sentenced to twelve days'
imprisonment. His property was sold and realized Rs. 12. The amount
then demanded was raised to Rs. 15, and the man was again apprehended
for the remaining Rs. 3. The judge again mulcted him in double the
amount and for Rs. 6 instead of Rs. 3. He was sentenced to twelve
days' imprisonment with hard labor.  If his property could realize no
more than Rs. 12, it is clear that he ought not under the law to have
been assessed. This man supported his family by his daily labor; he is
now imprisoned, and what have they to look to? The Mahommedan rulers
took away property by force; Biswanath Baboo was a noted robber. But
these afflicted the rich, not the poor. Our government says, the tax only
affects those who have property, but here we cannot walk on the streets
for the crying of the poor."t
Ground to the earth by taxation while practically prohibited
from making any profitable use of time or mind, the unfortunate "proletaire" sells himself to slavery in the Mauritus, or
in Guiana, in which latter he may now be studied, as follows:Turning to page 285, ante, the reader will see in that colony
a population of 150,000, unprovided with any but the rudest machinery of production, paying to those who stand between them
and their customers a direct tax of eighty-two dollars per head.
Add to this, the abounding indirect taxes paid on the long and
tedious road by which their products need to travel in search of
consumers, and it will be seen that the process of to-day is but a
repetition of that pursued in the days when Joshua Gee rejoiced
in the idea, that of the product of colonial labor three-fourths
centred in the hands of British merchants.t  So far as regards
the question of population, it is, too, little other than a reproduction of the state of things so long exhibited throughout those
British West Indian Islands which at the day of emancipation
exhibited little more than one slave for every three who had been
imported; leaving wholly out of view the vast numbers of children that must have been there produced and murdered, under
a system at which the pagan Roman would have shuddered.
* See page 343, ante.
t " Why was Lord Mayo assassinated?" By J. Wilson, editor of the
Indian Daily News. London, 1872. See page 320, ante, for the views of
Lord Mayo himself, in reference to this oppressive system of taxation.
$ See page 195, ante.




408                  APPENDIX-F.
Looking now to Britain herself, we see fleets, armies, and
other govermental machinery, on the largest scale, requiring for
their maintenance $350,000,000 per annum, but little of which
is paid by any but those who must sell their services, physical
or mental, if they would provide for their families or themselves.
Of this vast sum a very large proportion is paid by direct taxation of commodities mainly consumed by the mere laboring class.
Another is taken by means of stamps, and of those other devices
which attend so large a portion of the exchanges between the
laborer who has produced, and the laborer who needs to consume, the tea, the coffee, the rum, and the sugar of distant lands.
The income tax bears with equal force on the man whose unremitting labor enables him to earn a few hundreds a year, and his
neighbor who has realized property yielding the same amount.
If the former owns the house in which he needs to live it is taxed
to its entire value; whereas, his neighbor's ornamental park,
embracing hundreds of acres, is scarcely taxed at all. Suffering
under a system of taxation that throws upon laboring men, great
and small, nearly the whole burthen of a system that is maintained for the exclusive advantage of " great capitalists" engaged
in merciless " warfare" on the laborers of the world; and that thus
in every manner, at home and abroad, diminishes their power to
make demand for British labor; the complaining "proletaire"
receives for answer, that population is so superabundant as to
have become "a nuisance;" that man is "a drug;" that the
laws of supply and demand apply equally to cattle and to men;
and that, if he will marry, and will have children, he has no right
to a seat at the table of the Giver of all good, none having
been there provided for poor creatures like himself.
The Orissa " proletaire" dies of famine because unable to pay
the tax on salt required for preservation of his fish; the Indian
viceroy meantime receiving $250,000 a year. The Bengalese,
his neighbor, driven to seek refuge in Guiana, works sixteen to
twenty hours per day for a mere pittance of wages, the governor
of this little colony meanwhile receiving $25,000 a year. The
female " proletaire" of Liverpool makes, as we are told, six
pairs of pantaloons for a shilling; the wretched den in which she
lives, and for which she pays a rent, constituting part of the
property of a millionaire who holds high rank among the merchant princes of the earth. The system is thus the same, look
at it where we may; all these poor wretches being required to
compete with each other for their own destruction.
That the "proletaire" of ancient times was a being widely
different from the one here presented for consideration, will to
the reader now be clearly obvious: the one having been so




THE PROLETARIAT.                     409
valued for his services in begetting children as to have freed him
from taxation; the other, on the contrary, while forced to bear
nearly all the burthens of the state, being condemned to celibacy
to the end that he may not add to the pauperism and vagrancy
to which so discreditable a system has already given- birth.
The diference in the tendencies of the Roman and the British
systemis exhibits itself most clearly in the fact, that Ireland alone
requires for maintenance of peace among its "proletaires," more
troops, and, as a consequence, more taxation, than were required
within the provinces of the Roman Empire; extending as this
latter did from the Atlantic to and beyond the Valley of the
Euphrates, and from the Cataracts of the Nile to the Irish and
Baltic Seas.  The whole armed forced, military and naval, under
Tiberius, scarcely exceeded 170,000 men; and of these so nearly
the whole were required for guarding the frontiers that the
troops stationed in Italy, Spain, France, Belgium, and Germany
within the Rhine, were but 10,000 in number.*     Happily for
the people there was then no war of capital against labor like
to that which now exists; and it is as a consequence of this,
that between the central power and the subject peoples there
then existed none of the hostile feeling here described by one of
the chief philosophers of the age as existing throughout the
European Continent, in reference to the English people and
their government:"The Indian mutiny and the Crimean war show the little sympathy for
England abroad. * * * I venture to affirm that the whole Continent,
though it detested the cruelties of your enemies, did not wish you to triumph. Much of this is, without doubt, to be attributed to the evil passions which make men always desire the fall of the prosperous and the
strong. But much belongs to a less dishonorable cause-to the conviction
of all nations that England considers them only with reference to her own
greatness; that she has less sympathy than any other modern nation;
that she never notices what passes among foreigners, what they think,
feel, suffer, or do, but with relation to the use which England can make of
their actions, their sufferings, their feelings, or their thoughts; and that
when she seems to care most for them, she really cares only for herself.
All this is exaggerated, but not without truth.-De Tocqueville, Correspondence and Conversations with NV. W. Senior, London, 1872.
The tendency toward internal disturbance, foreign war and
hatred, oppressive taxation, and the establishment of a proletariat, exists everywhere in the ratio of submission to the British
- For full information on this head, see the works of M. de Champagny
-" Les Caesars" and "Les Antonines;" or the review thereof in the British
Quarterly Review, for July, 1871. The sum total of the imperial revenue
is there shown to have been but $80,000,000; or little more than twothirds of what is now required for military and naval expenses incident to
the "warfare," on the labor of the world above described.




410                   APPENDIX-F.
system. In all countries that effectually resist it, the reverse of
this occurs; man then growing daily in his power for self-direction, and in his self-respect.  Seeking evidence to this effect the
reader needs but to co,mpare the American growth of the decade
which closed in 1860 with that of the one that has been now
completed.* That obtained, he will scarcely be led to agree
with Quarterly Reviewers that the incorporation of the word
"proletaire" into the English language is a necessity here, however it may elsewhere be required.  The more carefully he shall
study the facts, the more must he be led to the conclusion, that
all that is needed for making it a "much needed" part of the
languages of the world at large, is quiet submission to a system
which looks to limiting all other nations to the one pursuit of
raising raw products to be converted in distant markets that
are controlled by traders who find in buying cheaply and selling
dearly the one end and aim of human, and even of Christian, life.
As this sheet is passing through the press the receipt of the
Fortnightly Review for the current month, September, 1872,
enables the author to place before his readers important facts, by
aid of which they will be enabled to determine for themselves
how far recent English movements in reference to skilled labor
have been in the direction of giving to mind increased power
over matter; or, on the contrary, toward increasing the power
of capital over labor, and thus reducing working men to the condition indicated by the now so frequent use of the word "proletaire."
The work reviewed on this occasion,- is one that is entitled
to the highest credit, its author having, says the reviewer,
" collected the cardinal facts about industry, work, and wages, from a source
which is almost inaccessible to the world, the books, the agents, and the
subordinate staff of an employer of the first order, whose experience of
industry was on the whole wider than that of any one else in our age.
And all this," as he continues, " is worked out in a practical spirit, with
perfect candor. In a word, we may say that this is almost the first time
that capital has ever honestly laid its budget on the table."
At the works thus referred to, the men employed numbered 600,
embracing all the departments, 13 in number,'of a great machine shop. Of these, in the period from 1854 to 1869, when
the world was being inundated by the products of Californian and
* See Appendix C.
t Work and Wages, by Thomas Brassey, M.P. London, 1872.




NOTE.                       411
Australian mines, there were 3 whose wages remained perfectly
stationary, 4 who gained, and 6 who lost; the general result
having been reduction of wages to the extent of a shilling (24
cents) per day, for each and every of these 600 men.
By the official tables of the Royal Yard at Sheeiness, it is
shown that in the 20 years ending in 1869 there had been an
increase of wages averaging one penny, or two cents, per day.
From 1859 to 1869, the average rate of wages in the locomotive shops of the kingdom had advanced little more than onehalf of one per cent.
At the great Millville Iron Works the average rate from 1851
to 1869 had remained almost unchanged; the general result,
however, having been that of a very slight decline.  Commenting on this latter statement, the reviewer speaks as follows:"It is a curious comment on the industrious mendacity which so often
obscures labor questions, thus to find the real truth about the wages of
London shipwrights. It will," as he continues, "be remembered that
about 1867 and 1868 the newspapers were filled with lamentations over
those extortionate demands under which we were told the trade was being
driven from England. It now turns out, on the authority of a manager
of one of the largest London works, that the wages of shipwrights in the
Thames have never risen since 1851, and that they fell between 1865-1869
from 42-48, to 39-42; and in 1869 again fell to 36-39; showing a maximum fall between 1865 and 1869 of 9s. upon 48s., which is not far short
of 20 per cent."
We have thus the great facts, that although the foreign trade
had more than doubled; although investments in railroads had
grown from 88 to 530 millions; although taxable incomes had
enormously increased; although luxury had attained a height
that before had been unimagined; the average money value
of skilled labor had declined; rents, beef, mutton, pork, and
cheese having, meantime, on an average almost a third increased.
How   entirely is all this in accordance with Mr. Huskisson's
declaration to the effect that "wages must be kept down, to the
end that capital may obtain proper remuneration," will be now
obvious to the reader.  That it might do so, the laborer, skilled
or unskilled, has been, and is being, ground between the upper
and the nether mill-stone.
In face of facts like these, and in face of the daily widening
gulf that divides the few from the many, it is, that advocates of
the existing system have the hardihood to assure the latter that
"for being employed at all," they are indebted to the "sacrifices" of the former;* others meanwhile assuring advocates of
labor's rights that they are " digging the free-trade grave;" con* See p. 183, ante,




412                     APPENDIX-F.
servative Quarterly Reviewers joining in the chorus, asking of
the "proletaires" to determine for themselves whence their wages
are to come if the employers cease to be able to underwork the
world as in times past they so generally have done.*
Directly the reverse of all this, as here is shown, wages have
in the same period so largely advanced in France, Belgium,
Prussia, Wurtemberg, and even in those parts of British India.
which now profit of railroad intercourse, that in many of the
cases mentioned they have fully doubled; while in others that increase has been 40 per cent., when not even more.
The facts thus exhibited as occurring in the free-trade England,
and in the protected nations of continental Europe, are in precise accordance with those here observed in periods of submission
to the British system, and of resistance thereto such as now exists.  In the one, there has always been large competition for
the sale of labor, and the laborer has tended in the direction of
becoming a mere "proletaire."     In the other, the competition
has been for the purchase of labor, and the laborer has daily
more and more acquired power for self-direction.t
Note to Appendix B.
The results of personal observation by an accomplished English traveller,
in reference to the occupation and cultivation of the earth, are so entirely
confirmatory of those which have above been given, that the author deems
it well here to submit them for the reader's consideration, as follows:" The soil about the Fox, the Buller, the Okitski, and other west coast
rivers on which gold is found, is a black mould of extraordinary depth and
richness; but in New Zealand, as in America, the poor lands are first occupied by the settlers, because the fat soils will pay for clearing only when
there is already a considerable population on the land."-Dilke, Greater
Britain, London edition, p. 333.
* See p. 257, ante.             t See pp. 204 to 208, ante.




INDEX.
ABSENTEEISM, 869                AmericanA   Abstract ideas, early cultiva-   beneficence, 858
tion of, 39                        colonies, Gee on the trade of, 198
Act of settlement in England, 308,       interdiction of manufac849, 360                                 tures in, 259
Africa, northern, settlement of, 389     repression of manufactures
Agincourt, the men of, 301                 in, by England, 27, 198
Agricultural base in Great Britain,  commerce plundered by Engdiminution of, 825               lish ships, 201
labor, Mr. Mill on the law con-  consumption of coffee, 332
trolling the return to, 17,  invention, 336, 337
149, 350                  locomotive, 337
of England, condition of,    nation, the, the outgrowth ofthe
xviii., 244                  England of a better day than
laborer of England in the time of  the present, 372
Cromwell, 249                 non-resistance, period of, 1885produce, effects of near markets   42; disasters of, in the United
for, 184                         States and Great Britain, 264
produce, near markets for, in    piano, 336
Great Britain, 356            rebellion, course of England
Agriculture, American, 209             during the late, 361
effects of an exclusive, 404     revolution, 199, 311
employment of English women     sewing machine, 336
and children in, 244           Union, Association in the, 143,
Xenophon on the dependence of,     144
upon mining and manufac-      Union, formation of the, 200
tures, 51                  Amphictyonic league, 85
"Alabama claims," 288            Analogy the soul of induction, 117
Alexander, the Emperors, 192, 195  Analysis discarded by M. Comte in
America, progress of the settlement    treating of social science, 55
of, 382, 386                   discoveries due to, 54
and Germany, increasing power    and synthesis, 64
of mind over matter in, 272  Apriori method of reasoning, 64
Germany and Russia, 226, 228     method, sad results of as apRussia and Germany, the aims       plied to societary science, xxi.
of, 293                    Archimedes, and the double motion
American aborigines, early training  of the earth, 40
of, 306                    Argyll, Duke of, examination of Mr.
armies disbanded in 1865, 305          Mill's definition of mataxe, the, 336                          ter, 162
( 413)




414                         INDEX.
Argyll, Duke of-                 Baltimore, Lord, 358
on lands early cultivated in Bank, cooperative, in Silesia, 189
Scotland and now aban- Barbarism, 373
doned, 19                  a consequence of the absence of
on legislative interference    association, 94
for the arrest of socie-   and civilization, conditions of
tary evils, 29               their growth, 352, 378
Aristocracy of England, the new, Barbarizing doctrines of English
253                              teachers, 372
Arthur, King, 22                 Barnet, the battle of, 301
Artisans, interdiction of the emigra- Barry's Russia in 1870, 194
tion of, by Britain, 27        Base, strength of a structure in
"Aspects of nature," Mr. Buckle    proportion to extent of, 162
on the, 349                    Bastiat, Frederick, viii., ix., x.
Association among men, 125       Battery, gigantic, establishment of,
annihilation of, in India, 318  in the United States, 221
circumstances under which it Baxter, R. Dudley, 248.
grows, 84                  Beet-sugar, French exports of, 405
difference essential to, 96, 97, Belgium and Ireland, 347
98                            local action in, 91
growth of, prevented by Eng-     progress of the settlement of,
land, 252, 260                   388
power of, 134                    resistance to the British system
grows always with advanc-      in, 348
ing civilization, 139  Bengal, condition of, in 1789, 311
exists in the ratio of indi- Benton, Senator, on the condition of
vidualization, 98       the United States in 1819-1820,
the greatest need of man,  204
77                     Berbice, coffee in, 404
Assumptions, economic, xxi., 154  Berzelius, 26, 72
a science based upon, 1      Bessemer, 7, 336
Astronomy and biology, connection Biology, 43, 50
between, 44                Birmingham workman, condition of,
early study of, 40             241
Athens, 135, 136                 Blackwood's llagazine on the poor of
and Rome, 80                   Great Britain, 268
Atlantic, difference in the tendency Bleaching  establishments, life in
of movements on the two sides of  those of England, 29
the, 331                       " Blessed gospel of work," 308, 333,
Attica, association in, 135        350
Australia, 281                   Bosworth, battle of, 301
diversified employment in, 250  Botany Bay, 314
preparation for resistance to Brain in man the co-ordinator of the
British monopoly by, 251     whole system, 133
resistance to the English sys- Brassey, Thomas, M. P., 410
tem in, 186                Brazil, 281
settlement of, 389               coffee in, 404
wants of, 339, 340           Bread, fern, in France, 176
Bree, C. R., M.D., on Darwinism,
371
BABYLONIANS, eclipses calculat- Britain, centralization in, 84
ed by, 40                         taxation in, 408
Bacon on the distributions and par-  warfare of, upon the industries
titions of knowledge, 48             of other nations, 183, 355
Ballot in England, 274           British and Roman systems, 409




INDEX.                         415
British-                         Britishannihilation of societary ar-    West India Islands, 199
rangements in the East, 334    workingman, competition forced
army saved from  ruin by an        upon the, 257
American pump, 4           Brougham  Mr., on stifling in the
competition, effects of, 278   cradle the rising manufactures of
conscience, sensitiveness of, on  the United States, 28, 203
negro slavery, 323, 325    Bruce, Sir F., 365
edifice, an inverted pyramid, Buckle, Mr., on civilization, 347-350
325                            on Indian corn, 347, 348
emigrants, why they seek these   on the "aspects of nature," 349
United States, 339             on the reward of labor, 347
friendship, no country has pro-  on the "theological basis of
fited of, 287                    predestination and the metaGuiana, slave traffic in, 323      physical basis of free will,"
taxation of the people of,     349
by Great Britain, 285      the reasoning downward of, 350
Islands, consumption of cotton Buffon on the want of knowledge of
in, 328, 330, 331, 332   ourselves, 41
consumption of intoxicating Bunsen, Baron, on the poverty of
liquors in, 330, 331, 332  Germany, 187
consumption of wool in, 329 Burmah, English outrages in, 317
non-consuming army, operations Buy-cheap-and-sell-dear principle,
of, 334, 341         255
what it has failed to Buy-cheap-and-sell-dear science, the,
accomplish, 351      299
slaves, the chief employ- Buying cheap and selling dear, 363
ment of, 276, 281
policy, effects of a change of,
278                        ( ABOOL and Affghanistan, settlepossessions, British exports to, C  ment of, 390
275, 276                   Canada, preparation for resistance to
proletariat unequal to the task    British monopoly by, 186, 251
of trading "warfare" in the    wants of, 339, 340
future, 336                Cane-sugar, French imports of, 405
restrictions upon colonial do- Canning, George, 279
mestic commerce, 27        Capacity for progress, man's, 111
society, tendency of, 272    Capital, definition of, 376
system  of political economy Carey, H. C., Mr. Mill in answer to,
made to harmonize with the   22
national ideas of trade, 28  Carlyle, Thomas, 259
system, submission to, 409, 412 Carpenter, Dr. W. B., xxii., 8, 117
tendency of, 254         Carthage and Corinth, destruction
tends to production of an  of, 346
inverted pyramid, 270  Caspar Hauser, 94
toilers at the close of the 18th Catholic emancipation, 273
century, 313               Catlin, George, 306
traders, efforts of, for annihila- Cavaliers, expulsion of ministers of
tion of American resistance,  religion by, 308
270                        Cavendish, 41, 42
trading system, how it has in- Cedric the Saxon, 234
fluenced  the teachings  of Celt, London Times on the, 338
economists, 28             Centralization, effect of, 82, 83, 84
war upon labor, unjust and im-   growth of, in Great Britain, 93,
politic, 336                     100, 109




416                         INDEX.
Centralization-                  CivilizationMirabeau on, 179                 M. Guizot on, 345, 346
of England and France, 342       Mr. Mill on "the progress of,"
Ceylon, coffee in, 414                 351
settlement of, 390               need of a definition of, 345
Chaldea, shepherds of, 40           the "blessed gospel of work" the
Champagny, M. de, 409                  only foundation upon which
Chapman's Cotton and Commerce of       the edifice of, can be erected,
India, 249, 317                      350
Charlemagne, 138, 344            Clare, Lord, on the prosperity of
Chatham, Lord, 198                 Ireland from 1782 to 1800, 354
Cheap labor, 323                 Clay, Henry, on the condition of the
Chemistry and physics, 42          United States in 1824 and 1832,
Chemists, labors Of eminent, 42    207
Chesson, F. W., on the opium trade, Clive, Lord, 312
395-403                        Coal, power exerted by, 318
China, 147, 321                      power of, for the production of
anarchy in, 249                    force, 238
and the opium war, 395           work accomplished by means
Lord Elgin on the English in. 323  of, 5
natural resources of, 322    Cobden Club Papers, 230
oppression of, by the British Cobden, Mr., on free trade in Ruspeople, 355                      sia, 196
production of cotton in, 328     on protection for the laborer, 30
rebellions in, 185           Coffee, American consumption of,
weakness of, 322                   332, 394
Chinese Coolie trade, 323           trade, state and progress of, 404
disregard of the rights of, by Cohesive force, absence of, in great
Europeans, 401               empires of the past, 175
emigration to California, 323  Colbert, 139, 140, 190
treatment of, by Englis'men, Colleges, social science as taught in,
365                          73
Church, disestablishment of, in Great Colonies, acquisition of, by England,
Britain, 274                     311
Churls, Saxon, 235               Combination, power of, throughout
Cincinnatus and Lucretia, 346          nature, 374
Circulation, the more rapid the, the  prevention of, the great aim of
greater the force exerted, 104,      England, 202
105, 309, 377                  Comines on the condition of England
Cities, American, 81               in the fifteenth century, 302
great, of the past, 80       Commerce and trade, difference beof the present, 81                 tween, 14
Civilization, of, 345, 373           Adam Smith on, 26
advance of, in Russia, 195       definition of, 376
and barbarism, causes of their   growth of, 363
growth, 378        Community, conditions of advance
the respective charac-  thereof in civilization, 130, 167
teristics of, 383  Competition, British, effect of, abroad
being rooted out by the English    and at home, 255, 278
trading monopoly, 261          for the sale or purchase of huconsists in self-respect, 373      man force, 377
decline of, in Rome, 345     Compound, from the, to the simple,
in India, 239                 in the progress of knowledge, 62
Mr. Buckle on the sources of, Comte discards analysis in treating
347-350                      social science, 55




INDEX.                          417
Comte-                           Crusoe, 3, 11
on indestructibility of matter,  and Friday, 12, 379
46                         Cuba, sugar and coffee in, 404
on mathematics, 36, 54       Cutlers, Sheffield, 258
on mechanics, and the confusion
between the abstract and the
concrete, 38      ]        TALEMBERT, 39
on physics and chemistry, 42  Li Dallas, R. C., his History of the
on political economy, 31           Maroons, 140
on the study of nature, 53   Dalton, 9, 26, 72
Confusion in the teachings of econo- Darwin, Mr., his doctrine of "surmists, 70, 71                    vival of the fittest," xx., 156, 295
Conservation of forces, 116      Darwinian and Malthusian laws, 295
law of, Prof. Tyndall on the, 121 Darwinism, 370, 371, 372
Consumption of cotton, wool, wor-    fallacies of, 871
steds, and woollens in the United Davy, Sir Humphry, 7, 42, 116
States and Great Britain, 233  Daylesford purchased for Warren
Continental system of Napoleon, 191  Hastings, 312
Co-operative bank in Silesia, 189  Deaths by famine in India, 82
Co-ordination, the more perfect, the Declining countries, tendencies of,
greater the development of the   140
several parts of an organism, 133 Definition, characteristics of a true,
Co-ordinator, the brain of man the,  375
133                            Definitions, 375-378
Copernicus, 32, 72               Demerara, coffee in, 404
Corinth and Carthage, destruction Denmark, 139
of, 346                        Dependence of villagers upon the
Corn, growing of, in England, a waste  prosperity of their customers, 262
of time and capital, 293   Despair brings recklessness, 316
laws, repeal of, 273, 282    De Tocqueville, M., 362, 409
Cornish men and Chilian labor, 272  Dickens, Charles, 7, 298
Cornwall, early settlement of, 386  Dilke, Sir Charles, on the occupation
Coro and Curacoa, coffee in, 404   of the earth, 412
Correlation and conservation of for- Discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler,
ces, xiii., 116                  and Newton due to analysis, 54
Costa Rica, coffee in, 404       Disraeli, Mr., on the beneficial reCotton, consumption of, in Great   sults of the great Irish famine, 173
Britain, 328, 330, 331, Distant trade and transportation,
332                     struggles for, 167
in the United States, 393  Distribution, changes in, that accomin the United States and       pany growth of force, xvii.
Great Britain, 233        the law of, ix., 66, 379-381
culture, exhaustive character of Diversification in the demands for
the, 209                         human service, 104
destruction of manufacture of,   of crops, 5
in India, 202, 405             of employments, 7
India, 277                   Diversified labor, demand for, in
production and consumption of,  advanced communities, 130
328                    Droz, M., 63
of, in China, 328        Duff, Grant, on the opium trade, 399,
weight and value of, retained  402
for home   consumption in Dunkley, Charter of the Nations, 264Great Britain, 257           266
Cromwell, Oliver, 234            Duruy, M., on education in France,
his army, 304                  179
27




418                         INDEX.
EARTH, cultivation of, Mr. Mill Englandon the, 18, 149                at the close of the 18th century,
does not give, only lends, 166     313
law of the occupation of the,    before the Restoration and since,
17, 66, 382                      difference of, 357
East, annihilation of societary ar-  centralization in, 100
rangements in the, 334         colonial system of, 182
destruction of the power of as-  Comines on the condition of, in
sociation and combination in    the 15th century, 302
the, 372                       contempt for the toiling masses
the, made the scenes of horrors    in, 364
by the traders of Europe, 371  emigration from, 246
work of missionaries in the, 334  extremes of society in, 252, 327
Eclipses calculated by the Babyloni-  few manufactures of, in the 15th
ans, 40                              and 16th centuries, 302
Economic "assumptions," mystifica-   first soil cultivated in, 22, 234
tion of, xxi.                      from the Conquest to the Res" Economic fallacies," Quarterly Re-   toration, 300, 353
view on, 30                        from 1625 to 1660, prosperity
Eden, State of the Poor, 309           of, 304
Edinburgh and Glasgow, wretched-     gang system in, 327
ness in, 329                   growth of pauperism in, after
Reviewers, 30, 244                 the Restoration, 309
Education, absence of, in the South-  her advance toward freedom,
ern United States, 111           wealth, and power in the 15th
in France, 179                     century, 235, 301
in Germany, 179                  her determination to subject
in Prussia, 110                    mind to the control of matter,
in the Northern United States,     182
110                            hostile feeling towards, in EuEffects of an exclusive agriculture,   rope, 409
404                                industrial army of, in whose inEgypt, settlement of, 389             terest does it labor? 239, 248,
Electricity, comparative utility and   249, 251
value of, 11                   industrial army of, waste of the
how to excite, 97                  labor of, in its warfare on
its analogy with the phenomena     that of the world, 253
of societary life, 117, 121    intestine wars of, 301, 302
vitreous and resinous, 118       in the reign of Elizabeth, 303
Elgin, Lord, 362, 365, 371           in the reign of James I., 303
his treaty with China, 398       J. S. Mill on the existing wealth
on China, 322                      of, 2, 6
upon the brutalities of his coun-  new aristocracy of wealth in, 253
trymen in the East, 322        non-consuming laborers of, 238
Elizabeth, Queen, laws for the relief  paupers of, 248
of the poor in the reign of, 303   population of, 234, 235
Employments, varieties of, and their  prevention of association and
effects on communities and men,      self-direction by, 252
95                                 progress of the settlementof, 386
Engineers, English, 247              punishment of vagrancy in, in
England, 234-293                       the 16th century, 302
and America, absence of kindly   resistance and non-resistance
feeling between, 362             to the policy of, in the United
and France in the 14th century,    States, 208, 209, 212, 215,
307                              216, 218, 220, 232




INDEX.                          419
England-                         Englishskilled labor in, 410           the, in India, action of, 311
slavery in, 309                  traits, 291
suppression of the monasteries   workmen, character and conduct
in, 302                          of, 363
tenant farmers of, 235       Englishmen, how  they physically
the oligarchies of landlordism     asserted their right to freeand wealth in, 253               dom, 307
the people of, at the date of the  physical deterioration of, 237
battle of Agincourt, 235   Equality, growth of, between the
the ready acceptance of Mal-       physically weak and strong,
thus's Law of Population in,     374
an evidence of demoraliza-     growth of, in the ratio of growth
tion, 316                        of the power of mind to conwar of classes in, 142            trol mere brute matter, 299
wealth and poverty in, 252      the first steps toward, 296
when she most advanced in       the only school of manners, 296
civilization, 307          Erastosthenes, observations by, for
English agriculture, 293           determining the terrestrial meagricultural labor, condition of,  ridian, 40
xviii., 244                Evils of society, Argyll on arrest of
agricultural population, 244,  the, 29
245                        Exclusive agriculture, effects of, 404
and Scottish female poor, 243 Expenditures of Great Britain, 284
army of non-consuming laborers, Exports of Great Britain to resisting
steady growth of, 260        and non-resisting countries, 275beneficence, 259               284
books, the teachings of, as re- Extremes of society in England, 327
gards the road to univeral
peace, 146
brickyards, children in, 247, PAIRLIE, Mr., on the American
248                        1   locomotive, 337
engineers, 247               Famines, English, 12
freeholder of the 15th century, Faraday, Dr., 2, 7, 26,117
the, 301                       on the highest law in physical
ideas of justice, M. de Tocque-    science, 122
ville on, 290              Fawcett, Prof., 326
kidnapping in the East, 323  Fen districts of England, gang syslaborer, his advance in freedom  ter in the, 245
at the close of the 14th cen- Ferrara, Professor, viii.
tury, 300                  Feudalization, manufacturing, 243
laborers, 327                Feudal system in France and Gerlaborers, condition of, approxi-  many, 138
mating to that of the Irish, Financial crises, 171, 267
259                               in the United States, 213,
laborers, first statute of, 235        215
land system, effects of the, xviii.  total absence of, in the
outrages in Burmah, 317                United States from 1861
pledges violated in India, 316         to 1872, 326
pro-slavery sympathy during      crisis, English, of 1866, 267
the war of the Rebellion, 325  earthquakes of 1835-42, 266
remonstrances against seques- Fingers and eyes, substitution of, for
tration in Poland, 317       mere muscular force, 298
slaves sold in Ireland, 309  Fonblanque, A., on the poor of Engsystem, tendency of the, xviii.  land, 143




420                         INDEX.
Food, consumption of, a step toward French history, failures to establish
its reproduction, 45             subordination exhibited throughForce cannot be created or de-     out the whole of, 139
stroyed, xiv.                  Frenchmen proclaimed to be free of
Forces of nature, effect of their sub-  right by Louis X., 307
jection to human use, 351      French Revolution, annihilation of
Foreign commerce of the United          local governments at the,
States, 393                              90
Foreign markets, dependence upon, 7      division of land at the, 90
Fourcroy, 26, 42                     sugar trade, 405
France and England in the fourteenth Froude, J. A., on the condition of
century, 307                 English workingmen, xviii.
and Germany, feudal system in,
138
Belgium, and Germany, wages GALILEO, 32, 36, 72
in, 410         [J             Gang system  in England, 245,
centralization in, 84              327
decline of individuality in, 100  Gay-Lussac, 42
decline of, under Napoleon III., Gee, on trade, 198, 407
180                        Genoa, trade of, 1i8
demoralization of, down to the Germanic Empire, causes of the
days of the Reign of Terror,  foundation of the new, 88
307                        Germanic tribes, early communities
destruction caused by the wars  of, 297
of, 176                   Germany, 186-191
education in, 179                anarchy of, in the days of Charles
growth of the national debt of,    V., 176
180                            and America, increasing power
opera in, 179                      of mind over matter in, 272
progress of the settlement of,   combination in, 188
387                            co-operation in, 189
railroads in, 179                co-operative bank in, 189
resuscitation of, since the war  education in, 179
of 1870-71, 340                growth of the power of, 186
1Franklin, 26, 41, 72                home of decentralization in Euon electricity, 118                rope, 88, 110
Frederick the Great, restoration of  manufactures of, in 1872, 229
prosperity in Prussia consequent   progress of the settlement of, 388
upon the measures of, 143         resistance to the English system
Freedom and slavery, circumstances     by, 186
under which they respec-       Russia and America, 228, 229
tively grow or decline, 254        and the United States, peoof will, 169                           ple of, 295
religious, 357                  the positives and negatives of,
spirit of, 357                     191
Free trade, grave of, 29         Girdlestone, Canon, on the condition
not universally recognized,  of English agricultural labor, 245
31-32                  Gladstone, W. E., on the opium trade,
now on the defensive, 32   395
or non-resistance, in the Goethe, 62, 95
United States, 203, 204  Gordon, Lady Duff, 365
the first Napoleon on, 30  Gospel of work, the thrice blessed,
the one idea of the English  308, 344
school of economists, 29 Granville, Lord, on the necessity for
Free traders, inconsistency of, 70  English emigration, 268




INDEX.                          421
Great Britain, 234-293           Iearne, Professor, on the occupaadvantages of, in insular posi-  tion of Australia, 389
tion, 287                  Helmholz, 8, 117
and Rome compared, 346       Helps, Arthur, 291
and the United States, consump- Henry, Prof., 2, 8, 26,'117
tion of cotton and wool in, 233 Henry VIII., criminals hanged in the
control of the natural forces by,  reign of, 146
318                        Herschel, 9
decline of local attraction in, 92 Hibernicisms in Philosophy, 162
declining influence of, in Eu- Himalayas, villages on the slopes
rope, 289                    of the, 390
downward tendency of mind Hindoo, consumption of cotton by
and morals in, 331              the, 328
empirical attempts at healing    people, civilization of, 312
of disorders in, 273       Hindoostan, coffee in, 404
home consumption of cotton by, Hipparchus, 8
257                           length of the solar year deterhow aided, in the crisis of 1866,  mined by, 41
239                        Holland, decline of, as a naval power,
how injured by American crises     168
of 1835-42, 265               local action in, 91, 99
military and naval expenditures  progress of the settlement of,
of, 286                          388
now without friends, 288         trade of, 168
productive force under the con- Holy Scriptures, dissemination of, by
trol of, 330                 England, 332
revenues and expenditures of, -Hood, Thos., Song of the Shirt, 336
284                        Iope brings prudence, 315
seat of the disease of the socie-  grows with the growth of mentary body of, 274                tal force, 298
the aims of, 293             Howe and Watt, 344
the future of, 272           Hoyle, Wm., on British national rethirty years since, first among    sources, 247
the nations, 286               on English pauperism, 248
war on labor by the great in-    on the decline of British domlsdustrial army of, 183, 250, 355  tic commerce, 257
Great powers of the world, 228   Human positives and negatives, 131
Greece, 136                          race, cradle of the, 390
centralized government of, 85, Humboldt, William  Von, on lan98                           guage and thought, 78
local centres in, 85, 98     Hume, Joseph, 28
progress of the settlement of, IIuskisson, Mr., on labor, xxiii., 142,
389                          and capital, 322
Grove, W. R., 8, 26, 117         Huxley, Prof., 9, 26, 158
Guizot, Mr., on civilization, 345,
346
Guyot, Professor, 95             TMMIGRATION, that of the United
I States at different periods, 339
Imperfect beings, resemblance of inJIAMILTON, Alexander, 200          dividual parts of, 95
Harmony of interests, indivi- Independence and interdependence,
dual and national, 263       145, 306
necessity for proper apprecia- Indestructibility of matter, E. Petion of the, 342             shine Smith on, 127
Hastings, Warren, 312            India, 7, 27, 185, 206, 249, 311




422                         INDEX.
India-                           Individualityabsence of self-respect on the   growth and decline of, 98, 99,
part of English masters of,      100, 101
320                            growth of, in various countries,
and Ireland, submission to the     98, 99
British system in, 348        in the   Northern  States of
annihilation of domestic com-      America, 101
merce in, 355          Induction, analogy the soul of, 117
of manufactures in, 354  Industrial army of England, for
British exports to, 277                    whom does it labor?
taxation of, 82                        239, 248, 249
centralization in, 84                   who profit by its lachiefs and princes, violations of          bors? 251
pledges to, 316            Inferior lands in Britain now abancivilization in, 239           doned, 19
cotton in, 277, 405          Infibulation, 187
deaths by famine in, 82      Inspiration, 50
effects of the introduction of ma- Intellectual effort, effect of, on comchinery into, 340            munities and men, 95
enforced idleness in, 249    Intelligence, High, xvii.
England's treatment of, 141  Interdependence, growth of, 307
English monopoly in, 319         growth of, with the triumphs of
famines and rebellions in, 141     mental force, 298
financial policy of Mr. Wilson   of men, grows with growing inin, 279                          dependence of nations, 145
local centres of, 88            throughout society, the base of
Lord Macaulay on the misgov-       independence, 306
ernment of, 240            Intoxicating liquors, consumption
Lord Mayo on taxation in, 321              of, in Great Britain,
on the discontent and grow-            830, 331, 332
ing danger in, 320                in the United States,
people of, 277, 278                        332
process of exhaustion in, 319  Intuition, 50
productions of, 318          Inventors regarded by Mr. Mill as
progress of the settlement of,  non-producers of wealth, 5
389                       Inverted pyramid, the British edipublic debt of, 82            fice takes from year to year more
ruin of the cotton manufacture  the form of an, 325
of, by England, 202        Ireland, 7, 13, 120, 147, 185, 206,
small power of self direction in,  313
172, 173                       and Belgium, 847
taxation in, 318-319, 407        centralization destroys individuthe English in, 311, 312           ality in, 99
the people of, under tribute to  decline of individuality in, 99
England, 819                   destruction of the woolen manuvindictiveness of English mas-     facture of, 354
ters in, 320                   England's industrial warfare
waste of labor in, 317                 upon, 182
waste of material and mental         treatment of, 354
force in, 318, 355             English slaves sold in, 309
wheat rotting in, 250           famines in, 370
Indian questions in the House of     insubordination in, 140
Commons, 82' proletaires" in, 409
Individuality, absence of, in the East  prosperity of, from  1782 to
and in Africa, 109               1800, 354




INDEX.                          423
Ireland-                         Kingsley, Rev. Chas., 156, 836
small power of association and Kirk, Professor, 246
self-direction among the people of, 172
woollen manufacture of, " dis-  ABOR, British war upon, unjust
countenanced" by Parliament 1    and impolitic, 336
of England, 310                competition for the purchase of,
Irish famine, Mr. Disraeli on the       has no existence in any counbeneficial effects of, 173            try controlled by England, 262
Irishman, effect of emigration on the,  Ernest Jones on, 255
338                                increased competition for the
Irishmen, the rights of, 311           sale of, in all the countries
Irish people, starvation of the, 241   controlled by England, 260
woollen manufacture, effect of   Mr. Buckle on the rewards of,
interdiction of the, by Parlia-  347, 348
ment, 258                      Mr. Huskisson on, 142
Iron in Germany, 188                     on keeping it down, xviii.,
production and consumption of,          322
in the United States, 393      power, the most perishable of
ore, Spanish, supplied to Bri-     commodities, 184
tain, 272                      waste of, in India, 317
Italy, centralization in, 84, 86, 87  Laborer in England, Mr. Ruskin on
consolidation of the land in, 345  the condition of the, 261
imperial, 137                Laborers, dwellings of, in Britain, 329
local centres in, 86, 87, 98     non-consuming, 238
progress of the settlement of,    of England at the close of the
386                               18th century, 814
Laing, Samuel, 74, 91, 92, 243
ACKSON, General, on agriculture Lambert, Rev. Brooke, on the seveTACKSON, General, on agriculture         between rich and poor in
rance between rich and poor in
e! and manufactures, 205Great Britain, 272
Jacquerie, the, 139, 146, 300    Lancashire children, 242
Jamaica, coffee in, 44 XLancashire children, 242
Jamaica, coffee in, 404
the rich soil of, 238
English cruelties in, 324        the rich soil of, 238
ruin ins 140 crueltweavers, weakness of for selfT~~''T1 a~ ~, *~..protection, 259
James I., of England, prosperity in     proprition a   d 
the reign of, 303  Land, appropriation and division of,
rate of interest in the    among the Germanic tribes,
rate of interest in the
reign of, 303             297
reJap, c iviliztin of, 303        -grabbers of England, 253
Java and Sumiatra coffee in 404  Lands early cultivated in Great BriJava and Sumatra, coffee in, 404
tain and now abandoned, 19
Jefferson, Thomas, on manufactures, L anguage, of, 77, 78
Q203'Language, of, 77, 78
Jenkins, Mr., his work, The Coolie   of physics, 9
285                                of political economy, confusion
and discord of the, 9
Jevons, Professor, on value, 10 
John   of Leydenss, 146on valu,  Laplace's " Celestial Mechanics, 41
John of Leyden,  146             Laveleye, M. de, on education in
Jones, Ernest, 254France 179
Journal des Economistes, 29Lavoiie,          94
Lavoisier, 9, 42
Jurisprudence, 60                     oxygen of, 40
Law of population, Malthus's, 368
rELLEY, Hon. Wm. D., 219         Laws of mind and laws of matter,
Kepler, 32, 36                        Mr. Mill on the, 148
Kidnapping, English, throughout the   of nature, Oersted on the uniEast, 323                             versality of the, 129




421                         INDEX.
Laws-                            Malthus, Mr.physical and social, 116, 180        his Law of PopulZtion, and
Lawson, Sir Wilfrid, 399                   its effect in crushing out
Leader, quoted 267                         Christian feeling, 868
Lee, Dr. Daniel, on American agri-       his theory of population,
culture, 209                             145, 147, 314
Lesley, 8                        Malthusian and Darwinian laws, 295
Le Verrier, 9                    Malthusianism, 841
Liberia, coffee in, 404          Malthusian law, 66, 70, 73
Liebig, 2, 117                   Man, 130, 134
Linen, consumption of, in Great Bri-  dependence and weakness of the
tain, 332                            early, xv., 77, 352
List, Frederick, and the Zoll-Verein,  gravitates towards his fellow
191                                  man, 80
Local association in Greece, 85, 98  how social science treats of, 115
centres and local action, 81, 85,  individuality a distinctive qual86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93,      ity of, 94
98                             in society, laws governing, 75
centres, growth of, 377              proper mode of studying,
governments, effects of the de-        57
struction of, 82               nothing in the eyes of political
Loch, on the clearances in Suther-     economy,;2
landshire, 241                     rising in the scale in countries
Locke, John, on increase of pauper-    in which population grows
ism in England, 310                  most rapidly, 295
Logic, an instrument and not a sci-  scientific method of inquiry in
ence, 36, 50                         the study of, 375
London and Glasgow poor, absence     the early, nature's slave, 294
of power of self-direction in,  the master of nature, 147
170                           the, of the economists, 15, 59,
and Paris, 81                      60, 61
condition of poor of, 246        the real, 61, 76, 103, 125, 139,
deaths from starvation in, 329         162, 298, 309
missionaries needed for the con-     characteristics of, 298
version of, 336                the subject of social science, 77-.
Louis X. proclaims that Frenchmen      115
should of right be free, 307   Manila, coffee in, 404
Lucretius, grand  conception  of, Mankind, slight increase in the
105                              numbers of in 2000 years, xiv., 407
Lycurgus and Solon, 136          Manners, equality the school of, 296
Lyell, Sir Charles, 26, 358      Man's relations to the outside material world, 67
Manufactures in the United States,
MACARTNEY, Lord, his mission to    393
China, 321                   Manufacturing feudalization, 243
Macaulay, Lord, 273, 301, 304, 308, Maracaibo, coffee in, 404
311, 342, 354          Marius and Sylla, 137
on the misgovernment of Markets near, for agricultural proIndia, 240               duce, 356
Machinery and steam, 238         Maryland, settlement of, 358
effect of the introduction of, into Massachusetts, common schools in,
India, 340                       358
Maize, 347, 348                      education in, 110
Malthus, Mr., xi., 16, 21, 240, 406  Masses, contempt for the, in England,
and the strife for life, 295  364




INDEX.                         425
Master of nature, the, 147       Mill, J. S.Materialism, xix, 124.               exhibit of man of the econoMaterialistic character of the Eng-    mists, by, 15
lish system, xix.              inconsistencies of, 351
nature of the doctrines of the   on English beneficence, 359
Ricarao-Malthusian school of   on improvements in the arts of
economists, 1,                   production, 351
Material wealth, 1                   On Liberty, 391
Mathematics an instrument, and not   on mind and matter, 5
a science, 36, 50                  on political economy, 1, 148,
Matter against mind, British crusade   149, 150, 263
of, 308                            on reasoning from assumptions,
Matter and mind, 148-293               15, 154
Matter, how man obtains power over,  on social science, 58
52                             on the a priori method of reaindestructibility of, 45, 46, 127  soning, 13
its control over mind, 324       on the existing wealth of EngMr. Mill's definition of, 162     land, 2, 6
perpetuity of, xii.              on the law of the productiveness
supreme, when, 294                 of agricultural labor, 17, 18
Maurice, Prof., on Will and Volition,  on the law of the return to
106                                  agricultural labor, 350
Mayflower, the, 357                  on the laws of mind and matter,
Mayo, Lord, 320                        148
assassination of, 407            on the "progress of civilizaMcCulloch, J. R., on absenteeism,      tion," 351
369                                on the raw products of the soil,
McLeod, Mr., on value, 11, 12          22
Meat, the prime object of English    on the soil cultivated in a newly
agriculture, 293                     settled country, 18, 19, 20, 21
Mechanical inventions, Mr. Mill on   on value, 10
the influence of, on human toil;  regards great inventors as non251                                  producers of wealth, 5
Mechi, Alderman, on the advantages   upon the effect of mechanical
of near markets for agricultural     inventions in influencing huproduce, 356                         man toil, 251, 351
Mental force, waste of, in India, 318  wages fund theory of, 18
Men, the various classes of, 130  Mind and matter, relations of, 161
Metaphysicians, the, 299                 morals, 294, 344
the, reasoning downwards of,     base of operations for the de350                              velopment of, 343
the reasonings of, 105           over matter, power of, how deMetaphysics, 50                        veloped, 296
Method, the present, of economists, Mirabeau on centralization, 179
30                         Misery and destitution in England,
the proper, for the study of   247, 327, 329
nations, vii.              Missionaries for London, 336
Mexico, 141                      Missionary and trader, 335
Meyer, 117                       Mivart quoted, 76
Middle Ages, philosophers of the, 3Q Molecular gravitation, law of, 79
Military forces under Tiberius, 409  Monopoly, effect of, in England, 255
Mill, James, xx.                     system, resistance to, in the
Mill, J. S., definition of matter, 162  Northern States, 360
exclusion of the moral and men- Moral and mental elements, Adam
tal elements by, 2           Smith's appreciation of the, 1




426                          INDEX.
Moral feeling, growth of, 306     Negro slavery, sensihiveness of the
inconsistent with bodily im-    British conscience on, 323
purity, 329                 New Holland, savages of, 352
sense, the development of, a Newton and the law of gravitation,
consequence of sound social   36, 41
action, 299                New York, Philadelphia, and Boston,
Morals, mind and, 294, 344         81
the root of all, 333         New York, settlement of, 358
Morley, Prof., on the characteristics Nicholls's History of the English Poor
of English policy, 289           Laws, 304, 360
Morse, Prof., 2, 7, 26, 336      Nineveh and Babylon, 80
Muller, Max, on thought and lan- Non-resistance to England's policy
guage, 78                        in the United States, 212, 215,
Munro, Sir Thomas, on Indian civi-  218, 232
lization, 239                  Northern States, association in, 144
Murchison, 26                             education in, 110
Muscular force, substitution of the      ofAmerica, centralizing and
fingers and the eyes for, 298                 decentralizing forces
in, 93
individuality in, 101
APOLEON, inverted pyramid cre- North, Roger, on the Law of SettleN    ated by the Emperor, 177     ment, 360
on free trade, 30            Norway, local attraction in, 91
the continental system of, 191
the existing monuments of his
reign, 177                 OCCUPATION of the earth, 382,
III., destruction of the power O0            f the earth  82
of association by, 178
of association by, 178          of the earth, Sir Chas. Dilke on,
awards proposed by, 337                412
Nasse's Village Communities, 297         the law of     17
Nations, power of, to purchase the    ted on the unvrsalt      t
labor of other nations, 254  Oersted on the universality of natulabor of other nations, 254  ra la      129
profit by development of the   ral laws, 129
powers of each other, 263  Oligarchies of  landlordism  and
powers of each other, 263
proper method for the study of,  wealt in  Englan, 253
v-i.                        Opera in France, 179
be. fostered 298Opium in China, 322
Natural affections and instincts must Opium  in China, 322
be fostered, 298                trade, 320, 331, 395, 403
be fostered,.298Mr. Duff Grant on, 399,
forces brought to the aid of man,      402
5i, 8
forces, civilization grows with Orchard fruit, production of, in the
forces, civilization grows with  UnitdStaes, 394
the growth of man's power to   ni,
command the, 373           Organisms, perfection of, 130
forces, control of by Great Bri- Organoly, 
~tam~, 318  ~        Orissa, famines in, 408
forces, ect of their being Overend    and Gurney, failure of,
forces, effect of their being
pressed into man's service,..
296pressd io m   s         Overpopulation, causes giving rise
rate of wages, Ricardo on the,  to the doctrie of, 147
62, 369
science, the several branches,
48                         DACIFIC Mills, Lawrence, 337
Nature, forces of, man's command l      Ocean, settlement of islands
over the, 68                           of, 389
Nature's slave, the early man, 294  Palmerston, Lord, 287




INDEX.                          427
Parliament of England " discount- Poor and ignorant, absence of power
enances the woolen manufactures      of self-direction in the, 170
of Ireland," 310                   laws, English, 360
Pascal on the succession of men,     of Great Britain, Blackwood's
75                                   Magazine on, 268
Pauperism, ever rising tide of, in   whites of the South, 212
England, 30                Population question, 406-407
growth of, in England after the  condition of man in countries
Restoration, 310                 in which it declines, 295
Paupers in England, 248              condition of man in countries
of England, slight power of self-  in which it most rapidly indirection in, 171                creases, 295
Peel, Sir Robert, 242            Porto Rico, coffee in, 404
Pennsylvania and Virginia, 348   Portugal, 7, 185, 249
Penn, William, 358                   small power of self-direction
Perfect being, dissimilarity of the    in, 172
parts of a, 95                     trade of, 168
Pericles, age of, 98             Positive knowledge, first elements
Perkins, C. C., 337                        of, 33
Peru, Pizarro in, 311                    of the uncultured, 306, 343,
Philadelphia, productions of, 318              350
productive power of a single             Herbert Spencer on
cotton mill in, 318                      the, 34, 299, 263
Philosophers of the schools, 39  Positives and negatives, societary,
Physical and mental science, socie-    119, 120, 131, 132, 135, 140,
tary science the link between,   144, 172, 174, 178, 181, 258,
vii.                             261, 278, 280, 290, 293, 297,
and social laws, 116-130           299, 303, 304, 326, 348, 353,
the close relations of,    362, 366, 374, 377
127                    decline in self-respect as they
force, development of, 306         become more widely separated,
science, highest law of, 122      366
Physics, 49                      Pottinger, Sir Henry, on British faith
and chemistry, 42             in India, 316
unity and universality of the Poverty and wretchedness throughlanguage of, 9               out the world, xvii.
Physiology, vegetable ana animal, Powell, Rev. Baden, on induction, 117
43                                     quoted, 76
Pierce, Prof., 8                 Power of combination throughout
Plantagenets, England in the days      nature, 374
of the, 139                    of self-direction, 102
population of England in the         absence of, xv., 294
time of the, 234               over nature, not regarded as
Planter, the, and the natural rate of  wealth by British economists,
wages, 369                           4
Poland, 139                      Price, of, 23
Political economy, a science based Prices and wages, J. B. Say on, ix.
upon assumptions, 1    Priestley, 42
Comte on, 31             Producers and consumers, decline of
confusion and discord of   self-respect as they become sepathe language of, 9       rated, 366
methods of, 30-32        Production and consumption, 127
Mr. Mill on, 148, 149, 150,  definition of, 376
263                    Productive force under the control
present position of, 31, 32  of Great Britain, 330




428                         INDEX.
Progress, man's capacity for, 111  Raw material and finished commodiProletaire of ancient times, 406, 408  ties, 23
of Guiana, 286               Reasoning downwards of metaphyof Orissa, 408                     sicians, 299
Proletaires, Irish, 369, 409         from assumed premises, 105
Proletariat, 236, 346, 349, 406-410  from facts to principles, 105
clamors of, for protection, 349  proper mode of, 350
of England, 256, 258, 261, 267, Rebellion, great power developed in
271, 273, 283, 284, 326, 328,  the United States during the late,
331, 336                     220, 221
Proletarius, 406                 Rebels, difference in the treatment
Pro-slavery party in the United    of, by England and America, i865,
States, 213                      366 
Protection in Germany, 186       Reform, empirical, in Great Britain,
in Russia, 193                 273
in the United States, 202    Reforms, British, 289
object of, 7                 Religious liberty in Maryland and
Protective countries those alone           Pennsylvania, 358
which profit by the great dis-         in Rhode Island, 358
coveries of the age, 250           prejudice, conquest of, in the
Prussia, 89, 110                       United States, 358
education in, 110            Republic of the West, founders of the,
efforts towards association in,  307
143                        Resistance and non-resistance to
land in, 189                   the English policy in the United
resistance to the English sys-  States, 208, 209, 216, 392-395
tem by, 186, 206           Responsibility, 107
Psychology, 50                      individuality and  association
Ptolemy, 8, 16                         grow together, 111
Public debt of the United States, 393 Restoration, armies disbanded at
schools in America, 358, 360      the, 305
Punic war, second, 346               prosperity at the date of, 305
Punishment provided for disobe   Revenue and expenditure of the
ence of natural laws, 168            United States, 231
Punjab, wheat rotting in the, 250    of Great Britain, 284
Purity, moral and bodily, 329        Roman, 409
Pyramid, inverted, 176, 177      Rhode Island, settlement of, 357
the form which gives greatest Ricardo-Malthusian economists limit
stability  and  permanence,  their science to study of the pro270                          gress of material wealth, 1
Pyramids, strength of, 163, 167  Ricardo, Mr., 16
on the "natural rate of
wages," 369
_UARTERLY Review, on "Econo-            on the occupation of the
mic Fallacies," 30                   earth, 391
on the proletariat, 236, 256  Ricardo's theory of rent, x. xi., 66,
Queen's Lieut.-Gen., in India, play-  70
ing the freebooter and auctioneer, Rich and poor, the widening gulf
317                              between, in England, 272, 327
Queensland, slave traffic in, 323  Rights of humanity, Adam Smith on
the, 366
of labor and the grave of free
RAGS and paper, 23, 134                trade, 289
Railroads in France, 179      Rogers, his History of Agriculture,
in the United States, 393    235, 301




INDEX.                          429
Roman and British systems, 409   Scienceempire, downfall of, 138         a, without a recognized lanmilitary forces, 409               guage, 15
power, force and fraud the       based upon assumptions, 1-32
foundations of, 137            genesis of, 34
proconsular administration of,   of the nature of the individual
and British trading oppres-      mind, Mr. Mill on the, 263
sion in India, compared, 319   one and indivisible, 65
proletaire, 406                  the " buy-cheap-and-sell-dear,"
Republic and Empire, 87            299
revenue, 409                     the gates and the keys of, 38
Senate sought dominion only,     the tree of, xxi., 47, 157
319                        Scientific relations, 374, 375
Rome and Britain, 346                wealth, 3
centralization of, 86        Scotland, decline of individuality in,
decline of civilization in, 345    100
pauperism  and demoralization   in the days of Fletcher, 147
of the people of, 346          wretchedness in, 329
slight tendency toward associ- Scottish Highlanders, eviction of,
ation in, 137                    241
Roses, wars of the, 301              highlands, inferior land in the,
Rousseau on the difficulty of observ-      early cultivated and now
ing facts near to us, 41                 abandoned, 19
Rumford, Count, 116                      sheep walks, 293
Ruskin, John, on the condition of    people, 242
English labor, 261             Scott, Sir Walter, 7
Russell, Earl, 364                   Sir William, confiscation of
Russia, 191, 197                       American ships and cargoes
advance of civilization in, 195    by, 201
America, and Germany, 228, Self-direction, growth of, prevented
229, 33'                         by England, 252, 260
free trade in, Mr. Cobden on,    how the power of, becomes de196                              veloped, 102, 297
Germany, and the United States,  slight power of, in various counpeople of, 295                   tries, 170, 171, 172, 173
manufactures in, 191         Selfishness and self-respect the chaprotective tariff of, 193      racteristics of barbarism on the
Prussia, and  America, 287,    one hand and of civilization on
293                          the other, 353
Self-love and self-gratification the
characteristics of savage life, 353
QATURDAY Review, its definition Self-respect, civilization consists in,
of political economy, 1             373
Savage, brain of the, and its develop-  effect of the feeling of, 297, 299
ment, 371                      feeling of, in the United States,
inhumanity and irresponsibility    333
of the, 107, 108               growth of, 297, 299, 331, 362,
life, characteristics of the, 353  366, 375
Savages of New Holland, 352      Self-worship, xx.
Saving fund deposits in the United Serfs of the loom, 243
States, 394                    Shadwell on the effects of near marSaxon churls, 235, 349             kets in England, 184
Say, J. B., on wages and prices, ix. Shakespeare, 357
Schools, philosophers of the, 39  Sheep walks in Scotland, 370
Science and its methods, 33-76       of the Scottish Highlands, 293




430                        INDEX.
Sheffield cutlers, 258          Smuggler, " the great reformer of the
Ships and wagons, compulsory em-  age," 3835
ployment of, 181              Smugglers of poison, English gov"Shopkeepers," Adam Smith on the  ernment allied with, 320
" nation of," 26              Social ind physical laws, 116-130
Sicily, Gaul, and India, 319        science, causes of the slow proSilesia, co-operative bank in, 189        gress of, 71
Simplicity and truth travel always      definition of, 115
together, 63                          how it treats of man, 115
Sismondi, M. de, 62, 139                J. S. Mill on, 58
Skill and taste, substitution of, for   man the subject of, 77-115
muscular force, 298                   M. Comte on, 55
Skilled labor in England, 410           nothing in, as now taught,
Slave not a responsible being, 107        universally accepted as
traffic, Englisl, 323                 true, 70
Slavery and freedom, circumstances Societary life, analogies of electricity
which mark their respective     and, 117, 121
growths, 254                  organization, 130-148
English denunciations of, 211   positives and negatives, 119,
injurious effects of, 264         120, 131, 132, 135, 140, 144,
in Rome, 346                      172, 174, 178, 181, 258, 261,
in the Southern States, 93, 209   278, 280, 290, 293, 297, 299,
Slaves imported into Virginia, 360    303, 304, 326, 348, 353, 362,
non-consuming, of England, for    366, 374, 377
whom   do they labor? 239,    science the link connecting phy248, 249                        sical and mental science, vii.
Smith, Adam, xvii., 8, 0, 30, 31, 61, Society, the grand man so called, 145
167, 273, 277, 281, 325  Sociology, 50
grandeur of the science of  Herbert Spencer on, 125
which he laid the founda-  of M. Comte, defects of the, 58
tions, 26              Soil, exhaustion of the, in the United
his appreciation  of the  States, 209
moral and mental ele- Solon and Lycurgus, 136
ments, 1              Solonian laws, 139
his system abandoned by South America, 147
those who profess them-       States of, 279-281
selves his followers, 28  non-resistance to English policy
on the occupation of the      by the, 212
earth, xi.                poor whites of the, 212
on the policy of national   weakness of the, during the reshopkeeping, 367             cent war, 7
on the rights of humanity, Southern policy, 214
366                       States, absence of education in,
repudiation of the most           111
essential parts of the        decline in the power of
teachings of, by his nom-       association in, 144
inal disciples, 3             of America, absence of
E. Peshine, xii.                          individuality in, 101
on production and eon-              centralization in, 93
sumption, 127         Southey, Robert, 241
on the indestructibility of Spain, local centres of, 88, 99
matter, 127           Spanish American States, revoluon the children in the brickyards     tions in, 250
of England, 247                   wants of the, 339, 340
Professor Goldwin, 253              wars in, 141




INDEX.                          431
Sparta, absence of individuality in, Terms used in science, importance
137                              of a knowledge of the value of, 8
Spartans, games of the, 306      Tewksbury, the battle of, 301
Spencer, HIerbert, 29, 263       Thirty years' war, ruin caused by
on a "moral sense," 299    the, 176
on the genesis of science, Thomson, Sir Wm., on scientific
34                               wealth, 3
regards psychology as the        on the effort to bring zoolpredecessor of sociology,        ogy within the range of
125                              natural philosophy, 46
Stahl, phlogiston of, 40                 on the grand conceptions of
Stanley, Lord, 289                         Lucretius, 105
Starvation in London, 329        Thought and language, 78
Statesman, spirit of moderation ad- Thralls, the born, of England, 234
verse to the tranquillity of the, 373 Tiberius, military forces under, 409
Statistical facts, American, 892-395 Times, London, on the Celt, 338
St. Domingo, coffee in, 404          on the cruelties perpetrated in
Steadiness an imperative demand of     Jamaica, 324
commerce, 14                   Tocqueville, M. de, on the absence
Steam and machinery, power of, 318     of sympathy with England,
power of, in England, 238      409
effect of the substitution of, for  on the English, and their ideas
muscular force, 298              of justice, 290
use of, 6                    Torrens's Empire in Asia, 311, 312,
Strong and weak, circumstances un-  31(;, 317, 318, 319
der which they tend to come to- Towton, the battle of, 301
gether on terms of strict equality, Trade and commerce look always
298, 306                             in opposite directions, 15
Stuarts, Scotland, in the age of the,  and manufacture, Adam Smith
139                                  on, 26
Subordination, 131, 132              definition of, 376
and inter-dependence, 132        supremacy of, in England, 311
Sugar beet in France, 177            the sole object of consideration
consumption of, in the United      in England, 267
States, 394                Trade and commerce, words representtrade, French, 405             ing totally opposite ideas, 15
Sumner, Charles, 291             Trader and missionary, 335
Supply and demand, 283               operations of the, alone conSurinam, coffee in, 404                sidered by modern econo"Survival of the fittest," doctrine    mists, 2
of, xx., 156, 370                  tyranny of the, 365
Sutherlandshire, clearances in, 241  Traders, small power of self-direction
Switzerland, decentralization in, ~0  in, 171
Sylla and Marius, 346            Trading class, growth of the power
Synthesis and analysis, 64             of the, 363'warfare," a grave mistake, 263
Transportation, release from the tax
TAXATION in Britain, 408           of, 6
in India, 406                 Tree of science grows from the root
Tax of transportation, release from  upward, xxi., 47
the, 6                         Triumphs of mental force, growth of
Tea, consumption in the United     interdependence coincident with,
States, 394                      298
Telegraph, wealth and power result- Tudor period, oligarchy of landlording from its use, 4              ism in the, 253




432                         INDEX.
Turkey, 7, 120, 186, 249         United Statesdisappearance of societary or-   sugar consumption in, 394
ganization in, 140            tea consumption in, 394
small power of self-direction in,  how treated by England in the
172, 173                         war of the rebellion, 325
Tyler, President, messages of 1842,  wool production and consumpand 1844, 232                    tion in, 393
Wat, 300                     Unity of force, and unity of law, vii.,
Tyndall, Prof., 9, 26                  xii., 122
on the conservation of force,    of science the reflection of the
121                              unity of nature, 76
Tyrannical restrictions on British Utility, definition of, 376
colonial domestic commerce, 27
T ALUE and wealth, definitions of,
TTLYSSES, 295                       12
U   Uncultured, positive knowledge   conflicting ideas of the econoof the, 34, 153, 263             mists regarding, 10
United States, the, 198-234          definition of, 376
aid extended by, to Great Brit-  law of, vii., viii.
ain in 1866, 269               Mr. McLeod on, 10, 11
and Great Britain, consumption   Mr. Mill on, 10
of cotton and wool in, 233     of what does it consist, 13, 152
coffee consumption in, 394       Professor Jevons on, 11
consumption of intoxicating liq- Vassalage in manufacture and trade,
uors in, 332                 243
cotton consumption in, 393   Vegetable physiology, 50
customs revenue of the, 339  Venice, trade of, 168
early action of Congress looking Verres and Fonteius, 346
to the encouragement of man- Virginia, absence of instruction in,
ufactures in, 200                212
foreign commerce of, 393         importation of slaves into, 360
government loans of, to the      non-resistance of, to English
States, 234                      monopoly system, 361
great power developed in, under  character of early settlers of, 359
the resistant policy, 220, 221  Volition and will, 106
growth of wealth in, 392
in 1819-20-24, 204, 207
increase of wealth in, from 1860  TAGES, advance of, in England,
to 1870, 224               W    from 1610 to 1660, 304
iron production and consump-     and prices, J. B. Say on, ix.
tion in, 393                   and work in England, 410
manufactures in, 393             fund theory of Mr. Mill, 18
production of orchard fruits in,  in France, Belgium, and Ger394                              many, 410
public debt of, 393              Mr. Ricardo on the natural
railroads in, 393                  rate of, 62, 369
revenue and expenditure of, 231  of agricultural labor in EngRussia and Germany, people of      land, 245
the, 295                   Wakefield, Gilbert, 373
saving fund deposits in, 394  Wallenstein, 176
statistical facts, showing the Warfare, English industrial, 181, 183
working of the resistant and   of Britain on the industries of
non-resistant policies in, 392-  other nations, 317, 355
395                        Washington, President, 200




INDEX.                         433
Waste of power consequent on Eng- Wilson, Mr., finance minister of Inland's industrial warfare, 253  dia, policy of 279
Watt, inventor of the steam-engine, 2 Women and children employed in
and Howe, 344             British agriculture, 244
Weak and strong, how equality is Woolaston, 72
brought about between the. 306  Woolens, consumption of, in the
Weakness of communities limited to  British islands, 329
exhausting the soil, 7        Wool, production and consumption
Wealth and poverty in England, 252    of, in the United States, 393
and power resulting from the    production of, in the world, 329
use of the telegraph, 4   woolens, and worsteds, consumpgrowth of, 13                 tion of in the United States
circumstances on which depends    and Great Britain, 233
the growth of, 6, 129     Worcester, battle of, 349
definition of, 376          Word worship, 74
growth of, in the United States, Work and wages, Brassey on, 410
392                           the blessed gospel of, 308, 333,
Mr. Mill on, 850                  350
of the United States, increase World, on whom rests the responsiin from 1860 to 1870, 224   bility for the disturbed condition
of what does it consist? 3, 6, 59  of the, 292
oligarchy of, in England, 253
producers, 2, 7
scientific, 3.   yAVIER, 335
Wells, David A., 224, 230, 392, 393 IA.  Xenophon on the dependence
West Indies, 313                      of agriculture upon mining
Westminster Review on method in       and manufactures, 51
political economy, 30-32
Whately, Archbishop, 345
on the absence of definitions  TEOMIANRY of England, 236, 249
in political economy, 9  1  Youmans, Prof. E. L., xiii.,
Wheat rotting in the Punjab, 250      117, 375
William of Orange, 358
Williams, Roger, 357
Willing slaves, the command cf, 7  7OLLVEREIN, 186, 190
Will, the, 106, 299              j Zoology, effort to bringit within
and volition, 106                 the range of natural philosothe metaphysicians on the, 105,   phy, 46
106, 299
28
















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from the French by M. L. BOOTH. With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. 12mo., cloth..$1 50
BOOTH AND MORFIT.-THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMISTRY,
PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL:
Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy,
Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By JAMES C. BOOTH,
Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of
Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by
CAMPBELL MORFIT, author of "Chemical Manipulations," etc.
Seventh edition. Complete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978
pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. $5 00
BOWDITCH.-ANALYSIS, TECHNICAL VALUATION, PURIFICATION, AND USE OF COAL GAS:
By Rev. W. R. BOWDITCH. Illustrated with wood engravings. 8vo....                          $6 50
BOX.-PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS:
A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc.
By THOMAS Box. 12mo.                            $2 50
BDICKMASTER.-THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL PHYSICS:
By J. C. BUCKMASTER, late Student in the Government School
of Mines; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of
Science and Art; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the
Royal College of Preceptors; and late Lecturer in Chemistry
and Physics of the Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated
with numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo.. $1 50
BULLOCK.-THE AMERICAN COTTAGE BUILDER:
A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to
to $20,000 for Homes for the People; together with Warming, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Gardening. By JOHN BULLOCK, Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechanician, and Editor of "The Rudiments of Architecture and
Building," etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. In one vol.
8vo.......... $3 50




4         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
ULLOCK. - THE     RUDIMENTS    OF   ARCHITECTURE     AND
BUILDING:
For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, Engineers, and Mechanics. Edited by JOHN BULLOCK,
author of "The American Cottage Builder." Illustrated by
250 engravings. In one volume 8vo....     50
BURGH.-PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF LAND AND MARINE ENGINES:
Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of High and Low
Pressure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together
with Land and Marine Boilers. By N. P. BITRGI, Engineer.
Illustrated by twenty plates, double elephant folio, with text.
$21 00
B URGH.-PRACTICAL RULES FOR THE PROPORTIONS OF
MODERN ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR LAND AND MARINE PURPOSES.
By N. P. BURGn, Engineer. 12mo...    $2 00
BURGH.-THE SLIDE-VALVE PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED:
By N. P. BURGH, author of " A Treatise on Sugar Machinery,"'Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine Engines," "A
Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for Designing Land and Marine Engines, Boilers," etc. etc. etc. Completely illustrated.
12mo.......... $2 00
YRN.z-THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER:
Or, Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of
Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making
Bavarian Beer, all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Gingerpop, Sarsaparilla-beer, Mead, Spruce beer, etc. etc. Adapted
to the use of Public Brewers and Private Families. By M. LA
FAYETTE BYRN, M. D. With illustrations. 12mo.    $1 25
BYR.-THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER:
Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Practical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification;
including all of the most recent improvements in distilling
apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc.; directions for the distillation and
preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc. etc.; all of which is so simplified that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive distillers, but for every farmer, or others who may wish to engage
in the art of distilling  By M. LA FAYETTE BYRN, M. D.
With numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo.  $1 50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE                5
BYRNE.-POCKET BOOK FOR RAILROAD AND CIVIL ENGIz
NEERS:
Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out
Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the
Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earth-work, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE.
Illustrated, i8mo., full bound...         $1 75
BYRNE.-THE HANDBOOK FOR THE ARTISAN, MECHANIC,
AND ENGINEER:
By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by 185 Wood Engravings. 8vo.
$5 00
BYRNE.-THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL MECHANICS:
For Engineering Students, based on the Principle of Work.
By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by Numerous Wood Engravings, 12mo.                                    $3 63
B-YRNE.-THE PRACTICAL METAL-WORKER'S ASSISTANT:
Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all
Metals and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and
Tempering; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding;
Works in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the
Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; and the most Improved
Processes and Tools employed by Metal-Workers. With the
Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufacturing Processes;'collected from Original Sources, and from the
Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, and
others. By OLIVER BYRNE. A New, Revised, and improved
Edition, with Additions by John Scoffern, M. B, William Clay,
Wm. Fairbairn, F. R. S., and James Napier. With Five Hundred and Ninety-two Engravings; Illustrating every Branch
of the Subject. In one volume, 8vo. 652 pages. $7 00
BYRNE.-THE PRACTICAL MODEL CALCULATOR:
For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work,
Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By OLIVER BYRNE.
1 volume, 8vo., nearly 600 pages.... $4 50
BEMROSE.-MANUAL OF WOOD CARVING: With Practical IIlustriations for Learners of the Art, and Original and Selected designs. By WILLIAM BEMROSE, Jr. With an Introduction by
LLEWELLYN JEWITT, F. S. A., etc. With 128 Illustrations. 4to.,
cloth..                                        $3 00




6         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
B AIRD.-PROTECTION OF HOME LABOR AND HOME PRODUCTIONS NECESSARY TO THE PROSPERITY OF THE
AMERICAN FARMER:
By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. 8vo., paper....   10
BAIRD.-THE RIGHTS OF AMERICAN PRODUCERS, AND THE
WRONGS OF BRITISH FREE TRADE REVENUE REFORM.
By HENRY CAREY BAIRD. (1870)....    5
BAIRD.-SOME OF THE FALLACIES OF BRITISH-FREE-TRADE
REVENUE-REFORM.
Two Letters to Prof. A. L. Perry, of Williams College, Mass. By
HENRY CAREY BAIRD. (1871.) Paper....    5
BAIRD.-STANDARD WAGES COMPUTING TABLES:
An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so arranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rate per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By
T. SPANGLER BAIRD. Oblong folio..           $5 00
B AUERMAN.-TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON.
Illustrated. 12mo.                             $2 50
BICKNELL.S VILLAGE BUILDER.
55 large plates. 4to........    $10 00
BISHOP.-A HISTORY OF AMERICAN MANUFACTURES:
From 1608 to 1866; exhibiting the Origin and Growth of the Principal Mechanic Arts and Manufactures, from the Earliest Colonial
Period to the Present Time; By J. LEANDER BISHOP, M. D., EDWARD YOUNG, and EDWIN T. FREEDLEY. Three vols. 8vo.,
$10 00
BOX.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HEAT AS APPLIED TO
THE USEFUL ARTS:
For the use of Engineers, Architects, etc. By THOMAS Box, author of "Practical Hydraulics." Illustrated by 14 plates, containing 114 figures. 12mo...... $4 25
pABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE:
Comprising a Collection of Designs for the Newest and Most
Elegant Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large
and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one volume, oblong
$5 00
CHAPMAN.-A TREATISE ON ROPE-MAKING:
As practised in private and public Rope-yards, with a Description
of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the
Trade; Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc. By ROBERT
CHAPMAN. 24mo...        ~.       $1 50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.               7
CRAIK.-THE PRACTICAL AMERICAN MILLWRIGHT AND
MILLER.
Comprising the Elementary Principles of Mechanics, Mechanism, and Motive Power, Hydraulics and Hydraulio
Motors, Mill-dams, Saw Mills, Grist Mills, the Oat Meal Mill,
the Barley Mill, Wool Carding, and Cloth Fulling and Dressing, Wind Mills, Steam Power, &c. By DAVID CRAIK, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood engravings, and five
folding plates. 1 vol. 8vo..... $5 00
OAMPIN.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL EN.
GINEERING:
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools,
Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture
of Steam-engines, etc. etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C. E. TG
which are added, Observations on the Construction of Steam
Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E.,
and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels
for Screws on a Turning Lathe,, and for a Wheel-cutting
Machine. By J. LA NICCA. Management of Steel, including
Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and
Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EDE.
8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings.
$6 00
OAMPIN.-THE PRACTICE OF HAND-TURNING IN WOOD,
IVORY, SHELL, ETC.:
With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be
required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also
an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By FRANCIS CAMPIN,
with Numerous Illustrations, 12mo., cloth..$3 00
CAPRON DE DOLE-DUSSAUCE.-BLUES AND CARMINES OF
INDIGO,
A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial
Product derived from Indigo. By FELICIEN CAPRON DE DOLE
Translated, with important additions, by Professor H. DusSAUCE. 12mo.




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
A&REY.-THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY:
CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RESUMPTION? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo.  38
FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper
25
HARMONY OF INTERESTS; Agricultural, Manufacturing,
and Commercial. 8vo., paper..            $1 00
Do.     do.          cloth... $1 50
LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES.
Paper........     $1 00
MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's
"Principles of Social Science." By KATE McKEAN. 1 vol.
12mo........ $2 25
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising "Harmony of Interests," "Money," "Letters to the President," "French and
American Tariffs," "Financial Crises," "The Way to Outdo
England without Fighting Her," "Resources of the Union,"
"The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion," "Review
of the Decade 1857-'67," "Reconstruction," etc. etc. 1 vol.
8vo., cloth...                 $4 50
MONEY: A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geographical and Statistical Society. 8vo., paper...             25
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo... $2 50
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo., cloth
$10 00
REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1857-'67. 8vo., paper       60
RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND POLITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo,
paper......                 50
THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL.         How to
provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxation. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commission. 8vo., paper....                    25
THE RESOURCES OF TIlE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec.
1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical Society, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Advancement of Social Science, Boston... 
THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it
Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., cloth $1 5Q




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.             9
LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT.           (1867.)
Paper....                     50
REVIEW OF THE FARMERS' QUESTION. (1870.) Paper 25
RESUMPTION! HOW IT MAY PROFITABLY BE BROUGHT
AROUT. (1869.) 8vo., paper....    50
REVIEW OF THE REPORT OF HON. D. A. WELLS, Special
Commissioner of the Revenue. (1869.) 8vo., paper  50
SHALL WE HAVE PEACE? Peace Financial and Peace Political. Letters to the President Elect. (1868.) 8vo., paper 50
THE FINANCE MINISTER AND THE CURRENCY, AND
THE PUBLIC DEBT. (1868.) 8vo., paper..    50
THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT FIGHTING
HER. Letters to Hon. Schuyler Colfax. (1865.) 8vo., paper
$1 00
WEALTH! OF WHAT DOES IT CONSIST? (1870.) Paper 25
CAMUS.-A TREATISE ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS:
Demonstrating the best forms which can be given to them for the
purposes of Machinery, such as Mill-work and Clock-work. Translated from the French of M. CAMUs. By JOHN I. HAWKINS.
Illustrated by 40 plates. 8vo...... $3 00
0OXE.-XINING LEGISLATION.
A paper read before the Am. Social Science Association. By
ECKLEY B. COXE. Paper..                      20
COLBURN.-THE GAS-WORKS OF LONDON:
Comprising a sketch of the Gas-works of the city, Process of
Manufacture, Quantity Produced, Cost, Profit, etc. By ZERAH
COLBURN. 8vo., cloth....        5
COLBURN.-THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE:
Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management. By ZERAH COLBURN. Illustrated. A
new edition. 12mo.                           $1 25
pOLBURN AND MAW.-THE WATER-WORKS OF LONDON 
Together with a Series of Articles on various other Water.
works. By ZERAH COLBURN and W. MAW. Reprinted from
"Engineering." In one volume, 8vo... $4 00
D.nGUERREOTYPIST AND PHOTOGRAPHER'S COMPANION:
12mo., cloth......                   1 25




10         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
ITRCKS.-PERPETUAL MOTION:
Or Search for Self-Motive Power during the 17th, 18th, and
19th centuries. Illustrated from various authentic sources in
Papers, Essays, Letters, Paragraphs, and numerous Patent
Specifications, with an Introductory Essay by HENRY DIRCKS,
C. E.   Illustrated by numerous engravings of machines.
12mo., cloth...... $3 50
D IXON.-THE PRACTICAL MILLWRIGHT'S AND ENGINEER'S
GUIDE:
Or Tables for Finding the Diameter and Power of Cogwheels;
Diameter, Weight, and Power of Shafts; Diameter and Strength
of Bolts, etc. etc. By THOMAS DIXON. 12mo., cloth. $1 50
DUNCAN.-PRACTICAL SURVEYOR'S GUIDE:
Containing the necessary information to make any person, of
common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of
a teacher. By ANDREW DUNCAN. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth.
$1 25
DUSSAUCE.-A NEW       AND COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE
ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, AND LEATHER DRESSING:
Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in
France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from
Notes and Documents of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval,
Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Rend, De Fontenelle, Malapeyre, etc. etc. By Prof. H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. Illustrated
by 212 wood engravings. 8vo... $10 00
D USSAUCE -A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE
OF SOAP, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL:
Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, a Description of all the Raw
Materials and their Uses. Directions for the Establishment of a
Sonp Factory, with the necessary Apparatus, Instructions in the
Manufacture of every variety of Soap, the Assay and Determination
of the Value of Alkalies, Fatty Substances, Soaps, etc. etc. By
PROFESSOR H. DUSSAUCE. With an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of the International Jury on Soaps, as
exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867, numerous
Tables, etc etc. Illustrated by engravings. In one volume 8vo.
of over 800 pages.... $10 00
D USSaUCIT.-PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FABRICATION
OF MATCHES, GUN COTTON, AND FULMINATING POWDEa3U.
By Professor II. DUSSAUCE. 12mo.... $3 00




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                11
DUSSAUCE.-A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE PERFUMER:
Being a New Treatise on Perfumery the most favorable to the
Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comfprising a
Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Formuloe of more than one thousand Preparations, such as Cosmetics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinctures, Infusions, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams,
Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described.
Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lunel,
etc. With additions by Professor H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. 12mo.
$3 00
DUSSAUCE.-A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE
OF VINEGAR, THE3RETICAL AND PRACTICAL.
Comprising the various methods, by the slow and the quick pro.
cesses, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Cider, and Molasses, as well
as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar, etc. By Prof. H. DUSSAUCE.
i2mo.                                             $5 00
DUPLAIS.-A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE DISTILLATION
AND MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS:
From the French of M. DUPLAIS. Translated and Edited by M.
MCKENNIE, M D. Illustrated by numerous large plates and wood
engravings of the best apparatus calculated for producing the
finest products. In one vol. royal 8vo.          $10 00
0- This is a treatise of the highest scientific merit and of the
greatest practical value, surpassing in these respects, as well as
in the variety of its contents, any similar volume in the English
language.
DE GRAFF.-THE GEOMETRICAL STAIR-BUILDERS' GUIDE:
Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all
its necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel
Engravings; together with the use of the most approved princi.
ples of Practical Geometry. By SIMON D. GRAFF, Architect.
4to..........                               $5 00
YER AqD COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION:
Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles
and fabrics now in existence; with the Scouring Process, and
plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the
Goods. In one vol. 12mo... $1 25




12        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
pASTON.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON STREET OR HORSEPOWER RAILWAYS:
Their Location, Construction, and Management; with General
Plans and Rules for their Organization and Operation; together with Examinations as to their Comparative Advantages
over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries as to their Value for
Investment; including Copies of Municipal Ordinances relating thereto. By ALEXANDER EASTON, C. E. Illustrated by 23
plates, 8vo., cloth..... $2 00
F RSYTH.-BOOK OF D33IGNS F3R H3AD-STONES, MURAL,
AND OT1IE;  M3NUMHIETSS:
Containinng 78 Elaborate and Isquisite Designs. By FORSYTH.
4to., cloth.........  $5  00
*** This volume, for the beauty and variety of its designs, has
never been surpassed by any publication of the kind, and should
be in the hands of every marble-worker who does fine monumental
work.
pAIRBAIRN.-THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM AND MACHINERY OF TRANSMISSION:
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys,
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplings of Shafts, and
Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN,
Esq., C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S., Corresponding Member
of the National Institute of France, and of the Royal Academy
of Turin; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, etc. etc. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume 12mo.
$2 50
FAIRBAIRN.-PRIME-MOVERS:
Comprising the Accumulation of Water-power; the Construction of Water-wheels and Turbines; the Properties of Steam;
the Varieties of Steam-engines and Boilers and Wind-mills.
By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, C. E, LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S. Author of " Principles of Mechanism and the Machinery of Transmission." With Numerous Illustrations. In one volume. (In
press.)
GILBART.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING:
By JAMES WILLIAM GILBART. TO which is added: THE NATIONAL BANK ACT AS NOW IN FORCE. 8VO... $4 50
GESNER.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON COAL, PETROLEUM,
AND OTHER DISTILLED OILS.
By ABRAHAM GESNER, M. D., F. G. S. Second edition, revised
and enlarged. By GEORGE WELTDEN GES'EE, Consulting
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated. 8vo... 43 50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.               13
GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET MAKERS:
Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Illustrated by twenty-three large and beautifully engraved
plates. Oblong.......$3 00
GRANT.-BEET-ROOT      SUGAR AND CULTIVATION OF THE
BEET:
By.E. B. GRANT. 12mo.....      $1 25
GREGORY.-MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN:
Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics,
and Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS GREGORY. 8vo., plates,
cloth......... $3 00
rRISWOLD.-RAILROAD ENGINEER'S POCKET COMPANION.
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and
Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary
Tables for Engineers; also the art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By W. GRISWOLD. 12mo., tucks.
$1 75
lUETTIER.-METALLIC ALLOYS:
Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Properties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated
from the French of A. GUETTIER, Engineer and Director of
Founderies, author of " La Fouderie en France," etc. etc. By
A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo.
$3 00
HfATS AND FELTING:
A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical
Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, &c., 8vo.
$1 25
TrAY.-THE INTERIOR DECORATOR:
The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior Decorations: with a Practical Treatise on House-Painting. By D.
R. HAY, House-Painter and Decorator. Illustrated by a Diagram of the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors. 12mo.
$2 25
H UGHES.-AMERICAN      MILLER AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT:
By WM. CARTER HUGHES. A new edition. In one volume,
12mo........ $1 50




14        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
RtUNT.-THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY.
By ROBERT HUNT, Vice-President of the Photographic Society,
London. With numerous illustrations. 12mo.; cloth.  75
HURST. —A HAND-BOOK FOR ARCHITECTURAL SURVEYORS:
Comprising Formula useful in Designing Builders' work, Table
of Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda
connected with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of
Builders' Measurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Property, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc. etc. By
J. F. HURST, C. E. 2d edition, pocket-book form, full bound
$2 50
JERVIS.-RAILWAY PROPERTY:
A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways;
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the
holders of this class of property; as well as Railway Managers, Officers, and Agents. By JOHN B. JERVIS, late Chief
Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, &c.
One vol. 12mo., cloth... $2 00
JOHNSON.-A REPORT TO THE NAVY DEPARTMENT OF THE
UNITED STATES ON AMERICAN COALS:
Applicable to Steam Navigation and to other purposes. By
WALTER R. JOHNSON. With numerous illustrations. 607 pp.
8vo.,..... $10 00
JOHNSTON.-INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS,
LIMESTONES, AND MANURES
By J. W. F. JOHNSTON. 12mo.....          35
ETEENE.-A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL GAUGING,
For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distillation, describing the process in operation at the Custom
House for ascertaining the strength of wines. By JAMES B.
KEENE, of H. M. Customs. 8vo.... $1 25




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.               15
TENTISH.-A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS,
And the Slide Rule; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Logarithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances.
By THOMAS KENTISH. In one volume. 12mo..        $1 25
1  ]OBELL. —ERNI.-MINERALOGY SIMPLIFIED:
A short method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by
means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way.
Translated from the last German Edition of F. VON KOBELL,
with an Introduction to Blowpipe Analysis and other additions. By HENRI ERNI, M. D., Chief Chemist, Department of
Agriculture, author of "Coal Oil and Petroleum." In one
volume. 12mo.....      $2 50
LANDRIN.-A TREATISE ON STEEL:
Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, and Use. By M. H. C. LANDRIN, Jr., Civil Engineer.
Translated from the French, with Notes, by A. A. FESQUET,
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer
and the Martin Processes for Manufacturing Steel, from the
Report of ABRAM S. HEWITT, United States Commissioner to
the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 12mo... $3 00
TARKIN.-THE PRACTICAL BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S
GUIDE.
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals
and their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improvements in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc. etc. By JAMES LARKIN, late Conductor of the Brass
Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works,
Philadelphia.  Fifth edition, revised, with extensive Additions. In one volume. 12mo..... $2 25




16        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
L EAVITT.-FACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL:
With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities
in which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manu
facture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable; toge
ther with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Interest. To which is added a chapter on the Utilization of Coal
Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at
Moderate Cost, especially adapted for Steam Service. By I-I.
T. LEAVITT. Third edition. 12mo..       $1 75
L ER)UX -A    PRACTICAL TREATISE     ON  THE   MANUFACTURti OF WORSTEDS AND CARDED YARNS:
Translated from the French of CHARLES LEROUX, Mechanical
Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill. By Dr, H.
PAINEF, and A. A. FESQUET. Illustrated by 12 large plates. In
one volume 8vo.                                 $5 00
LESLIE (MISS).-COMPLETE COOKERY:
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches.  By Miss
LESLIE.  60th edition.  Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New Receipts. In 1 vol. 12mo., cloth.. $1 50
LESLIE (MISS); LADIES' HOUSE BOOK:
a Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo.,
cloth.......$1 25
LESLIE (MISS).-TWO     HUNDRED RECEIPTS IN FRENCH
COOKERY.
12mo.......                      50
IEBER.-ASSAYER'S GUIDE:
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for
the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the
Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and
Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By OSCAR M. LIEBER. 12mo., cloth
$1 25
LOVE.-THE ART OF DYEING, CLEANING, SCOURING, AND
FINISHING:
On the most approved English and French methods; being
Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons,
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc.; Scouring and Cleaning Bed and
Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc.; French and English
Cleaning, etc. By THOMAS LOVE. Second American Edition, to
which are added General Instructions for the Use of Aniline
Colors. 8vo.                                     5 00




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                 17
MAIN AND BROWN.-QUESTIONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED
WITH THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE:
And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution.  By
THOMAS J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College,
and THOMAS BROWN, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo., cloth $1 50
MAIN AND BROWN.-THE INDICATOR AND DYNAMOMETER:
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine.  By
THOMAS J. MAIN, M. A. F. R., Ass't Prof. Royal Naval College,
Portsmouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer, R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. From
the Fourth London Edition. 8vo... $1 50
MAIN AND BROWN -THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE.
By THOMAS J. MAIN, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at
Royal Naval College, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E.
Chief Engineer, R. N.  Attached to the Royal Naval College.
Authors of "Questions Connected with the Marine Steam-Engine," and the " Indicator and Dynamometer."  With numerous
Illustrations. In one volume 8vo...... $5 00
M  ARTIN.-SCREW-CUTTING TABLES, FOR THE USE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS:
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the
Threads of Screws of any required Pitch; with a Table for
Making the Universal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A.
MARTIN, Engineer. 8vo..                               50
MILES-A PLAIN TREATISE ON HORSE-SHOEING.
With Illustrations. By WILLIAM MILES, author of " The Horse's
Foot"
M  OLESWORTH.-POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL FORMULIE AND
MEMORANDA FOR CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
By GUILFORD L. MOLESWORTH, Member of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway.
Second American from the Tenth London Edition.   In one
volume, full bound in pocket-book form.. $2 00
MOORE.-THE INVENTOR'S GUIDE:
Patent Office and Patent Laws: or, a Guide to Inventors, and a
Book of Reference for Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and others.
By J G. MOORE. 12mo., cloth... $1 25
NAPIER.-A MANUAL OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY:
Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes.
By TAMES NAPIER. Fourth American, from the Fourth London
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In
one volume, 8vo.                                  $2 00




18         HENRY CAREY BAIKD'S UATALOUUU;.
NAPIER.-A SYSTEM OF CIHEMISTRY APPLIED TO DYENNG:
BY JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised
Edition, completely brought up to the present state of the
Science, including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors. By A. A.
FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing
and Calico Printing, as shown at the Paris Universal Exposition
of 1867, from the Reports of the International Jury, etc. Illustrated. In one volume 8vo., 400 pages.... $5 00
NEWBERY.- GLEANINGS FROM            ORNAMENTAL      ART OF
EVERY STYLE;
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian,
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of one
hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By ROBERT NEWBERY. 4to.                   $15 00
NICHOLSON.-A MANUAL OF THE ART OF BOOK-BINDING:
Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Bookedges and Paper. By JAMES B. NICHOLSON. Illustrated. 12mo.
cloth.....      $2 2Z
NORRIS.-A HAND-BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS AND
M'ACHINISTS:
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing
Locomotives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares,
Cubes, Areas, etc. etc. By SEPTIMUS NORRIS, Civil and Mechanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated, 12mo., cloth
$2 00
NYSTROM. - ON      TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION         AND THE
CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS:
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, late
Acting Chief Engineer U. S. N. Second edition, revised with
additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo.
$2 50
0'NEILL.-A DICTIONARY OF DYEING AND CALICO PRINTING:
Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics: with Practical Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES O'NEILL,
Analytical Chemist; Fellow of the Chemical Society of London;
Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester;
Author of" Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing." To which
is added An Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their Application to




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                 19
Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and
Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as
shown at the Exposition of 1867, from the Reports of the Interna.
tional Jury, etc. In one volume 8vo., 491 pages.. $6 00
OSBORN.-THE METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL:
Theoretical and Practical: In all its Branches; With Special Reference to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. OSBORN,
LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College,
Easton, Pa. Illustrated by 230 Engravings on Wood, and 6
Folding Plates. 8vo., 972 pages.. $10 00
OSBORN.-AMERICAN MINES AND MINING:
Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. H. S. OsBORN, Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. (In preparation.)
pAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION:
Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the
Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining, with
numerous useful and valuable Receipts; Tests for the Detection
of Adulterations in Oils and Colors, and a statement of the Diseases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and Varnishers
are particularly liable, with the simplest methods of Prevention
and Remedy. With Directions for Graining, Marbling, Sign Writing, and Gilding on Glass. To which are added COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS FOR COACH PAINTING AND VARNISHING. 12mo., cloth, $1 50
PALLETT.-THE      MILLER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, AND         ENGINEER'S GUIDE.
By HENRY PALLETT. Illustrated. In one vol. 12mo.. $3 00
pERKINS.-GAS AND VENTILATION.
Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With illustrated
Diagrams. By E. E. PERKINS. 12mo., cloth.. $1 25
PERKINS AND STOWE.-A NEW GUIDE TO THE SHEET-IRON
AND BOILER PLATE ROLLER:
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and
Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the
Sizes of Bars to Produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the Bar
Gauge in Decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on
the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the
Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheetiron of various dimensions to weigh 112 Ibs. per bundle; and the
conversion of Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight
into Short. Estimated and collected by G. H. PERKINS and J. GSTOE....... $2 5I




20         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
pHILLIPS AND DARLINGTON.-RECORDS OF MINING AND
METALLURGY:
Or, Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and
Smelter. By J. ARTIUR PHILLIPS, Mining Engineer, Graduate of
the Imperial School of Mines, France, etc., and JOHN DARLINGTON.
Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo.. $2 00
pRADAL, MALEPEYRE, AND          DUSSAUCE.-A     COMPLETE
TREATISE ON PERFUMERY:
Containing notices of the Raw Material used in the Ait, and the
Best Formulae. According to the most approved Methods followed
in France, England, and the United States. By M. P. PRADAL,
Perfumer-Chemist, and M. F. MALEPEYRE. Translated from the
French, with extensive additions, by Prof. H. DUSSAUCE. 8vo. $10
PROTEAUX.-PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE MANUFACTURE
OF PAPER AND BOARDS.
By A. PROTEAUX, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of
Arts and Manufactures, Director of Thiers's Paper Mill,'Puy-deDome. With additions, by L. S. LE NORMAND. Translated from
the French, with Notes, by HORATIO PAINE, A. B., M. D. To
which is added a Chapter on the. Manufacture of Paper from Wood
in the United States, by HENRY T. BROWN, of the "American
Artisan." Illustrated by six plates, containing Drawings of Raw
Materials, Machinery, Plans of Paper-Mills, etc. etc. 8vo. $5 00
REGNAULT.-ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY.
By M. V. REGNAULT. Translated from the French by T. FORREST BENTON, M. B., and edited, with notes, by JAMES C. BOOTH,
Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and WM. L. FABER, Metallurgist
and Mining Engineer. Illustrated bynearly 700 wood engravings.
Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two vols. 8vo., cloth $10 00
REID.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF
PORTLAND CEMENT:
By HENRY REID, C. E. To which is added a Translation of M.
A. Lipowitz's Work, describing a new method adopted in Germany
of Manufacturing that Cement. By W. F. REID. Illustrated by
plates and wood engravings. 8vo..... $7 00
RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.-A            PRACTICAL
TREATISE   ON THE MANUFACTURE         OF  COLORS FOR
PAINTING:
Containing the best Formulae and the Processes the Newest and
in most General Use. By MM. RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TousSAINT. Revised and Edited by M. F. MALEPEYRE and Dr. EMIL
WINCKLER. Illustrated by Engravings. In one vol. 8vo. (In
pzeparation.)




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                21
RIFFAULr, VERGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.-A           PRACTICAL
TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF VARNISHES:
By MM. RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT. Revised and
Edited by M. F. MALEPEYRE and Dr. EMIL WINCKLER. Illustrated. In one vol. 8vo. (In preparation.)
SHUNK.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAILWAY CURVES
AND LOCATION, FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS.
By WM. F. SHUNK, Civil Engineer. 12mo., tucks.. $2 00
SMEATON.-BUILDER'S POCKET COMPANION:
Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architec.
ture; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. In one volume,
12mo........  $1  50
XMITH.-THE DYER'S INSTRUCTOR:
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods: containing nearly
800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs,
and the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of
such work. By DAVID SMITH, Pattern Dyer, 12mo., cloth
$3 00
qMITH.-THE PRACTICAL DYER'S GUIDE:
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Dyeing of Shot Cobourgs,
Silk Striped Orleans, Colored Orleans from Black Warps, ditto
from White Warps, Colored Cobourgs from White Warps, Merinos,
Yarns, Woollen Cloths, etc. Containing nearly 300 Receipts, to
most of which a Dyed Pattern is annexed. Also, a Treatise on
the Art of Padding. By DAVID SMITH. In one vol. 8vo. $25 00
SHAW.-CIVIL ARCHITECTURE:
Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building,
containing the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By EDWARD
SHAW, Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, &c. By THOMAS W. SILLOWAY and GEORGE M. HARDING, Architects. The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely
engraved on copper. Eleventh Edition. 4to. Cloth.  $10 00
SLOAN.-AMERICAN HOUSES:
A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by
26 colored Engravings, with Descriptive References. By SAMUEL
SLOAN, Architect, author of the " Model Architect," etc. etc. 8vo.
$2 50
qCHINZ.-RESEARCHES ON THE ACTION OF THE BLAST.
FURNACE.
By CHAS. SCHINZ. Seven plates. 12mo... $4 25




22         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
KMITH.-PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS:
Or, Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks,
and Gardens. By CHARLES H. J. SMITH, Landscape Gardener
and Garden Architect, etc. etc. 12mo.              $2 25
STOKES.-CABINET-MAKER'S AND UPHOLSTERER'S COMPANION:
Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making and
Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, Illustrated by Examples
for attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable
to Cabinet-work; The Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and
Buhl-work; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Bone, Tortoise
Shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing;
to make French Polish; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and
Compositions, and a number of Receipts, particularly for workmen
generally. By J. STOKES. In one vol. 12mo. With illustrations
$1 25
STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS.
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By
Officers of the Ordnance Department U. S. Army. By authority
of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. In
1 vol. quarto...                      $19 90
OULLIVAN.-PROTECTION TO NATIVE INDUSTRY.
By Sir EDWARD SULLIVAN, Baronet. (1870.) 8vo.        $1 50
TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE, AND
FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC.
By Measurement. Cloth..                         63
TAYLOR.-STATISTICS OF COAL:
Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and.
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial Distribution and amount of Production and Consumption on
the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron
Manufacture. By R. C. TAYLOR. Second edition, revised by S.
S. IIALDEMAN. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., cloth....               $6 00
TEMPLETON.-THE       PRACTICAL EXAMINATOR        ON  STEAM
AND THE STEAM-ENGINE:
With Instructive References relative thereto, for the Use of Engi.
neers, Students, and others. By WA. TEIPLETO.N, Engineer ] 2mo.
$1 25




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.               23
THOMAS.-THE MODERN PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY.
By R. W. THOMAS, F. C. S. 8v.o., cloth....   75
THOMSON.-FREIGHT CHARGES CALCULATOR.
By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent.... $1 25
TURNING: SPECIMENS OF FANCY TURNING EXECUTED ON
THE HAND OR FOOT LATHE:
With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 4to....                               $3 00
TTURNER'S (THE) COMPANION:
Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric
Turning; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill,
Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. A new edition in I vol. 12mo.  $1 50
UURBIN-BRULL. —A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PUDDLING
IRON AND STEEL.
By ED. URBIN, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize
Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the
School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6.
To which is added a COMPARISON OF TlE RESISTING PROPERTIES
OF IRON AND STEEL. By A. BRULL. Translated from the French
by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo.
$1 00
tOGDES.-THE ARCHITECT'S AND BUILDER'S POCKE1 COMPANION AND PRICE BOOK.
By F. W. VOGDES, Architect. Illustrated. Full bound in pocketbook form...                           $2 00
In book form, 18mo., muslin..       1 50
WARN.-THE SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR, FOR
ZINC, SHEET-IRON, COPPER AND TIN PLATE WORKERS, &c.
By REUBEN HENRY WARN, Practical Tin Plate Worker. I'lustrated by 32 plates and 37 wood engravings. 8vo... $3 00
WATSON.-A MANUAL OF THE HAND-LATHE.
By EGBERT P. WATSON, Late of the " Scientific American," Author of " Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engineers," In one volume, 12mo... $1 50




24         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
WATSON.-THE MODERN          PRACTICE OF AMERICAN        MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS:
Including the Construction, Application, and Use pf Drills, Lathe
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow Work Generally,
with the most Economical Speed of the same, the Results verified
by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and on the Floor.
Together with Workshop management, Economy of Manufacture,
the Steam-Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc. etc. By EGBERT
P. WATSON, late of the "Scientific American." Illustrated by
eighty-six engravings. 12mo... $2 50
W ATSON.-THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE ART OF
WrEAVING BY HAND AND POWER:
With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with
the Trade. By JOHN WATSON, Manufacturer and Practical Machine
Maker. Illustrated by large drawings of the best Power-Looms.
8vo...... $10                         00
WEATHERLY.-TREATISE ON.THE ART OF BOILING              SUGAR, CRYSTALLIZING, LOZENGE-MAKING,            COMFITS,
GUM GOODS,
And other processes for Confectionery, &c. In which are explained, in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods
of Manufacturing every description of Raw and Refined Sugar
Goods, as sold by Confectioners and others... $2 00
WILL.-TABLES FOR QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
By Prof. HEINRICH WILL, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edition. Translated by CHARLES F. HIMES, Ph. D., Professor of
Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa... $1 25
WILLIAMS.-ON HEAT AND STEAM:
Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Expansion. By CHARLES WYE WILLIAMS, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo.
$3 50
WORSSAM.-ON MECHANICAL SAWS:
From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1867. By
S. W. WORssAx, Jr. Illustrated by 18 large folding plates. 8vo.
$5 00
WOHLER.-A HAND-BOOK OF MINERAL ANALYSIS.
By F. WiHLER. Edited by H. B. NASON, Professor of Chemistry,
Rensselaer Institute, Troy, N. Y. With numerous Illustrations.
12mo,....... $3 00