G 1E O L GY \OF T E NE S S'E E, BY JAMES M.<' SAFFORD, A. M., PH. D., STATE G-O:LOGZST, PROFESSOR OF NATURAL SCIENCE IN CUMBERLAND UNIVERSITY, LEBANON, TENNESSEE. BY AUTHORITY OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY. NASHVILLE S. C. MERCER,.................................. PRINTER TO THE STATE. 1869. P REFACE. This Report, and the Map which accompanies it, embody the principal results of the geological surveys and researches made by myself in Tennessee, at intervals during the last twenty years. For six years of this period I acted under the authority of the State. For the remainder of the time, the surveys made, were on my personal account, and their results, in so far as they are here embraced, are a gratuitous contribution to the Geology of Tennessee. What is presented in this volume is, with its merits and defects, essentially my own. The main part has been worked out laboriously in the field; and th;s without assistants, and with inadequate means. These circumstances constitute the.only apology I offer for deficiences. The whole work has involved little, if any, less than 10,000 miles of travel. The results of the labors of others, and especially, of my venerable predecessor, Dr. Troost, when available, have been freely used, and the proper credit given. To a number of my scientific cotemporaries, I am much indebted; their names are given in the course of the Report, and my obligations acknowledged. To many friends in the State, I am also indebted for encouragement and assistance. To Col. S. D. Morgan, Dr. John B. Lindsley, of' Nashville, Hon. Sam. Milligan, formerly of Greeneville, now of Washington, and Col. Wm. Bosson, of Murfreesboro', I am under especial obligations. These gentlemen, ever ready to advance any scientific investigation which, in their opinion, might redound to the interests of the State, deserve prominent niches as patrons of science in Tennessee. The Report does not claim to be a complete presentation of the Geology of the State; it is rather an introduction to such a presentation, and, so far as it goes, will, I trust, be acceptable. In 1831, the General Assembly took the first step towards iV PREFACE. a geological survey of the State, by appointing Dr. Gerard Troost, then Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology in the University of Nashville, to the position of State Geologist, on a meagre salary of five hundred dollars. Dr. Troost was continued in office until 1850. During this time, he made nine Reports, the first two of which, do not appear to have been published, or, if they were, I have never seen them. The most important Reports are the Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Seventh. These, though short, contain much valuable matter, and have been of essential service to the State The Fifth is the largest, and is an octavo pamphlet of seventyfive pages. The Legislature, in February, 1854, passed an Act, creating again, the office of "Geologist and Mineralogist of the State," and a few days after, I was elected to fill the place. At the expiration of the first term, (two years,) I was re-elected to to the position, and again in 1858. In 1856, I presented a preliminary Report, which was published under the title of "A Geological Reconnoissance of the State of Tennessee." This was a small volume of 164 pages. In February, 1860, it was thought desirable to publish a full Report on the Geology of the State, so far as it was practicable to do so, and the Report now presented, was commenced then. The work, however, had not proceeded far, when the war, with its ills, came upon us, and soon put a stop to it. In March, 1868, the Legislature again authorized the preparation of the Report, and ordered it, when ready, to be printed. After an eventful history, it is now presented to the General Assembly, and citizens of the State. J. MI. SAFFORD. LEBANON, TENN., April 15, 1869. NOTES ON THE MAP. A great amount of labor has been bestowed upon the Map. Many topographical features are original, having been worked out by the author during the progress of the survey. It has been a point to hhve the State and county boundaries as nearly PREFACE. V correct, as possible. With a few exceptions, the railroads are from the actual surveys.* Aside from its Geology, the Map, so far as it goes, is the best geographical map of Tennessee yet published. The section in the right-hand lower corner, is intended to illustrate the topography and the geology of the East Tennessee Valley, along the line M-N. It will correct the distorted dip of strata in the right-hand end of the principal section. With reference to the Map as an Agricultural one, see page 525. The engraver has, as a general thing, done his work well. A few omissions were observed, after it was too late to supply them. The names Anderson and Clinton, are wanting in Anderson County, though the boundaries of the county are given. Maryville, in Blount County, is also missing. These names, if desirable, can be supplied by those into whose hands copies of the Map may fall. ROCKWOOD FURNACE IN ROANE COUNTY. Since the last pages of this book were printed, I have received reliable information as to the furnace above mentioned. It appears that Roane County is but little behind Greene, (~ 1198.) Within fourteen months, the Rockwood Furnace, with all of its appurtenances, including a village of 500 inhabitants, has sprung up like magic, and is now in successful operation. The site of the furnace is near the base of Walden's Ridge, and about four miles from Kimbrough's Landing, on the Tennessee River. The ore used is the dyestone, which is obtained from beds in the Mountain Dyestone Range, mentioned on page 306. It is an interesting fact, that this is the first furnace which has made use of raw coal in the manuf: cture of iron. The coal is obtained from the crest of Walden's Ridge, and is conveyed directly to the furnace, by a small railroad. Hot-blast is used, with steam as motive power. The production of the furnace, latterly, has been 84 tons of pig metal per week. This * One of these exceptions, is the West Tennessee portion of the Northwestern Road. The line representing this road should pass through Huntingdon. It may be added, also, that an arm is now in course of construction from Huntingdon to Jackson. Vi PREFACE. extensive establishment has been constructed and put in operation at a cost of $150,000, by the "Roane Iron Company," under the efficient superintendence and management of Gen. John T. Wilder. Before closing this preface, I must acknowledge my obligations to Leven S. Goodrich, formerly of JEtna Furnace, but now of Hurricane Mills, (P. O., Waverly,) Humphreys County. Mr. Goodrich is one of our best informed practical iron-masters, and a gentleman of scientific attainments. I am much indebted to him for assistance in researches made in Hickman County. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. —Physical Geography. CHAPTER I.-THE STATE IN GENERAL,........................ 1 Boundaries, Form, General Surface,...................1.. General Geographical Relations......................... 3 The Tennessee and New River Slope,................. 4 The Appalaohian Region........................... 8 Variety and Classification of Natural Features.......... 10 Great Natural Divisions,................................ 11 Climate................................................ 12 CHAPTER II.-NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE STATE.............. I. Unaka Chain,....................................... 21 II. Valley of East Tennessee........................... 40 III. Cumberland Table-land,........................... 66 CHAPTER III.-NATURAL DIVISIONS,-Continued,......... 80 IV. The Highlands, or Highland Rim........... 81 V. Central Basin.............................97 VI. Western Valley.................... 104 VII. Plateau of West Tennessee,........................ 110 VIII. Mississippi Bottom,................................ 119 PART II-Geological Structure and Formations. CHAPTER IV.-GENERAL CHARACTER OF FORMATIONS; THEIR ORIGIN; THE CHANGES THEY HAVE BEEN MADE TO UNDERGO AS ELEMENTS IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE STATE..128 Rocks stratified,............................................................. 128 Formations and their Characteristics. 129 Use of Fossils..129 Extent of Formations............................ 139 Origin of the Older Formations.................................... 131 Origin of the Sands and Clays of West Tennessee........... 133 Denudation in Middle and West Tennessee,................... 134 Folding, Dislocation and Denudation in East Tenn.,...... 136'lhe Sequatchee Fold,................................... 138 Viii CONTENTS. Elk Fork Dislocation,.................................................... 141 Eastern Crested Slope of the Table-land,........................ 143 Consideration of the Folding, etc., in East Tennessee resumed.................................................................. 143 Folds. Uplifts, and Faults in Middle Tennessee,............. 146 CHAPTER V. —ENUMERATION AND SEQUENCE OF FORMATIONS1 50..................................1 5 0 Formations Numbered and Tabulated,...................... 150 Comparative Topographical and Structural Importance, 151 Thinning out of Formations in Tennessee,..................... 152 Complete General Series of Formations,........................ 152 Unabridged Table of Tennessee Formations,................. 157 CHAPTER VI.-METAMORPHIC GROUP; FORMATION I......170 Crystalline Rocks in eastern part of State-The Metamorphic Condition,.................................................. 170 Geographical Position; Extent and Range,.................... 171 Varieties and General Distribution.......................... 175 Dip and Relations to other strata,................................ 177 Useful Products, Mines and Minerals,........................... 178 Agricultural Features................................................... 180 CHAPTER VII. —THE POSTDAM GROUP; SERIES II...........182 SECTION I. —OCOEE CONGLOMERATE AND SLATES; FORM. 2,a.. 183 Section on Ocoee River............................................ 183 Extent and Topography............................................. 186 Cross Sections; Lithological and other characters....... 183 Useful Rocks and Minerals............................................ 196 Agricultural Features.................................................... 198 SECTION II. —CHILHOWEE SANDSTONE; FORM. 2,b................ 198 Lithological character; Fossils; thickness,.................... 198 Topographical Relations............................................... 199 Sections,.................;..................................................... 200 Minerals and Useful Rocks................................... 203 Agricultural Features,.................................................... 203 SECTION III.-KNOX OR KNOXVILLE GROUP; FORM. 2,C........203 Knoxville and Webb's Ridge Section,............................. 204 Sub-divisions,................................................................. 206 Geographical Distribution, Belts, and Faults................... 206 Synelinals, Anticlinals.................................................... 208 2, c Knox Sandstone,................................................. 209 Lithological character.................................................. 209 Topography,.................................................................. 209 Minerals,....................................................................... 210 2,e// Knox Shale,........................................................ 210 Lithological Character; Volume.................................... 211 Paleontology................................................................. 211 Valleys; Agricultural Features,................................... 212 2.c"' Knox Dolomite,................................................. 214 Lithological Character; Volume,................................... 215 Paleontology,.................................................................. 216 Topography,................................................................... 216 Useful Rocks and Minerals,........................................... 220 Agricultural Features,......................... 225 CONTENTS. iX CHAPTER VIII.-TRENTON AND NASHVILLE GROUPS; FORMATIONS III. AND IV.............................................227 SECTION I.-TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES IN THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE,............................. 228 A The Blue or Maclurea Limestone,............................... 232 1, The Red and Gray Marble.......................................... 236 2. The Iron Limestone,................................................. 239 3. Other Beds above the Iron Limestone...................... 244 B. Upper Member of the Trenton and Nashville Series,.... 246 (a) The Shale, (eastern,)................................................. 246 (b) Limestone and Shale, (western,).............................. 250 Useful rocks and Minerals,........................................... 253 Agricultural Features,.................................................... 255 SECTION II.-TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES IN MIDDLE TENNESSEE,................................................................. 256 A. The Trenton, or Lebanon; Form. III.,....................... 111 1. The Central Limestone,....................................... 259 2. Pierce Limestone,....................................... 261 3. Ridley Limestone,....................................... 261 4. Glade Limestone................................................. 262 5. Carter's Creek Limestone,.............................. 263 Agricultural Features, Useful Rocks, and Minerals,...... 266 B. The Nashville Formation IV.,.................................... 268 1. Orthis Bed................................................... 269 2. & 3. Middle and Upper Members of the Nashville,............... 273 Rocks of Special Use, and Minerals,.............................. 281 CHAPTER IX. —THE NIAGARA AND LOWER HELDERBERG GROUPS.........................................291 SECTION I.-THE NIAGARA GROUP; FORMATION V.,............ 292 5,a. The Clinch Mountain Sandstone,............................. 292 5,b. White Oak Mountain Sandstone,............................ 299 5,c. The Dyestone Group,............................................... 302 5,d. The Meniscus Limestone8,................................... 311 Rocks of special use, Minerals and Lands,....................... 318 SECTION II.-LOWER HELDERBERG; FORMATION VI.,........... 322 CHAPTER X.-THE BLACK SHALE; FORMATION VII........329 CHAPTER XI.-LOWER CARBONIFEROUS; FORMATION VIII.338 SECTION I.-THE SILICEOUS GROUP.................................... 338 (a,) Lower, or Protean Member,..................................... 339 (b.) Tpper, or Lithostrotion Bed,................................... 343 Rocks of Special use, Minerals and Lands,..................................... 349 SECTION II.-THE MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE,......................... 351 Minerals, useful Rocks, and Lands,............................ 362 CHAPTER XII.-THE COAL MEASURES; FORMATION IX...366 A. Sewannee Division,.......................................................... 368 X CONTENTS. B. Raccoon and Wltdcn's Ridge Division,........... 381 C. Northern Division,.....389 D. Northeastern Divison,........................................ 400 Rocks of special use, Minerals and Lands,........................... 406 CHAPTER XIII.-CRETACEOUS FORMATIONS; SERIES X....410 SECTION I.-THE COFFEE SAND..................................... 411 SECTION II. —THE GREEN SAND, OR SHELL BED,..................414 SECTION III.-THE RIPLEY GROUP,................................. 417 Minerals, Rocks of Special use, and Lands of the Cretaceous Formations,..................................................................... 420 CHAPTER XIV. —THE TERTIARY GROUPS; SERIES XI...432 SECTION I.-THE PORTER'S CREEK GROUP,......................... 432 SECTION II.-ORANGE SAND, OR LAGRANGE GROUP,.............424 Appendix: Fossil Plants,.......................................... 426 SECTION III.-THE BLUFF LIGNITE,................................ 428 Minerals, Useful Material and Lands of the Tertiary Group,................... 431 CHAPTER XV. —THE BLUFF GROUPS AND ALLUVIUM; SERIES XII. AND XIII......................................432 SECTION I.-THE BLUFF GRAVEL,................................... 432 SECRION II.-THE BLUFF LOAM,........... 433 SECTION III.-ORE-REREGION GRAVEL,............ 434 SECTIONS IV. AND V.-THE EASTERN GRAVEL, RIVER BOTTOMIS AND ALLUVIAL BEDS,............................................ 438 Supplement to Siliceous Giroup,............................................................ 439 PART III.-The Minerals and Rocks of Special Use. CHAPTER XVI.-THE ORES AND METALS,..............443 SECTION I. —IRON,.................................. 448 A. The Eastern Iron-Region,........................... 449 B. The Dyestone Region,............................................... 456 Appendix,............................................... 458 C. The Western Iron Region,............................ 460 SECTION II.-COPPERP...................................................... 468 SECTION III.-LEAD AND ZNC,........482 SECTION IV.-GOLD,........................................................ 489 CHAPTER XVII.-MINERALS NOT CONSIDERED ORES, AND ROCKS OF SPECIAL USE,....................................492 SECTION I.-STONE COAL,............................................ 492 CONTENTS. xi SECTION II.-LIGNITE..................................................... 498 SECTION III.-PETROLEUM AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES............499 SECTION IV.-SALT, NITRE, ALUM, EPSOMITE, GYPSUM, BARITE, COPPERAS, CHALCANTHITE, IPYRITE, AND BLACK MANGANESE,........................................................... 501 SECTION V.-MARBLE,...................................................... 506 SECTION VI.-MILLSTONES, ROOFING SLATES, FLAGSTONES AND BUILDING MATERIALS............................................ 511 SECTION VII.-HYDRAULIC LIMESTONES, CLAYS; GREEN SAND AND MINERAL WATERS........................................ 513 SECTION VIII. —METEORITES,......................................... 520 PART IV.-Soils and Agricultural Features; Climatic Tables. CHAPTER XVIII.-SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL FEATURES..524 1. Calcareous Soils,........................525 2. La*ds of West Tennessee,...... 526 3. Lands of the Cumberland Table-la nd, 526 4. Lands of the Unaka Mountains,................................... 527 5. Soils of the Barrens of Middle Tennessee...................... 528 CHAPTER XIX.-C LIMATIC TABLES; SUPPLEMENTARY....529 APPENDIX A. —PA LEONTOLOGY................................533 PART FIRST. P'HIYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF TENNESSEE: INTRODUCTORY. 1. Before considering the geological structure and formations of Tennessee, it becomes necessary to present a preliminary view of its physical geography. The configuration oi the surface of the State is intimately connected with its rocky, or internal structure; it is, indeed, but the expression of this rocky structure, as found sculptured in valleys, plateaus, and ridges, by running water and by atmospheric agencies. The one becomes an important guide to the other. This will be made apparent many times in the course of the Report. attention is therefore directed, at the first, to the form, relief, general relations, natural divisions, and climatic features of the surface. CHAPTER I. THE STATE IN GENERAL. BOUNDARIES, FORM, GENERAL SURFACE - GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS: THE TENNESSEE AND NEW RIVER SLOPE-THE APPALACHIAN REGION-VARIETY AND CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL FEATURES-THE GREAT NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE STATE.-CLIMATE. 2. Boundaries, Form, and General Surface.-The State of Tennessee includes an area, that extends, in a belt-like form, from the Mississippi River directly eastward to one of the great ranges of the Alleghany, or Appalachian Mountains. The 2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. high crest of this range* is, for the most part, its eastern boundary. The Southern boundary of the State coincides mainly with the parallel of latitude 35~ north; its northern limit is a broken line lying between the parallels 36~ 29' and 36~ 41'. While the mean breadth of the State is but little over 109 miles, its mean length is about 385. In general outline, it has approximately the figure of a long rhomboid, and comprises an area of about 42000 square miles. 3. The general surface of the State, throwing out of view, for the time, some of the local geographical features,-the mountain ranges of the eastern portion, and the basins and valleys of the western,-coincides nearly with a great horizontal plane, having an elevation of about 900 feet above the sea. The surface, however, is to some extent a warped one, coinciding, at numerous points, with this plane, but at others, either rising above or sinking below it. The upper or northeastern part of the great Valley of East Tennessee, for example, is, in general,& few hundred feet above, while its central and southern part at first coincides, and then very gradually falls below this plane. The highlands of Middle Tennessee, in some counties, as in Lawrence and Wayne, present a flat surface 100 feet higher, while in Montgomery and adjoining counties, the corresponding highlands are considerably lower. The ridge in West Tennessee, dividing the waters of the Tennessee and Mississippi Rivers, must, at some points, be nearly, if not quite, as high. West of this ridge, however, the general surfaceb sloping off towards the Mississippi, falls considerably below the assumed plane, and may be regarded as terminating, at an average elevation not far from 400 feet, along the edge of the bluff-escarpment which faces the alluvial " bottom" of the great river.t Upon the surface, as described, rest the mountains of the State, the most important of which are the Cumberland Mountain, or Table-land, and the great Unaka Chain; cut out of it, * This great range or chain of mountains, will be described hereafter. It may be denominated the Unaka Chain. t Tables presenting the elevations of numerous characteristic points will be given the second and third chapters. .THE STATE IN GENERAL. 3 and below it, are the great Basin in Middle Tennessee and the river valleys of this and the Western Division. 4. The entire State, with the exception of a very small area in the southeastern part adjacent to the Georgia line,* is drailed by tributaries of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, the most important of which are the Tennessee, the Cumberland, the Hatchee, and the Forked Deer. Referred to the beds of the principal rivers, the surface of the State is a long slope, which, (as characterized by the elevation of low water at the following points, namely: the State line on the French Broad, Knoxville, Nashville, and the Mississippi, at Fulton,) commences with an elevation of 1264 feet, and terminates with an elevation of about 200. Its fall is, therefore, in some degree, more than 1000 feet. About two-fifths of this is made on reaching Knoxville; fourfifths at Nashville, leaving but one-fifth for the remaining distance. The slope, therefore, descends less and less rapidly as we go westward. Along the northern boundary of the State the fall of this slope is greater than 1000 feet; along the southern boundary considerably less. The view, however, before taken, of the general surface, in which it was referred to a horizontal plane 900 feet above the sea, is to be preferred, as it will best assist in making clear the physical features and geological structure of the State. In this, the high characteristic flat lands of Middle and West Tennessee are not lost sight of. The river-valleys of these divisions, moreover, are not, in general, characteristic of the face of the country; in the Valley of East Tennessee they are highly so, but there they conform sufficiently well to the plane. 5. General Geographical Relations.-Extending our view beyond the limits of the State, the general surface of Tennessee is but a part, although a large part, of a longer belt of surface generally sloping, which commencing along the crest of the Blue Ridge in North Carolina, terminates with the immediate Valley, or "Bottoms," of the Mississippi. 6. This is made apparent by regarding the valleys of the smaller rivers, namely, the Watauga, Nolichucky, French Broad, Big Pigeon, Little * This area is an irregular segment of the State, drained by a portion of the Connasauga River, and by some of its tributaries. The Connasauga is a small'stream, and lies mostly Georgia; it makes; however, a bend to the north, which reaches a few miles above the Tennessee line. 4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Tennessee, Hiwassee, and Ocoee, which, flowing from the southeast, empty into the Holston and the Tennessee. These rivers rise upon the northwestern side of the Blue Ridge, and flow, in a northwesterly direction, into the State of Tennessee, passing, without material deflection, the Unaka Chain, ( 2, note, ) in deep and grand mountain-cuts. The two great ranges just mentioned are, in general, nearly parallel, the space between them being occupied by deep valleys and more or less isolated clusters or groups of mountains. It is a remarkable fact, that the Unaka Chain, although more massive than the other —the Blue Ridgeis intersected, and so directly, by all the streams enumerated above. It thus loses its importance as the summit of a great water-shed. 7. With these facts before us, it is plain that the general surface of the entire region, extending from the crest of the Blue Ridge through the western part of North Carolina and through Tennessee, a distance of about 430 miles, may be viewed as one. Starting with this crest, at a mean elevation of about 4500 feet above the sea, the general surface, or slope, falls rapidly to the foot of the Blue Ridge, reaching the valleys of the rivers in North Carolina at a level of from 2000 to 2500 feet; then, coincident with these mountainhemmed valleys, it extends westward, falls with the rapids of the Unaka passes, and finally becomes the floor of the Valley of East Tennessee, where it has a mean elevation of 900 feet. From this valley on, it is the general surface of Tennessee, as already described; or it may be regarded as coinciding with the slope of the river-beds. (~~ 3 & 4.) To low water of the -Mississippi, the entire fall is about 4300 feet. Upon this general surface rests, not only the Cumberland Table-land, but the whole of the Unaka Chain, and the groups of mountains between the latter and the Blue Ridge, of which the most prominent is the pre-eminently high-peaked group of the Black Mountain. 8. The view just taken exhibits important relations sustained by the surface of Tennessee to that of the western part of North Carolina. But a still more extended and instructive view of the geographical relations of the State may be presented. The Tennessee and New River Slope.-The great and long slope, which reaches from the southwestern part of New York through the western parts of Pennsylvania and Virginia, the whole of Kentucky and Tennessee, and parts of other States, THE STATE IN GENERAL. 5 to the Gulf, and which, facing the northwest, pours its waters into the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, is divided transversely into three natural sections, or minor slopes. To the central and largest one of these our attention is here directed. This is a well defined area. Its southeastern limit is the high crest of that portion of the Blue Ridge which lies in North Carolina and in the southern part of Virginia. From this crest it descends, in a northwesterly direction, to the connected parts of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers between Cincinnati and Memphis. The line between these cities, as traced by the rivers, is the northwestern boundary and foot of the slope. It includes within its limits, on the northeast, the valleys of the Great Kanawha and of New River, (which rivers, by the way, may be regarded as one,) and, on the southwest, those of the Hiwassee, the Tennessee, the Hatchee, and the Wolf. To the entire section I have given the name at the head of this paragraph. 9. The general direction in which the rivers flow, in other words, the general direction of drainage within this section, unlike that of those which adjoin it on the northeast and south'west, respectively, is to the northwest.* This is seen in the connected courses of New River, of the Great Kanawha, and even of the Ohio, from the mouth of the Kanawha to Cincinnati; it is seen, too, in the rivers of Kentucky, of Middle and West Tennessee, as well as in those which flow out of North Carolina into Tennessee. To this northwesterly drainage, the upper part of New River, the portion of the Tennessee east of the Cumberland Tableland, and its Virginia tributaries, as well as a portion of the Cumberland River above Nashville, constitute apparent exceptions; these, however, as will be seen further on, may be consistently explained. 10. It is to be noted that the mountains in the western part of North Carolina present the culminating points, and the greatest masses of all the Appalachian Ridges. It is from this high belt-the Blue Ridge presenting the dividing line-that the Ohio and Atlantic waters flow away, the former to the northwest and the latter to the southeast; in these respective directions the rivers find their shortest and most rapid descent. * It is, in fact, in this respect, unlike any other large section east of the Mississippi River. 6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The fall from the summit of the Blue Ridge, in a westerly direction, to the Mississippi-a distance of about 430 miles,-is as we have seen, (~ 7) approximately 4300 feet. To the Ohio, in the normal northwesterly direction of the slope, nearly the same fall is made in a distance less by, at least, 100 miles. These facts account for the unusual northwesterly tendency of drainage within the area under consideration. 11. This slope must not, however, except in a general sense, be regarded as continuous and unbroken-as having a uniformly descending surface. It is furrowed by valleys and ridges, or other elevated ranges, which run mostly from the northeast to the southwest, transversely to the direction of general drainage, but parallel to the Blue Ridge, to each other, and to the foot of the slope on the northwest. This is especially true of the southeastern, or upper part of the slope; here the valleys and ridges are very prominent, and well marked in direction; such are the Unaka Chain, the great Valley of Virginia and East Tennessee, with all its subordinate valleys and ridges, and the Cumberland Table-land. In the northwestern or lower part, they are far less prominent, yet even here they, or rather the general surface-features, show a tendency to run in parallel belts to the northeast or southwest. 12. These local features, it is plain, must interfere more or less, with direct drainage. The long, straight ridges, running horizontally along the face of the slope, intercept the stream; which, therefore, must either break through in deep gaps, or else, turned aside at right angles to their normal courses, must run in the valleys, to the northeast or southwest, until they find a passage through which they can escape. The one they do, perhaps, as frequently as the other. This will serve to explain the apparent exception before referred to. (~ 9. ) 13. Of all the elevated ranges, the Cumberland Table-land is the most effectual barrier in the way of general drainage. By it the Tennessee River is deflected to the southwest, and is made to run many miles before being permitted to pass and flow on in its northwesterly course. The range permits the passage of New River, in Virginia, but at no other point, between its intersections with this and the Tennessee, does it present a complete water-gap. 14. The Valley of Virginia and East Tennessee, as we shall THE STATE IN GENERAL. 7 see hereafter, is part of a great and complex trough, which extends each way beyond the limits of the slope. It is comparatively deep, and almost causes New River, on the one hand, to flow into the streams, which empty into the Atlantic, and the Tennessee, on the other, to flow into those which empty into the Gulf. The portion of the Valley between these rivers is divided into two very unequal subordinate slopes. The region dividing the waters of the two rivers is an elevated water-shed, the crest of which, on the Virginia and East Tennessee Railroad, is 2594 feet above the level of the sea. The New River, or northeastern side, is short, while the Tennessee, or southwestern side, is very long. On both sides, the ridges of the Valley deflect the tributaries to the northeast and southwest respectively. This is seen, on a great scale, in the long Virginia tributaries of the Tennessee. 15. The great IJnaka Chain is remarkable, as before stated, (~ 6, ) for not deflecting the North Carolina tributaries of the Tennessee. It does, however, throw the upper part of New River many miles to the northeast. It may be added here, finally, that the Cumberland River above Nashville, is deflected to the southwest by a range of highlands, which, in general is parallel, and bears certain relations, to the better marked ranges just mentioned. 16. Such is the slope of which Tennessee is a part, and which, with its ridges and valleys trending to the northeast and southwest, and differing much in their geological character, as well as in their surface features, the State traverses. The belt or surface already mentioned, (~ 5,) extending from the Blue Ridge through Tennessee to the Mississippi, is a complete cross-section of this slope. Of this belt Tennessee is, by far, the larger part, and, owing to the direct easterly and westerly course of the State, the slope is traversed obliquely, making the cross-section an oblique one. Hence results the general obliquity of the State, with reference to natural features, which is so conspicuous upon maps of its surface. 17. The reference of the State to the area just considered enables us to understand much better than before its drainage and many of its surface-features. The question, however, arises, Whence come these belts, the long straight valleys, the 8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. direct ridges and mountain ranges which stretch so independently across and beyond the more easterly parts of the State and of the slope? They must sustain important relations to some other natural geographical area or system. This leads me to notice briefly the following remarkable region or belt: 18. The Appalachian Region. —Upon examining any good map of the country between the Gulf of Mexico and the Hudson River, we will see a long continuous area or belt, from 50 to 100 miles in width, traversing, the eastern part of Pennsylvania, Maryland, Middle Virginia, East Tennessee, and the western part of North Carolina, remarkable for its long, parallel, straight, or gracefully curving mountains, ridges, and valleys. The general trend of this belt and its ridges is northeast and southwest; its rivers, too, and especially the smaller tributaries, generally conform to the same direction. This is a well developed portion of the Appalachian,_or Alleghany region. The entire region, however, extends much beyond the area designated. It is in fact, a long, great belt, stretching for more than 1200 miles, from Gaspe, in Canada, through Vermont, the western part of Massachusetts, the eastern part of New York and the States mentioned, to Georgia and Alabama. This great belt throughout, is noted for its peculiar topography, its beautiful scenery, and its geological structure. The parallelism of its numerous valleys and ridges, and the remarkable and singular uniformity they preserve for long distances, both in direction and outline, are its most striking topographical features. " While varying little in height, the ridges pursue a remarkably straight course, sometimes hardly diverging from a straight line for a distance of fifty or sixty miles; and one ridge succeeding latterly beyond anotherall continuing the same general course in parallel lines, like the successive waves of the sea. As one curves round in a new direction, all curve with it. Thus the valleys between the ridges preserve a uniform width, and are as remarkable for their parallelism as are the hills which bound them." * 19. Many of the ridges of this region are well known mountains; the mountains of western New York, the Alleghanies, the Blue Ridge of Virginia and North Carolina, Clinch SIountain, the Unaka Chain of the latter State and Tennessee, the * New American Cyclopedia, Art., Appalachian Mountains THE STATE IN GENERAL. 9 eastern part of the Cumberland Table land, Walden's Ridge, Lookout, and the mountains of Georgia and Alabama, are examples. The valleys, which are often exceedingly beautiful, rich, and populous, have all special names; it would lead me, however, too far away to attempt to enumerate and describe here even the most important. The great valley of East Tennessee, with all its minor valleys and ridges, belongs to this region. 20. At its extreme ends the distinctive features of the Appalachian Region are gradually lost; in Alabama its rocks sink and disappear beneath beds of later formations. Passing across its northwestern border, the ridges and valleys become less and less' characteristic, losing their parallelism and their prominence, until, as Appalachian features, they are lost before reaching the great plains which lie to the northwest.* 21. The great belt just considered intersects, or rather supplies, the elevated and mountainous southeastern half of the slope to which Tennessee belongs. From it, come, therefore, the parallel ridges and valleys which make up the eastern part of the State; in other words, these are Appalachian features. A glance at the map accompanying this Report will show to some extent, their peculiar character. 22. It may be remarked finally, that Tennessee, especially its eastern portion, might be studied topographically from two points of view. If, in the first place, we take its riversystem. or, in other words, its drainage, as the basis of surfacefeatures, then we will be led to the northwest, (with, however, one great offset,) down the face of the slope as described; but, in the second place, if we make all-important the elevated belts and valleys, then, losing sight of the slope, we will be borne off at right-angles to the former direction, either to the southwest into Georgia and Alabama, or far to the northeast, through the Appalachian troughs. The correct understanding of the topography, however, will depend upon a proper combination of the two views. *A low and broad "axis of elevation" (or bending up of the rocky strata) which runs through the central part of Tennessee and Kentucky, and the western part of Ohio, may be regarded as an outlying Appalachian feature. Along its course lie flat highlands, and, where greatly denuded, basins-the latter bounded by escarpments of highlands, all of which, with the axis itself, tend to run in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction. (See i 11.) 10 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 23. Variety and Classification of Natural Features. —Owing, for the most part, to the extent and varied nature of the country traversed by the State, one of its most prominent characteristics, with reference to natural features, is great variety. This is seen not only in the numerous divisions of its surface, but also in its geological formation and structure, as well as in its climatic and agricultural features. The number and diversity of its rocks, minerals and soils, are certainly not a little remarkable. Nearly all the important physical and geological features of the States around it are represented more or lessbrought together as if by way of contrast-within its borders. Tennessee has, for example, on the one hand, some of the greatest ridges of the Appalachians, with their " bald " summits and ancient rocks; on the other, the low lands and cypress swamps and alluvial beds of the Mississippi; it has, also, well represented the singular parallel valleys and ridges of Middle Virginia; the high lands, the "barrens," and the rich limestone lands of Kentucky; the orange-colored sand hills, the cretaceous beds and cotton soils of North Mississippi. In climate, especially during the summer months, there are the same variety and contrast. The valley lands of upper East Tennessee have the summereof New Jersey and of Ohio; the low lands of Middle Tennessee, east of Nashville, that of the northern part of Georgia; while West Tennessee is warmed by the summer of the central parts of Georgia and South Carolina. And further to heighten the contrast, there is an extended line of high points just within the southeastern border of the State, which have the cool breezes, without the extremes, of a Canadian summer, and which, to some extent, are clothed with a Canadian flora. 24. The varied natural features, formations, and products of the State, such at least as will be treated of in this Report, may be grouped into four distinct classes, constituting as many general subjects, as follows: (1.) THE LEADING GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES, or the prominent natural divisions of the surface, such as great valleys, plateaus, and leading mountain ranges, with their external characteristics, including climate. (2.) THE ROCKS, OR GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS, including the internal structure of the State. (3.) THE MINERALS AND MINERAL RESOURCES. (4.) THE SOILS AND AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. THE STATE IN GENERAL. 11 The first of these, pertain to this Part of the Report. The others will be the subjects, respectively, of three succeeding Parts. 25. Leading Geographical Features, or the Great Natural Divisions of Tennessee. The State is divided into eight well defined natural divisions. These, though prominent and well marked, are not, I may add here, sufficiently known or appreciated as distinctive features. A knowledge of them is important in many ways. They have relations to the civil and political history of the State, aside from its geology, mineralogy, and agriculture, which make them well worthy of notice and study. Their special sanitary relations, too, are of great interest, for which reason they deserve the attention of medical men. Several of these divisions have been already incidentally mentioned. They are all enumerated in the table below. In the next two chapters they will be described in some detail. The first forms the eastern border of the State; the others occur successively as we go westward.* (1.) The Unaka Chain.-This name has been given to the great range of mountains that lies along the boundary line between Tennessee and North Carolina. (~ 2, note.) (2.) The FValley of East Tennessee.-This division runs obliquely through the State, and constitutes one of its most populous and beautiful portions. It is bounded on the southeast by the Unaka Chain, and on the west, or northwest, by the eastern escarpment of the succeeding division. (3.) The Cumberland Table-land.-The natural division thus named is usually known as the "Cumberland Mountain." It should be called the Table-land. It has a broad and generally level top, and stands in well defined and bold relief above the low lands on each side. (4.) The Highlands, or Highland Rim, of Middle Tennessee.The flat highlands of Middle Tennessee form an extensive and complete Rim, which encircles, terrace-like, a Basin of rich lowlands in the very centre of the State. The Rim lies next below, and west of, the Cumberland Table-land, and terminates: These divisions are also indicated upon the map of the State accompanying this Report. This, and the general section upon the same sheet, should be consulted by the reader, in connection with the enumeration here given. 12 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. more than a hundred miles westward in the counties of Hardin, Wayne, Perry, Humphreys, and Stewart, breaking off'in the high fringing ridges that bound the Valley of the Tennessee River on the east. (5.) The Central Basin.-The Basin of rich lowlands mentioned above, encircled by the Rim, constitutes this division. It is the central part of Tennessee, furnishes the site for its capital, and is truly designated the garden-spot of the State. (6.) The Western Valley of the Tennessee River, or the Western Valley.-This is the narrow, broken Valley of the Tennessee River in the western part of the State. It is bounded, on both sides, by high dividing ridges, whose spurs frequently run in close to the river. (7.) The Plateau, or Slope, of West Tennessee.-This division includes the entire area between the dividing ridge west of the Tennessee River, and the low "Bottoms" of the Mississippi. It slopes towards the latter river, and terminates in a line of "Bluffs," or an escarpment, overlooking the bottoms. (8.) The Mississippi Bottoms, or Bottom.-This, the last division, is a well marked feature. It embraces the Tennessee portion of the great alluvial and low plain through which the Mississippi flows. 26. Climate.-The learned Humboldt, in his Cosmos, says:* " The expression climate, taken in its most general sense, signifies all those states and changes of the atmosphere which sensibly affect our organs: temperature, humidity, variation of barometric pressure, a calm state of the air or the effects of different winds, the amount of electric tension, the purity of the atmosphere or its admixture with more or less deleterious exhalations, and lastly, the degree of habitual transparency of the air and serenity of the sky, which has an important influence not only on the organic developments of plants and ripening of fruits, but also on the feelings and the whole mental disposition of man." From this definition, it is seen, that to determine the climate of any region satisfactorily, in all its relations, is no small task. In fact, it can only be done after daily and varied observations, (bearing upon all the different features of climate,) have been made, at a number of characteristic points, for a long series of years. * Col. Sabine's Translation, vol. i., p. 312. THE STATE IN GENERAL. 13 27. Such extended observations are far from having been made in Tennessee. Enough has been done, however, to enable us to know, with a near approach to truth, the general features, and, to some extent, the local peculiarities of the climate of the State. At about a dozen points reliable observations, extending through periods respectively, of from a few months to ten years, have been made, for which we are indebted to the intelligence and industry of a number of private citizens, to the well directed efforts of the Smithsonian Institution, and to the officers of the Navy Yard formerly at Memphis.* The facts thus accumulated are, as far as they go, very valuable, and, for present purposes, may be regarded as giving good approximations, which, in connection with what has been done in the States around, will furnish much information in regard to the climate of Tennessee. 28. It is by no means proposed to enter fully into this subject, but simply to notice briefly, the leading features of climate, or those most commonly recognized, such as the averages and extremes of temperature, the length of period between frosts, the quantity and distribution of rain, and the character of the winds. What may be said in this place will have reference to the State in general, with the exception of two of its natural divisions-the Unaka Chain of mountains and the Cumberland Table-land. These, owing to their elevation, have marked peculiarities of climate that require for them special notices. Some of the other great divisions, too, although, in this general view brought together, have, to a greater or less extent, peculiarities that will be spoken of when the divisions come to be considered separately. 29. The climate with which Tennessee is favored, is midway in character between that of a temperate and that of a tropical region; or rather, it combines the milder features of the two. * For observations, the means and general results of which are, in part, given in this Report, and which have not hitherto been published, or at most but partially so, I am personally indebted to the kindness of Prof. W. M Stewart, of Glenwood, near Clarksville; Prof. A. P. Stewart, of Cumberland University, at Lebanon; Prof. A. H. Buchanan, of the same place; Mr. P. F. Tavel, of Nashville; the Messrs. Chas. T. and Win. Bosson, of the Falls of Caney Fork, and Mr. B. Bentley, of Spring Grove, Cumberland county. To Rev. R. O. Currey, of Knoxville, I am also indebted for the use of observations made by Pres. Geo. Cooke and Prof. T. L. Griswold, formerly of East Tennessee University. The means of temperature and quantities of rain for Nashville, previously to the year 1850, given in the following pages, have been derived from the observations made at the University of Nashville, by Prof. James Hamilton. The observations made at Glenwood by Prof. W. M. Stewart, constitute the most complete and extended series yet made in Tennessee. This able observer has completed a series covering an entire decade of years. Had we, for the same decade, four or five such series-one for each of the most characteristic natural divisions of the State-a most interesting and useful comparative climatology could be made out for Tennessee. 14 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Although subject to comparatively great extremes, in common with a large part of the Valley of the Mississippi, yet these extremes never reach the excessive cold of the northern States, nor the highest temperature of the tropics. Herbage is often green throughout the year, and cattle can generally graze, with but little interruption from cold or snow, during all the months of winter. Matny shrubs, which in States further North, lose their leaves during winter, here, not unfrequently, retain them the year round. Light coats of snow sometimes cover the surface, but their stay is brief. 30. The mean temperature of the year, along the parallel of latitude running through the middle of the State, is not far from 570 in the Valley of East Tennessee, 580 in Middle, and 59~.5, or 60~, in West Tennessee. Between the first and last divisions there is, according to this, a difference in mean yearly temperature of 20.5, or 30. This is partly, but not wholly, due to difference in elevation. After correcting for this, it will still be found that a gradual increase in mean yearly heat occurs in passing westward through the State. For points on the same meridian, a difference in latitude, north or south, forty or forty-five miles, diminishes, or increases, the yearly mean, aboutrne degree. In West Tennessee, for example, in passing from the northern to the southern part of the State, the mean will range from 580.5, or 590, to 600.5, or 610. The following table presents annual means derived from observations made at six stations. Annual means, in degrees and hundreths of a degree.* 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 11856.i 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. Knoxville.. " 55.67 " 57.67 57.75 " " " I 157.03 Lebanon... 57.43 58.10 " " I" " I" " I" 157.76 Nashville.. I[ I it " 59.83 57.77 57.05 59.16 58.52 58.47 Glenwood.. 59.31 58.09 57.62 59.46 57.34 54.23 5454 57.12 56.63 58.25 57.26 Falls of Caney Fork. Period of 2 years, (1855 & 1856.) 58.48 Nashville.. " " 5 years, (1840 — 1844.) 58.44 Memphis... " " 3 years, (1850 —1852.) 60.80 ":The following are the names of the observers, hours of observation, elevations above the sea, when known, etc.: KnoxvillUe.-1852, O. W. Morris, Deaf and Dumb Institute, elevation 960 feet.-1854 and THE STATE IN GENERAL. 15 31. In reference to seasons, the means of spring and autumn do not differ materally from those of the year. Summer is the characteristic season; its mean heat, along the parallel traversing the middle of the State, is from about 740 (Valley of East Tennessee) to 77~.5 (West Tennessee.) Such, at least, it is, according to the limited data we possess. Were observations more extended, there is reason to believe a greater difference would appear between the summer temperatures of the extreme parts of the State. As to winter, its aiverage temperature, which is near 40~, is doubtless nearly uniform along the same parallel. The table below presents means of the two seasons just mentioned. Mean Temperatures of Winter and Summer. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. Average. Win. Sum. Win. Sum. Win. Sum. Win. Sum. Win. Sum. Knoxville...'39.28 70.870.............. 37.76 75.85 38.40 74.09 8.48 73 60 Lebanon.....1 39.96 74.41....... 77.40..................... 39.96 75.90 Glenwood.... 40.11 73.92 38.62 75.51 40.12 7 7.7 37.37 74.29 39.05 75.37 Nashville..... Observations of 5 years (1840-1844) 39.50 77.30 Memphis...... Observations of 3 years (1850-1852) 42.60 78.10 32. The average of the yearly minimum temperatures or of the extreme low temperatures, for the last ten years, is, in the northern part of Middle Tennessee, not far from 20. The temperature, during winter, rarely falls below zero. In only five, out of the ten last winters, has it fallen below. The lowest degree reported is 130.8 below zero, observed at Lebanon, January, 1852, by Professor A. P. Stewart. 1855, Pres. George Cooke and Prof. T. L. Griswold; 7 A. M., 2 P. M., and 9 P. M.; East Tennessee University,; elevation nearly 1000. Lebanon.-Prof. A. P. Stewart; from January to March, 1851, inclusive, sunrise, 9 A. M., 3 P. M., and 9 P. M., remainder of period, 6 A. M., 2 P. M., and 10 P. M. Nashville.-1840 to 1844, Prof. James Hamilton, University of Nashville-1855 to 1859, inclusive, P. F. Tavel; sunrise, noon, and sunset. Gleazwood-near Clarksville; Prof. W. M. Stewart; from January, 1851, to January, 1853, sunrise, 9 A. M., 3 P. M., and 9 P. M.; for remainder of period, 7 A. M., 2 P. M., and 9 P. M., elevation 486. Falls of Caney Fork.-Charles T. and Wm. Bosson; sunrise, noon, and sunset. The period of two years is complete, excepting January, 1855, which is not included. Memphis.-Navy Yard; see Blodget's Climatology, page 46. The latitude and longitude of the places given may be found by referring to the map accompanying this Report. 16 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. During the ten years mentioned, the highest of the yearly maximum temperatures reported, in the northern part of Mliddle Tennessee, is 100~, observed January, 1852, likewise at Lebanon. The average of the maximum temperatures is considerably lower than this, being about 94~. 33. From the above data, it is seen, that the mean yearly range of the thermometer, in this part of the State, is 920; in the southern part it will be found to be less. The data before me are not sufficient for the determination of a good approximation to the average yearly maximum and minimum temperatures of the Valley of East Tennessee. For points on the same parallel, the former would be probably about three degrees less than in the central part of the State. 34. The length of the period between killing frosts, is, especially to the farmer and gardener, an important element of climate. It is, to a great extent, the measure of the "growing" season. The following table, prepared by Prof. W. M. Stewart, will give correct information as to the approximate length of this period in the northern part of Middle Tennessee: Tabular Statement oj the occurrence of frost, from observations made at Glenwood, near Clarksville, Tennessee. Last frost in First frost in First skim Days free Days free YEARs. spring. autumn. ice. from frost. inks frost. ing frost. 1851.May 2d Oct. 23d Oct. 23d 173 173 1852............. r. 23d Oct. 15th Nov. 8th 205 228 1853................ Mar. 29th Oct. I 1th Oct. 25th 195 210 1854................ Apr. 18th Oct. 19th Nov. 5th 184 201 1855................ Apr. 7th' Oct. 22d Oct. 25th 187 200 1856................ Apr. 23d Oct. 16th Oct. 18th 175 176 1857........... Apr. 20th Sept. 30th Oct. 20th 162 181 1858.............. Apr. 25th Oct. 9th Nov. 14th 166 201 1859 Apr. 18th Oct. 10th Oct. 19th 174 182 1860.............. Apr. 2d Sept. 21st Oct. 12th 171 192 Means.................. 179.2 194.4 According to this table, the average length of the growing season is about 194 days. It is seen, too, that the last frost month of spring and the first of autumn, are pre-eminently April and October, months in which the farmer must be on the THE STATE IN GENERAL. 17 lookout for frost. From the third week in April, however, to the middle of October, it is hardly to be expected. In the northern part of East Tennessee the growing season is doubtless a few days shorter. In the southern part of the State, and especially in the southwestern part, this period is twelve days, or two weeks, longer, than on the parallel of Glenwood; its length, therefore, will not be far from 208 days. This difference is of considerable importance to the cotton region of the State. 35. The winds act an important part in modifying climate, and therefore deserve a passing notice. Tennessee belongs to a belt of North America, over which prevail two great systems of winds. The lower consists of currents flowing to the northeast and north; these are the southwesterly and southerly surfacewinds of Tennessee. They come to us charged with warmth and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico, and give fertility and geniality of climate to the State. The upper system is one of northwesterly and northerly winds. These, dry and cool, flow, at a high elevation, above the fertilizing winds of the surface. Such is the general circulation, were there no perturbing influences, each system would move on, in its normal direction, quietly, and without interfering with the other. But every rain, or change of temperature at the surface, is a disturbing cause tending to destroy the equilibrium and mingle the winds. Thus arises a conflict between the great systems, producing, to a greater or less extent, westerly winds, but often ending in the triumph of the northwest and upper system, and in the precipitation of a "Norther" upon the surface. Such a change is usually followed by a few days of cool, clear weather, when the southwest wind quietly resumes its course and position again. 36. From what has been said, it is seen that the regular winds of Tennessee are those from the south, southwest, west, northwest, north, and northeast, all of which belong to the general circulation, while those from the easterly and southeasterly directions, are due to abnormal influences.* Such data as I have bearing upon the winds, are given below. * For an able discussion of the subject of North American winds, illustrated by diagrams and maps, see Prof. Henry's articles in the Patent Office Agricultural Reports of 1855, 1856, and 1858, more especially the last. In these articles the distinguished secretary of the Smithsonian Institution gives an exposition of the general principles of climatology, which he applies especially to the climate of the United States. They are of great value, and well worthy of the attention of all interested ih this subject. I here acknowledge my indebtedness to them. Sig. 2. Vol. 1. 18 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The table is the result of the observations of Prof. W. M. Stewart, and presents the means of three years: Tabular statement of Windsfor the different seasons of the year. Point from which, fc. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. Amount. N. E. 18 14 24 27 83 N. N. E. 8 8 5 9 80 N. quadrant 236. N. 29 17 15 42 103 N.N. W. 8 2 2 8 20 N. W. 21 8 12 33 74 W. N. W. 3 4 5 10 22 W.quadrant,178. W. 11 18 15 18 62 W. S.W. 5 3 3 9 20 J S. W..15 17 15 14 61 1 S. S. W. 13 10 10 9 42 S.quadrant, 313. S. 42 42 39 31 154 S. S. E. 20 8 12 16 56 J S. E. 15 10 23 17 65 E. SE. 12 30 22 1 E. quadrant, 160. E. N. E. 4 5 3 4 16 Calm. 43 81 65 34 223 From this it is seen, that, for the three years at Glenwood, the order of the winds, (grouping them in quadrants,) is, in point of frequency, as follows: First, the southerly winds, followed by the northerly; then the westerly, and finally the easterly. 37. At Knoxville, in East Tennessee, the order for the same number of years, is as follows: (1) Westerly and southwesterly. (4) Northwesterly. (2) Northerly and northeasterly. (5) Easterly. (3) Southerly. | (6) Southeasterly. These facts agree with the views expressed above. Although limited and insufficient, they clearly indicate, that, at the surface, the prevailing winds are from the south and west; that next to these, those from the north are most prevalent, and, finally, that easterly winds are the least so. The observations of a greater number of years would make this order more definite, but would not change it materially. 38. The quantity of rain which falls upon the surface of the State is not excessive, nor is it equal to that precipitated upon the States further South. In general, however, the supply THE STATE IN GENERAL. 19 is amply sufficient. Temporary droughts do occasionally occur, especially during the summer season, and sometimes with serious consequences. That of 1860, felt so severely in Tennessee and in other Southern States, is an example. Such droughts however, are exceptional. The following table presents the mean aggregate quantities of rain and snow (melted) precipitated at the places, and for the periods specified. The water is supposed to remain, for the different periods, where it fell in uniform sheets or strata, the vertical depth being, in each case, the measure of the quantity. Quantities of Rain and melted Snow for the seasons and the.year, in inches and hundredths of an inch. The years of observation are given under each Station. Knoxville,'50, Aug. Nashville, Glenwood, 1854-1855 1853, near 1844-1849, five 1851-1859, years.years. t h e years. two years. three years. years. nine years. Spring....................... 10.12 10.55 15.04 12.28 Summer................... 15.45 9.57 14.47 9.74 Autumn........................ 8.02 7.54 13.49 9.15 Winter......................... 11.02 15.95 11.99 12.89 Annual........................ 44.61 43.61 54.99 44.06 39. I close this notice with an extract from a recent work on the climatology of the United States.* The author is speaking of the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic States. "The principal feature of this area, as a whole, is its adaptation to a great range of vegetable and animal life. It [the climate] is extreme without being destructive, and it brings in tropical summer temperatures, and profusion of rain, with low winter temperatures, near to those of the extreme continental climates; and the result is a condition extremely favorable to the acclimation of tropical and semi-tropical plants and animals. This is the great advantage the area of the eastern United States and Alississippi Valley undoubtedly has over Western Europe, or the distinction, if not an advantage. " The semi-tropical summer is, perhaps, the most noticeable feature of the measure of heat here. * * * * * * * At Baltimore, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, we have a mean of 750; and over an immense area bordering the Gulf of Mexico, and reaching north, nearly to the 35th parallel, * Climatology of the United States, &c., by Lorin Blodget, Philadelphia, 1857. 20 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. we have a mean temperature of 800 or more, which is considerably above that of many portions of the tropical seas of Central and South America. And this high temperature is associated with the peculiar features of the temperate climates in other respects, with equally distributed, yet abundant rains, and with the high curve of daily changes which belongs to the same districts. It is simply an excess of temperature and of humidity, engrafted on, without otherwise changing the characteristic laws elsewhere belonging to much lower temperatures. * * * * * * * If this measure of heat occurred without this great daily range, it would make the climate simply tropical; but, occurring under existing circumstances, it renders the country capable of great elasticity in the adaptation of vegetable and animal forms. Cotton, Indian corn, and the cane, find their natural climates here, but not elsewhere, in any considerable degree, beyond the tropics." THE UNAKA CHAIN. 21 CHAPTER II. THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE STATE. THE UNAKA CHAIN-THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE-THE CUMBERLAND TABLE-LAND. 40. The great physical features, or natural divisions of the State, that form the subject of this chapter, belong, with the exception of the western part of the Table-land, to the Appalachian Region. (Q 18.) With the same exception, they constitute that one of the three political divisions into which Tennessee is divided, known as East Tennessee. The remaining natural divisions will be considered in the succeeding chapters. I. -THE UNAKA CHAIN. 41. General Character.-This is a long range of mountains, and the most massive of all the Alleghany, or Appalachian Ranges. Its high crest, as already stated, is, for the most part, the line dividing Tennessee and North Carolina. As here to be understood, this chain is not a single great ridge, but rather, especially on the Tennessee side, a long belt of parallel ridges, which vary at different points, counted across the chain, from two to four in number. One of these is the main axis; the others are subordinate and more or less broken, but all, in general, trending in the same direction. The range, or its main axis, is continuous lengthwise, excepting, principally, that it is intersected by the deep and rocky cuts of the tributaries of the Holston and Tennessee Rivers that flow out of North Carolina and the northeastern corner of Georgia.* * The names of these tributaries have been already given. (See ~ 6.) In the cuts or narrows, as they are sometimes called, the steep mountain-slopes, or high rocky cliffs, frequently come down on both sides to the water's edge. The rivers in passing, form long and roaring rapids. A few years ago the cuts were impassable for travelers. But now good roads run through several of them. The most remarkable is the road up the Ocoee to the Ducktown Copper Mines. This passes through tortuous narrows for twelve or thirteen miles. It is but little above the water's edge and has been, nearly all the way, either cut out of solid cliffs, or dug out of the precipitous mountain side. Formerly, most, or all of the travel between the Valley of East Tennessee and the 22 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. These divide it into sections; but the sections, abutting end to end, are merely links of the great chain.* 42. The Unaka Chain presents, in one of its longest sections -that between the deep cuts of the Big Pigeon and the Little Tennessee-numerous peaks but a few feet lower than the highest of the Black Mountains in North Carolina, and, without exception, the boldest and greatest mountain-mass east of the Mississippi. As a whole, it is the wildest feature in the physical geography of Tennessee; its geological formations are not found elsewhere in the State, and are important repositories of minerals; its botanical and agricultural characteristics are peculiar and well worthy of notice. For amateurs, its "bald" summits, its semi-arctic plants and balsam peaks, the magnificent scenery it affords; its roaring rapids and wild cascades; its game, and the "trout " of its cold streams, altogether, make it an elysium. What I propose to say here, refers to the surface features of the chain. Its formations, minerals, and soils, will be discussed in the parts of the Report to which these subjects are respectively assigned. 43. Extent and Relations; the Blue Ridge.-Coming out of Virginia, the chain pursues a somewhat serpentine, though, in general, direct southwesterly course, along the Tennessee and North Carolina line, into Georgia. Its length, within the northern and southern limits of Tennessee is about 200 miles; it extends, however, a considerable distance each way beyond these limits. Its relations to the Blue Ridge, to the rivers of the western part of North Carolina, and, in general, to the valleys of North Carolina passed over the mountains. But the cuts are now assuming much importance as the great, but narrow gate-ways between the former valleys and the southeast. Four have been surveyed with reference to the location of railroad lines through them. The Knoxville & Charleston Railroad, now under construction, runs through the cut of the little Tennessee. * Several prominent portions of the chain, lying in different and distant counties, have the name Unaka applied locally to them. As it is desirable for greater convenience and for other reasons, that the entire range should, like the Blue Ridge, have a general and distinctive name, I have in this Report, borrowing the one above, denominated it the Unaka Chain. Haywood, in his "Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee," (Nashville, 1823,) appears to use Unaka in the same general sense. He spells it Unaca, and says: "East Tennessee is divided from North Carolina by the Unaca or White Mountains-Unica, in the Cherokee language, signifying white." Why they were called White Mozintains, I cannot say. It may have been for the reason that, in winter, they are frequently capped with snow, and, in summer, with white clouds. THE UNAKA CHAIN. 23 Tennessee and New River Slope, have already been noticed.* In Virginia, according to the best maps within my reach, the Unaka Chain and the Blue Ridge converge and finally unite; the former thus becomes a great branch of the latter. 44. The portion of the Unaka Chain within the limits of Tennessee-and to this portion our attention will be mostly confined-presents a strip; which, in breadth, will average about twelve or fourteen miles, varying, however, from two or three to twenty miles. Excluding the coves, confined within its ridges, it covers an area of not far from 2000 square miles. 45. Large parts, and generally the southeastern parts, of all the counties adjacent to the North Carolina line, are made up of the Unaka Ridges. These counties are Johnson, Carter, Washington, Greene, Cocke, Sevier, Blount, Monroe, and Polk. In Johnson the ridges lie in such a manner as to completely enclose the valleys, or rather the great cove, of this county. In Carter, too, they nearly enclose the valleys. Greene has less of its surface covered by the Unaka Ridges than any of the other counties mentioned.t 46. Ridges and Outliers.-It has been stated that the chain under consideration is a belt of parallel ridges. In general, it might be said, that the Tennessee portion is divided longitudinally into two ranges-one the high main axis, including its great spurs, the other a subordinate series or chain of outliers, mostly detached and lying along the base of the former, though generally separated by long coves. This typical character, however, does not always hold good, the greatest departure from it being northeast of the French Broad, or of the Big Pigeon. Some of the local features and principal ridges of the chain are pointed out below. 47. In the northeastern corner of the State, north of the Watauga River, in Johnson and Carter counties, the Unaka Chain is divided lengthwise into three leading ridges or mountains separated by wide and beautiful valleys. These ridges, seen from some points, appear to be parallel, but in reality they converge towards the northeast, the two most westerly *See ii 6, 7, 11, and 15. tThese counties may be named the Unaka Counties. Sullivan and McMinn have their eastern boundaries along the crests, respectively, of two western outliers of the chain, and have, therefore, but little of their surfaces with the Unaka area. For this reason they are not included in the above group. 24 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. coming together and blending in a common ridge, as they enter Virginia, which also, further to the northeast, unites with the most easterly and remaining one. (See Map.) 48. The most easterly, is the Stone Mountain Range, called also Iron Mountain.* This is a long bed of a few crowded ridges, along the highest of which the State line runs. It exends southward to the Watauga. Forge Mountain, a sandstone mountain, the southern end of which is a short distance east of Taylorsville, is one of its ridges. To the northeast, just within Virginia, the Stone Mountain culminates in the grand and conspicuous summit-the WThite Top. Other peaks, southwest of the White Top, are Beech Summit, Cat Face, Slate Face, &c. 49. The second, or middle ridge, is Iron Mountain. This is a long, heavy, straight ridge running through Johnson and Carter-a portion forming, for some distance, the boundary between the two counties. It is separated from Stone Mountain by the valley-lands of Johnson. It is cut through both by the Watauga and Big Doe Rivers, but nevertheless, continues as a well defined range to the southern part of Carter, where it gradually sinks away. South of the Watauga, it is separated from mountains on the east by a long, very narrow valley, the most important and widest part of which is Doe River Cove, in Carter. 50. The last and most westerly, is IHolston Mountain. This is separated from Iron Mountain by a curious, very elevated basin of limited extent, called Shady, and by the large Valley of Stony Creek. It runs out boldly from its brother ridges into the "open country," and terminates abruptly a few miles north of Elizabethtown. 51. I may add here, too, as pertaining to this group, an isolated sandstone ridge called -Doe Mountain. It rises up in the lower part of the Johnson County Valley, and divides the latter longitudinally into two portions, which, however, unite again around the southern end of the mountain. It commences near *As on Mr. Rhea's Map. There is much confusion resulting from the indiscriminate use of local names by those living among, or in the vicinity of, the Unaka Ridges. Sometimes a well defined ridge has two or three different names. In many cases, the same name is applied to two or more distinct ridges, and sometimes when they are but a few miles apart. There are, for example, more than half a dozen "Iron Mountains" in the Unaka Chain, three of which, at least, are in Johnson and Carter, and which too, from some points, may all be seen at the same time. In selecting names, I have take those most used, except in cases where the use of such would lead to confusion. THE UNAKA CHAIN. 25 Taylorsville and extends nearly to the Watauga. Towards its southern end, it is cut into by Doe Creek. 52. The eastern part of Carter, south of the Watauga Valley and east of the Iron Mountain Range, forms a region-a portion of the Unaka area-from 12 to 14 miles across, nearly square, or rhombic, in shape, and drained mostly by the tributaries of Doe River. This region is very rough, and is remarkable for the great mountains which bound it on the southeast and south, and for the transverse direction (more or less northwest and southeast) of several of its included ridges. Within it, on the upper waters of the Big Doe, lies an isolated group of mountain-hemmed valleys, called collectively Crab Orchard. This name I extend to the whole region specified. The following are some of its principal ranges and its limits: 53. On the north and west, this region is limited by a sandstone border, which may be called the Flint Range. This range is broken and not well defined. Starting from the State line below the Watauga, it may be regarded as running westward until near Iron Mountain, where, bending around to the southwest, it runs to the southern part of Carter parallel with the Iron Mountain, and separated from it by the narrow valley and Doe River Cove, mentioned above. (~ 49.) The range is intersected at several points, near to one another, by the main tributaries of Doe River just before they unite in Doe River Cove; the parts thus cut off from bold knobs, against which the ridges dividing the tributaries-the transverse ridges, by the way, referred to above-abut, and with which they unite. 54. Upon the east and south, the Crab Orchard region is bounded by the State line which here projects, in a great bend or angle, to the southeast. Leaving the Wataugh the line pursues, at first, a straight course, passing over an interval of several miles in which the Unaka Chain is broken and loses, to some extent, its continuity. Towards the southern part of the region, however, it passes near and along the crests of several noble mountains-the Humpbacks, the Big Yellows, and the Roan — bending, at the same time, to the west, with the latter range. These mountains thus form a portion of the southeastern and southern border of Crab Orchard, overlooking the group of valleys-the local Crab Orchard-which lie at their northwestern base. (See Map.) 26 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 55. The Roan, though not having the highest peaks, is, in some respects, the grandest mountain of the Unaka Chain. It is high and massive, and has a chain or succession of beautiful bald places or "balds,"* which extends for several miles along its summit. The greater part of the Big Yellow Mountain lies in North Carolina. Prof. Guyot, in speaking of the region between the Unaka Chain and the Blue Ridge, and of the clusters of high mountains within it, calls the Roan and the Grand Father, (the latter the highest part of the Blue Ridge and facing the Roan,) "the two great pillars on both sides of the Northgate to the high mountain region of North Carolina. * * * * That gate is almost closed by the Big Yellow Mountain."t The State line, after running southwestward along the ridge of the Roan, for nearly, or quite, half a dozen miles, and when not far from its southwestern "bluff" end, (the mountain in this direction terminating very abruptly,) leaves it suddenly and runs north and west, over a connecting ridge, across to a second Iron Mountain. This leaves the Crab Orchard region, for the most part, to the northeast. 56. The Unaka Chain, in the extreme southern part of Carter County-in the region of Limestone Cove —is reduced to narrow limits. On account of the abrupt ending of the Roan, the Iron Mountain, just mentioned, lying several miles to the northwest, becomes the main range of the Unaka. The State line runs along its crest. 57. This Iron Mountain is a heavy ridge coming out of the Crab Orchard region. It runs in a southwesterly course, and is continuous with the eastern range of Washington County. It is but a few miles east of the disappearing and crowded ends of the Flint Range and of the first mentioned Iron Mountain, being separated from them by Limestone Cove, before referred to, which is a small, narrow valley on the head waters of Indian Creek. 58. In Washington County, the Unaka Mountains consist, in general, of two parallel subordinate beds, (~ 46,) which are separated by a long, straight valley, called Greasy Cove. t So called by those living in the region of the Unaka and the Blue Ridge. The balds, in general, will be spoken of specially further on. t Am. Jour. Sci., Nov.. 1860. THE UNAKA CHAIN. 27 59. The eastern bed may be designated the Bald Mountain Range. It runs to the southwest, continuing the State line, and has many great spurs and several prominent bald peaks. The Iron Mountain, of the southern part of Carter, may be regarded as forming a part of it. As it enters Washington County, the range rises up in a high, bold mountain, locally known as the Unaka. In the southern part of the county it swells up again and forms the Great Bald, well known in this section of the State for its elevation and the bald which crowns it. 60. The western bed may be called the Buffalo and Rich Mountain Range. Its northern end rises up right in the midst of the lowlands, at a point nearly opposite the bluff terminus of the Holston Mountain. (~ 50.) From this point it pursues a southwesterly course, parallel with the Bald Mountain Range, until it strikes the Greene County line. It passes entirely through Washington County, but is intersected by the Nolichucky, the northern part constituting Buffalo and Cherokee Mountains, and the southern, Rich Mountain, &c. It is really a double range, inclosing two small coves, the most important of which is Bompass Cove, extending southwestward from the Nolichucky. 61. Entering Greene County, we find the Unaka, within Tennessee, reduced suddenly to a single massive ridge. This is due to the large S-shaped bend that the State line makes along the southern boundary of Washington County. Soon after passing the Great Bald, the line, leaving the Bald Mountain Range, crosses over northward and westward, until it reaches the massive ridge mentioned. (See Map.) This is the conspicuous mountain lying to the southeast of Greeneville, and is in a line with the Buffalo and Rich Mountain Range of Washington. In the Southern part of Greene two other well marked ranges occur. 62. The ridge, or mountain, lying to the southeast of Greeneville, belongs to what may be called the Big Butt Range, the northern end being well known as the " Big Butt." It starts up just within Washington, in a bold, high summit, presenting a bald, and partially separated by a gap from the Buffalo and Rich Mountain Range. It runs for more than half a dozen miles to the southwest, forming a straight, high mountain, pre 28 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. senting, in its course, several bald places, and, sending off short, but heavy, spurs. Further southward it sinks to a lower and less direct ridge, which, however, may be regarded as a portion of the same range. This portion continuing the State line, forms an elbow to the southeast, in which course it bends around near the Warm Springs, on the French Broad River, in North Carolina. 63. Before reaching the point where the last range loses its greater elevation, Paint Mountain rises up close upon, or forming, its western flank. This mountain soon becomes a distinct range running more directly southwestward to She French Broad, which it strikes at the "Painted Rock," forming with its rocks and its bluff end, the narrows, and the great mural escarpment and amphitheatre of solid sandstone, so well known to travelers on the French Broad. Paint Creek, draining a very rough and rapidly descending valley, flows out from between this mountain and the southern part of the former range. 64. Northwest of Paint Mountain, and separated from it by a cove and a long valley, (Peck's Trough,) is an outlier, a long, straight ridge, called Meadow Creek Mountain. It first appears in the southern part of Greene, gradually swelling up from the lowlands, and runs in a southwesterly direction to the French Broad, in Cocke County. 65. After crossing the French Broad, there are in Cocke County, several subordinate ranges, continuations, to some extent, of those in Greene. The range which marks out the State line, is at first, for several miles, poorly defined, being very low and broken. Within six or seven miles, however, it rises rapidly, and soon becomes one of the greatest mountains of the Unakas. 66. Southwest of the Big Pigeon, the Unaka Chain throughout, may be divided generally, in accordance with the typical character, (~ 46,) into two parallel but unequal ranges. The first, which I will call the Great Smoky, is, in much of its extent, the State boundary. It is the greatest bed of mountains in Tennessee, having the highest peaks, and occupying with its high ridges, a large area. The second is a range, or chain, of prominent, isolated, and long mountains, all arranged lengthwise, nearly in the same line, and composed of the same THE UNAKA CHAIN. 29 sandstones and conglomerates. They are all outliers skirting, at intervals, the northwestern base of the Smoky Range. They appear, in most cases, to rise up massively and independently, just within the southeastern edge of the East Tennessee Valley. The whole chain may be named, from one of its principal mountains, the Chilhowee Range. The interval between the ranges is occupied by narrow valleys or coves, and numerous ridges and spurs. The ridges and spurs have, generally, a much lower elevation than the principal ranges; in a few cases, however, they become high, and conspicuous mountains. 67. The first range-the Great Smoky-has several local names. That of Great Smoky, as well as that of Unaka, is very generally applied to the more northeastern portions. In the southern part of Blount County, a portion is called the Bald Mountain, on account of the balds upon it. The section between the Little Tennessee and iHiwassee Rivers is often locally denominated Unaka. In Polk, south of the Ocoee, another portion is known as the Frog Mountain. Along the State line, in Sevier and the eastern part of Blount, this range attains its greatest development. (~ 42.) 68. The general course of the Smoky Range is southwest. It makes, however, as may be seen by reference to the map, a great elbow, or angle, to the southeast in passing around the head waters of the Tellico River. Within a few miles of the Hiwassee River, the State line leaves the course of the highest ridges and runs in a straight direction, nearly due south, to the Georgia boundary, a distance of about sixteen miles. This throws the range within Tennessee, and gives to the State, as it were, accidently, a most interesting triangular area-the Ducktown Region. This region is, physically, a portion of one of the mountain valleys, or basins of North Carolina and Georgia. 69. The second, the Chilhowee Range-that of the outliersbeing a chain of detached mountains, has its parts more definitely named. English's Mountain, lying lengthwise between Newport and Sevierville, is the first. It breaks up from the lowlands, three or four miles southwest of the former place, and is nearly a dozen miles in length. 30 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 70. Chilhowee Mountain, whose bluff end first appears five or six miles west of Sevierville, is the second. This mountain, coming out of Sevier County, runs through Blount and terminates at the Tennessee River. It is the loigest and most important of the series. Little River, in Blount, cuts through it. The Montvale Springs are at a point of its northwestern base south of Maryville. 71. In Monroe County there are two short mountains in the Chilhowee line, lying between Play-Ball Creek and Tellico River. Taken together, they may be designated as the Guide Mountain. 72. Leaving the last mountain, and passing over an interval of eight or ten miles, the last of the chain rises up boldly from the valley, and runs on into Polk County, terminating at the Ocoee River. This outlier is called Star's Mountain; next to Chilhowee, it is the greatest of the range. It is cut in two by the Iiwassee River. 73. Elevation above the Sea.-The general elevation of the Unaka Chain, along the Tennessee boundary, is doubtless greater than that of the part of the Blue Ridge, within the limits of North Carolina. It cannot be much, if any less than 5000 feet. One long section of the chain, that between the French Broad and the little Tennessee, has indeed, an average elevation much greater. Prof. Guyot, in speaking of this section, says: "Though its highest summits are a few feet below the highest peaks of the Black Mountain, it presents on that extent of 65 miles, a continuous series of high peaks and an average elevation not to be found in any other district, and which give to it a greater importance in the geographical structure of that vast system of mountains. The gaps or depressions, never fall below 5000 feet, except towards the southwest and beyond Forney Ridge; and the number of peaks, the altitude of which exceeds 6000 feet, is indeed very large."* * For the last ten years, Prof. Arnold Guyot, of Princeton, N.J., has devoted the greater parts of the.summers to the study of the geography of the Alleghany, or Appalachian system, and to the measurement of its mountains. During four of these summers-those of 1856,'58,'59, and'60-he has, attended by assistants, given his attention to the mountains of North Carolina and to those of the Unaka Chain. It is to his able researches, in connection with the levels of the surveyed railroad lines, that pass through the valleys, or water gaps, of the chain, and to his kindness personally, that I am almost wholly indebted for the very satisfactory series of elevations presented in the following tables. (Am. Jour. Sci., Sept., 1857, and Nov., 1860. ) Mr. S. B. Buckley has given us valuable and interesting contributions bearing upon THE UNAKA CHAIN. 31 The measurements hitherto made in the Unaka Chain have been almost entirely confined to its main axis. The general elevation, therefore, of the outliers upon the northwestern side, cannot be given with any accuracy. It may be estimated at about 2500.feet. 74. The following tables embrace the peaks and gaps that have been measured, with their heights in feet above tide-water. The heights of a number of points in the valleys and watergaps immediately around the mountains, or in their vicinity, are also given for comparison. (1.) The first table includes several high points of the Stone Mountain Range, ( 48, ) and of the neighboring valleys. Balsam Mountain is several miles northeast of White Top; both are in Virginia. Balsam Mountain, Va.,..............5,700 (about)......... Guyot. WVhite Top. ".........5,530..................... " Cat Face Mountain, Tenn.,..........4,913.......... Guyot. State Gap, (Tenn. & N. C. line.)...3,400 (about)......... " Shull's Mill-pond, Main Watauga, N. C.......................... 2,917........R. R. Survey. Taylorsville, Tenn.,.................... 2,395.................... Guyot. State Line, (Tenn. & N. C..,) in Watauga Valley,..................2,131... R. R. Survey. (2.) The following are prominent points upon the Yellow and Roan Range. (1 55.) Yellow, (above Brigg's house,).....5,158......................Guyot. Little Yellow, (highest,)..............5,196................. Roan, Cold Spring,.....................6,132..................... " Grassy Ridge Bald............6,230...................... " High Knob.......................6,306................. " " High Bluff........6,296...................... Toe River Ford, in N. C a........2,132...................... " Brigg's house, foot of Roan, N. C., 2,757..................... " (3.) The following is the height of Bald Mountain, the only measured peak of the Bald Mountain Range, (~ 59,) so far as I know. The heights of Burnsville and Jonesborough, are added for comparison. the elevation of the Great Smoky Range. He measured many points, along and near the State line in Cooke and Sevier Counties, which were afterwards measured by Prof. Guyot. Mlr. B.'s heights are greater than Prof. Guyot's by quantities varying from 60 to 130 feet and more, mostly for the reason that the altitudes of the bases he started from were too great. (Jour. Sci., Mar., 1859.) The lamented Dr. E. Mitchell, of Chapel Hill, N. C., and Prof. W. C. Kerr, of Davidson College, have likewise made measurements in the Unaka Chain. The former many years ago. (Jour. Sci., April, 1839.) 32 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Bald Mountain......................... 5,550.........Kerr & Guyot. Burnsville Court-House, N. C....... 2,840............R. R. Survey. Jonesborough, Tenn....................1,734......E. T. & Va. R. R. (4.) I cannot give the exact height of the Big Butt Range. (~ 62.) The higher portion, however, is not much, if any, less than 5000 feet above the sea. Col. T. Johnson, of Greene County, who is interested in property upon this range, in a letter of March, 1859, says: "There are two high peaks near the Cold Spring" [a noted spring and summer retreat near the north end of the range] "which have the same height, and are from 5000 to 6500 feet above tide-water. There have been two measurements made, but neither, I think, is very reliable." Adding, for comparison, the elevation of the depot at Greeneville, we have then: Big Butt Range (highest point)....5,000 (?)......................... Greeneville (Depot)...............1,581......E. T. & Va. R. R. (5.) The following table includes points of the Great Smoky Range between the French Broad and Little Tennessee. (QQ 67 & 73.) Most of them are on the State line. The elevation of a few points in the valleys and water-gaps are given as before: Warm Springs, N. C..................1,326.3...Bench-mark R. R "' " Piazza of Hotel...1,335..................... uyot. Tennessee Line on the French Broad.,................1...........1,264.........R. R. Survey. W. H. Campbell's house, head of Big Creek, tributary of the French Broad......................3,287...................Guyot. Indian Grave Gap, (between Fr. Broad and Big Pigeon)..........4,288................. " Man Patch Gap, (do)................4,392............. " Bear-wallow Mt., (do)...............4,659.................... Bear-wallow Mt. Gap to Fine's Creek, (do)..........................4,116.............. " Luftee Knob, (on Tenn. Line at the corner of Haywood and Jackson, Counties, of N. C. The points below are between this and the gap of the Little Tennessee.)..........6,238*................. Thermometer Knob................. 6,157.............. " Ravens Knob.......................6,230................. " *This elevation may not be correct within a few feet. Prof. G. states that he was interrupted when at this point by a storm. THE UNAKA CHAIN. 33 Tricorner Knob................... 6,188................ Guyot. Mt. Guyot, (so named by Mr. Buckley, in Tenn.,).........6,636..................... " Mt. Henry................................. 6,373.................... Mt. Alexander...........................6,447..................... South Peak......................... 6,299....... The Three Brothers,-highest or central Peak........5,907..................... Thunder Knob............................5,682.................. Laurel Peak.............................. 5,922.................... Reinhardt Gap............................ 5,220.....................', Top of Richland Ridge.................. 5,492... Indian Gap................................5,317.................... Peck's Peak............................... 6,232..................... Mt. Ocona...........3....6,135..................... " Right-hand, or New Gap.......,096.................... Mt. Mingus........................ 5,694............... " Group of Bullhead in Tennessee: Central Peak, or Mt. LeConte.....6,612....................., West Peak, or Mt. Curtis.........6,568..................... " North Peak, or Mt. Safford........6,535..................... Cross Knob...................... 9.......5,931........... " Neighbor................... 5,771................. Master Knob...........................6,013............. Tomahawk Gap........................ 5,450..................... Alum Cave.............................4,971................. Alum Cave Creek, junction with Little Pigeon River........... 3,848..................... Road Gap.................................. 5,271................., Mt. Collins.................... 6,188.................... Collin's Gap............................. 5,720..................... Mount Love..............................6,443................. Clingman's Dome......................6,660....................., Mt. Buckley...................6,599..................... Chimzey Knob................ 5,588.................... Big Stone Mountain................... 5,614................. Big Cherry Gap................... 4,838............,, Corner Knob............................5,246..................... Forney Ridge Peak................... 5,087................. Snaky Mt.........................,.....5...,195..................... Thunderhead Mt........................5,520................. Eagletop...................................5,433..................... Spence Cabin............................. 4,910..................... Turkey Knob.............................4,740..................... Opossum Gap............................ 3,840..................... North Bald............................... 4,711.................... The Great Bald's Central Peak.....4,922..................... Sig. 3. Vol. 1. 34 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. South Peak..............................4,708.................. Guyot. Tennessee River at Hardin's........ 899................... Chilhowee Mt., summit road to Montvale Springs.................2,452..................... " Montvale Springs, Tenn...............1,293............... (6.) Between the Little Tennessee and the Hiwassee, we have the following elevations: Hangover Knob, over.......................Guyot. Haw Knob, over.........................5 300..................... Beaverdam, or Tellico Bald..4.......4,266.................... " (7.) South of the Hiwassee the average elevation of the chain is reduced to about 3400 or 3000 feet. Frog Mountain, south of the Ocoee, is a high portion of the chain. Prof. Guyot makes the elevation of its highest peak 4226 feet. The elevation of the Ducktown Copper Region, which lies to the east of Frog Mountain, is said to be about 2000 feet. 75. The "Balds," Views, Balsam Peaks, &c.-I have had occasion several times, to refer, incidentally, to the "balds" of the Unaka Range. Some further notice of them is required. As a general thing, the Unaka Ridges are clothed with forests, the high, exposed summits, however, running up from 4000 to more than 6000 feet above tide-water, are frequently destitute of trees, owing to the cold climate of these heights. Such places are said to be bald, or are called the balds, and sometimes balls. They are treeless domes capping the great mountains. These domes are, in some cases, nearly, or quite, a mile in diameter; sometimes a chain or succession of them, occurs along the summit of a ridge, giving, in fact, a more or less continuous bald for several miles, Such is the case upon the Roan. (~ 55.) 76. Although treeless, the balds are not wanting in verdure; supplied often with a good, though not deep, soil, they abound in grasses, ferns, and small shrubs,* several of which belong to a far more northern climate than is found in the valleys below. During the summer, the clouds, in which they are often buried, keep them moist, and supply with water the ice-cold springs which are frequently found around their edges, much to the comfort and relief of the mountain-climbers who visit them. In winter they are, much of the time, covered with snow. * "Wild gooseberries," several species of huckleberries, and even strawberries, abound upon some of them, and are much esteemed for their rich flavor. THE UNAKA CHAIN. 35 77. In ascending a mountain crowned with a bald, the changes which successively occur in the aspect of the trees and general growth, as we approach the bald, are curious and most interesting. Leaving the heavy forests on the slopes below, the oaks, beeches, and other trees, begin to diminish in size, and diminish more and more, as the bald is approached, until we find ourselves passing through strange, low groves of old looking dwarfs, often not much higher than one's head. Groves of stunted beeches, buckeyes, maples, oaks, with sometimes birches and patches of balsams, are found more or less, around all of them. On reaching the edge of the bald, the groves disappear, and the treeless summit is boldly spread out before the visitor; often, with the exception of occasional rocky masses here and there, as a great gently rolling meadow, and often, too, in the summer season, alive with "stock" of all kinds, feeding and fattening upon the rich herbage. 78. The balds, in themselves, are interesting, but when the great and magnificent views of the world below and around them are associated, they become in truth, sublime. They must be visited, to be appreciated. There is a fascination about them which cannot be told. 79. In general, the views on the one hand, to the east or southeast, in North Carolina, are made up in the distance of the broken heavy ranges and arms of the Blue Ridge. Near by, from nearly all the points, the spurs of the Unakas are seen running out from beneath one's feet, sometimes apparently interlocking, in much confusion, with those from the North Carolina ranges; often, however, the different sets are seen to be more or less parallel, and separated by beautiful valleys which look like garden spots deeply seated, and sometimes seemingly almost buried among the mountains. 80. On the other hand, to the west and north, in Tennessee, the view is different. There is not the same apparently unbounded ocean of mountain billows. In place of the rough ranges of the Blue Ridge, we have, in the distance, far below us, (combining the views from the different points along the Unakas,) the great Valley of East Tennessee, spreading out like a rich and checkered carpet, its inequalities, excepting a few heavy ridges to the north, being almost lost-its surface sink. ing down to a great plain, dotted all over with cultivated spots. In the extreme distance, especially from the central and more southern summits, the Cumberland Table-land is seen to the northwest, rising up dimly beyond the Great Valley, and bounding the view. From the more northern summits, the 36 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Bay's Mountain group of ridges, and the Virginia ranges, the Clinch especially, which run their abrupt ends into Tennessee, appear in demi-relief, set in the midst of the Valley, and interpolated, as it were, between the Unaka and the Cumberland. (~ 95.) At our feet the Tennessee Unakas are well seen. Great spurs run out from the main axis, at the base of which lie, very generally, long, narrow coves; just beyond which, again rise up long, straight mountain ridges-the outline of the chain (~ 46) trending with the main axis itself, to the northeast and southwest. 81. Many balds occur along the Unaka Chain. White Top, of the Stone Mountain Range, (~ 48,) has a conspicuous one, which can be seen from many and distant points. Other summits of the' same range, have them. Those of the Roan, the Bald Mountain, and Big Butt ranges, have been referred to. (~~ 55,59 and 62.) Others occur along, or in the vicinity of the line in Cocke, Sevier, Blount, and Monroe. Of all the balds, those of the Roan are doubtless the most extensive and beautiful. They are three or four in number, and lie in a chain six miles in length along the summit of the mountain. They are partially separated from each other by shallow depressions, or gaps, which abound more or less with groves of dwarfed trees such as generally surround the balds. (] 77.) The largest lies at the southwestern end of the Roan. Dr. Mitchell appears to have had this one in mind when he wrote the following graphic notice of this mountain: "It is the most beautiful and will best repay the labor of ascending it, of all our high mountains. With the exception of a body of rocks, looking like the ruins of an old castle, near its southwestern extremity, the top of the Roan may be described as a vast meadow without a tree to obstruct the prospect; where a person many gallop his horse for a mile or two, with Carolina at his feet on one side, and Tennessee on the other, and a green ocean of mountains raised in tremendous billows immediately around him. It is the Elysium of the Southern botanist, as a number of plants are found growing in this cold and humid atmosphere, which are not seen again until we have gone some hundreds of miles further north. It is the pasture ground for the young horses of the whole country about it during the summer. We found the strawberry here in the greatest abundance and of the finest quality, in regard to both size and flavor, on the 30th of July."* The bald of the Big Butt, in the neighborhood of the "Cold Spring," is easy of access, affords a magnificent view, (all the mountains and coves of *Amer. Jour. Sci., 1839, Vol. XXXV. See also same Journal, 1842, Vol. XLII, for an interesting notice of the botany of this and other neighboring mountains, by Dr. Ass Gray. THE UNAKA CHAIN. 37 Washington, to the northeast and east, among them the Great Bald, the towns of Jonesborough and Greeneville to the north and west, far down in the Valley, Bay's Mountain, &c., being in sight,) and will well compensate for the labor incident to a visit. 82. Those summits, or crests of considerable elevation, but not high nor exposed enough to be bald, are generally covered with a stunted open growth. Some of the very highest points, in place of being bald, are dark with a heavy balsam and evergreen growth, through which it is sometimes impossible to pass. Such a dark, thick, sombre vegetation has given name to the Black Mountains of North Carolina; and some of the Tennessee peaks might well be denominated Black for the same reason. The following remarks refer, in part, to the "balsams" of the mountains of Cocke and Sevier counties: "Most of the highest mountain tops are covered with the Abies nigra and Abies Fraseri; the former is the black spruce, and is erroneously called the balsam; the latter is the true balsam with blisters in its bark, from which balsam is collected. It attains a greater size than Pursh or Nuttall has given it. X *: * The black spruce appears to grow at a lower elevation than the balsam, but neither of them is often met with beneath a height of 4000 feet."* 83. Dr. Mitchell,who manyyears ago measured the peaks of the Black Mountain, and who, too, in after years, unfortunately lost his life while alone among their dark, cold summits, has left us the following notice of the laurel thickets and bear trails of this mountain. Similar thickets and trails occur upon some of the rough ridges of Tennessee. "The ascent of the Black Mountain is very difficult, on account of the thick laurels which are so closely set, and their strong branches so interwoven, that a path cannot be forced by pushing them aside. The hunters have no method of advancing, when they happen to fall in with the worst of them, but that of crawling along their tops. The bear, in passing up and down the mountain, finds it wisest to keep the ridges; and, trampling down the young laurels as they spring up, breaking the limbs of the old ones, and pushing them aside, he forms, at last, a sort of burrow above ground through this bed of vegetation, along which he passes without difficulty." 84. Climate.-The cool, grassy balds, the high crests with open, stunted growth, the balsam summits and northern aspect *S. B. Buckley, Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. XXVII, 2d Series, p. 286. 38 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. of vegetation, which have been referred to, indicate the character of the climate on the tops of the higher Unaka ridges. In ascending these ridges no important changes are seen until near their tops. The same forests extend from the valleys a long way up the sides of the mountains. In the vicinity, however, of the higher crests and summits, and upon them, the aspect is very different. The changes in vegetation are especially striking. Many of the plants are sub-alpine in character, the equivalents of which must be sought for on the plains of Canada, several hundred miles to the north. For the want of systematic observations upon the meteorology of the Unakas, no satisfactory statistics can be presented. All I propose to do is to estimate their mean temperature and other climatic features, using as data the averages obtained at Knoxville, the nearest point at which observations have been made. Knoxville occupies a position near the centre of the great valley of East Tennessee, but is within sight of some of the Unaka ridges. 85. It is well known that the greater the altitude of a place, the colder is its climate. The rate of decrease in temperature is one degree for about every 300 or 350 feet of elevation. Prof. Guyot, in his excellent work on comparative Physical Geography, says:* "An elevation of level of 850 feet,....... which is only that of many of our public edifices, is sufficient to diminish the mean temperat!re of a place by one degree of Fahrenheit; that is to say, the effect is the same as if the place were situated sixty miles further north. A few thousand feet of height, which are nothing to the mass of the globe, change entirely the aspect and character of a country. The excellent vineyards, bordering the banks of the Swiss lakes, become impossible at 1000 feet, at 500 even, above their present level; and the tillage, the occupations of the inhabitants, take here quite a different character. A thousand feet higher still, and the rigor of the climate no longer permits the fruit trees to flourish; the pastures are the only wealth of the mountaineer, for whom industry ceases to be a resource. Higher still, vegetation disappears, with it the animals, and soon, instead of the smiling pictures of the plain and the lower valleys, succeeds the spectacle of the majestic, but desolated regions of eternal ice and snow, where the sound and animation of life give place to the silence of death." * The Earth and Man: Lectures on Comparative Physical Geography in its Relations to the History of Man, by Arnold Guyot. Boston, 1850. THE UNAKA CHAIN. 39 I quote this passage for a double purpose; it contains practical illustrations for which we will have use hereafter. 86. Prof. Henry, in constructing the isothermal chart of the territory of the United States, which accompanies one of his instructive articles on Meteorology in the Patent Office Reports, has made an allowance for decreasing temperature of one degree for every 333 feet of elevation, or three degrees for every 1000 feet. This rate of decrease afforded him satisfactory and consistent results. It will be adopted in estimating the temperature of the high lands of Tennessee. 87. The mean annual temperature at Knoxville, so far as we can at present, determine it, is fifty-seven degrees, (~ 30,) and the height of the city, or rather of the points where the observations were made, is 1000 feet above the sea, or so near it, that this, for present purposes, may be taken as the height. Many of the more elevated Unaka summits are from 4000 to 5000 feet higher than Knoxville, and some 5500, and a few even 5600 higher. The difference in temperature, must, therefore, be considerable. At the rate adopted, it is fifteen degrees for those points 5000 feet above Knoxville, or 6000 above the sea. This gives them a yearly mean of forty-two degrees, which is about that of the southern shore of Lake Superior, and of Quebec and Montreal. 88. The yearly mean of forty-two degrees belongs strictly to those points which have the same latitude of Knoxville, and are 6000 feet above the sea. A difference of latitude, in this region, of about forty-five miles, makes a difference in temperature of one degree. The elevation therefore, being the same, the mean, forty-five miles further north, will be forty-one degrees, and at the same distance south, forty-three degrees. It follows, also, that an elevation of 5666 feet above the sea, in the northern part of the Unaka Chain, will be equivalent, so far as it regards temperature; to one of 6000 feet on the parallel of Knoxville, and to one of 6333 forty-five miles further south. Thus, finally, it is seen that, in mean temperature at least, these high local regions have a climate that is truly Canadian. But while the annual mean is that of Quebec, or of Montreal, the extremes of heat and cold are less than they are there; the winters being milder and the summers cooler. 40 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 89. As to rain and moisture, but little that is definite can be given. It is well known, however, that there is, in general, no lack of either. In the summer season, showers of rain frequently dash over these mountain tops, when scarcely a cloud is to be seen floating above the great Valley, to the west. The annual quantity of rain and melted snow at Knoxville, may, for the present, be taken at 44.5 inches, (~ 38.) That which falls upon the Unakas is greater than this. The moist westerly and southwesterly winds, when they strike, and flow up the mountain sides, lose a part of their sensible temperature, and, in consequence, may precipitate moisture, for the first time in their passage across the State, either simply as clouds enveloping and bedewing the summits, or as rain. During the winter, the highest crests and summits are, much of the time, white with snow. The foregoing features of climate give the Unakas, for the most part, their agricultural characteristics; of these it is proposed to speak hereafter. II.-THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 90. Leaving the mountains, we now descend to a great area, or Valley, fluted with scores of smaller valleys and ridges. Such are the relations of this area to the mountains on both sides, that it is well called, collectively, the Valley. It is one of the most beautiful and populous portions of the State. Within it is embraced nearly all the agricultural wealth which is usually accredited to the civil division we call East Tennessee. (~ 40.) 91. Geographical Limits and Relations.-The limits of this valley have been alreadybriefly given in the table of the natural divisions.'(~ 25.) As there said, it is bounded on the southeast by the Unaka Chain, and on the northwest, by the steep escarpments of the great Table-land next to be described.* * The panoramic view, facing this page, presents the general appearance of the Valley of East Tennessee as seen from the point of Lookout Mountain near Chattanooga. In the extreme distance, upon the right, are seen some of the high ridges of the Unaka Chain, and near by, upon the left, the eastern escarpment of Walden's Ridge, (an arm of the Cumberland Table-land,) the wide valley lying between these mountain ranges. Some of the ridges included within the valley, are also seen. The conspicuous ridge east of Chattanooga, is Mission, or Missionary, Ridge. Further off, White Oak Mountain, parallel to the ridge, just mentioned, may be traced out. THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 41 To the northeast it is continuous with the Valley of Virginia; to the southwest it extends into Georgia and Alabama. It is, in reality, but a part of a long, great and complex trough that extends, at least from the Susquehanna, in Pennsylvania to the Coosa and Black Warrior rivers, in Alabama; and it is thus, too, I may add here, a portion of a great natural highway,-for such is this trough,-that Providence has opened between the North and the South, and which now is rapidly becoming available by iron tracks throughout its entire length. This trough, in its southwestern course, enters Tennessee obliquely with reference to its northern boundary, but, in crossing the State, turns with a graceful curve more southward, and passes the southern boundary at a much less acute angle. The Tennessee portion-the Valley under consideration-has, in the northern part of the State, (measured, for example, directly across from Meadow Creek Mountain, in Cocke county, to the Cumberland Gap on the State line, in Claiborne,) a width of about fifty-five miles. Towards the southern part of the State, however, its mountain walls converge and reduce its breadth. Measured across from Star's Mountain, in McMinn, to the foot of the Cumberland, in Rhea, it is only about thirty-four miles wide, and thus narrowed, it strikes the Georgia line.* 92. Altogether, with its outlying subordinate valleys and coves, the Valley of East Tennessee embraces the following counties and parts of counties: the whole of Hancock, Hawkins, Grainger, Union, Jefferson, Knox, Roane, Meigs, and Bradley, nearly all of Sullivan and McMinn; the parts, and in most cases, much the greater parts, of Carter, Johnson, Washington, Greene, Cocke, Sevier, Blount, Monroe, and Polk, not occupied by the Unaka Ridges; and finally, the parts of Claiborne, Anderson, Rhea, Hamilton, Bledsoe, Sequatchee, and Marion, not upon the Cumberland Table-land. The entire Valley, including its outlying valleys and coves, has an area of about 9200 square miles, considerably more than one-fifth of the area of the State. 93. Component parts, the Ridges.-The Valley of East Tennessee constitutes the largest and most interesting portion of * I do not include here a remarkable and beautiful outlier-Sequatchee Valley-to be considered hereafter, which would increase the aggregate breadth. 42 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. that part of the Appalachian Region, (~ 18,) which lies within Tennessee. It has the Appalachian characteristics well developed. It is closely furrowed with parallel valleys and ridges, all trending to the northeast and southwest. Owing to this character, the surface in a transverse direction, that is to say, from the southeast to the northwest, is remarkably rolling. "Across the country" is here significant. The luckless traveler, whose route lies "across," unless happily favored with breaks and gaps in the ridges, prepares for "wave on wave succeeding." On the other hand, "up," or "down the country,"to the northeast or southwest-is as equa!ly significant of good level roads. 94. The ridges are very numerous, and differ more or less in height, sharpness of outline, agricultural and other features; while, at the same time, each one is remarkable for the uniformity of character it preserves from one end to the other-a distance, in some cases, of a hundred miles or more. The differences among them depend, for the most part, as will be seen hereafter, upon the differences in geological character. The most important are mentioned below. 95. In the first place, several, in the northern part of the Valley, are called mountains. Most of these are prominent ridges, which, coming out of Virginia, terminate abruptly, within the borders of Tennessee. They are arranged in three groups, one of which-the last noticed-belongs exclusively to Tennessee. 96. First, the Powell's Mfountain Group.-This is a series of three great parallel ridges, which, coming from the northeast, and entering Tennessee, run through a corner of Hancock County, and terminate in the northeastern part of Claiborne. The remarks below refer to them as they occur in Tennessee, where they are, in fact, but little more than the ends of ridges. The first, on the northwest, is Wallin's Ridge; then, at the distance of about two miles, follows Powell's Aliountain, the intermediate space being occupied by a lower ridge and a limestone valley. Powell's Mountain is succeeded by Newman's Ridge, the two being crowded closely together, with but a very narrow trough, or valley, between. These are high conspicuous ridges, but can hardly be designated as mountains. THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 43 97. Second, the Clinch Mountain Group. — Clinch Mountain is the most prominent of all the ranges included in the Valley. After pursuing a long course in Virginia, it crosses the Tennessee boundary and runs continuously for more than fifty-six miles, in a nearly straight line, to within sight of Knoxville, when it breaks off abruptly in a bold end. It has a sharp crest, and well defined outlines. In height, it will average not much, if any, less than 1000 feet above the level of the Holston. It is the boundary, in part, between the counties of Hancock and Hawkins, and between Union and Grainger. 98. Close along the southeastern base of Clinch Mountain, but separated from it by a narrow trough, or valley, (Poor Valley,) is, generally, a low sharp ridge. In Hawkins, however, on its southeastern side, there are several heavy ridges, the Pine Mountain, the Stone Mountain, and a curious outlier, the Devil's Nose, all of which, including Clinch Mountain, are crowded together, side by side, and constitute the group. House iMountain, an isolated, short, roof-like ridge, in Knox County, and a mile or two below the end of the Clinch, might also be included. This is a conspicuous object, and is seen from Knoxville, and from many other distant points. 99. Last, the Bay's Mountain Group.-This group lies wholly within Tennessee. It is a curious bed of half a dozen sharp, straight ridges, which, like those of the group just mentioned, are crowded laterally totether, being separated only by very narrow trough-like valleys. The group itself is called, collectively, Bay's Mountain, and extends from the Holston, near Kingsport, to a point several miles below Bull's Gap, a distance of about forty miles.* Across its middle part, it is several miles through, and here the greatest number of ridges occur. Towards either end, the ridges one after another drop away, until, at the Holston and below Bull's Gap, the group terminates in single ranges. Chimney Top and Fodder Stack, are high, prominent points, capped with masses of sandstone, which belong to the most eastern ridge. The former affords, from its *In Jefferson County, and even south of the French Broad, between Knox and Sevier counties, are ridges which are considered as continuations of Bay's Mountain, and take its name. They are, however, no part of Bay's Mountain proper. They are comparatively low, have a different geological structure, and no physical connection with it. 44 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. great sandstone "chimneys," a most beautiful and extended landscape view. Bay's Mountain has points which are as high as the mean elevation of Clinch Mountain, or higher, yet its average height is considerably less. 100. Such are the "mountains" of the northeastern portion of the Valley. Owing to the presence of the first two groups, and of many intermediate ridges of less elevation, some of which will be mentioned, the region between Rogersville and Tazewell, by the way of Sneedville, is exceedingly rough or rolling. It is relieved, however, to some extent, by several fine limestone valleys lying imbedded between the parallel ridges. 101. The northern groups running out, the Valley far southward is without mountains. Its surface, it is true, is closely furrowed with ridges and valleys, but the former are comparatively low, and almost sink down into a common plain with the latter when seen in the great views obtained from the high summits of the Unakas. (~ 80.) 102. In the southern part of the Valley, however, is a single range which deserves to be mentioned here. This is the socalled White Oak Mountain.* This mountain first appears five or six miles below the Hliwassee River, near Georgetown. It runs in a direct course southwesterly to the Georgia line, and separates, in part, the counties of Bradley and Hamilton. It is a prominent range and a leading feature in this part of the Valley. Taylor's Ridge, in Georgia, is a continuation of White Oak Mountain. 103. In regard to the scores of ridges of less elevation, my remarks must be general. There are several different classes, or types, of these ridges-so far as their forms and outlines are concerned —features, by the way, depending in reality upon their geological characters. 104. In the first place, a large class is composed of those which are depressed, or rounded, along the summits or crests. These are generally limestone ridges, and often of great length. Most of them have a comparatively unbroken outline, others are more or less cut into a succession of dome-like knobs. *-Lookout Mountain, which looms up abruptly and grandly just within the Valley, and near the Georgia line, is properly an outlier of the Cumberland Table-land, and is referred to that division. THE VALLEY OE EAST TENNESSEE. 45 Many of them are covered, to a greater or less extent, with sharp flinty gravel. 105. A second and large class, includes numerous ridges which are steep and sharp-crested. These owe their characteristic forms to the sandstone, and sometimes to the slaty layers which they contain. Though often occurring in groups, yet they more frequently, perhaps, alternate in position with those of the first class, and like them extend in length a great number of miles. Sometimes their sharp crests are notched by gaps, at short intervals, affording curious lines of pointed peaks. In such cases, they are frequently denominated comby "ridges." 106. Another class, and the last I shall mention here, includes a number of long and remarkable ranges of "Red Knobs" or "Red Hills," traversing the southeastern part of the Valley. The knobs are separated from each other by deep gaps. They have generally a conical shape, sending up their peaks from 200 to 400 feet, and sometimes to a greater altitude, above the general level of the Valley. The soil upon them has a deep brownish red color, derived from the sandy ferruginous and calcareous rocks, of which, for the most part, they are composed. These curious hills dot out straight or gently curving ranges, remarkable for their length, and for their uniform appearance throughout. 107. For the purpose of presenting examples of the different classes, and, at the same time, of illustrating the surface-features of the Valley, which, indeed, is the main object desired, some of the most prominent ridges will be noticed. It will be best to speak of them in connection with the different sections of the Valley in which they occur. 108. The region west and north of Knoxville, is distinguished for its numerous parallel ridges, several of which are remarkable for their size, their directness, and length. The principal ones, in the order in which they successively occur, in going from Knoxville, are the Black Oak, Copper, and Chestnut Ridges. Copper Ridge runs from the Virginia line far down into Tennessee, and may be traced out for at least seventy-five miles. This, as well as the Black Oak. and Chestnut Ridges, have a limestone basis, and, belong, with others, to the first class mentioned. 46 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. In addition to these, and in some cases, alternating with them, there are in this region many of the sharp crested ridges. Such are Bull Run and Pine Ridges. The ridge three miles west, or northwest of Knoxville, is also an example. In Hancock County several ridges of this kind occur; among them Comby Ridge is prominent. 109. The section of the Valley east of Bay's Mountain, and northeast of the French Broad River, including the counties of Sullivan, Washington, Greene, and part of Cocke, is in strong contrast, so far as long uniform ridges are concerned, with the one just mentioned. Here are no very long ranges like the Copper and Black Oak Ridges. The surface is furrowed, in common with all parts of the Valley, wi ~ ridges and valleys, running northeasterly or southwesterly; but the i dges are comparatively short, seldom running more than eight or ten miles, and their axes not always arranged consecutively in lines. The region may be said to be interruptedly furrowed or fluted. 110. Constituting one of the peculiarities of this section, are short and narrow slate ridges, which thrust their backs up here and there over its area. Another feature is the occurrence, especially in Sullivan County, of regions, or belts, of slaty knobs. These knobs are crowded together without order, and, where most numerous, form wild labyrinths of conical hills, from which a stranger, once off the beaten track, might not easily extricate himself. The East Tennessee & Virginia Railroad, just north of the Watauga River, runs for about four miles through one of these "knobby regions." 111. Southwest of the last section, and east and south of Knoxville, as far down as the Little Tennessee River, there is another portion of the Valley, including the counties of Jefferson, Sevier, Blount, alnd parts of Cocke and Knox, in which the ridges are better defined than in the last, but not so well as in the adjacent section to the northwest. Many of the ridges belong to the first class. (~ 104.) Such is the so-called "Bay's iMountain," north of the French Broad A few have the sharply crested character, as the "Bay's Mountain," which lies south of the French Broad, and separates Knox County from Sevier. THE VALLEY OE EAST TENNESSEE. 47 112. It is here that the curious ranges of "Red Knobs," (~ 106,) are first seen. These constitute one of the most prominent topographical features of this region. They originate in Jefferson County and in the northern part of Blount, and extend;to the southwest, for the most part, along the margins of two slaty belts traversing this part of the State. One of these ranges, which I mention as an example, originates in the vicinity of Strawberry Plains, and passes near Knoxville, its red prominent hills being just beyond the Holston; from this point it continues to the southwest, runs close by Athens, and reaches a point a few miles east of Cleveland. Hiere the Knobs cease to be prominent, but yet they can be seen, and the range they form traced on into Georgia. 113. Tle slaty bels just referred to, are often "knobby," forming, in fact, "knobby belts" like those of Sullivan. (~ 110.) One of these, several miles wide, traverses Sevier County. It originates in fact, in Greene, and traverses Cocke County before entering Sevier. It lies just to the west of Sevierville, strikes the end of Chilhowee Mountain, and then continues on down along the western side of this mountain, into Blount. This belt is noted for its conical hills, or "knobs," especially that portion of it in Sevier County. 114. The southern part of the Valley, the section south or southwest of the Little Tennessee, and of the Big Tennessee as far down as the mouth of Clinch River, is, in general, very uniformly fluted with ridges and valleys. 115. In the first place, the portion of this section west of the East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad, contains numerous long ridges, both sharp-crested and rounded, many of which, are continuations of those traversing the section west and north of Knoxville. White Oak Mountain, already mentioned, (~ 102,) occurs here. Missionary Ridge, east of Chattanooga, and prominent in the plate facing page 39, is one of the first class. (~ 104.) 116. North of Chattanooga and west of the Tennessee River, as far up, at least, as the mouth of the Hiwassee, is a strip, from four to six miles wide, which is broken and hilly. It is a knobby region, but of a different character from those before mentioned. Its knobs are more dome-like, and are covered 48 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. with flinty gravel. The rocks which compose them are not slate, but a magnesian limestone. 117. To the east of the railroad, in the second place, there is much uniformity in the direction and arrangement of subordinate parts. Here the ridges are principally rounded and flinty with a few conspicuous lines of red hills, all being continuations of the ranges from the northeast. The red hills of the Knoxville and Athens Range are very prominent in the northern part of this section. In addition to these, there are some narrow, knobby belts. 118. Valleys and Coves.-Such are the relations existing between the ridges and valleys of this great division, that much of what might be said here has been anticipated. The ridges mark out the valleys. Where the former are long and straight, and occur side by side, at short intervals, the latter will necessarily be long and narrow. 119. In the western half of the Valley,-that next to the Cumberland Table-land and reaching from Virginia to Georgia,-the subordinate valleys, as might be inferred from the character of the ridges, have the greatest longitudinal extent, and the greatest regularityin their arrangement. In fact they are remarkable for these features. There are several valleys or ranges of valleys here, which, although, perhaps not averaging more than one mile in width, run continuously through the State, a distance of more than 150 miles. They extend, moreover, each way beyond the limits of Tennessee. 120. These valleys may be easily traced out upon the Map. In one long range, which may be presented as an example, are found the towns of Tazewell, Clinton, Decatur and Georgetown; and I might add also, Ringgold, in Georgia. 121. Another range of valleys lying at the base of the Cumberland Table-land, or of Walden's Ridge, (as the eastern border of the Table-land is called,) may be here noticed. This range, with the exception of two or three short breaks in Roane and Campbell counties, is also continuous through the State. Powell's Valley, in Claiborne and Campbell counties, Tennessee Valley,* in Rhea and Hamilton, and Lookout Valley, in the southern part of the latter county, are among its well known * Not of the Tennessee River THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 49 portions. This valley-range, however, does not come in direct contact with the base of the Table-land, being usually separated from it by a low, sharp ridge, and a very narrow and curious trough, often called the "Back Valley," the latter lying immediately at the base, and back of, the sharp ridge. 122. In the northeastern portion of the Valley, especially in Washington, Greene, and Cocke counties, the valleys partake of the nature of the ridges, and are comparatively short and broken. (~ 109.) Southwest of this section, and especially south of the Hiwassee, there are again, long ridges and valleys succeeding each other laterally, with considerable regularity. 123. The valleys, in general, vary in width from a few hundred yards to several miles. Most of them are fertile and beautiful. Some of the narrow ones are not inviting, being cold and unproductive. They are best classified in accordance with their geological characters. So far as may be necessary, they will be enumerated in connection with the descriptions of the formations with which they are associated. 124. My remarks, hitherto, have been confined to the subordinate valleys lying wholly and properly within the body of the great Valley. In addition to these, the outlying valleys, or coves, which are more or less interlocked with the ranges and arms of the Unaka and Cumberland, or are entirely surrounded by them, are to be noticed. 125. Beginning in the northeastern corner of the State, there is, at the first, one of the largest and most interesting coves in Tennessee, for such a cove, indeed, the valley-lands of Johnson County, taken together, form. The general outline and extent of this cove may be seen by reference to the map. Below Taylorsville, it is divided lengthwise by Doe Mountain; the parts, however, unite again around the mountain in the valley of the Watauga. (~ 51.) Johnson County Cove, as it may be called, is a more elevated body of valley-land than any other of equal extent in the State. Its average elevation is considerably more than 2000 feet above the sea, which is, at least, as high, if not higher, than the top of the Cumberland Table-land. It is well watered by the Watauga, and by Roane's Creek and its crystal Sig 4. Vol. 1. 50 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. tributaries. Northward, it runs to a point not far above the Virginia line. It is entirely inclosed by mountains. On the east and south lies the Stone Mountain Range; (~ 48,) on the northwest, the Iron Mountain Range. (~ 49.) To enter or leave the cove, it is necessary, either to climb over the mountains, or to pass through the very narrow rocky gaps cut out by the water courses. The gaps most used are those formed respectively, by Doe River and the south fork of the Laurel; the former furnishing a pass to the southwest, and the latter to the northwest into Virginia. 126. Lying between, or rather, almost on the llolston and Iron Mountains, just before they unite near the Virginia line, is the curious basin called Shady. (~ 50.) This is also included in Johnson County. It is much higher than Johnson Cove, but is of limited extent. It is noted chiefly for its excellent iron. This little basin is so elevated that its flora partakes of a Canadian character. Within it flourish cranberries and northern coniferre. 127. The two mountains which enclose Shady, diverge, as they pass to the southwest, and finally give between them a long, wide, and interesting area-the Stony Creek TValley of Carter County. (~ 50.) 128. In Washington County, between its two principal mountain ranges, is another long valley called Greasy Cove. (~ 58.) This has, perhaps, across its middle part, a width of about two miles. To the southwest it gradually becomes narrower and finally ends in a low gap upon the State line; to the northeast, however, it widens, and finally opens out boldly, opposite to the lower and larger end of the Stony Creek Valley. This valley and Greasy Cove, taken together, may indeed be regarded as one long fusiform cove nearly cut off from the Main Valley by the intervening Holston Mountain and the Buffalo and Rich Mountain Range which approach each other on the northwest. (~ 60.) These features, as well as the extent of the valleys, may be seen by reference to the Map. 129. Limestone Cove, in Carter, and Bompass Cove, in Washington County, have been already mentioned. (~~ 57 and 60.) 130. In Greene County, a cove of some importance lies between Paint and Meadow Creek Mountains. It runs down southwesterly, into a narrow valley, called Peck's Trough. (~ 64.) THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 51 131. South of the Big Pigeon, in Cocke County, several bands of limestone run to the southwest, back of English's Mountain, and taper off in long slender fingers which reach into Sevier. One of these fingers constitutes Jones's Cove, a iarrow valley four or five miles south-east of English's Mountain. In Sevier County, north-east of the Little Pigeon River, are other small coves, of which, however, it is not necessary to speak here. 132. In the southern part of Sevier, and in Blount County, there is a group of three large and very interesting coves. They lie completely imbedded among the mountains. The first two are surrounded by those ridges which occur in the space between the main Unaka Range and the outlier-Chilhowee Mountain; (~ 66;) the third lies immediately at the base of the main range. They all have nearly the same dimensions, ranging from five to six miles in length, and from one and-a-half to two miles in breadth. Their forms and relative positions may be seen upon the Map. 133. The first, Wear's Cove, is situated in the southern part of Sevier County. It is a beautiful and elevated region, walled in all around by high,.rough ridges. Its bounding ridge on the southeast swells up to a conspicuous mountain, which is well seen from Sevierville, and from many other distant points. ~This cove has been settled very nearly sixty years, and now furnishes homes for about seventy families. 134. The second is Tuckaleechee Cove. This lies just within Blount County, and is separated from Wear's Cove by a narrow neck, or ridge, the two being about a mile apart. In leaving the latter we pass through a low gap, and then descend perhaps about 300 feet, into Tuckaleechee. This is the largest of the group. Little River flows through it, and in leaving it, cuts out a narrow pass through the mountain walls upon the west, thus forming the gateway of this imprisoned basin. Tuckaleechee has been settled about as long as Wear's cove, and now contains nearly one hundred families. 135. The last of the group is Cade's Cove. This is cut off from Tuckaleechee by a heavy ridge, which bifurcates towards the west, including between its branches, a little valley called ".El-dorado." 52 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Cade's Cove is highly elevated, being more than 700 feet above Tuckaleechee.* It lies, as I have said, at the base of the main Unaka Range, and only a few miles from the State line. Several fine "balds" occur upon this part of the range, (~ 81,) from which can be seen, not only the Cove below, but the mountains, lying west of the Cove, (Chilhowee being especially conspicuous,) and the great valley beyond the mountains, bounded by its western wall-the dim edge of the Cumberland Tableland. Cade's Cove is remarkable for its rich bottoms and its meadowlike features. It is well watered by the tributaries of Abram's Creek. It contains at present about fifty families. It was partially settled about sixty years ago, but for many years it remained Indian territory. 136. Miller's Cove is a long narrow trough, immediately along the southeastern base of Chilhowee Mountain. It is situated partly in Sevier County, and partly in Blount. This cove has been settled about as long as those just mentioned, and contains, perhaps, thirty families. 137. In Blount and Monroe Counties, are several other small coves, several of which occur along the Little Tennessee River. 138. I have now noticed the principal valleys and coves associated with the Unaka ranges.t They have several characters in common, one of the most important of which is, that they all contain, or are based upon, limestone. After the general elevation of the whole Unaka region, it is doubtless, in part, to the removal of limestone, through the agency of wrtter, (the hard slates, sandstones, and conglomerates, now forming the ridges being left,) that the existence of these troughs and basins, as such, among the mountains, is to be attributed. The discussion of this subject, however, belongs to another part of the Report. 139. We now pass across the Valley to the Cumberland Table-land. Here the aspect of things is very different. Instead * In July, 1858, John Caldwell, Esq., of Jefferson County, was kind enough to accompany me through this group of coves. His knowledge of the country, and the researches he himself had made in this region, enabled him to render valuable assistance. With his help, and by means of a pocket level, the difference in the elevation of the two coves was approximately determined. We found it to be about 765 feet. t The Ducktown Region, already spoken of, (Q 68,) is not included among the coves. It differs from them in its general relations, and especially in its geological character. THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 53 of a great bed of parallel ridges, including naturally, as it were, valleys and coves, we have an extended plateau, or table-land, the eastern border of which is nearly unbroken and continuous through the State. There are, however, two valleys, confined within the general limits of this table-land, which, although cut off from the main part of the Valley to the east, are, nevertheless, connected with it by their geological and physical features. 140. The first, and by far the largest, is the long and symmetrical Sequatchee Valley. The head of this valley is in the bosom of the Table-land, and nearly midway between the northern and southern boundaries of the State. From its head, it pursues a nearly straight southwesterly course, for about sixty miles, through the counties of Bledsoe, Sequatchee, and Marion, to the Alabama line. It is, in fact, a great trough sunk lengthwise in the body of the Table-land, dividing, or splitting, the latter from its middle part, southwestward, into two parallel but unequal portions or arms. All along, on both sides, it is bordered and overlooked by the high, steep, inner edges of these portions. These edges are from three to five miles apart, and, like great walls, mark out the limits of the long valley with singular definiteness.* 141. The arm of the Table-land that lies along the southeastern side of Sequatchee Valley, is a long and quite uniform belt, or table, from six to eight miles wide, running down into Georgia and Alabama. Near the Georgia line, however, it is much broken. In the first place, the Tennessee River, a few miles above the line, cuts completely through it, forming a deep, narrow and serpentine gorge.t Then again, partly upon the line, it is cut by Running Water Creek, not so deeply as before, but yet down to a low gap through which the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad finds a passage. The belt, as a whole, separates Sequatchee from the main Valley to the east, * The geographical features of Sequatchee Valley may be seen upon the Map of the State, accompanying this Report. To this the reader is referred. t The point where the Tennessee cuts into this belt is well seen in the panoramic view facing page 40. Passing Chattanooga, the river makes a large bend-from its form called the Moccasin Bend-and then soon begins its passage through the mountain. It is in passing this that the river encounters those serious obstructions so well known to boatmen as the Boiling Pot, the Skillet, and the Pan. 54 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. and the narrow cuts, made by the Tennessee and by Running Water, are natural lines of communication between the two. 142. North of the Tennessee River, the above belt forms a part of Walden's Ridge; south of the river its broken portions constitute the Raccoon Mountains. 143. In a line with Sequatchee Valley, and a few miles northeast of its upper end, there is, I may add here, a curious little basin, sunk in the Table-land, called Grassy Cove. Still further to the northeast, in the same line, lies Crab Orchard Gap. Sequatchee Valley and Grassy Cove, likewise the latter and Crab Orchard Gap, are separated by high ridges. 144. The second valley, referred to above, is that of the Elk Fork.* It lies in the northwestern part of Campbell County, in the northern part of the State. It is narrow, rough, and nearly straight. Originating near a point called Elk Gap, right in the midst of high ridges, it runs northeastward into Kentucky. Its southeastern side is well defined, all along, by a high, bold ridge, or crest, of the Cumberland Table-land, called Pine Mountain, which runs with the valley to the northeast. Its northwestern side, on the other hand, is irregular, being cut, or notched, by the ends of spurs from Tellico 2Mountain, another range of the Table-land. The valley may be regarded as lying between Pine and Tellico mountains. The bed of the Elk Fork has an average elevation of about 1200 feet above the sea. 145. Elk Gap, referred to, is a low pass, dividing the waters of the Cumberland River from those of the Tennessee, and connecting Elk Fork Valley with the valley of Cove Creek. These valleys originating at the same point, run off nearly at right angles to each other. The latter, however, is narrow and but little more than a straight, deep cut. It opens below into the southwestern end of Powell's Valley. ( ~ 121. ) 146. The valleys of Cove Creek and of Elk Fork, are so situated with reference to each other, and to the local ridges of this part of the Cumberland Plateau, that they furnish a comparatively good route through the mountains for the Knoxville and Kentucky Railroad. They also completely detach within * The Elk Fork is a tributary of the Clear Fork of Cumberland River. THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 55 the limits of Tennessee, a considerable part-a quadrilateral area or block-of the Cumberland Table-land. 147. River System.-The Valley of East Tennessee has an admirable system of rivers and water courses. Its rivers are, for the most part, wide and shallow, and consequently but moderately navigable; yet their waters are clear and beautiful, their smaller tributaries exceedingly numerous, and arranged with remarkable regularity. Crystal rills, flowing from thousands of bold springs, irrigate the land everywhere, and, with the larger mill-streams and the rivers, form a net-work of water courses, which, for completeness and elegance is, perhaps, not excelled. 148. The "Big Tennessee" and its proper prolongation, the Holston, (which, by the way, ought to be included whenever we speak of The Tennessee,) constitute the great stream into which all the other rivers pour their contents. The " Forks" of the Holston Wrse in Virginia. The Clinch, also, and its tributary, Powell's River, take their origin in the same State. All of these have, in general, a southwesterly course, and descend with a considerable fall. 149. At a point about half way through the Valley, the Iolston becomes the Big Tennessee, which, after flowing a few miles to the northwest, and receiving the waters of the Clinch, takes a southwesterly course until near the Georgia line, in the vicinity of Chattanooga. At this point it makes its first attempt to break through the Cumberland Table-land and succeeds so far as to pass Walden's Ridge, (~ 141,) and to gain Sequatchee Valley. Here it is again sent off to the southwest, down the Sequatchee trough and its southwestern continuation, many miles into Alabama, where finally it escapes to the northwest through the southern broken portion of the Tableland. 150. The Tennessee and its Virginia tributaries thus follow, in general, the trend of the valley. Yet there is, at the same time, a well marked tendency westward, and even northwestward, for all the important offsets of the main stream, (the Tennessee and Holston,) of which there are three in the State, beside the great one in Alabama, are to the west and northwest. These throw the river into the extreme southwestern 56 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. corner of the Valley, and even into its most western outlier, the Sequatchee trough. 151. The tributary rivers which flow out of North Carolina, unlike those from Virginia, all pursue a westerly, and mostly a northwesterly, direction, until they unite with the Holston, or with the Big Tennessee. 152. There are thus two general directions in which the rivers of the Valley flow; one, to the northwest, corresponding to the direction of the general drainage pertaining to the great slope of which the State, as a whole, is a part; (~~ 9, 10;) the other, to the southwest, corresponding to the deflection of drainage caused by the intervention of the Cumberland Table-land, and by the Appalachian features of the Valley itself. (~~ 12, 13 and 11.) 153. The smaller tributaries-the " creeks"-have, generally, great uniformity in direction. Nearly every valley has its creek, flowing either to the northeast, or to the southwest, in conformity to the direction of the ridges. If they escape from one valley to another, they do so through narrow gaps in the ridges, and then only to be sent off again in a direction parallel to their former course. Some exceptions, however, there are, among which those that flow into the Tennessee from Walden's Ridge are the most important. Ooltawa, of Bradley and Hamilton, and Citico, of Monroe, might also be mentioned as important exceptions. 154. Elevation above the Sea.-The great Trough, extending from Pennsylvania to Alabama, including the Valley of East Tennessee, (~ 91,) is divided transversely, by the river systems, into natural sections or subordinate slopes. (~ 14.) Of these, none is better defined than that drained by the Tennessee River and its Virginia tributaries. The East Tennessee Valley constitutes the greater part of this, and it may give a better idea of the elevation and position of the Valley to consider it, at first, in connection with this entire slope. 155. The slope, or trough, has its many channeled head, in Virginia, from forty to sixty miles northeast of the Tennessee boundary, along a curved line running through the county of Tazewell, and through Mount Airy, between Smith and Wythe counties. This line is the crest of a water-shed dividing the THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 57 waters of the Tennessee on the southwest from those of New River on the northeast. The Virginia and Tennessee Railroad crosses' Mount Airy Ridge" at an elevation of 2594 feet above the sea. From this high region the slope extends in a southwesterly direction to the northern parts of Georgia and Alabama, a distance of about 300 miles. 156. The following tables give the heights, in feet, above tide-water, of many points in this area, most of which, however, are in the East Tennessee Valley. They have been derived mainly, from the railroad surveys.* The points are arranged in lines, the first extending lengthwise through the Trough: the second is a limited line nearly parallel to a portion of the first, and connecting two of its points, Bristol, and a point near the railroad bridge over Lick Creek. The others are cross-sections. The places noted are in Tennessee, unless otherwise indicated. (1.) The first series runs along the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad from Mount Airy Ridge to the Tennessee line; it is then continued along the East Tennessee and Virginia Railroad to Knoxville, and from this point, along the East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad to Dalton, Georgia. We thus have a complete longitudinal profile of the Valley of East Tennessee, and in fact of the entire subordinate slope to which it belongs. Mount Airy Ridge, Va....2594 (Level of rails). Va. & Tenn. R. R. Marion, Va....................2129 "' " " Seven Mile Ford, Va.......1976 " " I Holston River at Seven Mile Ford................1954 (Surfac of river) " " Glade Spring, Va...........2,078 (Level of rails) Va & Ten. R. R. Emory and Henry College, Va................. 2,103 It " " " Abingdon, Va...............2,071 it" " " BRISTOL, Va, and Tenn. Line.................1,678 " " Holston River at Union..1,401 (Surface of River) E. T. & Va. R.R. Union......................1,457 (Level of Rails) " " Summit between Holston and Watauga Rivers.1,606 " Carter........................1,474 " " " * I am indebted for much valuable information, and for profiles, to Mr. Charles Williams, Chief Engineer of the Knoxville & Kentucky Railroad, and to Mr. R. C. Morris, Chief Engineer of the East Tennessee & Georgia Road, and its Cleveland and Chattanooga Branch. I am also indebted to the officers of the East Tennessee and Virginia Road for the altitudes along their line. 58 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Watauga, at Carter.........1,428 (Surface) E. T. & Va. R. R. Johnson's....................1,643 (Level of rails) Summit between Watauga and Nolichucky...1,841 " " " Jonesborough.............1,734 Limestone.............. 1,419 " " " Fullen's.................. 1,489 " " Greeneville (Depot).......1,681 Blue Spring...............1,279 " " " Blue Spring Summit.......1,368 " " " Lick Creek.................... 1,112 (Surface) Bull's Gap...... 1,214 (Level of rails) " " Russelville...................1,260 " " " Morristown...................1,283 Summit west of Morristown................. 1,352 " 5 " Mossy Creek..................1,111 " New Market.........1,057 " Strawberry Plains........... 906 Holston, at Strawberry Plains..................... 849 (Surface) " It McMillan's.................... 868 (Level of rails " " KNOXVILLE, (Depot)........ 898 (Grade) E. Tenn. & Ga. R. R. McClellan's Summit......... 992 " " " Knox County Line......... 882 i cc 4' Lenoirs......................... 786 " " " Loudon......................... 814 it" " " Tennessee River, at Loudon........................ 73 7 (Low water) " " Sweet Water Summit...... 1023 (Grade)' " t" Athens......................... 993 " " " " Hiwassee River............. 723' t" "I............. 684 (Low water) " " Cleveland..................... 878 (Grade) Summit in Tenn. Dividing ridge between Tennessee and those flowing into the Gulf of Mexico.. 892 (Grade) " " STATE LINE, Tenn.' Ga. 837 " Dalton, Ga................. 771 " " " (2.) The following table includes the heights of certain points along one of the experimental lines of the East Tennessee and Virginia Railroad. It extends from Bristol through Blountville, crosses the Holston at Long Island, runs up the valley of Horse Creek, and then down that of Lick Creek, until it strikes the adopted line near the mouth of Gap Creek. Bristol,Tenn. and Va.Line 1678 (Rails)........... Va. and Tenn.R. R. THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 59 Steele's Creek................. 1626 (Surface).............. May's Survey. Summit (3j miles from Bristol)..................1727 " " MuddyCreek(near Blountville ).....................1560 " Summit (13 miles from Bristol....................177 " " Holston River (upper end of Long Island).........1218 " Summit between Horse Cr. and Lick Cr........... 1413 " " " Lick Cr. (13 miles from last Summit)............1192 " Summit (8~ miles further on)..........................1222 " " " Lick Cr. (45miles on)......1118 " " " Mouth of Gap Creek (near R. R.crossing of Lick Creek..................1113 " " " (3.) The following points occur along a line extending across, (indirectly,) from the Watauga Valley in N. C., through Johnson County, Tenn., to Abingdon and to the Saltworks, or Saltville, Va. Headwaters of Linnville and Watauga rivers, west foot of Grandfather Mt., N. C........4100.....................................Guyot. Shull's Mill-pond, Main Watauga, N. C.........2917........................... R. Survey. STATE LINE, Tenn. d N. C. (Watauga Valley).....2131........................... R. R. Survey. Taylorsville, Tenn...........2395............................G........Guyot. Holston, South Fork, Va., on the road to Abingdon......................1778.................................... " Holston, Middle Fork, Va., id....................1772....................................... " Abingdon, Va. (Depot).....2071.....................Va. & Tenn. R. R. Saltworks, Va., Depot on the North Fork of Holston River........... 1712.............. " " (4.) From the State line in the rocky gorge of the Little Tennessee River, through Knoxville to Kentucky, an interesting and entire crosssection is furnished. It is from the surveys of the Knoxville and Charleston, and the Knoxville and Kentucky railroads. It crosses nearly through the middle of the Valley. 60 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. STATE LINE, on the Little Tenn.*...................1114 (Grade)...... & C. R. R. Survey. Tenn.River near Harden's 900 " " " Abram's Creek............ 872 " " " "............... 855 (Surface) " " End of Chilhowee Mt...... 870 (Grade) " Four-mile Creekt.......... 825 " " " t" "I........... 808 (Surface) " " Dividing Ridge between Four-mile and Ninemile Creeks............. 896 (Grade) " " Dividing Ridge between Four-mile and Ninemile Creeks.............. 945 (Surface) " " Nine-mile Creek, 30 miles from Knoxville.. 8... 832 " " " Nine-mile Creek, 26 miles from Knoxville......... 913 (Grade) " " Nine-mile Creek, 26 miles from Knoxville......... 900 (Surface) " " Dividing Ridge between the Tennessee and Little Rivers, 21 miles from Knoxville.........1045 (Grade) " " Dividing Ridge between the Tennessee and Little Rivers, 21 miles from Knoxville......... 1076 (Surface) " " Pistol Cr., Mid. Fork (Maryville)................. 875 " " Pistol Cr. North Fork..... 835 " " " Pistol Cr...................... 810 (Grade) "." " "..................... 790 (Surface) " t" Summit........................ 870 " " " Little River....... 802 (Grade) "" " ".............. 768 (Surface) " " Summit......................... 890 " " " French Meadow Cr......... 852 (Grade) " " Summit, nearly 2 miles from Knoxville................. 936 " " " Holston River.............. 816 (Surface) " " * For the elevation of the Tennessee line on the French Broad River, and the Warm Springs in North Carolina, see page 32. t At a point, between Four-mile Creek and the " End of Chilhowee Mt.," the profile, from which these elevations were taken, suddenly drops, going toward Knoxville, fifty feet, the following note being attached: " Jostle of fifty feet from error in leveling." The profile is one deposited, according to law, in the office of the Secretary of State. THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 61 KNOXVILLE.................... 900,4 K. & K. R. R. Survey. Black Oak Ride (Gap).....1106 (Grade) " " Beaver Creek................. 982 (Surface) i" cc Copper Ridge.................1071 (Grade) It Bull Run................ 823 (Surface) " Chestnut Ridge............1038 (Grade) " Clinton........................ 847 " Clinch River, (Clinton).... 791 (Surface) " Cane Creek.................... 837 " " Coal Creek..................... 855 " Indian Grave Gap...........1265 " " " It " ("...........1188 (Grade) " " Cove Creek.................1041 (Surface) it " Elk Gap......................1702 " I" it " "I...................... 1620 (Grade) " " State Line, (Tenn. & Ky.) 990 " " " (5.) The following is another cross-section. It extends from Cleveland to Chattanooga, thence through the Running Water Gap of the Raccoon lMountains, across the Sequatchee Valley and by Stevenson, to the Tunnel of the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad. Cleveland............ 878 (Grade)...C. & C. Br. of E. T. & Ga. R. R. Candy's Creek...... 794." " " A. Lea's Summit...... 913 " "4 "' White Oak Mountain (Gap)..... 813 "' Ooltawa Creek...... 790? " a cc c Summit............... 912 " " Chickamauga...... 682 " i"....... 649 (Low Water) " " " Tunnel............... 752 (Grade) " " " Chattanooga*....... 675 " "," " " Tenn. River 642 (Surface) W. & A. R. R. (Ga. Road.)................. 688 (Grade) " " "................. 676 "..N. & C. R. R. Lookout Creek...... 676 Point near 6 miles from Chattanooga............ 676 " " " * The elevations pertaining to Chattanooga are derived from the several roads terminating at that place. The difference between the elevations given by the Cleveland and Georgia roads respectively, may result, in part at least, from the profiles not meeting at the same point. The elevation given by the Nashville & Chattanooga road has been derived from the profile of this road carried through from Nashville; it is the height above low tide of Mobile Bay. When the elevations of points in Middle Tennessee are given, I will speak more particularly of this profile. The heights 642 and 688 are from a profile on Bonner's Map of Georgia. 62 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Running Water.....................N. & C. R. R. Summit......... 977 (Grade) " Running W a t e r] Summit......1017 (Surface).' " Whitesides............ 868 (Grade) " " Shell Mound........ 636 "." " A Summit........... 697 (Surface) " " Tennessee River... 629 (High water " " A Summit........... 749 (Surface) " " A point at, or near Stevensont...... 630 " " Crow Creek Valley................ 612 " do do Low Water......... 598 " Crow Creek Valley, 8 miles further on..... 634 " Crow Creek Valley, 9 miles further on...... 674 (Surface) " " TUNNEL*............ 1153 (Grade) " " (6.) The remaining table presents a cross-profile from "Cross Plains," (Dalton?) Ga., to Chattanooga, Tenn., along the Western & Atlantic Railroad. It is taken from Bonner's Map of Georgia. Cross Plains, (Dalton) Ga.......... 773...............W. & A. R. R. Tunnel, Ga....... 859............. " " SUMMIT OF RIDGE ABOVE TUNNEL. DIVIDING RIDGE between Penn. River waters and thoseflowing into the Gulf of Mezico.....1032.i" " TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA LINE.. e" "4 Tenn. River, at Chattanooga...... 642 " " t In a table of elevations of points along the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, published in one of the Reports of that road, the elevation of Stevenson is given at 602,80. On the N. & C. R. R. profile, from which the above heights were taken, it is not within my power to determine the exact point at which the two roads meet. The difference in the elevations may, in part, be due to this. I suspect, however, that 602,80 is below the true height of the Depot. * At Montgomery's Gap. seven miles east of Winchester. In a report, made by John Edgar Thompson (1847) upon an experimental survey of the line of the N. & C. R. R., it is said: " The elevation of this Gap (Montgomery's) is 1365 feet above the Atlantic, and but 200 yards wide on top, with steep declivities on each side, admitting the passage of a railroad by means of a short tunnel 209 feet below its apex,... At this point the road will attain an elevation of 1156 feet above the ocean, and pass through the mountain by a tunnel 2100 feet long." According to the profiles of the road the tunnel was made 2200 feet long. THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 63 157. From the tables, it is seen that the fall of the Holston and Tennessee River, from Saltville, (Table 3,) on the North Fork of Holston, Va., to Chattanooga, is approximatively 1040 feet. Of this fall very nearly one-half occurs in Virginia, in the valley of the North Fork, above Kingsport. 158. Confining ourselves to Tennessee, the general elevation and the southwesterly descent of the Valley of East Tennessee are best represented by the profile of its longer and central axis. This may be considered as extending from the Virginia line, near Kingsport, along the northwestern base of Bay's Mountain to Russellville, and then as being coincident with the East Tenn. and Va. Railroad, and with the East Tenn. and Ga. road as far down as the southern boundary of the State. Referred to this line, the Valley has an elevation (as determined by the river-surfaces) ranging, and running down, from about 1220 feet to 684 above the sea. 159. The following table exhibits the rate'of descent. The heights are those of river surfaces. The direct distances between the points, and the differences in elevation, are given on the right. Holston, at Long Island, above Kingsport,.........1218 ft. lHolston, at Strawberry }f Dist. 85 miles. Fall 369 ft. Plains,..................... 849 } Dist. 16 " Fall 33" Holston, at Knoxville,....... 816? Dist. 28 " Fall 79 " Tennessee, at Loudon,....... 737 ) }Dist. 40 " Fall 53 " Hiwassee, at Calhoun,...... 684 160. From this it appears that the greater part of the descent (more than two-thirds) occurs before reaching Strawberry Plains. 161. Including the surface, along the axis of the Valley, the general elevation near the Virginia line, is, perhaps, 1300 or 1400 feet; towards Strawberry Plains it is less, and, from this point to the Georgia line, it may be taken at about 900 feet, or as ranging from 1000 down to 800.* 162. In addition to the southwesterly descent, the general * In Jefferson County, along the line of the railroad, there is a high body of land, forming an interesting local plateau, which has an elevation of from 300 to 400 feet above the Holston, on the northwest. 64 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. plane of the Valley has, consistently with the northwesterly tendency of the rivers, (~~ 150, 151 and 152,) a decided slope to the northwest. 163. The following tables will give approximately the degree of inclination in this direction. The heights (above the sea) of the mouths of the Clinch and Hiwassee rivers, respectively, have been determined by the rate of the fall of the Tennessee River between Loudon and Chattanooga. This is 0.805 feet per mile. The direct distances from point to point, and the differences in elevation, are given as in the last table. (1.) Tenn. & N. C. Line,Watauga Valley,........................2131* Watauga, at Carter, E. T. & Dist. 22 miles. Fall 703 ft..WVatauga, at Carter, E. T. & Va. R. R..................... 1428 Dist. 17 9" Fall 210 " Holston, at Long Island,....1218 ) (2.) Tenn. & N. C. Line, French Broad,.........................1264* }Dist. 68 miles. Fall 448 " Holston, at Knoxville,........ 816? Clinch River, Clinton; K. Dist. 16 " Fall 25 " & K. R. R...................... 791 (3.) Tenn. & N. C. Line, Little Tennessee,....................1114* l Dist. 30 miles. Fall 377 ft. Tennessee River, Loudon,... 737 Dit.miles. allft. Dist. 14 "4 Fall 18 " Mouth of Clinch,............. 719 J (4.) Hiwassee, at Calhoun......... 684' Dist. 16 miles. Ball 27 ft Mouth of Hiwassee,....... 669 Reference may also be made to the table of heights (page 60) along the Western & Atlantic Railroad. Dalton has an elevation considerably above Chattanooga, and the Tunnel is more than 200 feet above the Tennessee at the latter place. 164. Climate.-In speaking of the climate of the State, in general, that of this division was necessarily included. I add but little more. 165. Knoxville is very:near the centre of the Valley. Its higher portions are nearly 1000 feet above the sea; this, at any * These are not the elevations of the river surfaces; they are all, however, within, perhaps, fifteen or twenty feet of those surfaces. THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. 65 rate, without causing material error, may be taken as the height of the particular points at which the observations were made. The mean annual temperature here is 570.03, or simply 57~, at least, according to the limited data we possess. (~ 30.) 166. In the upper part of the Valley, near the Virginia line, the annual mean, on account of greater elevation above the sea, and higher latitude, will be at least two degrees less; while, upon the other hand, near the Georgia line, it will be as much greater. It will, therefore, range throughout the Valley from about 55~ to 59~. 167. The summer mean, at Knoxville, which has been placed at 73~.6, (~ 31,) is about that of Philadelphia, Pa., as well as that of several points in Central Virginia, of Cincinnati, Louisville, Ky., Southern Indiana, and Central Illinois. It is, too, I may add here, that of the central part of Spain, and the northern part of Italy. The summer of the East Tennessee Valley, is, therefore, considering its valley-like character, and its low latitude, a comparatively cool one. This is mostly due to the considerable elevation of the region above the sea. This lower summer temperature has its influence in giving to East Tennessee agricultural features, to some extent, different from those found elsewhere in the State. 168. It might be thought that the mountain ranges which bound the Valley on both sides,would materially affect its climate. This, however, is not the case. These ranges are happily, so situated as not to obstruct, to any considerable extent, the southwesterly and westerly winds, which, of all others, in an agricultural point of view, are most important. (~ 35.) The great trough, of which the Valley is a part, is open towards the southwest, so that these winds, coming from the Gulf of Mexico, and charged with warmth and moisture, flow freely through it, imparting, during the spring and summer, fertility to all its parts. The mountain ranges, doubtless, change the direction of the winds, to some extent, and thus, make southwesterly and northeasterly winds more frequent than they would be otherwise. Sig. 5. Vol. 1. 66 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. III.-THE CUMBERLAND TABLE-LAND. 169. General Character.-Leaving the Valley of East Tennessee, and passing westward, we meetnext, with the elevated and wide-spreading plateau well known as Cumberland Mlfountain. This, in order, is the third great natural division of the State. (~ 25.) I have already, many times, called it the Table-land. 170. As a natural division, it is well defined, and, as to many things, has no lack of interest. As we will see hereafter, it is the great depository of all the stone-coal in Tennessee. Fruitgrowers and horticulturists, notwithstanding its general agricultural character is not in the best repute, look lo it as a field of promise; stock-raisers hope to make it a land- of meadows and pastures; its cool summer nights, render it attractive during the hot months; and it bids fair, in a fewlyears, to be the favorite summer resort of Southern men. 171. As yet, this portion of the State is, for the most part, but thinly settled. Over its wooded plains the deer is still chased, and, in some of its wild coves, the wolf and the black bear find hiding places. Nevertheless, it has upon its flat and elevated surface, a number of small villages,* and, upon its northern half especially, many tracts well covter, l with farms. 172. Geographical Relations, Limits, and Area. —Confining ourselves to Tennessee, this division is, in the main, a great table, or mountain-block, resting upon the general plane, to which the general surface of the State has been referred. (3.) Its top is elevated above this plane, and above the low-lands on each side, from nine hundred to twelve hundred feet.t 173. Looking beyond the State, we find the Cumberland Table-land to be part of a long belt or high land extending from the southern part of New York, through Pennsylvania, Western Virginia, Eastern Kentucky and Tennessee, into Alabama, in which State it finally sinks away. This belt, in its entire:Among them, are six county-towns. t In the panoramic view facing this page, the western escarpment facing the Tableland, as it appears from its distant outliers-the Short Mountains-is seen. The view extends from Alabama through Tennessee, to within twenty miles of the Kentucky line, and embraces much of the western side. (See ] 191.) In the view opposite page 40, a portion of the eastern escarpment-that of the subdivisions Walden's Ridge and Raccoon Mountain-is prominent to the left of Chattanooga. THE CUMBERLAND TABLE-LAND. 67 length, is intersected completely by only two streams, New River in Virginia, and the Tennessee in Alabama.* Its eastern escarpment presents, generally, a bold, steep face, and is known, in Pennsylvania and Virginia as the Alleghany Mountain. 484. The belt just mentioned, crosses Tennessee obliquely. The portion within the State-the Table-land we are considering-although much indented by valleys and coves, is nowhere completely cut in two by th6m. It could furnish a highway from Kentucky to Alabama, upon its flat top, along which a traveler might pass, without once descending, and even without discovering, at any time, his elevation. The engineers of the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad, in their experimental surveys, cculd find within Tennessee, no low pass through one of the leading arms of the Table-land, and were therefore compelled either to ascend and go over, or else, by making a great deflection to the south in Alabama, go round it. The latter alternat ive they adopted. The top of the Table-land, though comparatively flat, does not become monotonous to the traveler. Low ridges and shallow valleys, with crystal streams, are occasionally met with, and afford a pleasant variety, which relieves what would otherwise be the sameness of its "flat woods." 175. At a,'4nost all points, on both sides, the surface breaks off suddenly in sandstone cliffs and precipices, which are from 20 to 100, or even 200 feet high. These form all along the sides of the Table-land, a well defined margin or brow. From beneath this very frequently overhanging brow, the steep slopes of the sides commence, and run down to the low lands. With the exception of the northeastern part of the division, the slopes below the cliffs rest mostly on limestone. The sandstone which appears in the cliffs caps the whole plateau, while limestone forms its base. The former gives sharpness of outline to its crested margin. 176. The eastern border of the Table-land is comparatively a nearly direct, or gracefully curving line. The indentations made by the streams, are, upon the map, hardly noticeable. 177. Along its western border, however, it is remarkably * The portion between these rivers, is a marked feature of the Tennessee and New River slope. See Map of this slope facing page 5. 68 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. different. Here the Table-land is irregularly scalloped and notched by deep coves and valleys, separated from each other by long spurs jutting to the west. These deep indentations, from which, and in some cases, through which, flow the different branches of the Elk, Collins' River, the Caney Fork, Roaring River, and Obey's River,* give the western outline a very ragged and dissected appearance. 178. Along the Kentucky and Tennessee line, the Table-land is about seventy-one miles wide. It becomes narrower southward. Across it, along the southern boundary of the State, including Raccoon Mountain and Sequatchee Valley, it is fifty miles. Altogether, the division proper, covers an area of 5100 square miles-nearly one eighth of the State. It includes within its limits, the counties of Scott, Morgan, and Cumberland; the larger parts of Fentress, Van Buren, Bledsoe, Grundy, Sequatchee,t and Marion; considerable parts of Claiborne, Campbell, Anderson, Rhea, Hamilton, Overton, Putnam, White, and Franklin; and finally, small portions of Warren and Coffee. 179. Parts, or Subdivisions, and Outliers —Unlike the great Valley to the east, the Cumberland Table-land is comparatively simple in structure and parts. (~ 139.) There are, however, two partially detached portions, certain ranges and groups of mountains bordering, or resting upon it, and a number of outliers which may be noticed. The partially detached portions referred to have been already spoken of. One is the arm cut off by Sequatchee Valley; the other, the remarkable quadrilateral block detached by the Elk Fork and Cove Creek Valleys.T * In many of the coves and yalleys referred to above at the base, and on the limestone or lower slope of the Table-land, are springs remarkable for their size and for the amount of water which they discharge. In quite a number of instances, these springs bring to the day, at once, large creeks, tributaries of the rivers mentioned. Some of them furnish excellent mill sites. Along the base of the eastern escarpment also, similar springs occur at intervals. These springs are the outlets of subterranean streams, many of which, doubtless, flow through long, and unexplored caves and passages in the great limestone bed upon which, the sandstone and shalecap of the Table-land rests. Not a little of the water which falls upon the surface of the Table-land is thus drained off. t This county has been mentioned several times. It is proper to state however, that it has, at present, by a decision of the Supreme Court, no legal existence. It was made to include parts of Marion, Grundy, Bledsoe, and Hamilton, the most desirable portion of the county being in Sequatchee Valley.: See ii 140, 141, and 142; also i 145 and Map. THE CUMBERLAND TABLE-LAND. 69 180. The northwestern side of the "block" just mentioned, rises in a high-crested ridge, or margin, forming the long, straight, and bold Pine Mountain. (~ 144.) This ridge runs to the northeast into Kentucky. Its northwestern face rises up steeply, to an average elevation, above Elk Fork Valley, of at least 1000 feet. 181. The southeastern and southwestern sides of the block (that is to say, the sides extending continuously in a line from Cumberland Gap to a point a few miles beyond Jacksboro', or to Wheeler's Cove, and then turning and running to Elk Gap) are both singularly and closely bordered by a steep and roof-like ridge, which, after running in a nearly direct line on one side, gracefully curves around, and runs along the other. (See Map.) 182. This "block" is, however, not the only part of the Table-land thus bordered by a high, roof-like ridge. There is, indeed, a tendency toward the formation, and isolation, of such a ridge most of the way along the eastern side of the Tableland, from the point where the Tennessee River cuts it, to the Virginia line. It is called, too, Walden's Ridge, nearly throughout this whole distance. Immediately north of the Tennessee River the name Walden's Ridge is applied to the entire arm of the Table-land cut off by Sequatcheee Valley. Before this arm connects with the main body of the plateau, around the head of the valley mentioned, it takes the form of a shallow trough, the edges rising up in crested ridges. Above Sequatchee Valley, and in a line with it, the western edge becomes blended with, or rather constitutes the eastern side of, a range of mountains,* which rise above the general level of the Table-land, and may be regarded as resting upon it. At the same time, the eastern edge becomes more prominent, and soon alone takes the name of Walden's Ridge. It is more or less sharply crested, and appears like a ridge placed along on the margin of the Tableland. 183. Further north, above Emery River, this sharp ridge becomes entirely detached from the body of the Table-land, * This is the Crab Orchard Range, soon to be spoken of. The southwestern mountain of this range is, itself, known as Walden's Ridge. 70 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. being separated from it by a deep and narrow valley, or line of valleys. From the Salt-works, in Anderson County, northeastward, this ridge is very prominent and characteristic; it runs many miles in a direct course, then curves beautifully around to the northwest, after which it again pursues a direct course until intersected by the valley of Cove Creek, near Col. R. D. Wheeler's, in Campbell, where it falls away. Here, however, it is very nearly continuous with the ridge of similar character of which I have spoken, (~ 181,) at the point where the latter curves. The portion of this first mentioned ridge from Cove Creek to Cumberland Gap may be considered as continuing the line of Walden's Ridge on to Virginia.* 184. These ridges, from the Emery to Virginia, are among the greatest curiosities of the whole Cumberland Table-land. Sharp, bold, and roof-like, mostly made up of vertical sheets of solid sandstone, they appear like a vast military work, designed to protect the main mountain from the encroachments of the Lowlanders. There are very few gaps in them. Those that do occur are water-gaps formed by creeks. To get at the foot of the mountain, though it may not be more than half a mile off, it is often necessary to ride half a dozen, to find a passage through these skirting ridges. 185. The northeastern portion of the division under consideration, presents other local features which remain to be mentioned. These consist of groups of high ridges, or mountains, which, rising above the general level of the Table land, appear, when seen from the west, to rest upon it. 186. First we have the New River Group. The head-waters of New Rivert flow from a group of mountain ridges, among which its tributaries are deeply sunk. The range that divides these waters from those flowing into the Clinch, (see Map,) is one of the most important of these ridges, and is a conspicuous object to an observer in the great * Walden's Ridge, above the Emery, must not be confounded with the " little" sharp ridge which is often found along its southeastern base, and to which reference has already been made. (Q 121.) The latter ridge pertains to the Valley of East Tennessee. Walden's Ridge, together with the narrow valleys which lie along its northwestern base, in Anderson, Campbell, and Claiborne counties, belong to the Table-land, having the same rocks, etc. t This river is a tributary of the Cumberland River-a very different stream from New River, of Virginia. THE CUMBERLAND TABLE-LAND. 71 Valley to the east. It forms, for many miles in Anderson and Campbell counties, the eastern escarpment of the main Tableland, or rather, it is the most eastern ridge of the group, the plateau-character of the division in this region, being to a great extent lost. It is called, for a good part of its length, Cross Vlountain. Tellico Mountain, west of Elk Fork Valley, (~ 144,) may be regarded as a portion of the same range. They connect around the head of the above valley. The average elevation of Cross Mountain, above the sea, is, perhaps, not far from 2800 feet. (~ 194.) Along its southeastern' and northeastern base runs the remarkable skirting, Walden's Ridge. (~ 183.) 187. Other elevated ridges occur in this group. They are all within that portion of the Table-land lying southeast of Huntsville, and between Jacksboro' and Montgomery. 188. Between Emery River and the head of Sequatehee Valley, and in a line with this valley, is a nearly straight range of' mountains of some interest. It may be called the Crab Orchard Range, or Group. Originally the mountains of this range formed, doubtless, a continuous ridge. It is now cut into three unequal parts by two gaps-Crab Orchard and Grassy Cove gaps. (~ 143.) The southwestern mountain of this range is known locally as Walden's Ridge, a name, as we have seen, applied to several parts of the eastern side of the Table-land. The northeastern portion of the range is Crab Orchard Afountain. The highest parts of these mountains are but little, if any, less than 1000 feet above the general surface of the Tableland. The mountain between the two gaps is short and not as prominent as the others. These mountains and gaps, together wish Sequatchee Valley, all in the same line, will be shown hereafter to be curiously related. 189. There are but few outlying mountains belonging to the Table-land. The only one of importance, on the eastern side, is the grand Lookout Mountain, which starts up boldly just within the limits of Tennessee and runs into Georgia. This is a long, narrow mountain, closely related, geologically, to the Table-land. From its northern rocky point, the view facing page 40 was taken. Two short, detached mountains, one in the southern part of Rhea County, the other, near Cumberland Gap, in Claiborne, 72 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. both cut off by narrow valleys, are the remaining most conspicuous outliers on the eastern side. 190. Passing to the western side, we find, in the first place, several isolated and prominent peaks occurring at intervals along the base of the Table-land, and having nearly the height of the parent plateau. There are about half-a-dozen outliers of this class. Such, for example, are Pilot Mountain, in Warren, Milk-sick Mountain, in White, and Pilot Knob, in Overton. In the latter county there is also a long, isolated ridge, west of the West Fork of Obey's River. 191. The most conspicuous, however, of the western outliers, are the Short lMountains. These consist of two high ridges, separated but a little distance from each other. They form a small group, removed seventeen or eighteen miles from the Table-land. (See Map.) From many points along the entire western margin of the latter, this group may be seen. And on the other hand, from the southeastern end of the nearest ridge of the group, a great part of the western escarpment of the Table-land is presented in a beautiful and extended prospect; the great flat and wooded plain west of the plateau intervening.* 192. Thus far I have had reference to such outliers as have a height equal, or nearly equal, to that of the main Table-land. Along the western base of the northern half of this division, there is, however, another class of isolated ridges and " little mountains," which are of sufficient importance to be mentioned. These are comparatively low, have fiat tops, and generally form beautiful little plateaus. With them, too, must be included the "benches," which, in this region, almost every-where run along the slopes of the lable-land, forming terraces along its sides, both around the spurs and back behind the coves.t All these plateaus and benches have the same height, about equal to half that of the Table-land. The ridges, or plateaus, are numerous, and some of them many miles long. Nearly all are known by local names; as, for instance, the ZIickory-nut Mountain, near the Falls of Caney Fork, and the Gum Spring Mountain, to the northeast of the last. *See plate facing page 66. In this view the centre of the picture is to the southeast. t Those of my readers who have ascended the " Mountain" at Bon Air, can recall a good example of these terraces, the bench about half-way up, wide enough for a little farm, and furnishing a site for the toll gate, being one of them. THE CUMBERLAND TABLE-LAND. 73 193. These flat-topped ridges, together with the benches, constitute a striking feature of this whole region. In the view from Short Mountain, (~ 191,) they are seen to the left, lying along in front of the main Table-land. Along the base of the southern part of the Table-land, south of McMinnville, they do not appear to any important extent. 194. Elevation above the Sea.-The mean elevation of the Table-land is very nearly 2000 feet. Its immediate escarpments rise up steeply from the valleys and lower plains, to heights varying generally from 850 to 1000 feet. Below are the elevations of numerous points on both sides of the plateau: (1.) Those pertaining to the eastern margin are first presented. The following were obtained, in 1854, from Mr. John G. Newlee, of Cumberland Gap: Cumberland Gap..................1,636 feet............R. R. Survey. Pinnacle, near Gap...............2,680 "........... " (2.) The table below presents the elevation of points on the K. & Ky. Railroad, and on Cross Mountain, (Q 186,) opposite Jacksboro'. The Gap on Cross Mountain, is that through which the path passes, leading from Col. R. D. Wheeler's across to Beech Creek. Immediately below this gap, is the point of Beech Creek referred to. The heights pertaining to Cross Mountain and Beech Creek, were determined by means of a small pocket level, and are approximately correct. The elevation of points in the valleys, are given for comparison. (See page 61.) Elk Gap................. 1,702 (Surface)............. E.& Ky. R. R. "c,...... 1,602 "' " "'' Cross Mountain, Gap.2,875 (about).......................................... "''" Point near Gap...........3,370 (do.)........................... Beech Creek......... 1,611 (do.)........................................ Cove Creek...............1,041 (Surface)..............& Ky. R. R. ", "...............1,082 (Grade)............" " 4 (3.) The heights of the Elk Fork Valley, and of the two high ranges on each side respectively, (II 144, 180, & 186,) may be indicated as follows: Average of Bottom of Elk Fork Valley................. 1,200 Pine Mountain, general elevation, from...................2,200 to 2,400 Tellico Mountain, points of summit ranging from....2,000 to 2,700 (4.) A. 3M. Lea, Esq., who, in 1837, by order of the General Assembly of Tennessee, made a preliminary survey of a route for a proposed "Central Railroad," measured the heights of the two sides of the Table-land as presented in a line running from a point near Sparta, across through CrabOrchard Gap, (ii 143 & 188,) to the eastern base on White's Creek.* * Report of the Chief Engineer of the State of Tennessee, on the Surveys and Examinations for the Central Railroad, and for the Central Turnpike. Nashville, 1837. 74 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Mr. Lea determined the total descent from a point in Crab-Orchard Gap, to the base in White's Creek Valley, to be 920 feet. From the base, to the Tennessee River, at White's Creek Shoals, he estimates the fall to be 90 feet, making the elevation of the point in the Gap, 1010, above the Tenneseee River, which is about 1710 above the sea, the elevation of low water at the Shoals being approximately, 700 feet. This would give the higher plains of the Table-land, west of Crab-Orchard and Daddy's Creek, an elevation of at least 2000 feet above tide-water. At the Gap, Crab-Orchard Mountain (& 188) appears to rise nearly or quite, 1000 feet above the general elevation of the plateau, which makes its entire elevation not far from 3000 feet. (5.) The highest part of the flat summit of Lookout Mountain-a point about half way between the hotel and the end of the mountain-is 1478 feet above the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad, or (taking the elevaof the road here at 676 feet) 2154 feet above the sea. (6.) A flat-topped ridge of the Raccoon Mountains, back of Whiteside Depot, on the N. & C. R. R., and above the uppermost coal banks, has an elevation above tide-water, of about 1900 feet. (7.) Passing to the western side of the Table-land, we have, first, the following series of elevations along the Sewanee Mining Company's Railroad. This road connects with the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad, near the western end of the tunnel, at Montgomery's Gap. (Page 62.) Running generally in a northeasterly direction, it ascends along the steep slope of the Table-land, and reaches the top of the latter, a little within six miles. From this point, the road runs over an open-wood and comparatively flat surface, thirteen miles further, to the coal banks near Tracy City. The elevation of the junction of the Sewanee and N. & C. roads is taken at 1137 feet, which is sixteen feet below the grade of the tunnel.* The distances of points from the junction are given in miles. Junction with N. & C. R. R.............1,137 (Grade).........S. M. Co's R. R. Crossing above N. & C. R. R. at Tunnel........................... 1,191 do........." Top of steep grade, 5.87 milest...........1,875 do.... " " do. do. do. do do.........1,883 (Surface)....... " " Average of next milet.....................1,875 (Grade)........ " " Point, 8 milest..................1............1,955 do........" " do. do.............................. 1,964 (Surface)........" " Average next half mile.....................1,957 Grade)........ " Porter & Logan Coal Bank 8.7 miles..2,006?.............................. Top of highest ridges in this vicinity...2,076?............................. * Owing to some difficulty in fixing on the N. & C. R. R. profile in my hands, the exact point at which the Sewanee road branches off, the difference-16 feet-may be too little or too great by a few feet-at the most, however, by not more than three or four. See section of the Carboniferous Limestone along the Sewanee road in the Second Part of this Report. I take this opportunity to acknowledge my indebtedness, for profiles and other favors, to the kindness of Mr. G. S. Backus, and of Dr. J. C. Bebee, formerly engineers upon the Sewanee. road, the former for many years Chief Engineer. tThis part of the road is within the grounds of the "University of the South." THE CUMBERLAND TABLE-LAND. Point 9.6 miles................................. 1,957 (Surface)......S. M. Co's R. R. " 13.1 miles................................. 1,959 do........"' General average between last two points.................................. 1,951 do... Summer's, 14.4 miles.........................1,952 do......" " " Gizzard Creek, 17.1 miles..................1,819 do.... East bank of Gizzard........................1,887 do......"' " Tracy City, 18.2 miles.......................1,847 do..... "' ": Terminus of road, 19 miles................1,889 do......' " " Main Coal, Wooton Bank..................1,922 (Hill side above terminus.) Tops of highest ridges in this vicinity...2,161....................................... (8.) The following are elevations of two well known points on the western margin of the Table-land. The first, Ben Lomond, is a circular mountain, lying nearly south of McMinnville, and terminating the ridge or arm of the main plateau which runs out between the waters of Collins' River and Hickory Creek. It has a fiat, sandstone top, with an area equal to about one square mile.* The second is the top of the Table-land just above Bon Air, and east of Sparta. The elevation given of this point, is approximate. Mr. Lea, to whose Report I have already referred, says: "In the vicinity of Sparta, the height of the crest of the mountain visible from its base, was ascertained to be 884 feet above the level of the'barrens.'" This height is that of the immediate slope of the plateau. The elevation of the station of the Southwestern Railroad at Sparta, is 945 feet above low tide of Mobile Bay. How much above this the base of the Table-land below Bon Air is, I do not know. It is estimated to be at least 200 feet. We have, then, Summit of Ben Lomond............................................1910. " at Bon Air.........................................2029? 195. Views. -The elevation of the Table-land is sufficient to enable an observer, standing upon either its eastern or western margin, to have extended and beautiful views of the country below. From the eastern margin may be seen very satisfactorily, the great Valley of East Tennessee. The views extend quite across the Valley, and include in the distance, the high ridges of the Unaka Chain.t The view from Lookout Mountain, to which I have several times referred, is one of the most beautiful and instructive in Tennessee. This * I am indebted to Mr. E. F. Falconnet, formerly Chief Engineer of the Southwestern Railroad, and now of the Nashville & Northwestern Railroad, for the elevation of Ben Lomond above the McMinnville Depot, of the McM. & M. R. R. This elevation is 998 feet. tCompare what has been said in reference to the views from the Unaka Mountains, i 80. 76 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. outlier (2 189) is set at some distance from the Table-land, right in the great Valley, above which its summit has, too, a greater elevation than has, in general, the division to which it properly belongs. From its northeastern end, the observer can look, without any obstruction, many miles up into the valley. (See plate, ~ 91.) 196. From the western margin, the views, looking west, though beautiful, are not equal to those obtained from the other side. They owe their interest, for the most part, to their extent. They all present a great, flat and wooded country, extending, with an apparently uniform level, as far as the eye can reach. This is their most important feature.* From many points, the isolated short Mountain Group (~ 191) can be seen, which serves to break the sameness of the view. In the northern part of the State, the outlying "little mountains," or low plateaus, (~ 192,) have the same effect. When with these a village or cultivated region and spurs from the table land are included, the views become most interesting. Those from Bon Air and Ben Lomond are of this kind. That seen from Sewanee, is also characteristic and highly pleasing. 197. Climate.-As indicative of the agreeableness of its climate in summer, it may be mentioned, that the Cumberland Table-land has been, for years, a favorite resort during the hot months. Hundreds of summer retreats, public and private, may be found upon its flat top, most of them located on, or not far back, from its sandstone edge. Much the larger number are temporary structures-log-cabins located at romantic and often wild points, near springs of crystal freestone, and not unfrequently of chalybeate water. Many of them, however, and the number is yearly increasing, are permanent and neat cottages. At several points, as at Beersheba, Lookout, and Bon Air, summer hotels have been erected; at these points, especially at the first two, there are, in addition, many elegant private cottages, altogether, forming attractive mountain villages. It will certainly not be many years before this beautiful plateau will become famous, as it ought, for the number and extent of such villages. The "University of the South" promises soon to cluster around it, upon a desirable portion of the Table-land, many summer villas of wealthy and intelligent *The flat, wooded country referred to here, is well seen in the panoramic view taken from Short Mountain. See opposite page 65. THE CUMBERLAND TABLE-LAND. 77 southern gentlemen. All this has been brought about by the agreeable summer temperature and the pure air of the Tableland, in connection with its pleasing, and, in the vicinity of its escarpments, its wild and grand topographical features. I regret that it is not in my power to present the results of systematic observations for a series of years upon the climate of the Table-land. These are much desired. The thermometer has been observed at several points, but not with much system, for any great length of time. 198. During the summer of the year 1859, Benj. Bentley, Esq., of Spring Grove, upon the Table-land, in Cumberland County, and Prof. A. H. Buchanan, of Lebanon, made regular and systematic observations, at their respective residences, in order to furnish data for the comparison of the mean temperatures of the two places. The following tables contain the results: (1.) Mean Temperaturesfor the Summer of 1859, at Spring Grove, (umberland County, Tenn. June. July. August. Summer. 6 A. M. 64.03 66.74 64.16 64.98 2 P. M. 78.46 83.71 77.00 79.72 9 P. M. 66.83 71.03 68.58 68.81 M[ean. 69.77 73.82 69.91 71.17 (2.) Mean Temperatures for the Summer of 1859, at Lebanon, Wilson County, Tenn. June. July. August. Summer. 6 A. M. 66.96 71.09 68.80 68.95 2 P. IMI. 80.55 85.87 80.42 82.28 9 P. M. 72X65 78.06 74.30 75.00 Mean. 73.38 78.34 74.50 75.41 (3.) Extremes of Temperatures, or the Maxima and Minima, observed during Summer. Maxima. Minima. Range. Spring Grove. July 19 & 21...930 June 5...42' 510 Lebanon......! July 18 & 19...97~ June 5...460 510 Difference....40 40 O00 78 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 199. According to the first two tables, the summer mean, at Spring Grove, is 4.24 degrees less than at Lebanon. The former has, however, a lower latitude than the latter. Correcting for this, (~ 30,) or supposing the points to be on the same parallel, the difference in temperature becomes greater, and is equal to about 4.5 degrees. Observations taken at Nashville during the same summer, show very nearly the same result. 200. It would be interesting to compare the above summer mean of the Table-land with that of Knoxville, for the same season. Observations, however, so far as the writer knows, were not made at Knoxville during that period. The average summer heat of 1852,'54, and'55, at Knoxville, was, as we have seen, (Q 31,) 73.6 degrees, being 2.43 degrees greater than at Spring Grove, the latitude being nearly the same. 201. From these data we may assume, for the present, that the average summer temperature of the Table-land, in general, is from two to three degrees less, (comparing points on the same parallel,) than that of the Valley of East Tennessee, and from four and a half to five less than that of the Central Basin. (~ 25, (5.)). This difference in temperature is doubtless, in the main, due to difference in elevation. Those parts of the Tableland rising higher than the average elevation (as, for instance, the outlier, Lookout Mountain) will, of course, present greater contrasts. 202. The corresponding extremes of temperature, at Spring Grove and Lebanon, respectively, show nearly the same difference as the means; it is 4 degrees, or, for points on the same parallel, about 4.3 degrees. 203. It is further shown, by the tables, that at night, the temperature of the two places compared, present a greater contrast than at midday; the difference between the means of 9 P. M., is 6.19, while between those of 2 P. M., it is only 2.56 degrees. We may, therefore, conclude that, while midday on the Table-land is but 2.5 or 3 degrees cooler than in the Central Basin, the nights are as much as 6.5 or 7 degrees cooler, The means of Spring and Autumn, compared with those of the Basin, will be found, most likely, to differ by about half as much as those of the summer. Those of the winter will differ still less, there being, in this season, a greater approach to uniformity throughout the State. THE CUMBERLAND TABLE-LAND. 79 204. The mean annual temperature of the Table-land, on the parallel passing through the middle of the State, may be placed at about 56 degrees; and ranging along a meridian, through the State, from 54 or 55, to 57 degrees. 205. Winds and rain have, doubtless, about the same character that they have in the central part of the State. The quantity of rain is, perhaps, a little greater. It is to be hoped that some of the many intelligent gentlemen residing upon this beautiful plateau, will undertake to record systematic observations upon its climate. The " University of the South" will be expected, before long, to furnish, year after year, full and complete materials for the elucidation of the climate of its southern portion. 80 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER III. THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE STATE,-Continued. THE HIGHLANDS, OR HIGHLAND RIM, OF MIDDLE TENNESSEE.-THE CENTRAL BASIN.-THE WESTERN TENNESSEE RIVER VALLEY.-THE WEST TENNESSEE SLOPE, OR PLAIN.-THE MISSISSIPPI BOTTOMS. 206. These, the remaining natural divisions of the State, are like the others, well defined. They differ from those described, in wanting that marked parallelism, and northeasterly and southwesterly direction of parts so characteristic of the latter. They show, nevertheless, in their general outlines, traces of these features. The divisions of the last chapter are mostly within the Appalachian Region proper; (~~ 40, 18;) hence the prominence of the features referred to. The divisions about to be considered, I have regarded as without this region, although in some of them, its peculiar geological structure, to some limited extent, exists, and has influenced, more or less, their formation, and the direction of their outlines. (~ 20, and note.) 207. In reference to general geological character, the divisions to be described may be divided into two groups. The first three, constituting the first group, have (excepting the western border of the third) a rocky basis, their formations below the soil being always hard rocks, which are either limestones, silicious beds, or slates. These, too, with the exception of certain western parts included within the counties of Perry, Hardin, Decatur, Benton and Henry, belong to the political division of the State known as.Middle Tennessee.* The others * The counties referred to are regarded politically as parts of West Tennessee. Perry, however, as well as the eastern part of Hardin, belong naturally to Middle Tennessee. The middle part of Hardin, and the eastern parts of Decatur, Benton and Henry, (but little of the latter, however,) are included within the limits of the third natural division, and of course, belong to the first, or rocky group mentioned. THE HIGHLANDS OF MIDDLE TENNESSEE. 81 constituting the second group, have a basis made up of beds of sand and laminated clays. They form, too, the greater part of the political division, West Tennessee. IV. THE HIGHLANDS, OR HIGHLAND RIM, OF MIDDLE TENNESSEE. 208. General Configuration, Limits and Area.-The general surface of all Middle Tennessee, excluding the Cumberland Table-land, may be compared to an oval basin, or to a shallow plate, with a broad, flat rim. Murfreesboro' is near its center. In traveling from this point, in any direction, we pass from twenty to fifty miles, as the case may be, over rolling, blue limestone land; and, finally, ascending a more or less abrupt flinty "ridge," from three to five hundred feet high, find ourselves on an elevated plain. Such is the case, for instance, in going from Murfreesboro' to any of the follo wing towns: Springfield, Lafayette, Smithville, Manchester, Tullahoma, Lawrenceburg, or Charlotte. In every instance, we pass over and leave the same limestone land, ascend the same flinty ridge, and reach the same flat plain. These elevated flat lands constitute the Highlands, or Highland Rim, to be considered; while the blue limestone area, below and within, is called the Central Basin. (~ 25, (4.)). 209. Could the reader be elevated 2000 or 3000 feet above Nashville, or rather above Murfreesboro', he would see, below and around him, the latter area-the Basin-oval in form, lying within the limits of Tennessee, yet reaching a little obliquely nearly across the State. He would see, too, further off, the Highland Rim, rising up first in bold walls-terrace-likeall around the Basin, and then extending off, in every direction, in great plains. Far to the east and southeast, would be seen the western escarpment of the Cumberland Table-land, presenting the appearance, at this distance, of a long, straight, uniform bank or ridge, resting upon the Highlands, butin every other direction the eye would roam over the plains, with nothing to limit the view, 210. Commending along the base of the Cumberland Tableland, the Highlands spread out westward, run around the northern and southern extremities of the Basin in narrow arms, and then wholly encompassing the latter, extend to the vicinity of the Tennessee River, where they break off, finally, in Sig. 6. Vol. 1. 82 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. long fingers, or ridges. The entire distance is not far from 120 miles. The whole region, from the western base of the Table-land to the breaks of the highlands, near the Tennessee, is, in fact, one great plain, out of the center of which by unknown agencies, the basin referred to has been excavated. This plain has an average elevation, as will be seen, (~ 220,) of from 900 to 1000 feet above the sea. Its northwestern part, however, is considerably below this. 211. Looking beyond the State, the Highlands have a much greater extent than that indicated above. They extend northward into Kentucky, forming the high plains of the southern part of that State, and southward, into Alabama. In the latter State, at the Muscle Shoals, the Tennessee River may be regarded as passing from off the Highlands. 212. The Highland Rim is the largest natural division of Tennessee. Its area is approximately 9,300 square miles, which is nearly two-ninths of the State. It includes the following counties and parts of counties: Robertson, Montgomery, Dickson, Hickman, Lewis, Lawrence, Wayne; the greater parts of Overton, Putnam, White, DeKalb, Warren, Coffee, Franklin, Perry, Humphreys, Stewart, Macon; considerable parts of Jackson, Cannon, Lincoln, Giles, Hardin, Williamson, Cheatham, Sumner; and small parts of Smith, Van Buren, Grundy, Bedford, Maury and Davidson. 213. Continuity, Rivers, and Water-falls. —The continuity of the Rim may be regarded as nearly complete, there being no wide or important valley to break it. The Cumberland, Duck, and Elk rivers, in their escape from the Basin, break through its western and southern sides, but they do so in narrow valleys, bounded on both sides by high hills. The Cumberland in entering the Basin, cuts the Rim in the same manner. The lower part of the Caney Fork has a deep and ragged valley-a narrow arm of the Basin-which runs up many miles into the Highlands, making next to the Cumberland, the most serious interruption, or gash upon the eastern side. (See Map.) 214. Many of the smaller streams, which flow from off the Rim, form beautiful water-falls from forty to one hundred feet high, as they pass down into the gorges, or valleys, which open into the Basin. This is more especially true of those streams —tributaries of the Cumberland, of Caney Fork, and of Duck and Elk Rivers-which flow from off the eastern side. 7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~> _X -~ ~ ~ ~ L ~ *0'~.~~ f~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ IC~~~~~~~4..~"-.~Y!~Y? A.j>..;4~< N ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~.4A4A ~.- ~~..~s~ A~~~~~~~~~~~4 — ~434~~~~~~~~~~~u~~~~~~-. g5, v~~~ ~ ~ A-qiY.~4~ ~ - _n, ~ ~ ~ A~A~\~~-~A 4uO~ ~~.. ~ 27Q4-AA-4 4AiW -4.. A- 44A-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 Ionization~ ~ ~ ~... 4-SI4 1 L ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~AB MAC~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~R WF-iP RI\V ~X.R~K NF~R S RTLI.T7I THE HIGHLANDS OF MIDDLE TENNESSEE. 83 The accompanying plate presents one of these falls, and will serve to show their general features, as they are all very much alike. 215. The one presented is that of Fall Creek, a tributary of Caney Fork. This romantic water-fall is about two miles east of Smithville, in DeKalb County. In addition to the main fall, a cascade, from a greater height, is seen to the right, belonging to a much smaller and different stream. The waters of both streams meet at the bottom, in the same pool, The larger body of water falls ninety-three feet. The gorge below the falls is exceedingly wild and picturesque. Steep slopes rising from the narrow valley are surmounted by precipitous cliffs from one to two hundred feet in height, towering, in all, three hundred feet or more above the creek.* Several other tributaries of Caney Fork, for instance, Falling Water, and also its branch, Taylor's Creek, furnish water-falls as interesting as that just mentioned. 216. Subdivisions, the Barrens and Fertile Portions; "Sinkholes;" Sumnzer Retreats.-In reference mainly to agricultural features, this division may be divided into the "'barrens " and the more fertile portions. Immediately around the Basin at many points, extensive tracts occur which are known by the significant name of "the barrens." In these, the soil is generally thin and greatly deficient in calcareous matter. They are, in great part, level and thinly wooded. At some points "shrub-oaks" occupy whole square miles. In these regions the valleys only, and the hill-sides along the streams are, at present, cultivated. 217. Further back, however, and beyond the barrens, limestone begins to be seen. The country is more rolling, and the soil becomes red and fertile. This red land is characteristic, and furnishes numerous fine agricultural regions. A wide belt of it runs along the western base of the Cumberland Tableland, within which are the towns of Livingston, Sparta, McMinnville and Winchester. It occurs too, around the base of. the Short Mountains. (~ 191.) In the counties which lie between the Basin and the Valley of the Tennessee River to the west, there is much of the same red land, especially in the * This water-fall, and the region immediately around it, bears the name of CG1g-car-nmac -a name given to it several years ago, and suggestive of the names of the joint owners of the property at the time-the Hon. Wm. Cullom, Judge Ab. Caruthers. and Col. Wm. McClain. The geological section presented at this place, will be given in the Second Part of the Report. 84 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. counties of Robertson, Montgomery, Dickson, Hickman, and Lawrence. In approaching the western limits of this division, the red arable land gives place, more or less, to " barrens." 218. A traveler, in passing over the Highland Rim, and especially the fertile portions just spoken of, cannot fail to notice the great number of hopper-shaped cavities, or " sinkholes," with which the surface is indented. These constitute a characteristic feature of the limestone portions of this division. Sinkholes occur in all the limestone regions of Tennessee, but in none, excepting perhaps the limestone slopes of the Cumberland Tableland, so frequently, and of such large size, as in the regions under con — sideration. /These cavities are, across the top, from ten to one hundred (and even more) yards in diameter. Large fields are sometimes seen made up entirely of the slopes of a number of them. Their presence indicates the existence of underground streams and caverns; and it is, by the sinking or running of surface-water into these streams and caverns through fissures in the rocks, together with the caving in, and greater wear of the upper edges of the fissures, that the sinkholes have been formed. When the openings at their bottoms become stopped up with stiff mud, or otherwise, little lakes or ponds are formed. In Tennessee and Kentucky, they have been converted into artificial ponds by feeding hogs in them, the cobs from ears of corn, the offal and clay packed down by the tramping of the animals in time, closing up the fissures. In some cases, these cavities slope down to a basin of cool water, connected directly with an underground stream, and in which sometimes small fish may be caught. 219. This division, especially the inner portion-that around the Basin-is noted for its sulphur and free-stone waters. The small streams of the barrens are generally beautifully clear. The springs that feed them furnish water nearly as pure as that from the clouds. The "sulphur springs" are numerous, and are generally found around the slopes, or in the valleys. The springs, the cool air, and retirement of the Highlands, although, in the main, less inviting than the corresponding features of the Table-land, (~ 197,) are, nevertheless, highly grateful, in July or August, to the invalid or visitor. A score of cool, and desirable summer retreats may be found, at different points, around and just outside the Basin, to which the inhabitants of the latter can escape from the hot sun and the cares of the city, or of the corn and cotton fields. (~ 223.) THE HIGHLANDS OF MIDDLE TENNESSEE. 85 220. Elevation above the Sea.-The general elevation of this division has been already spoken of, (~ 210.) Itis nearly that of the horizontal plain, to which, in general, the surface of the State has been referred. (~ 3.) The following tables present more particular information. As most of the railroad lines, from which the heights of characteristic points have been obtained, extend continuously from this division into the Basin, (the division next to be described,) or conversely from out the latter, upon the high plains of this, it has been thought best, in order not to break the lines, or profiles, to include also in these tables, the heights of points in the Basin. By this arrangement, in addition, the difference in the general elevation of the two divisions will be better exhibited. The names and the heights of points upon the Highlands, or Rim, are printed in Roman characters, and those within the basin, in Italics. This will serve to distinguish those of the respective divisions. The heights are in feet, and above low tide of Mobile Bay. (See note, p. 87.) (1.) The points, the heights of which are given in the following series, are all upon the Highland Rim. They occur along the connected lines of the McAlinnville and Manchester and the Southwestern Railroads.- The first point, Tullahcma, is the junction of the MIcM. & M. R. R. with the Nashville and Chattanooga Road. Tullahoma..........................1070 (Grade).....McM. & M. R.R. Point 2, 5 miles from T.,........1039 (Surface)..... " " 9" 4 it "..........1067 do...., "' 6 " It.......... 992 do...... ",, 4" 9' "..........1085 do...... " "' Average of four miles, between points 7and 11 miles from T.1072 do..... " " Creek at Manchester, 12 miles. 996 do..... " Point 13 miles from T.,..........1090 do.....' " 157 25 " "............ 1135 do...... " " " 20,' "............1124 do..... c Average between last two points..111...........1114 do...... Point 21, 5 miles from T.........1042 do....... "' 24, 6 " "............1107 do..... " 28 " "'...........1037 do..... " s' 30 4 "............1000 do..... * I am not quite certain that the profile of the McM. & M. line, used in determining the heights of the first part of this series, is, at all points, the same as that of the constructed road. It is possible that some changes in location may have been made. At the most, however, the changes have been small. It is the same at all important points, and, moreover, the profile used, is in itself complete. The Southwestern Railroad is, as yet, in an unfinished condition. The Special data made use of in determining the heights along this line were obtained from a report made in 1858, by Mr. E. F. Falconnet, at that time Chief Engineer of the road. 86 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Point 31 miles from T.,........... 957 do......McM. & M. R. R. Bottom of Hickory Creek...... 886 do...... " " Summit.............................. 9 72 do..... " " Barren Fork of Collins' River, 870 (Bottom).... " " MCMINNVILLE, Depot........... 912 (Grade).... ". 4" Depot............ 981 do............S. W. R. R. Bed of Collins' River.............. 831.......................... 831 " " IMud Creek Station................. 916...................... " " Summit between Collins' River and Caney Fork..................1006.." " Bed of Caney Fork............... 751........................" " Rock Island Station................ 906................... " " Summit near Gumspring Mt..... 990........................ " Sparta Station...................... 945........................ Huddleston's, or Cookeville Sta..1116...................... " " Summit near Algood's.............1150................. " " Mlarchbank's Summit..............1162......." ".............. Summit between Spring Creek and Sulphur Lick................1139...................... Livingston Station.................. 966................ " " (2.) The following are points along an experimental line from Decherd, on the N. & C. R. R., to McMinnville. It connects with the McM. &. M. Road just before the latter crosses Hickory Creek. The distances are reckoned from Decherd: Decherd, on N. & C. R. R............................................. 965 Summit, 4 miles......................................................... 1053 Point, 7 miles......................................................... 1023 Bottom of Elk River, 8 miles..................................... 950 Summit, 12 miles........................................................ 1056 Bottom of Bradley's Cr., 12.5 miles............................... 996 Point half-mile east of Hillsboro', 15 miles................... 1091 Point, 18 miles...............1155....................................... 1155 Point, 21 miles................................................ 1165 General elevation between last two points........................ 1142 Head Spring of Hickory Cr., 21.3 miles........................... 1113 * The Falls of Caney Fork are but a short distance below the point at which the railroad crosses the river. The water at these Falls descends impetuously in a series of rapids and cascades, falling altogether 94 feet, and furnishing great water power. The top of the Falls, at low water, is 391Y2 feet (389Y2 plus 2) above low water of the Cumberland at Nashville, or 756 feet above the sea. The following are elevations, above the sea, of several points in this vicinity. I am indebted to Mr. Winm. Bosson for information as to the heights of the first three above Nashville: Foot of Falls.................................................................................. 662 feet Top of Falls................................................................................... 756 Surface in front of Judge Bosson's house........................................ 876 " Average of general surface back from gorge of river, about............ 900 " Top of Hickory-nut Mt., (Q 192,) about.................................. 1400 " THE HIGHLANDS OF MIDDLE TENNESSEE. 87 Point, 24 miles........................................................... 1077 Bottom of Hickory Cr., 28.5 miles.... 972 Point, 30.6 miles.........................................................., 1027 Bottom of Hickory Cr., on McM. & IM. R. R, 34.5 miles.... 886 (3.) The table following presents a long series running from the Tunnel on the N. & C. R. R., (page 62,) through Nashville to the Kentucky State line, on the Edgefield & Kentucky Railroad. It extends entirely across two opposite sides of the Highland Rim, as well as through the included Basin. Points within the latter are printed in Italics.* The distances are reckoned from Nashville. TUNNEL..................... 89 miles......1153 (Grade)...... N. & C. R. R. Cowan....................... 87 "'...... 973'......'" " Summit.......................84.5......36 (Surface)...... Wagner's Cr............. 82.2...... 944 "...... Decherd................... 82.. 965 (Grade)...... Elk River...................78 "...... 865 (Surface) " " Point....................72 "......1087 "..... Point.......................... 6......1097 It... ( Point.. 70.1097 ". " a Tullahoma..................69 "......1070 (Grade)......'" Point.;........................ 61 "......1079 (Surface)...... 44 ~ C Point.. 67Z.. ".1079 (Surface) " Average between points at 72 and 67 miles (" barrens,") about..............1070 "...... " " Norman's Cr.............. 62.2 miles...... 814 "...... " * I take this opportunity of acknowledging my indebtedness, for profiles and maps pertaining to the different railroads in Middle Tennessee, and, in several cases, for personal assistance, to the kindness of Messrs. A. Anderson, Chief Engineer of Tenn. & Ala., Edg. & Ky., and Cen. Southern Railroads; J. H. Devereux, City Engineer of Nash-, ville, and Resident Engineer of Tenn. & Ala. R. R.; G. Trafton, Assistant City Engineer of Nashville, and Assistant Engineer Tenn. and Ky. State line boundary; E. F. Falconnet, Chief Engineer of Nashville & N. W. R. R.; J. C. Wrenshall, of the L. & N. R. R.; W. F. Foster, Assistant Engineer in charge Cumb. R. Railroad Bridge; and R. C. Morris, Chief Engineer of Nash. & Chat. R. R., formerly of the East Tenn. & Ga, R. R. To Mr. Devereux, I am under especial obligations. The heights above low tide, at Mobile, of the base-lines of all the railroads meeting at Nashville, and of the Cumberland River Railroad Bridge, were made out, for the most part, by him. These base-lines were connected by means of the surveys of the Tennessee & Alabama Railroad, with the levels of the Mobile and Ohio road. As a check upon the results, it may be stated that the height of the Tunnel-grade, at Montgomery's Gap, on the N. & C. R. R., was found to be 1153 feet above low tide at Mobile, while, according to the levels brought from an opposite direction (from the Atlantic) it is 1156, a difference of only three feet. (See p. 62.) The following table presents the heights of the base-lines mentioned above low tide at Mobile: Base of Tenn. & Ala. Railroad.................................................... 256.5 feet " Cumb. River R. R. Bridge.................................. 2565 " Edg. & Ky. Railroad................................ 313.5' L. & N....................................................... 351.25 " N. & N. W....................................................... 362.0 " N. & C....................................................... 366.5 " " Cen. Southern "...................................................... 418.0 " 88 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Normandy....................62 miles...... 834 (Grade)......!N. & C. R. R. Duck River..........59.5...... 777 (Surface)............. Summit...............56.5'. 864..... " " Garrison Fork..............56...... 778...... Wartrace Creek............52.5....." 800........ " " Bell Buckle Summit.......47...... 916..... Christmas Cr...............41... 695 " " " Stone's River.............. 36...... 598 "...... " "' Summit.....................33.5...... 643 "...... Murfreesboro' Depot.....32...... 583 (Grade)...... Stone's River...............30.5...... 538 (Surface)...... " Top of banks of do.......30.5...... 579. "..... " " Overall's Cr...............25.5 I...... 513 "... " Summit.................2 ".... 597 ".... Stewart's Cr..............21.5 "...... 494...... A summit.................. 17,..... 599 "..... ilurricane Cr.............15...... 539. "..... Summit................. 13...... 640 "..... Mill Creek................. 5...... 440.".....' " Summit between Mill Cr. and Brown's Cr........ 2 ".. 541 ".. " " NASHVILLE" Depot................... 435 (Grade)...... " I)epot........................... 438......L. &. R. R. " Low water of Cumb. R.*..... 265 High water of Cumb. R.*... 422 Edgefield Depot.......... 0.5 miles...... 428 (Grade)......L. & N. R. R. Summit...................... 4 "...... 562 "....... " Dry Creek.................. 9.5 "...... 406 (Bottom)...... " " Junction.................... 9.5 "...... 438 (Grade)...... E. & Ky. R. R. Summit..............11.3 miles...... 517 (Grade) " " Goodlettsville............ 12.5 " 457 ". ". Mansker's Cr.............13.5...... 441 (Surface)......'.............. 14.6...... 468.".....'.. Foot o/ "Ridge"..........17 "...... 563 "...... Summit of I"Ridge"...18.5...... 895'...... "." " "C... 18.6 "...... 877 (Grade)...... Point.......................22 "...... 822 "...... ". Point................... 25.3...... 748 "...... " Springfield...........29. 659 "....... " Sulphur Fork......... 30.5 "...... 570 "...... " "............30.5...... 512 (Surface) "...... " Point........................32 "..... 672 (Grade) "...... * According to low water of 1854 and high water of 1847, these heights were determined to be 364.5 and 421.5, respectively. For the sake of avoiding decimals, they are made as above. THE HIGHLANDS OF MIDDLE TENNESSEE. 89 Point.......................36 miles...... 681 (Grade)......E. &Ky. R. R. Red River................41.5 "...... 484 "...... " " " "...............41.5 "...... 399 (Bottom)...... " " Point...................45.5 "...... 592 (Grade)...... " " TENN. & KY. LINE....46.7 "...... 554'...... " " (4.) The following are the heights (according to a profile kindly furnished me by Mr. J. C. Wrenshall) of characteristic points along the line of the Louisville & Nashville Railroad, from its junction with the Edgefield & Kentucky road, to the State line: Junction.................... 9.5 miles...... 438 (Grade).......1. ~ N. R. R.,Aansker's Cr.............11.5...... 389 (Bottom)........ " " Summit................ 13 ".. 528 (Surface)........ " " Drake's Cr.............. 15.5 "'.. 449. "....... " " Summit................. 18 "...... 593 "........ " " W. Station Camp Cr...20.5 C"... 445 "........ " " Station Camp C........23.5 "...... 441 "........ " " Gallatin.................26...... 528......... " " Summit..................... ".. 573 "........ ( E. Station Camp Cr....27,7 "..... 503 "....... " Point, about foot of "Ridge,"............... 30.7 "...... 694."........ " Margin of Highlands.31.7 "..... 951 "....... " " Summit of grade at end of Tunnel..............32.3 ". 833 (About)........ " " Valley, Drakes's Cr...33.4 "...... 800 (Surface)........ " " W. Fork " "...36.5...... 708." "Summit................. 39 "...... 853 "...... ". State Line............... 45...... 755 "........ " " An experimental line from Gallatiq, by the way of Bledsoe Creek towards Scottsville, in Kentucky, etc., presents a profile much like that of the surface passed over by the constructed road. By this route, the margin of the Highlands is reached about seventeen and a half miles from Gallatin, and has here an elevation of 1000 feet above the sea. (5.) The following table presents the heights of characteristic points along the line of the Tennessee and Alabama Railroad from Nashville to -Mount Pleasant, and, from the latter point, along a surveyed line across the Highlands to Hamburg, on the Tennessee River. By these lines the railroads of Middle Tennessee have been connected with the levels of the Mobile and Ohio road. As before, points within the Basin are printed in Italics. Those marked with an asterisk, thus (:N), are within the Western. Valley of the Tennessee River. (Q 25.) The distances given are the approximate distances of the points from Broad street in Nashville. 90 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. NASHVILLE, old Terminus, Cherry St...... 469 (Grade)......Tenn. d Ala. R.R. Brown's Creek........... 2.5 miles...... 475 "...... " " Overton's Gap............ 6...... 621 "...... " " Atkinson's Gap......... 9 "... 737 " "...... " Little Harpeth River...11.5...... 649 (Bottom).... "...... 668 (Grade)...... Summit.................. 13.5...... 763 " " Harpeth River.......18.3...... 602 (Bottom)...... Franklin Depot.........18.6 "...... 642 (Grade)...... " Summit....................23..... 759 "...... " West Harpeth River.....2... 682 (Bottom)...... " Summit, (Duck River Bridge)............... 29...... 841 (Grade)...... " Spring Hill Station*...31.5.' 770 "...... " Carter's Creek...........35 "...... 621 (Bottom)..... R. R. Survey. Duck River.............42.5...... 528 ""...... " "' " High Water...... "...... 571................... " 6' Summit.................. 46 " 709 (Surface)...... Lick Creek............... 47.5 "..... 626 "...... Summit.................. 49.5. " 707 "'...... " " E. Branch of Bigby...53.'...... 602. " Mt. Pleasant, Sugar Fork of Bigby........54 i...... 625 "...... " Bigby Creek.............58 " "...... 660 Foot of Ridge............59.5 "'...... 702 "...... " Top of Ridge commencement of Highlands.65......1019...... " " " Top of Ridge, Tunnel. "' "...... 968 (Grade)...... " Buffalo Creek..........71...... 802 (Surface) "...... " Point.....................75.5 "......1035 "......' " Br. of Little Buffalo..79 "...... 862 (Bottom)...... " Palo Alto P. 0.........82 "......1025 (Surface)...... " " Point...........92.5 "......1021." ".....' " Average elevation beteen the last two points, about................. 1000 "...... " Point.....................96.5 "......1069 ".....' " "..................100.5 "......1087'......' " "................... 103.5 "4......1056."...... " Point, between waters of Indian & Cypress Creeks....113.5...... 973...... ~ From this point on to Mount Pleasant, the profile from which the heights were taken, is not, in the main, the actual profile of the road as finally located. It runs, however, very nearly over the same ground, so that the heights of corresponding points on the two will not differ essentially. THE HIGHLANDS OF MIDDLE TENNESSEE. 91 Point, between waters of Indian, Horse and Second Creeks.......... 117.5 miles...... 902 (Surface)...... R. R. Survey. (') Valley of Horse Cr. (off the Highlands................ 124.5.. 599...... (*) Bed of do........137...... 425 "...... " (*)Lick Cr.Summit.139.5...... 616...... " "Tunnel. " "...... 541 (Grade)...... (X) Tennessee River at Hamburgh......145 " " High Water................... 392..................M. & O. R. R. Sur. " Low Water................... 352................. (6.) The following are heights of points along the Central Southern Railroad. Two of these points, the first at Dodson's Gap, the other the summit of -Madry's Hill, may be regarded as being upon the spurs of the Highlands. All the others are within the Basin. The distances are reckoned from Columbia. Columbia Depot............ 657 (Grade)...... C. S. R. R. Point..................... 1.6 miles...... 696 (Surface)...... " " Lytle's Creek........... 2.5...... 624..... " " Point..................... 8.5 "...... 710 "...... "..................... 6...... 624........................... 8.5...... 766 "..... Pleasant Grove........ 9.8 "..... 739 (Grade)...... " Adam's Fork...........12.7 "...... 693 (Surface)...... Elk Ridge, Dodson's Gap................15.8 " 937 "......'" " "............ " 898 (Grade)...... " Robertson's Fork......18.5 "...... 716 (Surface)...... " " Richland Creek........26.5...... 691 (Grade)...... Pulaski................. 33.5 "..... 648......' " Richland Creek.........39.5 " 630 "...... " " t......... I...... 93 (Surface)...... " " Madry Hill............42.5 " 924 (Top)...... " " "' Tunnel...'...... 736 (Grade)...... " Elk River.............. 46.5...... 598 "i........ " " "............ "' 553 (Surface)...... " " Tenn.'Ala. Line.....47.8 "...... 654.5 "...... " (7.) Below we have a series along the portion of the Nashville and Northwestern Railroad that extends from Nashville to the Tennessee River. It presents a complete section of the Western side of the Highland Rim. The road, however, it must be remembered, following the valley of Harpeth 92 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. River, passes some distance in among the ridges and detached portions of the Highlands before it ascends and gets upon them. The place of ascent is then within the general limits of the division. The valley of the Harpeth may be regarded as a ramification of the Basin. The course and position of this river are such as to detach a small block of the Highlands from the main body of the division. (See Map.) In the table, as before, the points in Italics are within the Basin, and those marked with an asterisk, thus ( ), within the Western Tennessee River Valley. Nashville, Bridge, Summer Street......................... 429.5 (Grade.) Summit.............. 3.2 miles................558 " Richland Creek..................... 5 "................449 Point..................................... 77 "............507 " Summit.................. 10.2 "..............681 ".. 10.2................ 709 (Surface.) Harpeth River.....................14..................556 (Grade.) "............................ 15.7..................548 " Point...................................20 "..................573 " _farpeth River..................22 "...............504 " Kingston Station........................25..................506 " Turnbull Creek................... 256.".............459 (Bottom.) Sullivan Br.................. 26.7 "................473 " Point......................................27 ".................24 (Grade) Top of Highlands............ 31 "...............819 " " "......................31 "................ 841 (Surface.) Point....................... 34.8 ".............. 842 (Grade)....................................... 37 "................ 754 " "...................................... 39.2 ".................862 " "..................... 39.2..................885 (Surface.)...................................... 41.7.................. 791 (Grade.) Highest Point..................45..................915 " " "..........................45 "...............922 (Surface.) Gordon's Branch.......................48.................. 736 " 4' "I....................... 48..................795 (Grade.) Point.................................... 50.5.................. 839...................................... 50.5 "................854 (Surface.) Hurricane Creek..................54.. 626 ".. 54 "......643 (Grade.) Summit....................................57.5.................. 837 " (5) Point.....................61.7 "..................632 (*) Trace Creek.............. 64 "................575 (Surface.) " ".................... 64 "..................587 (Grade.) (5!) Point.................................. 70."... 482 " (t) Trace Creek........................ 74.7 "..................394 " "........................74.7 "....374 (Surface.) (-) Tennessee River............... 78 "..................368 (Grade.) " "................... 78 "..................357 (High Water.) THE HIGHLANDS OF MIDDLE TENNESSEE. 93 (8.) Mr. Lea, from whose Report I have before quoted, (page 73,) gives us interesting information as to the elevation and general character of that portion of the Highland Rim lying between Perryville, on the Tennessee River, and Columbia; and of that part intersected by the dbep and narrow valley of Duck River. He refers, also, to the fact that, all Middle Tennessee west of the Cumberland Table-land, may be regarded as an elevated plain, out of which has been excavated the great Central Basin, or, as he has it, the "basins" formed by the different rivers within the central part of the State-the group, or great basin, that these constitute, not being very clearly recognized. The following are remarks of his bearing upon these points. It will be recollected that Mr. Lea is speaking with reference to a route for a'" Central Railroad." "All that country lying between the western base of the Cumberland Mountain and the Tennessee River, may be regarded as a bench of the Mountain itself, and is elevated from seven to eight hundred feet above the Tennessee River. The geological formation of this region, being of the secondary order, the strata lie horizontally upon each other; and, at the depth of three to five hundred feet below the common surface, which is poor, gravelly and sandy, lies a stratum of limestone rock.* In various places the strata superior to this limestone are pretermitted, and exhibit the appearance of having been removed by some mechanical action; and thus, in many places, valleys or basins are formed, presenting all the richness incident to the horizontal limestone formations, of which the valley of Duck River is a remarkable instance. If you follow up Duck River from its mouth, for a distance of fifty miles, (measured in its general direction,) you will find it hemmed closely in by high and precipitous hills; but at the end of the fifty miles you emerge from the gorge, and enter upon a wide-spread and fertile valley, interspersed here and there with gently sloping hills, and presenting an appearance of unbounded wealth and beauty. But push your journey a few miles to either hand, across this valley, and you will find it surrounded by a high and rugged barrier, composed chiefly of sandstone; and, on ascending this barrier, you will find yourself upon the general level of the bench of Cumberland Mountain." In this last statement, if Mr. Lea means that the valley of Duck River after leaving " the gorge"-say east of Columbia and within the counties of Maury, Marshall and Bedford-is limited on both sides by a high " sandstone" barrier, what he says needs some qualification. There is such a barrier on the * I quote Mr. Lea's own words. Compare what is said of the geology of this region in the Second Part of this Report. 94 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. south side of the valley, separating it from the main and tributary valleys of Elk River. This is Elk Ridge, and will be noticed when I come to speak of the Basin. On the north side, however, there is no such barrier. The crest of the watershed separating the Duck River Valley from the subordinate valleys of the tributaries of the Cumberland is mostly a limestone ridge, which is much broken, and presents but very few points high enough to be capped with the stratum or formation, which MIr. Lea calls sandstone. Passing eastward, however, across the Basin, we find in Coffee County the valleys of the head-branches of Duck River, running up between spurs of the Highlands. (~ 214.) After thus speaking of the valley of Duck River M1r. Lea refers to the " similar valleys or basins" of the Elk and Cumberland rivers, and of their tributaries, and then adds: " It is a singular feature of the country, that these basins are generally at a considerable distance from the main river, and that there is a large body of high table-land along the Tennessee, which is only interrupted by the streams which drain these basins." " When we cast our eyes on either side of Duck River, we find the minor streams, at every few miles, cutting chasms in the Table-land from three to five hundred feet deep, and thus presenting almost impassable gulfs. Perhaps there is not a more broken country in the world than that around about the lower part of Duck River." " Having crossed the Tennessee, (at Perryville,) the route is very favorable up the valley of Cypress Creek, for a distance of seven miles, when it begins to run along the sides of the hills in order to ascend more rapidly than the natural rise of the valley. Rising about three miles, at the rate of sixty feet per mile, the road attains an extreme elevation of about 356 feet above high water in Tennessee River," (or about 730 above the sea,) "and passes the Buffalo Ridge at a gap one or two hundred feet below its general level." This makes the general level from 830 to 930 above tide water. " Having passed the gap in the ridge, the road winds along on a bench of the mountain for about three and a-half miles, descending at the rate of sixty feet per mile.".. This part of the road will be very expensive, as it leads across many ravines in the side of the ridge, and requires high embankments, or bridges, to cross them..... Still no other route has been found across the ridge at all competing with this in aggregate advantages. "Passing Buffalo River without difficulty, the road runs on favorable ground up Hurricane Creek, about seven miles further, to the forks of the creek at Tom. Barber's, where the valley begins to rise more rapidly, but still continues smooth and open. TEE HIGHLANDS OF MIDDLE TENNESSEE. 95'' From Tom. Barber's, the road rises sixty feet per mile, in the first mile, and 120 feet per mile for two miles further, when it attains the summit of the ridge, dividing the waters which fall into the Buffalo River fror those which fall into Duck River, directly. This ridge has been appropriately named by Col. S. H. Long, after the lamented Lewis, the renowned traveler, who lies interred on its summit." (This is a fiat-topped ridge, and its summit, the elevation of which is at least 1000 feet above the sea, may be regarded as a point of the top of the Highlands.) "Having attained the summit of Lewis's Ridge, the road has a very favorable location for twenty-four miles along its crest, to the head of Big Bigby Creek, where it commences its descent with a deep cut, and then falls at the rate of sixty feet per mile, for five miles, along a rough and crooked ravine, before it attains the level of the flat grounds on the creek below the Factory. "' This division involves more difficulty than any other upon the whole route, except that over Cumberland Mountain." 221. The tables given in connection with the remarks made, will enable the reader to form a correct idea of the elevation of the entire Rim above tide-water. The height of its flat surface above the Basin, which it encloses, will be spoken of hereafter. The general level of the northwestern side of the Rim, that is to say, the part in the counties of Dickson, Robertson, Montgomery, Stewart, etc., the part, too, through which the Cumberland River breaks, is considerably lower than the part upon the opposite side in Franklin, Coffee, and Warren. Taking the Rim and Basin together, it may be said that the whole area dips (or the great dish is tilted) to the northwest. Passing beyond the limits of Tennessee, in North Alabama, the Highlands dip southward. These dips, or waves, conform generally, as will be seen hereafter, to the geological structure of the region. 222. It may be noticed, also, that the surface of the Rim, or Highlands, on the eastern and southeastern side, slopes gently at many points, eastward, toward the base of the Cumberland Table-land, so that the border of the division near the Basin has the greater elevation. At numerous points around the Basin, the high border or margin of the Rim is a dividing ridge between the low-bedded creeks of the former division, and the highbedded ones of the latter. 223. Climate.-The features of climate already given, for the State in general, apply, in the main, to this large division. Owing to higher elevation, however, its mean temperature is a little less than that of the Basin. For points on the same par 96 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. allel, the difference between the annual means is from one to two degrees; between the summer means, it is, doubtless, considerably greater. Immediately around and outside of the Basin, that is to say, upon the circular interior border of the Highlands, the difference in temperature is quite noticeable, especially in summer. For this reason, in connection with its freestone and sulphur springs, and its retired, open-wooded groves, this border, and in fact much of the division, has become noted for its summer retreats. (~ 219.) 224. We have climatological data from two points of this division, the Falls of Caney Fork and Glenwood. (See table, p. 14.) The latter point, the residence of Prof. W. M. Stewart, where he made (and is making) his excellent observations, is located upon the depressed portion of highland division, the elevation being here but 486 feet above the sea. This fact must be borne in mind should the Glenwood data be used in estimating the temperature, etc., of the higher and characteristic portions of the Highlands. 225. The observations made at the Falls may be compared with Mr. Tavel's at Nashville, since the hours of observation were, in both cases, about the same. According to these the annual mean temperature for 1855 and 1856, at Nashville, is 580.80, and that, at the Falls, for the same years, (Jan., 1855 excepted,) is 580.48. The former place has, however, a higher latitude than the latter. Allowing for this, the difference becomes nearly equal to one degree. 226. Between the summer means of the two places, and for the same years, the difference is much greater; it is, without correction for latitude, 3.33, the mean at Nashville being 77.99, while at the Falls it is but 74.66. Referring the points to the same parallel, it may be placed at four degrees. THE CENTRAL BASIN. 97 V.-THE CENTRAL BASIN. 227. This unique division occupies the very centre of the State. It is truly the garden of Tennessee. Excepting great alluvial bottoms, it would be difficult to meet with a region of the same extent anywhere, possessing naturally the elements of prosperity and agricultural wealth in a greater degree. Although the fourth division in size, yet it is, at this time, the first in population, wealth, and political influence. 228. The description of the Basin, has necessarily been, in good part, anticipated in speaking of the Highland Rim encircling it. And here, it may be well to remark, that the latter division has been named with reference to the relation it sustains to the Basin. Aside from this relation, the name would not be appropriate. (B} 25, 208 and 209.) 229. Form, Outlines, and Area.*-The Basin has approximately the form of an ellipse. Its length, or greater diameter, is about 121 miles, and its average breadth, or shorter diameter, from 55 to 60. It lies within the limits of Tennessee, reaching, however, lengthwise, in a north-northeasterly and south-southwesterly direction, nearly across the State. At its extreme end, to the northeast, it has a narrow gateway, or outlet, into Kentucky, through the contracted and ascending valley of the Cumberland River. To the southwest, it has a similar outlet into Alabama, down the valley of the Elk. Besides these, the Basin has but two other outlets-a very narrow one to the west, through the gorge of Duck River, (p. 93,) and a more open one to the northwest, down the valley of the Cumberland.t 230. As to traveling and commercial intercourse, these gateways, or outlets, as such, (except, so far as river navigation is concerned, and that is confined to the Cumberland,) are of little service. The valleys that furnish them, are so narrow and broken, that none of the railroads, turnpikes, or other leading roads radiating from the capital of the State-whose site is very suitably within the Basin-pass through them. All these, when they reach the foot of the escarpment bounding the division, ascend at once, by steep grades, to the top of the Highlands or Rim. To get out of the Basin, is the first and most serious difficulty that the railroads running from Nash* The form, position, extent, etc., of this division, are well seen upon the large Map. To this the reader should, by no means, neglect to refer. t The narrow outlets, or valleys, have already been referred to in connection with the continuity of the Rim. See Hi 213 and 214. Sig 7. Vol. 1. 98 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ville meet with.-* To attain the margin of the Highlands they have a direct elevation of from 250 to 350 feet to overcome. 231. In tracing out the general outlines, or contour, of this division, we may commence with the "Ridge" in Sumner County.t This so-called ridge presents a steep face to the southeast, forming a well-marked portion of the northwestern side of the Basin. The general outline, or high edge of the Basin coinciding with the top of the Ridge, pursues at first, a general northeasterly course, then bending around to the east, it passes through the southern part of Macon County, into Jackson. Here it is cut by the valley of the Cumberland, presenting one of the outlets mentioned. (~ 229.) On the southeastern side of the Cumberland, it extends from Jackson County in a general southwesterly direction, passing approximately between Smith and Putnam; through the western part of DeKalb; through Cannon, east of Woodbury; on through the western parts of Coffee and Franklin, to the southern part of Lincoln south of the Elk. From this region, without quite reaching Alabama, the outline runs westward, gradually curving around to the northwest in Giles County, crossing in the meantime, Elk River, the narrow valley of which presents another of its outlets. From Giles, it runs in a northerly direction, through the western parts of Maury and Williamson; through Cheatham, and the western part of Davidson, to the "Ridge" in Sumner. In this last course, the remaining outlets of the Basin are presented in the valleys of the Duck and Cumberland Rivers. 232. The outlines of the Basin, in particular, are, at most points, rough, being broken more or less, by the fringing, or finger-like spurs which run from the Highlands within its general limits. These spurs, which are generally water-sheds between creeks, often retain, for several miles, the characteristic elevation of the Highlands. * The Central Southern Railroad meets with two high spurs of the Highlands, namely, Elk Ridge (Q:233) and Madry Hill, before finally leaving the Basin. South of Elk River, the line continuing this road, gets upon the Alabama extension of the Highlands. t The word ridge, as here applied, is in some degree, unfortunate. It must be recollected, that this ridge is the margin of highlands that extend off to the northwest, and constitute a portion of the Rim already described. It is true, that this margin is the dividing line between the waters of the Cumberland and those of Red River; but while the slope to the southeast is steep and sudden, that to the northwest is very gentle, and, in fact, out of the immediate beds of the streams, not noticeable to the traveler. THE CENTRAL BASIN. 99 233. The most remarkable spur, is that known as "Elk Ridge." This is, in fact, an almost unbroken, though narrow arm, running entirely across from one side of the Rim to the other, and cutting off, as a well-marked subdivision, the southern end of the Basin. In the main, it has about the elevation of the Highlands, and presents, in its course, but very few low gaps. It is the water-shed between Duck and Elk Rivers. Several branches run out from its southern side, separating the valleys of creeks in Giles and Lincoln Counties. 234. From another point of view, we may look upon the outlines of this division as being notched by the valleys opening into it. These valleys are narrow ramifications, or arms of the Basin. Most of the smaller streams from the Highlands, falling into the Basin, present, for a greater or less number of miles, before reaching the general outlines of the latter, deep and narrow valleys, or gorges. Passing up these gorges, we find them generally terminated abruptly by water-falls, or cascades. Here, too, they terminate as ramifications of the Basin. Above the water-falls, th valleys and streams pertain to the Highlands, or Rim. (~ 214.) 235. The outlets before spoken of, (Q 229,) are ramifications of the Basin m but they extend entirely through the Rim. Next to these, the narrow valley of Caney Fork presents the longest and most important arm of the Basin, (% 213,) ending, as such, with the noted falls of this stream. (Note, p. 86.) Duck River presents, in the portion of its valley in Coffee County, a ramification comparatively short, which, at the "Old Stone Fort," near Manchester, bifurcates, each fork terminating very soon, with a beautiful water-fall. The valley of Elk River, in Franklin County, and below Winchester, presents a narrow arm, of considerable length. The lower part of the valley of Harpeth River, in Cheatham and Dickson Counties, is a ramification, which, with the valley of the Cumberland, entirely detaches a block of the Rim. These are the most important examples. (See Map.) 236. The following counties, wholly, or in part, lie within the Basin: all of Wilson, Rutherford, and Marshall; nearly all of Smith, Davidson, and Bedford; the greater parts of Sumner, Williamson, Maury, Giles, and Lincoln; large parts of Jackson, Cheathaim, and Cannon; and, finally, small parts of Macon, DeKalb, Putnam, and Coffee. The entire area of the division, is about 5450 square miles, which is more than one-eighth of the State. 100 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 237. Subdivisions; Surface; " Cedar Glades."-The Basin is comparatively simple in structure and parts. There is but one portion that may be regarded as a well-defined subdivision, and that is the southern end, cut off by Elk Ridge, to which reference has already been made. (~ 233.) This subdivision embraces that portion of the valley of the Elk and its tributaries, lying in Giles and Lincoln Counties. The most important of the tributaries, is Richland Creek. 238. The remainder of the Basin might be divided into four sections, corresponding, respectively, to the valleys of Duck River, Harpeth, and its Forks, Stone's River, and the Cumberland. The ridges, however, that divide these, are, by no means, well defined, being at many points, low and broken, and hardly existing as continuous ridges. 239. Occasionally, aside from the ridges and spurs that have been mentioned, and within the body of the Basin, isolated peaks, and short ridges, or groups of these, are met with, which mount up to the level of the Rim. In the main, however, the general surface of the Basin, is moderately rolling. Large and valuable tracts occur, which are nearly level, or but gently undulating. Excepting the " cedar glades," to be spoken of, there is very little waste land. The soil, based on impure, blue limestone, is generally of an excellent quality, and, in its native state, supported heavy forests, and, in many places, thick canebrakes. 240. The cedar glades constitute a characteristic surfacefeature of the Basin. These are rocky places, generally fiat, covered more or less, with red cedar, (Juniperus Virginiana.) They abound in many parts of the division. 241. A circular range of such glades is found in Rutherford County, enclosing a large area of fine, brownish-red lands. Mlurfreesboro' lies a short distance east of the center of this area. In Wilson County, and along Duck River, in Bedford, Marshall, and Maury Counties, are many glades, covering large tracts. The cedar timber of the glades is, or has been, of excellent quality. A vast amount of it has been cut for building purposes, cross-ties, fence rails, fire-wood, etc. Much of it has been carried out of the State. (Q 262.) 242. It has been suggested, that the Basin was once the bed of a lake. Without committing ourselves to such an opinion, it may, nevertheless, be well, as we pass, to regard the division from this point of view, as thereby our conception of it as a basin may be made clearer. THE CENTRAL BASIN. 101 If the outlets mentioned, through which the Cumberland, Duck, and Elk Rivers escape, (~ 229,) were closed, by the filling up of the valleys, to the level of the highest points of the adjacent highlands, the back-waters of these rivers would accumulate, and finally, nearly fill the Basin, rising until high enough to run over the lowest part of the Rim. There would thus be formed a large fresh-water lake, having the outlines, (~ 231,) form, and dimensions (~ 229) of this division. 243. The shores on opposite sides of this lake, would not differ very much in height-not more, generally, than from 100 to 200 feet. On the northwestern side, they would be lowest, being, however, nearly, or quite, 900 feet above the sea. Here the waters would first run over. The margin of the lake, all around, to a greater or less extent, would be fringed by low headlands, and notched by narrow inlets, (]f 232 and 234.) In its southern part, a group of narrow, and long islands would be seen. One line of these, arranged end to end, (Elk Ridge, 233,) woule extend from shore to shore, and partially cut off the extreme southern end of the lake. Islands, too, would be seen at different points, all around its margin. One of considerable size, or, perhaps a group, would appear in Cheatham Colnty, corresponding to the Harpeth hills, between Harpeth and the Cumberland. (] 235.) And here and there, within the body of the lake, sparcely scattered over its surface, small isolated islands, or groups of islands, would be met with. (Q 239.) The water of the lake, would be deep in its northwestern part, especially over the bed of the Cumberland, and shallow in its eastern and southeastern parts. This would result from the tilting of the Basin and its Rim to the northwest, of which I have spoken. (Q 221.) At a point over Nashville, measured down to the track on the Railroad Bridge, the depth would be abeut 460 feet. 244. Judge Haywood, the author of a work already cited,* imperfectly recognized, the basin-like character of the part of Tennessee we are considering. He makes very properly, the "highlands, or ridges," west of Columbia, Franklin, and Nash ville, and north of the Cumberland, in Sumner and Macon, the western and northwestern limits of the basin-like area. On * See note, page 21. The full title of this work is " The Natural and Aboriginal History of Tennessee, up to the First Settlements therein, by the White People, in the year 1768. By John Haywood, of the County of Davidson, in the State of Tennessee. Nashville: 1823." curiosities o the early ience and literature of This work is certainly of the curiosities of the early science and literature of Tennessee. The author has left us, among many curious speculations and statements, much useful matter. He was among the first to notice many of the interesting minerals and some of the "geological. phenomena" of the State. I shall have frequent occasion to refer to his work. 102 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the other hand, however, he appears to regard the " Cumberland Mountains," as the eastern and southeastern side. The area, thus included, with a portion of Northern Alabama, is also, according to his view, divided into two subordinate basins by Duck River Ridge, to which ridge, he gives undue importance. 245. Our author, it will be seen, is wrong, in placing the greatly more elevated Cumberland Table-land, (" Mountains ") in opposition to the western highlands mentioned. The latter have their opposite and corresponding equivalents in the highlands running through DeKalb, Cannon, Coffee, etc., the Basin proper, lying between. (~~ 208 and 231.) The basin-like area has, therefore, by no means, the extent he would give it; and the subordinate basins, as he points them out, do not exist. The western escarpment of the Cumberland Table-land, excepting a few outliers, of which the Short Mountains (~ 191) are the most conspicuous, has nothing equally elevated, to face it, until we get far beyond the Mississippi River. 246. The following extracts will serve to indicate the views advanced by Judge Haywood: "On the eastern side side of the rich lands of West [Middle] Tennessee, are the Cumberland Mountains, running northeast and southwest. On the western side of them are other parallel highlands, or ridges, at the distance of about one hundred and ten miles from the Cumberland Mountains. The traveler crosses the western ridge at Paradice's, going from Nashville to Clarksville; and at Robertson's, ten or twelve miles south of the former, in going from Nashville to Charlotte. "In a northwardly direction, the ridge traverses the counties of Robertson, Sumner and Smith; and, approaching the Cumberland River, crosses the Kentucky line,.... and probably afterwards joins some spur of the Cumberland Mountains. " Towards the south, it extends to the Duck River Ridge, which lies in the southern part of Dickson County; and also in the southern part of Williamson, and in the southern part of Rutherford, and through a part of Warren; and terminates west of Collin's River, near to a spur on the east side, which connects with the main mountain nearly west from Pikeville. "The country between the highlands and transverse ridges, of which there are others more to the south,.... as far as the Muscle Shoals, are the rich lands of West [Middle] Tennessee; the surface of which is everywhere covered with great numbers of limestone rocks. THE CENTRAL BASIN. 103 That billows once rolled over this large plain, is too evident to admit o f denial..... "The western ridge, before described, it is probable, was opposed, for some time after the recession of the waters below, to the passage of the Cumberland River and its tributaries, which were probably elongated after the waters withdrew. This opposition probably continued till the waters of the lake, made by the supplies of the Cumberland, rose high enough to find the lowest part of the ridge, and proceeded through that passage, continually widening, and sinking deeper, as the waters rushed over it, and carried off the constituent particles of the ridge, from the bottom and sides of the opening. The level of the water in the lake lowered in proportion, till coming to the falls, as we now see them, near the mouth of Big Harpeth and Sycamore Creek, the whole lake was finally carried off.... ", Similar remarks to those above made, apply to the great lake, once formed between the Duck River Ridge, on the one side, and the Cumberland Mountain on the other; extending as far as the Muscle Shoals, and connected by a transverse ridge, which served to dam up the waters, till a passage was made by the workings of the Tennessee, and the whole lake was carried off." 247. Elevation above the sea; Depth.-For reasons that have been stated, (~ 220,) the elevations of characteristic points within the Basin, have already been given.t The margin of the Rim around the Basin-that is to say, the high edge of the Basin-has, with the exception of a small part to the northwest, a general elevation of more than 1000 feet; and the average of the part excepted, is but little less than 900. (~~ 221 and 222.) 248. From the margin, the steep slopes fall at once from 250 to 350 feet. (~ 230.) At some6 points, however, especially in Cannon and DeKalb Counties, the descent is greater. At Snow's Hill, the point where the Lebanon and Sparta Turnpike leaves the Basin and ascends to the top of the Rim, or Highlands, the fall is very nearly 500 feet. The average depth of the bottom of the Basin below its margin, is, perhaps, between 300 and 400 feet. The greatest depression is along the bed of the Cumberland. (~ 243.) * These " billows" were those of the deluge, as our author would have it. It was his opinion, that the whole continent was flooded, at the time of the Noachian deluge, by a rush of waters from the South, and that afterwards these waters receded. " They carried with them to the northern regions, the equatorial and tropical plants, animals, weeds and trees, depositing them as far as the fiftieth degree of north latitude, where their remains are now every day found." t See the tables on pages 87 to 92 inclusive. The Italics distinguish the points within the Basin. 104 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 249. Climate.-The climatologiaal data, obtained at Nashville and Lebanon, that have been given in the first chapter, and the remarks founded thereon, apply, especially,. to this division, as these places are within its limits. To these data and remarks the reader is referred. I will add, however, that the summer of the Central Basinthe mean temperature of which may be placed at 760.5, or 77~, (p. 15,) for the middle part, but ranging from about 75~.5 to 770.5, in passing from the northern to the southern portionsis the same as that of Northern Georgia, and middle part of South Carolina. The other seasons, however, are colder, than in the regions mentioned. A good portion of the Basin, as we shall see hereafter, is included in the cotton region. VI. —THE WESTERN VALLEY OF THE TENNESSEE RIVER, OR THE WESTERN VALLEY. 250. General Character.-The Tennessee River, in its reflex course northward, from Alabama to Kentucky, flows through a comparatively narrow valley, remarkable for its broken and varied surface. This area has, at many points, both in its main part and in its minor tributary valleys, tracts of excellent, alluvial, and valuable limestone land. Numerous landings, or shippingpoints, are found within it along the river, which command, to a great extent, the trade, not only of the valley, but of several adjacent counties. Among many articles of export that might be mentioned, a special one is pig-iron, the product of'numer. ous furnaces, some of which are within its limits. 251. The valley has, therefore, considerable agricultural and commercial importance. Nevertheless, in general, its bottoms are mostly narrow, and its surface rocky, abounding in "glades," and gravelly knobs and ridges. It has a much more limited agricultural value than we would look for in the valley of so large and beautiful a stream as the Tennessee. In some of its geological features, as we will see hereafter, it is both unique and interesting. 252. Geographical Relations'and Limits; Area. —This di THE WESTERN VALLEY. 105 vision separates the flat Highlands, or the western side of the Rim of Middle Tennessee from the elevated plain, or slope, of West Tennessee, next to be described. (Page 11.) The highlands, on both sides of the valley, are fringed by numerous spurs, many of which, run within two or three miles of the river, and some of them quite to it. 253. Between these spurs, the main valley sends out numerous ramifications-the narrow valleys of the tributaries of the Tennessee-many of which run back from ten to fifteen miles, and a few twenty, or twenty-five, before they terminate. Near their heads, many of them, those especially on the eastern side, branch off in closely hemmed gorges, which often terminate in cascades. In this, as well as in other respects, they are like the ramifications of the Central Basin. (~ 234.) The cascades, however, are, in general, by no means as prominent and interesting as those of the division referred to. 254. The creek-valleys of Hardin and Wayne Counties —for example, those of Indian and Hardin's Creeks-are among the longest ramifications. These valleys are serpentine and narrow, averaging, perhaps, not more than a mile in width, but at many points, very fertile. The land within them is generally occupied, and in a good state of cultivation. The spurs separating them are high, flat-topped arms of the Highlands. Such, in fact, are most of the spurs running into the Western Valley, especially on its eastern side. 255. Buffalo River presents, in Wayne and Perry Counties, a valley much like those just mentioned. This, with the lower part of the valley of Duck River, may be regarded as a ramification of this division, or perhaps better alone, as a deep cut within the limits of the Highland Rim. It is separated from the Tennessee River by a long, well-defined arm of the Highlands. (See Map.) 256. The valley of the Big Sandy is a ramification of some importance. It will be convenient to refer the part northeast of Carroll County only to this division. 257. The Western Valley, as understood here, does not include the entire area drained by all the tributaries of the Tennessee, in this part of the State. Its general limits are the lines along which the highlands, on both sides, for the most part, break away. As thus limited, it has perhaps, an average width of not more than ten or eleven miles. Its area may be placed approximately, at 1,200 square miles-a small portion of the State. 106 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The following parts of counties are included in the valley proper: the middle part of Hardin, the northeastern corner of Wayne, the western parts of Perry, Humphreys, and Stewart, and, finally, the eastern parts of Decatur, Benton, and Henry. 258. Elevation above Tide-water; Slope and Depth. —The high-water level of the Tennessee, may be taken as the bottom of this valley. This, at Hamburg, (page 91,) is 392 feet above the sea, and, at the point where the Nashville and Northwestern Railroad crosses the river, it is 357. (Page 92.) The difference between these elevations-thirty-five feetindicates the rate at which the valley slopes. According to this, itis a little more than one-third of a foot (0.38) per mile, by the river. It is to be noted, that the slope is towards the north, and in a direction nearly opposite to that in which the Mississippi River descends. 259. The depth of the valley, below the highlands that bound it on the east, may be taken in general, at about 500 feet. It ranges, however, from 400 to 600. The general depth, regarded from the highlands, on the west, is less. What it is, I am not able, for want of proper data, to state, with confidence. It cannot be, however, very far from 350, or 400 feet. At some points, these highlands are bold and high, and nearly equal in elevation, apparently, to those on the western side. (~ 3.) The elevations of certain points, that properly pertain to this valley and its ramifications, have already been given.* It may be added, that the level of low-water in the Tennessee, is about forty feet below that of high-water. At its highest stages, the river overflows large areas of its bottoms. 260. " Glades;" Artesian Wells.-The glades of the Western Valley, like the " Cedar Glades" of the Central Basin, (~ 240,) constitute a characteristic feature. These are gravelly, and marly places, mostly naked, but presenting here and there patches of bushes, or shrubby cedars. They are sometimes several acres in extent, and occur usually upon hill-sides, but often entirely cover isolated and low knobs. The counties of Decatur, Perry, Hardin and Wayne, abound in them. They may be found, also, in the other counties of the valley. 261. These glades result from the disintegration of gray, and * See the tables on pages 91 and 92. The points referred to are indicated thus (*). THE WESTERN VALLEY. 107 sometimes reddish marly limestones, which contain, occasionally, interstratified, thin cherty layers. Their surfaces are made up of the debris from these rocks, and consist of marly matter, mixed with angular, calcareous, and flinty gravel. It is common for those upon hill-sides to present, at intervals, ledges of rock, forming two or three successive, more or less perfect, terraces. Fossil shells, crinoids, corals, and sponges, from the limestones, are found in comparative abundance, mixed with the debris, and have made this region of glades classic ground to paleontologists. Thousands of these fossils, have been collected by our foreign scientific friends, and carried to Europe, to say nothing of the numbers that have found their way into the cabinets of American Geologists, outside of Tennessee. Dr. G. Troost, my venerable predecessor, delighted in roaming over these glades, collecting, and studying its fossil treasures. 262. The glades under consideration, differ from those of the Central Basin in being, for the most part, destitute of trees, and in the marly character of the debris forming them. The glades of the Basin, are remarkable for the fine, large cedar trees, that grow in the crevices of the rocks. Their surfaces, too, are made up of hard, thin-bedded (sometimes thick-bedded) limestones, more or less broken into blocks, or course gravel, often mixed with soil, but with no marl. 263. It may be well to notice here, a third class of glades, belonging in common, to this and the succeeding division. These are found in Hardin, McNairy, and Henderson Counties, and are known as the "bald hills," or "bald places." They have long attracted attention, mostly on account of the great numbers of oyster-like shells, that are found strewed over their surfaces. Like the marly limestone glades, they are often destitute of vegetation, with the exception of occasional thickets. 264. These glades are not associated with any solid rocks, but result from the weathering of a peculiar formation, called *' green sand," and by some " marl," that will be described hereafter. A meagre growth of grass, sometimes covers them. Where not relieved by this, they have a grayish, or ashen aspect. The shells are always conspicuous, and many of them very large, and heavy, weighing sometimes, three or four pounds. 108 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. They all belong to extinct species. At some points, they have been collected by cart-loads, and burned into lime, a good quality of which they furnish. Haywood, in his History, (Q 244,) did not fail to notice these shells. He says: " The country on the south side of the Tennessee, near where that river crosses the southern boundary line of this State, and for many miles to the northwest and south, is quite uneven, and exhibits the appearance of the ocean when agitated by a storm. To the south, in many places, are to be found immense banks of oyster-shells, some of which are petrified. And in many places, oyster-shells are to be found upon the surface of the earth. These shells are much larger than any live oyster now to be taken." Upon another page, under the head of Marine Apearances on the referred to this line.'z ouIw'o0 0IOc 429. The rocks passouINex uuoaj _ed over from Cleveland to Star's Mountain, or E >~. to Park's Mill, h a v e been mentioned. (~ 424.) In addition, it may be noticed, that one band.o~~~~' BO~~g of 3 and 4, (Trenton and Nashville rocks,) is \ Wt; intersected. 91?'{ —,?1 ~ 430. At the mill, a lt-~ b, nearly vertical ledge of whitish quartzose sandstone, (Chilhowee sandstone, 2,b,) is met with. This ledge is all that is I< II here seen of the great o 1|i formation, which, further to the northeast, Park's Mill. makes the massive ~~~o k~'~ ~ — Star's Mountain. At -3 and 4. this point, there has?' pv // 2,, been great displacement. Nearly all the sandstone is gone, and all the lower part of /.2' /' the Knox; and, moreover, some of the dolo-.t I _2,c"'. mite of the upper Knox has been thrown to the east of the sandstone / ~ Y 2'c".' ledge. Immediately east of this displace-. w 2,eC'. ment, the Ocoee rocks begin, and contin ue through the b e 1 t of rough mountains to the Ducktown metam orphic basin. 186 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS, 431. Extent and Topography of the Ocoee Formation.-The strata of the Ocoee gorge, as given above, may be taken as types of the whole formation. This section presents, better, perhaps, than any other in the State, the general character of the formation, and, for that reason, has been more particularly noticed. The thickness of the Ocoee Formation is not known. It may be more than 10,000 feet. It will be observed, (see Map,) that the great body of these rocks lie between the French Broad River and the Georgia line. Between these limits, they make a massive mountainous belt. 432. Northeast of the French Broad, we have several important belts, but no great continuous one, like that to the southwest. Of those to the northeast, that of the Big Butt Range, (~ 62,) is the most massive. In Johnson County, several belts are seen; one lying along the southeastern side of Iron Mountain; another, at the extreme northeastern corner of the State, adjacent to the strata forming Beech Summit, Cat Face, and Slate Face Peaks, on the State line; and another, southeast of Taylorsville. 433. The Ocoee Group, is, usually, adjacent, on its southeastern side, to the metamorphic rocks. Where this is not the case, and a later formation intervenes, it has been thrown out of place by a fault and dislocation. The relation the group sustains to the metamorphic beds, has been spoken of already. (~ 408.) On the western side, no fault interfering, it is bounded by the Chilhowee rocks, from which its strata are separated, often, by no well marked horizon. (~ 421.) 434. Some of the highest mountains of the Unaka Chain, as for instance, the Great Smoky, in Sevier County, the Balds, in Monroe, and the Big Frog, in Polk, together with others in the northern part of the State, already mentioned, are formed of strata of the Ocoee Formation. It is truly, as already stated, a mountain-making formation. (~ 422.) 435. Nevertheless, when the conglomerates are absent, it gives, often, especially in Sevier, Blount, and Monroe Counties, elevated plateau-like regions, and high valleys of some interest in an agricultural way. (8 437.) In Blount and Sevier Counties, its strata enclose the interesting coves described in the First Part of this Report, (&Q 133-135,) but these do OCOEE CONGLOMERATE AND SLATES. 187 not properly belong to this formation. They are based, mostly, on the rocks of the Knox Formation, and owe their origin to the fact that great patches of the Knox strata, were, during the period of disturbance, (Q 344,) cut off, and entangled among the Ocoee beds. These patches of softer rocks, by subsequent denudation, have been hollowed otft into the coves, as we now find them. 436. Cross Sections; Lithological, and other Characters, (a.)The section presented in the gorge of the Ocoee has been given. Passing northeastward, that, from the old Tellico Iron Works in Monroe County, southward to the State line, may be noticed. The old works are located on Tellico River, just within the edge of the Ocoee Group, a belt of Knox dolomites and shales, lying but a little distance to the northwest, about the Furnace, and commencing below at the edge of the Knox, the rocks are mostly, pale greenish or bluish, semi-talcose slates, containing, occasionally, bands of sandstone and conglomerate. Some of these slates are fissile, and might furnish roofing slates. Passing from the Furnace, southeastward, the same rocks continue for about two miles, and, within this distance, rise up into a considerable mountain, over which the North Carolina road passes. Ascending the Tellico River, from the Furnace into the gorge through which the river passes the above mountain, the slates, including at intervals, bands of sandstone and conglomerate, are well seen. At the upper rapids, three-fourths of a mile from the Furnace, the conglomerate is well characterized. 437. Crossing the mountain, we reach an elevated and wide belt of mountain country, almost wholly made up of slates. This belt, viewed from high points, appears like a wide, shallow trough, lying between the great mountains on the line, and the mountain, or range, just crossed, the rocks of which we have considered.* The width of the belt is from four to five miles. It extends, longitudinally, to the northeast and southwest, nearly as far as the eye can reach. In a direct line, we enter it about two miles from the Iron Works. It includes the gold region of Coqua, or Coca Creek, a circumstance which attaches much interest to it as a metaliferous region. * I have spoken of this mountain as a single range; it consists, really, of two ranges near together, with no great depression between. The site of Tellico Iron Works, is at the western base of the double range. 188 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 438. The slates of this belt, dip, as usual, to the southeast, at varying angles, but generally, with steep inclinations. They are talcose and chloritic slates; of pale blue and greenish colors, much like those about the Tellico works. Many of them present a silvery aspect, and a semi-micaceous appearance. In crossing the country, veins of quartz are frequently met with, intercolated between the layers of slate. Among these, some are gold-bearing, the special consideration of which belongs to the Third Part of this Report. 439. Passing to the southeast, beyond the belt just considered, and reaching the foot of the mountain on the line, we again come up with conglomerates and slates. Beyond, in North Carolina, these are succeeded by the metamorphic strata. 440. (b.) The Section of the Ocoee Group presented along the Little Tennessee from the end of Chilhowee Mountain to the State line, is now to be considered. This section shows more conglomerate, alternating with the slates, than the last. It also exhibits, entangled in Ocoee strata, several patches and bands of limestone, or dolomite. Several of these are extensive enough to have formed by denudation, coves of some interest, the river intersecting them: Chilhowee and Tallassee Coves, are the principal ones. The limestones and dolomites of Tallassee, the uppermost cove, show, by fossils, that they belong to the lower part of the Nashville Formation, (the Nash,) and the upper part of the Knox. The other bands of limestone, belong, perhaps, to the Knox. But it is uncertain. From their relations to the conglomerate, one would almost be ready to locate them in the Ocoee Group. And to this we would be more inclined, were it not for the fossiliferous character of the Tallassee rocks. A few layers of limestone are met with, which are made up of angular fragments and pebbles of calcareous matter forming breccias and calcareous pudding-stones. Some of these, have been worked as marble. 441. Chilhowee Mountain, and with it, for the most part, its special group of sandstones, runs out, before quite reaching the Tennessee River. On the river, in a line with the mountain, therefore, the Chilhowee sandstones are absent. There is, here, much displacement of the formations. A band of conglomerate forming a considerable ridge, is seen on the northwest side of the point of Chilhowee. It is too, separated from the greater body of conglomerate, by a narrow band of Nash rocks. OCOEE CONGLOMERATE AND SLATES. 189 442. Passing the range of Chilhowee Mountain, and traveling the road up the river, we intersect, for the first three miles, heavy beds of conglomerate and slates interstratified. Much of the conglomerate is very coarse. In the first mile, a narrow band of breccia limestone is seen. In the fourth mile, Chilhowee Cove is entered. This is, for the most part, surrounded by slates. From the cove mentioned, to Tallassee, the road does not run directly across the strata. The belt of rocks intersected is between two and three miles wide. They are, mainly, pale greenish talcose slates, and contain but few beds of conglomerate. A second bed of breccia limestone is seen in this division. 443. Passing the limestones of Tallassee Cove, slates and conglomerates appear again, and continue to be the rocks on to the State line, a direct distance of about seven miles. The line runs on the top of a mountain ridge, and as we approach this, the relative amount of conglomerate increases, becoming finally greater in volume than the slates.* The slates and conglomerates have the same general character that they have on the Ocoee. Of the slates, the pale greenish, or bluish, predominate. About half-way between Tallassee and the State line, a considerable bod of clay slate is seen. All the way between these points, veins of quartz are occasionally met with. 444. (c.) I introduce on the next page, a section taken directly across the middle and narrowest part of the Valley of East Tennessee. It was constructed for the purpose of illustrating the geological peculiarities of the Great Valley. It extends from the Cumberland Table-land, in a southeasterly direction, to the mountain on the North Carolina line, striking the latter in the region of the two Balds a few miles to the northeast of the Little Tennessee River. The Ocoee Group is seen in this section, at its southeastern end. The relation it sustains to the Chilhowee sandstone, and to the other formations, will be observed. 445. The length of the section is 52 miles. Eight great faults are crossed. (Q 344, 359, 360.) The places of these are indicated by the oblique lines reaching above the surface. It is to be observed that no great flexures * In the mountain gorges, near the line, are frequently observed great isolated blocks of conglomerate, as large as good-sized cabins. These the mountain-men call " graybacks," a name reminding one of the old graywacke. These graybacks have rolled from above, into the gorges. 190 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. occur. This is the most crowded ~ part of the Valley. The incipient folds were split open longitudinally, and the southwestern side of each heaved up and over the northwest-... 2, ern. The older formation is on the southeastern side of a fault. In passing from one fault, in a southeasterly direction, to another, the...2,b successive formations are met with in ascending order until the second...2,a fault is reached; passing this, an older formation occurs again, to be I eeol /...7 followed, as before, by newer ones.'s2ulds OelsuuoAO —-... The formations are thus arranged V - - /.3 & 4 by the faults into successive series, the series being much alike, in fact, to a great extent, repetitions of the... 2,C" same thing.' In the section there... 2,/ are eight of these series between 4Ppus'%'2 - -'Walden's Ridge and Chilhowee...3 & 4 Mountain. The formations mostly concerned in these repetitions, remain to be described. In connection with them, there will be frequent occasion to...>2,1, refer again to this section. 446. The section shows how...3& Ocoee strata may occur along. pu -- -/...2,c', the northwestern base of a -po -.........3 4 Chilhowee sandstone mountain. Several of these mountains have a strip of Ocoee' "'"'a* 4o0 4Oa --...3 &4 rocks in this position. To this, 2,c however, we will refer, when'a'I~ D ".3 A we come to speak of the Chil- f PM.c howee sandstones.." nuiso __i__ #~'I>z' "* —nu~sot...3. 4 447. (d.) In the route from Sevierville up the West Fork of the Little Pigeon, to the State *'l i}do ___...2,c line, the rocks are well displayed. The road runs to...5 the southeast and across the'pu.tsloq — AJj. *-8 strata. OCOEE CONGLOMERATE AND SLATES. 191 Sevierville is located on the Graptolite Shale. Leaving this point and proceeding on our route to the southeast, this shale continues for nearly two miles, when a band of Trenton limestone, with fossils, is encountered. This limestone is the top of a fold, and is soon followed by the shale. The latter, however, does not continue far. In half a mile after its first appearance, the limestone comes to the surface the second time, and is then followed by Knox limestones and dolomites, which are traveled over for the next mile and a half. Four miles from Sevierville, the Trenton re-appears, and is followed by the Graptolite Shale. 448. At six miles, and following the shale mentioned, a series of slates commence, which have a semi-metamorphic aspect. They are clay and talcose, or semi-talcose, and blue slates. Further on, they become more marked as talcose slates, of pale bluish and greenish colors. They dip generally at high angles, and are the rocks along the road as far as to the fifteenth mile, when they begin to be interstratified with bands of conglomerate. The belt is about nine miles wide. They enclose, occasionally, harder layers, approaching sandstone in texture, and, near the southeastern side of the belt, several bands of clay, or roofing slates. 449. Passing the fifteenth mile, the slates continue much the same, excepting that they are interstratified with bands of conglomerate. We have now reached the base of the great mountains of the State line. (~ 434.) From the fifteenth mile (the distance being estimated directly) to the line, is about eight miles. In the ascent, the alternating slates and conglomerates are crossed all the way. The bands of conglomerate are massive, and its "graybacks" fill the mountain ravines. (~ 443, note.) Reaching the summit, no true metamorphic rocks are seen, these being beyond, in North Carolina. 450. The slates of these mountains are often silvery, or semi-micaceous in appearance. At points they are dark bluish, and contain much pyrites, which, in sheltered places under the rocks, decomposes and forms, with alumina and magnesia, from the decomposing rocks, alum and Epsom salt. There is a noted locality of this kind on the side of one of the great ridges near the line of our section, called Alum Cave. 451. The section presented by these mountains, is much like 192 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. that between Tallassee Cove, on the Little Tennessee, and the State line. (~ 443.) Veins of quartz occur at intervals in it. 452. I have placed the western limit of the Ocoee Group at the point six miles from Sevierville. (~ 448.) Some of the slates included, may, however, belong to superior formations, as, for instance, to the Graptolite Shale. Further investigations are required to settle the question. For the present, the change in the character of the slates, together with the fact that, along this line of division, following the strike of the rocks, two or three miles to the Northeast, (E. N. E.,) a band of characteristic coarse conglomerate occurs, justifies the arrangement adopted. 458. At a point on the Big East Fork of Little Pigeon, from seven to eight miles from Sevierville, the line of division, as adopted, between the Graptolite shale and the Ocoee slate, crosses this stream. East of this line is the band of conglomerate spoken of. The conglomerate is half a mile, or more, wide, includes two or three narrow belts of slate, and forms a sharp, conspicuous ridge. Beyond this ridge, to the east, are found the same talcose slates that occur in the line of section on the West Fork. 454. Below the ridge, on the west, is slate, or shale, for one mile, some of it certainly Graptolite Shale; then comes the Trenton, with Leptcena sericea, and other fossils, and then the Knox. This corresponds to the parallel part of the West Fork section. 455. It will be observed that the West Fork section of the Ocoee rocks, interpolating the conglomerate ridge of the Big East Fork, is like the Tellico section, in having a wide belt of slates between the two ranges of mixed rocks, conglomerates as well as slates, the greater range on the southeast, and the less on the northwest. The same feature, though not so well marked, is seen on the Ocoee River. The Little Tennessee section differs in presenting bands of limestone and dolomite. 45G. (e.) Advancing northeastward, to the waters of the Big Pigeon, in Cocke County, we find the conglomerates and slates of the Ocoee Group, in great part, giving way to the strata of superior formation. The great belt we have been considering becomes very much narrowed. It widens, to some extent, in the valley of the French Broad, but north of this, its strata are reduced to comparatively narrow, and more or less detached OCOEE CONGLOMERATE AND SLATES. 193 strips. As a consequence of this, the northeasterly counties along the North Carolina border have not great areas of mountain country, like Sevier, Monroe and Polk. 457. (f) Newport, the county seat of,Cocke, ismlocated immediately on the junction of the Nash Graptolite Shale and the Trenton. The latter rocks form here a comparatively narrow band. Passing these, and traveling up the French Broad River, a great section of Knox limestones and dolomites is seen. These Knox rocks extend up the river to a point about six miles (five direct) from Newport. The prevailing color is blue, though many layers are gray. In this section are several minor flexures and faults. (See section on the map.) 458. Succeeding these, we next cross a belt of Knox red shales, more or less calcareous, the belt being narrow on the road, but reaching one fourth of a mile in width, at a point not far off to the northeast. 459. Following the shales is a fine display of Chilhowee sandstones, which are the rocks for about one-fourth of a mile, or more. The first part of the mass is gray quartzose sandstone, some of it with green grains; the second part whitish and quartzose. Some of the layers contain Scolithus linearis. 460. Passing the sandstones, we meet with the Ocoee Group, and for eight miles (seven direct) travel upon it. The Group, here, is mostly shale or slate, the bands of conglomerate occurring at intervals. At one point a few layers of dolomite are seen. The first shales met with, are more or less sandy, and have not so much the usual metamorphic aspect. The country, too, is comparatively open. The shales of the eastern part of the belt, however, present the semi-metamorphic appearance, are greenish talcose, and weather, at some points, to a chestnut brown. With the conglomerates they form a mountainous region. 461. After the Ocoee, the Chilhowee sandstones re-appear and continue, for several miles, up the river to the State line at the "Painted Rock." Just below Painted Rock, the river makes a short horse-shoe bend as it passes in a deep gorge through the sandstones. On the north side, the strata are nearly horizontal, and are piled up in a magnificent section, exposing a thousand feet of rocks. (] 63.) 462. In North Carolina, a short distance beyond the line, the Ocoee Group sets in again, and is the formation to within a mile of the Warm Springs. Then follows a Knox belt. The Springs are located on Knox dolomite, and the belt to which it Sig. 13. Vol. 1. 194 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. belongs runs westward into Tennessee, terminating just within the line. Beyond the Springs follow Chilhowee sandstones, then Ocoee rocks, and finally, gneiss. 463. The Valley of Paint Creek, a stream which empties into the French Broad at Painted Rock, is within Tennessee, and lies between two Chilhowee sandstone ranges, Paint Mountain on the northwest, and the line range on the east. (~ 63.) The rocks of this mountain-valley belong to the Ocoee Group, and are talcose slates, with dark clay, or roofing slates, and a few bands of conglomerate. 464. (g) The Big Butt, so conspicuous from Greeneville, (~ 62,) is, as to its principal range, made up of the conglomerates and slates of the Ocoee Group. The latter are pale greenish, mostly, but include some purple slates. Much of the conglomerate is coarse; pebbles, as large as pigeon's eggs, are abundant, but they are often larger. The general appearance of these rocks recall portions of the Ocoee River section. 465. Along the northwestern base of the mountain, and terminating its spurs in a line of knobs, is a belt of Chilhowee sandstones. The belt is not massive enough to have formed an independent mountain. 466. It may be remarked here, that several strata of hard reddish ferruginous sandstone were observed on cOne of the spurs. At one point, on one of these strata, iron ore has been obtained, the ore resulting, doubtless, from the weathering of the red rock. 4661. (h) The diagram given further on, (~ 490,) represents, in a general way, the arrangement of the rocks about Bumpass and Greasy Coves, in Washington County. In this section, the outcrop of the Ocoee Group, (II.,) presents no large areas like those it gives in Sevier and the other southern Unaka Counties. Between II. and IV., on the left of the section, which numbers correspond respectively to 2,a and 2,c of the classification adopted, is a great fault, presenting another instance of the kind of displacement occurring along the western bases of most of the Chilhowee Sandstone Mountains. (~ 446.) 467. From this region, towards the Virginia line, strips of Ocoee rocks are found, as before mentioned, (~ 432,) but the group in general, in this part of the State, is, by no means so important, topographically, as a mountain-maker, or otherwise, as the Chilhowee sandstones, or as the gneissoid rocks. OCOEE CONGLOMERATE AND SLATES. 195 468. (i.) Approaching the Virginia line, however, the group shows itself in considerable masses, and forms, in part, the great ridge between Tennessee and North Carolina. This ridge is the northern part of the Stone Mountain range, (~~ 47 and 48,) the more southern part of which is wholly metamorphic. 468g. In the First Part of this Report, I have spoken of the Johnson County Cove, (~ 125,) in which name I proposed to include all the valley-lands of Johnson, These lands lie together, in a long trough, and are completely surrounded by great mountains. The route out of this trough, or cove, to the northwest, into Virginia, is through a gorge in Iron Mountain, (~ 49,) the same through which the South Fork of Laurel runs. In this gorge, a fine section of rocks is exhibited. I have constructed a section running through this gorge, and extending, in a southeasterly course, across the upper end of the Johnson Cove, to the North Carolina line. The gorge lies both in Virginia and Tennessee, so that the northwest end of the section is in Virginia..'. w. E. B 5000 IJ A I C 1...2woo /- --- -v. _ —. -- ------ -s — -- 2,b. 2,a. 2,c. 2,b. 2,a. 4684. The length of this section is eight miles, and its vertical scale is 5000 feet to the inch. A, is Iron Mountain; B, the Stone Mountain Range, on the North Carolina line, the point being 5000 feet above the sea; C, is the Cove between, commencing at the left end of the section. The first formation is Knox dolomite, dipping as represented; then comes a great mass of Chilhowee sandstones, nearly horizontal, and separated from the Knox by a fault; next follows a great volume of conglomerate. The conglomerate is cut off by a fault, and is then followed by Knox strata-hard, red shales, with dolomite, but mostly the former-which occupy the cove. 469. Crossing these, we reach the foot of the mountain, and, in ascending, pass over a heavy belt of Chilhowee sandstones, and then two massive 196 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. belts of conglomerate, separated by a narrow belt of pale greenish talcose slates; after the conglomerate, slates come in again, and continue to the summit. Many of the slates mentioned, contain small knots of quartz. Those on the summit run so gradually into the truly metamorphic rocks, that it is not easy to draw the line of separation. (] 385.) 470. The belt of conglomerate in Iron Mountain, at A, is, together with the sandstones, grandly exposed in the gorge of the mountain. According to my measurement, the direct thickness of the conglomerate alone, at this point, is 6600 feet. As to whether this is the true thickness, we cannot be certain, though in this case, I believe, it is a near approximation. In a region like this, are minor faults and displacements, which render measurements uncertain. This conglomerate is often coarse; the pebbles are quartz, feldspar, and slate, but mainly quartz. They are held in a siliceous and talcose matrix. The rock, when freshly broken, has often a pale greenish color. This belt contains no slate. 471. Near its western side, the belt holds two trap dikes. No truly metamorphic rocks were observed. The metamorphic strip, on the side of Iron Mountain, opposite Taylorsville, spoken of in chapter sixth, (~ 398,) appears to go with this belt of conglomerate, its place being between the latter and the Knox on the east. 472. Useful Rocks and Minerals.-At a number of points, the slates of this group are fissile enough to yield roofing-slates, as near Tellico Iron Works. (~ 436.) Other localities are on the Ocoee River, and on the West and Big East Forks of Little Pigeon, in Sevier County. But, beside these, there are numerous localities within the areas occupied by the Ocoee Group, where the strata present the features of roofing-slates, and are well worthy of a trial. To be good for this purpose, they must contain no pyrites; must split easily, with smooth surfaces, into thin plates; must not readily absorb water, and ought to be firm and tough. 473. Those slates which contain pyrites-a mineral composed of iron and sulphur, and often decomposing easily-can be used for making alum, sulphur, sulphuric acid, copperas, and, when magnesia is present, epsom salts. -A noted instance of the OCOEE CONGLOMERATE AND SLATES. 197 natural formation of alum and epsom salts is furnished in Alum Cove, in Sevier County, a locality of which I have already spoken. (~ 450.) This is an open place, under a shelving rock -such a place as in this country is often called a rockhouse. The slates around and above this contain much pyrites, in fine particles, and even in rough layers. They also contain reniform masses of dark gray sandstone and conglomerate. The salts are formed above, and are brought down by trickling streams of water. There was a wagon load of each of the salts on the floor of the cave, when visited by the writer-the epsom salts being at one end, and the alum at the other. Fine cabinet specimens could be obtained, white and pure, a cubic foot in volume.* 474. Pyritiferous slates of this kind, are frequently met with, and their presence is often indicated by a line of iron ore on the surface. The slates at Mundic Bluff, on the Ocoee, have been mentioned. (~ 425.) 475. It is in this formation that the most important goldbearing quartz veins of the State are found. Gold can be, and in fact the most of it has been, washed out of the gravel and sand found in the beds of the streams, occurring in the region of the veins; but it originally came from these veins. The quartz has crumbled down with the adjacent rocks, and liberated the gold, which, with the rocky fragments, has been washed into the streams. There are several regions in McMinn, Monroet and Blount, where gold has been found. In the Third Part of ele Report, the facts bearing on the occurrence and yield of gold in Tennessee, will be more fully presented. 476. I have spoken of the conglomerate and breccia limestones found in association with the Ocoee rocks. Such occur on the Little Tennessee River, and in other regions. (~ 440.) These are interesting as supplying frequently a beautiful marble. The fragments making up the rock have different colors, * This cove, or rather " rockhouse," I visited, in company with Dr. B. C. Jillson, in the summer of 1855. After walking twelve miles, or more, over the rough mountains of this region, our guide led us to the cave, where we remained for the night. Although in August, our elevation was so great that we suffered with cold, and had but little rest. This cave is not easily accessible, a circumstance which accounts for the fact that the alum and "salts" had not been carried off. Since that time, the war has been upon us, and both may have disappeared. They are, however, constantly forming. 198 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. and a block, having no hard pebbles or places in it, can be polished, and will then present an agreeable checkered or blotched appearance. 477. Agricultural Features.-These are, in the main, much like those of the Metamorphic Group. (pp. 180-81). Like that, the Ocoee Group has its great mountains, on many of which are open woods, and even bald places, suitable for giazing. Other mountains of the group are covered with balsam, spruce, and small evergreens, so thickly set as to form a mass of wild vegetation, almost impenetrable. (~ 82.) From my own observations, I feel safe in saying that the open-wooded, or the grazing mountains, are far more numerous than the others. Such points and ridges, as are covered with balsam and its associates, are very high. The lower ridges are nearly all open and easily accessible, presenting free and desirable "ranges" for cattle, well appreciated by "stock raisers." 478. The high valleys and plateaus of this Group, (~ 435), present many areas which can be, and are, cultivated. The elevation makes such places well adapted to the growth of fruit. SECTION II. THE CHILHOWEE SANDSTONE; FORMATION, 2,b. LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTER; FOSSILS; THICKNESS-TOPOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS-SECTIONS; (a) LAUREL SECTION; (b) IRON MOUNTAIN SECTION; (c) BOMPASS AND GREASY COVE SECTION; (d) PAINTED ROCK; (e) CHILHOWEE MOUNTAIN; (J) HIWASSEE GrAP-MINERALS AND USEFUL ROCKS —AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. 479. Following the Ocoee Group, in ascending order, is a series of sandstones constituting the Chilhowee Formation. I have given this name to these sandstones for the reason that they are finely displayed in the wellknown and conspicuous Chilhowee Mountain. (Q 70.) It has been stated that the rocks of this formation are not always easily separated from those of the Ocoee series. (~ 421.) In the main, the distinction is well marked, for the characteristic rocks of one are sandstones, often including whitish quartzose beds, while those of the other are dark, coarse conglomerates, and semi-metamorphic slates. 480. Lithological Character; Fossils; Thickness.-The lithological character has been, in part, given. It is a great group CHILHOWEE SANDSTONE. 199 of heavy-bedded sandstones, often dark, but generally weathering to a grayish white, and containing great beds of whitish quartzose sandstone, or quartzite. Interstratified with the heavy-bedded rocks are, at some points, sandy shales, and thin flags, often containing scales of mica. Some of the sandstones are coarse and approach fine conglomerate. It may be mentioned, too, that not unfrequently the strata have green grains (glauconite) disseminated through them. 481. The sandstones of this Group very often show the worm-holes, and the sandy rods within them, belonging to Hall's species scolithus linearis. It is the exception not to meet with them. In addition to these, the surfaces of the strata sometimes show impressions of fucoids. No other fossils, that I know of, have been found in this horizon of Tennessee. 482. This formation is by no means as thick as the Ocoee series; yet it has volume enough to form conspicuous mountain ridges. It is not easy to determine its thickness; its maximum is not less, however, than 2,000 feet, and it may be considerably more. The sections to be given will aid us in estimating the thickness. 483. Topographical Relations. —The Chilhowee is the third, and the last of the Unaka Formations. As stated, it is the formation of the great outliers. (~ 422). Of the mountains mentioned under " Unaka Chain," (pages 22 to 28,) the following are, for the most part, made of these rocks: A16roe Mountain........................... 28...Johnson County. Iron Mo~t..nt....................... 49... Johnson and Carter. Holston Moun4ain.......................... 50...Johnson, Carter and Sullivan. Doe Mountain.............................. 51...Johnson. Flint Range................................ 53... Johnson and Carter. Buffalo and Cherokee Mountains....... 60... Washington. Rich Mountain.............................. 60... Washington. Paint Mountain............................. 63... Greene. Meadow Creek Mountain................ 64... Greene and Cocke. English's Mountain....................... 69... Cocke and Sevier. Chilhowee Mountain....................... 70O...Sevier and Blount. Guide Mountain............................ 71... Monroe. Star's Mountain............................ 72 cMinn and Polk. There are a few others, but these are the principal ones. Most of them are remarkable for their isolated positions, and for the 200 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. bold and abrupt manner in which they rise up from the valleys or low lands. 484. At the ends of these mountains, the sandstones, which form them, are suddenly and curiously cut off and wholly disappear. The mountains, and their rocks of course, lie generally, immediately on the southeast side of a fault. The sandstones broken in wide blades appear to have been thrust up endwise, to the northwest, through the overlying formations. The displacement is, in some casey, very great. In the case of Chilhowee Mountain, (see section, page 190,) the sandstones, or rather Ocoee conglomerates, have been brought up and abutted against carboniferous limestone. 485. The mountains of the formation have elevations varying from less than 1,000 to 2,000 feet above their bases They have but very few or no great spurs. These, when they exist, are short. 486. Sections.-(a) I will first notice the Chilhowee sandstones of the Laurel or Johnson Cove; section already given on page 190. Here is a great presentation of these sandstones. The direct thickness cannot be much, if any less, than 2000 feet. This estimate is based upon a partial measurement. The strata are mostly heavy-bedded gray sandstones, often quartzose. The uppermost beds are sandy shales. 487. It will be observed that these rocks form on the left of the section, a shallow depression. We have in this depression the commencement, or apex, of a great V-shaped synclinal valley, or trough, that extends, widening as it goes, to the southwest and nearly to the Watauga River. It is a trough of Chilhowee sandstones, the northwestern edge of which is Holston Mountain, and the southeastern, Iron Mountain. (See Map.) It is one of the best marked synclinals in East Tennessee. The sandstones of its two edges are thrown up within the lines respectively, of two great faults, one at the northwestern base of the ilolston, the other at the southeastern base of Iron Mountain. In the Holston the rocks dip to the southeast, in Iron Mountain to the northwest. 488. This trough of Chilhowee sandstones holds within it the hard variegated shales, and the dolomites of the overlying CHILHOWEE SANDSTONE. 201 Knox Group. High in its angle is the basin called Shady; its lower, wider portion is the Stony Creek Valley. The elevation of the edges of the sandstone is sufficiently great to bring up more or less of the conglomerate, especially on the southeastern side. 489, (b) The Iron Mountain just. spoken of, is intersected in Carter County by Doe River. In the Gap is a good section of the Chilhowee strata. Below I give the section and the results of measurement made by myself. The thickness in each case, is direct. The strata dip to the northwest in angles varying from 360 to 55~. The series commences at the fault on the southeastern side of the mountain, and advances to the northwest, or, in other words, it is given in ascending order. The rocks on the southeastern side of the fault, are Knox Shales. Sandstones with fine conglomerate; soiLe of the sandstones hard and quartzose........................................................ 472 feet. Heavy gray quartzose rock mostly........................................ 60' Sandstones with conglomerate, dark and even bedded.............. 44 " Heavy gray quartzose sandstone, with unimportant layers of fine conglomerate....................................6..................... 60 " Sandstones not well seen........................................... 180 " Heavy bedded quartzose sandstones....................................... 38 t Sandstones and fine conglomerate with two quartzose bands.... 275 " Thin sandstones and sandy shales.................................. 320 " Quartzose sandstone.......................................................... 40 " Thick and thin bedded sandstones, generally dark colored, occasionally sandy shales, but little fine conglomerate.............. 1,720 " Quartzose sandstone......................................................... 40 " Sandstones and sandy shales.................................................. 370" Quartzose sandstones........................................................ 35 " Sandstones and sandy shales.................................. 250 " Quartzose sandstones............................................ " Sandstones and shales as above.......................................... 70 " Quartzose sandstone.......................................................... 55 " 4,039 feet. The last bed above is followed by Knox Shales, which continue on to Elizabethton and beyond. The conglomerate given in the section, is simply coarse sandstone. It is probable that the great aggregate thickness of the strata is due in part to recurrence by faulting and displacement. 490. (c) The following is a general section through Bompass and Greasy Cove, in Washington County. It is not intended 202 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. to be accurate in detail. It presents the general arrangement of the formations along a line running, in a northwesterly and southeasterly course, near the intersection of the Buffalo and Rich Mountain Range, by the Nolichucky River. (~ 60.) SECTION ACROSS BOMPASS AND GREASY COVE, IN WASHINGTON. (Length eight miles.) ID A, Bopass Cove. B Geasyove., Rich Mountain. E, ummi of te main A, Bompass Cove. B, Greasy-Cove. i, Rich Mountain. E, Summit of the main Mountain and the North Carolina Line. I. Metamorphic; II. Ocoee Conglomerates and Slates; III. Chilhowee Sandstones; IV. Knox Shales, Dolomites and Limestones. Between II. and IV, on the left, is a fault. On the northwest side of this, are Knox Dolomites and Limestones. The Chilhowee rocks of this section are dark sandstones and and sandy shales, with lighter bands of quartzose sandstones. Two or three of the latter are conspicuous in the vicinity of the Iron works at the northwestern end of the section. Some of the shales are fine, and have a semi-metamorphic appearance. 491. (d) A grand section of the rocks under review, are seen on the French Broad River at and below the " Painted Rock." In the great amphitheater that the river and the cliffs form here, not less than a thousand feet of sandstones are seen. (~~ 63 and 461.) They are heavy bedded layers, hard and quartzose often containing scolithus, and are interstratified with thin sandy flags and shales. In a portion of the section the rocks are nearly horizontal. Many of the sandstones are dark colored; some contain green points. The shales show scales of mica. On the top of Paint Mountain the weathered strata might be taken for the sandstones and sandy shales of the Coal Measures. On many of the mountains, in fact, enumerated on page 199, the rocks have such an aspect. 492. (e) The section on page 190 crosses Chilhowee Mountain, THE KNOX GRouP. 203 which is represented at one point in the diagram. The sandstones, as well as the Ocoee conglomerates, are seen to be the rocks of the mountain. The sandstones have the same features here that they have in the mountains further north. 493. (f) Star's Mountain is cut in two by the Hiwassee River; in the gap thus formed is a fine exhibition of Chilhowee sandstones. The strata are nearly horizontal and show great thickness. They include some fine conglomerate. 494. It is not necessary to give more examples. The truth is, the lithological features of this formation are much the same in all of its presentations, from Virginia to Georgia. 495. Minerals and Useful Rocks.-I have not met with any minerals of special interest in this formation. It abounds in excellent building material. Many of its sandstones are in smooth layers of suitable thickness, and could be quarried easily. The hard quartzose rocks are not desirable for such purposes, but they are interstratified with beds having a more open sandy texture, which can be worked. Even the harder rocks, when partially weathered, become often pretty good freestone. At some points, good flags might be obtained. 496. Agricultural Features.-This formation is confined to mountain ridges, and the areas suitable for cultivation it presents, are very limited. On the tops of some of its mountains are small areas which can be cultivated. The soil of these is frequently quite strong, and makes good garden spots. But it is as pasture ground mainly that these Chilhowee Mountains have any special agricultural interest; and, in this respect, they are much like the other Unaka ridges, of which I have spoken. They have none of the characteristic bald places of the latter. (~~ 416 and 477.) SECTION III. THE KNOX, OR KNOXVILLE GROUP; FORMATION, 2,c. THE KNOXVILLE] AND WEBB S RIDGE SECTION, PRELIMINARY; SUBDIVISIONS; GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, BELTS AND FAULTS; SYNCLINALS' AND ANTICLINALS. 2C/. KNOX SANDSTONE; LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTER; TOPOGRAPHY; MINERALS. 204 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 2c". KNOX SHALE; LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTER; PALEONTOLOGY; VALLEYS; AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. 2c"'. KNOX DOLOMITE; LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTER; PALEONTOLOGY; TOPOGRAPHY; USEFUL ROCKS AND MINERALS; AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. 497. This great series of sandstones and shales, dolomites and limestones, forms, by its outcrops, the greater part of the surface of the East Tennessee Valley. With the exception of a single spot in Stewart County, (~ 364,) its strata are confined to East Tennessee. The city of Knoxville is located on a ridge made up of its limestones and dolomites; and this circumstance, together with the fact that the threefold typical character of the series is well developed in Knox County, has induced me to name it the Knoxville, or the Knox Group. 498. The Knoxville and Webb's Ridge Section; Preliminary.Before entering fully into the consideration of the Group, let us first notice the following section. This section commences at Webb's (or Rosebury's) Ridge, nearly three miles northwest from Knoxville, and extends to the Holston River. It is about three miles in length, and was taken along Second Creek. In this are seen the three subdivisions of the Group. a, c> ~b0 Knoxville. m 2, IL 2,d 2,d' 2,c" 3&4 2,d" 499. Commencing at the fault on the left and proceeding towards Knoxville, we have first, in Webb's Ridge, a series of hard, brown, greenish and gray shales, and thin sandstones, interstratified with which are several layers of hard, dark gray sandstone, the whole being 540 feet thick. The hard strata have given origin to the ridge. 500. This series is followed, in Poor Valley, by soft variegated shales. These were, originally, more calcareous than now. THE KNOX GROUP. 205 They include, occasionally, thin bands of limestone, which is often oolitic and sometimes fossilferous. Owing to local folds and displacements, it is next to impossible to ascertain the true thickness of these shales. As an approximation 1,500 feet may be taken; it may be much more. It will be observed that the soft shales lie in a depression between ridges. They have yielded to denuding agencies more readily than the rocks of the ridges, and hence the valley. 501. Next follows a very heavy series of dolomites and limestones. These strata are in the ridge MI, and occur, in ascending order, as below: (a) Limestone and Dolomite, mostly blue, but some of the upper strata dark gray and sparry; the blue is partly compact and partly oolitic; the lower part is interstratified with shale, thus running into the shale division below; fossiliferous; entire thickness............................................................... 650 feet. (b) Dolomite, mostly dark gray and sparry, heavy bedded; contains more or less chert throughout, some of which approaches sandstone; upper part includes gray dolomite; thickness......1,870" (c) Chert.......................................................................... 4 " (d) Dolomite and Limestone, mostly light gray sparry dolomite, with more or less chert throughout; upper part interstratified with blue layers which are fossiliferous; thickness................. 980 " Entire thickness.........................................................3,504 feet. 502. These rocks make up the ridge NM, and are followed on the east by the Trenton series. The ridge owes its existence, in good part, to the chert contained in the dolomites and limestones. This chert in a clear section, such as is seen along the stream in the gap of the ridge, makes but little show comparatively. On the top and sides of the ridge, however, it is very abundant; the surface is covered with its loose angular fragments, so much so as to suggest the name, Flint Ridge. The Knoxville Ridge is composed of the dolomites that we find in M. Between these ridges the rocks belong to the Trenton and Nashville formations, and will be spoken of in another place. 503. The part of the section between the fault on the left and the eastern, or southeastern, base of the ridge M, is to be taken as typical of the Knox Group. It is seen that the group in the section has a threefold character; its lower division is 206 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. characterized by the presence of hard shales and sandstones; its second division by softer shales; and its uppermost, and greatest, by massive dolomites and limestones, containing more or less chert. 504. Subdivisions.-In accordance with this, the Group, in general, has been divided, in ascending order, as follows: 2,c'. Knox Sandstone. 2,c". Knox Shale, and 2,c"'. Knox Dolomite. 505. Each of the above divisions has its especial topography. The first builds up sharp roof-like, or when notched, saw-like ridges. In the typical section Webb's Ridge is one of the roof-like class. The second division is valley-making, and the third gives us a broad, rounded, and generally cherty ridge, like M, and the Knoxville Ridge in the section. These characteristic ridges exist only where the strata dip at a considerable angle. (Compare ~ 103, 104, and on.) 506. The threefold character of the Group is well marked west and south of Knoxville, both as to rocks and topography. In the northeastern part of the Valley, however, as in Sullivan, Greene, Washington, Johnson and Carter, it is not so prominent; the shales of the lower divisions become more calcareous, and often include beds of dolomite and limestone; the topography, too, is different. (See ~~ 108 and 109.) 507. The two lower divisions, when exposed in anty part of the Valley, show, occasionally, beds of dolomite and limestone, one of the circumstances uniting the three divisions; but in Sullivan, Greene, etc., the rocks mentioned, become more abundant, comparatively, and more mixed with shale. We may, indeed, say that the Knox Group, in the northeastern part of the State, is a great series of calcareous rocks, (limestones and dolomites,) the upper part free from shaly admixture; the rocks of the middle and lower parts frequently interstratified with bands of shale, and often striped with thin seams of it; while, at the bottom, the shales predominate, are harder, and sometimes hold sandstones which are variegated, and occasionally jaspery. 508. Geographical Distribution; Belts and Faults.-It is not necessary to enumerate here the areas in which the Knox strata outcrop. The map has been prepared for the purpose of showing them, and reference must be made to it. Attention THE KNOX GROUP. 207 is called, however, to the occurrence of the Group in long belts or ribbons. There is a most remarkable set of these west of Knoxville. Some of the ribbons run entirely across the State, and, indeed, beyond its limits, in both directions, carrying with them the characteristic ridges and valleys of the Group. (Compare ~~ 93, 94 and 108.) The diagram on page 190, presents sections of these ribbons. The spaces between the consecutive faults, as represented in this diagram, are mostly filled up with Knox strata-the northwest and middle portions of each being occupied by them. The southeast sides are usually Trenton and Nashville strata, though sometimes embracing the Niagara, Black Shale and the Siliceous. 509. The ribbons are bounded by the faults. They are long belts of strata, having a northeastern and southwestern trend, that have been split off, tilted and crowded together, the edge of one overlapping the adjacent edge of the other, like slates on a roof. (See also ~~ 344 and 359.) 510. A typical general section of one of these ribbons, commencing at the fault on the northwest, and ending with that on the southeast, is as follows; (a) Following the fault is a sharp ridge, holding the hard layers of the subdivision, the Knox Sandstone. The plane of the fault is often included in the ridge as stated below. (b) Next a Knox Shale valley. (c) Then follows a wide Knox Dolomite cherty ridge. (e) A wide blue limestone (Trenton and Nashville) valley. As we pass into this valley from the chert ridge, the strata are seen to dip at a less angle than further back. (f) Here follows, in many cases, the second fault, cutting off the formations. If such is not the case, the Dyestone Group (Niagara) may come in and terminate the series, or this may be followed by the Black Shale and the Siliceous Group. When this latter formation, the Siliceous, ends the series, its hard chert rocks are brought in contact with the sandstones of thelowest Knox division; in this case both chert and sandstone make the crested ridge, the fault-plane cutting the ridge longitudinally. The second fault occasionally cuts off a part, or all, of the Trenton and Nashville strata, in which case, the upper Knox terminates the series. 611. The formations just mentioned, the Dyestone, Black Shale and Siliceous Group, are not usually heavy, and are often found with the Knox Sandstone in, or near, the same sharp ridge. 208 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. - 512. The section here given, may be compared with the diagram on page 204. The correspondence is seen at.8, once, as far as the two ridges and the, 7 intervening valley on the left are cona r L... Fault. cerned. The Knoxville fault is a local... 8,b,' 8,b, ~ one, and soon disappears, the valley be-...7 X~ 7 tween Knoxville and M being a syn-...5,a and * clinal one.;.C The typical section is illustrated,':4...3 and 4.~ a also, several times in succession, in the He.~~ by 4 diagram on page 190...Fault B. _. 5' "~ o ai a, 513. Synclinals and AnticlitS 3 and 4. nals.-In the region of Powell's ao River, and lying in the counties ~ H of Claiborne, Union, and Camp" "; bell, is a broad belt of the Knox Group. It is a well-defined,' gently curving arch, or anticli-'i~! ~~' m nal, the axis having a northeast-'t rid?J^ ~ erlytrend. The annexed section,ii lo A X'F illustrates its features, as well as m-. a.' 0 the relations the Group itself susa: A tains to the other formations.., The elevation at some points a%'g t along Powell's River, is sufficient m to bring up the top part of the ~:.1a ~ shale member. Ao X 514. Most of the valleys of East Tennessee lie in the outcrops of imbricated ~' B formations, like Poor Valley, in the t4~~i;}iit\ l section on page 190, or like the valleys _P J~it:',',, t between the mountains C D and D E, z A,\ i~sil a B in this section. The ridges, too, have g co -~,'.~',:: W.~ a corresponding relation to the strata.. This results from the fact that, faulting ~:~kB~'~-~i:.. - 5,c and imbrication are the rule. (~ 359.)...5;It follows that true synclinal or anti-:\qi;...p = w clinal valleys and ridges, are not ordi- ~!, narily to be looked for. ooo 6. THE KNOX GROUP. 209 515. A second important anticlinal exhibiting Knox strata, is that of the Sequatchee Trough. (See Map, and the section on page 139.) An interesting synclinal, holding the rocks of the Group, has been noticed on page 200. 2, c. KNOX SANDSTONE. 516. Lithological Character.-The general features of this division have been given. Its principal rocks are hard shales, and thin sandstones, heavier sandstones being interstratified with these. The heavier sandstones are fine or coarse grained, sometimes quartzose. They occasionally abound in green grains. Eastward and southward the heavier beds cease to be conspicuous. In the section of Webb's Ridge. (~ 499,) the hard, dark, gray sandstone referred to, occurs six times in beds from three to ten feet thick, and weathers into a buff, softer material. In general, the included layers vary much in appearance. As before stated, (~ 507,) beds of dolomite are met with in the division. The thickness of these rocks cannot be much less than 800 or 1000 feet. In Webb's Ridge, where they are in less force than at many other points, the thickness is 540 feet. 517. The strata are often ripple-marked, and sometimes covered with fucoidal impressions and ridges. Aside from fucoids, I have not met with any fossils in these rocks. 518. In the northeastern counties, Johnson, Carter, Washington, etc., the divisionbecomes more calcareous. (~ 507.) In these, and in the other mountain counties further south, we sometimes meet with layers of jaspery rock in this horizon, especially when in the vicinity of a Chilhowee sandstone mountain. I have seen beautiful specimens of jasper and chalcedony in these beds. 519. It may be mentioned as a prominent feature of this division and of the Knox Shale overlying it, that they present shales and sandstones of many different colors. The rocks are pale green, brown, and red, chestnut-colored, buff, gray and other colors. Brownish red, greenish and buff, are, perhaps, the prevailing tints. The colors are often bright, and notably agreeable. 520. Topography.-The sharp-crested ridge, as stated, is the Sig 14. Vol. 1. 210 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. characteristic topographical feature of the Knox sandstone when its layers are tilted. (~~ 505 and 510.) Webb's Ridge has been spoken of. Other examples are Beaver, Bull Run, and Pine Ridges, crossed successively in going from Knoxville to Clinton; Piny, between Clinton and Walden's Ridge; another is Comby, in Hancock and Grainger; another in Grainger skirts the eastern base of Clinch Mountain, the northern extension, in reality, of Webb's Ridge, (~ 530;) the ridge immediately west of Rogersville is an example; of this class, too, is the so called Bays Mountain,* forming the southeastern boundary of Knox County. These are a few among the most prominent. The location of most of these ridges is indicated upon the Map. Their normal places in the great rocky ribbons split off by the faults, have been given. (Q 510.) They are not known by the same name throughout. The same local name is applied in some cases, to parts of very different ranges. Pine, or Piny, is very commonly given to them for the reason that they are often covered with pines. The ridges are not high, their elevation rarely exceeding 400 feet, and being generally under this. 521. Minerals.-Many of the iron-ore (limonite) deposits of the eastern mountain counties rest upon the rocks of this and the succeeding Knox divisions. Of these deposits I will speak hereafter. In Carter County, seven miles above Elizabethton, on the west side of Stony Creek, is a layer of massive hematite, from one to two feet in thickness. The locality is known as the Cannon bank. The iron-ore is regularly stratified, rests on a thin bed of conglomerate holding small pebbles, and has sandy shales above. The group of rocks appears to belong to the lower part of the division under consideration. It may, however, belong to the upper part of the Chilhowee Formation. The occurrence of jasper and chalcedony in this division, has already been mentioned. (~ 518.) 2,c/". KNOX SHALE. 522. This, the second division of the Knox Group, is the formation of numerous subordinate valleys in the great Val* This ridge has no connection with the Bays Mountain between Greene and Hawkins. (See note p. 43). THE KNOX GROUP. 211 ley of East Tennessee. It is eminently the valley-making portion of the group, especially in the north-western, western, and southern:portions of this section of the State. It is a formation of great interest in an agricultural way. In connection with the blue limestones of the lower part of the overlying division, it promises an interesting paleontological field. The general topographical and structural relations of the division have been given, and it will not be necessary to dwell upon them here. (]~ 503 to 512.) 523. Lithological Character; Thickness.-Variegated shales are the characteristic rocks of this division.* (~ 519.) Interstratified with these, at intervals, are thin layers of blue limestone, which is often oolitic. These rocks yield the finest specimens of oolitic limestone to be found in the State; the spherules are often as large as the o's on this page, and sometimes larger. The calcareous bands in the lower part of the division are not numerous; toward the top, they generally become more abundant, increasing as we ascend, until finally the shales disappear, and the blue oolitic limestone and dolomnites are the only rocks. In this way, the shale division runs into the uppermost one. 524. In the northeastern part of the State the shales, as a division, are not well characterized. As already stated, (~ 507,) they are much mixed with beds of limestone and dolomites, and lose, in good part, their distinctive features. Moreover, in this region there is little oolite rock. A portion of the shale appears to be replaced by a blue limestone containing thin clayey seams, which give the surface, especially when weathered, a striped appearance.t This striped rock, occurs, too, further south, its place being at the top of the shale. The thickness of the Knox Shale is not easily determined. What is said in reference to the thickness of the strata in Poor Valley, on page 204, applies generally. We may place it as an approximation at 1500 or 2000 feet. 525. Paleontology.-At many points the blue limestones, interpolated in the shales of this division, contain fossils, some*These, in many valleys, were, perhaps, much more calcareous than they are now, They present the appearance, more or less, of leached material. tThis, in my notes, is designated "Blue banded limestone." Some of it is, doubt less, dolomite. 212 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES AND FORMATIONS. times abundantly. They occur both in compact and oolitic layers. Toward the top of the divison, and in the blue rocks of the succeeding division, they are seen at many points. The shales themselves, are occasionally fossiliferous. (See, also, ~ 558.) The forms are certainly of an ancient type. Those given on this page recall Dr. Owen's species of the "Lower Sandstone of the Upper Mississippi." In fact, one of them may be identical with his Lonchocephalus Chippewaensis.* 526. The opportunity has not been presented of working out satisfactorily, the fossils of this geological horizon. The following have been described. See Appendix A. (1.) Crepicephalus similis; Safford. (2.) " Roanensis; " (3.) " Tennesseensis;" (4,) Lonchocephalus fecundus; Safford. (5.) Agnostus arcanus; (6.) Lingula prima? Conrad. Nos. 1, 2, 4 and 5, occur in a Knox Shale Valley, four and a half miles east of Kingston, on the road to Knoxville. The rock is a thin band of trilobitic limestone, almost, wholly made up of fragments of Lonchocephalusfecundus. The others, Nos. 3 & 6, were found in a belt of shale, at a point about a mile and a quarter north of Rogersville. The generic names are after Owen, and are used provisionally.JIt might be mentioned here, that my C. similis is much like Mr. Billings' Bathyurus Cordai, of the Quebec Group. (Paleozoic Fossils, Vol. I., p. 412.) The difference, according to this distinguished paleontologist, who has seen my specimen and has compared it with his, is in the marginal rim of the front of the head, that of his, being more convex on top. 527. Valleys; Agricultural Features.-In the section between Knoxville and Clinton, the Knox Shale gives the following valleys, namely, Poor Valley, already mentioned; (~ 500;) Kinds' Valley, lying west of Black Oak Ridge; Bull Run Valley, west of Copper Ridge; and WTolf Valley, west of Chestnut Ridge. Between Clinton and Walden's Ridge, is still another. Some of these, are sections of long valley-ranges, which reach from Virginia to Georgia. (~~ 119 and 508.) That, for * Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, page 576, Tab. I and I, A. t The description of these Species were written in 1860, and have not been revised. THE KNOX GROUP. 213 example, of which the Bull Run Valley is a portion, extends, on the one hand, into Virginia, and, on the other, into Georgia. In the southern part of the State, the valleys of Roger's and Candy's Creeks, tributaries of the Hiwassee, are sections of this range. So, also, is most of the valley of Big War Creek, to the northeast, toward~ Virginia. And stillfurther north, Powell's River runs for a number of miles in it. 528. The range, of which Hinds' Valley is a section, is, also, a long one. Its northern end, is not far from the southern extremity of Clinch Mountain, and its southern is in Georgia. South Mouse Creek, in Bradley County, is in this range. 529. All of the valleys west.of Cleveland, to within less than a mile of White Oak Mountain, are Knox Shale Valleys, and this group extends far into Georgia. The shale valley, (Dogwood Valley,) in which Tunnel Hill Depot is situated, belongs here. About half way between White Oak Mountain and Missionary Ridge, is another wide range. This becomes narrow northward. Kingston is partly located upon it. 530. Midway between Charleston and Benton, a wide belt of the shales is crossed. The two Chestua Creeks are in this belt. Madisonville is located in it. The valley of Dumpling Creek in Sevier and Jefferson Counties, is about its northern termin ation. Poor Valley, of the section on page 204, extends, or rather, its range extends, many miles northeastward. It lies on the southeast side of House and Clinch Mountains, from which it is separated by a very narrow valley and a ridge, the latter being the continuation of Webb's Ridge, of the same section. The range in front of Clinch Mountain, becomes a fine rich valley, that of Richland Creek. The town of Rutledge, and Bean's Station are in it. Rogersville is in one of the Knox Shale valleys. North-ward, the range divides into three valleys, Carter's and Stanley valleys being two of them. The range widens out above Rogersville, and is divided by the interpolation of Knox Dolomite ridges. The valleys show more or less limestone with the shales, and are desirable and rich. (See also, ~ 549.) 214 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 531. The agricultural features of the Knox Shale valleys, are, as may be inferred from what has been said, quite varied. Generally, when wide, and not too rough, they present choice farming areas. Some of the most desirable and best improved farming regions, are in the valley-ranges pertaining to this division. The layers of limestone, interstratified with the shales, as well as the calcareous matter often found in the shales themselves, contribute much to the strength and favorable condition of the soil. The native growth is mainly made up of different species of oak, with which are often found poplar, dogwood, occasionally walnut, &c. In some regions, yellow pine is not uncommon. 532. Some of the valleys fall below the character given. Several, indeed, have the name "Poor Valley" fixed upon them, as that through which the section in ~ 498 runs. These valleys are generally narrow, and owe their bad name to local causes. They are hilly, or contain shale ridges, with but little soil upon them; or else, the soil is thin, with the shales beneath, thoroughly leached and deprived of their calcareous matter. These valleys, however, have portions which come up to the standard, and present the sites of excellent farms. The Richland Creek portion of the Poor Valley range illustrates this. 533. In the northeastern part of East Tennessee, in the counties of Cocke, Greene, Jefferson, Hawkins, Washington, Sullivan, Carter, and Johnson, where the subdivisions of the Knox Group are not so well marked, (Q 506,) are many valleys, the rocks of which are alternating bands of dolomite, or limestone and shale. These are, generally, good agricultural belts, and have been in cultivation many years. 534. The soils of the Knox Shales are clayey, but mellowed, more or less, by the debris of thin sandy layers, and by calcareous matter. They are well adapted to the cultivation of small grain, and to the making of meadows. Some of the iron-ore banks, are, in part, located upon the Knox Shale, but the division has notthe interest attached to it, as a mineral-bearer, that belongs to the superior member of the Knox Group.', c///. KNOX DOLOMITE. 535. This division is the most massive formation of calcareous strata in Tennessee. In the Eastern Valley, it is very conspicu THE KNOX GROUP. 215 ous, and is the formation of many ridges and valleys. In Middle Tennessee, it does not appear, except, at one remarkable spot, already mentioned. (~ 364.) 536. Lithological Character; Thickness.-The section in ~ 501, presents the general lithological character of this division in the southern part of the East Tennessee Valley, as well as in that portion west of the HEolston. 537. The chert in the upper part, is to be noticed, inasmuch as it has supplied the gray, flinty gravel which, so extensively covers the ridges and Knobs of this formation. This chert very generally has minute rhombohedral cavities interspersed through it, a character by which it may be distinguished from similar material in other formations.* The thicker layers are at a number of points, as stated further on, worked into millstones: (See also, ~~ 502, 505, and 510, (c).) Thin beds of sandstone occur, locally, in the middle and upper parts of this division. 538. Passing to the northeastern part of the valley, we find the gray sparry dolomite less heavy, and the chert less abundant, and the middle and lower portions in good part, made up of blue rocks, with argillaceous seams. The lower part in this region, contains very little oolitic limestone. (See ~ 507.) 539. In the larger part of the valley, and especially in the portions mentioned in ~ 536, the upper strata of this division include beds of dull variegated dolomite, which is, at some points, worked as marble, and, in many places, used as a building material. It is a light gray, rather fine-grained rock, variegated with brownish red clouds. At some points, there is between one and two hundred feet of this. Some of it is argillaceous, and weathers to shaly material. Some fossiliferous beds are associated with it. Its upper part runs into Trenton limestones. * I first observed these cavities many years ago. They present a character which has been of much use. At many points, loose chert is abundant on the surface, when the strata are entirely concealed. Among the dislocations of East Tennessee, it often becomes a question as to whether the rocks belong to the division under consideration, or to the Siliceous Group, the chert of the two being much alike. The presence of the cavities, I have, so far, found characteristic of the Knox chert. They are the empty moulds of crystals of dolomite, once filling them. In rocks freshly quarried, showing chert, the crystals are seen. The chert of the Siliceous Group, is, generally, characerized by the presence of large crinoidal buttons. 216 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 540. The gray dolomites of this division often contain fine sand as an impurity. Sometimes, in weathering, especially beneath the soil, they become encrusted with a coat of powdery sand. Weathered surfaces, exposed to the air, often present a hacked appearance, quite different from anything seen on the exposed surfaces of blue limestone. 541. The thickness of this division of the Knox Group, is not far from 4000 feet. It may be less, or more, than this; at any rate this is the nearest approximation I can, at present, make. Taking the aggregate thickness of the first and second divisions at 3000, (~~ 516 and 524,) the entire thickness of the group will be 7000 feet. This, most likely, is a maximum. 542. Paleontology.-The lower limestones of this division, are, at some points, quite fossiliferous. Fragments of trilobites are abundant; orthes, and other genera of brachiopods, have been observed. The species, however, have not been worked out, It is an inviting field, and it is to be hoped that its treasures may soon be exhumed. The middle, and larger portion, ineluding the dark and light gray sparry dolomites, rarely show fossils. The uppermost portion, especially the blue layers, contain them, but in general, not abundantly. In this horizon, forms resembling Pleurotomaria calcifera, P. calyx, and P. docens, have been observed at a number of points. The latter, P. docens, has been identified. 543. Topography.-The Knox Dolomite has been stated to be ridge-making, (~ 505,) and it has been so represented in sections. (~~ 444, 498, &c.) This is eminently so wherever the strata are tilted at a considerable angle, which, by the way, is generally the case. The following are some of the ridges pertaining to this division, a number of which are remarkable for their length. They are the rounded ridges spoken of in the First Part of this Report, (~ 104, ) and are as follows: (a) Intersected in going west from Knoxville: Black Oak, Copper and Chestnut Ridges; a second Black Oak lies west of Clinton. (b) In the eastern part of Claiborne: Wallin's Ridge. (c) In Sullivan and Greene Counties: A ridge, running through these counties; in the former, known as Chestnut Ridge, and in the latter, as Big Ridge. THE KNOX GROUP. 217 (d) East of Chattanooga: The war-renowned Missionary Ridge. (e) Running through the middle of the East Tennessee Valley: The Knoxville and Athens Ridge; this, in its southern extension, lies just to the east of Charleston. There are several of these ridges between Cleveland and Benton. The latter place is located on one of them. Benton, Maryville, and Dandridge, are situated on the same Knox Dolomite range, or ridge. An ill-defined ridge extends from Greeneville to Newport, the former place being on its southeastern side, and the latter on its northwestern. Another, of like character, reaches from Russellville to Virginia, running between Rogersville and the Holston. Just west of Washington, in Rhea County, is a wide ridge of Knox Dolomites, which runs parallel with the eastern escarpment of the Cumberland Table-land. West of Decatur, is one, which, in its northern extension, lies on the east side of Kingston. 544. These ridges are, more or less, covered with angular gray chert. A number of them are very conspicuous, and well known. In addition to these, are several important ranges which can hardly be called ridges. One is the belt, forming, for the most part, the wide anti-clinal of Claiborne, Union, and Campbell Counties, a section of which is given in the diagram on page 208. Another is the belt forming the middle part of Sequat_ chee Valley. (~ 349.) In both of these, the Knox dolomites are raised to a considerable elevation, especially in the former; and they would form (as in fact theylappear to be, when seen from distant high points) continuous heavy ridges, were it not for the rivers which flow longitudinally through them. Powell's River and its tributaries, cut deeply into the Claiborne and Campbell anti-clinal, dissecting, tortuously and transversely, the would-be ridge. Sequatchee River cuts the range through which it flows, into a belt of knobs. 545. The way these rivers (Powell's and Sequatchee) wind along on the backs of the two anti-clinals, respectively, is curious and noteworthy. The streams have no valleys of consequence. Powell's River flows in a very tortuous course, and is bounded generally, while on the axis of the anticlinal, by rough hills, often four and five hundred feet high, closely hugging the stream, and presenting at nearly all points, either on one side or the other, bold picturesque bluffs. Opposite the bluffs, are small, rich bottoms, or slopes, which, on account of their fertility, are generally in cultivation. 218 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. Sequatchee River presents similar features, though not on so large a scale. Both of the belts mentioned, lie between well-defined blue limestone (Trenton and Nashville) valleys. It is remarkable that the rivers should have cut their beds through the high ridges rather than through one or the other of the valleys. 546. The upper part of the Knox Dolomite, where approximately horizontal and abounding in chert, presents belts of country remarkable for being made up of isolated hills, or " knobs." Such areas are known as "The Knobs." One of these belts has been mentioned; (~ 116;) it lies north of Chattanooga, and reaches northward toward Washington, west of which place it is a tolerably well-defined ridge. (~ 543.) Immediately east of Missionary Ridge and west of Savannah Valley, (the valley skirting the western base of White Oak Mountain,) are ranges of cherty knobs belonging to this formation. Northward, these become ridges. 547. Most of the ridges mentioned, are, as I have said, cherty. On many of them, the chert is mostly confined to the southeast side, the northwest being comparatively free of it, for the reason that the lower blue limestones, oolitic or otherwise, outcrop on this side.* Sometimes, the blue rocks of the northwest slope are separated from the gray strata by a narrow local valley, having the bearing of the ridge. In this case, the range becomes double-one part, more or less, cherty; the other, comparatively, without chert. The latter usually presents rich fertile land. Copper Ridge, in the northern part of the State, is thus, in several regions, divided into two subordinate ranges. 548. The Richland Knobs, the range of which lies east of Rutledge, are made up of the blue limestones and dolomites of the lower part of this division. They are rich, and in cultivation. To the east of these, come in the gray cherty rocks. 549. Between two and three miles, northwest of Morristown, commences the range of Boatman's Ridge. This is a long and tolerably wide belt, and is the same as the range, already mentioned, lying between Rogersville and the Holston. (Q 543.) On its southeastern side, are the gray, cherty * It may be stated here, also, that the northwest slope is often steeper than the southeast, the dip of the rocks becoming greater as we approach the Knox Shale valleys. This is true, especially, of Copper Ridge. THE KNOX GROUP. 219 dolomites, and on its northwestern, blue calcareous rocks, which include, in some parts, as west of Morristown, some of the shales of the Shale Division. West of Boatman's Ridge, on the road from Morristown to Bean's Station, is a narrow Knox Shale valley, which is the southern end of the Rogersville, or Carter Valley, Range. From May's, on the lIolston, to Bean's Station, the geological section through Boatman's Ridge, &c., is repeated. 550. The rocks of this division, when horizontal, or nearly so, form plateaus, or valleys, unless, in some way the chert becomes predominant, when "knobby regions," usually are found. (~ 546.) The wide anti-clinal of Claiborne and Campbell, (~ 544.) may be regarded as a plateau, and the deep bed of Powell's River as a cafion winding through it. 551. There is an interesting plateau of this formation in Jefferson County, between the Holston and the so-called Bay's Mountain, and extending from the vicinity of New Market to Russellville; these towns, and Morristown, being upon it. This area is from 300 to 400 feet above the Holston, and presents some excellent and extensive farming regions. A portion is called the New Market Valley, and is noted for its fertility. The rocks of this plateau, are at many points, but little inclined. They are, in reality, at the northern disappearing end of a synclinal trough. Below New Market, the synclinal character is more apparent, and but a short distance southwest of this place, commences an implortant range of Trenton and Nashville rocks. These lie in the synclinal, and on the rocks we are considering. 552. The interesting mountain-hemmed coves, noticed in the First Part of this Report, (~~ 132 to 138,) present areas for the most part of Knox dolomites and limestones. Associated with these, however, there are, at a few points, Trenton and Nashville limestones and shales. Some Knox shales also occur. The rocks of the coves are not unfrequently, nearly or quite, horizontal. They are patches of the great calcareous formations which became entangled, by the folding and faulting to which all the strata in common were subjected, in the mountain masses of the Ocoee and Potsdam Formations. Doubtless, these coves, or basins, were once filled to the tops of the surrounding ridges, with calcareous matter. Water has removed this, and excavated the coves. 220 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 553. The exceptional spot, in Middle Tennessee, showing outcropping Knox Dolomite, has been noticed. (~ 364.) It may be added, that the part of the basin holding these rocks, rises up (regarding the area generally) in a wide, low dome-a f'eature consistent with the ridge-making character of the same rocks in East Tennessee. The dome shows upon the surface, in isolated pieces, the characteristic chert of the division. Its agricultural features are good, and the basin in general, is highly valued as a farming region. The dome has a depression all around it-a ring of valleys, in which outcrop the Trenton, Nashville and Niagara rocks. 554. Useful Rocks and Minerals.-The following is intended to be, for the most part, simply an enumeration of the rocks and minerals of this formation, which are, or can be, put to practical use. The systematic notice of them belongs to the Third Part of the Report. The upper portion of the division at very many points, contains beds of a variegated rock, which answers an excellent purpose as a building stone. Its surface presents a gray ground, mottled with reddish brown clouds. This rock has been referred to in ~ 539. There is a quarry in it at Chattanooga, and the pillars which support the roof of the passenger depot at that place, are built of it. The rock occurs in separable layers of convenient thickness.. It is sometimes called a marble, but its colors are rather dull to be much valued as a marble. The material is limestone, more or less dolomitic and argillaceous. It has a wide range occurring in the horizon mentioned as far north as Claiborne County. Other varieties of building material can be obtained from different portions of this formation. 555. Many of the dark blue layers of this division are, at many points, profusely intersected by small reticulating veins of calcite. This is the case often, where a layer of limestone or dolomite, lies in the compressed angle of a local flexure, the rock having been more or less cracked in the Vending. These vein-marked rocks will, at numerous localities, yield a handsome marble, and they are well worthy the attention of those who are interested in such matters. The limestones are sometimes very dark, and their polished surfaces, showing the THE KNOX GROUP. 221 reticulating white veins, would be beautiful. Such rocks may be found at nearly all points where the blue layers have been much wrinkled. I have observed them in the vicinity of Jonesboro', Greeneville, Newport, on the Pigeons, in Sevier, in McMinn, Polk, etc. 556. Dark limestones, without veins, forming a good black, or nearly black, marble, are not uncommon, and are associated, more or less, with the preceding; they are the same, in fact, without the veins. Black marbles of this kind from East Tennessee, form the bases of' the columns in the Senate Chanber at Nashville. 557. In addition to the above, there are conglomerate and breccia limestones and dolomites in East Tennessee, some of which deserve attention. These belong to the different divisions of the Knox Group, in fact, some may belong to the Ocoee Group. (~ 440.) These rocks, when free from siliceous points and masses, can be made to present an agreeable surface. The fragments making up the masses are generally of different shades of color, and the polished surfaces of the breccias resemble mosaic work. Marbles of this sort are found on the Little Tennessee, south of Chilhowee Mountain. I have observed them in Greene, Cocke, Sevier, and, in fact, in all the JUnaka counties. On the Little Tennessee, and in Monroe County, some of it has been wrought. 558. In McMiinn County, at one point in North Chestua Valley, is a bed of variegated crinoidal limestone, from which marble slabs have been sawn. This rock is interpolated in the Knox Shale, such being the formation of this range. (~ 530.) The point is interesting as a locality of fossiliferous rock in the shale. 559. The chert so characteristic of the upper part of the Knox Dolomite is manufactured, at several points, into excellent millstones. Layers of it, having a suitable cellular structure, occur in Claiborne, Jefferson, Knox, and other counties. It is generally the weathered outcropping portion of these layers that is used. After getting a certain depth, the cavities are found to be more or less filled with crystals of dolomite and other matter. 22 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 560. In several counties, among them Jefferson, McMinn, Polk, &c., layers of tough hornstone occur in the blue limestone. These being inclosed in tilted strata outcrop along a line, in some cases, for several miles. Dotted along on such outcrops, in the counties mentioned, are old halffilled pits-ancient "diggins" —originally made by the Indians for the purpose of procuring flint. They are in fact, old flint mines. Large trees now grow in these pits. 561. Many Iron ore banks are located on the Knox Group. In considering these banks, it is best to take the sub-divisions of the Group together. The special notice, however, will be found in the Third Part of the Report. There are two species of iron ore associated, more or less directly, with the rocks of this Group; these are limonite and hematite. 562. The first of these, limonite, (sometimes called brown iron ore,) is a hydrous oxide of iron, and is of very general occurrence. This ore results from the decomposition of ferruginous minerals, such as pyrite, carbonate of iron, etc., contained in the rocks. Any of the strata of the Knox Group, which contain compounds of iron, such, for instance, as the dark gray dolomites, or-the red and green shales, will, when disintegrating under certain conditions, yield limonite. For this reason, more or less of it is to be seen in all regions where such rocks outcrop. It is only, however, at certain localities that the ore accumulates in sufficient quantity to be of practical value. When such a locality is met with it is called a bank. 563. Banks of limonite occur in all the mountain counties from Johnson to Polk. Ore from most of them has been made into iron for many years. The ore is found in isolated masses, in bunches, irregular layers in a matrix of clay, sand, chert and debris of the disintegrated strata, all or part, variously mingled. For some reason, not well understood, the valuable deposits of limonite are most numerous in the coves and valleys of the Knox Group, near or among the mountain ridges of the Unaka belt. Small unimportant deposits of ore are occasionally met with on all the Knox Dolomite ridges. 564. The other species of ore, hematite, is found at one point in a regular bed, and has been already mentioned. (~ 521.) At another locality, Sharp's Bank, in Sullivan County, it occurs THE KNOX GROUP. 223 in a vein-like, nearly vertical mass. Much ore has been taken out, and the opening made, is, at one point, forty feet across. This part, however, is wider than the rest of the vein, and includes a columnar mass of rock, or, as the miner would say, a " horse." This mass of ore is associated with light gray dolomite, of the uppermost part of the Knox Group. The rocks dip at a high angle. The hematite most likely dips with them, not being a true vein intersecting the strata. Other localities of this ore exist in Sullivan County. Hand specimens of magnetite (loadstone) are sometimes found at these localities. 565. Iron Pyrites is often found in the rocks of the Knox Group. It is a mineral met with, for that matter, in nearly all formations. In the Knox Group it is found associated, pretty generally, with galena and blende, at the localities of these minerals. A few miles south of Greeneville, in one of the valleys of Greene County, is a heavy body of pyrites in layers more or less mixed with shaly limestones. At the time of my visit the excavation previously made, in search of something better than this mineral, was partly filled with water, so that the character of the deposit could not be made out fully, Much pyrites had been thrown out. The locality deserves attention. At other points, in the same valley, beds of pyrites are found. 566. Galena occurs at numerous localities in the Knox Dolomite. It presents itself in true veins, as at the Caldwell Mine, on Powell's River, in Union County, in isolated grains and small lumps, from the size of a pea to that of an orange, or larger, interspersed sparsely through the whole mass of certain beds of dolomite; and in bunches, or deposits, consisting of local accumulations of grains and masses of galena inthe rock, mostly as a matrix, as the lead mine in Bompass Cove, in Washington County. 567. The most interesting example of a bed of dolomite, containing scattered grains and lumps of galena, that I have met with, lies in the southwestern part of Claiborne County,.near Powell's River. The portion of the bed examined, and seen to contain ore throughout, is about six miles long and two miles wide, and lies between Slate and Camp Creeks, on the hills more or less elevated above the river. Most likely, however, the lead-bearing portion extends beyond these limits. The horizon of the bed in the Knox series is in the upper part of (b) in the section. (~ 501.) 224 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. The ore occurs in buttons from the size of buckshot to that of a walnut, but occasionally large enough to weigh several pounds. The masses are sparsely scattered through the rock, so much so that its separation is impracticable. At points, where the masses are more abundant than usual the hunters have been in the habit of digging in the soil near the rock, or in the clay filling crevices, for pieces of ore which, in time, have become detached. Frequently their labor is rewarded by the discovery of several pounds of ore, supplying them well with the lead they need. 568. Cerussite (carbonate of lead) is found in small gray pieces at a point on the road from Greeneville to the Warm Springs in the valley between Paint and Meadow Creek Mountains. It is dug out of the soil, and is derived, doubtless, by alteration, from galena contained in the rocks of the vicinity. At a number of the galena localities the same mineral may be found. 569. The following ores of zinc, are found at numerous localties in the Knox Group: (a) Blende-sulphide of zinc, associated with galena at many localities; (b) Smithsonite-carbonate of zinc; and (c) Calamine-hydrous silicate of zinc; the two last associated at Stiner's zinc mine, on Powell's River, in Union Copnty; at the Mo.ssy Creek mine, and at several other points, to be mentioned hereafter. 570. Black Oxide of Manganese is of very general occurrence in regions where iron ore is found. Pieces are not uncommon on the Knox chert ridges. In Jones' Valley, in Cocke County, and on Boatman's Ridge, between Morristown and Bean's Station, considerable masses of it have been observed. Localities at which hand specimens can be found, are very numerous. 571. In addition to the minerals mentioned, the following also occur in the rocks of the Knox Group: (a) Heavy Spar (barite)-found in veins, as at a point twelve miles from Gre neville, on the road to Chimney Top, etc.; also associated with galena at a number of points, forming, in the main, the gangue of the ore. (b) Flour Spar (fluorite)-associated with the preceding in lead veins, etc. (c) Calcite (carbonate of lime)-in crystalline masses and in crystals, associated as the last, and common in small veins-a very common mineral. THE KNOX GROUP. 225 (d) Dolomite (carbonate of lime and magnesia)-occurs in crystals in the cavities of chert, and of the bedded rocks; also, in veins associated with the minerals mentioned above. (e) Quartz-in crystals, in the cavities of chert, etc. 572. Agricultural Features.-The Knox Dolomite presents some of the best farming regions in East Tennessee. This division, and the Knox Shale, taken together, are the most important formations of this section of the State, so far as agricultural interests are concerned. They present a much greater number of acres of good arable land than all of the other formations combined. In this, the East Tennessee Valley differs widely from the Central Basin. (~ 227, and on.) In the latter the soils overlie, and are derived from the blue limestones of formations next to be described, namely, the Trenton and Nashville Groups. In the Basin, no strata of the Knox Group are seen at the surface. 573. In East Tennessee there are long valley-ranges, as will be seen, of excellent lands based on the Trenton and Nashville rocks, but the aggregate area they give is far less than that presented bv the Knox Dolomites and shale. 574. In noticing the topography of the Knox Dolomite. reference has, several times, been made to agricultural features. (~~ 547, 548, 551, 553.) It may be stated, generally, that, where chert-gravel is not too thick upon the surface, the lands of this formation are good, many of them excellent. The southeastern slopes of many of the characteristic ridges, (~ 543,) like that of Copper Ridge, are well adapted to farming purposes. These slopes run gradually into the valleys, where the blue Trenton and Nashville limestone lands are found. The northeast sides of these ridges are often free from chert and richer; (~ 547;) but they have the disadvantage of being steeper ant more broken, besides having a northern exposure.* 575. The principal formations of the northeastern part of the State, (excluding the mountains,) are, as we have seen, Knox dolomites and shales. Upon these are based many ridges and valleys, which, however, are not marked like those * The northern exposure would be an advantage in some cases. It would be better for fruit, grass, etc. Sig. 15. Vol. 1. 226 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. west of Knoxville. Many of the valleys contain dolomitic rocks and shales interstratified. These are generally good farming belts. In fact, the whole section is a superior one, as to its agricultural features. It has, too, been longer in cultivation than any other portion of the State. 576. The coves referred to in. ~ 552, are, for the most part, desirable farming regions. Cade's Cove is noted as a grass producing area. The coves, generally, are well suited to small grain, grass and fruit. Thb same remark will apply to all the coves and valleys among, or in the vicinity of, the Unaka Ridges. These coves and valleys deserve more consideration than they have received. They have peculiar attractions. Their elevation, and the presence of mountains around them, make them cool, and, in the summer, delightful. Their very isolation would make them, to some minds, all the more desirable. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 227 CHAPTER VIII. THE TRENTON AND NASHVILLE GROUPS; FORMATIONS III AND IV. 577. Succeeding the dolomites of the Knox Group, we have, both in East and Middle Tennessee, beds of blue, highly fossiliferous, limestones, equivalent, in general, to beds, which, in New York, are referred to the Chazy, Black River, and Trenton Formations. In East Tennessee it is generally an easy matter to know when, in traversing the country, we pass from the rocks of the upper Knox to those of the Trenton. There is some admixture of gray and blue strata in the horizon of junction, but the compact gray (or variegated gray) strata, and the gray chert on one side, and the blue limestone (often knotty and fragile) on the other, are quite in contrast. On the one side, too, rises the ridge —on the other is the valley. This is a lithological and topographical contrast; as to fossils, there is more or less blending. 578. The blue limestones referred to above, constitute a group which retains its general features tolerably well throughout both Middle and East Tennessee. But not so with the overlying and remaining beds of the Lower Silurian Formations. These, in East Tennessee, present a different aspect from what they do in Middle Tennessee. Moreover, they present differences in the Eastern Valley itself, being on the northwest side mainly limestones, and on the southeast, shales. Again, in certain regions, or belts, of the valley, they include several interpolated and interesting beds of special character, making, altogether, a series quite heterogeneous. In the Basin of Middle Tennessee the entire series of Trenton and Nashville rocks is much the same from bottom to top, being mainly different varieties of blue limestone. 579. I will notice first the Trenton and Nashville Series, as presented in East Tennessee Valley, and after that, pass to the consideration of the same rocks in Middle Tennessee. The Central Basin (p. 97) has some claims to be be considered, first, 228 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. for the reason that it has become in Tennessee, typical ground, so far as these rocks are concerned, a fact due to the undisturbed condition and fine development of the strata, and to the greater study given to its fossil species. In the Basin, the strata are, without difficulty, grouped into the two divisions which I have named Trenton and Nashville. In the Eastern Valley, they are not, in this Report, thus systematically grouped, but are considered together as the Trenton and Nashville Series. Notwithstanding the claims of the Basin, it will be more in accordance with the order adopted, to commence with the formations of the Eastern Valley. SECTION I. THE TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES IN THE VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE. GENERAL CHARACTERS;-SECTIONS NEAR KNOXVILLE-INTERPOLATED B EDS. A, THE BLUE OR MACLUREA LIMESTONE-LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTER, THICKNESS-TOPOGRAPHY, EXTENT AND RANGE-PAL2EONTOLOGY, AGE: (1) THE RED AND GRAY MARBLE-EXTENT AND RANGE, THE RED BELT; —(2) THE IRON LIMESTONE-LITHOLOGICAL AND OTHER CHARACTERS-EXTENT AND RANGE-THE RED KNOBS; — (3) OTHER SPECIAL BEDs-DIVISION NEXT ABOVE IRON-LIMESTONE, AND THE CRINOID BED —THE UPPER MARBLE-THE BROWN SHALE. 3, THE UPPER MEMBER OF THE SERIES; —(a) THE SHALE (EASTERN)-THE GRAY BELT, ITS TOPOGRAPHY —AREAS OF SHALE, SYNCLINALs-LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTER; GRAPTOLITES;- (b) LIMESTONE AND SHALE (WESTERN)-TOPOGRAPHY, AREAS-LITHOLOGICAL AND OTHER CHARACTERS; TRANSITION BEDS; APPENDIX; —USEFUL ROCK AND MINERALS;-AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. 580. General Characters.-The Trenton and Nashville rocks in East Tennessee, may. in general, be described as follows: They are first a stratum of blue limestone, more or less argillaceous, from 200 to 600 feet thick, (~ 590;) then above this a great body of sky-blue calcareous and often sandy shales, weathering yellowish gray, or buff, and containing occasionally thin flaggy limestones, and at some points, thin sandstones. We thus divide the series into two members, the Blue Lime TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 229 stone and the Shale. The latter has a maximum thickness of about 2000 feet. 581. The upper member, as thus characterized, pertains properly to the middle and southeastern portions of the Valley, supposing the latter to be divided longitudinally. In going to the northwest, towards the Cumberland Table-land, in any part of the Valley, the shale becomes more and more calcareous, approaching the condition the same strata present in Middle Tennessee. 582. I have given above, let it be noted, general features. There are special features, as before remarked, of much interest and importance. In the middle portion of the Valley the Shale contains interpolated or local beds of marble, and of a hard, sandy, iron-limestone. One bed of marble lies at or near the base of the shale; the iron-limestones and another bed of marble, are interstratified with layers at higher levels. 583. These interpolated beds are mostly confined to the middle portion of the Valley. Their longer dimensions have approximately, the direction of the trend of the ridges, a characteristic, by the way, of other beds to be mentioned, and one that is interesting as to its bearing on the early history of Appalachian movement. And here it may be added, generally, that lithological changes in most of the formations of the Valley occur much more rapidly in going " across the country," that is to say, to the northwest or southeast, than in traversing it in a longitudinal, or northeast and southwest direction. 584. Sections in the vicinity of Knoxville —The Interpolated Beds.-If a section across the strata, on a line between Rogersville and Greeneville, were taken, a portion of it would present the Trenton and Nashville Series in its twofold character of blue limestone and shale, (~ 580,) the latter constituting much the larger, and by far the more conspicuous part of the whole. Intersecting, however, the same series on the southeast side of Knoxville, or say, more generally, on the southeast side of the ridge Knoxville is located upon, (~ 543, (e,)) the section loses its simple character, and becomes varied by the presence of the interpolated or local beds just spoken of. 585. I present on the next page a section across the belt of 230 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS.' Trenton and Nashville rocks, which lies. z" l next east, or southeast, of Knoxville. X* tS, O The section was taken a few miles northeast of Knoxville; the line of it runs to \} m the northwest and southeast near the i4 5 mouth of the French Broad River. 586. The following is the series of beds J d ~ and formations, presented in the section.t in descending order: t_\\i = (7.) Calcareous Shale, (G, G,) with occasionally thin, flaggy limestones and a "; t few layers of hard, sandy limestone; contains Leptcena sericea, Strophomena WC alternata and S.filitexta. This and the zoos\ ~' shales below are sky-blue, weathering', \5 > yellowish gray, or buff. Owing to, folds thickness uncertain, say in feet, 400? (6.) Red Marble, (F, H,) fossiliferous, vag\ 4 \ I kcriegated, mostly red marble, with gray Y.sw \ \X aand greenish layers; folded and thick<8\ \ 1,, ness doubtful, say......................... 800? (5.) Calcareous Shale, (E, I,) with more or less flaggy, fossiliferous limestone; ( thickness doubtful, as above, say...... 500?.... kk. t (4.) Iron-limestone, (D, J, K,) a hard, sandy, very ferruginous limestone, weathering to a porous, dark brown, sandy skeleton; fossiliferous, among the species Asaphus platycephalus common. A._? 1 Thickness from 200 to 300 feet......... 250 (3.) Calcareous Shale containing interstrati12ii ified beds of iron-limestone, as well as of blue, fiaggy limestones. (The division above (4) might be included in 4,,cm this, as the upper member.)............ 400 J/ ) >< (2.) Red and Gray Marble, (C, L,) coralline, [ /1( f grayish white, and variegated.. 880 (f1/ 4 (1.) Blue Limestone, (B, M,) argillaceous, A/// fossiliferous; contains Maclurea magna, v and is followed below by rocks of the v-il t Knox Group................................. 500 587. The Knoxville Ridge has a belt of Z -- Jc. >e Trenton and Nashville rocks on its northwest side, also. The general section on TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 231 page 204, crosses this. It lies between the ridge M, and that on which the city is located. Commencing with a bed of reddish brown shales in this valley, and proceeding in a northwesterly direction to the base of the ridge, M, the series of strata in this belt is approximately, in descending order, as follows: (6.) Brownish-red Shale; a more or less calcareous rock, weathering into shale; contains some grayish layers more calcareous. This bed is crossed on a Clinton road before reaching the Knoxville Cemetery gate; it occurs in several folds. Thickness uncertain, say (in feet)........................ 300? (5.) Calcareous Shale, with occasionally thin, flaggy, fossiliferous limestones. The shales are sky-blue, weathering buff and yellowish gray. They measure across their outcrop 1700 feet; allowing for dip, plications, etc., their thickness may be estimated at......................................................... 1000? (4.) Iron-Limestone, like No. 4 in last section, about................. 100 (3.) Calcareous Shale, sky-blue, weathering buff....................... 320 (2,c.) Variegated Marble................................................... 375 (2,b.) Blue Lzmestone'like No. 1, below.. 136 (2,a.) Variegated Marble................. 35 (1.) Blue Limestone, same as No. 1 of last section, and resting on strata of the Knox Group............................................. 510 588. In passing from the belt of Trenton and Nashville rocks on the southeast side of Knoxville, to that on the northwest, the two being separated by a dolomite ridge, considerable change occurs in the strata. This may be seen by comparing tha two sections just given. The Iron Limestone, for example, on the northwest has lost its prominence. On the southeast it has volume enough to form high hills; (the red hills seen across the river from Knoxville;) on the northwest it gives no marked topographical feature. * In the belts still further northwest it soon thins out and is not seen. This is in harmony with statement made in (~ 583.) 589. Another difference in the sections, is the presence of the bed of Brownish-red Shale in one, (the northwestern,) and its absence in the other, unless, indeed, the Red Marble of the eastern section, is synchronous, the marble, being the product * It may be mentioned here, that this band of Iron Limestone on the northwest of Knoxville, becomes heavier when traced "down the country" to the southwest. It soon begins to form characteristic red knobs, and ultimately makes a conspicuous line of them. 232 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. of a local, encrinal, and coralline colony. Fragments of corals, and the buttons and plates of crinoids, in quantity, mixed with red marly mud, would harden into such rock. With these remarks, we pass to thevspecial consideration of the Strata. A.-THE BLUE, OR MACLUREA LIMESTONE. 590. This is the lower Blue Limestone Member of the Trenton and Nashville Series, spoken of in ~~ 580 and 584; it is, too, the lowest bed in the two sections on page 230. I propose to call it the Maclurea Limestone, for the reason, that the large and conspicuous fossil shell, ifMaclurea Magna, is found in it, and, at some points, very abundantly, as at Kingsport, in Sullivan County. 591. Lithological Character; Thickness. —The geological position of this formation, is next above the Knox Dolomite. (~ 535.) It is, generally, a blue, more or less, argillaceous limestone. In the central part of the valley, it is often knotty, and breaks up, more or less, in lumps, in weathering. In some regions, as in the northern part of Jefferson, and in the vicinity of Bull's Gap, it biraks in small blocks, and has been designated, the "Block Limestone." In this same region, too, it is rich in fragments of trilobites, Asaphus, Ampyx, and llaenus. 592. In the northeastern counties, Greene, Washington, Carter, and Sullivan, the formation presents, generally, a more coihpact limestone, and is greatly reduced in thickness. At Greeneville, for instance, it is not more than 120 feet thick. It lies just southeast of this town, in a clear section, between the Shale and the Knox Dolomite.* It is, at this point, a blue limestone, some of the layers of which, are blackish blue, and much intersected by small veins of calcite. Masses of the latter might be selected, from which beautiful marble slabs could be sawn. 593. In Washington, and in Sullivan east of Blountsville, as well as northeastward in Virginia, the Maclurea Limestone * Immediately southeast of Greeneville, the line of a long Shale ridge passes. This ridge is narrow, tolerably sharp, and is made by the lower part of the Trenton and Nashville Shale. Along the base of this ridge, and, at some points, on both sides of the Shale, the Maclurea Limestone is seen. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 233 presents very much the character that it does at Greeneville. At some points, it is reduced to a thickness of fifty feet. 594. Going southwestward from Greene County, the formation, wherever it outcrops, is much the same as at Greeneville. It is so at Newport, which town is located upon it and the overlying shale. (~ 457.) A few miles east of Sevierville, on both of the forks of the Little Pigeon, its blue layers are seen separating the gray dolomites and the shale. (~~ 447 and 453.) The rocks here, show, to some extent, the knotty structure. 595. A short distance east of Benton, in Polk County, the formation is intersected. It lies at the western base of a shale and sandstone ridge. Below the shale, is, first, a bed of blue argillaceous, flaggy limestone, containing Maclurea; then succeeds a blue, compact, fossiliferous limestone, which is followed by Knox Strata. The formation is heavier in this region than further north. 596. On the northwest side of the valley, that is to say, on the side next to the Cumberland Table-land, the Maclurea Limestone is not distinguished from the overlying part of the Trenton and Nashville Series, by any well marked lithological characters. As before stated, the entire seriesbegins, here, to exhibit Middle Tennessee features, (~ 581,) and is much the same throughout. 597. The maximum thickness of the Maclurea Limestone is about 600 feet, and, as stated, its minimum, (in the northeastern corner of the State,) is 50. At no point in an unbroken section, presenting the two contiguous formations, have I seen this group absent. 598. Topography; Extent and Range.-These limestones are, usually, valley-making, and, in connection with the other and overlying rocks of the Trenton and Nashville Series, have, especially in the northwestern half of the valley, yielded to denuding agencies, and formed many fine valley-ranges. (See ~~ 649 and 650.) In some of these ranges, the Maclurea Limestones, when highly tilted,* present themselves in low rounded ridges, along which the strata outcrop in parallel lines, forming glady places, often with a growth of red cedar. * In which position, like shales, they are more commonly found, than are the solid, heavy bedded strata. 234 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 599. In the Trenton and Nashviile Valleys, pertaining to the great and long ribbons, into which the formations have been faulted, and which are intersected in going from Knoxville to the Cumberland Table-land, (~~ 508 and 510,) the place of the Maclurea Limestone is on the northwest side of each valley, and next to the ridge-making Knox Dolomite. In the valleys lying along the base of the Table-land, as for instance, Powell's Valley in Claiborne and Campbell, and Tennessee Valley in Rhea and Hamilton, the place of the formation is on the southeast side, the formations occurring successively in ascending order in going to the northwest. 600. The great anticlinal ranges, like that of Claiborne, Union and Campbell, and that of Sequatchee Valley,* (~ 514,) when presenting a central belt of Knox Strata, have this belt bordered on both sides by Maclurea Limestones. And, so too, a synclinal range of Trenton and Nashville Strata, will show a border of Maclurea Limestones on both sides. This is, for the most part, true of the great range, (the Gray Belt, ~ 640,) which extends from Kingsport on the Holston, quite through the State. Its border throughout, on the northwest side, is made up of these limetones; on the southeast side, they are, at some points, engulfed in local faults, though at most poiints, appearing in place. 601. In some regions where the strata dip but little, considerable areas are underlaid by the Maclurea Limestone. Such an area is crossed by the section on page 230, at M, or between L and N. The argillaceous crumbling limestones form a glady belt, abounding in red cedars. Such places recall forcibly the great cedar gladces of the Central Basin, (~ 240,) which, by the way, are located on certain flaggy layers of the same formation. The area above extends a number of miles southwestward, and is brought up on the end of an anticlinal point, as may be seen by referring to the map. The road from Knoxville to Sevierville crosses this outcrop of Maclurea Limestone, which, along this line, is, perhaps two miles wide. It contracts, how* In reference to the anticlinal of Sequatchee Valley, it must be stated, that in the middle and southern part of the valley, the anticlinal fold is faulted on the northwest side, and, in some parts, the Maclurea Limestone, and, indeed, the whole Trenton and Nashville Series, is engulfed. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 235 ever, rapidly, and further to the southwest, disappears beneath the higher beds-the marble, shales, and iron-limestone. 602. In the region of Strawberry Plains,* above and below, along certain lines, there is much of this rock. The running out of the synclinal mentioned in ~ 551, brings it up. It occurs, for the most part, in bands between the dolomites of the Knox Group and the overlying marbles, etc. There are, also, similar anticlinal and synclinal points in Jefferson, Greene, and other counties, which cause this formation to outcrop in belts and areas more or less extended. 603. Palceontology; Age.-The fossils of the Maclurea Limestone have not, as yet, been thoroughly studied. It is at some points quite rich in species, many of which are new forms. The following are some that have been observed: 1. Maclurea magna, Lesueur. This is an abundant and characteristic fossil in this formation. It is found at numerous localities in the Valley, in fact, we may say, wherever the bed outcrops. Among the localities, the following may be mentioned: the western base of the ridge next east of Benton, in Polk County; the blue limestone on the east side of the railroad, at Lenoir's in Roane County; the outcrops of the formation around Knoxville; the blue limestone at Kingsport, in Sullivan, etc. The locality at Kingsport is a noted one; the rocks are so full of the shells, and casts of this species, that they attract much attention. 2. Rhynconella plena, Hall. This species is abundant in the blue limestone at Lenoir's. 3. Leptaena sericea, Sowerby. In Sevier County, a few miles east of Sevierville, at the junction of this formation with the upper division-the shale-of the Trenton and Nashville series. (Q 594.) 4. Orthis bellarugosa, Conrad. Near Benton, in Polk County, associated with Maclurea magna. 5. Strophomena incrassata, Hall. East of Benton, same locality as the last. 6. Orthoceras pertinax, Billings. Collected at Lenoir's, in association with Rhynconellaplena and Maclurea magna. 7. Illaenus latidorsata? Hall. In the "block limestone," White Horn Creek, Jefferson County. (Q 591.) 8. Asaphus canalis, Conrad. " Block limestone," same locality as last, and other localities. 9. Ampyx Jillsoni, Safford. "' Block limestone," east side of Bull's Gap. *The Depot at Strawberry Plains is built of the Maclurea Limestone. 236 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 604. The above species are found in the middle and southeastern portions of the valley (dividing the latter longitudinally) in which the Maclurea Limestone is a distinct lithological group. Approaching the Cumberland Table-land, the lower portion of the Series (taking the Trenton and Nashville Groups together) presents many of the forms to be enumerated hereafter, as belonging to the Trenton Formation in Middle Tennessee. In the list above, 1, 2 and 6 are Chazy, or Black River forms, or both; 5 and 8 are Chazy, but also Trenton and Hudson River; 4 is Trenton, and 3 is Trenton and Hludson River. The formation is doubtless about equivalent to the Chazy and Black River rocks, of New York and Canada, rocks that we include, with Dana, in the Trenton Group, or Period. (1.) THE RED AND GRAY MARBLE. 605. This (the first interpolated bed, ~ 582) is represented in the section (C, L,) on page 230, as resting upon the limestone just described. It is also given in the table on page 231. In the latter the bed is duplicated. This may be due to a fault and displacement, or the marble, 2,a, may be in its natural position-interpolated between strata of the Maclurea Limestone. For several miles to the northeast, on this range, the same arrangement is observed. 606. Lithological Character.-This bed is one of great interest on account of the valuable marble for ornamental and building purposes, it can supply. In the section, page 230, it is 380 feet thick. The bed is, in general, a variegated crinoidal and coralline limestone. Its colors are grayish white, and brownish red; sometimes pinkish red, or even greenish. The latter colors, however, are not common. The most esteemed variety has, when polished, a bright ground of brownish red colors, mottled more or less freely, with white or gray spots, or fleecy clouds. These clouds and spots, in that of first quality, are well defined, and, to the naked eye, show little of their fossiliferous character. The whitish spots are due, for the most part, to the presence of corals, with small cells like Chaetetes or Stenopora. 607. At some points, much of the bed becomes grayish TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 237 white, without admixture of red. It is then called " white marble," (in reality, grayish white,) and is esteemed for tombstones, monuments, floors, ornamental gate posts, as a building material, and for other purposes. A few miles northeast of Knoxville, and near the line of the section on page 230, is a valuable quarry, of the gray variety.* The section of the entire bed, at this point, commencing at the bottom and ascending, is as follows: 1st. Variegated, with gray and red, so as to be more or less flesh-colored.................................................. 55 feet 2d. Grayish-white, no red......................................... 95 " 3d. More or less reddish, especially upper part..................... 230 " The quarry is in the middle, or 2d portion, which is here, the most valuable. Marble of much the same quality is found at the mouth of the French Broad River. This belongs to the bed, L, in the section just referred to. The Williams quarry is in the belt represented at C, in the same section. 608. Sloan's quarry is located on a ridge, nearly two miles north of Knoxville, and near the East Tennessee and Virginia Railroad. It is on the duplicated range spoken of in ~ 605. This range runs parallel with the Knox Dolomite belt, forming the ridge, M, in the section on page 204, from which it is separated by Maclurea Limestone, At this quarry, the section is much the same as that in ~ 586. The yariegted variet y has, for the most part, been obtained here, and the locality is interesting, as being that from which most of the marble in the State Capitol, at Nashville, was taken. 609. Hawkins County has, so far, supplied the most desirable marble from this formation. That used in ornamenting the Capitol, at Washington, is from Hawkins. The best display of Tennessee marble to be seen anywhere, is at the National Capitol. As an ornamental rock, that of Hawkins County is, of its class, unsurpassed. The authorities at Washington caused an extensive quarry to be opened at the point * This quarry, when I visited it last, in August, 1858, was owned by Cop John Williams, and it may be held by him now. It was sold, in the bed, to the quarry-men, at the rate of eight cents per cubic foot. 238 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. where the marble range of the county strikes the Holston River. The supply is unlimited. The rock is of the most desirable variegated variety. 610. Extent and Range; the Red Belt.-By referring to the Map, it will be seen that an important area of Trenton and Nashville rocks, originates a little south, or west, of New Market, and runs through the Valley, to Georgia.* Its widest part is southeast of Knoxville. It will be seen, also, that the Knoxville Ridge, or rather, the formation which makes it, rises a few miles to the northeast of the city, and splits off an arm of this area, the arm running out before reaching Athens; and again, that another arm, though much shorter, is split off by a dolomite range commencing several miles east of Knoxville, and running northeastward.t Taking this area, with its arms, we may, as it is desirable to have a name, call it the Red Belt, of the Trenton and Nashville Series. 611. In this Red Belt, as above described, the marble-bed we are considering, is pretty generally found in place. Its position, with reference to the other formations, is as represented in the section on page 230, the Maclurea Limestone separating it from the Knox Dolomite. It exists in greatest force in Knox County, its maximum thickness being not far from 400 feet. It is found in the vicinity of Strawberry Plains, and has been traced southward through the western parts of Blount and Monroe, the eastern part of Roane, to McMinn. 612. In the belt of the Trenton and Nashville Series, lying next west of the one just considered-that immediately west of Webb's Ridge and Clinch Mountain-the marble is, again, observed, but it is not as heavy, and, at intervals, is absent. In the northern part of the valley, west of Copper Ridge, a narrow band occurs, but west of this, it is not seen. 613. In Hawkins County, the marble is part of a comparatively short belt of Trenton and Nashville rocks, lying west of * There is, however, one break in this range. On the road from Cleveland to Ducktown, at the point of the; range intersected, the Trenton and Nashville Series is entirely wanting, the upper part of the Knox Group appearing on the surface. A little to the north of this, however, the rocks are seen, the " red hills," one of the great features ofthis range, being conspicuous. t The last mentioned dolomite range is the one at N, in the section on page 230. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 239 Rogersville, but separated from the town, by a conspicuous ridge. This belt is cut off at each end by one of the great faults. It is, however, sixteen or seventeen miles long, the marble lying on the southwest side, and running nearly through its whole length. As in the vicinity of Knoxville, the marble bed is separated from the Knox Dolomites, by the Maclurea blue limestones. It is from fifty, to two or three hundred feet in thickness. The government quarry, (~ 609,) is near the southwestern end of the range. Southeast of the Red Belt and the Hawkins Range, the marble is not observed, or, at most, exists only in traces. 614. Originally, when continuous, this rock occupied a long belt-like area, reaching from the northern part of McMinn County, to the Virginia line north of Rogersville. It had the general trend of the present country. Although a hundred and twenty miles long, it was, perhaps, not anywhere, twenty wide. Early in Appalachian movements, this bed appears to have rested in a shallow trough, and, in this, the coral and crinoidal animals may have flourished and died, one generation after another, each leaving their calcareous remains, and contributing to the mass which is now a solid rock, noted for its use and beauty. (See ~ 683.) In the succeeding part of the Report, this bed will be further considered. (2.) THE IRON-LIMESTONE. 615. From Knoxville, across the Holston, there may be seen, a line of high hills. These are covered, more or less, with a deep red soil, and belong to a remarkable line of red knobs which runs far down the valley. This line is one of the ranges spo ke of in the First Part of the Report. (~~ 106 and 112.) These red hills owe their topographical features, and their red soils, primarily, to a highly ferruginous, sandy, fossiliferous limestone, to which I have given the name at the head of this section. This rock occurs in strata of various thicknesses, and is interstratified with calcareous shale and flaggy limestones. C16. Lithological and Other Characters.-Under the name Iron-limestone, I include not only, the characteristic ferruginous rock, but,- also, the shales and the limestones associated with it. The group includes divisions 3 and 4, of the table on page 230. The maximum thickness is about 700 feet. 617. The characteristic rock, is a hard, dark gray, or dark bluish gray, iron-colored limestone. As stated, it is highly fer 240 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS, ruginous, giving the soil, in decomposing, its strong, red color, and even yielding, at some points, oxide, rich enough to be called ore. Its powder is light gray, mottled with red. The iron, doubtless, exists, for the most part, in the rock, in the form of carbonate. In addition to the ferruginous matter present, it is generally well loaded with sandy impurity, a circumstance also contributing to its peculiar character. Its hardness is due to the sand present. At a few points, I have observed small pea-like pebbles in some of its layers, making it a conglomerate; but this is rare. When the rock is thoroughly weathered, it becomes a light, spongy, dark brown, sandy mass, and such masses are strewed over the areas in which it outcrops.* 618. Were it not for this sandy impurity, certain layers of the iron-rock might be used as an iron-ore. It is an interesting question, as to whether science or experience, will ever bring forward practicable methods for the separation of iron from such a rock as this. To do it, would, indeed, be a great achievement, and would add vastly to the mineral wealth of the world. There are other rocks in Tennessee which are equally ferruginous, as, for instance, the White Oak Mountain Sandstones, to be described. Like this, many of them are deeply red with iron. The aggregate amount of metal such rocks contain, is very great. 619. When the iron-rock is exposed to the action of water, as in a bluff on a river, a laminar structure is often made apparent, the laminoe, from half an inch to an inch, or more, in thickness, and separated by softer plates, being brought out in relief. Such exposures often exhibit cross-stratification, a fact indicating the formations of the beds in running water. These features may be seen in the bluffs at the mouth of the Little Tennessee, opposite Lenoir's, and on the Holston, at other points. 620. The Iron-limestone as a group, includes divisions 3 and 4, on page 230, the entire thickness being 650 feet. In more detail, the section is as follows, numbered in ascending order: 8. Iron-limestone proper.................................................. 250 feet 7. Blue, flaggy limestone, with some shales.......................... 155 " 6. Iron-limestone...............................6 5. Blue, flaggy limestone................................................. 22 * The rock is, at some points, very fossiliferous, fragments of trilobites and crinoidal buttons being especially conspicuous. These give some of its layers a marble-like aspect. Other layers, at times, present an oolitic structure, but these features are subordinate to the general character above given. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 241 4. Iron-limestone......................................................... 45 feet 3. Shale, lower part interstratified with Iron-limestone......... 117 " 2. Iron-limestone........................................... 52 " 1. Shale, (resting on the marble-bed)..................3............... 3 " 650 621. Another section, about a mile southwest of the last, is as follows: 5. Iron-limestone, top not seen.......................................... 175 feet 4. Shales with flaggy Iron-limestone................................ 88 " 3. Shale7?...................................................................... 224 2. Iron-li.2estone.......8................................................ 33 " 1. Shale, (resting on the marble-bed)................................. 30" 622. Much of the Iron-limestone of these sections, is thinbedded and flaggy, and such, for the most part, is the general character of the rock. The surfaces of its layers often show ripple-marks, another circumstance indicating its formation in a current of water. The blue flags, also ripple-marked, sometimes graduate into the iron-rock, while, on the other hand, they as often run into shales. The shales have very frequently a bright buff color, but sometimes are grayish-yellow. They are the weathered outcrops of blue calcareous and argillaceous strata. The flags are used extensively, for curbing and paving purposes, in Knoxville. There is a point from which they are obtained, near Williams' marble quarry. A mile and a half, or two miles above Knoxville, the Holston River intersects the range. The flags are quarried on a hill-side, near the river, and conveniently boated down. 623. There is a good presentation of the rocks of this group in the cuts of the Knoxville and Charleston Railroad, beyond the Holston, and immediately opposite Knoxville. The first cut presents mostly shale, with, however, two beds of ironrock; the next, together with the hill-sides, gives a great dis. play of the iron-rock, the mass being not less than 200 feet thick; and there is still a third cut in which the rock is seen. The mass of the second cut is generally thin-bedded; some of for the layers are of good thickness for building purposes. Stone for the construction of the railroad culverts, were quarried from them. Some of the layers are quite crinoidal, and inclined to be red and gray, approaching marble in appearance. Sig. 16. Vol. 1. 242 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 624. All of the rocks of the group are more or less fossiliferous, especially the blue flags and the iron-rock. The fossils have not been systematically studied, but enough is known to justify the reference of this bed, as well as the marble-bed below, to theTrenton. There is a shaly limestone in this group, found in the red hills east of Chatata Valley, in Bradley County, which is remarkably filled with Orthocerata and allied genera. The bed is eight or'ten feet thick. A Lituites is found here much like L. undatus, Conrad. Most of the species are, perhaps, new. 625. Extent and Range; The Iron-limestone is mainly confined to the Red Belt of the Trenton and Nashville Series. (~ 610.) I have thus named this belt on account of its red hills and the iron-limestone which makes and colors them. The maximum volume of the group is in Knox County. It diminishes in thickness going southwestward, and runs out in Chatata Valley in Bradley. It becomes also, less important northeastward, and disappears in the region of Strawberry Plains. Outside of the Red Belt, to the north, or northeast, it does not appear in any of the areas occupied by the Trenton and Nashville rocks. To the southeast, however, in Blount County, there is a strip of it making a line of red knobs in front of Chilhowee Mountain. It is here in a range of Trenton and Nashville rocks, which extends, in a southwesterly direction, nearly to the Hiwassee River. Within this the iron-rock first appears near the northeastern end of Chilhowee Mountain, and extends with the range of rocks to the vicinity of the river. In front of the north end of Star's Mountain, the Iron-rock, nearly horizontal, occupies a belt three or four miles wide. 626. On the northwest side of Knoxville the rock occurs, but much reduced in volume, as we have seen (~~ 587 and 588.)* In the Trenton and Nashville ranges still further northwest, as stated, it has thinned out, or, at most, but mere traces of it are to be found. From what has been said, the extent of the Iron-limestone, when continuous, and unbroken by Appalachian movements, can, in part, at least, be made out. It did not extend as far * The Trenton and Nashville belt referred to in i 587, is one of the arms of the Red Belt described in a 610. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 243 northward as the marble-bed below it. Its western limit was much the same as that of the marble, while its extent southwestward and southeastward, was greater. Its longer dimension was in the direction of the general trend of the Valley, in that respect agreeing with the marble, (~614.) 627. The upper iron-rock bed of the group, appears to have been the most persistent. The lower ones run out and e place to shales. Thus, in the section in ~ 587, we have 320 feet of shales next above the marble. So, in McMinn and Bradley Counties, there is a heavy bed of shales and thin limestones, between the Maclurea Limestone and the iron-rock stratum. 628. " The Red Knobs." —These have been referred to several times. (~~ 106, 112 and 615.) The outcrops of the iron-limestones, especially when the rocks are tilted and in considerable volume, generally present ridges, or lines of knobs. The hard rocks, not yielding to the action of the weather, or to disintegrating agencies, like other neighboring beds, have been left in elevated crests and peaks. In some cases, a single bed or plate of hard rock, has given origin to a ridge, first, by itself resisting the wear and tear of the weather, and secondly, by protecting, from such action, softer material below it. A ridge formed by a comparatively thin stratum of rock, is, generally, found cut up into a line of knobs, for the reason that the protecting plate, being thin, is easily fissured, and each fissure originates a gap. 629. The most conspicuous, and longest line of red knobs, is that passing near Knoxville, on the southeast side, This has been sufficiently described. (~~ 112, 615.) Another, is found in the Trenton and Nashville belt, immediately west of the Knoxville Ridge. Traces of it are seen opposite the city; it becomes more marked southwestward; is represented by low, red hills, near, and to the southeast of Loudon, but soon runs out when traced further southwestward. A line is, generally, to be found on the southwest side of the Red Belt. (~ 610.) This coalesces with the main line in the southern part of McMinn and in Bradley. Another line of knobs runs near the mouth of the French Broad River. In addition to these, one in front of Chilhowee Mountain has been spoken of. (~ 625.) 244 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 630. The Red Belt is, in general, a synclinal trough. Where wide, as in Knox County, the strata, in the central portion, run in moderate waves, and are, in places, approximately horizontal. This, in certain sections, brings the iron-rock, (as well as the other special beds,) several times to the surface. Thus, in crossing the belt along the Knoxville and Maryville road, quite a number of areas are crossed, in which the iron-rock outcrops. It usually alternates with a calcareous shale, weathering buff. Some of the iron-rock, along this route, is oolitic. (3.) OTHER SPECIAL BEDS ABOVE THE IRON-LIMESTONE. 631. The Division above the Iron-rock, and its lower part, the Crinoid Bed.-In the section ~~ 585 and 586, the last division is succeeded, in ascending order, by a heavy series of calcareous strata, mostly, weathering to a buff shale, but containing, more or less, flaggy, blue limestone. The thickness of the series is uncertain. It is given in the section, as 500? The corresponding horizon, in the section on page 231, has it 1000? It may be placed at about 800. 632. The lower part of the division, is in the line of the section, (~ 585,) a group of shaly limestones about 100 feet thick, which is well filled with shells and crinoids. This group rests upon the Iron-limestone. I have named it the Crinoid Bed. Among the species occurring in this bed, the following were seen; Orthis Bellarugosa? Conrad. Strophomena incrassata, Hall. Asaphus canalis, Conrad. Several new species of Orthis occur, as well as new forms of Paleocrinus, Rhodocrinus, Hybocrinus, and Carabocrinus. The abundance of crinoidal remains, not only in this bed, but, also, in many of the strata, between this and the Maclurea Limestone, is a noteworthy circumstance. 633. The Upper Marble.-Succeeding the division last noticed, is another bed of variegated marble. This is a reddish-brown rock, with white or gray, rarely greenish, clouds and bands. Like the lower marble, (~ 605,) it is coralline and crinoidal. It resembles the lower bed, but is not as valuable. Its maximum thickness has been estimated at about 300 feet. It can be traced, southwestward, through Knox, the western parts of TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 245 Blount and Monroe, and through McMinn into Bradley.* It generally, presents itself in two parallel bands, occupying a place within the two principal lines of red knobs, pertaining to the Red Belt. (~~ 610, 630.) In the sectionfrom Athensto the southeast, across the belt mentioned, one range of this marble is intersected about a mile from the town. This section, also, shows the two ranges of the red knobs. 634. Outside of the Red Belt, this bed, at least as marble, is not in noteworthy volume. A trace of it may be seen, occasionally, in the first Trenton and Nashville ranges, northwest of Knoxville. In the section from the government marble quarry in Hawkins, across the valley, in a northwesterly direction to Short Mountain, a marble is intersected, which may be referred to this bed. 635. The Brown Shale.-In the table on page 231, we have in the place of the Red Marble of the preceding table, a bed of brownish-red shales, and this wetake to be synchronous with the marble. To this I have already referred. (~ 589.) The marble itself, when traced to the southwest, is, at intervals, much like this shale; at some points the bed is shale and marble, mixed. The beds of the two sections will be regarded as one. 636. West and northwest of Knoxville, the Brown Shale rarely presents a marble-like aspect, and is but little fossiliferous. It occurs in all, or nearly all, of the valleys of the Trenton and Nashville Formations lying between Knoxville and the Cumberland Table-land. It usually presents itself in long belts, which run longitudinally with the valleys. Its strata dip at all angles; and when the inclination is considerable, which is more frequently the case than otherwise, it forms long, low, "hog-back" ridges. These ridges are sometimes nearly destitute of soil, the strata outcropping in parallel bands. A growth of red cedar is frequently met with upon them. * There is a bed of gray, crinoidal marble a few feet below the iron-rock of the red hills in the northern part of Bradley, which may be a local stratum, referable to the Iron-limestone Group. It is separated from an iron-rock, by the orthoceratite bed, mentioned in @ 624. 246 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 637. In ~ 634, I have spoken of a marble between the Government quarry and Short Mountain, in Hawkins County. Seven or eight miles to the northeast, this marble appears to be represented by a belt of the Brown Shale at the southeastern base of the Devil's Nose. The valley-ranges intersected west of Knoxville, and containing Trenton and Nashville rocks, show the Brown Shale far to the southwest. In Roane and Meigs counties, some of the more compact layers, clouded with dove-colored bands, are regarded as marble. It has been used in making the foundation of the Court-house in Kingston. INortheast and east of the Red Belt, this formation has not been observed. 638. The Brown Shale is, when freshly quarried, a compact, brownish-red, calcareous rock. As ordinarily seen, it is weathered into shale The compact rock from the range west of Knoxville, has been used for making hydraulic lime, which has answered a good purpose. This completes the consederation of the beds given in the sections on pages 230 and 231, with the exception of the calcareous shale above the Red Marble in the first, which is referred to the general division to be described. B. THE UPPER MEMBE.I OF THE TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 639. I include in this, all of the strata of the series above the Maclurea Limestone. (~ 509. This embraces, of course, the interpolated beds already described. This classification is the same as that given on page 228. The upper member is there designated as the Shale. It must be borne in mind, however, that while the division is shale in the southeastern part of the Valley, it becomes mostly limestone in the northwestern. (Q 581.) It will be well to consider this formation under two separate heads, these referring respectively to its different presentations in the southeastern and northwestern portions of the Valley. (a) The Shale, (Eastern.) 640. The Gray iBelt; its Topography.-Before speaking of the lithological and other features of the Shale, I will notice a very important area in which it is found, and to which it gives character. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 247 If the reader will take the map, and direct his attention to the Valley of East Tennessee, among the belts of Trenton and Nashville rocks, he will observe a large, club-shaped one commencing north of Kingsport, on the Virginia line, and extending nearly to the Hiwassee River. This is the largest area of these rocks in East Tennessee, the Red Belt (~ 610) being the next in extent. And as we have found it convenient to have a name for the latter, so it will be of service to christen this. We will denominate it the Gray Belt, from the prevalence of earthy gray rocks and knobs. The boundaries, form, and range, of the Gray Belt, are best appreciated by a reference to the map. 641. The most characteristic topographical feature of this area, is the presence of isolated knobs. Many portions of it are spoken of, locally, as "' The Knobs." The knobs are conical hills of all heights, from 100 to 500 feet. Sometimes they are more or less elongated, forming short ridges. In certain regions, they are closely set, making a wild country traversed by narrow, labyrinthine, but rich and, fertile valleys.* Knobby portions occur in Hawkins and Greene, on both sides of Bays Mountains, also in Cocke, Sevier, Blount, Monroe and McMinn. In Sevier County, around the northern end of Chilhowee Mountain, the knobby feature is very bol,. 642. The prevailing knobs are, as'tated, earthy gray, and in this respect, in contrast with the characteristic knobs of the Red Belt. The lower end of the Gray Belt, however, has some of the red knobs, owing to the presence of the strip of ironrock mentioned in ~ 625. 643. It is to be observed that the northern wide part of the belt embraces the mountain ridges to which the collective name of Bay's Mountain Group has been given. (p. 43.) These ridges are capped with a formation-the Clinch Mountain Sandstone-which is not included in the Trenton and Nashville Series. The topographical feature presented in this group, must be considered apart from those which are characteristic of the Gray Belt in general. * Some of these regions when viewed from high points, look like mammoth potato patches, the hills, however, not in very regular rows. 248 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 644. Areas of the Shale; Synclinals.-The Gray Belt just described, isthe most important and marked area of this shale. East of it, in Sullivan, Carter, Washington and Greene counties, are other areas, but they are comparatively very limited. Those in Sullivan, and in the western part of Carter, are the most important. Their number and extent can be seen upon the Map. They are all characteristically knobby belts. (~ 110.) In Washington and Greene, the lower beds of the Shale are presented in very narrow " black slate ridges." (~ 110.) One of these ridges (that passing immediately back of Greeneville) has been spoken of. (~ 592 and note.) It may be taken as a type of the rest. The Shale rests in a compressed trough of Maclurea Limestone. The shale and sandstone of the ridge east of Benton, in Polk County, referred to in ~ 595, may be mentioned here. The rocks are shales below with a sandstone above. This ridge borders a fault, (See section page 185.) The formation is that numbered 3 and 4. In addition to the areas mentioned, the Red Belt may be regarded as containing this Shale. It is the great matrix holding the interpolated beds. Here, however, the formation is more calcareous, and presents, more or less, flaggy limestone. 645. In most of the belts and areas mentioned, including the Gray Belt, the Shale is held in synclinal troughs and rests upon the Maclurea Limestone. Some of the troughs are locally faulted on their eastern side, as, for example, the Gray Belt in the section on page 190. See, also, ~ 600. It is remarkable that these wide synclinal waves are found on the side of the Valley next to the great mountains. 644. Lithological Character; Graptolites.-The formation is, in general, a great body of sky-blue calcareous shales, more or less sandy, weathering to a yellowish-gray color, as stated in ~ 580. In addition to the characters given the base of the formation, in the eastern border counties, (including Sullivan,) as far down as Blount, is a fine dark or black shale, becoming, in places, 100 or 150 feet thick. This often appears as a margin along the limits of the Shale followed below by the Miaclurea ILimestone. The black shale is prominent in the " slate ridges" spo TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 249 ken of. (~ 644.) It abounds, very generally, in graptolites.* The graptolites are, however, not confined to this lower stratum; they run up into the main body of the Shale, and are found at numerous localities. I have sometimes denominated the formation the Graptolite Shale. These fossils have not, as yet, been studied. Some of them will, doubtless, prove to be new species. 645. In the middle and upper parts of the Shale, especially east of Bay's Mountains and southward in the Gray Belt, plates of a hard calcareous sandstone are met with, to which the knobs owe, in part, their origin, very much as the red knobs owe theirs to the iron-rock. (~ 628.) This sandstone has the color of the shales with which it is associated. 646. The following is a section of the Shale from Bull's Gapt westward to White Horn Creek, a distance of nearly one mile. The rocks dip southeastward at an average rate of 30 or 40 degrees; the dip, however, ranging from 50 to 900. Immediately at the Gap, the strata form a synclinal axis, dipping to the northwest after passing it. (3) Reddish-brown Calcareous Shale. This constitutes the base of the ridge at the Gap. The top not seen. Above it, on the surface, are detached masses of grayish-white sandstone-Clinch Mountain Sandstone. The shale and sandstone are referred to the same formation, (5,a.) Thickness of the shale seen........................ 80 feet. f Calcareous Shale, or argillaceous pale brownish, bluish, or rarely greenish, limestone, weathering to shale................................................112 feet. Sky-blue Calcareous Shale, and thin blue flaggy (2)Sky-bLimestones..Shale, w...it....h occa........ional..................... 77 feet. Sky-blue Calcareous Shale, with occasionally flaggy limestones. Has a few layers of calcareous sandstone.......................................933 feet. Sky-blue Calcareous Shale, weathering grayish l buff................................................860 feet. * These are fossils, which, in the shales, are long and narrow, and have the form of blades of grass, excepting that they have saw-like edges. t Bull's Gap is at the northeast corner of Jefferson County, and is the point at which the East Tennessee and Virginia Railroad passes the middle ridge of the Bay's Mountain Group. (Q 99.) 250 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. (1) Maclurea Limestone, in thin layers, with shaly seams, and breaking into blocks-"Block Limestone," (~ 591,) contains Trilobites, and other fossils. Thickness seen..........................................200 feet. 647. Division (2) is the Shale. Its thickness here is 1982 feet. This is near the maximum, which has been placed at 2000. (~ 580.) The flaggy limestones show that we are advancing westward, or rather, northwestward, the formation becoming more calcareous. This section may be compared with that on page 230. The principal difference is in the absence in this, of the marbles and iron limestones. The blue limestones in both, are fossiliferous. (b) Limestone and Shale. (Western.) 648. The lithological changes that occur in the upper portion of the ~Trenton and Nashville Series, in going from the southeastern portion of the Valley to the northwestern, have been already given. (Q 578, 531, 596, and 639.) The difference in topographical features presented by these rocks in the two portions, is also quite marked, and will be noticed. 649. Topography; Areas. West of the Red Belt, (~ 610,) and the lHolston River, this division and the lliaclurea Limestone, are best considered together. In fact, it is not always easy to separate them, as they form a natural group. (~ 596.) I have spoken of them collectively as the Series, and will continue to do so. In the part of the Valley we are now considering, these rocks outcrop in long ribbon-like areas, making one class of the remarkable valley-ranges mentioned in the First Part of this Report. (~~ 119, 120, 121.) The special topographical features of the eastern knobby belts, are, in general, lost in these ranges. There are, however, a few exceptional areas, which are more or less knobby. The Hawkins Belt, in part, and the wide area at the south end of Clinch Mountain, both mentioned below, are examples. 650. The western valley-ranges of this Series are enumerated on the next page. Most of them have been referred to. The reader will be aided in tracing them out, by having the Map before him. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 251 (1.) The Hawkins Belt, west of Rogersville. This supplies one of the beds of marble. (Q 613.) The area is short, being cut off by the long fault, lying on the east side of the Clinch Mountain region. (2.) Beaver Creek Range. This lies next northwest of Clinch Mountain, and, further south, includes the valley of Beaver Creek. It has Copper Ridge on its northwest side. This range widens out in a local area around the south end of Clinch Mountain, and also around fHouse Mountain. (Q 98.) Going southwestward, it then bifurcates; the eastern arm runs west of Webb's Ridge, and, further down, forms a part of Grassy Valley, in Knox County; the western is the Beaver Creek Valley. Both arms run out between the Tennessee and Hiwassee Rivers. (3.) Raccoon Valley Range. This belt is known in Knox and Anderson Counties, as Raccoon Valley. It extends northeastward to Virginia. The mouth of Indian Creek, in Grainger, is in it, as well as a portion of Clinch River, in Hancock. It forms a wide valley at the point intersected by the Tennessee River, but, like the arms of the last range, runs out before reaching the Hiwassee. (4.) Hickory Valley Range. This is known, in the northern part of Union County, as Hickory Valley. It lies immediately west of Powell's Mountain, in Claiborne and Hancock, as well as west of Lone Mountain, in Grainger and Union. It widens out locally, around the south end of Powell's Mountain. From its point of intersection with Clinch River, it runs southwestward toward Maynardville. Still further southwestward, it runs out at least as a valley-range of the Trenton and Nashville Series. (5.) Big Valley Range. The portion of this, in Anderson and Union Counties, is known as the Big Valley. The range has been instanced, on a previous page, as an example of the long valleys in this section of East Tennessee. (See ] 120.) It is there spoken of as continuous. There is, however, one break in it, made by a local uplift of the rocks of the Knox Group. This break is in Claiborne County. This range'includes Savannah Valley, in the southern part of East Tennessee and west of White Oak Mountain. At the northern end of the Mountain just mentioned, the rocks of the Series spread out in a wide local area. Over a good part of it, the rocks are nearly horizontal. (6.) Washington Range. A short range, running next west of the ironore ridges in the region of Half-moon Island. Washington, in Rhea County, is located upon it. (7.) Chattanooga Range. A part of the Valley south of Chattanooga and east of Lookout Mountain, is underlaid by the rocks of this Series. (8.) The Mountain Range. This important belt is so called, for the reason that it skirts the eastern base of the Cumberland Table-land, with but few breaks (due to local faults,) from Virginia to Georgia. The range is noticed in ] 121, to which the reader is referred. In Hamilton County, its strata form a well-defined, anti-clinal axis, to which the valley of Lookout Creek belongs. (See section on page 139, at F.) 252 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. (9.) The Elk Range. The valley of the Elk Fork is, for the most part, made up of other formations. It contains, however, a narrow strip of Trenton rocks, brought to the light, as shown in the section an page 142. (10.) The Sequatchee Ranges. On both sides of Sequatchee Valley, are minor valley-ranges, in which these rocks outcrop. (See section on page 139; also ] 600, and note.) 651. When a mountain bounds one of these Trenton and Nashville ranges, on either side, the upper strata of the Series are usually found at a greater or less elevation, on the slope facing the range. This is especially true of those mountains, which, like the Clinch, are made up of an inclined plate of Niagara Sandstone, (5,a.) This formation,* when present, is next above the Trenton and Nashville Series. In the mountains which it makes, the tilted sandstone forms one slope, and presents its outcropping edge at the summit. This exposes the edges of the softer strata of the underlying formation on the other slope. These are, however, protected from washing and denudation, by the hard plate of rock overlying them. (Compare ~ 628.) Clinch, Powell's and Lone Mountains (the latter that of Grainger and Union Counties) present the upper strata of the Trenton and Nashville Series, on their western slopes. Some of the Bay's Mountain ridges are like these; others, have the sandstone on the west, the underlying rocks outcropping on the eastern, or rather southeastern, side. Some isolated peaks, or short mountains, like Chimney Top and Fodder Stack, (~ 99,) and like Devil's Nose and House Mountain, (~ 98,) have a bed of sandstone on top, while outcropping on the slopes all around, are the strata of the underlying formation. In the southern part of the Valley, White Oak Mountain has the rocks of the Series under consideration, on its western side, and outcropping around its northern end. 652. It must be observed that the upper layers of the Knox Dolomite are often found either on one side or the other of the above valley-ranges. They contribute, also, in some regions, to the area of the range. The side of the valley-range, in which the junction of the two formations occurs, is generally the northwestern. In the Mountain Valley Range, (~ 650, (8,)) the reverse is the case. I have already spoken of the position of * This formation includes a bed of red shale below the sandstone, which. in common with the Trenton and Nashville rocks below, is protected by the sandstone proper. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 253 the Maclurea Limestone, (~~ 599 and 600,) and to this the reader is referred. The upper member of the Series will, of course, follow in ascending order. (See sections on pages 189 and 208, and remarks upon them.) 653. Lithological, and other Characters.-The entire Series is limestone and shale. The lower part, mainly blue limestone; the upper part, though more calcareous than the same member in the Red and Gray belts, (~ 610 and 640,) is less so than the equivalent rocks in the Central Basin, (~ 227.) The uppermost beds of the Series are, very generally, shale and shaly limestone. In descending Clinch Mountain, on the northwest side, for instance, we find below the white hard sandstone, first, a bed of brownish-red shale, (included in a group with the sandstone,) then several hundred feet of sky-blue shale, running down into thin-bedded blue limestone. These upper beds contain, at many points, Nashville fossils. Below the beds mentioned, occur other beds of shale, one of which has been considered important enough to be noticed, (~~ 635, 636.) The thickness of the Trenton and Nashville Series diminishes a few hundred feet, going westward. 654. Transition Beds; Appendix. —At the top of the Nashville Formation, in the western part of the Valley, are, at certain localities, rocks, which appear to be beds of passage from the formation mentioned, to the Dyestone Group, described below. In the next chapter, a section, taken on the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad, just above Lookout Station, and near the Georgia line, will be presented, in which these beds will be given. They contain such fossils as Orthis testudinaria, 0. bellarugosa? Strophomena planoconvexa, S*tenuistriata, Lepteena Sericea, Atrypa marginalis, &c. 655. Useful Rocks and Minerals.-The Trenton and Nashville Series affords, in East Tennessee, several beds of rock-material susceptible of practical application. Among them, the marbles stand prominent. The geological relations, and general features of these, have been given. See pages 232, 236, 241, and 246. It likewise supplies flags, (~ 622,) and other building material, in addition to the marble. Certain layers of ironlimestone, (~ 623,) and many beds of blue limestone, in the different belts of the Series, yield building stone, of excellent 254 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. quality. It contains, too, no lack of rock for making excellent lime; the gray marbles, among many beds which might be mentioned, are well adapted to this purpose. The Brown Shale affords material for hydraulei lime, (~ 638.) These useful products will be further noticed in the Third Part of the Report. 656. Calcite in small veins is quite common in the Maclurea Limestone. Such veins occur, also, in the Shale in the southeastern part of the Valley. Some of the veins in the Shale contain, imbedded in the calcite, isolated, and often beautiful crystals of Quartz, as on Boyd's Creek, east of Brabson's Store, in the western part of Sevier County, in the region of Bull's Gap, and at points between that and Dandridge, in the vicinity of Warrensburg, in Greene County, and at other localities. They are also observed in Greene County, on the surface overlying the Maclurea Limestone, and in small veins, at a point half-a-mile north of the road from Greeneville towards Chimney Top Mountain, At some localities, these crystals are quite abundant on the ground, their facets sparkling in the sunshine like diamonds. They were all, doubtless, originally imbedded in the veins of calcite. Small, isolated crystals of Gypsum are found in the soil over the shale, at a number of points east of the Bay's Mountain Group. Veins of Heavy Spar, (Barite,) also occur. At the quartz locality, near the Greeneville and Chimney Top road, a vein of this, of the fetid crystalline variety, is found. Masses on the surface indicate a vein a foot or more thick. 657. Iron-ore is found as Limonite on the surface, and in deposits in the soil overlying these rocks, at many points, but not constituting extensive banks. The ore results from the decomposition of Pyrites found locally in bunches in the shales. Near the Benton and Madisonville road, about eleven miles from the latter place, and in McMinn County, is a heavy bed of Fossil Iron-ore, known as Hill's Bank. The ore resembles very much the Dyestone of the Niagara Period. It lies, however, between the 2]Maclurea Limestone and the Trenton and Nashville Shale, and may belong to the Series embracing these. It contains flattened, oolitic grains and crinoidal buttons, but no recognizable fossils were seen. The bed may be traced for nearly half-a-mile, and at some points, is fifty or sixty feet TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 255 wide. See, also, remarks on the Iron-limestone as an ore. (~ 618.) 658. Agricultural Features.-The strata of the Trenton and Nashville Series form the basis of much of the best arable land in East Tennessee. They are the rocks of many rich and beautiful valleys. The long ranges enumerated in ~ 650, the Beaver Creek Range, the Raccoon Valley Range, the Hickory Valley Range, the Big Valley and Mountain Ranges, the Sequatchee Ranges, and others, are just so many long lines of farming regions, susceptible of high cultivation. They are now more or less improved, presenting some among the most desirable agricultural sections in the State; but there is room for greater improvement and a higher state of cultivation. The resources.of these valleys, of such natural beauty with their rills and watercourses, (~ 147,) their invigorating and healthy air, have not reached their full development, This, however, they will do, and perhaps, at no distant day. The soils of the valleys are usually strong, being derived from calcareous rocks, more or less argillaceous, and are well adapted to the production of small grain, corn, grass and fruit. In nearly all cases, the valleys belonging to the ranges mentioned, have, on one side or the other, a gently sloping ridge facing the valley. The slope can often be cultivated nearly to the summit. Thus, the farmer can have upland and low land, and arrange his fields with reference to special and varied purposes. These slopes are underlaid by the magnesian limestone formation, (Knox Dolomite,) and generally have a productive, strong soil. 659. In the southeastern portion of the Valley, as in the Gray Belt, (~ 640,) the agricultural features of this Series are quite different. There the Shale, together with its peculiar topography, determines the agricultural capabilities. In the Knobby Regions, the arable lands do not lie in large bodies, but the narrow winding valleys and the hill-sides are rich, and often present a heavy growth of large white oaks, poplars and hickories. At many points these lands are in cultivation, and in passing through " The Knobs" of some sections, the traveler meets, at almost every turn, with a cabin and a miniature farm. Such areas have been denominated, with some force, "The Poor Man's Rich Country." 256 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 660. To the knobby regions of the Red Belt, (~ 610,) the same remarks are applicable. These, however, are by no means, so extensive as those of the other. The Shale, however, presents us with some valleys of considerable extent like that, for instance, of Lick Creek, in Greene County. The soils of these are not as strong, generally, as those of the limestone areas, but many of them are productive and well adapted to the production of wheat, grass, etc. In the Red Belt the valleys are better defined, and contain many very desirable farming sections. SECTION III. THE TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES IN MIDDLE TENNESSEE. 661. Leaving Sequatchee Valley, and passing westward, there are no more outcrops of the rocks of the Trenton and Nashville Series until we enter the Central Basin of Middle Tennessee. This Basin, second to no natural division of the State in importance and interest, has been described so far as its topographical and structural relations are concerned. The reader is referred to pages 97-104, 134-136, and 148, as well as to the section in Chapter X. See, also, Map. 662. We are now in a field of very different character from that of the great Valley of East Tennessee. Within the Basin, the direction and form of the subordinate valleys have comparatively little to do with the rocks. There is no marked northeast and southwest trend; there are no long and straight valley-ranges; no undeviating ridge-lines a score, or sevenscore, miles in length; no lines of bold, red knobs; and, finally, no bounding mountain-ranges, grouping, and comparatively sinking, the minor parallel valleys and ridges, and all else, into one great, fluted, long, and beautiful Valley. In East Tennessee the geology of the country is intimately connected with the topography, and one cannot be properly studied without keeping in mind the other. 663. In the Central Basin, the rocks are horizontal, or nearly so, and, below the formation of siliceous strata which make the crest surrounding and overlooking the oval area, are approxi TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 257 mately homogeneous in lithological character. If we exclude the formation making the crest, and confine ourselves to the homogeneous rocks, or in other words, to the Series under consideration, the connection between the strata and the topography is only occasionally manifested. If, however, that be included, the connection becomes general, and is seen in this, that the hard siliceous rocks have resisted denudation giving us the crest and the outlines of the Basin, and also in the fact that they have remained to form the cap and protecting rock of the higher included ridges. 664. In the Basin the rocks of the Trenton and Nashville Series are mainly blue limestone throughout. The beds of these differ, more or less, in certain particulars to be mentioned. Occasionally a limited bed of shale is met with, and some beds of red and gray limestones occur, but these are exceptional. The entire Series is about 1000 feet thick, and is equally divided between the Trenton and Nashville formations. (~ 577.) The bottom is not seen, the Knox Dolomite not coming to the surface at any point.* The top, on the eastern side of the Basin, is in contact with the Black Shale, all intervening formations being absent. On the western side, it is generally separated from the Shale by Niagara, and sometimes ILower Helderberg rocks, but not always. 665. The section on a following page, in Chapter X, shows how these rocks are brought to the surface, and the relations they sustain to the other formations. The strata are presented as they occur along the line of the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad, from Tullahoma to Nashville, and along the Edgefield and Kentucky Railroad, from Nashville to the summit of the steep grade above Baker's Station. The entire line is a continuous one, and runs completely across the Basin. The geological, as well as the topographical features, of the Basin, as a whole, are also illustrated by the section. 666. The Series under consideration is a natural group, and though each of its members has many species of its own, yet * The only region in Tennessee, west of the Cuinberland Table-land, in which I have seen the Kiox Dolomite is the Wells Creek Basin. (p. 147.) How thick the Trenton and Nashville Series may be here, I have not had the opportunity of ascertaining. There is, however. no reason for thinking that it is thicker than 1000 feet, indeed, I doubt if it reaches this. So far as can be ascertained, these rocks grow less in volume in that direction. Sig. 17. Vol. 1. 258 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. there are quite a number of forms uniting the two. It is divided, both on lithological and paleontological grounds, into its two sub-groups. A.-THE TRENTON, OR LEBANON; FORMATION III. GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS-THE BEDS OF THE FORMATION. (1) THE CENTRAL LIMESTONE-(2) PIERCE LIMESTONE-(3) THE RIDLEY LIMESTONE -(4) THE GLADE LIMESTONE - 15) CARTER'S CREEK LIMESTONE. AGRICULTURAL FEATURES, USEFUL ROCKS AND MINERALS OF THE TRENTON. 667. Geographical Relations.-The outcrop of the rocks included in this formation, occur over a considerable area, nearly half that of the Central Basin. Their strata may be regarded in general, as forming the bottom of the Basin, the strata and the bottom, however, being slightly tilted to the west. (~ 221.) The rocks outcrop at a higher elevation on the east side than on the west, and sink below the level of the rivers, at, or near, Nashville, Franklin, and Columbia, respectively. Nearly all of Wilson, Rutherford, Bedford and Marshall counties are within the outcrop of the Trenton Formation. The area of outcrop includes, also, parts of all the counties, excepting Franklin, contiguous to the section embracing those mentioned. On the map, a line is traced out separating the Trenton areas from those of the Nashville Formation. This formation is one of great interest, especially from an agricultural point of view. The soils it yields are among the best. To the paleontologist it is an inviting field, its strata presenting a rich fossil flora. 668. The Beds of the Formation. —The Trenton Formation is made Up of several beds, each characterized by special features. Arranged in their natural order, they are as follows: (5) Carter's CGreek Limestone. (Topmost.) A heavy-bedded, light blue, or dove-colored, limestone, the upper part often gray; contains Stromatapora rugosa, Columnaria alveolata, Tetradium columnare, Petraia profunda, Strophomena filitexta, Rhynchonella recurvirostra, Orthoceras Bigsbyi, O. JIuronense, Pleurotomaria lapicida. etc. The thickness of the stratum is from 50 to 100 feet. (4) The Glade Limestone. A stratum of light-blue, thin-bedded, or flaggy, limestones. Pre-eminently the bed of the great ", Cedar Glades" of the Central Basin. Contains Stropho TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 259 mena incrassata, S. filitexta, Orthis defiecta, 0. perveta, 0. tricenaria, Rhynchonella orientalis, Cyrtodonta obtusa, Trochonemaumbilicata, Orthoceras rapax, Illaenus Amerieanus, Leperditiafabulites, etc. Maximum thickness 120 feet. (3) The Ridley Limestone. Next below is this stratum-a group of heavy-bedded, light blue, or dove colored, limestones. Some of its fossils are as follows: Orthoceras anceps, Stromatapora rugosa, Columnaria alveolata, Orthis bellarugosa, Camerella varians, Rhynchonella Ridleyana, etc. The maximum thickness observed is 95 feet. (2) Pierce Limestone. A group of thin-bedded, flaggy limestones, with generally a heavy-bedded layer near the base. These r, cks are highly fossiliferous and abound in Bryozoa. Among the fossils are Orthis Stonensis, Rhynch.onella Ridleyana, Dalmanites Troosti, etc. The group has a maximum thickness of 27 feet. (1) Central Limestone. An important group of thick-bedded, cherty limestones, of a light blue, or dove color. Contains Salterella Billingsi, and Leperditia fabulites in abundance; also Cyrtoceras Stonense, Trochonema umbilicata?, Heticotoma Tennesseensis, H. declivis, Rhynchonella altilis, etc. This bed is the bottom-rock of the Central Basin, and presents in its heaviest exposures a thickness of about 100 feet. 669. It will be seen that the above limestones are all lightblue, or dove-colored, and that the groups are alternately thick and thin-bedded. It may also be mentioned here, that the thick-bedded groups are frequently cherty, though the two upper ones are much less so than the lower one. In accordance with our usual order, the lowest bed will be considered first. 670. (1) The Central Limestone.-As stated, this is an important body of limestones, and it is mostly so on account of its agricultural relations. Excepting the strata of the comparatively small Well's Creek Basin, (~~ 364, 553,) these rocks are the lowest in Tennessee west of the Cumberland Table-land. How they are brought to the surface, is shown in the section referred to in ~665. Their outcrop occupies an approximately circular area around Murfreesboro, in Rutherford County. I have given the name above to the group, for the reason that it is thus presented in the very center of the State. 671. Murfreesboro is located, upon -these rocks. In going towards Nashville, from Murfreesboro, they appear at the sur. 260 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. face, with the exception of a few high points, as far, nearly, as Smyrna. Going south on the Chattanooga road, they are seen as far as Christiana and Christmas Creek. In this distance, however, several of the more elevated portions of the country crossed hold higher beds, and of these, mainly the Ridley Limestone. Towards Woodbury, they outcrop for a distance of three or three and-a-half miles. And finally, on the Lebanon road, the layers of the Central Limestone are exposed as far as Stone's River. These rocks thus occupy (excepting the hills and the low ridges, of which there are no great number) a circular area, having a diameter of from twelve to fifteen miles. Murfreesboro is about half-way betwee the center of this'area and its eastern side. 672. I will add here, that, in Rutherford County, the overlying beds form, in succession, by their outcrops, concentric ringor circular belts around the area just mentioned.* This is especially true of the Ridley and Glade beds. The latter gives a very marked ring, made so by the cedars which so generally grow upon it. The Cedar Ring is crossed by the Chattanooga Railroad, about half way between Murfreesboro and Nashville, and is nearly or quite four miles wide. It encircles the outcrops of both the Central and the Ridley beds, in one large basin-like area of splendid country, nearly twenty miles across. 673. The lithological character of the Central Limestone, has been, in good part, already given. Its upper part, contains much black flint or chert, in thin layers and in nodules, the black color being due to the presence of a compound of iron. The decomposition of the flints, which is constantly going on, liberates the iron in the form of oxide, and this imparts a characteristic brownish-red, or chocolate color to the soil. The limestones of fthe bed, are very generally fetid. At some points on Bradley's -Creek, an upper layer is found, which is finely and beautifully laminated. 674. On the next page, is a section taken on Stone's River, at Pierce's mill, the point at which the Murfreesboro and Lebanon Turnpike crosses. It is one of a series of sections to be given, running up through the beds of the Trenton Formation. * This must be taken in a general sense. The ridges break up, more or less, the symmetry of these circular belts, yet, in no great degree. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 261 (3) Ridley Limestone, forms the top part of the bluff, opposite the mill; thick-bedded, light blue limestone, containing Orthoceras anceps, Columnaria alveolata, Stromatopora rugosa, and an other fossil sponge not described, and characteristic of the bed. Thickness 23 feet seen. (2) Pierce Limestone, made up of the following rocks, in all 27 feet: (c.) Thin-bedded layers, mostly, with smooth surfaces, and separated by thin, argillaceous, or shaly seams, very fossilliferous, contains Bryoza, &c. Thickness 19 feet. (b.) Coarse, thick-bcdded limestone-4 feet. (a.) flaggy limestones, like the upper portion, (c.)-4 feet thick. (1) Central Limestone, at th, base of the bluff, very cherty, heavybedded, contains — oaltarella Billingsi, Orthoceras Bigsbyi, Leperditia fabulites,, rlicotoqma Tennesseensis, H. declivis, and other species. At Pierce's Mill, but little of this bed is seen. Descending the river, however, its strata are observed to rise, until in a bluff half a mile below the mill, they are 70 feet thick. 675. The best known fossils, that occur in the Central Limestone, are given in the catalogue of species, at the end of this chapter. (See column C.) One of the most abundant species, is, ialterella Biliingsi. Its beautiful thorn-like forms occur by thousands at some localities. Leperditia fabulites is, also, very abundant. The species mentioned, together with Helicotoma Tennesseensis, and H. declivis, occur at nearly all localities, and, in this association, are characteristic. 676. (2) Pierce Limestone.-This group has been so named on account of its fine exposure in the section at Pierce's Mill. It has been sufficiently characterized in ~ 668, and in the section just given. The group has no especial importance, excepting as a horizon of reference and of division. It is observed at many points in Rutherford, lying between the Central and the Ridley beds. In thickness, it is variable, often less than that given. At some points it is all flaggy limestone, the thick layer being absent. 677. (3) The Ridley Limestone.-The description of this has also been, in good part, anticipated. At Judge Ridley's Mill, near Old Jefferson, there is a good exposure of the rocks of this bed, and hence the name Ridley. The bed occupies the low grounds of this vicinity. At the mill, the thin limestones of the Pierce Bed are below it. Orthoceras anceps, and the characteristic sponge spoken of in ~ 674, (3,) are quite abundant in these rocks. 262 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 678. The following is a section taken at Las Casas, in the northeastern part of Rutherford, and not far from the Wilson County line. It was taken on the side of a rocky ridge. The entire Ridley Bed is presented in it. (4) The Glade Limestone. This caps the ridge. The rocks are thinbedded limestones, containing characteristic fossils. (3) Ridley Limestone. Thick-bedded, dove colored, limestone, presenting the general characters of the bed. There were observed here Columnaria alveolata, Stromatopora rugosa, Tetradiumfibratum, among other fossils. Thickness 95 feet. (2) Pierce Limestone. at the base of the ridge, and followed below towards the creek, by the Central Limestone. 679. The Ridley Limestone outcrops, in general, around the circular area of the Central Limestone in Rutherford. (~ 672.) Its belt is from half-a-mile to six miles in breadth. The bed, however, occurs locally, on the higher grounds within the area mentioned. It is, also, sometimes made the surface-rock by local depressions in the strata. 680. Outside of Rutherford County this bed is but seldom seen. At a few points in some of the other counties in which the Glade Limestone is extensively presented, the top part of this bed is exposed by the removal of the overlying rocks. But such exposures are of limited extent, and are generally in low places, as, for instance, in the lower part of certain bluffs on -the Cumberland River, between Wilson and Sumner. The bed, too, may be looked for in the lower parts of the bluffs on Duck River, between Columbia and Shelbyville. 681. (4) The Glade Limestone.-The outcrops of the rocks of this bed embrace large areas in the Central Basin. It is a group of much interest. Its rocks are, as has been stated, (~ 668,) thin, flaggy, fossiliferous, dove-colored limestones. The areas in which the group appears on the surface, abound in bare, or nearly bare, rocky places, called glades. Upon these, is, very generally, a growth of red cellar, the trees finding root in the crevices of the rocks. (~~ 240 241.) The cedars are not, however, confined to the bare places; they thrive and attain a large size where the soil of the group is deeper. The glades and the cedars almost always indicate the presence of these rocks beneath. 682. T'he principal areas presenting these rocks, are in Wilson, Rutherford, Bedford, and Marshall, and they extend west TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 263 ward, more or less, into Maury, Williamson, and Davidson. These areas, also, are the cedar regions of Middle Tennessee. Reference has been made to the cedar ring encircling the outcrops of the Central and Ridley beds in Rutherford, in ~ 672. The towns of Lebanon, Shelbyville, and Columbia, in part, are located upon this group. At all of these places, its rocks, presenting the same assemblage of fossils, are well exposed. 683. In 1851, the author contributed to the American Journal of Science and Arts, (Vol. XII, Second Series, p. 352,) a paper accompanied with a plate. on the "Silurean Basrn of Middle Tennessee," &c. On the plate, the portions of the Basin especially abounding in cedars, are indicated. There are seen to be three principal areas, namely: one in Wilson, in which Lebanon is located; the circular belt in Rutherford, and finally, the Duck River Valley, between Columbia and Shelbyville. 684. The section below, taken near Readyville, in the eastern part of Rutherford, presents the bed of the Glade Lime — stone entire. (6) Carter's Creek Limestone.-The rocks of this bed form the top of the hill, are thick bedded, and have a thickness of 50 feet. (4) Glade Limestone.-Thin bedded, flaggy limestone, presenting the usual features of the group; contains a heavy bedded layer, about three feet thick, near the middle, and another near the base. Entire thickness, 118 feet. (3) Ridley Limestone.-This constitutes the base of the section, and forms a bluff running down to the level of the water. It has an exposure of 35 feet. 685. The flags of the glade bed, have, sometimes, thin clayey, or shaly seams between them, but not always, being separable without such seams. The surfaces of the flags are often, covered with Bryozoa, Orthes, fragments of Trilobites, and individuals of Lepberditia fabulites. The individuals of the last mentioned species, are especially abundant. 686. (5) The Carter's Creek Limestone.-This is the uppermost division of the Trenton Formation. Its rocks are prominently exposed on Carter's Creek in Maury County, and hence, the name given to it. It is, here, a whitish gray rock, heavy bedded, and is quarried for building purposes, and for making lime. It contains some chert. and the characteristic fossils of the division. This rock shows itself at many points along the railroad, between Columbia and Carter's Station. It often presents in 264 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. the bluffs, a castellated appearance, rising up in curious peaks or turrets, and attracting the attention of the traveler. 687. The rocks of the Carter's Creek division, in general, are, as stated in ~ 668, light blue, or dove-colored, heavy bedded limestones. In Maury County, the upper part is gray, as we have seen. At many points, at the very top of the group, are a few feet of thin bedded limestones, separated by thin, clayey partings, and, s ometimes, by a layer of clay, afoot or more thick. These thin limestones, contain a group of fossils, recalling that of the Glade Bed. 688. As in the Ridley division, so in this, the limestones contain, occasionally, layers of chert or flint, but, as stated before, in less quantity than those presented in the Central Limestone.* The following group of fossils, is characteristic of the Carter's Creek division; Orthoceras Bigsbyi, Stromatopora rugosa, Petraia profunda, Tetradium columnare, Columnaria alveolata, and C. Carterensis. Individuals of these species, when found associated, determine, at once, the division. The cedars of the Glade Bed, sometimes, extend over the rocks of this. 689. The following is a section, taken at the bluff, just below Cole's'Ferry, on the Cumberland River. The point is between Lebanon and Gallatin. The section, so far as the division, under consideration, is concerned, is a complete one. and brings us up to the lower member of the Nashville Formation. p (1) Orthis Bed, represented by a few of its lowest sandy layers. This bed is the lowest member of the formaNzi t tion next described. ( 5) Carter's Cheek Limestone. In the main, light blue, heavy bedded limestone, containing the usual fossils, and, otherwise, having the common characters of the division. The upper ten feet, is, mostly, thin bedded, and contains Tetradium fibratum, the cell-tubes in long stringy groups. The presence of T. fibratum in this, is, by the way, not usualinthis horizon. Entire thickness 95 feet. (4) Glade Limestone. All thin-bedded, excepting one heavy bedded layer eight feet thick, and 27 feet from the top. Entire thickness down to low water, 74 feet. * It may be remarked here, that in all of the thick bedded divisions, the fossils are, generally, siliceous, while, as generally, in the thin bedded ones, they are calcareous. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 265 690. At Columbia, a good section is to be seen. It includes both Trenton and Nashville rocks. The Carter's Creek Limestone is not as heavy as it is further north, and, moreover, differs in having a lighter color. The following, is the section. ((2) Middle Member. A series of blue, highly fossiliferous limestones, running up to the top of "Mount Parnassus." This division includes, here, about 200 feet of limestone, contains Orthis lynx, 0. occidentalis, Columnaria stellata, Ambonychia radiata, Wc. The upper layers are made up of small corals, Stenopora, Constellaria, and others. Specimens may be gathered on the top of the hill about the old fort, by the peck. These rocks resemble those around the Capitol at Nashville. Just above the Orthis bed, at the base of this member, are layers, packed with individuals of I Strophomena alternata. (1) Or this Bed, or Lowest Member. This is a group of blue, siliceous, and sandy limestones, some layers of which, are literally made up of individuals of Orthis testudinaria. The rock weathers into sandy masses and shales. The shells are generally silicified and the liberated ones are abundant on the surface. Towards the top, the bed is laminated, with, occasionally, cross stratification, characters showing the formation of this portion in a current. Thickness 60 feet. (5) Carter's Creek Limestone. Heavy bedded, light dove colored limestones below, and gray above. The rock is quarried for building purposes. Has the characteristic group of fossils, and contains some chert. This rock is exposed at the top of the bluff, at the old cemetery. Thickness about Columbia, from 50 to 60 feet. (4) Glade Limestone. Well exposedin the bluff below the cemetery, and about the bridge. Thin bedded limestones with the usual fossils of this division. The. greatest thickness seen above low water, is 80 feet. 691. The Carter's Creek Limestone occupies, in general, areas around those of the Glade Bed. It is also present in the hills and ridges occurring within the Glade areas. South of Elk Ridge, there are but few places where it comes to the surface, the limestones of the valleys, in that section of the Central Basin, (~~ 233, 237,) belonging, mainly, to the Nashville 1Formation. This division of the Trenton, however, does appear in the valley of Richland creek in Giles County. From Lyn 266 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. ville, on down, to within five or six miles of Pulaski, its gray rocks are well seen at many points near the creeks. Campbellville is also located upon its rocks. A patch of it exists west of Pulaski; another, in the valley of the Elk, opposite upper Elkton. 692. A few miles below Columbia, the division sinks below the river; it is, then, only seen, occasionally, in patches, being brought to the surface on the backs of local waves. One of these patches occurs near Hampshire, another on Snow Creek, near Santa Fe, &c. 693. In Smith County, along the creeks between New Middleton and Carthage, as on Mulherrin, are exposures of the Carter's Creek Limestone. So, also, on Smith's Fork, in De Kalb and Smith, etc. Liberty in De Kalb, Statesville in Wilson, Woodbury in Cannon, and Columbia, (in part..) in Maury, are located upon the rocks of this division. At Nashville, they come to the surface above the water-works, and are seen in the lower parts of the hills about Mt. Olivet. In the region of Mill Creek, on the Murfreesboro turnpike, are good exposures. 694. Agricultural Features, Useful Rocks and Minerals of the Trenton.-The Central Basin, has been denominated the garden of Tennessee. (~ 227.) Its lands, in general, are of first rate quality, strong and fertile, adapted to the raising of almost any thing that the climate will admit of. Cotton, corn, tobacco, small grain, and grasses, find congenial conditions in the soils of the basin, and flourish well. The area is the counterpart of the "Blue Grass Region" of Kentucky; it is the Blue Grass Region of Middle Tennessee. The rocks-the bases of the soils-are much the same in both. 695. The lands of the Basin fall naturally, into two divisions, the two being underlaid respectively, by the Trenton. and Nashville Formations. To one group of lands, we may give the name Trenton, to the other, Nashville. The soils derived from the Trenton rocks, are, as a general thing, more clayey than those from Nashville beds, the latter, containing more sandy, or siliceous matter. This difference, results from the difference in the composition of the limestones belonging to the respective formations, the one contains more argillaceous, and the other, more siliceous matter. 696. The fine country encircled by the cedar ring in Rutherford, has been referred to. (~ 672.) These red lands, are no TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 267 ted for their productiveness, and constitute one of our most important cotton regions. The Central Limestone of the Trenton, very generally, has an excellent soil upon it. The sand formed by the disintegration of the black chert, helps to make the soil mellow, and the red oxide of iron, acts a part, as a chemical agent, to make it more fertile. The Ridley Limestone, as to its agricultural presentations, may be classed with the Central. It does not contain as much chert, but, otherwise, in lithological character, the two are similar. 697. The Glade Limestone gives a strong, rather stiff subsoil, which has a fertile loam on top. Its lands are wheat, and grass lands. The great physical feature of this division is presented in its cedar glades. These originally covered, or, at least, the cedars grew, upon the greater part of its outcrop. The better portions of the area are now in cultivation. Many of the rocky glades are still covered with cedar, The Carter's Creek division is, also, the basis of a good soil, nearly equal to that of the Central Limestone. It has not the characteristic red color of the latter, but contains, more or less, fine, sandy chert. Its outcrop is often presented-in rocky ledges, or hill-sides, with little soil. 698. Stone, for building purposes, is obtained from all the heavy bedded divisions of the Trenton. The upper part of the Carter's Creek division, however, supplies a superior article. This whitish gray limestone, already spoken of in ~ 686, is quarried extensively in Maury County. It is conveniently located along the line of the railroad, and could be shipped to Nashville, or other points. Its nearly white color, its texture, and occurrence in layers of suitable thickness, make it desirable. Some layers contain chert; these must be refused. The lime this rock makes is very white. 699. The Glade Bed is the source of a supply of limestone flags. Many of these have a smooth surface, and if such alone, be used, make an excellent pavement. They are, however, too often put down with rough ones. Many pavements, are made of flags from this division, in Lebanon. Large flags, a yard across, and from two to four inches in thickness, can be obtained without much trouble. Flags can be found at all the extensive presentations of the rocks of the Glade Bed. 268 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 700. Such minerals as Calcite, Barite, Fluorite, Galenite. (galena,) Sphalcrite, (zinc blende,) Quartz, Pyrite, (pyrites,) and tarry Petroleums, or Pittasphalts, have been observed in the Trenton, in Middle Tennessee. The tarry petroleums occur, occasionally, in all the heavy bedded divisions filling small cavities, which are usually lined with crystals of calcite. I have seen them in the vicinity of Lebanon, in the Carter's Creek Limestone. The Central, and Ridley Limestones contain such cavities, and the rocks themselves, are notably fetid. Galenite, (lead ore,) occurs in small veins, at numerous points, with Calcite, barite, &c. There are veins of this sort in every county, but too small to be of value. 701. In Smith County, on Mulherrin Creek, is a considerable vein, running vertically through the Carter's Creek Limestone. This has been traced for several miles, and is, at points, a foot or more wide. It contains, mainly, barite, (heavy spar,) with calcite, and fluorite. In this gangue are bunches of lead ore, with, occasionally, some zinc blende. A shaft or two, has been sunk on this vein, near the Trousdale's Ferry and Lebanon road, and much barite thrown out, but with no special developments otherwise. On Smith's Fork in De Kalb, is a vein, containing considerablefluorite, and some galenite, with lead. B.-THE NASHVILLE; FORMATION IV. DIVISIONS OF LOWER SILUREAN, NAMES AND EQUIVALENCY-(1) ORTHIS BED-(2 & 3) MIDDLE AND UPPER MEMBERS OF NASHVILLE: -ROCKS OF SPECIAL USE, AND MINERALS OF THE NASHVILLE FORMATION-CATALOGUE OF FOSSILS. 702. In the Columbia section, in ~ 690, the junction of the Trenton and Nashville formations is given. The passage from one to the other, is well marked and abrupt. This is well seen at Columbia, and at all other points in the Central Basin, (~ 227,) where this rock-h~orizon is accessible. The Trenton ends with light colored, heavy bedded limestones, (immediately at the top, often thin bedded, with clayey seams, ~687,) and the Nashville begins with a siliceous, blue, calcareous rock, weathering, often, into thin earthy, buff, sandy masses, and sometimes, into shales. 703. Divisions of Lower Silurean, Names and Equivalency.-The division of the Lower Silurean rocks of Middle Tennessee, into the two formations TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 269 adopted in this work, I made in 1851, in the paper referred to in ~ 683. In that paper, they were named, respectively, the Stones River, and Nashville groups. At that time, and in 1856, when the Reconnoissance was published, I hesitated as to the equivalency of the lowest member of the Nashville Group, (the Orthis Bed, to be described,) sometimes regarding it as Upper Trenton, and sometimes, as Hudson River. In the Reconnoissance, I wrote it Upper Trenton. This hesitation grew out of the extension of the Trenton species, upward, into the bed. 704. Notwithstanding this, the division was, or rather is, a natural one, and the two groups are equivalent, respectively, to the Trenton and Hudson River formations, as understood by American geologists. The name, Stones River has been dropped, but Nashville has been retained, and it embraced the same rocks in 1851, that it does now. It is true that Trenton species do run up into the lowest member, but so they do into the upper members, and are found in association with many Hudson River forms.* 705. But we have, in the Orthis Bed, the very characteristic species Ambonychia radiata, and Cyrtolites ornatus, both commencing here, and running up through the upper members. In addition, the bed holds Rhynchonella modesta, and R. capax, which, like the last, first appear in this bed and continue through the formation. (See note.) On such grounds, we make the bed in question, Hudson River, and fix the equivalency of the entire Nashville Formation. The lithological features of the beds concerned, so far as they can have any bearing, also place the plane of division, immediately below the Orthis Bed. 706. Divisions of the Nashville Formation. These are as follows: (3) Upper Member, embracing about 200 feet of layers. (2) Middle Member, embracing about as much as that above. (1) Orthis Bed. The lowest division, having a thickness of from 50 to 70 feet. (Q 710.) The Orthis Bed is a well marked division. The others will be considered together, as they constitute, naturally, a single group, and have only been separated, for more convenient reference. 707. (1) The Orthis Bed.-This division is one of considerable interest. Its place in the series, is shown in the Columbia section. (~ 690.) It is, in general, a siliceous, often shaly, calcareous rock. When freshly quarried it is blue. In its weathered condition, it often presents the appearance of a mixed * The fact is, such forms are Orthis lynx, 0. Occidentalis, Rynchoneila modesta, and R. capax, are, at least, in Middle Tennessee, characteristic species of the Hudson (Nashville) Period. And the last three are so in Canada. See Geology of Canada, pp. 944 and 945. 270 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. bed of fine, thin, earthy, yellowish sandstones and shales. The weathered, detached blocks of the thin, flaggy layers, generally show a blue nucleus, when broken. 708. It is, frequently, especially in its western and southwestern presentations, a group of smoothly laminated flags, interstratified with shaly seams. Such is its typical character on the Tennessee River, in Hardin and Wayne counties, where its flags are burnt and ground into hydraulic cement. When wet, in the bottom of a creek, it looks much like the Black Shale, (Form. VII.,) and has been mistaken for it.* At Franklin, on the banks of the Harpeth, below the bridge, the bed maybe seen, presenting its interstratified flag and shale character. On the Nashville and Lebanon Turnpike, immediately east of Mill Creek, at the foot of the hill on Winm. Nichol's place, it is well exposed, showing the same laminated condition. At this point, its flags have been exposed to the weather in a stone fence, for several years, and exhibit a tendency in the rockto break up in small pieces. At many points about Columbia, and in Maury County, it exhibits the same features as at Franklin. 709. In the more northern and eastern parts of the Central Basin, the bed frequently presents, with impure limestones, more or less shale, and, sometimes calcareous sandstone, or even a layer of cherty material. Almost at all points, throughout Middle Tennessee, where this division comes to the surface, it is seen to contain vast numbers of individuals of Orthis testudinaria. These are frequently silicified, and, in some regions, form compact flinty layers of adherihg shells, as about Mount Pleasant, and at other points in Maury County.t 710. The thickness of the Orthis Bed, in the Basin, is from 50 to 60 feet. Southwestward, it appears to be thicker. Along the Tennessee River, in Hardin, Wayne and other counties, are many exposures, but I have never seen the bottom of the bed in any that have come under my observation. At Clifton, the bed shows a thickness of 70 feet above low water. 711. This bed has already been presented in one section, that taken at Columbia. (~ 690.) Below is the Clifton Sec* As for instace, a bed of it in Hardin County, in the rear of Savannah, on Horse Creek, t A figure (8) of a small specimen of one of these shells, is given in the group, on a following page. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 271 tion. It includes the strata seen at the landing, as well as the hydraulic rock at the cement works. Brownish red, and gray limestone. The topmost rock at the landing, contains large crinoidal stems, and abounds in individuals of several species of Orthoceras. This forms the upper, and main part of the bluff, down as far as Carrollville. In some of the high bluffs below Clifton, it is 95 feet thick. At Clifton, its base is elevated, and the rock, traced up the river, soon runs out. Calcareous Shale, bluish, or greenish, contains Leptoena sericea, Strophomena alternata, and Rynchonella eapax. Thickness 15 feet. Blue Limestone, in rough layers, somewhat sandy; contains Strophomena alternata, S. tenuistriata, Rynchonella capax, R. dentata, Cyclonema bilix, Columnaria stellata, Tetradi-: um fibratum, n&c. Thickness 23 feet., Orthis Bed. The Hydraulic limestone; a thin, and smooth bedded, fine, blue, impure limestone, breaking, more ols -~ less, with conchoidal fracture.'The flags are separated by shaly matter; and have a thickness, generally, of from 2, to 4 or 5 inches. Contains Orthis testudinaria, Rynchonella modesta, Lingutce, Trilobites, &c. This forms the bluff at the cement works, the rocks sinking towards Clifton. Thickness down to low water, 70 feet. The section above, has interesting features about it, aside from the Orthis Bed, to which reference will be made hereafter. 712. In the Central Basin, the bed underconsideration outcrops in areas outside of those of the upper Trenton beds. In addition, it caps many of the low ridges and the limited local plateaus within those areas. It is, in a certain degree, a plateau-making stratum, a character due to its siliceous, and hence, weathering-resisting nature. 713. In Maury, Williamson, Davidson and Sumner, it is the basis of much splendid land. In Maury, especially between Columbia and Mount Pleasant, it underlies a country, much of which is unsurpassed. In general, when the beds of the creeks are in it, or but little below it, and the country devoid of high ridges, the lands overlying it are among the most desirable of the State. The soil it yields is argillaceous and calcareous, mellowed by the siliceous, or fine, sandy impurity of the rock. 272 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 714. Franklin, Columbia, in part, and Mount Pleasant, are located upon the Orthis bed. At Nashville, it rises to the surface east of the engine house of the water-works, and still further east, is the shaly rock of Mount Olivet. On the Murfreesboro turnpike, it is seen in the hills after passing Brown's Creek, and hundreds of its little orthes may be gathered along the road. At the wire bridge, the bed lies at the bottom of the river, and is only visible at low water. 715. The Trenton beds, with the exception of the Wells' Creek area, (~ 364,) are confined to the Central Basin. This is not the case with the Nashville beds. The latter appear, also, as we have seen, near the Tennessee River, in Hardin, and Wayne counties, or, in other words, in the Western Valley. (~ 708.) The outcrop of the Nashville rocks in this division of the State, is, however, very limited. It occurs in a number of separate areas, or patches, mostly confined to the bed of the Tennessee River, and the beds of some of its tributary creeks. By the local waving of the strata, the rocks are, alternately, above and below the water level of the streams. These exposures occur in the part of the Valley between the mouth of Cedar CrQek, in the southern part of Perry, and Savannah. 716. Of the Nashville strata, in this region, the Orthis Bed, or the hydraulic rock, is, by far, the most conspicuous. Along the Tennessee, between the points mentioned, it is seen at the base of several of the bluffs. In these, it is overlaid, (with the other Nashville beds,) by variegated, red, and gray limestones, which often present a high, bold front. Its dark band resting on the water, is quite in contrast with the variegated and brighter ones above. 717. Exposures of the hydraulic rock occur, as stated, on Horse Creek, east of Savannah; also, on Indian, Hardins, and Beech creeks. On the upper part of the latter creek, not more than four miles from Waynesboro, is a patch of it, and others are met with on the same stream, in going down towards its mouth. It occurs, also, on the west side of the Tennessee River. About half a mile south of Saltillo Landing, in Hardin County, on a small stream, is a considerable bluff of it. At Saltillo, however, on the river, it does not appear, the lowest rock in the bluff being the variegated limestone. 718. This bed is interesting as a source of hydraulic cement. Its flags were burnt for this purpose, in Hardin county, twenty years ago. About the beginning of the war, Mr. G. A. Pillow and others, had completed arrangements for the manufac TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 273 ture of cement on a large scale, and had actually commenced operations. The works were quite extensive and substantial, and located on the bluff a short distance above the landing at Clifton. Since the war, the works have been repaired, and put in operation again. 719. The cement manufactured, is of lighter color than the Louisville cement, and of good quality. In 1861, Mr. Pillow sent me a barrel, of that first manufactured, for trial. The barrel was put away in my cellar, and, owing to the troubles which soon came upon us, was left there without being opened. In the meantime, during a very rainy season, water rose in the cellar, and the cement got thoroughly wet. It soon hardened, the hoops and staves ifell away, and the cement was left in a solid cylindrical mass —a good cast of the barrel which held it. I have also seen, in the Tennessee River, barrel-shaped masses of the hardened cement, from lots originally lost by the sinking of steamboats. Some of the exposures of this rock in the Central Basin, as at Franklin and at other points mentioned, present material that it would be well to test practically. 720. The fossils of this bed are given in a catalogue at the end of the chapter.' Its paleontological relations have been discussed in ~~ 703-705, and to these paragraphs, and the catalogue, the reader is referred. 721. (2 & 3.) The Middle and Upper Members of the Nasvitlle.In paragraph 506, the Nashville Formation has been divided into three members, the lowest of which, the Orthis Bed, we have considered. The remaining members, are here thrown together, as, in general features, they are much the same. These members constitute a group of rather dark blue, highly fossiliferous, often roughly bedded, impure limestones, with a maximum thickness of about 400 feet.* The group occasionally includes shaly, calcareous beds; but these are local. The limestones often contain shaly laminte, and, in weathering, yield rough, thin, flaggy masses, whose surfaces are often thick with fossils. 722. The greatest thickness of the group is in the northern, and northeastern parts of the Basin, in Wilson, DeKalb, Smith, &c. In the southern, and southeastern counties of the Basin *I have, on previous pages, placed the maximum thickness of the Trenton and Nashville Series, in Middle Tennessee, in round numbers, at 1000 feet. The sections thus ar measured, would make it something less, and between 900 and 1000. Sig. 18. Vol. 1. 274 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMIATIONS. it is considerably reduced; while, in the western valley, as shown in the Clifton section, where it is only 38 feet, (~ 711,) the group is so much reduced as to be of little or no importance. 723. These rocks outcrop within the Basin, outside of the areas of the Trenton rocks, and of the Orthis Bed. They make many fine agricultural sections. In addition, their outcrop forms, in general, on all sides, half the slope of the escarpments bounding the Basin. They are the limestone rocks of the rich valleys and hills of Jackson; of the rich hills of Smith, DeKalb, and the eastern part of Wilson; of the western parts of Cannon, and Coffee; the rocks of the rich slopes of Elk Ridge, and of all of its ramifications; those of the hills in the western parts of Maury, Williamson, Davidson, and Sumner. Owing to the dip of the strata, these rocks are brought low on the western side of the Basin, and, hence, underlie, and make, in connection with the Orthis Bed, (~ 713,) in Sumner, Davidson, Williamson and Maury, much fine rolling land, and many choice valleys. In the section south of Elk Ridge, in Giles and Lincoln counties, (~ 237,) all the valleys, (throwing out of them a few areas, in which Trenton rocks outcrop, and to which reference has been made,) are based on these rocks; and, so too, are the slopes of the ridges, at least half way up. The valleys of this section are rich, and many of them beautiful. 724. The rocks of the Nashville Formation, as a whole, yield, by disintegration, the best native soil, (excluding, always, alluvial bottoms,) in the State. This is due to the character of the impurities in the limestone, it being a proper combination of clay and fine sand; and, also, in a measure, I may add, to the organic matter in the rock. Something is due, likewise, to the form the limestone assumes in weathering. I have already spoken of the lands of the Basin, in general, and have compared, briefly, the Trenton and Nashville soils. (See id 694 and 695.) 725. Reference has already been made, indirectly, to the paleontology of this part of the Nashville Formation: (~~ 703, 704, 705.) It teems with fossils. Many of its layers are simply beds of corals. Others are made up of sponges. Others again, especially towards the top, are wholly shells, the most common, being Orthis lynx, and Strophomena alternata. Certain horizons abound in Cyrtodontce, others in Mlerchisonice, and others in Rynchonelle. In the catalogue at the end of the chap TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 275 ter, (~ 224,) the best known species, not only of the rocks we are now considering, but of all the Lower Silurian strata in Middle Tennessee, are given; and to this the reader is referred. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE FOSSILS. 12 ____ 13 1. Leptena sericea. 2. Slrophomena tenuistriata. 3. Strophomena alternata. 4, 5, 6. Rynchonella capax. 7, 14. Rynchonella bisulcata. 8. Orthis testudinaria. 9. Orthis tricenaria. 11. Orthis occidentalis. 12, 13. Orthis lynx. 9. Obolusfilosus. 10. Lingula quadrata. On this page is presented a group of the figures of certain shells, which are characteristic of the Trenton and Nashville formations taken together. Familiarity with these and other associated forms, will enable the observer to know when he is on rocks of this geological horizon. (~ 320-1.) Of the species figured, Orthis lynx, 0. occidentalis and Rynchonella capax, are confined to the Nashville Formation, and their associates may be seen in the catalogue. (See note under ~ 704.) Orthis testudinaria occurs in both, but is rare, excepting in the Orthis Bed of the Nashville, where, as we have seen, it is found in vast numbers. Leptcena sericea, also, appears in both the Trenton and Nashville formations Orthis tricenaria, I have only seen in Trenton rocks in Tennessee. Strophomena alternata is in both, but is very rare in the Trenton, and very abundant in 276 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS, the Nashville, and so much so as to be characteristic. Strophomena tenuistriata, (rugosa,) I have only seen in the Nashville. The remaining species are unknown to me as Tennessee forms. 726. Thus far, the general characters only of the Middle and Upper members of the Nashville Formation have been given. There are, in some counties, local beds presenting special features, which remain to be noticed. More of these occur in Davidson County than elsewhere. Below is a section of the rocks at Nashville, in which the local beds of the region are presented. The section commences in the river' beneath the wire bridge, and ascends to the top of Capitol Hill. (6.) College Hill Limestone. When freshly quarried, a dark blue, highly fossiliferous, coarsely crystalline and roughly stratified limestone, with more or less of its laminoe shaly. The mass weathers, generally, into rough, fiaggy limestones, and shaly matter, interstratified, often liberating multitudes of fossils-especially small corals. Some of the layers of this limestone are wholly made up of corals and shells. Stenopore, Constellaria antheloidea, Tetradium fibratum, Columnaria stellata, Stromatoporapustulosa, Strophomena alternata, Orthis lynx, 0. occidentalis, and others, are abundantly represented by individuals. Bellerophon Troosti, species of Cyrtodonta, Ambonychia radiata occur, and, in fact, nearly all the forms given in column M of the catalogue following. This division is well seen on College Hill, and in the upper part of the bluff at the Reservoir. There is, also, a fine presentation of it on Capitol Hill, around the Capitol. Its lowest layers are at the top of the bluff at the Wire Bridge. These rocks pertain to the highest stratum in the vicinity of Nashville. The division, as here presented, may be taken with the upper division, ((2) Middle Member,) of the Columbia Section, (Q 690,) as typical of the Nashville Formation in general. This division, at Capitol Hill, measures 120 feet. (5.) Cyrtodonta Bed. Immediately below the College Hill Limestone, is a remarkable bed of coarsely crystalline, ashen gray, or light yellowish gray limestone, in great part, made up of valves of species of Cyrtodonta, individuals of Bellerophon Lindsleyi, and B. Troosti. (See P1. G.) Of the Cyrtodonte, C. Saffordi (P1. F.) is especially abundant. This bed is best developed in the bluff at the Wire Bridge. It is here, ten or eleven feet thick, and forms one solid layer. The shells are silicified, and pretty generally TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 277 have their edges rounded and worn, as if they had been rolled in currents of water, or by waves. The bed is seen again at the Engine House of the Waterworks, where it is six feet thick. In tracing it beyond the Engine House, it very soon runs out, and is replaced by a compact, dove-colored limestone, like No. 3, below. Descending the hill on the west side of the Capitol, it is also seen, but it is, for the most part, replaced by the compact limestone spoken of. It is well exposed at other low points about the city, and has been traced, in some directions, a mile or two beyond the city limits. This rock has been used for building purposes, to some extent, and for making corner posts. Maximum thickness, 11 feet. (4.) Bed of Limestone of the common type; much like the College Hill Limestone, coarsely crystalline, fossiliferous, &c. It occurs below No. 5, on the west side of the Capitol. In the bluff at the Wire Bridge, it is 23 feet thick. In the bluff above the Engine House of the Water-works, it measures 28 feet. (3.) Dove Limestones. This is a group of three layers, for the most. part. The upper layer is a light dove-colored, compact limestone, 4 feet thick, breaking with conchoidal fracture, containing strings (mostly vertical) of crystalline matter, which show points on a horizontal surface. (Birdseye.) The middle layer is, mainly, the common dark blue crystalline limestone, (2 feet.) The lowest layer, (4 feet,) is mostly like the upper, but more or less mixed with blue layers. Such is the group as seen at the foot of Gay Street, in a quarry on the river bank. This group presents itself at many points, in and around the City. It is conveniently studied at the quarry mentioned, at the foot of Gay Street. At the end of the bluff beyond the Water-works, it may also be seen, and is here ten or eleven feet thick. The group may also be seen in the region of the Penitentiary, and of the old State quarry, overlying the rock of that quarry. It appears at many points in Davidson County, outside of Nashville. The layers are generally of desirable thickness, and are quarried at numerous points in and about the city, for building and other purposes. The group contains a number of species. Detached siphuncles of Orthoceras Bigsbyi, and of an allied species, are numerous at some points, especially in the middle layer. Tetradium, Bellerophon, Mlfurchisonia, Pleurotomaria, and other genera are represented. It is in this group, that Leperditia Morgani is found. Thickness, 11 feet. (2.) Capitol Limestone. This bed supplied the rock to build the Capitol, and was formerly well exposed in the old State 278 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. quarry west, and in sight of the building. It is limestone; but has the appearance of a laminated sandstone. It is, in fact, a consolidated bed of calcareous sand, the sand being the comminuted fragments of shells and corals. Originally, the mass was drifted in running water, and arranged in laminae. As we find the rock now, it is, when quarried, a massive, bluish gray, granular limestone, with a well marked lamellar structure. When cut and ground smooth, a block of it, presented edgewise, shows well, the laminar character Such a surface is bluish gray, plentifully banded with darker lines. The Capitol is a splendid presentation of this rock as a building material. The rock often contains rolled fragments of the beaded siphuncles of species of Orthoceras. Some specimens of these, are seen in the faces of the blocks in the walls of the Capitol. It exhibits, also, examples of cross stratification, another evidence of the current-action to which it was originally subjected. The mass contains some little siliceous matter, mostly in grains, and in small fragments of silicified shells, so that they do not interfere, materially, with the working of the rock. It is easily quarried, and can be obtained in blocks of any desirable size. In its natural expostures it exfoliates in laminge by long weathering. The bed, pretty generally, underlies the city; has been quarried at the foot of Gay Street, on the river; is near the water, under the Wire Bridge; and appears beyond the Water-works, where it has also been quarried, and is 20 feet thick. The lamellar structure of this bed runs into the one just below, to some extent, and it is not always easy to draw a line of separation. Below the Wire Bridge, my measurements make the thickness of the bed 25 feet. (1.) The Orthis Bed underlies the last, and is the lowest member of the Nashville Formation. It is in the water below the Wire Bridge, but rises in going down the river, and may be studied in the bluff below the Railroad Bridge. It may be seen, too, and its Orthis gathered, at the first mile-stone on the Murfreesboro turnpike. It rises at the end of the bluff, beyond the Water-works; and still further east, as at Mount Olivet, it may be seen resting on the Carter's Creek Limestone-the upper member of the Trenton Formation. It has, however, been described, and its thickness given. 727. The Capitol Limestone (No. 2, above,) is pretty generally represented in the Basin, outside of Nashville and Davidson County, wherever its proper horizon is presented. It is generally not as good a building material as in Davidson, but is, more or less, laminated and current-formed. The whole area TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 279 of Middle Tennessee appears to have been swept over by a current, at the closing of the epoch of the Orthis Bed. As far south as Upper Elkton, in Giles County, I have seen this bed well characterized. It here also takes the place, for the most part, of the Orthis Bed, the Carter's Creek Limestone, on the opposite side of the river, and about a mile from Elkton, coming up from beneath it, with but little intervening rock. 728. The Dove Limestone, (No. 3,) also, is frequently seen in different parts of the Basin, though by no means as persistent as the other bed. At Elkton, it is well exhibited in place, resting on the laminated bed. It is well, perhaps, to note, that there are, at some localities, other layers of this variety of rock, (Birdseye,) occupying horizons, different from that of No. 3. They are, however, local, and need no especial mention. The Cyrtodonta Bed east of the Water-works at Nashville, is, as we have seen, replaced by similar limestone. 729. In order to exhibit the relation the Nashville Formation sustains to the overlying groups, I present below, two sections, taken, respectively, on opposite sides of the Central Basin. The first is the section at Snow's -Hill, in DeKalb County, a few miles east of Liberty, the point at which the Lebanon and Sparta road leaves the Basin, and ascends upon the Highlands. (p. 81.) It brings us up to the Black Shale and the Lower Carboniferous formations. F (C.) THE SILICEOUS. (Formation 8,a.) Topmost. A leached mass of earthy, buff siliceous shales, containing interstratified layers of chert, or flint, (many of them heavy.) The mass, more or less dotted with small, siliceous geodes, or hollow concretions. At the bottom 3 or 4 feet,c I of grayish, argillaceous shale. z L Thickness of the whole,.............................. 140 feet. i (b.) THE BLACK SHALE. (Formation 7.) A thin, fissile, black, or bluish-black, rather tough, 0 bituminous shale. A foot of the shale at the top, contains kidney-shaped nodules. Ln t Thickness,................................................. 45 feet. (a.) THE NASHVILLE. (Formation 4.) This immediately follows the Black Shale in descending order. It is a great series of limei J stones, containing many fossils, and having the m 1 general characters already given as belonging to the formation. At the base of the hill is the current-formed bed spoken of above. Entire thickness to the bottom of the hill,..... 303 feet. 280 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 730. Leaving the foot of Snow's Hill, and passing down the valley towards Liberty, the Orthis Bed is soon intersected, and the upper member of the Trenton Formation, met with. The entire absence of formations 5 and 6, in this section, the Black Shale resting immediately upon the Nashville, is to be noted, as well as the high position of the shale. 731. In passing across the Basin, to the point presenting the section below, a high peak is met with-Mount Lindsleywhich is topped off with the Black Shale and the Siliceous Formation. This peak is about a mile from Greenwood Seminary, and about five miles from Lebanon. It rises 500 feet above the general surface of the country, and presents a section very much like that of Snow's Hill. The Shale and the Nashville are still in contact. The siliceous rocks of this peak contain carboniferous fossils. 732. Below is the section of formations presented along the steep grade of the Edgefield and Kentucky Railroad. The foot of this grade is at Baker's Station, on or near the line between Davidson and Robertson counties. By this grade the railroad ascends from the Basin to the Highlands. (~ 230.) r (d.) SILICEOUS. (Formation 8,a.) Upper part, soil and leached shaly matter, with o some layers of chert; contains, also, some beds [ of fossiliferous limestone. Middle part, bluish silico-calcareous rock, weathering to shale; contains small siliceous geodes. Lower part, shales m bluish above, and pea-green below. Two feet o fromn the base of this is a layer of ferruginous and argillo-calcareous rock, a foot and-a-half thick, containing carboniferous fossils. i Entire thickness,......................... 268 feet. r(c.) BLACK SHALE. (Formation 7.) Black shale like that in the Snow's Hill section; contains Lingulce. The upper foot of this contains the kidneyshaped nodules, or the kidneys, —argillaceous bodies, very fetid.......................................... 28 feet. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 281 (b.) NIAGARA. (Formation 5,d.) Gray limestone; much of it sparry and crinoidal; some layers argillaceous and light bluish i contains Caryocrinus ornatus, and species of Eucar -q lyptocrinus within eight feet of the Black Shale. The lower 20 feet doubtful as to age. The foot of the steep grade is 39 feet above the base of this group. L Entire thickness,.81 feet. (a.) NASHVILLE. (Formation 4.) The top of this is seen some distance below Baker's Station. The upper layer is red, very ferruginous limestone, or dyes-tone; is fossiliferous, and 8 feet thick. Below this are the usual Nashville lay4 l ers, highly fossiliferous. 733. Two points are to be observed in comparing this section with that of Snow's Hill: the first, that one of the missing formations is present, and that the Black Shale no longer rests on Nashville rocks; the other, that the Shale is low in the hills, and the Nashville at their base. This is in accordance with the fact already stated, that the strata of the Basin dip to the west. (Compare section in chapter X.) 734. The Nashville Formation sinks below the Cumberland River before reaching Harpeth Shoals; below Duck River, at the mouth of Bear Creek, several miles beyond Centreville, in Hickman County; and below the Elk, in Alabama, before reaching the Tennessee River. (~ 229.) It re-appears locally, as we have seen, in the southern part of the Western Valley, and in the Well's Creek Basin. (~ 364.) 735. Rocks of Special Use, and the Minerals of the Nashville Formation.-The agricultural features of this formation have already been spoken of. Its beds supplying rock-material for building purposes, have also been noticed. (See especially ~ 726.) In addition to the beds noticed, there are many solid layers of the formation which may be, and are, used in masonry. There is, in fact, no lack of material of this sort. But there is, on the other hand, much that is not durable, as the rocks in the walls of some old buildings about Nashville will testify. There is not a little room for discrimination. The natural outcrop of a bed proposed to be used in masonry ought 282 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. to be examined. The action the weather has upon a rock, is generally a good test of its durability. If it crumble easily, under the weather, and, especially, into a multitude of small corals and shells, it ought to be avoided. Layers pure enough for making lime, can be found in most any part of the formation. The hydraulic limestone of the Orthis Bed has been noticed. The thin, smooth, laminar rocks, found at some localities in this bed, are good flags. 736. In the section last given, a red, ferruginous limestone occurs. It is called dyestone by those living in the vicinity, and is used for dyeing purposes. The bed is here eight feet thick. Some of it appears to be rich enough to be used as an ironore. A few miles south, or southwest, of this point, in Davidson County, this, or a similar bed of red, calcareous rock, rich in iron, occurs. The hills containing it are of a deep red color. This rock resembles, in- some respects, the dyestone of East Tennessee. It rests upon rocks of the Nashville Formatton, to which it is referred. Its fossils, however, although having a Lower Silurian aspect, have not been carefully studied; and it may be found necessary hereafter to include it in the Niagara Group, of which, in this region, it would then form the base. These remarks apply especially to the rock represented in the section. Another dyestone layer occurs on the waters of Harpeth River, in the southwestern part of Davidson. 737. A bed of brownish red, coralline marble, occurs in this formation, on the waters of Elk River, in Franklin County, seven or eight miles west of Winchester. The bed is quite extensive, and was formerly worked, to a limited extent, at the county-seat. Other beds, some of them gray, are found in Franklin. 738. On Leiper's Creek, at the Oil Spring, in Maury County, and about half a mile below the Williamson line, is another bed of marble. This is a gray crinoidal, and coralline rock, spotted with red, and having a flesh-colored appearance. Associated with it are other layers, with red, gray, and green colors. Slabs cut from these rocks, and polished, present a handsome appearance. The main bed is ten feet thick, and quite massive. This marble is at the top of the Nashville Formation, and is followed, in ascending order, by the Niagara, which is here, TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES, 283 50 feet thick; and this, again, by the Black Shale, (8 feet,) above which is about 60 feet of the rocks of the Siliceous Formation. 739. In Sumner County, a few miles north of Hartsville, immediately below the Black Shale, is a bed, from which millstones were formerly extensively manufactured. This bed is a mass of shells, closely packed, and silicified. The bed is several feet thick, and contains Nashville species. The shells are so packed as to make the rock, in due degree, cellular. The weathered portions, near the outcrop, are preferred, for the reason that, within, the spaces between the shells are filled with calcareous matter, which, by exposure, is leached out. (~ 559.) The millstones manufactured here, were highly esteemed. I do not know that any have been made of late years. 740. The following is a list of minerals occurring in the Nashville Formation. A number of them are given in Troost's enumeration of the minerals of Davidson County. (7th Rep., p. 8.) The most of them occur in all the counties in which the formation exists, and are most frequently met with in railroad cuts, and at points where the rocks are quarried. 1. Calcite, (carbonate of lime;) common in small veins, and in crystals in small cavities of the limestone. 2. Siderite, (carbonate of iron;) in part, the dyestone rock noticed in - 736. 3. Dolomite, (carbonate of lime and magnesia;) occurs in cavities. 4. Celestite, (sulphate of strontia;) in small veins and cavities, associated with barite. In crystals in a small vein at Nashville, and in limestone seven miles from Nashville, on the Nolensville road. (Troost.) 5. Barite, (sulphate of baryta;) in many small veins associated with galenite, and in cavities alone, or with other minerals; Haysboro', near Nashville, is an important locality. 6. Gypsum, (hydrous sulphate of lime;) common at many points in cavities; fibrous, massive, and crystalline. 7. Anhydrite, (anhydrous sulphate of lime;) occurs, occasionally, in limestone, as above. 8. Galenite, (galena, sulphide of lead;) found in veins, mostly small and unimportant. Haysboro' an exception. 9. Sphalerite, (blende, sulphide of zinc;) found in small quantity, associated with the last. 284 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 10. Fluorite, (fluoride of lime;) in veins with barite and calcite, or alone in cavities. 11h Pyrite, (iron pyrites, sulphide of iron;) in small quantity, frequently seen in limestone. 12, Quartz; in a variety of forms; in crystals lining cavities, &c. 13. Hematite, (red oxide of iron;) abundant, in ochreous condition, in the soil overlying dyestone- (~ 736.) 14. Petroleum, This oozes, and has been doing so for many years, from the Nashville Formation at a number of points; at the Oil Spring on Leiper's Creek, in Maury County, the petroleum coming out of the marble; (~ 738;) at a point near the Cumberland River, on Mill Creek in Jackson County; and at several points on Obey's River, in Overton County. 15. Pittasphalt, (mineral tar;) often in the cavities in the limestone, the cavities being frequently lined with crystals of calcite; in a narrow fissure on Wm. Watkins' place, two miles north of Mount Pleasant in Maury County. 16. Asphaltum, (mineral pitch;) occurs like the last, in cavities and fissures. 741. Catalogue of Fossils found in the Trenton and NAashville Formations.-The following species are known by the author to occur in the Trenton and Nashville rocks of Middle Tennessee. In addition to these, there are many forms not made out, most of which, doubtless, are new. Much care has been taken in identifying the described species. Figures and descriptions have not been wholly relied on. With but very few exceptions, the fossils have been compared directly with New York or Canada specimens, and have been under the eye either of Prof. James Hall or of Mr. E. Billings. To these distinguished paleontologists I am under obligations for many favors. A few of the new species are named for the first time, some of which are accompanied with a brief descriptive note. Full descriptions will be given hereafter. See, also, Appendix A. The table has the general form of that in the " Geology of Canada," p. 936. The letters stand for the subdivisions of the formations as follows: 1st. TRENTON; C., Central Limestone; P., Pierce Bed; R., Ridley Limestone; G., Glade Limestone; Cr., Carter's Creek Limestone. 2d. NASHVILLE; O., Orthis Bed; M., Middle Nashville; U., Upper Nashville. TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 285 CATALOGUE OF TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SPECIES OCCURRING IN THE CENTRAL BASIN. TRENTON. NASHGENERA AND SPECIES. AUTHORS AND NOTES..... PLANT.E. BUTHOTREPHIS? 1 B. ceespetosa, Hall, 3d Reg. Rep.......... AMORPHOZOA. STROMATOPORA. 2 S. rugosa, Hall's Sp. * * 3- pustulosa, Safford. (n. sp.) Differs in having conical pimple-like elevations on its surface, otherwise much like rugosa.................. ZOOPHYTA. STENOPORA. Chcetetes. 4 S. fibrosa, Goldfuss, * * 0 * 5- petropolitana, Pander.......... 6- Libana, Safford. Like fibrosa but with celltubes much larger.......... 7- ramosa, D'Orbigny's sp................... 8- frondosa,... CONSTELLARIA. 9 C. antheloidea, Hall's sp................ TETRADIUM. 10lT. fibratum, Safford...... 11 - columnare, Hall's sp............. COLUMNARIA. 12 C. alveolata, Goldfuss........ * 13 -- stellata, Favistella stellata, Hall. I do not think this the same as aIveolata................... 14- Carterensis, Safford, (n. sp.) Hemispherical masses, tubes five and six sided, about one line in diameter............. PETRAIA. 15 P. profunda, Hall's sp.......... CRINOIDEIE. CLEIOCRINUS. 16 C. Libanus, Safford. (n. sp.)......... DENDOCRINUS. 17 D. modestus, Safford. (n. sp.)......... * 286 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. TRENTON. NASHGENERA AND SPECIES. AUTHORS AND NOTES. VILLE. GLYPTOCRINUS. 18 G. Libanus, Safford. (n. sp.)......... PALEOCRINUS. 19 P. sulcatus, Safford. Allied to P. striatus. Billings... * ATERIADSE. PETRASTER. 20 P.? antiqua, Troost's Sp.; 5th:Rep., pp. 11 and 58................... BRYOZOA. PTILODICTYA. 21 P. acuta? Hall's sp.... *. 22- symmetra, Safford. (n. sp.) 23 - explicans, I(")....I.... 24- mu]tiramis, " (")..... 25 -? Libana, " (") A simple ribbon-like species, from three to five inches long, and from seven to eleven RETEPORA. lines wide 26 R. fenestrata, Hall. 3d Reg. Rep.... * * GRAPTOLITHUS. 27 G. amplexicaule, Hall.......... BRACHIOPODA. LEPT.ENA. 28 L. sericea, Sowerby.. STROPHOMENA. 29 S. alternata, Conrad.......... * 30- incrassata, Hall, * 31 - filitexta, 32 - planumbona,............... 33 - planoconvexa,.................. 34 - tenuistriata, Sowerby................... ORTHIS. 35 O lynx, Eichwald...... 36 - occidentalis, Hall................... 37 - pectinella? Conrad................... 38- testudinaria, Dalman. 39- deflecta, Conrad. Lep. deflecta Pal. N. Y., Vol. I, p. 113....... * * * 40- perverta, Conrad.... *... 41 - subaequata,......... 42 - Stonensis, Safford. (n. sp.) Resembling the last in form, but the fine radiating ridges thrown into groups by stronger ones, much as in S. alternata.... TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES 287 TRENTON. NASHGENERA AND SPECIES. AUTHORS AND NOTES. — _ I 43 - bellarugosa, Conrad....... 44- tricenaria, *...... SKENIDIU iL. 45 S. Halli, Safford. (n. sp.) 12th Reg. Rep. p. 70. This is the Tennessee species spoken of in the above Rep.......... RHYNCHONELLA. 46 R. capax, Conrad. R. increbescens, pars............. * 47I- modesta, Say,............... 48 - recurvirostra, Hall.......... * * 49I — Ridleyana, Safford. (n. sp.)... * * 50 - altilis, Hall. 5I — orientalis, Billings........... 52 - dentata, Hall................... 1 TRIPLESIA. Camerella, Billings. 53 T. varians? More globose than fthe Canada specimens.... *.. 54 -- extans, Hall................... CONCHIFERA. AVICULA. 55 A. demissa, Conrad................... AMBONYCHIA. 56 A. radiata, Hall................ 57 - maxima, Safford. (n. sp.) From three to five inches long................... 58- Swanana, Safford. (n. sp.)..................... CRYTODONTA. Palcearca, Hall. 59 C. Hayniana, Safford. (n. sp.) P1. F. Fig. 1...................* 60- Saffordi, Hall. sp. 12th Reg. Rep. p. 11. This Rep. P1. F. Fig. 2...................* 61 - obtusa, Hall........... 62- ventricosa? ".......... 63- Canadensis, Billings.......* * 5 64- amygdalina, Hall........... 65- Normanensis, Safford. (n. sp.)........; 66 — Winchelli, " (") P1. E. Fig 2. 2.............. * 67 - Gantii, " (") P1. E. Fig. 1. * CTENODONTA. Tellinomya, Hall. 6S8 C. nasuta, Hall. *... 69 - contracta, Salter...... * 70- Logani? * 71 - Hartsvillensis, Safford. (n. sp.) P1. F. Fig. 3.... 288 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. TRENTON. NASHGENERA AND SPECIES. AUTHORS AND NOTES. MODIOLOPSIS. 72 M. modiolaris, Conrad.......... * * GASTEROPODA. HOLOPEA. 73 H. obliqua, Hal. *... CYCLONEMA. 74 C. bilix, Conrad................... SUBULITES. 75 S. subfusiformis, Hall.................. 76 - vittata,......... 77 - elongata, Conrad.......... EUNEMA. 78 E. prisca, Billings. * HELICOTOMA. 79 H. Tennesseensis, Safford. (n. sp.) *...... 80-declivis, (") * MACLUREA. 81 M. magna, Lesueur. *... TROCHONEMA. 82 T. umbilicata, Hall's sp. The individuals found in Bed C. may belong to a distinct species. *. PLEUROTOMARIA. 83 P. subconica, Hall. *... 84 -- Americana, Billings. 85 -- rotuloides? Hall......... 86 - lapicida, Salter..... 87- Progne, Billings................ 88 - staminea? Hall.......... MURCHISONIA, 89 M. ventricosa, Hall.......... * 90- gracilis,......... 91 - Sumnerensis, Safford. (n. sp.) P1. G. Fig. 1......... 92 - bicincta, Hall. * * * * * 93 - serrulata, Salter. 94- aspera? Billings..........* 956- Bowdeni, Safford. (n. sp.) P1. G. Fig. 2................ HETEROPODA. CRYTOLITES. 9I C. ornatus, Conrad................ 97 - compressus,......... TRENTON AND NASHVILLE SERIES. 289 TRENTON. NASHGENERA AND SPFECIES. AUTHORS AND NOTES. TE N VILLE. 98- cristatus, Safford. (n. sp.) Surface without waves or imbrications. * * BELLEROPHON. Bucania, Hall in part. 99 B. bidorsatus, Hall, *:......* 100 — expansus,......... 101 — punctifrons, Emmons................ 102- Lindsleyi, Safford. (n. sp.) P1. G. Fig. 4................... 1031- Troosti, P4. G. Fig. 3.... CARINAROPSIS. 104 C. carinata, Hall................ PTEROPODA. CLIODERMA., 105 C. Saffordi, Hall. 14th Reg. Rep....... *. CONULARIA. 106 C. Gattingeri, Safford. This may be C. Trentonensis,which it much resembles. A specimen found in excavating the cellar of Dr. Gattinger's house, in Nashville, is greatly larger than any of the figures of Trentonensis that I have seen. The original was about ten inches long................... 107 - Trentonensis? Hall. SALTERELLA. Billings. Pal. Foss. p. 17. 108 S. Billingsi, Safford. (n. sp.) From one and a half to two inches long, straight, large end of longest specimens about one-sixth of an inch in diameter, tapering to a point, striated longitudinally, cross-section circular. A beautiful and abundant species; at least three cones, one within the other. CEPHALOPODA. ORTHOCERAS. Hall. 109 0. bilineatum,............ 110 - fusiforme, 111 - multicameratum?............... 112 - strigatum, i................ * 113 - amplicameratum,................* 114 - decrescens, Billings..........* 115 - pertinax,......... 116 -Allumettense,........... 117 - Huronense,............ 118 - rapax,......... 119 - Bigsbyi, Stokes. * * 1201- anceps, Hall. *. * Sig. 19. Vol. 1. 290 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. TRENTON. NASHGENERA AND SPECIES. AUTHORS AND NOTES. VILLE. 121 - capitolinum. Safford. (n. sp.) Intermediate in character between Bigsbyi and anceps. Plate G. 3, Fig. 1............. 1221- Foxense, Safford. (n. sp.)......... CYRTOCERAS. 123 C. Bondi, Safford. (n. sp.) P1. G. 3, Fig. 3. *...... 124 - constrictum, Hall. r 125 -- "? C 126 - macrostomum,............ 127 -? Stonense, Safford. (n. sp.) P1. G. 3, Fig. 2. * 128 - Massiense, " P1. G. 3, Fig. 4.... LITUITES. 129 L. undatus, Conrad.......... * TROCHOLITES. 130 T. ammonius, Conrad.......... * CRUSTACEA. ASAPHUS. 131 A. Barrandi? Hall. Foster and Whitney's Rep. Part 2d, p. 210.......... 132 - canalis, Conrad.......... CALYMENE. 133 C. Blumenbachii, Brongniart. C. senaria......... *. CHEIRURUS. 134 C. pleurexanthemus, Green. *... * ENCRINURUS, 135 E. excedrinus, Safford. (n. sp.......... * ILLAENUS. 136 I. Americanus, Billings........... 137 - ovatus, Conrad.......... LICHAS. 138 L. Trentonensis, Conrad............. PHACOPS. 139 P. callicephalus, Hall....... DALMANITES. 140 D. Troosti, Safford. (n. sp.) ENTOMOSTRACA. LEPERDITIA. 141 L. fabulitus, Conrad. Very abundant. *... 142 - capax, Safford. (n. sp.)............ 143 - Morgani, NIAGARA AND LOWER HELDERBERG. 291 CHAPTER IX. THE NIAGARA AND LOWER HELDERBERG GROUPS; FORMATIONS V AND VI; UPPER SILURIAN. 742. In this chapter, the Upper Silurian beds, as developed in Tennessee, are described. These, taken together, form a group which is very heterogeneous in lithological and other characters, andlwhich, moreover, is of limited volume compared with what it becomes when followed northward into the States of Pennsylvania and New York. It is a collection, to some extent, of the feather-edges and the outlying patches, or of the odds and ends of disappearing, or reappearing, formations. (] 372.) 743. The Upper Silurian group, as here treated, embraces sandstones, limestones, shales, all of many colors, and beds of iron-ore. The minor formations composing it, have always occupied areas more or less local, never having been continuous, and State-wide, as we have reason to think the great limestone formations already described, once were. 744. In some parts of the State, in horizons in which we would naturally look for these rocks, and where underlying and overlying formations are present, not a bed is found to represent the group. In the belt of country skirting the western base of the Cumberland Table-land, this is notably the case, and in every ravine deep enough, the outcropping rocks show it to be so. Along the eastern escarpment of the Central Basin, (p. 98,) from the Kentucky nearly to the Alabama line, the Black Shale, as seen in the Snow's Hill section, (~ 729,) and in the sections of the Basin on the Map, and in chapter X, rests on the Nashville Formation, without any intervening rock. 745. On the western escarpment, this is also the case at a few points, but generally a Niagara bed has appeared to separate the two, bearing above it, here and there, a trace 292 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. Lower Helderberg. The Niagara and Helderberg strata are unconformable to the Nashville, and never covered the dome of the Basin. (~ 367.) The two groups-the Niagara and the Lower Helderberg-will be considered respectively, in separate sections. SECTION I. THE NIAGARA GROUP,AOR PERIOD; FORMATION V. 746. The subdivisions of this group are, in descending order, as follows: 5,d. The Meniscus Limestone; uppermost. 5,c. The Dyestone Group, or Subgroup. 5,b. White Oak Mountain Sandstone. 5,a. Clinch Mountain Sandstone, at the base. The lowest three are East Tennessee formations. The lMtniscus Limestone is represented in this division of the State, but it is preeminently a formation of the Western Valley, (~ 104.) These formations represent the Medina, Clinton, and Niagara epochs of the New York nomenclature, and are all embraced in Dana's Niagara Period. (5,a.) THE CLINCH MOUNTAIN SANDSTONE. 747. The characteristic rock of this formation, is a white, or grayish-white, hard Sandstone, having a maximum thickness of at least 400 feet.* It is typically presented in Clinch iMountain, the boldest and greatest mountain within the limits of the East Tennessee Valley. (~ 97.) The sandstone lies in a great sheet, on the eastern slope of the mountain. It is a heavybedded rock; contains rarely a layer of shale; frequently presents on its exposed surfaces multitudes of fucoids; and has some of its beds profusely pierced with rods, filling the holes of a species of Scolithus. Layers, twenty inches thick, have * In the Table of Formations, on page 161, the thickness of this sandstone is given doubtfully at 300 feet. Its maximum is, however, more than this, and may even exceed considerably that given above. No opportunity has been presented of measuring it where present in greatest volume. NIAGARA AND LOWER HELDERBERG. 293 been observed, with rods in abundance, running through them.* The surfaces of the layers are also often ripplemarked. The rock is generally fine grained, but sometimes coarse enough to constitute a conglomerate, with pebbles as large as peas. 748. In its more western presentation, as in Powell's Mountain, in Hancock and Claiborne Counties, it graduates upward into brown and red sandstones, some of which are highly ferruginous. These red -sandstone, however, will be referred to the White Oak 2Mountain Group. 749. But, in addition to the white sandstone, the Clinch Mountain Formation is made to include, provisionally, an underlying heavy stratum of red calcareous shale. The sandstone, at all points, rests upon this shale. In one section, that of the Nose, in Hawkins, the shale measured 400 feet. This stratum has already been incidentally referred to in the Bull's Gap and White Horn section, on page 249. 750. Below are presented several sections, which will enable the reader to understand the relations the Clinch Mountain Group sustains to the other Niagara divisions, as well as the relations the Niagara, as a whole, sustains to the other great formations. The sections will also be of service for future reference. 751. The Nose referred to above, is the short isolated mountain known as the Devil's Nose, and mentioned on page 43. The white sandstone caps the mountain; the red shale, and the underlying Nashville beds, outcrop around its slopes. The following is a section taken on its eastern slope: g r(b.) Sandstone; white, or whitish-gray; mostly fine-grained and hard; some layers fine conglomerate; about 200' ~ feet thick. H J This rock caps the Nose, and is a remnant of the V 7 base of a synclinal fold. c:> zi(a.) Shale; brownish-red calcareous rock, weathering into P shale; upper part inclined to be sandy; thickness, 400'A feet. * The species concerned, is most likely Hall's Scolithus verticalis of the Medina Sand, stone. The rods are much like those of S. linearis of the Chilhowee (Potsdam Sandstone, (Q 481,) and if the two formations were brought together by a fault and displacement, it SWould be difficult to distinguish between them by means of these fossils. 294 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. (e.) Buf Shales, weathered; lower part containing thin limestones; several hundred feet. (d.) Bands of Reddish Calcareous Shale, near the foot of the mountain. (H 635, 637.) (c.) Flaggy Blue Limestone; some layers containing, plenti1P4 <2 fully, individuals of a species of Receptaculites; several Z< (~ 852.) (2) Bitumen, (Asphalo r1 tum.) The shale is imC, - pregnated with it, (~ 852.) I 1a; Also occurs, rarely pure, -A b:t in thin seams, from the ~;.~ \ eighth of an inch to an ~ l inch in thickness. The, ~! bitumen of these shales is X 5 ~ ~. hardly an asphaltum, be-, ing generally, perhaps,,o aoqs9a.JjnI ----- t2 more like the bitumen of a P M9m cannel coal. * a ~ (3) Petroleum, oozes from l the formation at a few.~_at,oQ'~I points in the valley of a l O - Obey's River, in Overton 7.~ Az County. [ c.;c (4) Copperas, in effloresm, cencesand incrustationson:0 the shales in sheltered I=i'- places-" rock houses. x0 ~ Localities very numerous, o ~,. a~. and in all the counties in m Oj a l-qtu SN D'l ijS r which the formation outF.; crops to any considerable M0 l extent. This mineral %:a-: comes from the decompoI F: ~- w sition of the pyrite in the E-1 ^I to' shale. m'; (5) Alum, both iron and i\ ~ potash alum; the first most J' e4 abundant. This mineral eaoqi3 1!umuns /,i: g Z -. occurs, like the last, in X I 0 ~ c efflorescences and incrus THE BLACK SHALE. 335 tations in the "rock houses," and quite abundantly. In many of these places, are cart loads of material, made up of earth, crumbling shale, copperas and alum. The localities are, perhaps, the most numerous in Jackson, Overton, Putnam, DeKalb, Cannon, Coffee, Franklin, Lincoln and Giles counties. 870. The Black Shale might be used profitably at many points, in the vicinity of the railroads, for the manufacture of both copperas and alum. The pyrite in the rock contains both sulphur and iron, and when moist and exposed to the air, spontaneously changes into copperas. When this change takes place in contact with shale, as it generally does, both copperas and alum are formed. The shale contains alumina, one of the essential ingredients of alum, and the pyrite, for the most part, supplies the others. This produces an iron alum, but the addition of potash would convert it into common alum.* It is not proposed to give the details of the process by which the substances mentioned may be manufactured from the shale. Any one interested in this matter can find these in Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines, and in works on Chemical Technology. It is very certain that alum and copperas could be manufactured from this shale, on a large scale, in Tennessee, under very favorable conditions as to material and its accessibility. 871. Were it not for the presence of pyrite, which, in decomposing, disintegrates the shale, the formation would be a source of roofing slate, and would afford, also, smooth and very large flags; but the mineral that makes it an alum and copperasproducing rock, unfits it for these purposes. For the same reason it is worthless as a building material. Stone-fences, or walls, built of it, last but a few years. They crumble down into heaps of shaly stuff, which, when protected from the rains, is well mixed with copperas and alum. A notable instance of the worthlessness of this rock as a building material, is seen at Blount Springs, in Alabama. At that place, a number of years ago, several cottages, for the accommodation of guests, were built of it. In 1866, the writer was there, and the slate cottages * Many of the " rock houses" have been frequented by Indians and hunters, some of them, perhaps, regularly inhabited. This has been the means of bringing ashes, and hence potash, into them, to which, perhaps, the formation of small quantities of common alum are due. 336 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. had crumbled into just such heaps as those mentioned, and, where sheltered, were ready for the alum maker. 872. An interesting circumstance connected with the Black Shale is, that it can be made, as stated in ~ 853, to yield oils, suitable for illuminating, lubricating, and other purposes, by distilling it in close vessels. The bituminous (or hydro-carbonaceous) matter in the shale (~ 852) is decomposed by the heat, and converted into the oils, which are distilled over and condensed in suitable vessels. The richest of the shales will produce from thirty to forty gallons of oil to the ton, but ordinarily they yield much less than this. From this it is seen that the Black Shale is a source of supply of "coal oil,"' as the fluid in use is called in parts of Tennessee, to fall back upon when the petroleum wells are exhausted. 873. Below is an extract taken from the Report on the Geology of Canada, (1863, p. 784,) giving an account of the production of oil from bituminous shales in that country. The shales in Bosanquet, mentioned in the latter part of the extract, are, most likely, synchronous with those of the Tennessee Black Shale: In 1859, works for obtaining these oils were erected on the locality of this shale, near the town of Collingwood. Twenty-four longitudinal castiron retorts were set in two ranges, and heated by means of wood; of which twenty-five cords are said to have been required weekly. The shale, broken into small fragments, was heated for two or three hours; from eight to ten charges being distilled in twenty-four hours. In this way, it is said, from thirty to thirty-six tons of shale were distilled daily, and made to yield 250 gallons of crude oil, corresponding to about three per cent. of the rock. By a farther continuance of the heat, a small additional proportion of oil was obtained from the shale; but it was found more economical to withdraw the charge after two hours and a half. The bed of shale available for the purpose, adjoins the works, and was furnished, ready broken, at twenty cents the ton. The cost of crude oil from the shale, was stated by the manufacturers to be fourteen cents the gallon. When rectified and deodorized, it gave from forty to fifty per cent. of burning oil, and from twenty to twenty-five per cent. of pitch and waste, the remaining being a heavy oil, fitted for lubricating purposes. After two or three unsuccessful trials, and the repeated destruction of the works by fire, they were at last, in 1860, got into successful operation, and a ready market was found for the oils. Data are, however, wanting to show whether the enterprise was remunerative; and it was after some time THE BLACK SHALE. 337 abandoned, partly, it is probable, on account of the competition of the petrolium of Enniskillen, which was about that time brought into market in large quantities, and at a very low price. Should it, however, at any time, be found advantageous to renew the experiment of distilling the bituminous shales of this formation, those of Collingwood offer very favorable conditions, from their accessible position, and also from the ready means of transport afforded both by the lake and the railway. The shales of the Devonian series in Bosanquet, are not less rich in combustible materials than those of Collingwood. An experiment made on a small scale, gave 4.2 per cent. of oil, which is equal to about ten gallons to the ton of shale. The specimen was obtained from Cape Ipperwash, where a section of twelve or fourteen feet of the shale is exposed. They here contain so much organic matter, that the broken shale, which forms the shingle of the beach, is said, when set on fire, to continue burning for a considerable time. Large portions have been thus burned, and have assumed a reddish color. These shales are also seen in Warwick and Brooke. 873a. The Black Shale is the source of hundreds of " Sulphur Springs." The so-called sulphur-water is water impregnated with stlphureted hydrogen gas, one of the substances resulting from the decomposition of the pyrite (sulphide of iron) contained in the shale. The sulphur-water of White's Creek Springs, in Davidson county, of the Epperson and Red Sulphur Springs, in Macon, Winchester Springs, in Franklin, Elkmont Springs, in Giles, and of many other more or less frequented places, both in Middle and East Tennessee, flows from this formation. The alum well, located in the Black Shale in Hawkins County, has been mentioned. (~ 864). Sig. 22. Vol. 1. 338 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. CHAPTER XI. LOWER CARBONIFEROUS; FORMATION VIII. 874. We now reach, in our upward progress, a great group of strata intervening between the Black Shale, just described, and the Coal Measures. This group is mostly limestone; in addition, it contains beds of shale, a few sandstones, and, in its lower part especially, heavy layers of chert. Its maximum thickness is about 1200 feet. 875. It has been found convenient to divide this formation into two groups, as follows: 8,b. Mountain Limestone, the greater and upper portion, the greatest presentation of which is on the slopes of the Cumberland Table-land. 8,a, Siliceous Group, of which cherty limestones, calcareosiliceous rocks, and heavy layers of solid chert, are quite characteristic; forms, often, ridges in the Eastern Valley, and plateaus (the Highlands) in Middle Tennessee. This division is the most useful that can be made, so far, at least, as the consideration of the topographical and agricultural features of the State are concerned. Each member will be the subject of a section. SECTION I. THE SILICEOUS GROUP. (8,a.) LOWER, OR PROTEAN MEMBER-UPPER, OR LITHOSTROTION BED; ST. LOUIS LIMESTONE-USEFUL ROCKS, MINERALS, AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. 876. The name " Siliceous Stratum," was used by Troost in his Reports, and was intended to embrace about the same rocks as are here described. The epithet, Siliceous, refers to the fact that the formation contains, very generally, or is in good part made up of, siliceous material in some form LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. 339 or other. This material may be chert, fine sandstone, silico-calcareous rocks, or siliceous shale. 877. The Siliceous Group includes the two following mlembers, the lithological characters of which, as observed in Middle Tennessee, are briefly given. (b) Lithostrotion, or Coral, Bed; this, the upper part, is cherty limestone, fossiliferous, often crinoidal, sometimes siliceous and argillaceous, and everywhere characterized by a large coral, known to geologists as Lit hostrotion Canadense. The bed is the equivalent of the St. Louis Limestone of the Missouri geologists, and has a maximum thickness of about 250 feet. (a) The Lower, or Protean Member; a series of strata, silico-calcareous in the main; often limestone; often sky-blue, silico-calcareous, and sometimes argillaceous, rock, weathering into shale; the series containing, as a characteristic feature, especially in its middle and lower portions, heavy layers of chert, ranging in thickness from an inch to two feet, and alternating with the other rocks of the member. In addition, the series holds layers, and locally heavy beds, of crinoidal limestones. The strata, very generally, excepting the purer limestones, are sparsely dotted with small concretions, usually siliceous. At a few points, wellformed geodes, lined inside with quartz crystals, occur of considerable size. Thickness, in general, from 250 to 300 feet, but falling, in the southern part of the State, below this. 878. (a) Lower, or Protean Member.-I have, above, briefly characterized the two members of the Group as they are presented west of the Cumberland Table-land. The lithological features of the Lithostrotion Bed are comparatively constant. But not so with the -Lower Member. In some sections the layers of chert in this are wanting, as at Paradice's Hill, on the Clarksville road, in the northwestern part of Davidson county, (~ 246,) where the mass is siliceous and argillaceous limestone, containing small calcareous and siliceous concretions, and running down into bluish shale.* See, also, ~ 732. Again, on Obey River, in Overton county, near the Kentucky line, the rock is of such a character as almost wholly * In 1846, Dr. D. D. Owen and Dr. J. G. Norwood made the following section at this point (Researches among the Protozoic and Carboniferous Rocks of Central Kentucky, &c., p.4.) (4) At top; soil, siliceous beds, and nodules................................ 77 feet. (3) Fine siliceous rock, with segregations of impure limestone........ 29 feet. (2) Impure argillaceous limestone, with calcareous concretions, and beds of water-limestone, passing downwards into bluish gray argillaceous shale................................................................. 178 feet. (1) Top of Black Shaee at the foot of the hill, and at a vertical distance below the summit of...................................................... 284 feet. 340 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. to weather into shale. These instances are, however, exceptional. The chert-layers are generally present, and outcrop in the upper parts, and at the tops of the hills on all sides of the Central Basin. They cap, too, the highest hills and ridges within it. As presented around the Basin, the Lower Member of the Siliceous Group is often a leached mass of chert-layers, alternating with sandy shale. 879. In the southern part of the State, at certain points, the member is cherty, crinoidal limestone, resembling the Lithostrotion Bed above. In fact, going southward, the lower member becomes thin, and below Huntsville, on the anticlinals of Alabama, the two members, in my opinion, become one bed, characterized throughout by Lithostrotion Canadense.* 880. It may be well to mention here, some of the local beds occurring in the Lower Member of the Siliceous Group in Middle Tennessee. Layers of gray crinoidal limestone occur at many points; sometimes these become beds from ten to fifty, or more, feet in thickness. They are either pure or impure limestone. Such beds furnish the crinoids of White's Creek, in Davidson county, and at other points. 881. In Hickman county, on Piny River, and extending northwesterly to the valleys of Sugar, Tumbling, and other creeks, in Humphreys, is a bed of current-formed, metal-ringing, bluish gray limestone, made up of grains of comminuted shells. It occupies a position on, or near the Black Shale, and has a maximum thickness of not less than 150 feet, though its thickness is generally much less. The bed occurs near the top of the bluff at Montgomery's Mill, and represents the Siliceous Group in the section presented at that place. (See 1 821.) The entire bed is sufficiently well characterized in what is said of it in the section referred to. The bed is seen at Vernon, on Piny. It contributes not a little to the agricultural value of the Piny River Valley _ 882. In the Checkered-house bluff on the Cumberland River, in Stewart County, mentioned in ~ 365, the layers of rock are separable into two groups; the upper, including gray and crinoidal limestone, with more or less chert in nodules, and from 200 to 250 feet in thickness, is the Lithostrotion Bed; the lower is a bed of calcareous rock, full of burry chert, a thickness of 150 feet of which is exposed in the bluff. The upper portion of the latter rock, aside from the abundance of the burs, is something like the metal-ringing limestone mentioned in the last paragraph. The thickness of this rock is, perhaps, considerably more than 150 feet. It occurs at a number of points in Stewart County, and lies not very far above the Black Shale.,. A little below Gadsden, in Alabama, I have seen a number of specimens of this coral in an outcrop of the Siliceous chert, very near the Black Shale. LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. 341 883. In the counties of Wayne, Lewis, Hickman, Humphreys, and in the western parts of Williamson and Maury, the base of the Siliceous Group often presents itself as a pale blue, fetid, calcareo-siliceous shale, alternating in layers, more or less, with chert. At some points the chert layers are numerous, making half, or more than half, the mass; then, again, they are wanting through considerable vertical distances, so as to leave beds of shale, without chert, from ten to fifty feet in thickness. At a few points beds of this shale occur from 60 to 100 feet in thickness, as at Col. Cooper's, on Swan Creek, in Lewis County, where it is nearly or quite 100 feet, and without chert. The shale is seen in Green River, at Waynesboro', measuring, a little below the town, 40 feet. It is also shown in the section at White's Mill, on Buffalo. (Q 859.) It occurs. however, at numerous localities. The shale at Paradice's Hill, (R 878, note,) may be referred to it. I have said that it is fetid; it has often, however, an agreeable and remarkable aromatic odor. This shale is mainly interesting from the fact that it contains a fauna which has not been much studied, and in which species of Trilobites, Conularia, Atrypa, Discina, Lingula, Chonetes, Leda, Pleurotomaria, and of other genera, occur. 884. In much of the region between the Central Basin and the Western Valley, especially in Lewis, Wayne, Perry, Hickman, Dickson and Humphreys counties, the Lower Member of the Siliceous Group often presents itself, as a stratified, leached mass of soft, pale-yellowish, or orange-gray, porous sandstone, which can be easily sawn or cut with an axe. Many exposures, sometimes great bluffs, of this material, occur at intervals along the water courses, the original rock having lost its calcareous part and its skyblue color by weathering. It is a common circumstance, in traveling through the region mentioned, to meet with a farm-house having a neat chimney built out of square blocks of this sandstone. As a building material it will answer well for many purposes. Entire houses might be constructed out of it. After exposure it becomes harder than when first quarried. The manner of working this sandstone, and the uses made of it, recall, although a very different rock, the'rotten limestone" of Mississippi and Alabama. 885. The " chalk," of Wayne, and of other counties, may be mentioned in connection with the sandstone above. The rocks of the formation, and more especially the chert, instead of presenting their weathered masses in the form of a soft sandstone, often afford considerable beds of a harsh, pulverulent, white, stratified substance, locally called chalk. About three miles south of Waynesboro' is the mouth of a tributary of Green River, which is known as Chalk Creek, so named on account of the occurrence of the chalky substance in its bed and along its banks. The "chalk" is seen for three or four miles along this stream. On, beyond this valley, and about nine miles from Waynesboro, on Fall Branch, a tributary of Indian Creek, an exposure of 30 feet of it was observed. It also occurs in the heads of the hollows leading down into the valley of Beech Creek, and in similar positions on the waters of many other creeks. 342 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. As presented in the banks of the streams, it is an alternation of soft and harder layers, mostly white, some of it yellowish. It is mainly siliceous, and layers occur showing the transition from chert to'chalk." Occasionally a thin layer of plastic clay occurs with the others. The material frequently resembles kaolin, and has been mistaken for it. It occurs in great quantities, and doubtless will be put to some useful purpose. If the opportunity be presented, it will be investigated with reference to its economic relations. 886. This Lower, or Protean, Member of the Siliceous Group, is, in general, equivalent to the divisions of the Lower Carboniferous Limestone lying below the St. Louis Limestone. It is, perhaps, more especially the equivalent if the Keokuk Limestone; it contains, however, some Burlington forms. Below are some of the species occurring in this member. It was my intention to give, so far as possible, a full list of all the Lower Carboniferous species that have been met with in Tennessee, but want of time prevents it. The White's Creek Crinoids, of Troost, are from this formation, but few of them, however, are included here.* (1) Spirifer imbrex, Hall. Occurs immediately above the Black Shale below Huggins's Mill, near Manchester, in Coffee County, associated with Productus semireticulatus; also in the same horizon at White's Creek Springs, and near Col. Robinson's, on the Middle Fork of Cold Water, in Lincoln County. (2) Spirifer subcequalis? Hall. Sumner County, Louisville and Nashville Railroad Tunnel. (3) Spirifer tenuicostatus, Hall? Same locality as the last. (4) Spirifer suborbicularis, Hall. Tunnel of Louisville and Nashville Railroad; and also Col. Robinson's, in Lincoln County. (5) Spirifer subcuspidatus, Hall. Hawkins County, East Tennessee. (6) Spirifer lineatus, Martin. (S.pseudolineatus, Hall.) Many localities. (7) Orthis Michelini, L'Eveille. White's Creek; Col. Robinson's, Middle Fork of Cold Water, Lincoln County. (8) Platyceras equilateral Hall. Falls of Caney Fork, below Col. Bosson's house. (9) Granatocrinus granulatus, Roemer. (G. cidariformis, Troost.) Middle Fork of Cold Water, Lincoln County. (10) Agaricocrinus Americanus, Roemer. (A. tuberosus, Troost.) Cannon County, near Woodbury; White's Creek Springs. * On most of the specimens of the species enumerated, I have had the benefit of the opinions of Prof. James Hall, A. H. Worthen, and Prof. A. Winchell, and to these savans I express my obligations. LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. 343 (11) Actinocrinus conicus, Cassedy and Lyon. (conocrinus tuberculosus, Troost.) White's Creek Springs; Cannon County associated with the last. (12) Actinocrinus Nashvillce, Troost. White's Creek; Ridge in Sumner County. (13) Actinocrinus (Batocrinus) magnificus, Cassedy and Lyon. White's Creek. (14) Actinocrinus (Dorycrinus) Gouldi, Hall. Ridge Sumner County. (15) Cyathocrinus stellatus, Hall. White's Creek Springs. (16) Forbesiocrinus Meeki, Hall. Same locality as the last. (17) Forbesiocrinus Saffordi, Hall. Near White's Creek Springs, in Davidson County. (18) Icthiocrinis tiarceformis, Troost. White's Creek Springs. 887. Most of the above species, occurring out of Tennessee, are Keokuk forms. Spirifer imbrex and Orthis Michelini are found in the Burlington Limestone. Spirifer subaequaiis, and S. tenuicostatus are Warsaw forms, and the latter also Keokuk. (See table at the end of this chapter.) 888. (b) Upper Lithostrotion Bed; St. Louis Limestone.Some of the general features of this member of the Siliceous Group, as it is presented in Middle Tennessee, have been given in ~ 877. The chert of these rocks is quite characteristic as well as the large corals. It occurs, for the most part, in nodular or lenticular, though often rough, masses, and not in extensive layers, like the chert or flint of the lower siliceous. Moreover, it is usually highly fossiliferous, abounding in lace-like bryozoa. Whenever the rocks of the Lithostrotion Bed are present, the surface is strewed, more or less, with loose, half-decomposed masses of chert, from which fossils may be obtained. The soil overlying it is generally red, made so by oxide of iron liberated in the decomposition of the cherty masses. And here, I am inclined to think, we have a clue to the source of the iron accumulated in the ore-banks of our western iron-region. 889. There is no considerable area in Middle Tennessee, presenting the lower rocks of the Siliceous Group, in which, upon the highest points, as upon the ridges, traces, at least, of the Lithostrotion Bed are not to be found. It is a very common circumstance, in traveling on the Highlands, to meet with the lasge coral (always silicified) and the chert characterizing the 344 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. formation. Even in the areas where all the limestone has been leached away, some of these are often left to tell of its former presence. (FIG. 1.) (FIG. 2.) Lithostrotion Canadense. The above cuts are representations of the large coral to which reference is so frequently made in this section. Fig. 1 is a view from above, showing the cup-like ends of the prisms; fig. 2 is a lateral view. (Taken from Dana's Manual.) 890. This bed may be regarded as covering an area nearly co-extensive with that of the Highlands of Middle Tennessee (page 81,) although, at many points, but a few of its lowest layers are present. At some, all is gone, as I have stated, but remnants of its cherty parts. Where absent, or nearly so, the Lower Siliceous being at the surface, the country is generally poor, and such regions constitute the "barrens." (See ~ 216.) Where, however, the Lithostrotion Bed is present, in some volume, the soil is red and the lands are generally rich. In the areas spoken of in ~ 217, it is this formation which gives the lands their character. 891. An interesting topographical feature, more nearly connected with this formation than any other, is presented in the "sink-holes" which everywhere occur within the areas underlaid by it. See ~ 218. 892. The following places are located upon the Lithostrotion Bed: Springfield, Clarksville, Charlotte, Dover, Lawrenceburg, Winchester, McMinnville, Sparta, Smithville, Cookville and Livingston. Waverly, Centreville, Linden and Waynesboro' are upon strata of the Lower Member of the Siliceous Group; while Newberg and Manchester occupy an inter LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. 345 mediate position. Camden, in Benton, is located on the siliceous group, on the line of its western abrupt termination. 893. The most marked area underlaid by these rocks, is the belt spoken of in ~ 217, lying along the western base of the Cumberland Table-land. The rocks of the bed generally outcrop, in considerable volume' at the base of the Table land on its west side, extending more or less upward on its slopes. Another marked area is found in the counties of Robertson, Montgomery and Stewart, north of the Cumberland River. The fertile red lands of this area give us our most important tobacco region. In it may be included the plains of Southern Kentucky, much of which are based on the same formation. 894. It may be well to introduce here a section of the rocks at Clarksville, in further illustration of the character of the Lithostrotion Bed. The section was taken near the mouth of Red River, at a time, however, when the Cumberland was tolerably high, and covered the lowest layers. (Compare ~ 882.) (7) Rocks at the top of the hills covered with soil; loose, fossiliferous, cherty masses, with occasionally a specimen of L. Canadense strewed over the surface.................. 30 feet. (6) Bluish limestone, siliceous, moderately cherty, contains small concretionary cavities................................ 15 feet. (5) Limestone, not cherty, contains a small Granatocrinus...... 20 feet. (4) Limestone, mostly like No. 6; contains L. Canadense....... 32 feet. (3) Limestone, like that above, with plates and spines of species of Archceocidaris abundant, fragments and plates of Melonites multipora, in its lower part Pentremites obliquatus? etc..................................................... 48 feet. (2) Limestone, light-bluish, massive, crinoidal, semi-oolitic, without chert; some of the layers abound in plates of Melonites; thirty feet measured down to the high water at the time, say...................................................... 40 feet. (1) Below the last, as seen at other times, the limestone is thin-bedded and cherty, containing, occasionally, crinoidal layers; seen in the bed of the river about Clarksville, say..................................................... 30 feet. 895. The beds above are all fossiliferous. Among the species occurring are Spirifer lineatus, S tenuicostatus, S. subcardiiformis, IHemipronites crenistria, Pentremites conoideus, the small, undescribed Zaphrentis, mentioned in the list below, plates of species of Melonites, more or less, in all the beds, etc. 346 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. 896. The following are a few of the species occurring in the Lithostrotion, or St. Louis, Limestone of Tennessee. It is my purpose to give a more complete list on some future occasion. The fossils are generally silicified. (1) Lithostrotion Canadense, Castelnau. Found at nearly all points with the rocks of the formation. (2) Lithostrotionproliferum, Hall. Clarksville and Cowan; not as common as the last. (3) Zaphrentis spinulifera, Hall. Many localities. (4) Zaphrentis, undes? a small species, from a half to threefourths of an inch in length, having short spines on its surface, occurs abundantly at Clarksville, Charlotte, Estill Springs, and also, as Mr. Worthen informs me, at Spurgen Hill, Indiana. (5) Pentremites conoideus, Hall. Clarksville, Iron Mountain Furnace, Charlotte, Cowan, &c. (6) Pentremites obliquatus? Roemer. (See plate I, Fig. 2 a, b, c, d.) Its horizon is given in the Clarksville section above. (7) Dicchorinus simplex, Shumard. Charlotte, and at other points. Dr. Troost's specimens of "Doliolocrinus ovalis," the same as this, were not found at Sparta, Tenn., but came from a point a few miles north of Scottsville, in Kentucky. Sparta, however, might be a locality. (8) Melonites multipora, Owen. Clarksville, Charlotte; and other points. (9) Melonites Stewartii, Safford. Differs from M. Multipora in having fewer rows of plates in the interambulacral spaces; the latter also rise in more rounded ridges. Other points of difference are also presented. See plate I, Fig. 1, a, b, c, d. The precise locality of this fossil is not known to me; it is, however, from Middle Tennessee, and I have reason to think, from the Lithostrotion Bed. I take pleasure in dedicating this species to my distinguished friend, Prof. Wm. M. Stewart, of Clarksville. (10) Spirifer tenuicostatus, Hall. Clarksville, Tunnel of the L. and N. Railroad, in Sumner county, Charlotte, Cowan, etc. (11) Spirifer subcardiiformis, Hall. Clarksville. (12) Spirifer Keokuk, Hall? Cowan, and other points; may be a new species. (13) Spirifer Leidyi, Norwood and Pratten. Clarksville, Charlotte, Cowan, Sparta, &c. LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. 347 (14) Spirifer spinosus, Norwood and Pratten. Same localities as last. (15) Spirifer lineatus, Martin. At many points. (16) Hemipronites (Streptorhyncus) crenistria. At many localities. (17) Retzia vera, Hall. Sparta, Cowan, &c. (18) Rhynchonella mutata, Hall. Sparta. (19) Productus pileiformis, McChesney. Clarksville and Cowan. (20) Productus punctatus, Martin. Clarksville, Charlotte, etc. (21) Conularia Missouriensis, Swallow. Sparta, and vicinity of Clarksville. A fine specimen of this was presented to me by Prof. W. M. Stewart. 897. Many of the above species are characteristic forms of the St. Louis Limestone; others, in the Northwestern States, are found in horizons either above or below this. 898. Consideration of Siliceous Group in General Resumed.As yet, I have, for the most part, considered this Group with reference to its two members in Middle Tennessee. It will now be taken as a whole.. So far as its presentation in East Tennessee is concerned, no division is practicable. 899. The group is one of great extent in Middle Tennessee. A greater or less thickness of its strata constitutes, at all points, the cap-rock of the natural division of the State, described in the First Part of this Report as the:Highlands. or Highland Rim of Middle Tennessee. (See pages 81-96.) The area of the Siliceous Group is the same as that of the Highlands, and both have the same limits. To the siliceous material of the former is to be attributed the present exfteuce of the latter, as a plateau, or collection of plateaus. This material makes the strata of the Group weather-resisting, and hence, when they are horizontal, or approximately so, plateau-making. The Group is, in fact, a hard crust, which, although elevated, has had power to resist, to a considerable extent, denuding agencies. 900. The Central Basin is a large oval area in which this crust has been broken through, undermined, and removed. (~~ 208, 209 and 867.) Beneath the crust the strata are comparatively soft, yield to the action of water, and, where uncovered, wash away. In this way not only has the Central Basin been formed, with its ramifications, like those of the 348 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. Caney Fork and Duck River, (~~ 234, 235,) but also the Western Valley and its branches. (~250-256.) See, also, the Map. 901. The mutual relations of the Lower and Lithostrotion beds, as to the proportional parts of the Highlands they underlie, have been referred to in ]] 889 and 890. Among the areas underlaid by Lithostrotion rocks, certain special ones are mentioned in ~ 893. 902. In the Valley of East Tennessee, the Siliceous Group, outside of its topographical relations, has very little interest attached to it. It does not present itself here as the cap-rock of a plateau, for the reason that its strata, like those of the other formations, are very generally tilted, or inclined at a considerable angle to the horizon. It is here, like certain other groups, ridge-making, and for reasons that have been given. (See remarks under the Iron Limestone, ~ 628.) 903. In this part of the State it is often associated with the two underlying formations of the Black Shale and the Dyestone Group, in the Dyestone Ridges, the three making the trio mentioned on a previous page. (See ~ 783, and also, ~ 862.) The formation occurs at nearly all of the presentations of the Black Shale, with which it is in contact, either on one side or the other. It is seen in the ridge immediately west of Montvale Springs, at which point it is mostly sandstone. (~ 801 and a, in diagram, p. 190.) It occurs along the eastern base of Clinch Mountain, and generally forms a ridge, the Black Shale lying between it and the mountain. In Hawkins it outcrops on both sides of the synclinal spoken of in ~ 863, the outcrop on the Clinch Mountain side forming Pine Mountain; further south, and about opposite Rice's, both outcrops contribute to form Stone Mlountain. (~ 758(2).) 904. In Hancock County are two principal outcropping lines of it. These are crossed by the section in ~ 753; one lies in the ridge starting up northeast of Sneedville; the other is on the northwest side of Newman's Ridge. (See, also, diagram on page 208.) The Siliceous Group is also seen in the Cumberland Gap section, in ~ 756, as well as in the diagram just referred to. It occurs in most of the Dyestone Ridges as already stated. (See ~~ 358, 782 to 801, also diagrams pages 139 and 142.) As to the difference between the chert of the Siliceous Group and that of the Knox Dolomite, see ~ 537. LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. 349 905. Rocks of Special Use, Minerals, and Agricultural Features of the Siliceous Group. —In paragraph 884 I have spoken of the soft sandstone resulting from the leaching of certain rocks in that Group. Considering the wide extent of country in which this is found, the ease with which it is worked, and the uses to which it may be applied, this sandstone becomes a matter of considerable interest. It may be added that, occasionally, a layer of it occurs fine enough to be used as a polishing powder, like tripoli; much of it might be used for scouring purposes, in the place of Bristol brick. The siliceous, chalky material, of Wayne, has been mentioned in ~ 885. 906. Much of the Group is too rough and cherty to be used for building purposes, nevertheless it contains, especially in its upper portion, many layers of limestone of compact structure, without chert, and well-bedded for quarrying. Some such layers, exposed along the Cumberland River, are oolitic, of a light gray color, and are a desirable building stone. 907. Near the heads of several of the small valleys in Stewart County, are deposits of fire clay, of considerable interest. One of these, situated on the Cumberland Iron Works property, and near the " Morgan Bank," has furnished material for fire-brick for many years. The bed is in a fiat bottom, near the head of a small valley. It is grayish-white, lies in a compact stratum beneath a superficial layer of gravel from three to five feet thick. It is well exposed in two or three pits, some of which have been sunk in the.clay five or six feet without reaching the bottom. The bed is quite extensive doubtless, and may underlie several acres. The clay has been in use at the furnaces, and was used at the old rolling mill for many years. Mixed with fine gravel, it makes an excellent fire-brick. It has been in demand at other points. Much of it has been shipped down the river to Hillman's Works, in Kentucky. 908. A bed of clay situated like this, and similar to it, though not as extensive, was seen about four miles southwest of Cumberland City, in Stewart County. Highly esteemed fire-brick have been made from this, also, and used in the furnaces. 909. These beds are located in valleys of the Siliceous Group. The material in them comes from the decomposition of silico-argillaceous layers, 350 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. and has been brought to these places by water, and deposited. Doubtless, other beds, in addition to those known, may be found at spots where the conditions are similar. 910. It is upon this formation that most of the Iron Ore banks of the Western Iron Region of Tennessee rests. The ore itself is, doubtless, of a much more recent age than the underlying rocks, and perhaps is synchronous with the bed of water-worn gravel, which appears almost everywhere on the ridges within the ore region. 911. The matrix of the ore in the banks is made up, in good part, of the ruins of the Siliceous Group, angular, half-decomposed chert and clay; to these, is sometimes added, near the top of the banks, water-worn gravel. This mass, generally located on the top of a ridge, is often a hundred feet deep. The ore appears to have been introduced into it by water, or, at least, to have been precipitated within it from water. 912. I have been much inclined to think that the principal and original source of the ore has been the ferruginous chert of the Lithostrotion Bed. (~ 888.) It has iron enough to color the soil characteristically red. The banks are centres, at which, through the agency of chalybeate waters, drawing their iron from the decomposing chert, the ore bas accumulated. The consideration of these ore-banks, however, properly goes with the description of the gravel-bed mentioned. 913. The only successful borings made in Tennessee forpetroleum, as yet, are in this formation, and these are in a region of limited area on Spring Creek, in the southern part of Overton County. Three borings within 150 yards of each other, obtained oil at a very moderate depth-from 22 to 52 feet. The supply was not lasting, however, and the borings were made deeper. The Newman Well has been the most productive, and has yielded many barrels of oil. What its condition is now, I know not. In this region the Black Shale is about 200 feet below the surface. The Siliceous Group above it is made up of alternating layers of limestone and chert. The body of oil appears to have been in the latter formation, but its source may have been deeper. 914. On the West Fork of Obey, a short distance north of the crossing of the Livingston and Jamestown road, is a group LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. 351 of oil springs in this formation which are quite promising. The oil comes to the surface near the water's edge. No boring has been made at this point. Other springs occur on this stream. Some petroleum has also been found on Jones Creek, in Dickson County. 915. Quartz geodes of some size and interest, are found in the rocks of this formation at several localities. Among these, may be mentioned a point on the ridge east of Chestnut Mound, and near the Putnam and Smith County line; another a few miles east of Woodbury, on the McMinnville road. At both localities interesting specimens may be found lined inside with crystals of quartz. At that near Woodbury, the geodes afford sometimes rhombohedral crystals with mere traces of modifying planes. (-1.) 916. At Alisonia, in Franklin County, fine specimens of native sulphur have been obtained in these rocks. In some specimens, the sulphur is in beautiful crystals. Native sulphur is frequently met with in the lower part of the formation, and sometimes fills small siliceous geodes. 917. The agricultural features of the Siliceous Group have been referred to several times, and need not be dwelt upon now. What is said in ~~ 216 and 217, in reference to the agricultural features of the Highlands, applies, of course, here. See, also, ~~ 890 and 893. SECTION II. THE MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE. (8,b.) 918. This is a heavy body of limestone, constituting, for the most part, the base of the Cumberland Table-land. Its strata outcrop on the slopes of this great plateau, from beneath the overlying sandstones and conglomerates, on all sides, (Q 175.) Its boldest and most important presentation is on the western slope. It generally appears on the eastern side, but its outcrop, owing to the disturbed condition of the rocks in this part of the State, (Q 344,) is not uniform, either as to height above the valleys, or as to the 352 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. manner or position in which the strata are presented at the surface. At a few points on this side the formation does not appear at all, being ingulfed by local faults, and the strata of the Coal Measures being in the valleys. Such is the case in the region of the Saltworks, in Anderson County, and at a point below Kimbrough's, in Roane County. The outcrops of this limestone, not connected with the Table-land, will be noticed below. 919. The Mountain Limestone is a heavy group of limestones and shales, the latter constituting, in the aggregate, about onefourth of the mass. In addition to these, the strata include a a sandstone, which, in the more northern counties, is from 40 to 50 feet thick. The group has its maximum thickness in the southern part of the State, where it is about 720 feet. Going northward, its volume becomes less, until, near the Kentucky line, it is reduced to 400 feet. 920. Several sections will be given below, in which are presented the strata of the Mountain Limestone. Two of these present not only this formation, but the entire Lower Carboniferous Series, from the Black Shale to the Coal Measures. In these sections the lithological features of the Mountain Limestone are given in detail. The beds may be grouped and characterized, in general, as follows: (f.) At top, next below Coal Measures, very generally a stratum of crinoidal limestone, sometimes with more or less shale above, and from 4 to 70 feet in thickness. ( 960.) (e.) Variegated Shales and Marl, with occasionally a layer of limestone, from 50 to 130 feet. (d.) Argillaceous Limestone, usually interstratified with more or less shale, which is sometimes variegated; the limestone is a light bluish-gray, finegrained rock, (" lithographic limestone," or a mud-stone,) breaking with conchoidal fracture, and crumbling under the weather. It occasionally includes layers of blue fossiliferous and other limestones, (as No. 6, of the Spring Creek Section, and Nos. 17 and 18, of the Sewanee Section.) From 60 to 150 feet thick. (c.) Blue Fossiliferous Limestones mainly, some beds oolitic, some argillaceous, with occasionally a layer of shale, from 90 to 170 feet. (b.) Sandstone, fine-grained, often flaggy, caps, and gives character to the benches and plateaus mentioned in. 192 and 193. In White and Overton Counties, it is from 40 to 50 feet thick; in the Sewanee Section it is poorly represented by about 8 feet of sandstone, more or less calcareous. This sandstone has not been observed on the eastern side of the Tableland. In Alabama, south of the Tennessee River in the anticlinal valleys, it becomes a heavy formation. LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. 353 (a.) Limestones, with a few beds of shale; fossiliferous; beds often oolitic; occasionally argillaceous; from 160 to 270 feet. The sections below give, not only lithological details, but also, to a limited extent, paleontological features. 921. (1.) The first presents the entire thickness of the Lower Carboniferous Limestone, near the head of Spring Creek, in Overton and Putnam Counties. It embraces all the strata, from the Black Shale to the Coal Measures. It is a combination of two sections; the lower one begins below with the Nashville Formation, in the boring of the " Jackson Oil Well," which is located about three-fourths of a mile from the Newman Well, (~ 913,) at the foot of the " first bench" of the Tableland, (~ 192,) on Spring Creek, (or rather, near this creek, on its tributary, Hurricane,) and ascends to the sandstone at the top of the bench; the second, or upper one, commences with this sandstone, at Esq. Cooper's, between three and four miles south of the locality of the first, and ascends with the Walton Road to the top of the mountain. The strata of the Coal Series were not measured. (3) Sandstone, on a high point south of the road. P, Thickness? (2) Shales, a heavy bed, with clay iron-stones. This, with the sandstones, was estimated to be............130 feet. i (1) Sandstone, upper part thin-bedded or shaly............120 feet. o 1 In all............................................... 2 0 feet? (10) Blue Limestone,.......................................... 4 feet. (9) Variegated Shale, brown, gray and green,............... 12 feet. (8) Shale and Marl, mostly gray, with some brown and green at top; at intervals some thin layers harder z; than others,................................................... 40 feet. 0 (7) Argillaceous Limestone, dull bluish gray, breaking Iq with conchoidal fracture; has cavities containing dolomite................................................ 27 feet. (6) Blue Limestone, fossiliferous,........................... 22 feet. (5) Argillaceous Limestone, resembling 7, above, but more compact, and somewhat fossiliferous................... 20 feet. o (4) Blue Limestones,....................................... 85 feet. (3) Shales,....................................... 6 feet. (2) SANDSTONE, fine-grained, more or less flaggy,......... 48 feet. (1) Blue Limestone, fossiliferous........................168 feet. Entire thickness,......................................... 432 feet. Sig. 23. Vol. 1. 354 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND FORMATIONS. z; (2) Cherty Limestone, limestone not seen; chert abundant ~;a on the surface,..............................................128 feet. p A (1) Limestone, impure, of water-lime aspect, lower part containing sparry blue layers; contains LithostroP, | tion Canadense,............................................ 75 feet. In all.......................................................203 feet. Sandstone, fine-grained, seen at a number of points in m~ aj Overton and Putnam...................................... 8 feet. PA Limestone, blue, fetid, rather coarse, fossiliferous and criz;% g noidal, seen,................................................ 45 feet. % Rocks penetrated by the boring of the Jackson Well: many layers chert,..........................................216 feet. P-4 ~-4 In all,...................................................... 269 feet. BLACK SHALE, resting on the Nashville Formation,............ 28 feet. 922. The two following sections combined, give the series of Lower Carboniferous strata, as found in White County, complete, from the Black Shale to the Coal Measures. The first and uppermost is a section of the slope of the mountain, or Table-land, taken at a point from four to five miles east of Sparta, and running up to Bon Air. It includes the sandstone of the Mountain Limestone division. The latter, or second section, was taken in the vicinity of the Falls of Caney Fork, and extends from an outcrop of the Black Shale, in the river below the Falls, upward, to the sandstone capping Hickory-nut Mountain, and the same, geologically, as that mentioned above. The diagram below illustrates how the two sections are related: E4 O o "Coal Measrs Sandstone. _ Black River Shale. The heavy line at the bottom is the Black Shale; the Coal Measures cap the Mountain, or Table-land, at Bon Air; the sandstone uniting the sec LOWER CARBONIFEROUS. ~ 355 tions, occupies, on the right, an intermediate position, and is seen to cap Hickory-nut Mountain on the left. The space between the Black Shale and the Coal Measures is all Siliceous Group and Mountain Limestone. 923. This will be designated as the Bon Air Section., ((2) Conglomerate, capping the mountain at Bon Air...... 90 feet, 4 (1) Shales, with three or four thin seams of Coal,......... 102 feet.' l In all,...........................................................192 feet. r (8) Iimestone, bluish, crinoidal, contains Archimides Swallovana, some layers oolitic,.......................... 40 feet. (7) Variegated Shales and Marls, green, brown and gray; thin, harder layers at intervals; about the middle of the mass is a layer of shale full of Athyris ambigua, and also containing spirifer bisulcatus........100 feet. (6) Shale or Marl, with two or three beds of. impure fossiliferous limestone and some cherty layers at top, 15 feet. (5) Limestone, hard, blue, fossiliferous, weathering.~ brown; contains cavities holding barite,............ 7 feet. (4) Shale and Limestone in alternating layers; upper part mostly shale, lower part mostly limestone; shales variegated, mostly greenish, some brown; limestone, bluish gray, fine-grained, argillaceous, breaking with conchoidal fracture, non-fossiliferoNJ ous; at the base a cherty layer,........................ 63 feet. P (3) Limestone, blue, fossiliferous, with occasionally a thin layer of shale; much of it oolitic; contains Pentremites Godonii and P.'pyriformis, Agassizocrinus,