r: I THE CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA =~., -. I '. *J ' ',,: I. A *, 11 >,A,. ~*. iBY LEBECCA SWITZER, PH.D. S' -BMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMI I'OR TlHE DEGREE OF, DOC INi THE FACULTIY 0 COLUMBIA UN oEtN;T 01 E RiQUTREMENTS 'TOR 0 PHILOSOPHY IF PHIL OPII, IVERSI r RK 1NrTITUTO "rI (tJsjzT APOf C; NEW YO 1927. A *F g j ~.Z!lln~liUU IIIilUiitl I iit~i u~i/iIiilllitItlIIIIU i i Mu IIiII IIIIUUi! IIii [ m RECIED IN ExGHANGB | PROM i!. o PLM\o "U t -. 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LUIS DE GRANADA BY REBECCA SWITZER, PH.D. SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY JINTITUTO m oA*EPAfAjp NBW YORK 1927 Copyright, 1927, by the Instituto de las Espaias Distributors: In the United States: Columbia University Press, New York City, U. S. A. In Spanish speaking countries: La Lectura, Recoletos 25, Madrid, Spain Printed in the U. S. A. by Lancaster Press, Inc., Lancaster, Pa. TO MY FATHER AND MY MOTHER c~611 CM~~^V'!XP L FA C PREFACE At the suggestion of Professor Federico de Onis of Columbia University I began an investigation of the influence of the Ciceronian style on the Spanish prose of the Golden Age. Several months' research convinced me that this influence could be traced most easily in the works of Fr. Luis de Granada. In developing this subject I have not attempted to treat all the aspects of Granada's language and style. I have attempted only to show to what extent and in what way he applied the Ciceronian style to the Spanish language. In preparing this study I have used the following editions of the treatise, Ad Herennium, and of the works of Cicero, Quintilian and Fr. Luis de Granada: Anon., Incerti auctoris de ratione dicendi ad C. Herennium libri IV, von F. Marx, Leipzig, I894. Cicero, Opera, Oxoni e typographeo Clarendoniano, I783. Quintilian, Institutionis oratoriae libri duodecim, 2 vols., Lipsiae, I896-I903. Fr. Luis de Granada, Obras, edicion critica y completa por Fr. Justo Cuervo, 14 vols., Madrid, I906. Libri sex ecclesiasticae rhetoricae; sive de ratione concionandi; curante Ioh. Baptista Munnozio, Valentiae, 1768. iii 111 iv PREFACE Los seis libros de la Rhetdrica eclesidstica o de la manera de predicar, escritos en latin por el V.P.M. Fr. Luis de Granada, vertidas en espanol y dados a luz de orden del ilustrisino Senor Obispo de Barcelona, Madrid, I793. To the following I wish to express my indebtedness and appreciation: to Professor Federico de Onis for his initiation and supervision of my work and for his constructive and helpful criticism; to Professor Arthur Livingston for his careful reading of the text and for his assistance as to form; to Professor Nelson McCrea for his suggestions as to the Latin part of the study; and to Professor Lilia M. Casis of the University of Texas for her sympathetic encouragement and guidance in the selection of material. I am very grateful also to Professor E. H. Hespelt of New York University, General Editor of the publications of the Instituto de las Espanias, for his assistance in preparing the manuscript for the press. August, I927. k i It j 9 i"i L. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER I. FR. LUIS DE GRANADA AND CICERONIANISM IN SPAIN.............. I Granada, the Spanish Cicero............ I Ciceronianism in Spain before Fr. Luis de Granada........................... I4 CHAPTER II. THE RHETORICA ECCLESIASTICA 36 CHAPTER III. AMPLIFICATION............. 41 Modes of Amplifying.................. 42 Augmentation...................... 42 Accumulation....................... 43 Comparison of Wholes or Parts....... 45 Reasoning.......................... 47 Figures of Amplifying................. 48 Descriptions of Things or Persons..... 48 Pretended Conversation............... 50 Conformation...................... 51 CHAPTER IV. FIGURES USED TO AROUSE EMOTIONS..................... 55_ CHAPTER V. CICERONIANISM IN GRANADA'S VOCABULARY AND SYNTAX............ 60 Vocabulary........................... 6I Syntax.............................. 76 Position of W ords................... 76 Transposition..................... 76 Chiasmus........................ 78 Personal Pronouns................... 81 Connectives........................ 84 v Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Indirect Questions................... 87 Infinitive in Indirect Discourse........ 88 CHAPTER VI. CLARITY.................... 91 CHAPTER VII. ADORNMENT............... 95 Tropes........................... 96 Schemata........................... I02 Figures of Repetition................ 105 Figures of Contrast.................. III Variety in the Forms of the Contrasts. ii6 Words Similar in Form.............. ii8 Rhythm............................ I21 CHAPTER VIII. THE SENTENCE............ I28 CHAPTER IX. APTNESS.................... I38 The Plain Style................... I40 The Temperate Style.................. I42 The Sublime Style................... I43 CHAPTER X. SOME RESULTS OF GRANADA'S WORK............. 148 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................ 153 I FR. LUIS DE GRANADA AND CICERONIANISM IN SPAIN GRANADA, THE SPANISH CICERO Fr. Luis de Granada (1504-1588), the most celebrated orator of his time and the first of the great classic writers of the Spanish Golden Age, was known from the beginning of his public career as the "Spanish Cicero." 1 His perfection in rhetorical and artistic style-something not reached before in the Spanish language-gained for him fame not only in Spain and Portugal but throughout Europe. Practically all of his works 2 were translated into French, Italian and Portuguese; many into English, German and Dutch; and some into Greek, Polish and Japanese. Few Spanish writers of any period ever enjoyed in their own day greater popularity than did Granada.8 According to Cuervo there were four edi1 Cf. Mufioz, Vida y virtudes de Fr. Luis de Granada, p. I62. 2Granada's publications consist of five major works, short summaries of these works, dialogues, sermons, prayers, letters and biographies. He translated several books from Latin into Spanish, and he preached and wrote in Spanish, in Portuguese and in Latin. 8 The name of Granada attached to a book meant infallibly that it was "good." On the death of Dofia Catalina (1578), Queen of Portugal, to whom Granada had been confessor and adviser for many years, he preached 2 1 s I 2 REBECCA SWITZER tions of the Libro de la oracion y meditacion by 1555-it appeared in 1554-and eight by the following year. Even the water carriers, says Fr. Gonzalo de Arriaga, went about with this book under their arms, and "the fruit and vegetable venders read it while they sold and weighed fruit." 4 It seemed to the public of Granada's time that in him the spirit and the eloquence of the Church Fathers had been not only revived, but also enriched with the inspiration of the new classicism and expressed in a language known to all. But Granada's popularity was not due solely to his publications. He had even earlier established himself as a preacher. In Portugal it was said that he could do three things equally well: talk, write and preach.5 This aptitude for public speaking, accordthe funeral oration. (Cuervo says, in his Biografia de Fr. Luis de Granada, p. 47, that he has not been able to find this.) Cardinal D. Enrique directed D. Crist6bal de Mora to send this sermon to Philip II of Spain suggesting that the latter read it when tired, for it would be sure to please him. In fulfilling these instructions, D. Cristobal wrote that the enclosed book contained a sermon which "could not be written in bad style" since it was Fr. Luis de Granada's. On the margin of the letter from Portugal Philip directed that thanks be given to the Cardinal for the book, and that the sermon be praised, because he knew it " must be good" although he had not had time to read all of it. 4Cuervo's Prologo in his edition of Orac., t. 2, p. vi, quoted from Arriaga's Historia del Colegio de San Gregorio de Valladolid. For other encomiums of Granada see Mufioz, Vida, pp. 163, 357, 380, 383; Cuervo, Biografia, pp. 35, I2I-I27. These encomiums in Cuervo include letters from the Pope, from Santa Teresa and from San Carlos Borromeo. 5 Mufioz, Vida, p. 116. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LuIS DE GRANADA 3 ing to Cuervo, manifested itself when Granada was but a child. On one occasion, after a quarrel with another boy, he pleaded his case with such vigor and keen reasoning that he attracted the attention of the Conde de Tendilla, was taken into the latter's service and given an opportunity to begin serious studies. At an early age Granada seems to have been fond of listening to sermons. On leaving the church he would gather other boys around him and repeat the sermon he had just heard so eloquently and so energetically that he became known among his playmates as the " Preacher." 6 Later on, when he actually did become a preacher, his contemporaries tried to express their appreciation of his eloquence by bestowing on him the highest praise in their power-" the Spanish Cicero." When Granada was but a novice, the Dominicans, says Cuervo, saw in him the greatest hope of their order.7 In fact, when he left the College of San Gregorio de Valladolid, in I534, he was already famous as an orator. Many pulpits were open to him. It was arranged for him to live in the capacity of preacher at the palace of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, who had been impressed by his eloquence. Granada's fame extended to Portugal, and at the request of Cardinal D. Enrique he was transferred to the diocese of Abora that he might be adviser to that Prince. Within a short time Granada was well known in the whole Peninsula. Though he spent 6 Biografia, pp. 9-Io. 7lIbid., p. Io. 4 REBECCA SWITZER the last years of his life in Portugal, the influence of his oratory continued to be felt in Spain, where his sermons were read even when they could not be heard. Philip II visited Lisbon in the year 1581, and Granada was invited to preach in the royal chapel on that occasion. The following day Philip wrote to his daughters: "Por ser tarde no tengo tiempo de deciros mas, sino que ayer pedric6 (sic) aqui en la capilla fray Luis de Granada, y muy bien, aunqu'es muy viejo y sin dientes." 8 Granada must have been master of his audiences. Speaking of his powers of oratory, Joannini, his contemporary biographer, mentions particularly his skill in adapting his manner of expression to different types of subjects. When stressing the evils of sin and vice, fire would flash from his eyes; speaking of the mysteries and mercies of God, he would show strong emotion; and when encouraging sinners to conversion, words " loving, passionate and compelling would pour from his lips so that even the hardest hearts were moved." 9 Granada's success as a writer and as a preacher in the Golden Age of Spanish literature was due largely to his store of learning. Though the son of poor parents, he was able to continue in the Convent of Santa Cruz in Granada the studies which he had begun in the service of the Conde de Tendilla. In I529 he entered the College of San Gregorio de Va8 Quoted by Cuervo, Biografia, pp. II8-II9. 9 Quoted by Mufioz, Vida, p. 36. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 5 lladolid, where he enjoyed for five years the advantages of this great center of learning conducted by the Order of Preachers in Spain. There also he was on intimate terms with such scholars as Melchor Cano, Carranza and Astudillo, and he came into touch with the various intellectual currents of the time. Granada was well acquainted with religious and classic literature. The Bible was almost a part of himself. Its different writers-especially Jeremiah, Isaiah, Solomon, David and Paul-he discusses familiarly in their personalities and in their styles of writing. His works are a veritable exposition of the Scriptures. From them he quotes passages at length, elaborating various themes or summarizing long sections in interesting and simple manner. With the Church Fathers and their writings Granada was just as conversant. It is the "very eloquent" St. Chrysostom whom, at one place in his Rhetorica ecclesiastica, he recommends in preference to other saints;10 though, in the same work, he for the most part chooses illustrations for his rhetorical theories from the writings of St. Cyprian, " the most eloquent and elegant in speech of all the Fathers." 1 However, from the number of times Granada refers to Lactantius, to Saints Augustine, Jerome and Gregory and to other early Christian writers, it is evident that he was familiar with all of them. In the Rhetorica, a work based on the treatise, Ad Herennium, and on the rhetorical works of Cicero, 1o Rhet. II. VII. 11 Ibid., Prologue to Book V. 6 REBECCA SWITZER Quintilian and St. Augustine, one would naturally expect references to the pagan Ancients. But it is interesting to note that his other works, which are entirely religious in character, reflect just as strongly the influence of his classical learning. He uses the philosophy of the Ancients to elucidate the Christian religion; he quotes and summarizes long passages from pagan writings, especially in his discussions of Nature; and, as far as is possible in another language, he makes his own the rhetorical forms of expression characteristic of many writers of Antiquity. In a word, there is no conflict between Granada's religious ideas and his classicism. Apparently he reads with equal trust and admiration classic, Biblical and early Christian writers. The first interest him because of their philosophy and their learning, the other two for their religious doctrines, and all three for the beauty of form portrayed in their writings. He finds striking similarities in the styles of the three, which proves to his satisfaction that there is an " art of eloquence " that is universally valid. Granada is not interested in theological controversy. 2 In the Dedicatoria of the Introduccion del simbolo de la fe (1583) he rejoices that Spain, through the grace of God, the protection of the King 12 Muioz says of Granada: " Dexaba a las Escuelas las quistiones theologicas que tienen mas de ostentacion de ingenio, que de edificaci6n y de que es incapaz casi todo el auditorio." (Vida, Bk. II, Ch. III.) In the Introduccion del simbolo de la fe (t. 8, pp. 7-8) Granada says that others have tried to prove the divinity of Christ, but that he will leave such questions to the " doctores." CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 7 and the providence of the Inquisition, is free from the pestilence of heresy. Since, however, it exists in other countries, he thinks it timely to strengthen the minds of the religious in their faith, that they may be able to reject dangerous doctrine in case the sound of it comes to their ears. To make unnecessary mention of the errors of heretics is, in his opinion, foolish, because the people should know as little about them as possible. He, for his part, eschewing debates, will confine himself to the truth.13 It is not, however, Granada's eagerness to teach, reform and save mankind that distinguishes him from other preachers and religious writers of the sixteenth century-it is his manner of expressing himself that is different. Before Granada's time, Latin was the accepted literary medium for all kinds of writing, but more especially so for religious works. In the first place, that language had been for centuries identified with Christianity and Christian teaching. This traditional association tended to gain for Latin a reverence that at times amounted almost to superstition. In the second place, the Humanistic movement, then at its height, had on distinctly non-religious grounds practically succeeded in establishing the preeminence of Latin as the one legitimate literary tongue. There was, then, a twofold basis for the belief that the vernacular was an unworthy means of expression for men of letters. But Humanism in Spain, as in other countries, 13 T. 5, PP. 6-7. 8 REBECCA SWITZER found itself involved in an unsuccessful conflict with other movements, which were destined eventually to undermine its hold and to nullify some of its purposes and immediate consequences. These forces, in their unified resultant, constitute the spirit and the development of what is now known as Nationalism. Fr. Luis de Granada was, so to speak, a product of Humanism and Nationalism, or, we may say, he utilized these two forces in his own individual way. His life (I504-I588) coincides rather remarkably with the culmination of Humanism as well as with the gradual growth of Nationalism in Spain. In the first half of the sixteenth century, while Granada was studying and being trained for his future work, the Spanish Renaissance was at its height and he became permanently imbued with some aspects of its spirit and teachings. Different phases of this movement left their impression on his style and language, and were in turn transmitted by him to later writers who were not so close to the sources as he had been. But later, in the second half of the sixteenth century, when Granada began to write and to preach, Nationalism with its patriotic appeal for the use of the native tongue had become dominant, and Granada's responsive and receptive nature was just as deeply swayed by its influence. The result was that, while Fr. Luis de Granada's works are characterized by an unmistakably pure CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 9 Ciceronian style, the majority of them are written, not in the Latin of Cicero, but in Granada's own mother tongue, the national language of Spain. Thus Granada was among the first writers to use a Spanish that may be recognized as belonging to the classic period of Spanish literature. He responded quickly to the stirrings of Nationalism; he used spontaneously certain vernacular expressions; he included consciously in his works the traditions of the Spanish people along with old sayings and proverbs handed down from the Middle Ages; he contradicted his early classical training by employing ancient Spanish national forms, though they were technically stamped as archaic; his figures of speech appealed to all classes of people; he referred to interesting events of the day, and left untouched no phase of Spanish life that might interest some one of his hearers or readers. All this, with Granada, was a matter of practical good sense. If a preacher had a message to convey to the people, it could best be done, he thought, in a language with which his audience was familiar. He advocates that even matters of theology should be treated in the romance; then preachers who do not read Latin will not be compelled to study grammar for four years just to acquire elementary instruction in religious doctrine. To the objection that theology should be written in Latin to prevent the people from becoming acquainted with things which it is inadvisable for them to know, Granada 10 REBECCA SWITZER replies that those matters which might arouse doubt and prejudice can be omitted.14 But while Granada was using and advocating the use of the vernacular for nationalistic and practical reasons, he was continually and earnestly utilizing his classical training. To appeal to all classes he must use a language intelligible to all. Furthermore he must also express himself in the most effective manner possible. Therefore he determined to speak and to write in the vulgar tongue and to apply to it the rules of classic art, so that by giving beauty of form to his language he might move his hearers to repentance. In his study of the Ancients he came to know these rules thoroughly. The works of Cicero and Quintilian, the Biblical and the early Christian writers led him to believe that eloquence does not come from inspiration alone, but that art is essential thereto. If training and practice are necessary for the artisan who wishes to become skilful in the mechanical arts, how much more so are they essential to the preacher for his noble duties? Granada laments that among the many preachers who are heard in the 14 Prologo de la Summa Caietana, sacada en lenguaje castellano, Lisbon, I56O. Cuervo ed., t. 14, pp. 437-439. In his later years Granada must have written almost entirely in Spanish and in Portuguese, because, in many of his letters dated after I580, he says that he is afraid to write in Latin for he has not done so recently and he has forgotten how to use a good Latin style. "Y porque yo estoy ya algo remoto del Latin y del estilo que para esto es necesario, pedi al Rmo. General de la Compania mandase al Padre Mafeo que pusiese esta historia en Latin..." (t. 14, p. xxiii; cf. also pp. xx, 507, 512). CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 11 churches, almost none speak freely and eloquently, and still fewer successfully move sinners to repentance and lead them to love of virtue.16 With St. Augustine he bewails the fact that false things are often told so briefly, so clearly and so persuasively that they win the minds of the hearers to error, whereas the truth, being told without art and eloquence, is tiresome and often obscure.'6 Likewise, the heretics of Granada's time can, he realizes, by the force of their eloquence make people believe their "infamous lies." With all the more reason, then, the same force and energy will be able to defend the "most holy truths of the Catholic faith" and to expose "the deceit and unbelief of the heretics." 7 It is, therefore, necessary, Granada concludes, for the clergy to learn the rules for rhetoric and to follow them in order to vie with profane orators.'8 Granada attaches importance to form as an aid to art and clearness. In the first work which he published (I536)-it is little more than a revision of a previous translation made in Spanish by some one else of the Contemptus mundi of Thomas A Kempis -Granada says that his object was to improve the form and clarify the thoughts of this great work so that it might be understood by all.19 The Escala 15 Rhet. I. II. '6 Rhet. I. II. 2. 17Ibid. I. II. 3. 8 Ibid. I. II. 2. 19 Prologo of the Imitacion de Cristo, t. 12, p. 3: " Y porque tal fuente como esta, que agua tan clara echa de si para hacer tanto fructo, estaba tan turbia y cuasi lena de cieno, 12 REBECCA SWITZER espiritual (1562), likewise a translation, was published by Granada for practically the same reasons. In the versions extant he found obscurities, many strange and foreign words, and a style so confusing and perplexing that the work was almost unintelligible.20 Granada has definite theories about translating. One should feel free to paraphrase at times instead of interpreting, thus leaving in the original what it would not be wise for the ignorant to read.2' While preserving entirely the thought, the translator can reproduce it in the vernacular in such an appropriate and pleasing style that it will appear not as a rendition from the Latin, but as an original work. Many translators fail in this. Some retain the characteristics of the ancient language and thus take away much of the charm of its thought. Each language has its own manner of speech. Skill consists in substituting for distinctive features of the Latin the distinctive features of the vernacular. Attempting to do this, however, some write so extravagantly and so rhetorically that they lose "the dignity and por no estar el romance tan claro, tan proprio, tan conforme al latin como fuera raz6n, fui movido con celo desta perla preciosa que tan escurecida estaba, y por eso tan poco gozada, de sacarla de nuevo, cotejandola con el latin, en el cual el primer auctor lo escribi6. Y quite lo que en el libro hasta aqui usado no estaba conforme al latin: declare lo obscuro, para que en ninguna cosa trompieces. Quite lo superfluo, afiadi lo falto. Y asi con la gracia del Sefior trabaje de presentarte este espejo en que te mires, cuan limpio y claro yo supe, y de darte este camino en que andes. el mas llano que pude." 20 Escala, t. 12, pp. 151-152. 21 Ibid., pp. I57-I58. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 13 the truth " of the ideas they are trying to interpret.22 Granada's works show that he chose his models for eloquence early in his career. It was not, however, till the latter part of his life that he stated in his Rhetorica ecclesiastica (1576) his theories of rhetoric and style, the sources of which are to be found in those of Cicero and Quintilian. Fr. Luis de Granada was a Ciceronian in his theories of rhetoric and in his own style, but, as we shall see, his Ciceronianism means more than a direct imitation of Cicero. This imitation was the basis of the movement, begun by the contemporaries of Cicero, though the lapse of sixteen centuries and the different stages through which it passed in this time naturally brought about many changes. While Granada was perhaps directly influenced as much or more by Quintilian than by Cicero, this really means an indirect influence of the latter, for Quintilian's work on rhetoric, the Institutio oratoria, is, in the words of Nettleship, "the Ciceronian ideal, worked out with more system, and in fuller and more practical detail, than was possible to Cicero." 28 Though Granada's love for classic forms and his admiration for rhetorical eloquence bound him to Cicero and Quintilian, he was drawn still closer to the early Christian Fathers. Uniting as they did the spirit of Christianity with the Ciceronian tradition of style, to him, as a preacher, they seemed naturally to be the orators and writers that a preacher 22Rhet. IV. IV. 28 Lectures and Essays, p. 77. 14 REBECCA SWITZER should imitate. They, therefore, were an inspiration to him, and served as a model for his Latin and Spanish writings, as they had for the Christian Latin of the Middle Ages and of the Renaissance.24 CICERONIANISM IN SPAIN BEFORE FR. LUIS DE GRANADA Ciceronianism was a well-established movement in Spain when Fr. Luis de Granada began to preach and to write. For approximately one hundred years few works had been written in Latin or in Spanish that were not characterized by one or another of the elements of the Ciceronian style. A study of the books of this period leads to the conclusion that some of the authors were conscious, though often incompetent, imitators of Cicero. Others, in their irregular use of schemata, probably reflect the general Ciceronian atmosphere that prevailed in 24 The schemata were imitated more than the other qualities of Cicero's style during the Middle Ages, and, in this way, was created what Croll calls the mediaeval tradition of prose. This is not to be ignored as a source of the artificial prose of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. (Euphues, pp. xxvi-xxvii.) Croll objects to the theory that the extravagant use of Gorgianic figures is a result of the humanistic imitation of the Ancients. These schemes do occur in the works of Isocrates and Cicero, but they do so only in minor relation to other features of their style. (Ibid., p. xxv.) In the Middle Ages the study of rhetoric in the majority of schools was restricted to that of schemes and tropes, while in classic antiquity these figures were subordinate to rhythmic design and periodic structure. (Ibid., p. xxviii.) Croll considers that this mediaeval tradition is of importance in the study of the Renaissance as are also the revival of Cicero and that of the early Christian writers. (Ibid., p. xxvii.) CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 15 Spain rather than the direct influence of the style of Cicero himself. In his study of Spanish Ciceronianism 25 Menendez y Pelayo finds many traces of the importance given to rhetoric in Visigothic Spain, but little mention of the works of Cicero. While a serious cultivation of Latin prose began about the thirteenth century, the influence of Alphonso X (1252-1284), who wrote in Spanish and encouraged the general use of that language, was evidently one cause for the comparatively small number of Latin works composed in Spain during the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries.26 The revival of interest in Cicero, begun by Petrarch (I304-1374) in Italy, was felt in Spain early in the next century, though it was not until about I490 that the Spanish Renaissance really began. Several factors contributed to bringing about this early Italian influence: the close relations of Spain with Rome, the centre of the Church; the institution in 1364 of the Colegio Alborniziano of Bologna where later such notable Spanish scholars as Juan Montes de Oca, Antonio de Nebrija, Juan Gines de Sepulveda and El Pinciano were educated; and the dominion of the House of Aragon in the southern part of Italy.27 This reawakening manifested itself at the court 25 Menendez y Pelayo's study of Ciceronianism in Spain -in Bibliografia hispano-latina clasica (1902)-does not include the Ciceronians who wrote in Spanish nor all of those who wrote in Latin, for the work was never finished. 26 Ibid., pp. 818-822. 27Bibl. hisp.-lat. clas., p. 823. 16 REBECCA SWITZER of John II of Castile (I458-I479) in a reverish excitement and zeal to know the classics and to translate them into the vulgar tongue, inadequate as the latter was for this purpose. Scholars went to Italy and returned filled with enthusiasm for what they had learned in that country of classical culture. Italian professors taught in Spanish universities.28 As a result of this close intercourse between the two countries, by the end of the fifteenth century Spanish culture and learning may be said to have become saturated with the Italian atmosphere. The majority of the classicists of this period, however, wrote in Latin. Among the most important of the group Menendez y Pelayo mentions Rodrigo Sanchez de Arevalo, Ferrando Valenti and Cardinal Juan de Carvajal.29 The Latin of Juan Gines de Sepulveda (I490-I573) represents perhaps the highest degree of perfection attained by Ciceronians in Spain. He was a Ciceronian "to the marrow of his bones," 30 says Menendez y Pelayo, the type of the Spanish Ciceronian educated in Italy and "entirely Italian in mind." 31 Influenced by his long residence in the neighboring Peninsula (1515-I536) Sepulveda helped to advance in Spain the ideas of the Italian rhetoricians, though his theories of style were not so extreme as theirs. He was not in sympathy with Erasmus and took issue with the 28 Ibid., pp. 839-84I. Menendez y Pelayo emphasizes particularly the work of Lucio Marineo in the University of Salamanca and in Spain in general. 29 Ibid., pp. 824-832. 80 Ibid., p. 88I. 8l Ibid., p. 883. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 17 great Hollander on several occasions; but their debate had none of the bitterness that characterized the controversies of Valla and Poggio, of Bembo and Pico, and of Erasmus with other Ciceronians. Though perhaps the most extreme of all Spaniards in the imitation of his classic model, Sepilveda merits the tribute which Aubrey F. G. Bell pays to Spanish humanists: "... one can not help remarking the broadmindedness which characterized so many of the Spanish humanists in their desire to harmonize contrary standpoints, and, wisely eclectic, to take the best wherever they might find it." 32 This "broadmindedness " of the Spanish humanists and religious writers of the sixteenth century was due largely to the fact that the Italian influence which had predominated earlier now had a rival in Erasmus, who, though an admirer of the Ciceronian style, had a contempt for its servile imitators. While Adolfo Bonilla y San Martin attaches importance to the influence of Italy on Spanish humanists, he considers that of Erasmus to be of greater depth. The latter seems to personify the Renaissance, representing as he does the element of harmony and of concord between extreme tendencies.33 Menendez y Pelayo agrees with Bonilla y San Martin in regard to the influence of Erasmus in Spain: "...por entonces dominaba en las inteligencias mas claras y vigorosas de la Peninsula el humanismo aleman, repre32 Juan Gines de Sepulveda, p. 57. 33 Erasmo en Espaia, pp. 379-384. 3 18 REBECCA SWITZER sentado especialmente por Erasmo: direcci6n menos artistica, sin duda, que el humanismo italiano, pero mas profunda y de mas transcendentales resultados, tanto en la esfera de la filologia como en el movimiento general de las ideas y en toda la reforma de los estudios." 34 Numerous as were the followers of Erasmus in Spain there were few Spanish Ciceronians whom the Dutch Humanist considered worthy of mention in his Ciceronianus.35 Even Juan Luis Vives (I492 -I540) was omitted in the first edition. In a later one, the author prophesied that Vives would in the future be counted among the Ciceronians because of his genius, erudition and eloquence and his copiousness of sententiae and words. Apparently Vives was not a systematic Ciceronian. However he could write a work like Vigilia,36 which, according to Menendez y Pelayo, probably does not contain a phrase or an expression that is not to be found in Cicero.37 Yet, like Quintilian 38 and Eras34 Bibl. hisp.-lat. clds., p. 862. 85 Dialogus Ciceronianus: sive de optimo genere dicendi, first published I528. It was published later in Spain in an edition of Antonio Nebrija's Artis Rhetoricae compendiosa coaptatio, ex Aristotele, Cicerone et Quirtiliano, Compluti, 1529. 36 Opera of Juan Luis Vives, II, Basilea, I555, pp. 2I-30. 37 Bibl. hisp.-lat. clds., p. 736. 38 Quintilian believes that imitation is not enough in itself. It stops progress. He would be satisfied if he could express himself in the manner of Cicero, but since this is impossible, for all imitation is inferior to the original, it is better to take certain qualities from different models. All eloquence has something in common, and this can be reproduced, but genius, invention, force, ease and all that can not be gained by art is not to be imitated. Some people look only at the exterior qualities of style as words and certain metrical measures, which can be imitated, but to be a Ciceronian, it is "not enough to write esse videatur at the end of a period." (Inst. orat. X. II.) CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 19 mus, Vives objects to servile imitation. He speaks most sarcastically about the bondage of some Ciceronians who always have to step in the footprints of others like children playing in the sand.39 Although there were some Spanish scholars of this period so "nice," 40 says Bell, that they criticised Vives' Latin style, the majority of them " preferred the substance to the surface of style." Spanish Latinity, therefore, may delight us, Bell continues, more than it did contemporary Italians, because "in general it was marked rather by force and character than by Ciceronian smoothness." 41 Working side by side with these Ciceronians who were trying to imitate the style of Cicero in classic Latin were scholars interested both in Ciceronianism and in the application of its rules to the vernacular. Thus as early as the first part of the fifteenth century the movement that was to culminate in the work of Fr. Luis de Granada was initiated. In spite of the difficulty of adapting the rude and unwieldy language to the translations of the classics and of expressing original ideas in an artistic manner, these scholars persisted in the use of the native 89 " An vero est ulla servitus major, et quidem voluntate suscepta, quam non audere ducis sui praescripta, et tanquam saeva dominorum imperia, egredi, etiamsi alio res vocet, si tempus, si auditores, si generosa ingenii natura invitet, pertrahat? Quomodo poterunt hi currere, si sit opus, immo quomodo ingredi, quibus est semper in alieno demum vestigio pes figendus, non aliter quam pueri faciunt lusitantes in pulvere?" (De causis corruptarum artium, IV. VI, Valencia, pp. I7I-I8o.) 40 He refers here to El Brocense and Matamoros. 41 Luis de Le6n, p. 31. 20 REBECCA SWITZER tongue.42 Their efforts at first, however, were rather haphazard and disorganized. They translated hastily and, believing that there was little or no possibility of molding "the crude Castilian to the beauties of classic literature," they spent little time in trying to do so. Such a method had effects both good and bad. It made available an abundance of material 43 that was to lay the foundation for future culture; it enriched the Castilian with new words and new expressions; and it helped to spread and increase interest in the classics as well as the desire to render them into the vulgar tongue. On the other hand, the language, though poor, had been fairly simple and clear. Now, the efforts of these writers to employ Latin constructions in the vernacular and to use the long Latin periodic sentence pro42Juan de Mena, in the Prefacion del Homero. calls it "humilde y baja." (Amador de los Rios, Historia critica de la [iteratura espanola, t. VII, p. 48.) Don Enrique de Arag6n, in his Epistola misiva of the Eneida, says that he can not find "equivalentes vocablos en la romancial texedura para exprimir los angelicos concibimientos virgilianos." (Ibid.) Antonio de Nebrija says that Spanish is so poor in words "que por ventura no podrian representar todo lo que contiene el artificio del latin." (Arte de gramdtica, Prohemio.) On putting his Lucero de la vida cristiana under tihe protection of the Reyes Catolicos, Pero Ximenez de Prexamo complains of the difficulties of his work: "ocurri6 otro grandisimo impedimento; que es el defecto de nuestra lengua castellana, en la cual por su imperfecci6n no podemos bien declarar las cosas altas e sotiles, nin sus propriedades, assy como en la lengua latina, que es perfectisima." (Amador de los Rios, Historia critica de la literatura espanola, t. VII, p. 216.) 43 The Marques de Santillana says: " Pues non podemos aver aquello que queremos, queramos aquello que podemos. E si caresciesemos de las formas, seamos contentos de las materias." (Obras, Madrid, I852, p. 482.) CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 21 duced a Castilian that was almost unintelligible. From the Latin, Italian, ProvenCal, Catalan and other languages many neologisms were introduced, some of which were finally adopted and others not. There were even changes in inflection and in word forms. The general existence of hyperbaton shows that the writers tried to follow the order of the Latin sentence, not realizing that the vulgar tongue had dropped many inflections. From these conditions came the obscurity and the confusion characteristic of almost all publications of the time. Many authors of this period reflect more or less strongly the indirect influence of the Ciceronian style. For instance, the works of the Arcipreste de Talavera (I398-I470) are full of Latinisms. He uses hyperbaton, though not so extravagantly as others; 44 he enlarges his vocabulary with many Latin words; he employs practically every device known to Ciceronians to produce the effect of "abundance "; he resorts to alliteration, and even more frequently to rhyming terminations. This rhymed prose, a common peculiarity of mediaeval Latin and also characteristic of this period, was due both to the influence of popular sayings, that are seen in almost every type of Spanish literature, and to the general tendency of many so-called classicists to imitate what they thought was the Ciceronian style. Among the men of letters whose style is somewhat Ciceronian are Alonso de Cartagena, the Mar44Cf. D. Enrique de Villena (1384-1434), Arte cisoria, Madrid, I879: "... non podiendo la cruda digerir vianda..." (p. I5); "... al menos grande durar fisieron tiempo.." (p. Io). 22 REBECCA SWITZER ques de Santillana (in his orations), D. Alvaro de Luna, Hernando del Pulgar and many Church orators. The clergy, however, was influenced more perhaps by the sermons of St. Augustine and other Church Fathers than by Cicero directly. There are works of this period of more importance to the history of Ciceronianism than those written in the rhetorical style. These are the editions of Cicero published in Latin in Spain, the translations of his works-especially those on oratory-and the many treatises on grammar and rhetoric, inspired by the ideas of both Quintilian and Cicero.45 According to Menendez y Pelayo the Renaissance in Spain would never have been generalized had it not been for a group of Spanish humanists, who with great zeal and in a didactic spirit tried to establish in the schools of their country the classic ideas they had learned in Italy. They attempted the reform of grammatical methods, advocated the abandonment of old texts, encouraged the formation of vocabularies and helped the diffusion of classic authors in the original and in translations.46 Of these reformers the first of note was Alonso de Palencia. His best known works on language are the Opus synonimorum-completed in I472-and the Uni45 Menendez y Pelayo lists in the Bibl. hisp.-lat. clds. the manuscripts of Cicero, editions made in Spain or by Spaniards, commentaries and critical works on Cicero made by Spaniards and translations of Cicero's works. Of these some I5o belong to the fifteenth century and 115 to the sixteenth. Besides these there are many that belong to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries which were available during the Renaissance (pp. 472-815). 46 Bibl. hisp.-lat. clds., p. 842. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 23 versal vocabulario en latin y romance-published in I490. When the dictionary of Antonio de Nebrija appeared (I492), Palencia's work was overshadowed. In fact, the greatest impetus to the development of classical learning came when Antonio de Nebrija (1445-I522) returned from Italy (1473), filled with enthusiasm after studying under Lorenzo Valla and other Italian scholars. Of himself he says: "que io fue el primero que abri tienda de la lengua latina: y ose poner pendon para nueuos preceptos.... Y que ia casi del todo punto desarraigue de toda espafia los dotrinales los pedros elias. y otros nombres aun mas duros los galteros. los ebrardos. pastranas: y otros no se que apostizos y contrahechos gramaticos no merecedores de ser nombrados. Y que si cerca de los ombres de nuestra nacion alguna cosa se halla de latin. todo aquello se a de referir a mi. Es por cierto tan grande el galardon deste mi trabajo: que en este genero de letras otro maior no se puede pensar mas toda aquella mi industria de ensefiar estaua dentro de mui estrechos terminos apretada." 47 Though certainly not modest in regard to his own achievements, Nebrija seems not to have overestimated them. He has been called by scholars of different periods the destroyer of barbarism in Spain,48 or, as Arias Barbosa in particular expresses 47 Prologo in Dictionarium, Salamanca, I492. 48 Cf. Menendez y Pelayo, Bibl. hisp.-lat clds., p. 823. Here also M. P. quotes from Matamoros, p. 42 of the Cerda edition: "Itaque hoc toto tempore... altissimas egerat barbaria radices; et nemo quisquam ex tot hominum millibus fuit, qui immane hoc et ferale monstrum aut domi privatis studiis auderet conficere, aut a finibus Hispaniae pellendum tentaret, donec tandem post multa saecula natus est felicissimis fatis in Baetica Antonius Nebrissensis." 24 REBECCA SWITZER it, "el que mezclo las sagradas aguas del Parnaso con las del Tormes." 49 Undoubtedly the scientific studies of language and literature in Spain owe much to Nebrija's works on rhetoric and grammar, which were adapted from those of Aristotle, Cicero,50 Quintilian and from the treatise, Ad Herennium; to his philological studies; and to his teaching in the universities of Seville, Salamanca and Alcala. Of Nebrija's general contribution to letters in Spain Menendez y Pelayo says: "Ninguin nombre significa tanto como el suyo en la general cultura, no solo por su vasta ciencia, robusto entendimiento y poderosa virtud asimiladora, sino por su ardor propagandista, a cuyo servicio puso la indomable energia de su caracter, arrojado, independiente y caustico." 51 The first great literary work in Spain to show the effects of classic reforms on language was La Celestina. Its style reflects unmistakably the influence of Cicero and other Ancient writers. Although the author avoids many of the excesses of earlier writers, he is often guilty of repetitions, rhyming terminations, Latinisms and bombastic figures, all of which are characteristic of his epoch. At the same time, however, the popular element reveals itself in the use of vulgarisms and proverbs. In its style and language this work might be called the connect49 Menendez y Pelayo says this is found at the beginning of many of the old editions of Nebrija's Gramdtica (Bibl. hisp.-lat. clds., p. 843). 50 Ibid., pp. 718-726. Here M. P. lists the various works of Nebrija that are adaptations of or commentaries on Cicero's works. 51 Ibid., p. 845. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 25 ing link between mediaeval Spanish and classical Spanish. The reign of Charles V Henriquez Urefia calls the period of " la prosa en transformacion, con La Celestina como piedra angular, la lingfiistica naciente, merced a los esfuerzos de Nebrija." 52 Elements of the Ciceronian style are seen in other literary types of the Renaissance. In the Cdrcel de amor, published in I492, we find rhetorical figures, such as rhyming terminations, repetitions, contrasts, transpositions and exclamations. The general declamatory style of this work, Menendez y Pelayo says, can be considered the precedent for that to be found in later novels.63 While the style of Amadis de Gaula 54 is artificial also, it is not so rhetorical as that of the Cdrcel de amor, owing probably to the fact that the character of the novel is narrative rather than philosophical. In Amadis some of the classic figures are found, but the irregularity with which they are used shows that the author was influenced only in a general way by Ciceronianism. The language of both of these novels, artificial as it is, can not be ignored in a study of the early stages of the classic movement in Spain.65 Such 62 Estudios sobre el Renacimiento en Espaiia. El Maestro Hernan Perez de Oliva, p. 9. 53 Origenes de la novela, N. B. A. E., t. I, Madrid, I905, p. cccxxi. 54 First edition known is that of I508. 65 Croll says that schemes are frequent, appropriate and characteristic in two types of writing: in sermons and related works of piety or devotion and in courtly use. The significance of this, in his opinion, is that both are mediaeval in origin and customs. (Euphues, pp. liv-lv.) 26 REBECCA SWITZER works as these and, later in the sixteenth century, those of men like the scholarly religious writer, Alejo de Venegas (I493-I554), and the historian, Diego Hurtado de Mendoza (I503-I574),56 show how general was the influence of Ciceronianism in Spain. While the works mentioned above, with the possible exception of the Cdrcel de amor, can not be classed as Ciceronian, they have many of the characteristics of that style. The reforms begun by Palencia and Nebrija were continued by Juan de Valdes (d. 1541), a leader among the humanists in Spain and a follower of Erasmus. Valdes was interested in all the problems of language: its origin, phonetics, pronunciation, syntax, vocabulary, choice of words and style. Realizing the weaknesses of the vernacular, he deplores the fact that Spain has had no Petrarch and Boccaccio to polish the Castilian language.57 Valdes' opinion as to what was the " best usage" of his time is not to be trusted altogether, though his ideas on the choice of words and on the use of certain expressions are interesting. Fond as he is of popular sayings and of archaisms, he shows at the same time what J. Moreno Villa calls a contradictory tendency-that of making the language "aristocratic." 8 Valdes claims that he always uses the best words he can find, but unfortunately 56 Diego Hurtado de Mendoza was a Latinist. However he was a follower of Tacitus and of Sallust rather than of Cicero, though in his style are found many of the Ciceronian figures. 57 Didlogo de la lengua, p. 38. 58 Ibid., Pr6logo, p. 22. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 27 he does not tell us why he considers a word good or bad.69 When words that would express his meaning did not exist in the Castilian, he took them from other languages, maintaining that he was doing no more than did Cicero, who introduced many Greek words into Latin. Valdes' theory was that he was not composing new words; he was only trying to make use of those that he found in other languages kindred to his own.60 Juan de Valdes shows the influence of the Ciceronian movement in some of his ideas on vocabulary expressed in the Didlogo de la lengua and in his plain and simple style which is similar to that used at times by Cicero in rhetorical and philosophical works. In the Didlogo de Mercurio y Car6n Valdes' style, though still comparatively free from artificialities and affectations, is more Ciceronian, and the language is not so plain nor so popular as it is in his other famous dialogue. Both treatises, of notable clarity and sobriety, show a more logical arrangement and a more organic connection of clauses and sentences than are to be found in the prose written previously in Spain.61 59 Ibid., p. 158. 80 Ibid., pp. I94-195; I97-I98. 61Valdes defines his own style: ".. porque el estilo que tengo me es natural, y sin afetacion ninguna escrivo como hablo, solamente tengo cuidado de usar de vocablos que signifiquen bien lo que quiero decir, y digolo quanto mas llanamente me es posible, porque a mi parecer en ninguna lengua sta bien el afetacion. (Dicl. de la leng., p. 2I6.) The verbosity and exaggerated forms of repetition characteristic of the epoch are evidently the cause of the following: "... que todo el bien hablar castellano consiste 28 REBECCA SWITZER According to Menendez y Pelayo Valdes has only one worthy predecessor-the author of La Celestina -and no work of the reign of Charles V, with the exception of Boscan's translation of II Cortigiano (1534), can compare with the Dialogo de la lengua.62 Henriquez Urefia attributes the perfection attained by Boscan in the translation to the fact that the latter worked on a model, in a language very similar to the Castilian, in which many problems were already solved. And yet, in spite of this advantage, Urefia considers that Boscan is surpassed by Valdes in the manner of connecting sentences and in the structure of paragraphs.63 In contrast to the work of Juan de Valdes in "purifying " the Spanish vocabulary and in abolishing extravagances of style is that of Fr. Antonio de Guevara (I48o-I545), who enjoyed in his lifetime an almost unequaled popularity, both in Spain and in other countries of Europe. Guevara's works were perhaps as popular as were Amadis de Gaula and La Celestina, and for a time he had a decided influence on oratory and on prose of different kinds. While we might call Guevara a Ciceronian, he is en que digais lo que quereis con las menos palabras que pudieredes de tal manera que, splicando bien el conceto de vuestro animo y dando a entender lo que quereis dezir, de las palabras que pusieredes en una clausula o razon no se pueda quitar ninguna sin ofender o a la sentencia della o al encarecimiento o a la elegancia." (Ibid., p. 223.) 62 "La lengua brilla del todo formada, robusta, flexible y jugosa, sin afectaci6n ni pompa vana, pero al mismo tiempo sin sequedad ni dureza, y en toda la noble y majestuosa serenidad de las lenguas clasicas." (Historia de los Heterodoxos espanoles, t. II, Madrid, I917, p. I63.) 88Estudios sobre el Ren. en Esp., p. 25. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 29 certainly not one of the humanistic type. Though a student of the classics, he delights rather in the exaggerated figures of speech, both tropes and schemes. The striking characteristics of his style are antithesis, inversion, rhyming terminations, balance, rhetorical questions, exclamations and parallelisms, obtained by various devices of repetition and similarity of structure and sound. Although all these figures are common in Cicero and in his followers, the extent to which Guevara uses them tempts one to call him a disciple of Gorgias rather than of Cicero.64 In fact, Croll's remarks on the mediaeval tradition of style might be appropriately applied to Guevara. If, as Croll says, Euphuism in England is as much the result of the mediaeval tradition as of the revival of pure classicism,65 then Guevarism in Spain is the same. For years the source of the style of Lyly's Euphues was considered to be that of the Golden Boke of Marcus Aurelius, translated by Lord Berners from Guevara's Libro aureo del Emperador Marco Aurelio. Later critics, however, think that Euphuism was simply a manifestation in England of a style of writing that was more or less general and that the work of Guevara attained such popularity in England merely because it was in accord with the taste of the public.66 Undoubtedly it did give great impetus to the movement, which should e4 Norden, Die ant. Kunstprosa, II, pp. 789-790. 65 Euphues, pp. xxvi-xxvii. 66 Cf. works on Euphues and Euphuism in Bibliography, PP. I58-159. 30 REBECCA SWITZER be called a fad rather than a style. In the latter part of the sixteenth century, in England as in Spain, says Menendez y Pelayo, the popularity of Guevara had to yield to that of Fr. Luis de Granada, whose works were translated and read more than those of any other Spanish writer of the period except Guevara.67 Apparently the English and Spanish publics still delighted in the artificialities of classic prose, but no longer in so extravagant a use of them. The majority of the men of letters of this period in Spain, however, evince a predilection for sobriety and good sense in language and for moderation and temperance in style. This saner spirit is exemplified by Juan de Valdes, as noted before, and by Hernan Perez de Oliva. Hernan Perez de Oliva (I494-I531) was a Ciceronian-a model one, says Henriquez Urefia.8 More than any other writer before Fr. Luis de Granada does he employ consistently, and yet not too extravagantly, the rhetorical devices of the Ciceronians. These he weaves into his language in such an unostentatious manner that one is hardly conscious of their presence. Though a humanist of the purest type in almost every particular, Oliva advocated the use of the vulgar tongue for all subjects. He made the in67 Menendez y Pelayo, Origenes de la novela, N. B. A. E., t. I, Madrid, I905, pp. ccclxxiv-ccclxxv: "El triunfo de la espontanea y arrebatadora grandiloquencia del venerable dominico sobre el artificio del predicador cristiano fue completo despues de 1582, en que apareci6 la primera traduccion de las Meditaciones." 68 Estudios sobre el Ren. en Esp., p. 25. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 31 teresting experiment of writing the same dialogue in Latin and in Castilian 69 in order to prove that the latter was capable of expressing any thought the author could express in the former. In a study of the history of the Spanish language the works of Hernan Perez de Oliva are important, for he was one of the first Spanish writers to follow classic rules consciously and effectively in the vernacular. A contrast to the style of Oliva is seen in that of Juan de Avila (I500-I569), characterized as it is by natural eloquence. Avila's language, says Granada, is free from all artifice, and his eloquence, for which he was famed, did not proceed from the precepts and rules of the rhetoricians, although it was in accord with them.70 Granada contrasts Avila with the preachers who use florid figures of speech but have nothing to say; such speakers do not have true eloquence because this faculty does not consist in "many words that mean the same thing nor in flowery metaphors and fine turns." 7 Avila's use of Ciceronian figures was due more to the general tendency of the time than to conscious study. Evidently he spent little time on form, for he told Granada that he could prepare a sermon in one night. This was a source of great surprise to Granada. He was sure that to write such a sermon 69 El didlogo entre el Cardenal Juan Martinez Siliceo, la Aritmetica y la Fama, escrito en palabras que son a la vez castellanas y latinas, in Obras publicadas por su sobrino Ambrosio de Morales. 70 Vida del B. Juan de Avila, t. 14, p. 235. 71 Ibid., p. 232. 32 REBECCA SWITZER any other preacher would work a week and would have to read many books.72 Both Granada and Juan de Avila were eloquent speakers and both used Ciceronian figures, but the former had definite reasons for adorning his sermons with them, while the latter seems not to have known when or why he was employing them. Juan de Avila may be called a Ciceronian, though not one who had a significant part in the development of the movement, nor can he be said to have helped consciously in the adaptation of classic rules to the Castilian language. Such are the conditions under which Fr. Luis de Granada began to write. The writers of the fifteenth century, by their translations of the Greek and Latin classics and by their contact with the Italian Renaissance, enlarged and enriched the Castilian language, both in vocabulary and in syntax. The Spanish Renaissance, in the persons of Antonio de Nebrija and Juan de Valdes especially, began the work of teaching the rules of classical rhetoric and grammar, of applying these rules and of making new ones also for the vulgar tongue. With its theory of imitation of the classics and its respect for artistic beauty of form, Humanism found one mode of expression in Ciceronianism. This movement included the many editions and translations of the works of Cicero and Quintilian; the activities and writings of the Ciceronians who wrote in Latin -the most noted of whom were Juan Luis Vives, a follower of Erasmus, and Juan Gines de Sepuil72 Ibid., p. 237. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 33 veda, an admirer of Italian culture-and those of the Ciceronians who wrote in Spanish, none of whom, with the possible exception of Hernan Perez de Oliva, were at that time finished products of the movement. Oliva, by his polished and dignified language, and Antonio de Guevara, by his natural eloquence and extravagant use of the Ciceronian figures, represent two extremes of style which were to be combined in Fr. Luis de Granada. At the same time Granada was to continue the work of Nebrija and of Valdes in the study and in the application of classic rules. When Fr. Luis de Granada began to write, the theories of Cicero were known to all; many writers and orators had tried to follow them, but of the best of them must be said what Menendez y Pelayo says of Juan Luis Vives-they were not systematic Ciceronians.73 Since the Ciceronian style was the one most imitated and discussed, Granada was influenced to take it as his model: first, because of his study of the classics; second, because he found it to be the mode of expression of the Biblical writers, as well as of the Church Fathers and of all Christian Latin; and, finally, because he believed that it would enable him to make his sermons and writings more effective. In spite of his being a classicist, distinctly stamped with many of the traits of the humanist, he counseled the use of the vernacular for general practices. Eager to attain perfection of form, he studied and applied the rules for rhetoric and ora78 Bibl. hisp.-lat. clds., p. 736. 34 REBECCA SWITZER tory found in the treatise, Ad Herennium, and in the works of Cicero, Quintilian and St. Augustine. This does not mean that Granada was exclusively a Ciceronian or a classicist. Otherwise he would most probably have written only in Latin. His language, on the contrary, was one that the people understood-it was not the literary language, as Azorin points out, but that spoken by the cultured classes.74 Ciceronianism, then, did not dominate Fr. Luis de Granada. Of no one school was he a servile imitator. His style shows the influence of Spanish writers who preceded him, of Biblical, classical and Christian writers, Ciceronian and non-Ciceronian. While, in accord with the attitude of the true Ciceronian, his attention seems to have been fixed on technique and its problems, he taught at the same time that real eloquence is a natural gift and is not founded on the mere use of figures, and on mere multiplicity of words. With Quintilian he believed that true and solid eloquence, when it has a " strong and vigorous body," does not have to "take care to polish its nails and comb its hair." 76 Those orators who try to persuade with words alone are like trees loaded with leaves and flowers but without any fruit -" they delight the ears, but they will not move the hearts of men." 76 Granada's sense of proportion, therefore, governed his use of rhetorical figures and kept his style 74 Los dos Luises, p. 21. 75 Inst. orat. I. VIII; Avila, t. 14, p. 233. 76Avila, t. 14, p. 234. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 35 from being dominated by Ciceronianism. The qualities, resulting from a blending of particular conditions in Spain and of Granada's own personality and originality, would form interesting subjects for investigation. In this study, however, we are confining ourselves to the Ciceronian elements, exclusively, in the style of our writer. II THE RHETORICA ECCLESIASTICA The Rhetorica ecclesiastica (1576) was not written by Fr. Luis de Granada when he was a young man filled with visionary ideas. This work was the result of some forty years of preaching and writing, during which he had become convinced of the necessity of employing an "art of rhetoric." As he looked back on his successful career and what he considered the causes for it, he decided to set down the precepts of this " art " so that younger preachers might profit by his experience.' 1Granada does not claim that his Rhetorica is original. In the Prologue he says that he has taken these precepts from those he esteems most highly. The Rhetorica ecclesiastica is divided into six parts. Book I treats of the origin and the necessity of the rhetorical art, the office and dignity of the preacher, the man himself and his sincerity. In Book II is discussed the manner of proving and arguing. Granada defines rhetoric as the art of speaking well, or the science of speaking prudently and ornately. Eloquence is the ability to express one's self with prudence, clearness, abundance and harmony. But the author recommends that the speaker not pile up words and synonyms nor be affected. Different devices for amplifying and for appealing to the emotions and many illustrations of these figures form the contents of Book III. In Book IV Granada explains the different kinds of sermons, the arrangement, etc. The Prologue to Book V indicates that St. Cyprian, the Ciceronian, is to be chosen as the model, and most of the illustrations are to be from his works, since he was the "most elegant and the most eloquent in speech" of all the Church Fathers. As rhetoricians think that the examples of one Ciceronian will illustrate all the precepts and adorn36 CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LuIS DE GRANADA 37 In his opinion, the preacher and the orator have much in common: both speak and try to persuade in public before the common people and not in schools with learned men; both have to move the feelings, and to attract by elegance and variety of speech. Therefore precepts, originally intended for students of profane oratory, can be helpful to preachers. Granada tries to prove that art is in nature itself and that reason and experience produced an art of argumentation and made laws for it. Nature furnished the beginning, but, as Quintilian says, there is nothing perfect except where art helps nature.2 Therefore, without rhetoric, Granada maintains, the preacher can not speak well unless he is gifted with unusual genius and natural skill or inspired by the Holy Spirit, as was the case with the apostles and prophets. Granada agrees with Cicero that, though some endowed with great talents may attain ments of eloquence, Granada considers that this one Christian Cicero will serve to clarify the precepts of style. The contents of this book are taken almost entirely from Quintilian, though the theories come originally from Cicero and from "Cornificius," supposed by Granada and others to have been the author of the treatise on rhetoric, Ad Herennium. The four principal virtues of style prescribed by Cicero form the basis of the discussion: purity of language, clarity, adornment and aptness. (De Oratore I. 144.) These four points are freely illustrated by examples quoted by Quintilian and also by those selections culled by Granada himself from classic, Biblical and early Christian writers. In this same Book the vices injurious to style are discussed. Book VI deals with the manner of delivery, the life of a preacher and the things that would be helpful to him. 2 Rhet. I. I; Inst. orat. XI. III. II. G 38 REBECCA SWITZER eloquence without rules, art is a safer guide than nature. If the orator speaks well naturally, aided by art he would speak much better.3 To the possible objection that this art of rhetoric precludes the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, Granada replies that the process is similar to that of learning Latin by rules of grammar. When the student begins to speak or write Latin, he pays close attention to the rules, but when he has acquired the habit by long practice in speaking well, he no longer thinks of them. Through custom, then, he speaks perfectly —with art, but without thinking of art. In like manner, the laws of oratory may dim for a while the fervor of the spirit. As soon, however, as the art has become native through practice, the excellent artificer will speak rhetorically and with such ease that he will appear to be inspired by nature alone.' On the other hand, one should not go to extremes as did St. Jerome in his zeal, so that at times he was more Ciceronian than Christian. He was punished for this, not because he was a Ciceronian, but because, "bored by the humble style " of the Holy Scriptures, he neglected them for the study of Cicero. Excesses in the imitation of the Ciceronian style are to be deplored like excesses in eating and drinking. Even things necessary to life become dangerous when used intemperately.5 The Ancients say that the poet is born and the 8 Rhet. II. I. 4Rhet. I. II. 3. 5 Ibid. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 39 orator is made. This Granada believes, for the ability of the former comes mainly from nature, while that of the latter is attained by study, meditation, assiduous reading, much training and imitation.6 Reading is not of much assistance, however, if one does not pay close attention to all the figures of speech, to the sententiae and the sentences-to everything that pertains to the rules of invention and style. Many read the works of eloquent men but unless they observe the secrets of the language and style, they derive no benefit.7 In the opinion of Fr. Luis de Granada, the Ciceronian style is not an indefinite thing-it can be analyzed and defined. It is something that one can attain by following certain rules. In his Rhetorica Granada has written down these rules with instructions for observing them, with illustrations taken from Cicero and Quintilian and with others of his own reading. Very seldom does he quote examples from his own works, for he feels that preference should be given to the classics, the Bible and the Church Fathers.8 These quotations he offers as models on which young preachers can base their sermons.9 A careful reading of Quintilian's Institutio oratoria, Cicero's rhetorical works, St. Augustine's Doc6 Ibid. II. VII. 7 Ibid. II. VII; VI. XII. 4. 8 " Ex horum igitur officina non nulla, officio nostro accomodata, delibavi: quae, quantum instituta libelli huius brevitas patitur, sanctorum patrum exemplis illustranda curavi." (Rhet., Praefatio, p. xlv.) Ibid., p. xlvii. 40 REBECCA SWITZER trina Christiana and the anonymous treatise on rhetoric, Ad Herennium, leads to the conclusion that practically all of Granada's ideas on rhetoric came from those works. The sources of the Rhetorica ecclesiastica, therefore, are themselves Ciceronian.10 10 Ad Herennium was thought for years to have been written by Cicero because the ideas and the style are so like his. Since it is known now that it was written before Cicero's first work on rhetoric-De inventione rhetoricacritics conclude that the latter was taken from Ad Herennium, or that both had the same sources. Quintilian and St. Augustine were Ciceronians and their theories of rhetoric differ little, if any, from those of Cicero. In the Rhetorica Cicero is quoted or referred to I26 times, St. Cyprian 86 times and Quintilian 72 times. III AMPLIFICATION (AMPLIFICATIO) Believing that Cicero's copiousness was an essential element of his eloquence, his followers tried to imitate it. Since very few of them, however, possessed the genius for words, which Albalat considers responsible for the effects of eloquence obtained by Cicero even in an average oration,l the attempt to amplify in the Ciceronian manner resulted very often in an exaggeration rather than in a successful imitation of the model's abundant style. While Granada admires the effects thus gained by Cicero, he is very critical of the verbosity of many of the latter's followers in Spain. Their failure to imitate well, he believes, is due to the fact that they did not thoroughly understand Cicero's manner of amplifying. After carefully studying the latter's works, especially those that contain his theories on rhetoric, Granada concludes that effects of copiousness are not secured through any illogical and spasmodic use of many words nor from idle repetition. They are attained by a well-organized scheme of devices employed to amplify the meaning of the speaker, and at the same time to adorn, to clarify and to emphasize it.2 1La formationt du style par l'assimilation des auteurs, p. 73. 2 Rhet. III. I. 41 42 REBECCA SWITZER MODES OF AMPLIFYING The prime device for amplifying, according to Quintilian, lies in the nature of the term applied to anything, as when wve say, for instance, that a man who was beaten was murdered, or, on the other hand, that one who beat another barely touched him. This figure becomes more impressive when the words of larger meaning are compared with those for which we substitute them, as is seen in one of Cicero's speeches against Verres: 8 "... non enim furem, sed ereptorem; non adulterum, sed expugnatorem pudicitiae; non sacrilegum, sed hostem sacrorum religionumque, non sicarium, sed crudelissimum carnificem civium, sociorumque in vestrum iudicium adduximus. Illo enim modo, ut sit multum, hoc etiam plus ut sit, efficitur." 4 The figures of amplification given by Quintilian and accepted by Granada are: augmentation (incrementum), accumulation (congeries), comparison (comparatio) of wholes or parts and reasoning (ratiocinatio). Augmentation.-Cicero and Granada are both very partial to the use of series of words, phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs. Since one of Cicero's theories is that the most important part of the sentence is the end,6 the ascending scale is employed more often than the descending. Many examples of augmentation are to be found in the works of Cicero and of Granada. 8Rhet. III. V; Inst. orat. VIII. IV. 4Act. II. I. 9. s Orat. I99. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LuIS DE GRANADA 43 " Nihil est enim mali, nihil sceleris, quod illa non ab initio filio voluerit, optaverit, cogitaverit, effecerit." 6 " Facinus est vincire civem Romanum; scelus, verberare; prope parricidium, necare: quid dicam, in crucem tollere? " 7 " Porque que mayor humildad que nascer en un establo, que tener por cama un pesebre, que ser circuncidado como malhechor, que huir a Egipto como flaco, y al fin de la vida ser preso, maniatado, escupido, abofeteado, azotado y finalmente despojado de sus vestiduras y crucificado entre ladrones? " 8 "Por mi, Sefior, naciste en un establo, por mi fuiste reclinado en un pesebre, por mi circuncidado al octavo dia, por mi desterrado en Egipto, y por mi finalmente perseguido y maltratado con infinitas maneras de injurias. Por mi ayunaste, velaste, caminaste, sudaste, lloraste y probaste por experiencia todos los males que habia merescido mi culpa, no siendo Tui el culpado sino el ofendido. Por mi finalmente fuiste preso, desamparado, vendido, negado, presentado ante unos y otros tribunales y jueces; y ante ellos acusado, abofeteado, infamado, escupido, escarnecido, azotado, blasfemado, muerto y sepultado." 9 Accumulation.-In Ciceronian prose accumulation is almost as popular a figure as augmentation. It is not an ascending or a descending series, but a piling up of words and thoughts that often ends in generalities. "Quid enim tuus ille, Tubero, destrictus in acie pharsalica gladius agebat? Cuius latus ille mucro petebat? qui sensus erat armorum tuorum? quae tua mens, oculi, manus, ardor animi? quid cupiebas? quid optabas? "10 6 Pro Cluent. I88. 7 Verr. V. I70. 8 Simb., t. 9, p. 362. 9 Guia, t. I, p. 42; cf. also Orac., t. 2, p. 460: "Porque realmente...." 10 Pro Lig. 9. 44 REBECCA SWITZER "... aderat ianitor carceris, carnifex praetoris, mors terrorque sociorum, et civium Romanorum, lictor Sextus." 11 " Z Que es este mundo sino tierra esteril, campo pedregoso, bosque Ileno de espinas, prado verde y lleno de serpientes, jardin florido y sin fructo, rio de lagrimas, fuente de cuidados, dulce ponzofia, fabula compuesta y frenesi deleitables? "12 " i Oh Sefiora de los angeles, Reina del cielo, puerta del paraiso, abogada del mundo, refugio de los pecadores, salud de los justos, alegria de los sanctos, maestra de las virtudes, espejo de la limpieza, titulo de castidad, dechado de paciencia, y suma de toda perfecci6n! " 13 In the Rhetorica Granada suggests different types of the series. Since the preacher can make a subject more impressive by mentioning its different parts, enumerations (a partibus amplificatio) should be used often in sermons. An important event may be stressed by the enumeration of its causes, the attendant circumstances and those that follow (ab adiunctis amplificatio: hoc est, antecedentibus, comitantibus, et consequentibus).l4 "Rem publicam, Quirites, vitamque omnium vestrum, bona, fortunas, conjuges liberosque vestros atque hoc domicilium clarissimi imperi, fortunatissimam pulcherrimamque urbem, hodierno die deorum immortalium summo erga vos amore, laboribus, consiliis, periculis meis e flamma atque ferro ac paene ex faucibus fati ereptam et vobis conservatam ac restitutam videtis." 15 "Venid a esta fuente a beber de todos los estados, los casados, los religiosos, los sacerdotes, los del mundo y los 11 Verr. V. II8. 12 Guia, t. I, p. 322. 13 Orac., t. 2, p. 62. 14Rhet. III. II. and III. 51 Cat. III. I. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 45 de fuera del mundo. Los que vivis en el mundo, con esta virtud estareis seguros: los que fuera del mundo, con ella sereis mas perfectos: los pecadores, aqui llorareis vuestros pecados: los justos, aqui sereis mas justificados: los que andais en la guerra, por aqui alcanzareis victoria: los que vivis en la paz, por aqui crescera como rio vuestra paz." 16 " Pues por esta muchedumbre de peligros dice que llovera sobre los pecadores lazos. Lazos en la mocedad, y lazos en la vejez: lazos en las riquezas y lazos en la pobreza: lazos en la honra, y lazos en la deshonra: lazos en la compafiia, y lazos en la soledad: lazos en las adversidades, y lazos en las prosperidades: y finalmente lazos para todos los sentidos del hombre: para los ojos, para los oidos, para la lengua y para todo lo demas." 17 "Y los que trataron su muerte, hubieron el pago que merecian. El que lo vendi6, se ahorc6, el que lo sentenci6, se mat6, y los que lo entregaron a la muerte, fueron asolados y destruidos, y acabado su reino con la mayor matanza y cautiverio que despues del diluvio nunca se vi6, porque tal castigo merecia tal pecado." 18 Comparison of wholes or parts.-Comparison consists in raising the lowest things in order to elevate still higher that which is superior. This is similar, says Granada, to the art and skill of the painter, who, when he wishes to make one color prominent, puts under it another one decidedly different.l9 "An vero vir amplissimus, P. Scipio, pontifex maximus, Ti. Gracchum mediocriter labefactantem statum rei publicae privatus interfecit: Catilinam orbem terrae caede atque incendiis vastare cupientem nos consules perferemus? "20 16 Orac., t. 2, p. 15. 17 Guia, t. I, p. 315; cf. also Orac., t. 2, p. I8o: "Alli pues los ojos...." 18 Simb., t. 7, p. 229. 9 Rhet. III. V. 20 Cat. I. 3. 46 REBECCA SWITZER Here, according to Quintilian, there are several comparisons: Catiline compared to Gracchus; the state of the republic to the world; a moderate change to deaths, fires, desolations; and an individual to consuls.21 This same oration offers another example. "Servi mehercule mei si me isto pacto metuerent, ut te metuunt omnes cives tui, domum meam relinquendam putarem: tu tibi urbem non arbitraris? " 22 Granada employs this figure in the development of almost every idea. He compares the body with the soul, man with lower animals, man with Christ, and the good with the bad. The first one of the following passages is taken from a series of comparisons of different characters of the Bible with Jesus Christ. "Entre los jueces tambien Sanson en muchas cosas fue figura de nuestro Redemptor, porque Sans6n primeramente, contra la forma de la ley, cas6 con una mujer extranjera, de linaje de los filisteos, y Cristo tom6 por esposa la Iglesia, recogida del linaje de los gentiles. Sans6n mat6 un leon, y Cristo destruy6 el poder del principe deste mundo,... Sans6n hall6 en la boca deste le6n que mato un panal de miel, del cual el comio con mucho gusto: y Cristo sac6 de la boca del enemigo toda aquella gloriosa companiia de los sanctos Padres..... " 23 "Pues si tanto debes al que te hizo hombre, ~ cuanto le deberas porque te hizo buen hombre? Si tanto por los bienes del cuerpo, cuanto por los bienes del anima? Si tanto por los bienes de naturaleza, cuanto por los bienes de 21Inst. orat. VIII. IV. 14; cf. also Rhet. III. V. 22 Cat. I. 17. 23Simb., t. 7, P. i98. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 47 gracia? Finalmente, si tanto le debes porque te hizo hijo de Adan, cuanto mis le deberas porque te hizo hijo de Dios? "24 Reasoning.-Reasoning is a figure, says Quintilian, in which one thing is magnified so that another may be emphasized, and thus one arrives at the idea which the author wishes to be extolled.25 This device, according to Granada, may be called concession, since the speaker seems to be suffering and permitting an injustice so that the things which he is to say later may appear more serious.26 " Leves sunt haec in hoc reo. Metum virgarum navarchus homo nobilissimus nobilissimae civitatis pretio redemit: humanum est. Alius, ne condemnaretur pecuniam dedit: usitatum est. Non vult populus Romanus obsoletis criminibus accusari Verrem, nova postulat, inaudita desiderat; non de praetore Siciliae, sed de nefario tyranno fieri iudicium arbitratur." 27 "Y si tanto debes a este Senor porque l1 mismo en persona quiso venir a remediarte, < cuanto mas le deberas por la manera en que te remedi6, que fue con tan grandes trabajos? Gran beneficio es por cierto que el rey perdone al ladr6n los azotes que meresce: mas que el mismo rey los quiera recebir en sus espaldas por el, este es sin comparaci6n beneficio mayor." 28 "... dime, ruegote: cuando te veas en este trance, i que sentiras? 4 d6nde iras? i que haras? g a quien llamaras? Volver atras es imposible, pasar adelante es intolerable, estarte asi no se concede: pues,. que haras? " 29 24 Guia, t. I, p. 59; cf. also Orac., t. 2, p. 22. Here Peter, protesting because Christ washes the feet of his disciples, contrasts himself with Christ. 26 Inst. orat. VIII. IV. 26 Rhet. III. IV; V. XIII. 5. 27 Verr. V. I7. 28 Orac., t. 2, p. 220. 29 Guia, t. i, p. 69; cf. also Simb., t. 7, p. 48: " Pues..." 48 REBECCA SWITZER FIGURES OF AMPLIFICATION Descriptions of things or persons.-In the hands of Cicero and Fr. Luis de Granada description serves to amplify and to exaggerate the subject under discussion. Cicero thinks that the whole style of oratory should be distinguished by brilliant figures of thoughts and words.30 In the opinion of Granada, nothing moves the emotions more than to picture a thing in such a way that it appears to be performed before one's eyes. Description consists in setting forth what happens, or has happened, at length and with all its colors. The result is that the hearer or the reader receives as vivid an impression as he would in the theater.31 " Stetit soleatus praetor populi Romani cum pallio purpureo tunicaque talari muliercula nixus in litore." 32 "Videbar videre alios intrantes, alios vero exeuntes, quosdam ex vino vacillantes, quosdam hesterna ex potatione oscitantes. Humus erat immunda, lutulenta vino, coronis languidulis et spinis cooperta piscium." 33 "Mas los hombres dice que andaran secos y ahilados de muerte, oyendo los bramidos espantosos de la mar, y viendo las grandes olas y tormentas que levantara, barruntando por 30 De Orat. III. 20I: "In perpetua autem oratione, cum et coniunctionis levitatem et numerorum, quam dixi, rationem tenuerimus, tur est quasi luminibus distinguenda et frequentenda omnis oratio sententiarum atque verborum. Nam et commoratio una in re permultum movet et inlustris explanatio rerumque, quasi gerantur, sub aspectum paene subiectio; quae et in exponenda re plurimum valent et ad inlustrandum id quod exponitur, et ad amplificandum; ut eis, qui audient, illud, quod augebimus, quantum efficere oratio poterit, tantum esse videatur... s3 Rhet. III. VI. 32 Verr. V. 86. 83 Pro Gallio, quoted in Inst. orat. VIII. III. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LuIS DE GRANADA 49 aqui las grandes calamidades y miserias que amenazan al mundo tan temerosas sefiales. Y asi andaran at6nitos y espantados, las caras amarillas y desfiguradas, antes de la muerte muertos, y antes del juicio sentenciados, midiendo los peligros con sus proprios temores, y tan ocupados cada uno con el suyo, que no se acordara del ajeno, aunque sea padre de hijo, ni hijo de padre. Nadie habra para nadie, porque nadie bastara para si solo." 34 No less vivid than this picture of the day of judgment and of its effect on the unprepared are Granada's portrayals of the figure of Christ on the cross 35 and of the wonderful sights the faithful will enjoy on reaching Heaven.36 In his descriptions of the different phases of nature Granada shows a poetical ability that at times approaches that of Fr. Luis de Leon. He is particularly fond of the sea and he describes it in the simple and direct manner of one who loves it because he knows it in all its moods. "Acaesce alguna vez estar una nube muy escura y tenebrosa hacia la parte del poniente: y si cuando el sol se quiere ya poner, la toma delante y la hiere y la embiste con sus rayos, suele pararla tan hermosa y tan dorada, que parece al mismo sol." 37 "Porque que cosa mas mansa que el mar cuando esta quieto y libre de los vientos, que solemos llamar mar de donas, o cuando con un aire templado blandamente se encrespa, y envia sus mansas ondas hacia la ribera, sucediendo unas a otras con un dulce ruido, y siguiendo el alcance las unas de las otras, hasta quebrarse en la playa." 38 34 Orac., t. 2, p. I6o. 3a Ibid., p. 220. 36 Ibid., p. 204. 87 Orac., t. 2, p. 94. 38 Simb., t. 5, p. 86. 5 50 REBECCA SWITZER Pretended conversation (sermocinatio).-In pretended conversation-frequently found in the Bible and in the writings of Ciceronians-Granada sees a very useful device for the preacher. The definition for it he finds in Ad Herennium: sermocinatio is a figure in which the speech attributed to a certain person is delivered in a manner that is suited to the position of the speaker.39 In the following passage, in answer to pretended questions from Grattius, Cicero replies: "Quaeres a nobis, Gratti, cur tanto opere hoc homine delectemur. Quia suppeditat nobis, ubi et animus ex hoc forensi strepitu reficiatur et aures convicio defessae conquiescant. An tu existimas aut suppetere nobis posse, quod dicamus in tanta varietate rerum, nisi animos nostros doctrina excolamus, aut ferre animos tantam posse contentionem, nisi eos doctrina eadem relaxemus? Ego vero fateor me his studiis esse deditum." 40 In the Introduccion del simbolo de la fe Granada relates an imaginary conversation between a country man and a sailor. The former being on a ship for the first time asks many questions about its different parts. The sailor likens, him in his bewilderment and ignorance about the importance of the fishing implements, the ropes,, etc., to the sinner who has never sailed along the way of virtue.41 One of the most eloquent passages in all of Granada's writings is the conversation that he imagines to have taken place the day of the crucifixion between the hearts of Christ and his mother. 89Rhet. III. VII. 40 Pro Arch. 12. 41 Simb., t. 5, p. 270. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 51 The heart of Christ speaks: " Para que veniste aqui, paloma mia, querida mia y madre mia? Tu dolor acrecienta el mio, y tus tormentos atormentan a mi. Vuelvete, madre mia, vuelvete a tu posada, que no pertenece a tu pureza virginal compafiia de homicidas y de ladrones. Si lo quisieres asi hacer, templarse ha el dolor de ambos, y quedare yo para ser sacrificado por el mundo, pues a ti no pertenece este oficio, y tu inocencia no merece este tormento. Vuelvete pues, oh paloma mia, al arca hasta que cesen las aguas del diluvio..." To this the heart of the Virgin replies: " Por que me mandas eso, hijo mio? jPor que me mandas alejar deste lugar? Tu sabes, Sefior mio y Dios mio, que en presencia tuya todo me es licito, y que no hay otro oratorio sino dondequiera que tui estas. C6mo puedo yo partirme de ti sin partirme de mi? De tal manera tiene ocupado mi coraz6n este dolor, que fuera del ninguna cosa puedo pensar... " 42 Conformation (conformatio).-Conformation, according to the definition quoted by Granada from Ad Herennium, is a figure in which an absent person is made to speak, or one in which an inanimate object becomes eloquent. This device and that of pretended conversation have much of the character of the dialogue.43 Cicero's ideal orator, as he is pictured in the Orator, will not use conformation because it is too ostentatious, but it is found in Cicero's own orations.44 The state pleads thus with Catiline: 42 Orac., t. 2, p. 63; cf. also, pp. 172-173, the conversation between el dnima y el cuerpo. 43Rhet. III. IX. 44Orat. 85: "... etiam illa sententiarum lumina adsumet, quae non erunt vehementer illustria. Non faciet rem publicam loquentem nec ab inferis mortuos excitabit ~ * o 52 REBECCA SWITZER "Nullum iam aliquot annis facinus exstitit nisi per te, nullum facinus sine te.... " 45 Here Cicero pretends that all of Italy speaks to him: "M. Tulli, quid agis? Tune eum, quem esse hostem comperisti,... exire patiere, ut abs te non emissus ex urbe, sed inmissus in urbem esse videatur? " 46 Conformation is one of Granada's favorite figures. "A los cuales la prudencia humana hablaba a cada uno en su coraz6n, y le decia: que haces, hombre, que determinas? i Que acuerdo es ese que tomas? i No ves que estan contra ti armados los reyes y emperadores? i No ves que hasta los mismos padres se encruelescen contra sus hijos, y los persiguen como a enemigos por esta nueva doctrina? i No ves que es locura dejar los dioses que adoran los emperadores y todas las naciones del mundo, por adorar un hombre crucificado? No ves las carceles llenas de hombres presos por esta causa? " 47 " El cielo dice: yo te alumbro de dia y de noche con mis estrellas, porque no andes a escuras, y te envio diversas influencias para criar las cosas, porque no mueras de hambre. El aire dice: yo te doy aliento de vida, y te refresco.... El agua dice: yo te sirvo con las lluvias.... Pues la tierra, que dira...? nsa, pues, tambien con mucha raz6n dira: yo como madre te traigo a cuestas.... Finalmente, todo el mundo a muy grandes voces te esta diciendo: mira cuanto es lo que te am6 mi Sefior y Hacedor...." 48 Granada realizes that he may be criticised for prolixity. While he frequently insists that the 45 Cat. I. I8. 46Ibid. I. 27. 47 Simb., t. 6, p. 320. 48 Guia, t. I, pp. 32-33. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 53 preacher should not pile up meaningless words just to create an impression of abundance, he defends himself on one occasion from an imagined charge of verbosity. In the Prologo to the Libro de la oraci6n y meditacion he justifies the length of the meditations for the different days of the week by the richness and the importance of the material. There is no reason, he believes, why the guest should complain if the table is loaded with food, for he is not compelled to eat all that is spread before himhe may choose what he wants. Fearing, however, that everybody will not complete the meditations, the practical Granada places a summary of what he considers the most essential part at the beginning of each day's reading.4 The many devices mentioned in the Rhetorica, through which the preacher may elaborate his theme, show the importance Granada attaches to the subject of amplification. Copiousness like that of St. Chrysostom he considers an ornament to the oration. Whatever there is to say about a matter should be expressed fully so that all that is in it may be brought to light. But to attain fluency and to avoid tautology-which is caused by poverty of expressionthe preacher must be rich in ideas and in vocabulary, so that he is not obliged to stop after every concept and, as it were, " beg from door to door " before he can continue. The words, however, must be classified and applied according as the subject is joyful (laeta), sad (tristis), grand (grandis) or 4o Orac., t. 2, p. 9. 54 REBECCA SWITZER atrocious (atrox).50 Copiousness of matter, remarks Cicero, produces that of language,51 while Granada says that whoever is rich in words can express himself in speaking and in writing easily and without embarrassment.52 o Rhet. VI. XII. 51 De Orat. II. 31. 52 Rhet. VI. XII. 3. IV FIGURES USED TO AROUSE EMOTIONS (AFFECT US) The different devices for amplification are closely related to the figures used to arouse emotions. These figures Cicero mentions briefly and without elaboration-he is in a hurry and likewise there are already many explanations and rules on this subject. Nevertheless he considers the application of them not only very important but the most difficult of accomplishment of anything in the whole study of eloquence.1 From his study of the emotions Quintilian concludes that the orator who wishes to move others must be moved himself. This remark Granada quotes, which seems to show that he too believes that sincerity in the speaker is worth more than rhetorical devices.2 The following are some of the figures, used to arouse emotions, that are recommended by Cicero, Quintilian and Granada. Exclamation (exclamatio).-After a wonderful event has been amplified or proved, the hearer's mind, already "moved by its grandeur," must be kept awake by appropriate devices, of which the exclamation is the first and one of the most common.3 When this figure is joined with the apos1De Orat. III. 202-208. 2Inst. orat. VI. II; Rhet. III. X; De Orat. II. I90-19I. 8 Rhet. III. XII. 55 56 REBECCA SWITZER trophe, Granada considers the effect still more impressive. Exclamations and rhetorical questions are among the most apparent characteristics of the Ciceronian style. In the vehement and even in the moderate manner of speaking they are used constantly, not only to attract attention, to give variety to sentence structure and to add vigor and force, but also to arouse various feelings. These figures are usually emotional in character and follow the logical arguments-the appeal is made to reason, then to the passions. " 0 scelus I o portentum in ultimas terras exportandum! "4 "... quotiens tu me designatum, quotiens vero consulem interficere conatus es! quot ego tuas petitiones ita conjectas ut vitari posse non viderentur parva quadam declinatione et, ut aiunt, corpore effugi! " 5 "i Oh buen padre, que asi amais a vuestros hijosl i Oh buen pastor, que asi os dais en pasto y mantenimiento a vuestro ganadol iOh fiel guardador, que asi os entregais a la muerte por los que os encargastes de guardar " 6 "i C6mo la transforma I ic6mo la levanta! c6mo la esfuerza! i c6mo la consuela! i c6mo la compone toda dentro y fueral ic6mo le hace mudar las costumbres del hombre viejo! i c6mo le trueca todas sus aficiones y deleites i c6mo le hace amar lo que antes aborrescia, y aborrescer lo que antes amaba, y tomar gusto en lo que antes le era desabrido, y desgusto en lo que antes le era sabroso! i Que fuerzas le da para pelear I i que alegria! i que paz! " 7 Repeated questions (repetitio interrogationum). 4 Verr. Act. II. I. 40. 5 Cat. I. 15. o Gufa, t. I, p. 44. 7 Ibid., p. 305; cf. also Orac., t. 2, p. 78: " Oh rio que sales...!" CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 57 -To the Ciceronians repeated questions are valuable, both to move the emotions and to add variety to the oration. Granada considers the effect of a series of many questions very forceful and elegant. To illustrate this he cites St. Paul in his first Epistle to the Corinthians, 9: " non sum liber? non sum apostolus? nonne Christum vidi? nonne opus meum estis in Domino? "8 Questions serve also to terrify those who have no desire to leave off their sins.9 A study of Cicero indicates that he and Granada employed this figure to the same end. Like the exclamations, these series of questions are intended to stir the emotions. While they are not meant primarily to appeal to the reason, their rather sententious style presumes that they are unanswerable. "... tu, Caecili, quid facies? Utrum hoc tantum crimen praetermittes an obiicies? Si obiicies, idne alteri crimini dabis quod eodem tempore in eadem provincia tu ipse fecisti? audebis ita accusare alterum ut quo minus tute condemnare recusare non possis? Sin praetermittes, qualis erit tua ista accusatio, quae...?" 10 " Pues este tal, viendose falsamente acusado, i que hiciera? Que dijera? No respondiera por si? No negara los falsos testimonios? iNo afirmara con mil juramentos que era inocente? No tachara los testigos, pues era notoria...? No pidiera mas plazo...? No apelara para el Cesar...? No pidiera justicia...? " 11 " Pobre de ti, tui que dices que eres cristiano, dime: Lpara 8 Rhet. III. XII. 9 Rhet. III. XII. 10 In Caec. Div. 3I. 11 Simb., t. 7, p. 115. 58 REBECCA SWITZER que vino Cristo al mundo? para que derram6 su sangre? L para que instituy6 los sacramentos? para que envi6 el Espiritu Sancto? < Que quiere decir Evangelio? que quiere decir gracia? que Jesus? g Que significa ese nombre tan celebrado de ese mismo Sefor que adoras? "12 Often these questions are answered, either by a sentence, or, as is the case in Granada's works, by a clause introduced by sino. "Quid tam novum quam adulescentulum privatum exercitum difficili rei publicae tempore conficere? Confecit. Huic praeesse? Praefuit. Rem optime ductu suo gerere? Gessit."13 (Five more questions and answers in this series.) "Pues vos, Seflor, que premio, que galard6n esperabades de tan inmensos trabajos? Claro esta que en vos nada de eso podia caber. Pues,, que os movi6, Sefior, a tomar sobre vos una tan grande carga? Fue alguna nueva alegria que desto recibiesedes? No, porque sois infinitamente bienaventurado.. Fue algun nuevo poder...? No, porque en vos esta todo el poder.... Pues 1 fue alguna nueva gloria...? Nada deso ha lugar...."14 "Pues i quien pudo denunciar estas coqas tantos mil afnos antes, sino Dios? Y quien pudiera acabar cosas tan grandes, sino Dios? Quien pudiera desterrar la idolatria de todo el mundo, sino Dios? "15 (Five more questions and answers in this series, all of which end in sino Dios.) The figures mentioned above and others, such as hyperbole (superlatio), wonder (admiratio), curse (imprecatio), wish (optatio) and adjuration (adiuratio), are considered by Granada to be particu12 Guia, t. I, p. 293. 13 De imp. Cn. Pomp. 6I. 14 Simb., t. 8, p. 277. 15 Ibid., t. 9, p. 401. 1^ \ CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 59 larly stimulative. However, since one of his principal aims in imitating the artificial classic style is to make his sermons and writings more effective, it may be said that all the devices used by him are intended to move the feelings and to control the will of his audiences. V CICERONIANISM IN GRANADA'S LANGUAGE AND SYNTAX In the Prologue to Book V of his Rhetorica ecclesiastica Granada says that, when be began to write this "little book," he did not intend to discuss the details of style. However it was necessary to put down many of them, as clearly and as methodically as possible, in order to keep the diligent preacher from getting lost among the intricate and closely connected laws of rhetoric. Granada quotes at length from Quintilian on the subject of style. Style, the most difficult attribute for an orator to obtain, says Quintilian, absorbed much of Cicero's attention because he believed that eloquence was essential to the speaker. To speak eloquently is to convey one's thoughts to the audience. The art of doing this should be taught above all else, for without it other things are in vain and of no more value than a sword in its sheath. The Asiatics, Quintilian continues, employed the art of eloquence; even those whom we call "dry" were not ignorant of it, but the former lacked judgment and moderation in its use, and the latter energy. Thus in this art are combined the vice and the virtue of the orator.' As the basis for the discussion found in the l Inst. orat., Proemium, VIII. 32; Rhet. V. I. 60 CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 61 Rhetorica V, Granada takes the four essential qualities of style recommended by Cicero.2 The orator must speak purely (pure et latine), clearly (perspicue), ornately (ornate) and aptly (apte). Granada interprets the first point to mean that the preacher in Spain should use pure Spanish. To attain this purity three vices must be avoided: barbarism (barbarismus), a word not used by educated people; solecism (soloecismus), a certain arrangement of words contrary to the art of grammar; and barbara lexis, a foreign word or expression introduced into the native language. Like Cicero, Granada does not discuss at length the orator's need of correct language. This is so necessary that the use of any other kind would cause ridicule.3 Granada's standard for "pure" Spanish is rather difficult to determine. In spite of the many grammars and works on vocabulary that had been published, there was still much indecision as to diction and syntax. Granada seems to have settled the problems in the Spanish language for himself, though he is not always consistent. VOCABULARY Fr. Luis de Granada, says D. Jose Joaquin de Mora, was the true founder of polished Spanish prose. He purified his language by freeing it from 2 De Orat. I. I44; Rhet. V. II. 3 Rhet. V. II; De Orat. III. 52. Laurand says that none of Cicero's contemporaries doubted the purity of his language, though some mocked his verse and declared his prose emphatic. (etude sur le style des discours de Ciceron, p. 23.) 62 REBECCA SWITZER useless Latinisms and intricate expressions, and took away from it many exotic, crude, trivial and insignificant words.4 Cicero and Granada wrote under somewhat similar circumstances. When Cicero began to write, Greek art and culture were held in high esteem and everything Latin was considered somewhat crude in comparison. Not only was it often easier to use the Greek expression, because the Latin was perhaps inadequate, but it was quite a temptation to orators and writers to create an impression of great learning by throwing in a Greek word or phrase here and there. Cicero, however, though noted for the devices by which he appealed to the emotions of his public, severely condemned this affectation of his contemporaries and insisted himself on using words with which his audience was familiar. He wrote philosophical works in Latin, a feat considered almost impossible at that time, since Latin was "unfit to express such a subject." To Cicero more than to any other Roman, says Reid, is due the formation of a Latin philosophical vocabulary, which enriched that tongue and fitted it for the part it has since played as the "language of the learned." 6 Cicero is noted for the purity of his language. In the choice of words he was scrupulous, first as to the best usage, then as to their harmony and melody. He quoted words which he himself did not 4Pr'logo in B. A. E., t. VI, p. vii. 5 James Reid, M. Tulli Ciceronis Cato maior de senectute, Laelius de amicitia, revised by Francis W. Kelsey, Boston, 1885, p. iii. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 63 approve; in his poetry he used words which he avoided in his prose. In his correspondence occur many neologisms, archaisms, familiar expressions and Greek terms,6 because he knew that the persons to whom he was writing would understand them. His philosophical and rhetorical treatises do not show the same freedom as his letters, for this technical type of writing needed words which at that time really did not exist in the Latin. In this case also, as in that of his letters, he was writing to a more or less select audience. But his orations were meant for a more general public. Hence it is here we find his purest vocabulary. In accord with his principle that he had the right to create new words to express new ideas,7 Cicero formed many abstract nouns and compounds and made Latin words from the Greek, many of which were later to become a part of the Latin language and in turn of the Romance languages. Tyrrell says that Greek terms were employed by Cicero to supply a deficiency in the Latin, and also in the sense of slang or cant phrases.8 In his letters Cicero forms words as the occasion demands; there is a prevalence of diminutives, many of which are not found in other classical writers; adjectives and adverbs are intensified by the prefix per or mitigated by sub.9 Cicero defends this colloquial language used in his letters by saying that one does not always write 6 Cf. Meyer, De Ciceronis in epistolis ad Atticum sermone, pp. I9 and sig. 7 Cf. Laurand, ttude, Ch. I. ' r;aro in his Letters, p. lxxxiv. Ibid., pp. lxxxvi-lxxxviii. 64 REBECCA SWITZER in the same style and that a letter has no analogy with a speech in court or with one at a public meeting. Even court speeches are not delivered in the same manner. While private cases and those of little importance are pleaded in simple language, those that affect a man's civil existence or reputation have a more ornate style. Letters, however, Cicero composes in the language of everyday life.10 When Cicero and Granada began to write, Latin and Spanish respectively were more or less in the same state of crudity. They lacked adequate words and phrases to express "artistically" certain types of ideas, and Latin stood in about the same relation to Greek that Spanish occupied later in regard to Latin. The greatest difference in the circumstances seems to be that it was not necessary for Granada to introduce and to form so many words as Cicero did. The writers of the Renaissance period in Spain had flooded the language with neologisms, Italianisms and Latin terms which were taken not only from classic, but also from vulgar Latin and from that of the Church Fathers. As Cicero had been forced to coin words and phrases to express Greek philosophy and rhetoric, so the Church Fathers were compelled to add many words to Latin in order to express their Christian ideas in a pagan language. This resulted in the creation of new figures of speech and new words; many compound and abstract nouns were added, of which there was a scarcity in classic Latin in spite 10 Ep. ad Fam. IX. 21. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 65 of Cicero's contribution in this line; words rarely found before became current; meanings were changed from literal to figurative, from abstract to concrete, and vice versa; certain adjectival endings (-bundus, -osus, -bilis, -alis, -ficus, -arius, -orius) became popular.ll All these changes made by Christianity in Latin had an influence on the Spanish of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and particularly on that of the religious writers. Granada's r6le was to aid in the organization of this enormous mass of rich material introduced during the Renaissance, in compounding words, in culling here and there, in abolishing useless Latinisms, neologisms and archaisms, and in adapting others to the needs of the language. Influenced by the teachings and examples of Cicero and Quintilian and by his own judgment, Granada shows at all times a desire to select his vocabulary. In letters to people who know Latin he uses phrases and words in that language. In other writings, however, if he employs a Latin phrase-and he seldom does-he explains the meaning in Spanish. Or if he quotes from a Latin author, he translates the passage immediately after the quotation. Granada teaches that, when there are synonyms, the preacher should choose the most suitable and the "best" words. Some are more sonorous (con11 Cf. Bayard, Le latin de Saint Cyprien, Pt. I, Bks. II and III, and Pt. II, Bk. I; Cooper, Word Formation in the Roman Sermo Plebeius, pp. 92-123; Regnier, De la latinite des sermons de Saint Augustin, Ch. I. 6 66 REBECCA SWITZER sonantiora) than others, some more elevated (grandiora), some more elegant (nitidiora) and some more pleasing (iucundiora). For example, bos is more elegant than vacca; quamquam, moderatio and concertare are more sonorous than etsi, modestia and configere; immanis, contrucidare, optimus and officiosissimus are grander than magnus, necare, bonus and officiosus. In general, sordid (sordida) words should be avoided, for they have no place in a learned oration.l2 One must carefully consider the subject of the speech. Since it is necessary to choose appropriate words, the preacher must have on hand a supply of them. This he can obtain by reading continually and with reflection works well written in the vernacular.l3 A horrible (atrox) theme can best be expressed with harsh (aspera) words, whereas an elevated (grandis) subject needs exalted (magnifica) ones. An humble (humile) word in such a case would be very noticeable.14 It is evident that Granada prefers superlative adjectives to the positive, the more impressive words to the simple and, in some cases at least, the learned to the vulgar. But his directions for the choice of words are so general that it is difficult to come to definite conclusions as to his theory. 12 Rhet. V. V; cf. also Inst. orat. VIII. III. 13 Rhet. VI. XII. I. 14Granada quotes from Quintilian that words should be simple and natural, not studied and artificial. Cicero's theory should be followed: to depart from the ordinary and habitual manner of speech is the greatest vice that exists in language. (Rhet. V. I and Inst. orat. VIII, Proem.) CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 67 While we have not made an actual count of the words used by Granada, a careful study of his works shows an extensive vocabulary. This comes evidently from the great variety of subjects treated and from the author's exhaustive mode of discussion. One naturally finds many terms pertaining to religion because all his works are religious in character. In his portrayals of Heaven, Granada's fancy and imagination aided by his reading of the Bible and other religious books inspire the most "sublime and elevated" words. The stars and other phases of nature he describes in a truly poetical manner. On the other hand, his pictures of Hell and the everlasting punishments which sinners must endure are also graphic. No loathsome detail of these horrible sufferings of the lost is spared the reader. Granada's vocabulary is rich when he deals with unpleasant scenes, and especially so when he speaks of disagreeable odors. He seems to have at his command every possible word that would make the idea more impressive.'5 In the variety of figures taken from all phases of life, Granada shows that he is master of his vocabulary. He uses words which, judged by the Ciceronian standard, are lofty in character, beautiful in meaning and harmonious in sound; words simple, clear, sententious and direct; words harsh, loathsome and disagreeable, both in meaning and in sound. In his philosophical writings Granada established 15 Guia, t. I, pp. 78-79; Mem., t. 3, PP. 17-18; Ibid., p. 5o8; Orac., t. 2, pp. Ioo, I03. 68 REBECCA SWITZER a standard in Spanish as Cicero did in Latin. One finds perhaps the best illustration of this in the Introduccion del simbolo de la fe. The first part of this treatise is based largely on Cicero's De natura deorum, Lucretius' De rerum natura and Pliny's Historia naturalis. The skill with which Granada finds words in this book to translate and adapt the Latin to the Spanish is in marked contrast with the work of the fifteenth century writers who translated the classic authors. They apparently could not find the words to express the ideas of the Ancients, nor could they combine the words they knew in an "artistic" manner. Granada did both. The Introduccion del simbolo de la fe contains many technical and philosophical terms. Yet they are expressed with the same ease and fluency with which Granada writes his letters, biographies, dialogues, sermons and other more extensive works. In Granada's vocabulary, as in his constructions, there is that vacillation as to general orthography and inflection of verbs and pronouns which is characteristic of the period. In many cases a word is written in two different ways on the same page: foguera and hoguera; 1 destapada and desatapada (in same sentence); 17 satishacer and satisfaccion; 18 indinar and indignar.9 The verb hacer is spelled with h or f:20 hecimos, fecho, facer. Descender is 16 Orac., t. 2, p. I49. 17 Ibid., p. 304. 18 Ibid., p. 259. 19 Carta al Duque de Feria, t. 14, p. 453. Valdes leaves out the g in such words much more often than Granada does. 20 Cf. Orac., t. 2, pp. 175, 31, 6o. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 69 found in all the passages quoted by R. Cuervo 21 from writers of the sixteenth century except from Venegas and Granada, both of whom wrote descendir. In fifteenth century writers we find such forms as descendieronle, decienda, descenden, while Granada uses descendir,22 descendiremos,23 deciende,24 descindamos.2 In many cases Nebrija does not sanction the way Granada writes certain words. Usually, however, in other passages the latter uses the modern forms of these same words. Some of these old forms are: cobdicia,28 cobdo,27 dubdas,28 fructo,29 instinctu,80 espeza,31 cibdad,32 polir,33 rescibe,8' instrucion,38 21 Diccionario de construccion y regimen de la lengua castellana. 22 Guia, t. I, p. 42. 23 Simb., t. 5, p. 59. 24 Ibid., p. 235. 25 Ibid., t. 6, p. 74. 26 Guia, t. I, p. 203. 27 Ibid., p. io6. 28 Orac., t. 2, p. 84. 29 Simb., t. 5, p. 79. 30 Guia, t. I, p. 385. 31 Ibid., p. 22I. 32 Ibid., p. 203. 33 Orac., t. 2, p. 395. 34 Guia, t. I, p. II9. 5 Simb., t. 6, p. 339. Both Nebrija and Granada write destruicidn, contradici6n and satisfacion, though Granada also uses the modern spelling. (Cf. Nebrija's Dictionarium, Matriti, 1790.) In the passages quoted in Cuervo's dictionary the double c occurs only twice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; in the sixteenth century both ways of spelling are used, though the double c occurs more often. The passages from the works of Santa Teresa show only the single c, which seems to indicate that this was the popular way of spelling. 70 REBECCA SWITZER solene,3S solenne,37 estotros,38 miraglos,39 trompieces,40 hace (from haz),41 ansi.42 Nebrija and Granada use both forms of many words, as for example: priesa and prisa, foja and hoja, agiielos and abuelos, agora and ahora, hace and haz. Ajeno, written by Granada both as ageno and ajeno, is found only with the g in Nebrija. According to the quotations in Cuervo's Diccionario, ajeno does not occur before the sixteenth century. It is difficult to determine whether Granada actually introduced new words, but it is true that he does use many compounds, some of which are not in Nebrija's dictionary. This proves only that if Granada himself did not introduce them they were brought in after I492, or that if they existed before that time Nebrija did not recognize them. Some of these compounds are: beneplacito,3 ganapierde,44 concitpiscible,4 posponga,4 cognoscitivo,47 novilunios,48 cabrahigos,49 boquiancho,60 protomedico,51 soso Ibid., t. 8, p. io5. 37 Ibid., p. I60. 38 Orac., t. 2, p. 167. 39 Imit. de Cristo, t. 12, p. 47. 40 Imit. de Cristo, t. 12, p. 3. 41 Guia, t. I, p. 254. 42 Ibid., p. 20o. Cuervo says this form was much used by classic writers, but that Valdes preferred asi. 43 Ibid., p. 62. 44 Ibid., p. 44I. 45 Orac., t. 2, p. 285. 46Ibid., p. 358. 47 Guia, t. I, p. 423. 48 Simb., t. 5, P. 75. 49 Ibid., p. Io6. 50 Ibid., p. I51, 51 Ibid., p. I43, CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 71 brehermoso, sobrebueno and sobrepoderoso,62 sobrehaz.6 8 Nebrija does not have such words as merchantes,4 monesterios,65 conhortar,56 cuotidiano,57 mochachos,5 contino,59 all of which are in Granada. Al, as in the expression en todo lo al, is often used by the latter and is found in Nebrija.60 Ca also occurs in both writers, though Nebrija calls it an " old Spanish word." 61 Some Latinisms noted in Granada's works are not found in Nebrija: fas and nefas,62 ab aeterno,63 ad horam,64 miraculoso,65 sapiencia,66 ab eterno,67 item,68 cuasi,69 mixericos.70 While Granada uses haber for tener in many cases-for example, ha miedo 71 -52 Ibid., p. 329. s Orac., t. 2, p. 458. 4 Guia, t. I, p. 202. 55 Orac., t. 2, p. 232. 56 Guia, t. I, p. 221. 57 Ibid., p. 66. 58 Orac., t. 2, p. 294. 59 Ibid., p. 297. 60 Valdes says: "No digo al adonde tengo de dezir otra cosa." (Dial. de la leng., p. 158.) 61 According to Cuervo ca began to fall into oblivion the first part of the sixteenth century. Granada uses it often. Valdes says: " Ca por porque ha recebido injuria del tiempo, siendo injustamente desechado, y tiene un no se que de antiguedad que me contenta." (Diil. de la leng., p. 162.) 62 Orac., t. 2, p. I59. 63Ibid., p. 215. 64 Ibid., p. 343. 65 Simb., t. 6, p. 263. 66 Ibid., t. 7, p. 245. 67 Guia, t. i, p. 63. 68 Ibid., p. 89. 69 Ibid., p. 70 70 Carta al rey Felipe, t. 14, p. 470. 71 Simb., t. 5, p. 117; cf. also Ibid., t. 6, p. I17, and t. 7, p. 229. 72 REBECCA SWITZER Valdes criticises such a use of this verb.72 Though Latinisms do occur in Granada, he avoids them more than many writers of his period, and much more so than his predecessors. The majority of them, however, were such familiar expressions that Granada was probably not conscious that they were Latinisms. Certain prefixes are used more than others by Granada. Of these per is the most Ciceronian. It is often found with verbs-for example, perturba 73 and jurar y perjurar.74 With adjectives and adverbs it is also used frequently instead of the absolute superlative in -isimo or muy with the positive form: for example, perdurable.75 Other common prefixes are re, des, contra and a. Of the adjectival endings that were characteristic of the Church Fathers Granada frequently employs those ending in -ble (-bills), -oso (-osus) 76 and -al (-alis). While augmentatives occur only occasionally in Granada's works, diminutives are perhaps more popular with him even than with Cicero. These are of different types and with as many different meanings: some are true diminutives-partecica and pajaricas; some have a meaning of tendernesspequeiuelos and hermanillos; others express contempt-hombrecillos; while others have lost their 72 " Aya y ayas por tenga y tengas se dezia antiguamente y aun lo dizen agora algunos, pero en muy pocas partes quadra..." (Dial. de la leng., p. 159). 73 Mem., t. 3, p. 313. 74 Guia, t. i, pp. 284, 324, etc. 75 Orac., t. 2, pp. 173, 183, 236. 76 Dificultoso is almost always used in preference to dificil. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 73 diminutive force-campanilla and portilo. In the most eloquent and vivid passages, where, for instance, Granada contrasts the power and the goodness of God with the weaknesses of men, diminutives pour forth in a stream. Parte I of the Introduccion del simbolo de la fe, in descriptions of nature and in the comparisons of animals with men, shows variety in the forms of this class of suffixes. In the work mentioned above, in which there seem to be more diminutives than elsewhere, the following forms have been noted: corpezuelo, cuerpezuelo, corpecillo, corpecito, corpecico; animalillos and animalejo; viejicica, vejezuelas and vejecicos; pequenito and pequenuelos. In the " grand and lofty " passages that represent the "elevated " style of Granada, we find, in addition to diminutives, superlatives and adverbs ending in -mente. Superlatives Granada uses even more than Cicero does. Granada's vocabulary shows both the classical and the popular tendencies. One notes the Ciceronian influence in the general principle of choosing words, in the use of compounds, diminutives and superlatives, and in the variety and contrast of suffixes and prefixes. The general Latin influence, characteristic of his period, is seen in the classical way of spelling words-instinctu-and in the use of such terms as fas, nefas and ad horam. In Granada's works it is difficult at times to distinguish the influence of Cicero from that of the early Christian writers. But the latter manifests 74 REBECCA SWITZER itself in the exaggerated use of diminutives, superlatives, "impressive" words, adjectives and adverbs with certain prefixes and suffixes. In regard to the origin of the popularity of such terms, Cooper believes that some of the Church Fathers, especially the African writers, were influential in carrying them over from the plebeian Latin to the modern languages. While Cicero uses less than IO6 adjectives and adverbs with the prefix per, Cooper finds in Latin some 225.77 In Latin there are some 406 adjectives ending in -osus. Only 97 of these occur in Cicero. They were, on the other hand, very popular in plebeian Latin, were frequently used by the African writers and later became current in the Romance languages.78 For adjectives ending in -bundus79 and -bilis,80 Cooper gives a somewhat similar history. Diminutives, according to the same authority, are more numerous in lighter forms of literature, as, for example, in the letters of Cicero and in the poems of Catullus. They were also prevalent in the sermo cotidianus in all grades of society. The sermo plebeius first robbed them of their proper meaning and Romance languages increased their number.81 These estimates show that many forms called Ciceronian are not so characteristic of Cicero himself as of his followers and especially of the African 77 Word Formation in the Roman Sermo Plebeius, p. 253. 78 Ibid., pp. 122-123. 79 Ibid., p. 92. 80 Ibid., pp. 96-97. 81 Ibid., pp. I66-I69. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 75 writers, who so strongly influenced the style of Fr. Luis de Granada. Many old Spanish words preserving much of the spelling or sound of the Latin evidently appealed to Granada. We note his frequent use of such words as facer, foja, cibdad and dubdar, while many writers of his time wrote only the modern forms. Since the Latin association with these forms must have been lost, the fondness for such archaisms was probably due to the popular tendency rather than to the classical. However, Granada does not use these exclusively. The fluctuations in the use of words merely reflect the inconsistencies and the transitions of the time. There was, in fact, no real standard then. Nebrija's dictionary was the best, but, as has been seen, Granada does not always conform to it. In the Didlogo de la lengua 82 Juan de Valdes frequently contradicts Nebrija, and he himself shows indecision in regard to many words. The works of Fr. Luis de Granada have perhaps served more generally as a guide for the compilation of dictionaries than have those of any other author of the classical period of Spanish literature. His aim was always to employ simple and wellknown words.83 Therefore his vocabulary represents that of the general public of his epoch. While Granada's contemporaries, according to Azorin, were writing literary Spanish, he was writing the spoken Spanish of cultured people, and for this reason his language is almost new and modern.84 82 This work was not published during Granada's lifetime. 88 Rhet. VI. XII. 84 Los dos Luises, p. 21. 76 REBECCA SWITZER SYNTAX Like his vocabulary Granada's syntax is characteristic of the period in which he wrote. In his Spanish as well as in that of other writers of the sixteenth century, certain Latin constructions, which later were to disappear entirely or to be somewhat modified, are still in evidence. Granada's theories in regard to the choice of words were those of Cicero, but his actual selection was strongly influenced by his reading of religious writers and by his close contact with the people. In combinations of words, he was even more responsive to the classic influence, though still dominated by the spoken language. Two main purposes seem to have guided Granada in his composition: to add clarity to the sentence by simplifying its structure and to adorn the sentence by the use of rhetorical figures in the syntax. While some of the constructions mentioned below are used by Cicero in Latin, others are cited only because Granada's manner of employing them is apparently due to his intention to follow some one of the Ciceronian theories of style. Position of Words Transposition (traiectio). —Transposition, so characteristic of writers of the fifteenth century, should not be used, says Granada, except when elegance demands.85 While he employs it at times, he warns the preacher that delayed transposition results *a Rhet. V. XVI. I. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 77 in hyperbaton.s6 In the Latin of such writers as Cato, the verb is usually found at the end of the clause or sentence,87 though Cicero and other later writers vary this order to emphasize certain words or ideas and to attain what they called euphonythe position of the verb is not fixed in classical Latin.88 As many inflectional terminations were lost in the development of the Romance languages, the verb had gradually come by the sixteenth century to occupy in general the position it takes today in the sentence. Although in modern Spanish there are slight variations in the order of words, inversion and transposition do not occur so frequently as in Granada's works. Granada often places the verb at the end of the clause. This is a Latinism, yet how consciously he so uses it is difficult to determine. Transposition was commonly employed by the Latin and Spanish writers who preceded him, and his ear must have been accustomed to this delayed position of the verb from reading their works. Also, as the final part of the clause is undoubtedly the most emphatic, it is natural for an important word like the verb to be placed there by a writer who strives to obtain effects.89 86 Ibid. V. III. 87 Cf. Nettleship, Lectures and Essays, p. 97. 88 Cf. Bonnet, Le latin de Gregoire de Tours, pp. 7I7 -7i8. 89 Cf. Cic. Orat. I99, where he says that the ear is waiting for the end, and that everything, the beginning and the middle, should look toward the last. There belong the metrical measures and the other adornments. 78 REBECCA SWITZER Transposed order in Granada's sentence serves not only to emphasize the verb, but also to make the finals of clauses similar, to have the same word used at the end of two or more clauses, or to make any one of the schemes. "... porque lo que una vez por nuestro amor tom6, nunca mas lo dejo." 90 "Y no basta que tenga el hombre proposito de restituir adelante, si luego puede: porque no s6lo tiene obligaci6n a restituir, sino tambien a luego restituir....." 91 "... que ni se compadescen del que tales cosas por ellos padescio, ni aman a quien tanto amor en esta obra les mostro, ni aborrecen el pecado, por cuyo odio y remedio tales cosas padesci6." 92 "Porque yo muy persuadido estoy, y asi lo estaran todos " 93 Again the verb is thrown out of its normal order to emphasize other words, as in the following: "A ninguin hombre del mundo aborrezcas: tus amigos ama en Dios, y tus enemigos por amor de Dios..... 94 "... que ninguna cosa mas en esta vida deseaba, y aun de la flaqueza y necesidades naturales se olvidaba." 95 " Quien seran estos tan dichosos, que tal lengua y honra como esta recibirdn? "96 Chiasmus.-Chiasmus, among the figures pertaining to the position of words, is very generally used by Cicero and Granada. 90 Guia, t. i, p. 41. 91 Ibid., p. 359. 92 Simb., t. 9, p. 246. 93 Escala, t. I2, p. 166. 94 Guia, t. I, p. 374. 95 Simb., t. 6, p. 97. 96 Orac., t. 2, p. 175. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 79 "Inveteravit enim iam opinio perniciosa rei publicae vobisque periculosa." 97 Note the subtle flattery in the position of litteratissimorum in the following passage, in which at the same time due emphasis is attracted to eruditissimo: ".. ut me pro summo poeta atque eruditissimo nomine dicentem, hoc concurso hominum litteratissimorum,... patiamini... loqui liberius.. ". 98 From our rather general study of the position of adjectives in Granada's sentence it is clear that he attains subtle distinctions by contrasting the adjectives, according as they are placed before or after the noun. While it is doubtful whether in doing this he goes contrary to the usage of classic writers,"" he certainly takes advantage of the fact that adjectives are used before and after the substantive with a different interpretation. The majority of the cases are natural, and the result is simply that the attributes of the noun are emphasized by the chiasmic order. In the second part of this figure the same adjective may be repeated, or a different one may be used. 97 Verr. Act. I. I. 98 Pro Arch. 3. 99George C. Brownell in The Attributive Adjective in the " Don Quijote" says the normal position of the adjective may be changed by that stylistic element, which seeks beauty of form, known as the aesthetic inflence, as is seen in the following: " Dichosa edad y siglos dichosos aquellos a quien los antiguos pusieron nombre de dorados." (P. 85. line 35 in the edition published by Fitzmaurice-Kelly and John Ormsby, London, I898-9, 2 vols.). 80 REBECCA SWITZER " lstos son los cuidados del avariento labrador y del herrero cuidadoso." 100 "Y si por cielos entienden aquellos espiritus bienaventurados que moran en los cielos, vosotros, bienaventurados espiritus, que...." 10 "... y argumentos y testimonios de la divina Justicia.... i Parecete, pues, que es esta razonable muestra de la Justicia divina? " 102 ".. llenas de amor propio, y de tu propia voluntad 108 A very pretty distinction is made in the following quotations where the prophet says that no one will go up to the mountain of God but the one who has "las manos inocentes y el coraz6n limpio." Then Granada, speaking of himself with his accustomed humility, concludes " yo que tan malas manos he tenido, y tan sucio corason, n ad6nde ire? " 104 In speaking of the miseries that come to men, he mentions illnesses, "y con ellas la triste vejez, y el trabajo continuo, y sobre todo la aspereza de la muerte cruel." o10 The change in the following passage may be stylistic only, but it seems also that Granada is contrasting the ease with which one is contaminated by another's vice with the difficulty of being helped by the virtue of another. 100 Orac., t. 2, p. 284. 101 Ibid., t. 2, p. 174. 102 Guia, t. i, p. 281. 103 Orac., t. 2, p. o08. 104 Orac., t. 2, p. 152. 105 Ibid., p. I34. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LuIS DE GRANADA 81 " Pues le podia dafiar la ajena malicia, y no le podia aprovechar la virtud ajena." 106 Chiasmic order is seen in the contrast of couplets and in combinations of parts of speech other than adjectives and nouns. "Porque los cuerpos de los justos resuscitaran hermosos y resplandescientes como el sol, mas los de los malos escuros y feos como la misma muerte." 107 "...en que juicio cabe velar alli siempre, y aqui siempre dormir? "108 Personal Pronouns There are several possibilities for the position of the personal pronoun in the Spanish of the classical period and Granada frequently takes advantage of them to make rhetorical effects. He places the pronoun in all possible positions, and by varying the location in the same sentence makes contrasts and thus adds emphasis to certain expressions. "... espesanse y aprietanse con el frio, y asi se mudan en agua...."109 "Los grandes tesoros gudrdanse con gran diligencia, mas los que asi no se guardan, indicio es que.... "110 "... porque los milagros creemoslos, mas no los vemos, pero las profecias juntamente creemos y vemos..... " 1 "... si considerare la grandeza del amor con que el Padre 100 Simb., t. 7, p. 30. 107 Orac., t. 2, p. 172. 108 Ibid., p. 124. 109 Simb., t. 5, P. 79. 110 Ibid., t. 6, p. 67. 111 Ibid., t. 6, p. 328. 7 82 REBECCA SWITZER le ama, ca le ama con infinito amor, dimale tanto cuanto ama a si mismo." 112 "Salir del cuerpo esle intolerable, quedarse en el es imposible, dilatar la salida no le es concedido...." 11 " De que os espantais...? Si te espanta... Espdntaste... yo me espanto... Espdntaste... yo me espanto.... " 114 The form hdceseles is found often.l5 This repetition of the same vowel in a word or in successive words is a device frequently used by Granada. In the following passage note the similarity of finals which would have been interrupted if the pronoun object had come before the verb: "Y si nada desto cabe en vos, gpor ventura movieronos las oraciones y servicios y meritos de los hombres? " 116 Much more often in Granada's works than in modern Spanish is the pronoun object found before the auxiliary verb rather than attached to the infinitive. It is also used before the infinitive. Such a construction is employed for various reasons. Granada delights in using finals that are similar, and the infinitive ending lends itself well to this figure. Likewise, as in almost all cases of the position of the pronoun, he strives to have similarity or a decided contrast whether in form or in sound. "...pues no contento con vestirnos de ti, te quisiste vestir de nosotros...." 117 112 Ibid., t. 9, p. 267. 118 Orac., t. 2, p. I55. 114 Ibid., p. 46. 115 Ibid., p. 310; cf. also Guia, t. I, p. 247. 116 Simb., t. 8, p. 278. 117 Orac., t. 2, p. 36. (This te is certainly for sound. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 83 "... para deliberar lo que se debe de hacer,... tenga mayor deseo de lo hacer..... 18 " Cuando consideran lo que perdieron, y la causa por que lo perdieron, y la oportunidad que tuvieron para no lo perder." 119 By not attaching te to the imperative in the following passages, Granada attains emphasis in the first case and uniformity in the second: este, este, a este, a 1I te. "A ti mismo te pon en lugar del que padesce...."120 " tste sea pues el testigo de toda tu vida, este el compainero de tu peregrinaci6n, a este da parte de tus negocios, a Sl te encomienda en todos tus peligros...."121 Sound plays an important part in the location of these pronouns. This is particularly true when Granada uses only the prepositional form and omits the object pronoun which would be regularly required today. " /stos pues fueron los verdugos que maltrataron y crucificaron este Sefior, ca por destruir a ellos...."122 ". Cuando se vi6 o ley6 dende el principio del mundo que un hombre muerto resucitase a si mismo? "128 "... y a l se la agradezcan, y a nosotros paguen con oraciones.... " 124 It forms anadiplosis with the preceding ti, and balances the final te of quisiste. Also the assonance in quisiste vestirte is avoided.) 118 Guia, t. I, p. 382. 119 Orac., t. 2, p. I88. 120 Ibid., p. 57. 121 Ibid., p. 296. 122 Simb., t. 7, p. 75. 123 Ibid., pp. 274-275. 124 Escala, t. 12, p. 167. 84 REBECCA SWITZER If nos had been used in the following sentence, the balance that is maintained in the series would have been destroyed: ". tales cuales ellos estaban engendraron a nosotros desnudos a desnudos pobres a pobres, ciegos a ciegos, miserables a miserables, y mortales a mortales.... 125 Connectives Latin, especially that of Cicero, is characterized by compactness within the sentence itself and by the close connection between sentences. One means of linking up these consecutive periods is to begin them with a relative pronoun or adverb. This, though seldom found in modern Spanish, is characteristic of the Spanish of the Renaissance and of the Golden Age. Granada employs it constantly. In a few pages taken from the Guia de pecadores 126 the relative is used twenty times as an introductory word. Menendez Pidal has observed that the long period of Fr. Luis de Granada flows on and on by the simple addition of words and clauses. Owing to the inexperience of one who attempts a reform for the first time, the additions are made by copulative conjunctions, and especially by the relative el cual. The latter is often only a synonym of que 27 or could 125 Simb., t. 8, p. I8. 126 T. I, pp. 106-II7. Cf. infra, pp. I35-I36. 127 It is very probable that Granada uses el cual for que in order to add clearness to the sentence. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 85 more easily be exchanged for a copulative conjunction and a demonstrative. The following illustrations Menendez Pidal has quoted from the Introducci6n del simbolo de la fe. His parentheses indicate the more natural way for Granada to have written: 128 "Los santos martires, siendo vencidos y muertos, vencieron y triunfaron del mundo; lo cual muestra (y esto muestralo) una carta del Emperador Maximino, el cual (quien) despues de haber intentado.... 129 " Esto nos declaran los cuatro postreros capitulos del libro de Job, en los cuales (donde) hablando Dios con este santo, le da conocimiento de su omnipotencia...; para lo cual (para ello) comenzando por las partes mayores del universo... discurre luego por todas las otras menores...; despues de lo cual (y despues) desciende a tratar de los animales." 130 In classical Latin the copulative conjunctions are omitted altogether (asyndeton) or are used between each phrase or clause (polysyndeton). "Acuti sunt, elegantes faceti breves.... 181 "Omnes ordines ad conservandam rem publicam mente, voluntate, voce consentiunt." 132 "Neque meam mentem non domum saepe revocat exanimata uxor et abjecta metu filia et parvulus filius...."138 Cicero evidently wishes to appeal to the emotions in this last illustration. By expressing the conjunc128Antologia de prosistas castellanos, p. 126. 129 Simb. II. I3. 3. 130 Ibid. I. I. 131 Brut. 63. 132 Cat. IV. I8. 133Ibid. IV. 3. 86 REBECCA SWITZER tion and thus prolonging the time he is able to make more vivid to the audience the picture of his family at home: his distracted wife, his daughter overcome by fear and his little son who is so dear to him. In the concise and condensed style of Cicero, however, asyndeton is used much more frequently than polysyndeton. On the contrary, in Granada's writings we find few examples of the former figure and many of the latter. This is due most probably to the author's desire to obtain stylistic effects and also to the fact that the repetition of the connective is characteristic of old Spanish. "Lagrimas alli no valen: arrepentimientos alii no aprovechan: oraciones alli no se oyen: promesas para adelante alli no se admiten: tiempo de penitencia alii no se da.."134 "Confiesa que es infinito, inmenso, incomprehensible, inefable, sin principio, sin fin, sin pender de nadie sino de si solo...."135 "... que fueron las bofetadas, y pezcozones, y azotes, y espinas, y escarnios, y vituperios, y otras muchas maneras de injurias...."136 "... c6mo este Sefior para nosotros nasci6, y vivi6, y muri6, y pag6 lo que no debia por lo que nosotros debiamos. Por nosotros ayun6, y camino, y or6, y velo, y llor6, y sufri6 en sus palabras calumniadores, y en sus obras acusadores, y en sus tormentos escarnecedores...."137 In this last passage illustrating Granada's use of polysyndeton, the sentimental appeal is felt, and 134 Guia, t. I, p. 73. 1"5 Simb., t. 6, p. 45. 136 Ibid., t. 7, p. 51..137 Ibid., t. 9, p. 332; cf. also ibid., t. 5, p. 278: "... y pasa de la.... " CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LuIS DE GRANADA 87 while such repetition of y is monotonous to the modern ear, it is used probably to accentuate the sacrifices which Christ made for the world. Indirect Questions One of the interesting Latinisms to be found among the constructions of Fr. Luis de Granada i's his use of the subjunctive mode in an indirect question. While in classical Latin the verb is in the subjunctive, in modern Spanish it is in the indicative, unless there is some other reason requiring the former. But Granada uses at times the one mode, then the other, and often both in the same sentence or series. That he is conscious of this and does so to make a distinction seems clear in nearly all cases, but often the difference is slight. No writer, perhaps, ever took advantage of the variations in syntax and in words more than Cicero did. Therefore we feel justified in classifying these Spanish. constructions as Ciceronian. Granada wrote at the time when there was indecision regarding many problems of language, and he almost always utilized this fact to introduce some of the schemata or to show slight differences in the thought, as, for instance, in the use of two modes in indirect questions. In the following passages doubt is certainly to be understood in the subjunctives contrasted with certainty in the indicatives. "Mas ya que hasta aqui habemos tan claramente visto cuan miserable y engafiosa sea la felicidad del mundo, resta que 88 REBECCA SWITZER veamos agora c6mo la verdadera felicidad y descanso, que no se halla en el mundo, esta en Dios." 138 "Todo esto, pues, bastantemente nos declara cuan miserable sea esta servidumbre: y juntamente con esto, a cuan espantable ena fue el hombre condenado por el pecado...." 139 "... sera bien que tratemos al presente cuales sean las causas por donde el Sefor quita muchas veces las consolaciones espirituales a los suyos, y que es lo que en tales tiempos se deba hacer." 140 The Infinitive in Indirect Discourse This same inconsistency is even more apparent in Granada's uses of the infinitive. While in modern Spanish there is a certain laxity as to when to employ the infinitive and when a dependent clause, in the classical period there was still more freedom. Later Latin writers used rather indiscriminately after certain expressions the accusative and infinitive construction or a dependent clause with the verb in the indicative or in the subjunctive. The latter is usually introduced by quod or quia. While the dependent clause is often found in the Latin of the Church Fathers,14 the infinitive is the more common construction. In the Spanish of the time of Fr. Luis de Granada, this use of the latter still 138 Guia, t. I, p. 323. 139 Ibid., p. i86. 140 Orac., t. 2, pp. 359-360. 141 Bayard has checked this in St. Cyprian's works. He concludes that the infinitive is the rule, and that quod with the subjunctive or the indicative, and quia or quoniam with the indicative are the exceptions. He feels that no satisfactory reasons can be offered for St. Cyprian's using one and then the other, but thinks that at times he is influenced by some point in style. (T. 11, Bk. II, Ch. i, Art. II.) CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 89 exists, but the former, introduced by que, is employed more frequently. "Y en su tiempo escribe haber acaescido en Roma otra cosa mas memorable.... Cosa es esto cierto de trande admiraci6n, y que manifiestamente declara haber denonios que cieguen nuestros entendimientos." 142 "Y esto mismo declara aquel cubrirse Elias los ojos con su palio cuando vi6 pasar delante de si la gloria de Dios." 143 "En lo cual se ve cuan bestial fue aquel Epicuro, que dijo haberse fabricado acaso nuestros cuerpos." 144 It is very difficult to understand why Granada changes in the same passage from the infinitive to a que clause, though the effect he wished to produce must have influenced him considerably. In the following passage variety seems to be the only object for the changes in construction. There must have been some conscious reason. "Pues cuanto a este punto, ninguna cosa se puede atribuir mas a Dios de lo que la Religi6n cristiana le atribuye, porque confiesa ser el una cosa tan grande, que ninguna se puede pensar mayor. Confiesa que es infinito, inmenso.... " Confiesa tambien nuestra sanctisima Religi6n que este omnipotente Seior con sola su palabra cri6 de nada esta tan grande maquina del mundo.... Confiesa ser infinitamente bueno, sabio,... Confiesa ser el acto puro, significando por este nombre.... "145 Other inconsistencies in constructions may be noted in the variable use of subjunctive or indica142 Guia, t. I, p. 36. 143 Ibid., p. I6. The infinitive pasar in the second clause may have influenced the use of cubrirse. 144 Simb., t. 5, p. 212. 145 Simb., t. 6, p. 45. 90 REBECCA SWITZER tive in temporal clauses 146 introduced by como or cuando and in causal clauses 147 introduced by como. There are many other constructions in Granada's Spanish that are certainly Latinisms, but it is doubtful whether they can be called characteristic of Cicero. Among these Latinisms are the absolute construction-which Granada employs constantly as a means of subordinating and condensing the Spanish period-and the partitive construction, which has been noted particularly in the Introducci6n del simbolo de la fe.14 Granada's works show that, although there are not many differences between his syntax and that of modern Spanish, there are some that indicate that the transition period from Latin to Spanish was not entirely over in the sixteenth century. This is seen in the inconsistencies mentioned above. 146 "Y como... pidiese..." (Ibid., t. 8, p. 225). 147 " Pues como Dios... no tenga cuerpo..." (Ibid.). "... como este apetito sea ciego..; y como el apetito quiere, y no puede..." (Guia, t. I, p. 203). 148 Simb., t. 5, pp. 46, 97, I22, I73, 221, 248, 315. VI CLARITY (PERSPICUITAS) The second essential quality of style specified by Cicero and accepted by Quintilian and Granada is clarity. The necessity of speaking in pure Latin and with perspicuity Cicero discusses hurriedly, for he considers them qualities easy to treat. They are necessary, though they do not excite admiration and praise as does eloquence.2 Cicero's aim is to make himself understood by his audiences. To do this he must employ words and expressions which will be clear to thefn. Usage, therefore, becomes an important guide in his choice of words. He believes also that many words clarify an idea.8 1 "Audieram etiam quae de orationis ipsius ornamentis traderentur, in qua praecipitur primum, ut pure et Latine loquamur, deinde ut plane et dilucide, turn ut ornate, post ad rerum praecepta cognaram." (De Orat. I44.) 2 " 'Faciles enim,' inquit, 'Antoni, partes eae fuerunt duae, quas modo percucurri vel potius paene praeterii, Latine loquendi planeque dicendi; reliquae sunt magnae, implicatae, variae, graves, quibus omnis admiratio ingeni, omnis laus eloquentiae continetur; nemo enim umquam est oratorem, quod Latine loqueretur, admiratus; si est aliter, inrident; neque eum oratorem tantummodo, sed hominem non putant.'" (De Orat. III. 52.) 3 " Unum istud, quod honestum appellas, rectum, laudabile, decorum (erit enim notius, quale sit, pluribus notatum vocabulis idem declarantibus), id igitur, inquam, si solum est bonum, quid habebis praeterea, quod sequare? aut, si nihil malum, nisi quod turpe, inhonestum, indecorum, pravum, flagitiosum, foedum (ut hoc quoque pluribus nominibus insigne faciamus), quid praeterea dices esse fugiendum?" (De finibus, III. I4.) 91 92 REBECCA SWITZER While accepting these theories of Cicero, Quintilian adds that clearness results above all from propriety in the use of words, as is seen in the familiar epithet of Delayer (Cunctator) always ascribed to Fabius. Another attribute of clearness is vividness -a quality which he notes that Cicero gains largely by the power to paint word pictures. Emphasis is one of the ornaments of oratory, since it does not merely make a thing intelligible, but causes more to be understood than what is said. Great obscurity lies in constructions and in combinations of words, as in too long or involved sentences, in long parentheses and in hyperbaton.4 In the Rhetorica ecclesiastica Fr. Luis de Granada does little more than summarize the theories of Cicero and Quintilian on the subject of clearness. I. Let the words be appropriate; use significant words, as the Romans did when they said "Annibalem dirum." 2. Put the words of deep meaning among the clear ones, since they help understanding. This also produces emphasis. 3. Since there is greater obscurity in the context than in the words themselves, let the argument not be so long that the attention can not follow it, nor the transposition so delayed that hyperbaton will result. 4. Avoid interpolations or parentheses unless they be brief, for they usually cause obscurity.5 4Inst. orat. VIII. II. 5 Both Cicero and Granada use parenthetical expressions, though not extremely long ones. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 93 5. Do not use meaningless words (turba inanium verborum), for the result is loquacity. 6. On the contrary, do not go to the extreme of brevity at the expense of clearness. Do not omit necessary words. Granada agrees with St. Augustine's remarks on the old proverb that the orator may express himself as crudely as he wishes provided he speaks clearly. St. Augustine advises the preacher to use words less Latin, if they are clearer and more intelligible, for purity of language is of no avail when the hearer does not understand.6 Granada has no patience with preachers who discuss abstruse subjects before illiterate audiences. They sacrifice their object of really teaching the people to their anxiety to appear learned.7 It is not only in the Rhetorica that Granada stresses the need of clarity. In several of the prologues to his works and in his letters he speaks of it and of his desire to express himself clearly and simply. Although previous Spanish versions of the Imitacion de Cristo and the Escala espiritual existed, Granada retranslated them because he wanted such "excellent works" to be written in a clearer and more accurate Spanish.8 6 Doct. Christ. 4. 4, quoted in Rhet. V. III. 7 Rhet. V. III; V. XVII. 8T. 12, pp. 3, I52-I53, I57-I58; t. I4, p. 437. So that the reader may better understand the first five chapters of the Escala espiritual Granada makes a brief clear resume at the end of each chapter. From time to time in his own works he summarizes succinctly what he has previously said in detail, for he is determined that his real meaning be understood. 94 REBECCA SWITZER The prime virtue of style for Granada is clarity: the words must be appropriate, the order correct, the conclusion not too long and nothing must either be lacking or superfluous. In this way the learned will applaud the discourse and the ignorant will understand. This is for Granada the law of style.9 9 Rhet. V. III. VII ADORNMENT (ORNATUS) Although clarity, according to Granada, is a fundamental attribute of style, adornment seems to him to be of almost equal importance. As he quotes from Cicero in the Rhetorica, nothing is truly eloquent that does not cause admiration,' and Quintilian says that the orator delights more in adornment than in the two qualities of style already treated-purity of language and clarity. In the opinion of the latter rhetorician one deserves little praise for speaking purely and clearly since this is rather to lack vice than to have great virtue. He urges that this ornamentation be robust, virile and pure, not effeminate nor too ostentatious. Is a piece of land better cultivated in which there are lilies, violets, anemones and fountains than one in which there is a plentiful harvest or vines laden with grapes? Or should one prefer plane trees or clipped myrtles to elms covered with vines and fruitful olive trees? To these questions Quintilian replies that the rich may have such unproductive gratifications, but these are not sufficient. Beauty, he continues, may be regarded in the planting of fruit trees. He would arrange them in a certain order and at regular intervals. Then he would cut 1 Cf. fragm. epist. quoted in Rhet. V. IV: " Nam eloquentiam, quae admirationem non habet, nullam iudico." 95 96 REBECCA SWITZER off the tops of the olive trees that rise too high. Consequently they will spread themselves more gracefully in a round form, and at the same time produce more fruit. The moral here is that true beauty is never separated from utility.2 Accepting enthusiastically the theories of the ancient rhetoricians on making language "pleasing," Granada takes the embellished prose of Cicero as his model, strives consciously to "adorn" his style and thus make it more attractive and effective. He never fails, however, to warn against the excesses of adornment. The preacher must remember that the subject matter is the essential part of a sermon and that the adornments serve only to make the theme more attractive and more impressive. With St. Augustine, Granada believes that one should "avoid pernicious sweetness," since at times the "bitter is more healthful." Still nothing is better than agreeable medicine, for "the more it pleases, the more helpful it is." 3 TROPES (Tropi) Adornment like clarity, says Granada, is to be found in individual words and in combinations of words. While clarity, however, is generally obtained by the application of the proper term, adornment is obtained by the use of metaphorical or figurative terms. When an event is worthy of admiration or when 2 Inst. orat. VII. III. 6-II; Rhet. V. IV. 8 Doct. Christ. 4. 5, quoted in Rhet. V. IV. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 97 the word needed to describe it is lacking, tropes can be used. Likewise, for a well-known attribute of a thing the preacher may well substitute one more ornate (ornatius) or one more significant (significantius). Such a use of figures is forceful and makes the oration more vigorous. Granada mentions, defines4 and illustrates the following tropes: metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy, antonomasia, epitheton (appositum), catachresis (abusio), allegory (inversio), irony (illusio) and periphrasis (circuitio). In Quintilian Granada finds the history and the uses of the trope. The trope was born of necessity, demanded by the poverty of language. Later it was employed for the pleasure and delight it gave, just as dress was first intended as a protection for the body, and then it came to serve also as adornment. Figures are useful-orators call a man hard (durum) or rough (asperum) because they find no more appropriate word. To clarify or adorn an expression one says heated by anger, inflamed by greed, fallen in sin, rivers of eloquence or tempestuous assemblies. For adornment, in the defense of Milo, Cicero calls Clodius a source (fonttem), and in another place a harvest and occasion (segetem ac materiam) of glory to Milo. It is remarkable, concludes Quintilian, that all delight more in these figurative words than in the literal.5 The numerous figures of speech to be found in 4 The definitions are taken almost verbatim from Inst. orat. VIII. 6. 5 Inst. orat. VIII. VI; Rhet. V. VI. 8 98 REBECCA SWITZER the prophetic Books of the Bible strengthen Granada in his belief that the magnitude of an idea is emphasized by figurative language. Isaiah —whom he considers the greatest and the most elegant speaker among all the prophets-foretells the miraculous deeds of Christ both in simple language and by comparisons and metaphors of wild and fruit-bearing trees, fierce and gentle beasts, and deserted and cultivated lands. Isaiah uses such language, Granada says, for two reasons: to repeat the idea in different words, and thus avoid tiring his audiences, but mainly to magnify the things which he prophesies by adorning and expressing them in a lofty manner.6 The fact that Cicero and other classic writers used metaphorical figures and thought them practical and necessary adornments for language seems justification to Granada for employing and recommending them to his preachers. However, since such figures are of thought and sentiment rather than of form, it is natural to presume that if there was a predominant influence in Granada's tropes it was that of religious writers and not that of the pagan. The works of Fr. Luis de Granada abound in tropes-almost every thought is elaborated by them. Certain factors contributed to his success in the use of these figures: the wide range of his ideas and experience; the extensive vocabulary at his command; and his fondness for adornment. Granada had many interests in life. While he spent a great part of his time in meditation, prayer and study, he 6 Simb., t. 8, p. 5o. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 99 lived an active life also. In his childhood he knew the poverty of the lowly class. Later his preaching took him into the courts and among the nobility of Spain and Portugal. He counted his friends among all classes-the nobles, the clergy and the common people. He preached and wrote to all, and, desiring to appeal to each one of them, he chose his figures from the many phases of life with which he was familiar. The practical side of his nature he reveals in the tropes comparing spiritual things to domestic and industrial life. The housewife is interested in the many references to homely activities: the weaving of cloth; 7 the oil in the lamp;8 keeping the bread warm because when once cold it is hard to heat it again;9 the value of different kinds of food and medicines; the nurse's chewing the food before giving it to the baby;10 or the thread with which a shoe is sewed." The laborer and the countryman would understand a spiritual truth which is developed by such an illustration as driving a nail; 12 the difference between old wine and new; 1 the market-place;14 the trees that grow in irrigated districts and those that do not; '1 different varieties of trees, plants, grains Orac., t. 2, p. 114. 8 Simb., t. 5, p. 221. Orac., t. 2, p. 300. 10 Ibid., p. 246. 11 Guia, t. I, p. 439. 12 Gula, t. I, p. 254. 13 Orac., t. 2, p. 249. 14 Simb., t. 5, p. 85. 16 Orac., t. 2, p. 347. 100 REBECCA SWITZER and flowers, of wolves and sheep, the life of bees, etc. Granada is able to make his appeal to the countryman because of his intimate knowledge of Nature. This is seen in his many figures that deal with the Heavens, the planets and their relation to each other; in the mass of material he writes about animals-their mode of living and their physical characteristics; '1 and in the many descriptions of the sea, especially in time of storm. In like manner he appeals to all classes of society: doctors, legislators, architects, soldiers, teachers, farmers, kings and preachers.7 There are not many references to the Church as an organization, though there are a few to the heresy that was making itself felt in other countries, where the people were "mordidas de perros rabiosos."18 Mohammedanism he characterizes as " una ensalada de todas las leyes" because it has taken its various characteristics from other sects.19 The soldier or adventurer intent on acquiring wealth in the Indies is not forgotten. " lste es uno de los grandes tesoros de la vida cristiana, estas las Indias y patrimonies de los hijos de Dios.... " 20 Of general interest are the pictures of home life, the love of the husband for his wife, her obedience to him, her domesticity, and, on the contrary, the infidelity of the one or the other.2 16 Cf. especially Simb., t. 5. 17 Guia, t. I, p. 56. 18 T. 14, p. 539; cf. also p. 462 and t. 5, p. 7. l9 Simb., t. 6, p. 326; cf. also t. 5, p. 6. 20 Guia, t. I, p. I70. 21 Orac., t. 2, p. 62. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 101 Compared to Christ man is frequently portrayed as being nothing but an ant or a worm, and the words applied to him are often used as diminutives to emphasize his inferiority. Of the numerous epithets bestowed on Christ some are: Cordero, verdadero sol de justicia, espejo, rio que sale del paraiso de deleites, lengua del cielo, Rey de la gloria, area de todos los tesoros de la sabiduria de Dios. Granada delights in piling up epithets in this manner. Almost as many are applied to the Virgin,22 prayer,23 faith 24 and death as to Christ. Some of the most vivid pictures are those of hell, which is "a galley ship filled with renegades and prisoners";25 it is "Egypt full of blindness and darkness ";26 or it is a place where "the worm of conscience never ceases to gnaw." 27 The devil is often referred to as "the prince of darkness"28 or as "the prince of this world." 29 Death is ever near, and the horror of it is painted in varied figures.80 Granada's allegories may be distinguished from those of other writers in that they are not very elaborate. Some of them are certainly not original, while others seem to be. There are many that pertain to the sea and to shipwrecks. The power of 22 Ibid.: " Oh, Senora de los angeles, Reina del cielo, puerta del paraiso, abogada del mundo, refugio de los pecadores, salud de los justos.. 1" 23 Ibid., p. 12. 24 Ibid., p. 6. 25 Ibid., p. I87. 26 Guia, t. I, p. 345. 27 Ibid., p. 78. 28 Orac., t. 2, p. 187. 29 Simb., t. 8, p. 66. 80 Orac., t. 2, p. IOO; Mem., t. 3, p. 508. 102 REBECCA SWITZER God, His attention to details and His foresight are illustrated by an analysis of the pomegranate and its different well-constructed parts.31 The body attacked by illness is a besieged castle which finally falls;32 the entrance of the glorious soul into the body of Christ in the sepulcher is likened to the sun's rays when they pierce a cloud-then all darkness is converted into light and all ugliness into beauty.33 SCHEMATA The adornment of the oration, according to Granada, may consist in the combination of words, which is found in schemata, in composition and in the different styles of speaking.34 Figures he compares to different dresses that one wears: one is appropriate for this occasion, another for that. So it behooves the skilled artificer to choose the device suited to the thought. Granada gives many illustrations from Biblical and religious writers to explain more clearly his opinion about the use of these schemata.35 He suggests that in Romans 10 the apostle might have said: "Non possunt homines Deum invocare, de quo nihil audierunt: neque audire, nisi illis annuntietur: neque quis annuntiare poterit, nisi a Deo mittatur." Instead, however, he said " much more elegantly ": "Quo modo invocabunt, in quem non crediderunt? Aut 81 Simb., t. 5, p. 103. 82Guia, t. I, p. 67. 33 Orac., t. 2, p. 94. 84Rhet. V. VII. ab Ibid. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 103 quo modo credent ei, quem non audierunt? Quo modo autem audient sine praedicante? Quo modo vero praedicabunt, nisi mittantur? " In this way the apostle has combined several devices: gradation, repetition, interrogation and balance. To emphasize further the importance of the use of figures Granada selects a passage from St. Gregory, first gives it as it might have been said, then as St. Gregory really did say it. "mirum est, pescatricem mulierem ad Dominum venire: et mirum item, eamdem ab eo misericorditer trahi, et benigne recipi." "Quid igitur miramur, fratres, Mariam venientem, an Dominum suscipientem? Suscipientem dicam, an trahentem? dicam melius, et trahentem, et suscipientem." 86 That Cicero has similar ideas about the use of o such figures is seen in his Orator 233, where he quotes the following passage from the Gracchi about the censors: "Abesse non potest quin eiusdem hominis sit probos improbare qui improbos probet." How much more suitable, asks Cicero, it would have been to say: "Quin eiusdem hominis sit qui improbus probet probus improbare?" Granada tries to trace the origin of these figures to God himself. The grace and the beauty of all things that are perceived by the senses and by the mind, he argues, consist principally in a certain pro86Homil 33 in Evang.; Rhet. V. VII. 104 REBECCA SWITZER portion and symmetry of parts, well adjusted to each other. In the same way God, that "most skilful Architect," wishing to make all things beautiful, made them so by number and measure. Man was created of such a nature that he delighted in symmetry. For this reason beauty pleases the eye; the harmony of words, adjusted to numbers, charms the ear; while the verses of poets that are elegantly governed by the laws of meter delight us.37 There is no doubt that Granada uses the schemata intentionally, and not just because he is so imbued with the spirit of the Ciceronian rhetoric that he does not know he is speaking in an artificial manner. Certainly he, is conscious at all times of these figures and of the effects that he wishes to produce, but he is so filled with their spirit and rhythm that he uses them as easily as the poet does metrical measures. Cicero and Granada mention the figures of proportion as among the most important. Here the same word is repeated in certain positions, or contrasting or similar words are used.38 37Rhet. V. VII: "Sciendum est igitur, rerum omnium decorem et pulchritudinem, quae vel sensibus, vel intellectu percipitur, proportione quadam et concinnitate partium, sibi invicem apte consententium, praecipue constare. Unde sapientissimus ille rerum omnium architectus, qui pulcherrima omnia facere voluit, in numero, pondere et mensura perfecit, ipsumque inter cetera hominem ea natura condidit, ut numeris, et apta rerum concinnitate maxime caperetur. Hac enim de causa et pulchritudo oculos oblectat, et vocum concentus, suis numeris dimensus, aures recreat, et poetarum carmina, quae numerorum legibus eleganter adstricta sunt, voluptate nos afficiunt." 38 Rhet. V. VII; cf. also Orat. I34-I35: "Eadem ratio est horum quae sunt orationis lumina et quodam modo insignia: cum aut duplicantur iteranturque verba aut leviter CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 105 Figures of Repetition Repetition (repetitio).-Repetition, the first figure of this class discussed by Granada, means that the first word in a number of phrases, clauses, sentences or paragraphs is the same. This device, often called anaphora, is one of the most popular with Cicero and Granada. "Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium Palati, nihil urbis vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil concursus bonorum omnium, nihil hic munitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora vultusque moverunt? "89 " Testis est Italia, quam ille ipse victor L. Sulla huius virtute et subsidio confessus est liberatam; testis est Sicilia quam multis undique cinctam periculis non terrore belli sed concili celeritate explicavit; testis est Africa...; testis Gallia...; testis Hispania...; testis iterum et saepius Italia.. Testes nunc vero iam omnes sunt orae atque omnes terrae gentes nationes...." 40 "Testigos son esta cruz y clavos que aqui parescen, testigos estas llagas de pies y manos que en mi cuerpo quedaron, testigo el cielo y la tierra delante quien padesci, y testigo el sol y la luna que en aquella hora se eclipsaron." 41 " Con esta dej6 ornamentada y enriquecida su Iglesia, con esta le tiene compaflia en este lugar de destierro, con esta la consuela en sus trabajos, con esta la defiende en sus peligros, con esta la esfuerza y alienta para todo lo bueno, commutata ponuntur, aut ab eodem verbo ducitur saepius oratio aut in idem conicitur aut utrumque, aut adiungitur idem iteratum aut idem ad extremum refertur aut continentur unum verbum non in eadem sententia ponitur; aut cum similiter vel cadunt verba vel desinunt; aut cum sunt contrariis relata contraria; aut cum gradatim sursum versus reditur; aut cum demptis coniunctionibus dissolute plura dicuntur...." 89 Cat. I. I. 40 De imp. Cn. Pomp. 30. " Orac., t. 2, p. 162. 106 REBECCA SWITZER con esta la hinche de sanctos propositos y deseos, con esta la hace arder en amor y deseo de las cosas del cielo y le causa hastio y desprecio de las vanidades del mundo, con esta la incorpora y ayunta consigo, con esta la hace participante de los trabajos y meritos de su sagrada pasi6n, y con esta finalmente le da una prenda firmisima de la vida eterna." 42 Conversion (conversio).-When the last word of the clause is repeated, the figure is called conversion. "... in eo sitne aut quid sit aut quale sit quaeritur:sitne, signis; quid sit, definitionibus; quale sit, recti pravique partibus.... " 43 "De exsilio reducti a mortuo; civitas data... a mortuo;.. sublata vectigalia a mortuo." 44 " Que cosa es la tribulaci6n, sino cruz? Pues, jque sera infamar la tribulaci6n sino infamar la cruz? Y, dque huir de la tribulaci6n, sino huir de la cruz? Pues si adoramos la cruz muerta, que es la figura de la cruz, g por que huimos de la viva, que es el padecer por la cruz?... Pues asi parece que hacen los malos cristianos, los cuales adorando por una parte la cruz muerta, por otra escupen y reniegan de la viva que es el padecer por la cruz." 45 "... que es considerar en el estas tres cosas, conviene 42 Simb., t. 8, p. 304. For further examples of repetition in Granada's works cf. Guia, t. I, pp. 425-427: Prudencia is the beginning word of seven consecutive paragraphs; Ibid., pp. 237-238: No teme la muerte is the introductory phrase of seven sentences; Ibid., p. 315: Lazos is the beginning word of eleven phrases; Simb., t. 7, pp. 256-267: La Cruz, either alone at the beginning of clause, or in a phrase as en la Cruz or por la cruz, is repeated ten times, and, in quoted passage from St. Augustine which follows immediately, eight times, which makes a total of eighteen times. 43 Orat. 45. 44 Phil. I. 24. 45 Orac., t. 2, p. 87. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 107 saber, lo que nos dio, y el medio por d6nde lo di6, y la causa por que lo did. Lo que nos di... " 46 Complexion (complexio).-Complexion is the combination of repetition and conversion: both the first and the last words of the clause are repeated. "... si constet corruptum, illud esse iudicium, aut ab Habito aut ab Oppianico esse corruptum; si doceo non ab Habito, vinco ab Oppianico; si ostendo ab Oppianico, purgo Habitumr." 47 "Falta de manos aqui no la hay, porque el Hacedor es infinitamente poderoso. Falta de cabeza aqui no la hay, porque es infinitamente sabio. Falta de querer aqui no la hay, porque es infinitamente bueno. Falta de riquezas aqui no la hay, porque R1 es el pielago de todas ellas." 48 "Porque cuanto cresce el amor de Dios, tanto descresce el amor del mundo: y cuanto cresce el del mundo, tanto descresce el de Dios." 49 Polyptoton (traductio).-Polyptoton means the repetition of a word or of some form of the word in any part of the sentence. The position is not fixed as it is in repetition, conversion and complexion. "... etiam illud adiungo, saepius ad laudem atque virtutem naturam sine doctrina quam sine natura valuisse doctrinam.... " 50 "Quamdiu quisquam erit, qui te defendere audeat, vives, et vives ita ut nunc vivis..... 51 46 Simb., t. 9, p. 319; cf. also Guia, t. I, p. 285: " Pues si tan grande...." 7 Pro Cluent. 64. 48 Guia, t. I, p. 84. 49 Escala, t. 12, p. 182. 0 Pro Arch. 15. fl Cat. I. 6. 108 REBECCA SWITZER " C6mo se indignara el que ve que yo que to quicro indignar, no me indigno? "52 "... conviene saber, lo que se predico, y a que genero de personas se predico, y que personas lo predicaron, y cuales eran los que resistian a esta predicacion, y de que manera resistian, y finalmente que fructo se sigui6 desta predicaci6n." 53 "... padescio hambre por ti, j cuanta raz6n serai que tui tambien por ti padezcas? iCon que titulo te precias de siervo de Cristo, si sufriendo P1l hambre, tu gastas la vida en comer y beber, y padesciendo M1 trabajos por tu salvaci6n, tu no los quieres padescer por la tuya? " 54 Epanalepsis.-In epanalepsis the first and the last words of the clause are the same. " Vestrum iam hic factum reprehenditur, patres conscripti, non meum; se pulcherrimum quidem factum, verum, ut dixi, non meum, sed vestrum." 5s "Y llama sangre de su testamento, como el mismo Sefior la llama." 56 ".. el pecado original es un solo pecado." sT " Mandanos amar a Dios sobre todo lo que se puede amar. 8 "... asi como al hombre para si...."59 (This is only a repetition of the same sound.) Anadiplosis. In anadiplosis the last word of one clause or sentence is repeated at the beginning of the next. 52 Orac., t. 2, p. 397. s3 Simb., t. 6, p. 308. 64 Guia, t. I, p. 375; cf. also Simb., t. 9, p. 284: "... que es haber...." 55 Lost speech against Q. Metellus; cf. Inst. orat. IX. III. 56 Simb., t. 7, p. 49. 57 Ibid., t. 8, p. 21. 58 Ibid., t. 6, p. 49. 5 Ibid., t. 5, p. 83. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 109 "... hic tamen vivit. Vivit t "60 "... quod vulgus interdum non probandum oratorem probat, sed probat sine comparatione... " 61 ".. y todo el qued6 hecho un puro pedazo de tierra. Tierra ama, tierra come...." 62 " Dende los uiltimos fines de la tierra oimos las alabanzas y la gloria del Justo. Justo llama al Salvador, por ser el por excelencia justo y autor de nuestra justicia." 68 Sometimes the word itself is not repeated, but one with the same root or one similar in form or sound is used at the beginning of the second clause or sentence, and in this way the effect of anadiplosis is produced. "... pues no contento con vestirnos de ti, te quisiste vestir de nosotros... " 64 "... como el que se llega al fuego, luego siente....." 65 "... ni son pequefias las habilidades que el Criador les di6 para mantenerse. Su mantenimiento es la sangre "66 Duplication (conduplicatio).-The repetition of the same word moves the hearer, says Granada, and wounds him deeply as does a dart that strikes several times in the same part of the body.67 "Fuit, fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus... nos, nos, dico aperte, consules desumus." 8 60 Cat. I. 2. 61Brut. 193. 62 Orac., t. 2, p. 461. 63 Simb., t. 6, p. 317. 64 Orac., t. 2, p. 36. 66 Ibid., p. 440. 6 Simb., t. 5, p. 176. 67 Rhet. V. VIII. 68 Cat. I. 3. 110 REBECCA SWITZER "Occidi, occidi, non Spurium Maelium...." "Sobran y razones, sobran.... 70 "... vuelvete, madre mia, vuelvete..."71 Gradation (gradatio).-In gradation, clauses are bound together like the links in a chain. Granada considers it one of the most effective figures in rhetoric. "In urbe luxuries creatur, ex luxuria exsistat avaritia necesse est, ex avaritia erumpat audacia, inde omnia scelera ac maleficia gignuntur." 72 "Si debuisset, Sexte, petisses, et petisses statim; si non statim, paullo quidem post; si non paullo, et aliquanto '" 73 "... porque lo que quiere la came, no quiere la honra: y lo que quiere la honra, no quiere la hacienda: y lo que quiere la hacienda, no quiere la fama: y lo que quiere la fama, no quiere la pereza...." 74 "Y asi vemos ser mayor el agua que la tierra, y mayor el aire que el agua, y mayor el fuego que el aire, y mayor el primer cielo que el elemento del fuego, y mayor el segundo cielo que el primero, y mayor el tercero que el segundo.... " 75 "En esta obediencia ponen tres grados: el primero, obedescer con sola obra; el segundo, con obra y con voluntad; el tercero, con obra, voluntad y entendimiento." 76 " Porque la tierra... es seca y fria, y el agua es fria y humida, y el aire es humido y caliente, y el fuego es caliente y seco...."77 69 Pro Mil. 72. 70 Mem., t. 3, p. 4I. 71 Orac., t. 2, p. 63. 72Pro Rosc. Am. 75. 73 Pro Quint. 40. 74 Guia, t. i, p. 206. 75 Gula, t. I, p. 2I. 76 Ibid., p. 457. 7T Simb., t. 5, p. 76. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 111 "Finalmente, el Padre nos di6 a su Hijo, el Hijo nos mereci6 al Espiritu Sancto, y el Espiritu Sancto nos hace merescer al mismo Padre, y Hijo, de quien manan todos los bienes." 78 Granada closes his discussion of the various figures of repetition with a warning that the vice closely related to this virtue is tautology. The ear should be the judge and should keep the orator from the monotony found in the following illustration: "nam cuius rationis oratio non existet, ei rationi rationem non est fidem adhibere." 79 Figures of Contrast According to Granada figures of contrast are so attractive that in whatever way they are combined they adorn the oration and make it more effective.80 Cicero considers these schemata essential aids in making language harmonious, and, like Isocrates and Gorgias, he delights in using them. To illustrate his own manner of employing contrasts he quotes a passage from one of his speeches against Verres: "Conferte hanc pacem cum illo bello, huius praetoris adventum cum illius imperatoris victoria, huius cohortem impuram cum illius exercitu invicto, huius libidinis cum illius continentia; ab illo, qui cepit conditas, ab hoc, qui constitutas accepit captas dicetis Syracusas." 81 In his usual systematic way Granada discusses the different forms of contrasts into which the fig78Guia, t. I, p. 46. 79 Rhet. V. VIII. 5. 80 Ibid. V. X. 81 Act. II. 4. 115 quoted in Orat. 167. 112 REBECCA SWITZER ures may be divided. The division is similar to that of amplification, for antithesis is really but another mode of amplifying. Cohabitation (cohabitatio).-Cohabitation, or the piling up of opposites, corresponds to accumulation, one of Quintilian's modes of amplifying. The former has been illustrated in the passage just cited by Cicero from his oration against Verres, but even a more common type is seen in the following quotation: "... sed est faciendum etiam ut irascatur iudex mitigetur, invideat faveat, contemnat admiretur, oderit diligat, cupiat fastidiat, speret metuat, laetetur doleat.... ". 82 In Granada we see the same accumulation of contrasts: "Ya enfermo, ya sano, ya contento, ya descontento, ya triste, ya alegre, ya temeroso, ya confiado, ya sospechoso, ya seguro, ya pacifico, ya airado, ya quiere, ya no quiere " 83 " Qu comparaci6n puede haber entre la luz y las tinieblas, y entre Cristo y Belial? i Que comparaci6n puede haber entre deleites de tierra y deleites de cielo, deleites de carne y deleites de espiritu, deleites de criatura y deleites de Criador? "84 Paradiastole (discriminatio).-As in cohabitation contrary things are joined together, so can those similar be separated or distinguished, the one from the other.85 An example of this is seen in one of Cicero's speeches against Verres: 82 Orat. I3I. 88 Orac., t. 2, p. I28. 8 Guia, t. I, p. 152; cf. also Ibid., p. 448: "... caminando con igual..." 85 Rhet. V. X. 3. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 113 "... non enim furem sed ereptorem, non adulterum sed expugnatorem pudicitiae, non sacrilegum sed hostem sacrorum religionumque, non sicarium sed crudelissimum cornificem civium sociorum qui in vestrum iudicium adduximus." 86 In his Rhetorica Granada illustrates this kind of antithesis by many quotations from St. Cyprian, St. Augustine and others, and he uses it often in his own works: " Porque no alabamos al caballo por caballo, sino por buen caballo; ni al vino por vino, sino por excelente vino; ni al hombre por hombre, sino por buen hombre." 87 "Finalmente, no teme la muerte, porque al justo la muerte no es muerte, sino suefio; no muerte, sino mudanza; no muerte, sino ultimo dia de trabajos; no muerte, sino camino para la vida y escalon para la inmortalidad: porque entiende que despues que la muerte pas6 por el veneno de la vida, perdi6 los resabios que tenia de muerte, y cobr6 dulzura de vida." 88 "Acometedor es este, no deudor: quebrantador es, no pecador: juez paresce, no culpado: a pelear viene, no a penar." 89 Contrast in sententiae (contrarium in sententiis). -As words can be contrasted, so can sententiae, and in the terse, argumentative expressions of Cicero and Granada this adornment is common. "Quid enim tam commune quam spiritus vivis, terra mortuis, mare fluctuantibus, litus eiectis? Ita vivunt, dum possunt, ut ducere animam de caelo non queant: ita moriuntur, ut eorum ossa terram non tangant; ita iactantur fluctibus ut numquam abluantur...." 90 86 I. 9. 87 Guia, t. I, p. 59. 88 Guta, t. I, p. 238. 89 Orac., t. 2, p. 91. 90 Orat. xo7. 9 114 REBECCA SWITZER "Mas duele la perdida que alegra la ganancia, mas aflige la enfermedad que alegra la salud, mas quema la injuria que deleita la honra." 91 "Mayormente que el hombre es mas poderoso para dafiarse que para remediar el daio que el mismo se hace, porque puede por si matarse, mas no puede por si resucitarse, puede por si solo caer en pecado, mas no puede por si solo salir del lazo del pecado, si no fuere ayudado por Dios." 92 Comparison of unequal circumstances (contentio).-Contentio consists not so much in contrasting opposites as in comparing unequal circumstances. It is often used in similes or in illustrations with which one tries to outline the surroundings of the two things. As an example of this figure Granada quotes from Cicero's De imperio Cn. Pompei 5. Here Cicero contrasts the Rome of his day, patient in enduring insults, with the Republic of the past, quick to avenge insults.93 Comparison is used by Granada and Cicero as much if not more than any other figure. "Saxa et solitudines voci respondent bestiae saepe immanes cantu flectuntur atque consistunt; nos instituti rebus optimis non poetarum voce moveamur." 94 "Pues que mayor abusi6n que querer ser rico el gusano, siendo por el tan pobre el Sefior de todo lo criado? " 95 " No hay comparaci6n de lo uno a lo otro. Porque aquellos no tenian mas que las sombras, nosotros tenemos la luz, aquellos las figuras, nosotros la verdad, aquellos la ley, nosotros el Evangelio, aquellos la letra que mata, nosotros el espiritu que da vida, aquellos los sacrificios de los ani91 Guia, t. I, p. 322. 92Simb., t. 7, p. 35. 93 Rhet. V. X. 5. 94 Pro Arch. I9. 9 Guia, t. I, p. 355. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 115 males, nosotros el sacrificio del verdadero Cordero, que es Cristo, que cada dia se ofresce por nosotros en la Iglesia, aquellos no tenian mas que un solo sacramento, que era el de la circuncision, nosotros tenemos siete, que tienen y dan gracia al que esta dispuesto para recibirla, y entre ellos aquel divinisimo Sacramento del altar, que podemos recibir cuantas veces quisieremos." 96 " Con que titulo te precias de siervo de Cristo, si sufriendo -1 hambre, tu gastas la vida en comer y beber, y padesciendo PI trabajos por tu salvaci6n, tu no los quieres padescer por la tuya? " 97 Inversion (commutatio or antimetabole).-The most noticeable type of antithesis is inversion and in this Cicero and his followers delight. "Si consul Antonius, Brutus hostis: si conservator rei publicae Brutus, hostis Antonius.. " 98 "... ut in iudiciis et sine invidia culpa plectatur et sine culpa invidia ponatur." 99 "Mas con tanta humildad descendi6 Dios al cieno, y con tanta dignidad subi6 el cieno a Dios, que todo lo que hizo Dios, se diga que lo hizo el cieno; y todo lo que sufri6 el cieno, se diga que lo padesci6 Dios." 100 ". asi como los que juegan a la ganapierde, perdiendo ganan y ganando pierden." 101 "... porque lo poco ayuda para lo mucho, y lo mucho no puede conservarse sin lo poco." 102 "... por esto da regl:s en ella de c6mo se han de haber los padres con sus hijos y los hijos con sus padres, los maridos con sus mujeres y las mujeres con sus maridos, los 96 Simb., t. 8, p. 36I. 97 Guia, t. I, p. 375. 98 Phil. IV. 8. 99 Pro Cluent. 5; cf. also Pro Cael. 8o: "... conservate parenti filium, parentem filio." 100 Guia, t. I, p. 41. 101 Ibid., p. 441. 102 Orac., t. 2, p. 427. 116 REBECCA SWITZER sefiores con sus siervos y los siervos con sus sefiores, los prelados con sus suibditos y los suibditos con sus prelados." 103 Variety in the Forms of the Contrasts Cicero and Granada emphasize these "contrasts" by ingenious schemes of various kinds. The finals of the contrasting words are similar: "... qui se non opinari, sed scire, non audivisse, sed vidisse, non interfuisse, sed egisse dicit." 104 "... no habla del bien obrar sino del orar." 105 "... no habla aqui el Profeta de las serpientes materiales, sino de las espirituales...." 106 "... no para hacer sabios disputadores, sino virtuosos obradores.... "107 The contrast is found in the first and last words of the clause or sentence: "Odit populus Romanus privatam luxuriam, publicam magnificentiam diligit." 108 "... risus cum velit, cum velit fletus." 109 "... el invisible se hizo visible..."110 "... porque Io poco ayuda para lo mucho.... "ll "... por lo pasado podremos juzgar lo presente...." 12 The contrasting words conclude the clauses: "... sed et huius oratio in philosophiam tralata pug103 Simb., t. 6, p. 79. 104 Pro Arch. 8. 105 Orac., t. 2, p. 475. 106 Guia, t. i, pp. 194-I95. 107 Ibid., p. 139. 108 Pro Muren. 76. 109 Brut. 290. 10 Simb., t. 6, p. II8. 111 Orac., t. 2, p. 427. 112 Guia, t. I, p. 430. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 117 nacior, ut ita dicam, videatur et illorum in iudiciis pacatior." 113 "... pues la suerte de los buenos es ver a Dios, que es el mayor bien de los bienes, y la de los malos carecer eternalmente de Dios, que es el mayor de los males." 114 "... que tanto favorezca la virtud, prometiendole tan grandes bienes, y tanto desfavorezca el vicio, amenazandole tan terribles castigos.... 115 "... porque no son espirituales, y sienten lo que les piden por ella, porque son carnales; haceseles muy caro lo que les piden, por lo que les dan." 116 There is antithesis in form but not in thought: "Erat Italia turn plena Graecarum artium disciplinarum, studiaque haec et in Latio vehementius tur colebantur quam nunc isdem in oppidis et hic Romae propter tranquillitatem rei publicae non neglegebantur." 117 " Tienelo, y no lo deja: abrazalo, y pidelo que no se le vaya." 118 The two members of a couplet stand in contrast: "... Gaudet dolet, ridet plorat, favet odit, contemnit "119 "... que son credulidad y incredulidad.... "20 "... de placeres y pesares.... "121 "... un querer y un no querer...."122 Pronouns are contrasted. This is one of the most 113 Brut. 121. 114 Guia, t. I, p. 94. 115 Simb., t. 6, p. 343. 116 Guia, t. I, p. 247. 117 Pro Arch. 5. 118 Orac., t. 2, p. 96. 119 Brut. I88. 120 Simb., t. 6, p. 252. 121 Guia, t. I, p. 313. 122 Orac., t. 2, p. 405. 118 REBECCA SWITZER striking characteristics of the style of both Cicero and Granada. " Servi mehercule mei si me isto pacto metuerent, ut te metuunt omnes cives tui, domum meam relinquendam putarem: tu tibi urbem non arbitraris? " 123 " Pues yo (dice el Criador) quiero servir a ti. Tu te asienta a la mesa, yo ministrare a ella y te lavare los pies. Tui descansa, yo tomare sobre mi todas tus cargas y deudas. Usa de mi en todas tus necesidades de la manera que quisieres, o como de siervo tuyo, o pegujar tuyo. Si estas fatigado o cargado, yo llevare sobre mi tu carga, para que yo primero cumpla la ley mia." 124 Granada often emphasizes a thought by expressing it both in the positive and in the negative. " ZQue vemos, si esto no vemos? ^ Que tememos, si esto no tememos. j Que proveemos, si esto no proveemos " 125 "... no era el que era.... "126 "El amor siempre vela, y durmiendo no se aduerme. Fatigado no se cansa, angustiado no se angustia, espantado no se espanta..."127 Words Similar in Form Words with the same inflectional endings (similiter cadentia) and words with similar endings (similiter desinentia). "... ad eius non modo salutem exstinguendam sed etiam gloriam per talis viros infringendam.... 128 " Nolo exprimi litteras putidius, nolo obscurari neglegen123 Cat. I. I7. 124 Simb., t. 7, p. 107. 125 Guia, t. I, p. Io5. 126 Simb., t. 7, p. 11 127 Imit., t. I2, p. 57. 128 Pro Mil. 5. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 119 tius; nolo verba exiliter exanimata exire, nolo inflata et quasi anhelata gravius." 129 "Porque si preguntais por la nobleza, eran de linaje bajisimos, si por las riquezas, eran pobrisimos, si por sciencia, eran ignorantisimos, si por la elocuencia, eran de suyo barbarisimos, si por la delicadeza de sus ingenios, eran rudisimos, si por la manera de su vida, eran severisimos y gravisimos perseguidores de todas las deshonestidades y regalos del cuerpo...." 130 "... y mira con atenci6n la longura de su eternidad, y la anchura de su felicidad....131 "... si no tuvieran una fe firmisima, y una esperanza segurisima, y una caridad encendidisima, y una fortaleza inexpugnable, y una paciencia incomparable." 132 "... la palabra oida, y no obrada, conoscida y no amada, creida y no guardada." 133 Words of the same root. "... sed ut tur ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum amicissimus scripsi de amicitia." 134 " Si deseas alcanzar la virtud de la humildad, sigue el camino de la humillacion: porque si no quieres ser humillado, nunca llegaras a ser humilde. Y puesto que muchos se humillan, que en la verdad no son humildes, todavia no hay dubda sino que (como dice muy bien Sant Bernardo) la humillacion es camino para la humildad, asi como la paciencia para la paz y el estudio para la sabiduria. Obedece, pues, huimilmente a Dios, y (como dice Sant Pedro) a toda humana criatura por amor de Dios." 135 "Y si te parece poco que siendo el Dios y igual al Padre, sirviese por tu causa como siervo a su Padre, mira cuanto 129 De Orat. 3. 41. 130 Simb., t. 6, p. 314. 131 Orac., t. 2, p. I99. 132 Simb., t. 6, p. 315. 133 Imit., t. 12, p. 53. 134 De amic. 5. 185 Guia, t. I, p. 353. 120 REBECCA SWITZER pas6 mas adelante, pues tambien sirvio a su proprio siervo. Fue el hombre criado para servir a su criador, y que cosa mas justa que servir a Aquel que te crio, sin el cual fueras nada? "13 Paronomasia (agnominatio).-Granada defines paronomasia as a use of words similar in sound, but different in meaning.'37 This figure is one of the most characteristic of Cicero's writings, and his followers tried to imitate his subtle skill in employing it. "... non enim tam praeclarum est scire Latine quam turpe nescire....."138 "En cur magister eius ex oratore arator factus sit."139 "... non emissus ex urbe, sed inmissus in urbem esse videatur? "140 "El mismo ejemplo podemos poner en una flauta, por cuyo caio como por la cana de nuestro pulmon."141 "Y asi como los pobres con su pobreza se conforman con Cristo, asi los ricos con sus limosnas se reforman para Cristo..." 42 "... que asi vuelva y revuelva sus prisioneros, y asi les haga tejer y destejer, andar y desandar los mismos caminos? " 14 "... porque con el absencia crecia mas el deseo del amado, y con su presencia el alegria." 144 "Porque reformado el hombre, todo el mundo queda reformado, pues queda ordenado al fin para que Dios los 186 Simb., t. 7, p. 107. 1 37Rhet. V. IX. 138 Brut. I40. 139 Phil. 3. 22. 140 Cat. I. 27. 141 Simb., t. 5, p. 237. 142 Guia, t. I, p. 359. 143 Ibid., p. i88. 144 Orac., t. 2, p. 365. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 121 crio, y deformado el hombre, todo el mundo queda deformado y desordenado, pues sirve.... "145 RHYTHM The third part of ornamentation, according to Granada, consists in "composition" and in the "appropriate and harmonious arrangement of words." Such an arrangement-which is generally referred to by rhetoricians as "numerous" (numerosus)146 -clarifies the meaning of the sentence and makes it "pleasing" to the reader. Numbers, Granada thinks, are necessary for the writer, but not for the preacher. Accordingly, therefore, in the Rhetorica ecclesiastica he does not include many of the rules given by rhetoricians on this subject. The source of Granada's theories on the "harmonious " arrangement of words can be traced to the classics. Undoubtedly Cicero constructed his sentence on the principle that language should be pleasing to the ear. Like the ancient Greeks he believed that prose, as well as poetry, admitted of harmony, though in the case of the former the ear, rather than fixed metrical rules, was to be the judge. The Ciceronian sentence can be divided into what Granada, likening the sentence to the human body, calls articuli (caesa or incisa or commata) and into membra (cola).47 When these divisions consist of 145 Simb., t. 7, p. 175; cf. also Guia, t. I, p. 275: ". que no... se hace el hombre de atrito contrito...." 146 For Cicero an oration is numerous when it contains metrical measures or when the words are so arranged that symmetry is the result. (Orat. 202.) 147 Rhet. V. XVI. 122 REBECCA SWITZER approximately the same number of syllables, the arrangement is called isocolon (conpar).48 Cicero finds the effect still more " pleasing " when the last clause is longer than the preceding.149 He illustrates his ideas on symmetry by passages from his his own orations: 150 "Est igitur, haec, iudices, non scripta, sed nota lex, quam non didicimus, accepimus, legimus, verum ex natura ipsa adripuimus, hausimus, expressimus, ad quam non docti, sed facti, non instituti, sed imbuti sumus." 151 "domus tibi deerat? at habebas. pecunia superabat? at egebas." 152 Fr. Luis de Granada was probably the first to use the rhythmical Ciceronian prose in the Spanish language with any degree of excellence. As he was thoroughly in sympathy with the classical theories on this subject, he wanted to experiment with them in his own tongue. In St. Augustine he finds verses 23 and 29 of 2 Corinthians II quoted to illustrate balanced clauses and sentences. Granada in turn cites these in the Rhetorica.l53 "In laboribus plurimis, in carceribus abundantius, in plagis supra modum, in mortibus frequenter." "Quis infirmatur, et ego non infirmor? Quis scandalizatur, et ego non uror? " 148 Ibid. V. IX. Granada says that while it would be childish to count the syllables, to the ear the clauses must seem to be equal. 149De Orat. III. I86. 150 Orat. 164 and 223 151 Pro Mil. Io. 162 Pro Scauro 45. 153 Rhet. V. XVI CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 123 The following passages quoted from Granada show that his sentences likewise may be divided into more or less equal parts (one may or may not count elisions). "... alumbrando el entendimiento, encendiendo la voluntad, recogiendo la memoria, esforzando el libre albedrio, templando la parte concupiscible, para que no se desperezca por lo malo, y esforzando la irascible, para que no se acobarde para lo bueno." 154 "... si no tuvieran una fe firmisima, y una esperanza segurisima, y una caridad encendidisima, y una fortaleza inexpugnable, y una paciencia incomparable." 155 "... que son animarnos, consolarnos, alegrarnos y esforzarnos." 156 "... precian tanto lo interior, que desprecian lo exterior....... abrazando mucho lo exterior, se descuidan en lo interior....157 "... mas con tanta humildad descendi6 Dios al cieno, y con tanta dignidad subi6 el cieno a Dios, que todo lo que hizo Dios, se diga que lo hizo el cieno; y todo lo que sufri6 el cieno, se diga que lo padesci6 Dios." 168 154 Guia, t. I, p. I36. 155 Simb., t. 6, p. 315. 156 Gula, t. I, p. 170. 157 Ibid., p. 475. 158 Guia, t. I, p. 41. 124 REBECCA SWITZER.. que tan mal saben agradescerlo, pues aprovechandose del beneficio, no saben levantar los ojos a mirar las manos del que lo da, no solo a los buenos, sino tambien a los malos por amor de los buenos, asi como proveyendo los hombres no se olvid6 de los animales por amor de los hombres." 159 "La sal que ha de dar sabor y salar a todos los manjares, ha de ser en si saladisima, y el sol que ha de dar claridad a todas las estrellas, ha de ser en si clarisimo: y asi el que ha de hacer gratos y amigos a todos los hombres en los ojos de Dios (siendole antes enemigo) ha de ser a el gratisimo y amicisimo." 60 In these same examples antitheses and parallelisms are made more prominent by rhyming features and by schemata. For example, in the last illustration quoted, the vowel a is repeated seven times in the first line and the vowel o eight times in the tenth. But by a variation of vowels in the words sabor and salar, and in sal and sol, Granada partially breaks the monotony of the sound. Alliteration also occurs in these two sets of words. The difference in the final vowels of saladisima and clarisimo keeps them, he 156 Simb., t. 5, p. 95. 160 Ibid., t. 7, p. 40. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 125 thinks, from being too much alike. Lines 3 and 7 are the same, while 12 begins with the words used in these two lines, but ends differently. The last line-gratisimo y amicisimo-is longer than 4 and 8 and forms a contrast to them. At the same time it emphasizes the ending of line 9-gratos y amigos. In this passage one can see that, while Granada makes use of different rhyming devices, he employs them with sufficient irregularity to avoid verse. Granada seems to consider these plays on words most effective in the "plain style," when he is reasoning and trying to convince, but not trying to appeal to the emotions. These figures are used also to bind words together in various combinations, and especially so in couplets and in series of synonyms, and in contrasted and similar words. Assonance. "... haber habido mala noche, hallar desandada la jornada." 161 "ramas altas y bajas." 162 " beneficio recebido." 163 "maravillosos olores de rosas y flores." 164 " soberano gobernador." 165 Exchange of vowels. " placeres y pesares." 166 "tales bienes y deleites." 167 161 Guia, t. I, p. 224. 162 Simb., t. 5, p. I24. 168 Ibid., p. 117. 164 Ibid., t. 7, p. 51. 165 Ibid., t. 5, P. 95. 166 Guia, t. I, p. 313. 167 Simb., t. 5, p. 268. 126 REBECCA SWITZER "monteros y pastores de ganado." 16s "se requiere menor poder." 169 Consonance. "... porque no desean cosa que no posean." 170 "... que cosa era pecado... fuese Dios aplacado." 171 "... que en los brutos se llama estimativa, y en hombres (...) se llama cogitativa." 172 Alliteration. "de lino y lana." 173 "furor y fuego." 174 "perseverar en pecado y pensar de ir a paraiso." 175 "de la esperanza dubdosa, y del deseo desordenado.":6 "de fiarte de esa falsa felicidad." 177 Cicero generally reserved the conclusion of the clause for metrical measures and for other schemes. It is doubtful whether Granada intended to use fixed meters, as Cicero undoubtedly did, but occasionally he obtains rhythmical effects by dividing the finals of the clause into approximately equal parts. In some of these finals the accent falls at regular intervals. "... perdia jornada; sino que entonces labraba su vifia, y regaba su huerta, y granjeaba su hacienda...." 178 "... desandada la jornada...."179 168 Ibid., p. Io8. 169 Ibid., t. 8, p. 301. 170 Ibid., t. 9, p. 236. 171 Ibid., t. 7, p. 41. 172 Ibid., t. 5, pp. 250-251. 173 Simb., t. 9, p. 268. 174 Guia, t. I, p. I89. 175 Ibid., p. 291. 176 Ibid., p. 314. 177 Ibid., p. 356. 178 Guia, t. I, p. 229. The syllable is italicized to show that the rhythmical beat of the phrase falls there. 179 Ibid., p. 224. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 127 "... bienes de futuro con dafios de presente.... "180... que crio a mi por ti, y a ti por si." 18 "... males de pena y males de culpa." 182 "No es menester sacar espada ni menear armas, s6lo mirar basta para matar." 183 "... para conservar su vida... para conseguir la virtud." 184... siendo atormentado... siendo atormentador." 1ls "... para los trabajos y obras de la vida activa,... para los regalos y dulzuras de la contemplativa."186 "... de los huevos pollos... de los hombres dioses." 187 "... tan hermoseado con su pena... estuvo afeado con su culpa." 188 In arranging words there are certain extremes which Granada advises his preacher to avoid: the frequent juxtaposition of vowels-" Vaccae Aeneae, amenissimae impendebant "; 189 excessive alliteration -" 0 Tite, tute, tati, tibi, tante, Tyranne tulisti "; 190 the repetition of the same word-" Nam cuius rationis oratio non exstet, ei rationi ratio non est fidem habere "; too many words with similar endings-" flentes, plorantes, lacrimantes, obtestantes "; and transposition, as it is seen in a passage quoted from Politian-" Legit epistolam mihi nuper ad se tuam Picus hic Mirandula noster." 191 180 Ibid., p. Io9. 181 Ibid., p. 33. 182 Ibid., p. 323. 183 Orac., t. 2, p. I25. 84 Guia, t. i, p. III. 185 Simb., t. 7, p. I49. 186 Orac., t. 2, p. 361. 187 Ibid., p. 484. 188 Ibid., p. 167. 189 Quoted from Ad Her. 4. 12 in Rhet. V. XVI. 190 Quoted from Ennius in Rhet. V. XVI. 91 Rhet. V. XVI. VIII THE SENTENCE Fr. Luis de Granada was interested in establishing musical rhythm and balance in the Spanish sentence, and at the same time he was intent on making other improvements in it. The writers of the Renaissance had tried to reproduce in Spanish the Latin period. But Granada wanted only to take the Latin as a model for the Spanish just as Cicero had formerly used the Greek in perfecting the Latin period.1 When Granada began to write, the Spanish sentence was loosely constructed and also lacking in variety and in adornments. In attempting to remedy these deficiencies he introduced some Latin constructions and abolished others; he subordinated and connected clauses and made them symmetrical. However Granada did not do all this alone. Previous and contemporary writers helped in the construction of the Spanish period as well as in the general development of the Spanish language. Granada profited by the reforms of these men and to a certain extent built his own on theirs. But he was a more voluminous writer than they; he wrote for all classes and preached to all; he was read and heard by more people perhaps than any other man of the sixteenth century in Spain and Portugal; and un1 Cf. Nettleship, Lectures and Essays, p. 1o5. 128 CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 129 doubtedly he exerted a great influence over other writers of his epoch. Therefore he was able to stamp on the language both his own reforms and those made by writers less widely known at that time. As the Latin period was perfected in the time of Cicero, so was the Spanish period in that of Fr. Luis de Granada. According to D. Jose Joaquin de Mora, before Granada began to write, the Spanish sentence was either divided into disconnected members or was prolonged indefinitely by coordinates. Granada stabilized the Spanish sentence by " determining its dimensions, proportioning its members symmetrically and giving it sonorous terminations." 2 In the Spanish writers anterior to the fifteenth century the structure of the sentence was simple, composed, as it was, largely of coordinate clauses. There seems to have been little idea of subordination. Then in the fifteenth century, with the desire to introduce Latin constructions and to make the Spanish sentence like the Latin, came a tendency to abuse the dependent clauses and the suspended sentence. The same weaknesses are still apparent in the first part of the sixteenth century, though not to so great an extent. Scientific studies on language had been made before, but a writer of the ability and influence of Fr. Luis de Granada was needed to make the results of these investigations permanent. Fully conscious that weaknesses existed in the Spanish sentence,8 Granada studied its structure and 2 Pr6logo in B. A. E., t. VI, p. vii. 8 Cf. Obras, t. 12, pp. 3 and 152; t. 14, p. 437. 10 130 REBECCA SWITZER made systematic plans to improve it. In the Rhetorica ecclesiastica V. XVI. he discusses "composition," the conjunctions to be used in subordination, the different kinds of sentences and the proper use of each. There are two kinds of composition, he says: the simple (simplex) and the double (duplex) or compound (composita). The former is not subject to the law of numbers nor has it very long periods. It is appropriate to familiar conversation, and therefore it is often found in the Bible, because the "simple truth delights in simplicity of style." To illustrate this type of sentence Granada quotes the first three verses of Genesis. "Double " composition consists of long and complicated sentences. Granada compares this type of sentence to the hand. The fingers are the members (cola or membra) and the joints (commata or incisa) are the different parts of the members-close connection should exist between these several divisions. Granada discusses two kinds of compound sentences. What is now called the loose sentence he defines as one in which incisa or membra are used, while, in the so-called periodic, one talks, as it were, in a circle, not finishing the thought till the end. To these classifications Granada adds two more: the peribole (circuitus) and the camptera (tractatus nexus). These are only names for longer and more involved periodic sentences. The former is suited to narrations and to the amplifications of history, and CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 131 the latter, the longer of the two, is the more "elegant." In these periods one takes advantage of adversative conjunctions, such as quamquam, etsi and licet, and of comparatives, such as ut, sicut and ita. Participles also, Granada suggests, are helpful in the subordination of clauses.5 In order to avoid monotony of structure the "intelligent artificer" will consider when he should employ each type of period, for it is difficult to prescribe definite laws in such a matter. However, as a general rule, incisa and membra are used to arouse emotions-especiaslly when there are many of them -while the period is employed more frequently, either in arguments or in the exordium.6 The simple sentence is not characteristic of Granada's style. Since he considers it appropriate, however, for "simple" truths, he uses it occasionally when he is writing in his plain and direct manner, especially in repeated questions and commands. " Quien ha borrado el traslado de la gloria del Padre? Quien ha manchado el espejo y hermosura del cielo? 1 Quien ha desfigurado la cara de todas las gracias?... Tanto han podido las manos de los hombres contra Dios? Hijo mio y sangre mia, de d6nde se levant6 a deshora esta fiera tempestad?..." 7 The loose sentence occurs most frequently in Granada's writings. He states a fact and then he amplifies and embellishes this fact with numerous 4Rhet. V. XVI. 2. 6 Ibid. 6 Ibid. 7 Orac., t. 2, p. 8I; cf. also pp. 74-8o and p. 164. 132 REBECCA SWITZER clauses until the result is a typically abundant sentence. "En lo cual resplandesce maravillosamente la bondad y misericordia de nuestro Sefior, que como desea tanto comunicarse a todos, no quiso que hubiese un solo camino para esto, sino muchos y diversos, segun la diversidad de las condiciones de los hombres: para que el que no tuviese habilidad para ir por uno, fuese por otro." 8 " Esta es una mala manera de ensefiar, y muy ajena del estilo y gravedad de los doctores sanctos, y muy perjudicial a la honra de la divina gracia: porque pues todo este negocio es gracia y misericordia de Dios, porque tomandolo desta manera, sepa el hombre que el principal medio con que para esto se ha de disponer, es una profunda humildad y conoscimiento de su propria miseria, con grandisima confianza de la divina misericordia, para que del conoscimiento de lo uno y de lo otro procedan siempre continuas lagrimas y oraciones, con las cuales entrando el hombre por la puerta de la humildad, alcance lo que desea por humildad, y lo conserve por humildad, y lo agradezca con humildad, sin tener ninguna repunta de confianza ni en su manera de ejercicios ni en cosa suya." 9 While the long periodic sentence, which Granada considers suitable for historians, is found only occasionally in his works, the short one, which he calls the period, occurs almost as often as the loose sentence. "Y si te detienes un poco en cada cosa destas, y consideras primero la alteza del que padesce, que es Dios, y de tal manera paras en este pensamiento que vienes a quedar espantado de cosa tan alta y tan admirable, y despues vienes a caer de alli en la profundidad y bajeza de los dolores y 8Guia, t. I, p. 478. Orac., t. 2, p. 428. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 133 vituperios que quiso padescer, y esto no por angeles ni por arcangeles, sino por los hombres, esto es, por unas criaturas las mas viles y abominables que se pueden pensar, y peores aun en sus obras que los mismos demonios, si en cada cosa destas haces una estacion y comparas la una con la otra, verdaderamente quedaras atonito y pasmado de ver hasta donde se abaj6 una tan grande majestad por una tan vil y tan baja criatura, y entonces podras exclamar con el profeta.... " 10 " Porque todas las veces que el hombre presupone que o por parte de Dios o de los hombres le pueden venir tales o tales trabajos o desgustos, y el como siervo de Dios se dispone y apareja para recebirlos con toda humildad y paciencia, y para esto se resigna en las manos de su Senior aceptando y tomando dellas todo lo que por cualquier via destas le viniere (como hizo David con las injurias de Semei, las cuales tom6 como si Dios se las enviara) entienda cierto que cada vez que esto hace, hace un sacrificio muy agradable a Dios, y que tanto merece con la promptitud de la voluntad sin la obra, como con la misma obra." 11 " Y asi como el sancto Job por divina permisi6n fue entregado en poder de Satanas para que le hiciese todo el mal que quisiese, con tanto que no le tocase en la vida, asi fue dado poder a los principes de las tinieblas sin excepci6n de vida... "12 " Y como quiera que este sea un consejo muy loable en todos tiempos, y especialmente en los dias y fiestas principales del afio, mas en los tiempos de tribulaciones y trabajos, o despues de algunos caminos largos y negocios de mucho distraimiento, es tan necesario como el regalo y buen tratamiento del cuerpo despues de una larga enfermedad." 18 The Ciceronian period is well known for its compactness. To the arrangement of clauses and sen10 Orac., t. 2, p. 268. 11 Guia, t. I, p. 453; cf. also Simb., t. 6, p. 88: "Pues si sobre todo...." 12 Orac., t. 2, pp. 39-40. 18 Ibid., p. 421; cf. also pp. II, 4I6, 429. 134 REBECCA SWITZER tences Cicero apparently applies his own rules for connections between words. Words, he says, should be arranged in such a way that there will be compactness and coherence in the language. This effect is attained by linking the endings and the beginnings of adjoining words in such a way that there will be no "rough clashing of consonants nor wide hiatus in the vowels." 14 In a similar manner Cicero obtains coherence and smoothness in sentence and paragraph by a great variety of connectives. Some are no more characteristic of him than of Latin writers in general, while others seem to be peculiarly his because he uses them so often.l5 The relative pronoun is used at the beginning of the period more perhaps than any other connecting word. It carries over the thought of the previous sentence, as, for example, in the familiar expression -quae cum ita sint. Demonstrative pronouns often serve as connectives. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, which are not of necessity expressed in Latin, are used by Cicero at the beginning of a sentence, not only for emphasis, but also, at times, to make the relation with the preceding clause clearer. Many of Cicero's periods begin with the absolute construction; with neque or nec, atque, 14 De Orat. III. 172. 15 For a brief resume of the development of Latin prose cf. Nettleship's The Historical Development of Classical Latin Prose in Lectures and Essays, pp. 97-I08. Here the author describes the sentence of Cato as being simple and forcible, but lacking in harmony and rhythm. There are few connecting particles used by these early Latin writers. A contrast to this sentence is that of Cicero. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 135 quippe, itaque and nunc; and with other conjunctions, such as sed, nam, at and vero and autem, enim and tamen, which are used postpositively. The postpositive, quidem, is also one of Cicero's favorite connectives. By studying and analyzing the Ciceronian period Granada came to the conclusion that a great weakness in the Spanish language was to be found in the lack of proper relation between clauses and sentences. Granada's connecting words and expressions are more or less of the same type as Cicero's. The relative pronoun is perhaps the most common. In a passage from the Guia de pecadores in which a count has been made,6 51 sentences begin with relative pronouns; 47 begin with other pronouns, the majority being demonstratives; 26 with prepositional phrases; 43 with y;17 38 with pues-this word seems in many cases to correspond to the quidem of Cicero; 8 with mnas; 14 with adverbs; 5 with adverbial clauses. Twenty-four sentences in this passage begin with the verb and only 12 begin with the subject. 16 Pp. I3-38. When the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase containing a relative or a demonstrative pronoun, we have counted this connective both as a pronoun and as a prepositional phrase. 17 The frequent use of this connective seems to be due more to the influence of early Spanish writers than to that of the classical. Menendez Pidal in Prosistas castellanos says that in early Spanish prose the inability to pass from narrative poetry to narrative prose is seen in the scarcity of forms of the sentence. This is noted especially in the poverty of conjunctions. The long series of clauses connected almost only by y is very monotonous (p. 9). 136 REBECCA SWITZER In a passage of similar length from the Libro de la oracion y meditaciodn 8 the results are almost the same: 60 sentences begin with relative pronouns; 46 begin with other pronouns, the majority being demonstratives, as in the above case; 42 with prepositional phrases; 42 with y; 35 with pues; 14 with mas; 12 with tambien; 9 with adverbial clauses; and 7 with the absolute construction. Sixteen sentences begin with the verb and 12 with the subject. Though Granada realizes the importance of varying the structure of his clauses and sentences, to attract attention he frequently has similarity of form in a series.'9 He pays close attention to the introduction and to the conclusion, and there he places the key words of the passage. By repeating in these positions such words or others referring to them, he draws the parts of the sentence closely together and emphasizes the central thought. "Si deseas alcanzar la virtud de la humildad, sigue el camino de la humillacion: porque si no quieres ser humillado, nunca llegaras a ser humilde. Y puesto que muchos se humillan, que en la verdad no son humildes, todavia no hay dubda sino que (como dice muy bien Sant Bernardo) la humillacion es camino para la humildad, asi como la paciencia para la paz y el estudio para la sabiduria..." 20 Within the period itself Granada makes connections as close as those between sentences and par18 Part I, Chapters I-III (B. A. E., t. VI). 19 Escala, t. 12, pp. 186-187; Orac., t. 2, pp. 1-I6. In this last passage follow the word oracion, as well as the words referring to it. 20 Guia, t. I, p. 353. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 137 agraphs. He uses the many dependent clauses in such a manner that the meaning is clear. Like Cicero he thoroughly understands the mechanical structure of the period; he knows what words make good links; he knows how to subordinate. IX APTNESS In accordance with the ancient theory that form is distinct and separate from matter and that each type of subject demands an individual manner of expression, Cicero advises the orator to thoughtfully consider "aptness" as a necessary attribute of style.1 Granada, likewise realizing the necessity of speaking "aptly," accepts the categories of style made by the Ancients and accordingly applies them to the needs of the preacher. Each one of these categories he defines and illustrates, telling at the same time when and under what circumstances it can be used.2 It is interesting to note that Granada himself carefully observes these classifications and that in his writings the three styles-the plain (hunilis), the temperate (temnperatus) and the sublime (sublimnis)-stand out distinctly. There are several things, Granada observes, which the preacher should consider when he studies the " art of speaking aptly." First, he must estimate his own ability. As young men talk in one way and old men in another, likewise do preachers of the lower orders speak differently from the Bishops and Prelates. What is suitable or perhaps modest for one 1 De Orat. I. 144. 2 Rhet. V. XVII. 138 CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 139 is boastful or insolent for another. Therefore the preacher should know himself, his own qualifications and his rank, and should adapt his manner of speaking accordingly. The audience also must be considered. One talks rather vehemently to ignorant men, while for scholars, nobles and those who have " delicate ears " the oration should be "sublime and elaborate." A sermon suited to sinners is not appropriate for monks and virgins consecrated to God, or for men who spend their lives in study and in contemplation of divine things. There must be as great a diversity in sermons as there is in people and in vices. It is, however, much more necessary for the preacher to adapt his style of speaking to his subject. As it would not be proper to adjust the same dress to all classes of people-masters and slaves, clergymen and laymen-so does one kind of style not suit all types of arguments.3 Granada cites discussions on this subject from Ad Herennium, from Cicero, from Quintilian and from St. Augustine. The opinions of these Latin authorities are practically the same. As there are three objectives in the mind of the orator or preacher-to teach (docere), to please (delectare) and to persuade (flectere)-so there are three styles of speaking. What is said is in itself sufficient to teach, but the manner in which it is said is important in order to please and to persuade. That speaker will be elo8 Rhet. V. XVII. I. 140 REBECCA SWITZER quent, according to these rhetoricians, who can say the little things (parva) quietly (submisse) so that he may teach (doceat); the moderate (modica) temperately (temperate) so that he may delight (delectet); and the grand (magna) magnificently (granditer) so that he may persuade (flectet).4 THE PLAIN STYLE (Genus Submissum or liztuile) Granada defines the three styles in some detail.5 In the quiet and sententious style, often called "humble," the form of the oration does not have to conform to rules in general and to numbers in particular. There is no necessity of care in combining words, but the language must be pointed and sententious, and the preacher must be sparing in his use of adornments of words and sententiae with tropes. Though this style is called humble, it is not limited to lowly subjects. Lofty themes, such as God, His virtues, Heaven, may be treated in this manner, but, since the object here is to teach merely, the unadorned style is also "apt." Only Granada's letters are written consistently in this " plain " way.6 In his other works there is more variety, in accord with his theory that the style 4 Ibid.; Ad Her. 4. 8; Orat., Chapters 5-8; Inst. orat. XI. I. 5 Rhet. V. XVII. 2. 6 The letter written to the Duchess of Alba on the death of her husband (t. 14, pp. 484-489) and the one to the Cardinal D. Enrique (t. 14, pp. 442-449) are rather oratorical. The former, according to Dominguez Arevalo, is the most literary of any letter written by Granada. (La ciencia tomista, nuim. I, I9IO, pp. 417-438.) CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 141 should be adapted to the theme and to other conditions. In the Prologo to Parte IV of the Introduccion del simbolo de la fe Granada announces his intention of proceeding plainly (llanamente) in this book, relating the prophecies made concerning the Saviour and telling of His birth, His life and His death. Granada wishes to treat this subject with simplicity and clearness (llaneza y claridad) because "the truth told simply sometimes has more force in itself than in many arguments." Some figures, however, occur in the more sententious passages. Also, at times-for example, the conclusion of Chapter X-after he has stated the subject, told the circumstances and given the arguments pointedly and convincingly, Granada breaks the monotony by changing from the "simple" to the "sublime" manner. This section, however, as a whole, illustrates Granada's use of the "humble" style. The following passages are also good examples of it: "No es menor tentaci6n el pensar que has ya llegado al cabo, que pensar de nunca poder llegar: para lo cual tambien probare a darte su remedio. Y tui puedes hacer desta misma ponzoiia la triaca para contra ella, concluyendo y averiguando por muy cierto que no hay mas claro indicio de estar muy lejos, que creer que has ya llegado. Porque en este maravilloso camino los que van descubriendo mas tierra, estos se dan mas priesa por ver lo'que falta, y con el sabor de lo que han visto, siempre les cresce el deseo de lo que queda por ver, y por esto nunca hacen caso del pasado en comparaci6n de lo venidero." 7 "Todas ellas son compuestas cada cual de su manera: mas en ]l no hay composici6n por su suma simplicidad; porque 7 Orac., t. 2, p. 384. 142 REBECCA SWITZER si fuera compuesto de partes, tuviera componedor que fuera primero que 1I, lo cual es imposible. Todas ellas pueden ser mas de lo que son, y tener mas de lo que tienen, y saber mis de lo que saben: mas ]l ni puede ser mas de lo que es, porque en 1I esta todo el ser: ni tener mas de lo que tiene, porque:1 es el abismo de todas las riquezas." 8 One of the greatest differences between Cicero and Granada manifests itself in this " plain " style. Both writers are epigrammatic and both use plays on words. But Cicero has another characteristic: he becomes satirical, with that fine and delicate but biting irony for which he is so well known. This quality Granada does not possess to any noticeable extent. THE TEMPERATE STYLE (Genus Temperatuit) The "temperate mode" of speaking, an intermediary form, is, in the words of Granada, somewhat more abundant (uberius), somewhat more robust (robustius) than the "humble" style. It is, however, quieter (submissius) than the " sublime." All the adornments of oratory belong to this "temperate" style, and in it is to be found smoothness (suavitas) rather than force (nervi).9 In the first passage quoted below Granada would probably call the effect pleasing. There is a dignity about it that is " impressive " with its long and " imposing " words. The second passage has more artificial features and is more vigorous on the whole. 8 Guia, t. I, p. I6; cf. also Ibid., p. 387: "Porque no se llama vencido.... " 9 Rhet. V. XVII. 2. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 143 "Pues la hermosura del cielo, i quien la explicar? Cuin agradable es en medio del verano en una noche serena ver la luna llena y tan clara, que encubre con su claridad la de todas las estrellas i Cuanto mas huelgan los que caminan de noche por el estio con esta lumbrera, que con la del sol, aunque sea mayor I Mas estando ella ausente, que cosa mas hermosa y que mas descubra la omnipotencia y hermosura del Criador, que el cielo estrellado con tanta variedad y muchedumbre de hermosisimas estrellas, unas muy grandes y resplandescientes, y otras pequefias, y otras de mediana grandeza, las cuales nadie puede contar sino solo aquel que las crio? " 10 "Aqui es el temer y temblar, aun de los muy esforzados. Estando en este paso el bienaventurado Hilari6n, comenz6 a temblar y rehusar la salida, y el esforzabase diciendo: Sal fuera, anima, sal fuera, ide que temes? Setenta afios ha que sirves a Cristo, jy aun temes la muerte? Pues si temia esta salida quien tantos afnos habia servido a Cristo, que hara quien ha pot ventura otros tantos que le ofende? t" 11 THE SUBLIME STYLE (Genus Grave or Sublime) According to Granada the greatest force (vis) is to be found in the dignified (gravis), abundant (copiosus) and adorned (ornatus) style. Here the orator will call on the dead to come forth and the Patria will speak, as she did in the first oration which Cicero delivered against Catiline in the Senate. This style of oration will contain amplifications and figures calculated to arouse all kinds of emotions. The words will be sonorous (ampla), harsh (aspera) 10 Simb., t. 5, p. 64. 11 Orac., t. 2, p. 154; cf. also Simb., t. 6, p. 343: " Porque resumiendo todo...." 144 REBECCA SWITZER or irritating (confragosa); metaphors, epithets, hyperboles, descriptions, adjurations and other figures will abound. The composition requires longer and more complicated periods, composed of many incisa and membra.12 In a word, Granada seems to mean that, when a speaker wishes to use this elevated and sublime style, he should have at his command every device known to eloquence. The following passage is quoted by Fr. Justo Cuervo in his Biografia de Fr. Luis de Granada to illustrate what he calls " the elevation of his (Granada's) language, the pomp of his style and the loftiness of his thoughts." 13 "Y primeramente miremos toda la tierra solida, y redonda, y recogida con su natural movimiento dentro de si misma: colocada en medio del mundo, vestida de flores, de yerbas, de arboles y de mieses, donde vemos una increible muchedumbre de cosas tan diferentes entre si, que con su grande variedad nos son causa de un insaciable gusto y deleite. Juntemos con esto las fuentes perennales de aguas frias, los licuores claros de los rios, los vestidos verdes de sus riberas, la alteza de las concavidades de las cuevas, la aspereza de las piedras, la altura de los montes, la Ilanura de los campos. Afiadamos a esto las venas escondidas del oro y plata y la infinidad de los marmoles preciosos. Y demas desto, cuanta diversidad vemos de bestias, dellas mansas, dellas fieras, cuantos vuelos y cantos de aves, cuan grandes pastos para los ganados, y cuantos bosques para la vida de los animales silvestresl Pues que dire del linaje de los hombres, los cuales puestos, en medio de la tierra, como labradores y cultivadores della, no la dejan poblar de bestias fieras, ni hacerse un monte bravo con la aspereza de los arboles silvestres, con cuya industria los campos y las 12 Rhet. V. XVII. 2. 13 pp. 33-35; cf. Simb., t. 5, pp. 46-47. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 145 islas y las riberas resplandescen, repartidas en casas y ciudades? "14 For a comparison of a like passage in Cicero, read the description of creation at the beginning of De natura deorun, in which one notes a similar " abundance," a similar rhythm, a similar "grandeur of tone." A parallel to the style used by Cicero in such orations as those against Catiline is seen in the following: "Desta manera pues guardaste los mandamientos divinos: veamos agora c6mo te apartaste de los pecados, y c6mo usaste de los sentidos y de todos los otros beneficios divinos. La soberbia de tu coraz6n, que tal fue? El deseo de honra y alabanza,,hasta d6nde lleg6? La presumpcion y estima de ti mismo y el desprecio de los otros,. quien lo explicara? j Que dire de la vanagloria y de la liviandad de tu coraz6n, pues una sola pluma en la gorra, y una calza justa, y una faja de seda, bastaba para levantarte los pies del suelo y desear ser mirado? Que paso dabas, que obra hacias, que palabra hablabas que no fuese vestida de vanidad y deseo de la propria estimaci6n? El vestido, el servicio, el acompafiamiento, la mesa, la cama, las cortesias, y finalmente todos tus pasos y meneos tenian olor de soberbia, y todos iban vestidos de vanidad. Pues la ira, como de un serpiente: la gula, como de un lobo tragador: la pereza, como de un asno flojo: la invidia, mas que de una vibora, y en todo finalmente (si bien te miras) te hallaras muy estragado y perdido." 15 Granada employs this style also in describing the 14 For a similar passage cf. Guia, t. I, p. 88: "Tiende los ojos por todo este mundo visible..." 16 Orac., t. 2, pp. 103-104. 11 146 REBECCA SWITZER wail of lost souls,16 the fall of Satan from Heaven,17 and the loathsome condition to which the body comes after death, even though it be that of a queen.18 There are vices, however, which an orator must avoid in the three styles of speaking. It is but a step from the sublime to the bombastic (sufflatus), from the moderate to the fluctuating (fluctuans) and indecisive (dissolutus), and from the plain or humble to the dry and arid (exsanguis et aridus).l9 This warning against extremes is one that Granada never fails to give. He sees the dangers into which the imitators of the rhetorical style are likely to fall and he wants to keep his preachers from making themselves ridiculous as many Ciceronians have done. One of the advantages that Cicero and Granada see in the use of these different styles is that it gives variety to the oration. In several cases, however, Granada becomes very monotonous, and it seems probable that he even intends to be so. This occasional monotony, he believes, is impressive. He is more tiresome in his illustrations than at any other time. For instance, he tells in more or less the same tone an infinite number of blood-curdling stories about the sufferings of the Christian martyrs, and in a like manner he describes the mode of living of many animals and treats other phases of natural history. There is a sameness of structure also in many '1 Ibid., t. 2, p. I72. 17 Guia, t. I, p. 280. 18 Orac., t. 2, p. I57. 19 Ad Her. 4. io; Rhet. V. XVIII. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 147 of his prayers. These three instances, however, are those in which Granada is least original. The tales of the martyrs and the prayers follow, as a rule, fixed or traditional forms. And the natural history is taken from Cicero, Lucretius and Pliny, sometimes quoted and again adapted. Yet even in these three cases, Granada is monotonous only for a time, and then he breaks forth in his most eloquent style, making application of the facts he has accumulated and trying to appeal to his audiences. x SOME RESULTS OF GRANADA'S WORK The style of Spanish writers in the Middle Ages was simple, direct and unadorned. However, with the general interest in the classics that accompanied the Renaissance, there came original and more complicated ideas. The ambition to express these new thoughts and to express them according to classic form resulted in an enrichment of the vocabulary of the vernacular and in a more intricate and involved style of writing. On the whole, the adherents of Antiquity were servile in their imitation of certain external features of their Latin models, even to the extent, in many cases, of continuing to use the Latin language. While many of the classicists had followers, Cicero was perhaps the most popular model for style in the first part of the Spanish Renaissance. When Fr. Luis de Granada began to write, Ciceronianism was at its height, and Granada accordingly adopted its rules as his standard. But he was more individual and practical in his imitation than his predecessors had been. With the idea of conveying his message to his people in the best manner possible he applied these adopted rules in his own native tongue. Many results of this work can be seen in the Spanish language. The sentence became clarified, " abundant," highly adorned. In addition, Granada established a vocabulary that was later to be148 CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 149 come accepted more or less as a standard. He attempted to express his ideas in the language as it was spoken by the people, and in so doing he eliminated many Latinisms and many archaisms, though retaining enough of the latter to give his writings a distinct flavor of tradition. Granada seems to have delighted in following the rhetorical rules of the Ancients. The number and' variety of devices he found offered him ample opportunity to exercise his ingenuity in employing them in his sermons and in his writings. Apparently it was always interesting to him to see how many figures he could use in elaborating a single fact. Through practice Granada was able to dominate the abundant and figurative Ciceronian style. He adopted it consciously, but he came to use it with skill and with spontaneity and in his own original manner, or, in the words of Azorin, "El estilo es soberano. Fray Luis no escribe; es decir, empapada su subconsciencia de arte, polarizada hacia el arte toda su personalidad, no necesita pensar en como va a escribir. Escribe sin pensar. Su sensibilidad va directa de los nervios a las cuartillas. Por eso no hay en nuestra literatura estilo mas vivo, mas espontaneo, mas vario y mas moderno." x Granada's general ideas on style were based on the theory of the Ancients that form and substance are two distinct things. He believed that style was a tangible device or instrument of expression which one could study and acquire just as an artisan would learn a trade. Such a device should be assiduously 1 Los dos Luises, pp. 63-64. 150 REBECCA SWITZER cultivated and consciously used according to the appropriateness of the occasion. A consequence of this theory, characteristic of the Renaissance, was a distinct artificiality in Granada's form of writing, which later on, when the Renaissance had passed, was exaggerated by the culteranos and the baroque writers, for whom form was everything and substance nothing. Such a style, however, could not endure. It was Granada's more moderate style and not that of these extremists that was to prevail in Spanish prose. His influence on his contemporaries and immediate successors was so strong that the innovations made by him in the native tongue and in the literary and oratorical style came very soon to be a common inheritance and to form a part of the unconscious literary expression of the Spanish people. Two centuries after Granada died Bishop Joseph Climent had the Rhetorica ecclesiastica translated into Spanish (I770), believing that the reforms needed by the Christian oratory of Granada's time were just as necessary in the eighteenth century, when the preachers were more interested in employing concepts than in the solid doctrines of the Church Fathers. In the Bishop's opinion the Rhetorica together with the rest of Granada's works formed a library that was almost sufficient for any preacher.2 Granada was read and known in countries other than Spain and Portugal. Moliere, Regnier and Bossuet mention him. The literary ideals followed 2 Pr6logo in the Spanish translation of the Rhet., Madrid, I793. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 151 by Bossuet in particular, Azorin thinks, are similar to those of the Rhetorica.3 This book had been translated into French as early as I698, and, according to Bishop Climent, it and other works of Granada had contributed to the establishment or reestablishment of divine eloquence in France. Even the French themselves said that their best preachers incorporated in their sermons whole pages from Granada.4 In England the popularity of Granada, says Menendez y Pelayo, was second only to that of Fr. Antonio de Guevara among all Spanish writers of the period.5 According to the various bibliographies of Granada there were many translations of his works made in different countries, and often several reimpressions of a translation.6 8 De Granada a Castelar, pp. 33-34. 4 Prologo in the Spanish translation of the Rhet. 5 Origenes de la novela in N. B. A. E., t. I, pp. ccclxxivccclxxv. 6 The following figures are taken from Palau y Dulcet's Manual: Translations and reimpressions made in the different centuriesl6th 17th i8th 19th zoth French-Works............ I 2 I Separate works......... 36 80 8 12 Italian-Works............. 6 I I (In the I6th cent. nine editions were made in Italy of Latin translations of Granada's separate works and three in the I7th.) Separate works......... I7 I 2 English-Separate Works... 8 a German-Separate Works... I 3 Dutch-Separate Works..... I I Japanese-Separate Works... 2 Greek-Separate Works...... Polish-Separate Works..... I 152 REBECCA SWITZER Granada's influence in Spain and Portugal and in other countries, however, is a subject still to be developed. Before the publication of his works complaints had been made that no examples of artistic classic prose existed in Spanish.7 Granada furnished such models for later writers. It was his abundant Ciceronian style that came to be a permanent and characteristic quality of normal Spanish prose throughout successive periods. With Azorin we may say: "En Fray Luis de Granada se inicia la lengua castellana moderna: Granada la escribe y da, en su Retorica, su estetica." 8 7 Cf. Valdes, Dial. de la leng., p. 38; cf. also p. 20 of this study. 8 De Granada a Castelar, p. 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY WORKS OF FR. LUIS DE GRANADA For a bibliography of the Latin, Portuguese and Spanish works of Fr. Luis de Granada and of the translations made of these works into other languages see Antonio Palau y Dulcet, Manual del librero hispanoamericano (inventario bibliogrdfico de la produccion cientifica y literaria de Espana y de la America Latina desde la invencion de la imprenta hasta nuestros dias, con el valor comercial de todos los articulos descritos), Barcelona, 1923-1926, t. III, pp. 396-403. The most modern edition of Fr. Luis de Granada's Spanish works 1 is Obras de Fr. Luis de Granada, edicio'n critica y completa por Fr. Justo Cuervo, 14 vols., Madrid, I9o6. The following is a list of Granada's works arranged chronologically according to the dates which Cuervo gives for the first editions: Imitacio'n de Cristo, Sevilla, 1536. Tratado de meditacion, lvora, I554. Libro de la oracion y meditacion, Salamanca, 1554. Unas oraciones y ejercicios de devocion muy provechosos en la edici6n de la Imitacion de Cristo, evora, I555. Guia de pecadores (texto primitivo), 2 vols., Lisboa, I556 -1557. Tratado de la oracion y meditacion (compendio), Lisboa [not before 1557 nor later than I559]. Manual de diversas oraciones y espirituales ejercicios, Lisboa, I557. 1 Cuervo includes in this collection his own translation into Spanish of the Compendio de doctrina cristiana which was written by Granada in Portuguese and first published in Lisbon, I559. 153 154 REBECCA SWITZER Manual de diversas oraciones y espirituales ejercicios, Lisboa, I559. Memorial de lo que debe hacer el cristiano; Tratado de algunas muy devotas oraciones para provocar al amor de Dios y de las otras virtudes; Vita Christi, en el cual se contienen los principales pasos y misterios de la vida de Cristo, Lisboa, I56I. Escala espiritual, Lisboa, 1562. Memorial de la vida cristiana, Lisboa, 1565. Guia de pecadores, Salamanca, 1567. Adiciones al memorial de la vida. cristiana, Salamanca, I574. Recopilacion breve del Libro de la oracion y meditacion de Fr. Luis de Granada, hecha por el mismo autor, Salamanca, 1574. Introduccion del simbolo de la fe, Salamanca, I583-1585. Doctrina espiritual, Lisboa, I587. Serm6n en que se da aviso que en las caidas publicas de algunas personas, ni se pierda el credito de la salud de los buenos, ni cese y se entibie el buen prop6sito de los flacos, Lisboa, 1588. Vida del B. Juan de Avila, Madrid, 1588. Didlogo del misterio de la encarnacion del Hijo de Dios, Barcelona, I605. Vida del V. D. Fr. Bartolome de los martires, Valladolid, I615. In vol. 14 Cuervo includes the following manuscripts and autographs which had not been published previously: Cartas Sermon de la redencidn Vida del Cardenal D. Enrique, Rey de Portugal Vida de Sor Ana de la Concepcion, Franciscana Vida de Doia Elvira de Mendoza Vida de Melicia Herndndez STUDIES ON FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 2 Luis de Mufioz, Vida y virtudes del V. P. M. Fr. Luis de Granada, Madrid, 1751. 2 Given chronologically. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 155 P. Calixto Hornero, Elementos de ret6rica, con exemplos latinos de Ciceron y castellanos del Fr. Luis de Granada, para uso de las escuelas, Madrid, 1802. Eugenio de Ochoa, Tesoro de los prosadores espanoles desde la formacidn del romance castellano hasta fines del siglo XVIII, Paris, 1841, pp. 314-321. Jose Joaquin de Mora, Prologo y Vida de Fr. Luis de Granada in B. A. E. VI, Madrid, 1850, pp. iii-xxxvi.. Paul Rousselot, Les mystiques espagnols, Paris, 1867, pp. 172-213. Alejandro Pidal y Mon, Fray Luis de Granada coma orador sagrado del siglo de oro de la civilizacidn espanola in Discursos y articulos literarios, Madrid, 1887, pp. 75 -198. Jose Ignacio Valenti, Fray Luis de Granada, Ensayo biogrdfico y critico, Palma de Mallorca, 1889. Justo Cuervo, Biografia de Fr. Luis de Granada, Madrid, 1896. Fr. Luis de Granada y la Inquisicion in Homenaje a Menendez y Pelayo, vol. I, 1899, pp. 733-742. Tomas Dominguez Arevalo, Carta del V. P. M. Fr. Luis de Granada sobre el Gran Duque de Alba y su muerte, La Ciencia Tomista, 1910, I, pp. 417-438. J. M. Rico Fuensalida, El venerable Fr. Luis de Granada y la Inquisicion, Revista del Centro de Estudios Hist6ricos de Granada y su Reino, 1914, IV, pp. 253-260. Justo Cuervo, Fr. Luis de Granada y la Inquisici6n, Salamanca, 19I5. P. Quir6s, Verdadero retrato de Fr. Luis de Granada, La Ciencia Tomista, 1916, XIV, pp. 298-307. M. Angel, Le veritable et unique auteur du " Tratado de la oracion," Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos, 1916, XXXV, pp. 139-222; 1917, XXXVI, pp. 145 -199 and 321-368. L. Perez, Informacion sobre el "Tratado de la oracidn y meditaci6n" de San Pedro de Alcdntara, Archivo Ibero-Americano, 1917, VII, pp. 290-297. 156 REBECCA SWITZER Justo Cuervo, Fr. Luis de Granada, verdadero y uinico autor del "Libro de oracion," Rev. de Archivos, 19I8, XXXVIII, pp. 293-359. M. Angel, Sobre la paternidad del " Tratado de oracion y contemplacion," Estudios Franciscanos, I919, XXIII, pp. 241-259. Justo Cuervo, Fray Luis de Granada, verdadero y unico autor del "Libro de la oracion," Rev. de Archivos, 1919, XL, pp. I-68 and 355-417. M. Angel, A proposito del " Tratado de oracion." El Ampliador, Estudios Franciscanos, 1920, XXIV, pp. 93 -II3. Suyo y unica y exclusivamente suyo, Estudios Franciscanos, 1920, XXV, pp. 249-269. L. Perez, Cuestionario historico. gEstd resuelta la cuestidn de quien sea el verdadero y unico autor del " Tratado de la oracio'n y meditacion " atribuido por unos a San Pedro de Alccntara y por otros a Fr. Luis de Granada? Estudios Franciscanos, 1920, XXV, pp. 189 -202. Azorin (J. Martinez Ruiz), Los dos Luises, Madrid, 1921. De Granada a Castelar, Madrid, 1922. M. Angel, Adoctrinando a la "replica," Estudios Franciscanos, I922, XXVIII, pp. 99-110, I80-I85 and 342 -358. (Acerca del "Libro de la oraci6n"). A. Garcia Boiza, Una polemica del P. Cuervo, La Basilica Teresiana, 1922, VIII, pp. 17-22. (Fr. Luis de Granada, verdadero y uinico autor del "Libro de la oracion.") Ram6n Menendez Pidal, Antologia de prosistas castellanos, Madrid, I923, pp. 125-127. STUDIES ON CICERO AND ON CICERONIANISM Bayard, L., Le latin de Saint Cyprien, Paris, 1902. Bonnet, Max, Le latin de Gregoire de Tours, Paris, I880. Causeret, Charles, Ltude sur la langue de rhetorique et de la critique litteraire dans Ciceron, Paris, i886. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 157 Clark, Albert C., Zielinski's " Das Clauselgesetz in Ciceros Reden," Classical Review, I905, pp. 164-172. Ebrard, W., Die Alliteration in der lateinischen Sprache, Bayreuth, I882. Erasmus, Desiderius, Ciceronianus: or A Dialogue on the Best Style of Speaking, tr. by Izora Scott, New York, 1908. Goelzer, Henri, etude lexicographique et grammatical de la latinite de Saint Jerome, Paris, 1884. Laurand, L., ttude sur le style des discours de Ciceron, Paris, 1907. Lebreton, Jules, ttude sur la langue et la grammaire de Ciceron, Paris, 1901. Menendez y Pelayo, M., Bibliografia hispano-latina clasica, Madrid, I902, pp. 472-896. Meyer, Paul, De Ciceronis in epistolis ad Atticum sermone, Bayreuth, 1887. Mueller, Ernestus, De numero Ciceroniano, Berolini, I880. Norden, Ed., Die antike Kunstprosa vom VI. Jahrhundert v. Chr. bis in die Zeit der Renaissance, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1915-1923. Regnier, A. D., De la latinite des sermons de Saint Augustin, Paris, 1896. Rolfe, J. C., Cicero and His Influence, Boston, 1923. Sandys, John Edwin, A Companion to Latin Studies, Prose from Cato to Cassiodorus, Cambridge, 1921. The History of Ciceronianism in Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning, Cambridge, I905, pp. 145 -173. M. Tulli Ciceronis ad M. Brutum Orator, Cambridge, I885, pp. i-lxxiv. Scott, Izora, Controversies over the Imitation of Cicero, as a Model for Style, and Some Phases of their Influence on the Renaissance, New York, I9I0. Smith, Kirby Flower, Review of "Das Clauselgesets in Ciceros Reden" von Th. Zielinski, American Journal of Philology, 1904, pp. 453-463. 158 REBECCA SWITZER Stinner, Augustus, De eo quo Cicero in Epistolis usus est sermone, Oppeln, 1879. Tyrrell, Robert, Cicero in His Letters, London, 1907, pp. xv-c ii. Volkman, Richard, Die Rhetorik der Griechen und Rimer, Leipzig, 1874. Wilkins, A. S., M. Tulli Ciceronis de oratore libri tres, vol. I, Oxford, 1895, pp. I-72. Wolff, Iulius, De clausulis Ciceronianis, Leipzig, 190I. Zielinski, Th., Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte, Leipzig, 1912. OTHER WORKS CONSULTED Albalat, Antoine, La formation du style par l'assimilation des auteurs, Paris, 1912. Amador de los Rios, Jose, Historia critica de la literatura espanola, vols. VI and VII, Madrid, I865. Bell, Aubrey F. G., Juan Gines de Seputlveda, Oxford, 1925. Luis de Leon (A Study of the Spanish Renaissance), Oxford, 1925. Bonilla y San Martin, Adolfo, Luis Vives y la filosofia del Renacimiento, Madrid, 1903. Erasmo en Espaiia, Revue Hispanique, 1907, XVII, pp. 279-548. Brownell, George G., The Position of the Attributive Adjective in the "Don Quixote," New York, Paris, 1908. Burton, J. M., Honore de Balzac and His Figures of Speech, Princeton, 1921. Child, Clarence, John Lyly and Euphuism, Leipzig, 1894. Cooper, Frederic, Word Formation in the Roman Sermo Plebeius, New York, 1895. Croll and Clemons, Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit. Euphues and His England, New York, 1916. Cuervo, R. J., Diccionario de construccidn y regimen de la lengua castellana, 2 vols., Paris, 1886-1893. Faguet, ]mile, Seizieme sikcle, Paris, 1898. CICERONIAN STYLE IN FR. LUIS DE GRANADA 159 Henriquez Urefia, Pedro, Estudios sobre el Renacimiento en Espaia. El Maestro Herndn Perez de Oliva, La Habana, I914. Krapp, Geo. P., The Rise of English Literary Prose, New York, I9I5. Landmann, Friedrich, Der Euphuismus, sein Wesen, seine Quelle, seine Geschichte, Giessen, i88I. Menendez y Pelayo, M., Historia de las ideas esteticas en Espaia, 2 vols., Madrid, 1884-1890. Estudios de critica literaria, cuarta serie, Madrid, I907, PP. 350-478. Menendez Pidal, Ram6n, Antologia de prosistas castellanos, Madrid, 1923. Nebrija, Antonio de, Gramatica castellana, reproduction phototypique de l'edition princeps (1492), publiee avec une preface par E. Walberg, Halle a. S., 1909. Dictionarium ex sermone latino in Hispanien, Salamanca, 1492; Ibid., Matriti, 1790. Nettleship, Henry, Lectures and Essays, Second Series, Oxford, 1895. Ochoa, Eugenio de, Tesoro de los prosadores espaioles desde la formacion del romance castellano hasta fines del siglo XVIII, Paris, 1841. Perez de Oliva, Hernan, Las obras publicadas por Ambrosio de Morales, C6rdoba, 1584. Post, Chandler R., Mediaeval Spanish Allegory, Cambridge, 1915. Sanchez Moguel, Antonio, El lenguaje de Santa Teresa de Jesus, Madrid, 1915. Spingarn, Joel Elias, A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance, New York, I925. Valdes, Juan de, Didlogo de la lengua, Madrid, I919. Wilson, John Dover, John Lyly, Cambridge, 1905. Wilson, Thomas, Arte of Rhetorique (1560), ed. by G. H. Mair, Clarendon Press, I909. I VITA Rebecca Switzer, born in Granbury, Tex., July 22, I888; received elementary and secondary education in the preparatory department of Weatherford College, Weatherford, Tex., I893-I903; attended Switzer Woman's College (Junior), Itasca, Tex., I903-I905; attended the University of Texas, I906 -I907, I9I —I9II, and was graduated in I912 with the degree of Bachelor of Arts; graduate student at Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Tex., I9I7 — I918; at the University of Santiago, Chile, 1920; at the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina, I920; at the University of Texas, I92I and I925-1926; at Columbia University, I922, I924 (received degree of Master of Arts, I924) and I926-I927. Instructor in Latin and Spanish at the Alice High School, Alice, Tex., I907-I908; instructor in Latin at Switzer Woman's College, Itasca, Tex., I908-19I0 and I9II-I912; supervisor in Training School of the East Central State Normal, Ada, Okla., I912 -1913; instructor in Latin and Spanish at the Oak Cliff High School, Dallas, Texas, I913-1924 (on leave of absence to travel and study in South America, Jan. I920-Sept. I920); supervisor for modern languages in High Schools in the State Department of Education of Texas, summer of I918; instructor in Spanish at the University of Texas, S.S. 192I, S.S. 1923; professor of Spanish at the 161 162 REBECCA SWITZER Sul Ross State Teachers' College, Alpine, Tex., I924-I925; adjunct professor of Spanish at the University of Texas Junior College, San Antonio, Tex., I925-1926; instructor in Spanish in Columbia University Extension, I926-I927. Published bulletin, The Teaching of Modern Languages in Secondary Schools, for the Department of Education of Texas, I918. PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTO DE LAS ESPANAS 12 THE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION IsTnrTUTO e,Er$PAfA m.gN x^CApOS VUEDOW Center for the study of Spanish, Portuguese and Hispano-American culture, founded by the Institute of International Education the American Association of Teachers of Spanish, the Junta para Ampliaci6n de Estudios of the Spanish Ministry of Public Instruction, the Oficina de Relaciones Culturales Espaiolas of the Spanish Ministry of State, and several Spanish and American universities. GENERAL EXECUTIVE COUNCIL STEPHEN P. DUGGAN, Institute of International Education, Chairman Jost CAMPRUBf, Director de " La Prensa" RAFAEL DE CASARES, Consul General de Espafia JOHN L. GERIG, Department of Romance Languages, Columbia University H. C. 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