LEAVITT'S
Condensing and Moulding Mill
FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF
PEAT FUEL.
These machivnes are simple, compact, strong, and effectual for the
purpose required. As at present constructed, they possess important
improvements over those we have sold or had in use during the past
three years; and, as the result of persistent investigation and practical operation, are believed to embody, in the most simple manner
possible, all the essentials requisite for producing, from peat, the
best fuel, in the largest quantity, and at the least cost.
They are of two sizes; of the capacity of F'ifty Tons and
One HEundred  T9ons each, of crude peat, as taken from
the bog, per day of ten'hours.
The first produces
~Thir-ty Thousand Blocks peir Day,
weighing, in moist condition, as they come from the mill,
FIFqTY TONS,
and yielding a product of from twelve to twenty tons of dry fuel, at a
cost for labor of less than two dollars per ton.
Requires about six-horse power to operate it. Weight, 3700 lbs.
PRICE ONE THOUSAND DOLLARS.
The other produces
Sixty Thousand Blocks per Day,
weighing, in moist condition, as they come from the mill,
ON:E IHUNDhIED TONS,
and yielding a product of from twenty-five to forty tons of dry fuel,
at a cost for labor of less than two dollars per ton.
Requires about ten-horse power to operate it. Weight, 5000 lbs.
PRICE FIFTEEN HUNDRED DOLLARS.
These prices cover also, the right to use, free of any royalty
or extra charge under our Letters Patent; and also entitle the purchaser to the free use and benefit of any and all improvements upon
the machine which we may at any time hereafter devise.
The machines are boxed and shipped in such manner as to be
easily and safely transported to any part of the country.
(i)




ii     ~     Ri~VMAINUFACTURE OF PEAT FUEL.
Carefully prepared instructions, in detail, for setting up and run-.
ning, are sent with each machine, so that, with ordinary tact and
ability, they may be set up, and operations commenced, without difficulty or hinderance.
A set of machinery occupies a space of about four by fifteen feet,
requires about ten-horse power to run it, with twelve men, three.boys, and two horses, to cut the crude material from the bog, haul it
to the works, tend the engine and machinery, and place the wet blocks
of peat, as they come from the machine, on to the spreading-ground,
to dry.
The machine receives the crude peat just as it is taken from the
bog, condenses it, and, in a very few minutes, delivers it in the form
of bricks, which may then be exposed in the open air or under shelter, on the ground, or on a. flooring of boards, or on frames prepared
for the purpose, to dry and cure. The time ordinarily required, in
the summer season, for drying sufficiently to be housed, is about six
or eight days, though it varies from four to ten, according to the
weather.
The process is exceedingly simple, and the machinery equally so.
The original organization of the peat is entirely destroyed;. the air
(of which a large amount is contained in its cells) is ejected; advantage is taken of some of the natural properties of the material, and
the mass is condensed in its moist state; in which condition it is
formed into blocks of convenient size and shape, and delivered from
the machine to be exposed for drying, as before mentioned, in much
the same manner as bricks are exposed in a brick-yard.
The fuel prepared by this process is called condensed peat, in contradistinction to compressed peat; the material being absolutely condensed, without employing any very considerable pressure in the
process.
The buildings for sheltering the machinery and housing the fuel
should be located on dry ground, near to and by the side of the bog,
and may be of the most inexpensive character.
For one set.of machinery, with engine and boiler, a building twenty
by twenty feet is large enough; and, for each additional set of
machinery, ten feet in length should be added. The most desirable
location for this building is on a side-hill; so that, while the machinery is placed on the lower floor, the crude material may be easily
hauled to the level of the second floor, and there dumped by the
cart-load into the hopper prepared to receive it. The height between
floors in this building should be ten feet.
The other buildings required are simply for shelter of the fuel after
it is sufficiently dry to be housed; and their extent must, of course,
be regulated by the.amount manufactured.




MANUFACTURE OF PE4T FUEL.                    ii
The laborers employed, with the exception of an engineer, may be
of the least expensive class.
Peat varies in its character very materially in different localities;
but, as a general thing, we estimate that it is reduced in the process
of manufacture about two thirds to three quarters, both in weight
and bulk, according to the character or composition ofthe crude material, and the drainage of the meadow or bog from which it is cut.
Peat from a well-drained meadow, retaining, of course, less water in
the mass, is much more conveniently and economically manufactured
than that from a meadow which is constantly overflowed; and the
shrinkage, it will readily be understood, is less.
From the best peats we can, of course, produce a superior article
of hard, dry fuel; but an essential feature of our process is, that we
are able to produce, with equal ease, an excellent fuel from inferior
and comparatively worthless crude material.
The cost of one set of machinery, of 100 tons capacity, together
with the needful buildings, engine, boiler, shafting, &c., may be anywhere from $4000 to 6000, and the cost of an establishment with a
fifty ton machine, is ordinarily about a thousand dollars less.
One set of machinery turns out the material for twenty-five tons,
or more, of dry fuel per day, of value, at the present time, of $10
per ton, which is equal to $250 per day. The cost of labor to produce this is less than $2 per ton, to which may be added as much
more for cost of transportation to market, say, whole cost delivered
in market $4 per ton, and this shows a net gain of $150 on the
product of each day.
If, then, out of the season, which is from April to October, seven
months, we run only one hundred days, the gain will amount to
$15,000; or if one hundred and fifty days, it will amount to $22,500.
If, however, we reduce the price even as low as $6 per ton, the gain
in one hundred days will be $5000, or, in one hundred and fifty days,
it will be $7500; in either case it shows a business of no inconsiderable gain, especially when we take into consideration the small
amount of capital required to conduct it.
The cost, as above stated, is for the product of one set of machinery: but, where several machines are to be operated in one establishment, and the business is to be conducted on an extensive scale,
the cost pro rata will be very much reduced, as one man can easily
superintend several machines, the laborers generally can be employed
to better advantage, and numerous mechanical appliances to save
manual labor and expedite the operations, which it would not be advisable to construct where a single machine only was to be run, may
be economically introduced on more extensive works; and in this manner it is quite probable that the expense may be reduced to one dollar




iv-          MANUNFATURE OF PEAT FUEL.
and twenty,-five cents per ton, and some have estimated as low as one
dollar per ton. The profit of such an establishment will therefore
be largely in excess of smaller works.
We build machines only to order, and for this reason it is desirable
that parties wishing to, purchase should give their orders in ample
season, so as to avoid the possible delay which might otherwise
occur.
Our Works are at East Lexington, about ten miles from
Boston, and are freely open to inspection.
Cars leave the depot of the Fitchburg Railroad, in Boston, at 8.35,
A. M., 12, M., and 2.45, P. aM. Get out at Pierce's Bridge Station.
Returning, leave Lexington at 1.22, 3.40, and 6.10, P. M.
A full-sized machine can be seen in motion, in a building near our
oJice in Boston.
RIGHTS FOR TOWNS, COUNTIES, AND STATES FOR SALE.
LETAVITT & H1IUNNEWELL:L,
AGENTS FOR THE BOSTON PEAT CO.,
No. 49 Congress Street, Boston.
We are represented by
Messrs. PARDEE & BENEDICT, 31 Pine Street, New York;
ELISHA CONGDON, Esq., Chelsea, Michigan;
Messrs. DELAPLAINE, BURDICK & GRAY, Madison, Wis.; to either
of whom application may be made for information, or for the purchase of rights or machines.




A MIXED FUEL,
OF
EX=CELiLEXNT QUALITY,
IS PRODUCED
AT MODERATE COST,
FROM
COAL DTJST AND PEAT.
By a modification of our machinery for manufacturing Peat, we
are also enabled to accomplish most perfectly
The Utilization of Coal Dust!
an article which, it is well known, accumulates in very large quantities at the mines, in coal-yards and elsewhere, and is generally considered of little or no value.
For several years this matter has engaged the attention of Dr. H.
S. Lucas, of Chester, Mass., who has discovered and perfected a
process by which the desired result is obtained, and which is at once
so simple, inexpensive, and effectual, as to commend it to the considerate attention of consumers of fuel generally.
The coal dust is mingled and manufactured with Peat, in such
proportions and in such manner, as to produce a compound of great
strength and solidity, which burns more freely than coal, yields an
intense heat, cokes perfectly, and is pcculiarly well adapted for severe
steam service; also for the smelting of-ores, and the manufacture of
gas for iluzminatin9gpurposes.
Repeated experiments demonstrate these facts fully. The fuel is
manufactured at a cost, for labor, of less than one dollar per ton, after
the materials are at the works.
It is an ascertained fact of no little importance that salt water or
marinee peats are of value fully equal, and in some respects superior,
to inland peats, for this purpose.
The process and machinery by which this is accomplished are fully
secured by Letters Patent; the matter is in the hands of an association of business men, who fully comprehend the importance of these
inventions, as bearing upon the question of good fuel at low cost; and
the agency for the United States is in our hands.
We are prepared to give information, to negotiate for the sale of
rights, and to furnish machines.
U:E:AVITlT & EHtUTNW:IEL,
49  Congress Street, Boston.
Details concerning this fuel are given on page 277, of FACTS ABOUT PEAT.








LEAVITT'S PEAT JOURNAL:
A  NEWSlPAPERl,
DEVOTED ESPECIALLY TO THE DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION
RELATING TO
P E A T,
ITS PREPARATION AND USE
AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL,
AND GENERALLY TO ALL THAT PERTAINS TO
The Economical Production and Use of Fuel
OF ALL KINDS.
ISSUED:MO1NTEiLY,
BY
LEAVITT & HUNNEWELL,
49 Congress St., Boston.
PRICE FIFUTY CTs. PEB:R AN-tTTM.
For Sale by all Newsmen.












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IIIr                          I,~TT'4  4'                                       414
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-~~i II 14411____
LEAVIfTT'S LU CONDENSING AND MOULDING MILL.




FACTS ABOUT
PEAT
AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
WITH
REMARKS UPON ITS ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION, THE LOCALITIES IN
WHICH IT IS FOUND, THE METHODS OF PREPARATION AND
MANUFACTURE, AND THE VARIOUS USES TO WHICH
IT IS APPLICABLE; TOGETHER WITH MANY
OTHER MATTERS OF PRACTICAL AND
SCIENTIFIC INTEREST.
TO WHICH IS ADDED, A CHAPTER ON THE
UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST WITH PEAT,
FOR THE PRODUCTION OF AN EXCELLENT FUEL, AT MODERATE COST,
SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR STEAM SERVICE.
T. HI. LEAVITT.
THIRD EDITION,- REVISED AND ENLARGED.
BOSTON:
LEE  AND  S H EPARD.
1867.




Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by
T. HI. LEAVITT,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.
Stereotyped at the Boston Stereotype Foundry,
i Spring Lane.




CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION TO THIRD EDITION.......  7
PRELIMINARY REMARKS..                                                9
Importance attached to fire; its universal use; full value and influence
upon changes in nature; heat, light, and fuel essential to man; artificial
heat required in useful arts; its use as motive-power comparatively modern; influence of fuel upon the political power of a country; material
sources of heat; substances employed as fuel; fuel a source of wealth;
what substances are termed fuel; when inflammable fuels are required,
and how peat answers such requirements; wood, peat, and coal allied;
changes induced by physical effects; analogy existing between peat and
coal; vegetable origin;peat as fuel comparatively unknown; value of
peat not realized; aim of former manufacturers; numerous machines,
but no satisfactory method of manufacture; failure through lack of comprehension of nature of peat; popular error in manufacture of peat;
simplicity and cheapness of recent inventions; superiority of peat for
domestic and manufacturing purposes; peat for generating steam; can
compete in cost with coal; peat for railroads; every manufactory can
have its own peat-meadow, and the result of such ownership; Professor Emmons's remarks and opinions.
ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF PEAT..                                   20
What is it? color and consistency; natural history; theories of formation; peat in England, Ireland, Scotland, Germany, IIolland, and
France; area, depth, and quality; stratification with gravel, clay, shells,
&c.; opinions of Professor Dana, Macculloch, Williams, Sir James IHall,
Dr. Rennie, and others; "recent peat)' and " older peat;. " peat-meadows may be probed, and how; density; percentage of moisture; highly
inflammable; animal and vegetable remains found in peat-bogs; percentage of ash; odor fi'rom burning peat; peat peculiar to cold climates;
peat in England, Scotland, and France; Professor Lyell and Dr. Darwin
quoted; early mention of peat from various authorities; sweet and
wholesome fire for invalids.
METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL..        32
Primitive methods of cutting and preparing peat-fuel; peat-knife or
slane described; recent operations at Barnstable; peat sold in Boston;
"hand-peat " in Holland and Ireland; machines fobr cutting peat; dredging peat; best peat-cutter, and what it will accomplish; B. H. Paul on
"Tl'he Utilization of Peat;'" method in Scotland; methods of manufacture in Europe, devised by Williams, Codbold, Stones, Buckland, Hodgson, Gwynne & Co., Manuhardt, Exter, Versmann, Challeton, Siemens,
Weber, Gysser, Schlickensen, and others, comprising the weet process and
dry process; advantages and disadvantages of the two processes; methods of manuiacture in America; variety of presses and machines; description of works at Lexington, Mass., Pekin, N. Y., Bulstrode, C. WV.,
Belleville, N. J., comprising the Ashcroft & Betteley, Roberts, Hodges,
Elsberg, and Leavitt machines; estimates for putting up peat-works;
cost of labor to manufacture peat-fuel; data concerning peat-beds, and
results of observation from practical operations at the works of the
Boston Peat Co. at Lexington; method of working; yield of dry fuel;
specific gravity; weight per cord; quality improves *by age; should be
housed; drying peat; peculiarities; what is required; steady progress
is being made.
1                                  (1)




2                           CONTENTS.
PEAT.-CInARCOAL..69
Simple mode of carbonizing; advantage gained by coking; density
superior to best wood-charcoal; calorific power intense; specimens in
Great Exhibition at Paris inl 1851; peat and peat-charcoal used in Paris;
general principles of carbonizing the same in all countries; Professor
Johnson on its value and uses; comnparative value of charcoal from peat
manufactured by the dry and Beet processes, with tests; high heating
power; disinfecting and fertilizing qualities.
PEAT IN EUROPE..                                  73
Ireland; Mr. Griffith's description of bogs of Ireland; bog of Dourah;
how bog-timber is, found; s" The Bog of Allen;" extent of peat soil in
Ireland; value of amount cut, and importance'of peat in Ireland; Mr.
Aber quoted; forests overthrown and covered with peat; timber, coins,
arms, and utensils found in peat; forests destroyed; bog-iron ore.
PEAT IN  FRANCE....81
Peat-fuel for Paris market; where cut; quantity; value; peat-charcoal
and ashes; "best fuel the earth produces;" French treatise on peat;
uses of peat and charcoal; value of peat-ashes; estimates of the value of
peat-fuel by French engineers; consumption of fuel of all kinds in
France; its equivalent in peat; cost of working pig iron; economy of
peat for ell purposes; estimate of peat-fuel required for the entire locomotive service of France; bulk of peat-fuel; testimony of Supt. of R. R.
Engineers; density of peat-fuel.
PEAT IN  ITALY.. 87
Successful introduction of peat in the puddling of iron and steel; accomplished by the Siemens Gas Furnace; iron mines of Elba; amount
of pig iron produced.
PEAT ON TiE FALKLAND ISLANDS..88
Destitute of coal and wood; Teat is abundant.
PEAT IN NEW1FOUNDLAND......                                      88
Large quantities of good peat; the manuiacture of it commenced.
PEAT IN  NOYA  SCOTIA....88
Peat-bogs numerous; well decomposed and bituminous.,
PEAT IN ASIA.....89
Major Risley's account of "combustible mud;" tried on locomotive
at Cawnpore; compared with wood; cost; superstitions of the natives.
PEAT IN CANADA.....90
Location, character, and extent of deposi/s of peat; Mr. Hodges's operations; experiments on Grand Trunk R/R.; contract to furnish peat to
G. T. R. R. Co.; importance of the fuel question in Canada; estimate of
annual amount to be saved by the use of peat; government should aid
the peat-fuel enterprise; probabilities of sufficient supply; present suffering and privation for lack of cheap fuel; supply abundant; requires
only enterprise. and capital.
PEAT IN  MAINE....     101
Statements by Dr. Jackson; analysis; similarity to coal; theory of
its formation; superiority over wood and coal; abundant deposits;
localities; may be used for burning lime and for domestic purposes;
Campo Bello.
PEAT IN NEWr IHAMPSHIRE..                    103
Deposits numerous and of excellent quality; localities; prospects.
PEAT IN VERMONT.....                                              04
Peat-beds in all parts of the State; great depth; interesting peculiarities; localities; marl-beds; beaver works; remarkable discoveries;




CONTENTS.                               3
bones of elephants found in peat; peat suitable for gas; peat at great
elevation.
PEAT IN MASSACHUSETTS.                                           108
Dr. HIitchcock's statements and opinions; eighty thousand acres of
peat in the State; peat fever; localities; varieties of peat; peculiarities
of peat-beds; submerged forests; letter from Elias Phinney; peat-fuel
as compared with wood; formation of peat; when and how to cut and
cure; its value; Dr. Rennie on peat;.peat-water astringent and antiseptic; salubrity and healthfulness of peat-bogs; similarity of peat and
coal; similarity of origin.
PEAT IN  RHODE ISLAND.                                          117
Peat in nearly every town in the State; some of excellent quality, and
is to be worked for fuel; manufacturing interests promoted by it.
PEAT IN CONNECTICUT                                               118
Rich in deposits of peat; Professor Johnson's report; localities;
preparations for producing the fuel; its importance to manuficturiag
establishments and railroads.
PEAT -IN NEW  YORK.                                             120
Reports by Professor Mather, Mr. Vanuxemn, and Dr. Emmons; high
economical value of peatj extracts from reports; importance urged;
great body of heat; substitute for best Liverpool coal; how to test it;
where to find it; ranks next to coal for sustailing high temperature;
abundance and cheapness commend it to public attention; extended list
of localities; bones of the mastodon found in peat in several localities;
ostrich egg in peat; numerous peat-beds on Long Island; peat is an important item in the natural resources of wealth in the State.
PEAT IN NEW JERSEY.138
Deposits numerous; interest manifested; localities; marl beds; cedar
swamps, and what is found in them; great age of some of the trees;
peat very pure; large amount of timber raised from the swamps; used
for rails and shingles; immense bogs.
PEAT IN PENNSYLVANIA...                                          141
Peat-bogs are unripe beds of coal; interesting and valuable extracts
from Geological Report of the State; description of a very peculiar peatbog in Denmark; Dismal Swamp; the beautiful economy of nature; its
laws are simple; progress slow; results wonderful; remarkable bed of
lignite in Germany; another peculiar deposit in Denmark.
PEAT IN VIRGINIA... 146
The Great Dismal Swamp; peat companies to operate in it;" Bare Garden; " peculiarities of growth and formation; analyses of peats by Professors Johnson and Silliman; formation of these deposits; quality and
depth of peat; Dismal Swamp Canal; peculiarities of the wood, water,
and atmosphere of the swamp; choice timber; rich and pure peat; facilities for manufacture and shipment; area and depth; capital and enterprise attracted; sweet water; antiseptic properties.
PEAT IN OI-IO..                        156
Information wanted.
PEAT IN AMICHIGAN..                                              156
Letter fiom Professor Winchell; deposits numerous, deep, and of good
quality; importance of the subject to housekeeper, capitalist, and manufacturer; analyses; supply inexhaustible; operations commenced.
PEAT IN INDIANA.... 159
Thousands of acres of good quality; operations commenced; one bog
containing one hundred and eighty square miles of peat, forty feet deep;
ample supply along the lines of'railroads.




4                           CONTENTS.
PEAT  IN  ILLINOIS.161
Valuable deposits; supply of coal; consumption of coal; high cost of
coal; importance of the fuel question; peat and its uses for domestic
purposes, manufacturing and locomotive service; advantages to result
from the introduction of peat-fuel; " cheap fuel" will make Chicago a
great manufacturing city; explorations and anticipations.
PEAT IN  WISCONSIN.                                                164
Peat is abundant; wood and coal scarce; characteristics of peat-beds
in this region; Dr. Hayes's report on Wisconsin peat; calorific power
and illuminating properties; the "Northern Farmer" on peat; important source of wealth; more valuable than coal; cost of manufacture;
saves the timber; worthless marsh lands are now valuable as coal-beds;
money and enterprise are invited.
PEAT IN IOWA.168
Importance of the subject; State Geologist is investigating; lack of
fuel is a great hinderance to the settlement of the State; peat offers to.
remedy the difficulty; letter from Dr. White, State Geologist; formation of peat; its value; successful method and machinery for preparing
it; lack of timber and coal; explorations for peat to be continued.
PEAT IN MINNESOTA.. 170
What the " St. Paul Press" says; exhaustless deposits of peat in every
Northern State; Minnesota "beats all creation " on peat; peat and petroleum; peat machines; green bass-wood at eight dollars per cord, and
a hint to " enterprising citizens."
KANSAS, NEBRASKA, COLORADO, UTAH, AND NEVADA   173
Rumors and reports of extensive peat deposits; government orders to
explore, investigate, and report.
PEAT IN  CALIFORNIA..........   173
Tula marshes identical with peat; inquiries instituted.
PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.                                  173
Peat can be used economically and profitably; early experience with
coal; peat has been successfully employed in-England, France, Italy,
Bohemia, Bavaria, Westphalia, Wurtemberg, and elsewhere; peat-coke
is of greater value than best wood-charcoal. Peat preferable for welding,
fine iron work, &c.; can be used in puddling and reverberatory furnaces
and forges, and in blast furnaces; comparative heating power; advantage gained by condensing peat; particulars concerning the use of peat
in iron works at Konigsbronn, Ichoux, Ransko, Schlackenwerth, Weiherhammer, Magdeberg, Nerecia, and in Italy; comparative cost and
results; importance of the subject to France, Germany, and Sweden;
extracts from published statements; iron made with peat charcoal will
not splinter; peat used in smelting lead; gas furnaces for the treatment
of metals and glass; description of the Siemens Regenerative Gas Furnace, and the practicability of employing peat and other cheap fuels in
it; advantages to accrue to certain sections from the'adoption of this
process; establishments now using it; W. E. Newton before Soc. of
Arts; experiments and results; D. K. Clark, C. EI., before Brit. Asso.;
further experiments, results, and opinions; iron metallurgists are agreed;
tests in Sweden and Germany, at Bolton and Horwich; reports of Mr.
Sanderson of Sheffield, Mr. Fothergill of Oldharn, Messrs. Brown and
Lennox, Professor Emmons, Mr. McDougall, Mr. Campbell, Professor
Johnson, and Lond. Mech. Mag., embodying tests, experiments, opinions, and results; economical use of peat; peat in Austria in puddling,
reheating, and blast furnaces.
PEAT AS APPLIED  FOR GENERATING  STEAM...  198
LUse of peat on steamers; Mr. Wrilliams's patents; peat for fireworks,




CONTENTS.                                5
and for softening steel; Mr. Brunton, Mr. Paul, and Professor Emmons; statements and illustrations; Mr. Nursey before Soc. of Engineers, on English coal fields; deposits of peat in Great Britain and Ireland; cost of peat-fuel; qualities superior to coal; experiments on
steamboat and locomotive, in smelting iron, in puddling furnace, and for
producing gas; Lou lnd   i. h.  ag.; statements and opinions;  peat is the
only fuel for locomotives in South Bavaria; used on an English railway; test at the Horwich works; trial on Paris and Lyons R. R.; no
smoke, much gas, constant flame; advantages of peat for steam-fuel
enumerated; saving of grate-bars and furnaces; trials by Nar. Brick
Co. on N. Y. Central, Hartford, and Spr., Hud. River, Eastern, and Vt.
Central, and Grand Trunk railroads, with details of cost and results;
trials at East Boston and Lowell; the fuel is proved to be "good;"
" the people have to learn how to use it."
PEAT FOR  DOMESTIC  PURPOSES....      218
Importance of observing howo to use it; methods and appliances for
using it economically and advantageously; statements and opinions;
peat used in Boston and vicinity; peat for kindling; peat sold in boxes
like wood, and in bulk like coal.
INTENSITY  OF HEAT  GENERATED  BY PEAT.-...  221
Intense heating properties are of special importance; comparative
composition of fuels; comparative importance of qucantity and intensity
of heat; reasons fob converting coal into coke, and wood into charcoal.
How TO USE PEAT                                                    223
Peats- differ in quality and characteristics in same manner as woods
and coals; stoves, furnaces, grates, drafts, &c., to be adapted; appliances required are simple; for locomotives and stationary engines;
use of fuel dry and partially dried; progress of economy in the use of
fuels generally.
GAS FROM PEAT                                                      230
Tested in Europe; yield equal to coal; brilliancy and power superior;
early experiments; gas furnaces for iron in France, Germany, Prussia,
and Sweden; used at Dartmoor prison; high illuminating power of
peat gas and peat oil compared with coal gas; statements by Mr. Paul,
Mr. Keats, Mr. Brunton, Mr. Versmann, and Professor Emmons; advantages of peat for gas; importance for gas second only to coal for
fuel; tests by Dr. Hayes; experiments at Portland, Utica, Lansingburg, &c.; retorts for producing it; quantity, density, and illunmnatiug
power as compared with gas from coal.
PEAT IN GUNPOWDER AND FIREWORKS.                                  239
Superior to charcoal from dog-wood and alder; combustion more instantaneous and perfect; used in Europe for brilliant colored fires.
CHEMIICAL PRODUCTS FROM THE DISTILLATION OF PEAT   240
Statements by Lord Ashley in 1849; tests by Dr. Hodges; estimate
by Coffey & Sons, for producing on a large scale; expenditures and
returns; Professor Brande's opinions; products of destructive distillation; bleaching properties of peat-charcoal; Irish Peat Company's bperations; B. H. Paul on the manufacture of hydro-carbon oils, paraffine,
&c., from peat; analine colors and paraffine candles from peat.
ANALYSES AND  PROPERTIES OF PEAT..            247
Ultimate elements; chemical products; ieports of analyses; contents
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen; percentage of ashes; specific
gravity and composition of peat ashes; methods of analyses and distillation; water, tar, charcoal, gas; ammonia, acetic acid, naphtha, paraffine,
oils; products estimated by the Irish Peat Company; heating power of
peat-turf (not condensed) and peat-charcoal; relative calorific power, by




6                           CONTENTS.
the " Litharge test;" peat coke compared with coal coke; lead melted
and water heated; specific gravity of peats; peat coke superior to charcoal; calorific value or power of peat coke equal to coal coke - evaporating powers of the two nearly equal; freedom from sulphur; decided
superiority for working iron, brass, and copper.
TESTS, EXPERIMENTS, AND TESTIMONY... 261
Statements concerning trials of peat-fuel; the practicability of using
it; relative value and heating power; purposes for which it may be easily,
effectually, and economically used; statements and opinions of practical
and scientific men; miscellaneous tests and statements; peat-charcoal,
its density and calorific power; working iron; generating steam; for
domestic purposes; intensity of heating power; how to use peat; appliances for burning peat; gas from peat; gunpowder and fireworks; chemical products; analyses and properties; specific gravity of peat and peat
charcoal; how to compare peat with other fuels.
PEAT FOR PAVEMENTS...                                            263
How prepared with carbonate of lime and coal tar; resembles asphalt.
PAPER FROM PEAT.                                                  263
Experiments in France and America.
PEAT FOR BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL WORK.. 264
How prepared; used for ornamental work on buildings, for toys, fancy
articles, rings, and jewelry; resembles India-rubber.
PEAT FOR TANNING LEATHER.                                         265
Said to possess properties valuable for this purpose.
ANTISEPTIC  PROPERTIES OF PEAT.                                  266
Remarkable cases of the preservation of human bodies, animals, &c.,
in peat; quotations from Dr. Rennie and Professor Lyell.
PEAT AS A DISINFECTANT AND DEODORIZING AGENT 269
Properties well known; " Chemical Deodorizing Powder" nothing but
peat; " it is really the abater of every nuisance."
PEAT AS A FERTILIZER.......    270
Its value to agricultural interests; ingredients, qualities, and properties; analyses; weight, compositon, and comparative value.
ASHES OF PEAT........                                           274
Value, use, and composition; used for cement and polishing powder.
CONCLUSIONS............. 274
The subject is of sufficient importance to command earnest attention
from the business man and the philanthropist.
AUTHORITIES QUOTED.2.... 275
UTILIZATION  OF COAL DUST WITH  PEAT....  277
A compound fuel of excellent quality, produced at moderate cost, and
specially adapted for steam service; method and cost of manufacture;
facilities for producing it along the lines of railroad; saving in cost of
fuel; report of experiments on Western Railroad; results and conclusions; importance of this invention to mining and gas companies.
APPENDIX........  287
Mainly devoted to extracts from newspapers from all sections of the
country, embracing a great variety of statements and observations, of no
less interest and importance than those contained in the body of the work,
and equally worthy of careful perusal and consideration.




INTRODUCTION
TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION.
THE favor with which the two former editions of this
compilation of facts were received, far exceeded our
anticipations.
That they have been extensively read, we have abindant evidence, from the universal interest which has
suddenly been excited upon the subject throughout the
whole country, more especially in the Northern States
and Canada, and the demonstrations which are now
being made, in numerous places, for the manufacture
of peat-fuel the cohming season, on an extensive scale.
That this will have an important bearing upon the
prices of fuel generally, and especially upon the
monopolies in the coal trade, none can question;
while as a legitimate business, claiming attention
through a region of country far exceeding in extent
our coal-fields, it gives promise of success to a degree
rarely apparent at so early a stage in any enterprise,and for the one prominent reason above all others, that
the people have a common interest in it.
The work is. now revised and enlarged for the second
(7)




8                 INTRODUCTION.
time; and extracts from, numerous articles, mostly
from  papers published in different sections of the
country, showing more clearly than could be done
from any other source the widely extended interest
felt in the subject, and. the views entertained in all
parts of the country concerning it; many of which contain valuable information of either general or local
interest, are added in an Appendix.
Thus far, comparatively few experiments, of which
we have any accurate reports, have been made with
peat-fuel in this country; but the present year will
doubtless witness many; and we shall esteem it a
favor to be informed of such, as much in detail as
practicable, with a view to incorporating them in our
next edition, or giving them earlier publicity in some
other form.
T. H. L.
BOsToN, March, 1867.




PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
THE importance which in every age, from the earliest period of human existence, must have been attached
to fire, and the necessity which has ever impelled mankind to provide for it, not so much for purposes of
luxury as an absolute essential to enable them to counteract the effects of climate, and other external influences
which affect the human frame, are sufficient, apart from
any Qther considerations, to impress every one with a
sense of its usefulness."
Nations, however rude or barbarous, have always
made use of fire as a. source of comfort or luxury, as a
means of preservation, or as a destructive agent.  The
history of its application in relation to these three objects
would go far towards illustrating a comprehensive view
of the advance of civilization.
It is not in reference to these primary applications,
however, that the full value of fire, or the extent of its
influence, will be understood, but only when it is studied in connection with the various natural and artificial
transformations of matter which it tends to produce.
Not only do the attributes of fire exert a gigantic
influence in the various social requirements, but in the
most minute, as well as the most elaborate, changes
which take place in nature.
(9)




10        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Heat and light, indeed, seem to be the life-giving
principles of the material world, and are not less essential to man in subduing matter to his service.
Some kind of fuel has always been an article of prime
necessity to man; at least from the time when he began
to prepare his food by the heat of fire, or had learned
to prize its comfortable warmth in the cold of winter.
As experience was gained in the properties and uses
of materials about him, the applications of fuel to supply his increased wants were multiplied.
By means of it, clay was converted into better bricks
than those baked in the sun; limestone was burned for
cement; and the ores were made to give up the valua,ble metals which they held concealed with a grip so fast
that nought but fire could disengage or reveal them;
and the subsequent treatment of these for obtaining the
articles they were fitted to produce was also wholly dependent on the use of fuel.
So, from the fruits of the field were obtained, by
various processes, alike dependent on the combustion
of fuel, new products, the continued preparation of
which, in many cases, adds not a little to their value.
Indeed, most of the operations in the useful arts require,
directly or indirectly, the application of artificial heat.
But the comparatively modern discovery of its being
the most available source of motive-power, has given to
it a new importance, hardly inferior to that derived from
its other uses, causing it to contribute more than all other
resources of nations to their wealth and prosperity.
It may be said that the political power of the United
States, Great Britain, France, or any other civilized
country, is due, not so much to their armies or navies
-for these are defensive, not productive - as to the
great development of their manufactures; and these are




PRELIMINARIY IREMARKS.             11
in great measure dependent upon an abundant supply
of fuel, easily procurable, and at cheap rates.
The means of obtaining this, then, are of chief importance in every manufacture; and the questions of its
supply, preparation, and most economical application,
are of the highest interest.
Amnong the material sources of heat, all the substances chemically termed comnbustible may be regarded
as particular kinds of fuel, although the name is usually
restricted to organic products of ligneous origin, such
as woody matters, peat, coal, and the like.
The substances usually employed as fuel are wood,
peat, and coal, either in their natural state, or modified
by peculiar treatment.
The abundance of all or either of these in a country
must always constitute a principal source of its wealth,
more especially since steam has become the movingpower of. manufacturing industry, as well as the great
agent in locomotion.
It is evident, therefore, that none of the productions
of nature should be more carefully husbanded than those
which can be used for fuel.
Every attempt also to improve the quality of inferior
materials, so as to increase their efficiency as heat-producers, and consequently their value, should be liberally
encouraged.
The term  " fuel" is commonly applied only to substances originally derived from the growth of plants,
as wood, peat, charcoal, coke, and the various kinds of
mineral coal. Even thus limited, it might ploperly include the inflammable gases and oils, which are used
of late for the sake of the heat generated by their combustion.
For objects requiring a quick heat, and at the same




12        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
time diffused over a considerable space, the most inflammable fuels are found most efficient.
The results of numerous experiments, practical as
well as scientific, go to show that peat, in its rudely
prepared state, goes far towards answering these requirements; and, when solidified, it is for most purposes superior.
Wood, peat, and coal, though so different in physical
appearance, are, nevertheless, very- closely allied in
composition; all the three being chiefly composed of
ligneous fibre, a compound of four simple elements
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen.
Physical effects have induced certain changes in some
kinds of peat and coal, which cause them to differ considerably in their properties from woody fibre; but, by
observing the action which analogous artificial agencies
exert upon the latter, a remarkable coincidence is observed; and sufficient data are found for inferring that
woody fibre is the basis of these substances; although,
in the course of time,.they have passed through various
chemical transformations, differing in some particulars,
according to locality, temperature, &c.
The analogy which exists between peat and coal is,
perhaps, more readily perceived; and it may reasonably
be inferred that coal, like peat, has been produced by
the decomposition of species of organic growth. All
who have given attention to the composition of the two
substances, and the geological positions occupied by
each, seem to concur in this view of the subject.
It may be said that the process which has operated to
convert countless reproductions of plants into peat-bogs
has been similar in the case of coals, to some extent;
but, geologically considered, it is evident that the oldest
peat-deposits are of modern formation, when compared
to the most recent beds of coal.




PRELIMINARY REMARKS.              13
Of the vegetable origin of the former no doubt can be
entertained: it is apparent to the most casual observer.
Of a like origin of the latter there can be no more
doubt, since, among other indications, large masses of
vegetable forms, and even trees, have been found in
their natural positions, converted into coal; and, in the
more compact varieties, the microscope has revealed
conclusively a similar origin.
We do not propose to follow this portion of our subject, interesting as it is; but, leaving geologists to discuss and settle disputed points as best they may, and
referring our readers to papers ad infinitum,  which
have been published upon the subject, we shall take it
for granted that peat had an origin; that it exists, and
is " good," and apply ourselves to practical matters concerning it.
Of peat as an article of fuel, comparatively little is
really known in this country; although in numerous
places in the Northern States, especially in the New
England States, it is now, and has been for many
years, used to a limited extent, in its crude state, and
highly esteemed for domestic purposes. The writer,
during a series of inquiries and investigations on the
subject, has often been amused at the warm  interest
manifested by some honest old farmer, as he gave a
glowing account of the comforts of a rousing peat fire
on a stinging cold night.  When properly cured, it
burns freely, gives a steady and intense heat, and the
uniform testimony of those who use it bears witness to
its superiority in many respects.
Of wood and coal, in all their variety, the manner
of preparation, and use as fuel for domestic and manufacturing purposes, the community may be said to need
no information: their use is so common and universal




14        FEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
that all have constant practical experience of their nature and value.
Not so with peat: it is by no means so generally
used. Its value may be said to be unknown; and even
those who have used it, in its crude state, do not appear
to realize the increased value it would possess, and the
extent to which it might be used, especially for manufacturing purposes, if properly prepared, and placed in
the market.
We have, then, to treat of it, to some extent, as a
new article; and, without in any wise attempting or
pretending to offer all that might be said of it, it will
be our aim to give briefly such facts in regard to it as
have come under our own observation, or which we
have been able to gather from a variety of sources, and
that with a view to interest the community-in the development and use of those rich resources of fuel which
lie about us, in quantities sufficient for the demands of
ages, and which require only ordinary enterprise and
skill, with moderate means, to develop.
There has been comparatively little published in this
country upon the subject; and the experiments made,
and the results realized, have not been so scientifically
conducted, nor so accurately reported, as in Europe.
]Much has been done in both countries to demonstrate
its properties and value; and it seems to have been a
common aim of all who have undertaken its manufacture or use, to condense and solidify it, and put it in
merchantable shape.
The number and variety of machines and devices
which have been invented, patented, or attempted to be
used, for these purposes, are astonishing; and, although
all have agreed that such results were practicable, few
have actually arrived at anything like a satisfactory




PRELIMINARY REMARKS.                15
method of preparing it; and none, until recently, so
far as we are aware, have arrived at that complete success which is essential to the profitable and universal
introduction of an article of this character.
It is now apparent that most of the attempts referred
to have failed of success from the fact that the nature
of the article was not comprehended; and the principle
generally started upon, to wit, that it could be condensed and produced in good merchantable shape by
means of powerful pressure, applied in one form or
another, was wrong. This will hardly be credited; but
facts prove it to be the case.
Peat is a curious substance, possessing peculiarities
of a very interesting character, some of which will appear as we progress in these pages.  The fact that it is
exceedingly elastic, presenting in this respect some of
the characteristics of India-rubber or gutta-percha, and
also that it is remarkably tenacious of water, will account to some extent for the impossibility of producing,
by pressure alone, a solid, dry substance.
A process has, however, recently been discovered and
applied, by which peat may be converted into a solid,
dry fuel, in good' shape, in large quantities, and at
moderate cost.  It is demonstrated, beyond a question,
to be a perfect success.
The machinery is exceedingly simple in its construction and operation, and is by no means expensive when
compared with the amount and value of the fuel produced by it.  It is now being extensively introduced in
various sections of the country. Like most inventions
of the present day, it has been patented; but it is the
aim of the parties having the control of the matter to
encourage and stimulate the manufacture of the article;
and to this end they are granting the right to work




16        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL-.
under their patents, and furnishing the necessary mnachinery and instructions, at rates which are within the
reach of any enterprising man.
Of the purposes to which peat as a fuel can be applied, and the manner in which it can be used, the
range is as wide as for wood or coal, or both.
For domestic purposes, - as the heating of dwellings,
whether by furnace, or any of the innumerable varieties
of stoves, or the open grate,- it is equal, if not superior, to wood or coal of any kind, save only the fact that
it requires, in most cases, to be replenished more frequently than coal; but it gives a more steady, intense,
yet mellow and agreeable, heat than any other fuel. In
open grates, as a substitute for cannel coal, it is admirable, and produces the most cheerful fire imaginable.
In manufacturing and mechanical establishments-it is
available wherever fuel is required, and for many purposes possesses characteristics which render it decidedly
superior; as, for instance, the production of iron and
steel, and the working and manufacture of them, where
the simple fact of the entire, absence of sulphur, or any
substance prejudicial to the quality of the metal, is a
consideration of immense value.
For generating steam, it is, when solidified, second
to no other fuel, and superior to most. It ignites freely,
burns with considerable flame, gives an intense heat,
and leaves no residuum, except a fine, light ash, which
passes off freely, and leaves the grate-bars always free
and clear, - a consideration which will be readily appreciated by ally fireman or engineer who has had a single
day's experience with the dross and clinker which is
inevitable where coal is used.
A mass of facts have fiom time to time been published, which go to prove the truth of these statements;




PRELIMINARY REMARKS.               17
and the few which we shall be able to give in these
pages, and the authorities to which we shall make reference, will, we think, satisfy even the most sceptical
that the subject is at least worthy of investigation and
experiment.
If, then, we have at our own doors an article of fuel
equal or superior to that which we now bring from a
great distance, and upon which we are, and for many
years have been, mainly dependent, is it not apparent
that an immense field for enterprise is open to us, even
though the actual gain were confined to the single item
of cost of transportation saved? But it is probably true,
that, in ordinary times, peat can be excavated, prepared,
and cured ready for use, at less cost than coal can be
mined and prepared for shipment.
Through a very large portion of the territory of the
Northern States, the deposits of peat are so freely distributed that it would probably average as near a market or place of consumption as does the ordinary supply
of wood now used for domestic purposes.
For the supply of iron-works, machine-shops, and
manufacturing establishments, whether for the purpose
of working the metals or generating steam for power,
it will, in most cases, be found that deposits of peat lie
within a short distance of the place of consumption;
and, for some of our largest establishments, requiring
immense amounts of fuel, it is known that supplies of
an extent equal to their requirements for many years, lie
almost at their doors.
So, too, for our railroads peat is the fuel; it is easily
handled, ignites almost instantly, burns freely, leaving
no residuum excepting light ashes, so that the gratebars are always clean, and generates steam in a manner
to charm the most exacting engineer.
2




18        PlEAT -AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
There are, along the line of every railroad in New
England, deposits of excellent peat, equal to their requirements for years to come; and it would seem more
than probable, in view of all these facts, that, within a
very short time, many of our manufacturing establishments, and all' our railroads, will have each their own
peat-meadow and fuel-factory; the practical results of
which will be, as relates to manufacturing establishments, either a reduction in cost to the consumer of the
articles and fabrics produced, or increased dividends to
stockholders, or both; as relates to metals, and the
various articles into which they are manufactured, superior quality, temper, &c., and a consequent increase
of value, without increase of cost; and as relates to
steam-power for transportation by land or water, a diminution of cost, which may inure, by the reduction of
rates, to the benefit of the travelling and commercial
interests, or, without reduction of rates, to the gain of
stockholders; or, by such management as may be most
reasonably anticipated, the results would, in all probability, prove favorable to the interests of all concerned.
The subject of peat-fuel will also be found to be of
vital interest to numerous mining companies, from this
fact, if from no other, that, in many cases where the
yield of ores is large and rich, the scarcity, and consequent high cost, of wood or coal for smelting purposes,
is such as to preclude the possibility of working them
at a profit, the expense for fuel being actually, in some
cases, more than the value of the metals produced.
Cases similar to the above have already come to our
knowledge, where, upon examination, abundant deposits of peat have been found in close proximity to mines
so situated, and which, but for this, must inevitably
have been abandoned.




PRELIMINARY REMARKS.              19
Prof. Emmons remarks, "There is one consideration
which commends itself to the philanthropic of all our'
large cities; viz., the introduction of peat as a fuel to
supply the necessities of the poor.  It is believed that
much suffering may be prevented and much comfort
promoted by the use of peat in all places where fuel is
expensive, as in New York and Albany.  A careful
examination, therefore, of places favorable to the production of this substance is a matter of some considerable importance, as it is the next best substitute for the
more expensive article, coal; and anything for fuel
which will save a further destruction of the forests, both
in New York  and the New England States, is worthy
of adoption, from more considerations than one. A due
proportion of woodland to that under tillage adds greatly
to the beauty of any district of country; but, above
all, the preservation of timber-lands is becoming a matter of great moment, and calls for legislative aid and
encouragement."  He adds, "We have, therefore, in
this homely substance of peat, an invaluable article, of
which prejudice alone can prevent a general use."
Without further preliminaries, we will proceed to
give, briefly, some of the *theories or probabilities as to
the origin and formation of peat, the localities in which
it is found, the principal varieties, some of the methods
by which it has been prepared, others, perhaps, which
have been attempted, some facts as to the manner in
which it has been used, and the purposes for which it
has been used, with such other incidental matters of
scientific or practical interest pertaining to the subject
as may have come to our knowledge, together with such
reference t6 published information as will enable any so
disposed to pursue the subject to an extent beyond the
limited space which it is our purpose to devote to it.




20        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF PEAT.
Peat is the spongy substance, found in almost every
country, filling up cavities in the surface, and constituting what is termed bog.
It varies in color from light brown to black, and in
consistency from that of a bran paste to that of clay in
the bank.
The natural history of peat has puzzled inquirers a
great deal; and explanations of its origin, hardly less
discordant than those recorded on the subject of fossil
coal, have been entertained and defended. It is unquestionably of vegetable origin, and is the result of
decomposition to a certain stage, modified or affected by
the agency of air, water, temperature, time, and pressure. It was once supposed that this formation was, in
point of time, coeval with the disposition of the face
of the country into hills and valleys.  By some it was
considered a bituminous deposit from  the sea, —the
wreck of floating islands previous to the great convulsions which the earth underwent during the formation
of the present continents and islands.
By others it was even regarded as an organic substance in a state of vitality, and actually growing; but
these, and many other notions and theories at times
entertained, are abandoned, and more rational and
philosophical views of its nature and production are
adopted.
It is found, on examination, to be composed of vegetable matters, generally mosses and species of aquatic
plants, in different stages of decomposition; and from
this circumstance, as well as from the general appear



ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF PEAT.        21
ance of the localities where peat abounds, its formation
is generally accounted for somewhat as follows:Where 1pools of water collect, the soil under which is
retentive, the water, not being absorbed, stagnates, and,
provided the surface evaporation is not great, forms a
pond. Around the borders of this pond various kinds
of aquatic plants - sedges, rushes, &c. -soon make
their appearance, and, by reproduction, gradually creep
in towards the centre, until the whole surface becomes
covered.  In process of time, when several races of
these have succeeded one another, and mud and slime
have accumulated at the roots and around the decaying
stems, a spongy mass results, which is well calculated
for the propagation of mosses.
Under a constant supply of moisture, these various
species thrive, continue to luxuriate, and, by progressive growth, ultimately give rise to a composition in
every respect similar to that constituting the various
peat-bogs.
That some such natural process has been the cause
of the production of peat, appears firom its composition,
and the localities in which it is found. These are chiefly
in the temperate zones, where evaporation is slow, and
the atmosphere is generally more or less saturated with
humidity.
It may be conceived, that, in the origin of these formations, the retention of the water, whether from rain
or springs, in extensive basins, led at first to the development of vegetable growth in the manner above
indicated; and that, the necessary moisture being supplied in abundance, the accumulation became so rapid,
that ultimately the surface assumed the appearance of
land; and, as decomposition proceeded, a degree of




22        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
solidity was given to the mass, equal to the support
of denser bodies, such as shrubby plants.
It would appear that this organic growth was rarely
restricted to the original basin, but that, as it accumulated, it spread over adjacent land, which in time became
a morass.
Evidence conclusive of this exists in the fact, that
whole forests of almost every description, such as oaks,
firs, ash, birch, yew, willow, &c., have been overwhelmed in its gradual but steady advancement, and
are found in all positions at the bottom of peat-bogs.
Generally this formation is met with in climates of a
moist nature, in level countries, where imperfect natural
drainage exists; although it is found in considerable
beds in upland districts.
In mountainous districts, in addition to the imperviousness of the rock to the moisture, the constant formation of clouds upon those elevated regions favors the
growth of the mosses and plants, the decomposition of
which contributes to the increase annually of these
deposits.
In America, peat is rarely found in these elevated
positions, and then only in small quantities: but in
Great Britain, and on the Continent, the deposits are
numerous and extensive; and, as a general thihg, they
are esteemed of superior quality for fuel. Instances
of this kind are frequent in Ireland, Scotland, Northern
Germany, and Holland, while others are found high up
the Alps, in the Vosges and in the Jura.
The extent and depth of the peat-bogs vary considerably in the different countries where they are found, and
seem to depend upon circumstances quite distinct from
each other.




ORIGIN AND CO~IMPOSITION OF PEAT.        23
It is evident that the area which they may occupy is
intimately connected with the distribution of water.
Their depth in this country varies, generally, so far
as we are able to learn, from one to twenty feet:
though, in some instances, it is reported to be twenty,
thirty, fifty, and even eighty feet; but an average of
the depth of what may be considered our peat regions
would probably be not far from five or six feet.
The morasses of Holland and Germany are, to a
considerable extent, about six feet deep, as are likewise those in upland situations; while many of the
peat-bogs of Ireland are from thirty to forty feet in
depth; and peat-banks of solid black fuel are exposed
in some localities to a corresponding height.
On intersecting these deposits, whatever their thickness, it appears, from the fact of layers of gravel, clay,
shells, &c., being interposed horizontally, that, in many
cases, these tracts have been swept over with currents
of water more or less violent: such layers, however,
are never more than a few feet in thickness, and seem to
have retained all the conditions favorable for the continued growth of the plants conducive to the formation
of peat.
From its physical constitution, this substance may be
regarded as a kind of fossil fuel; and undoubtedly it is
one of the most extensive sources of fuel known.
A writer in the "New American Cyclopaedia" says,
"The dense, compact peat appears to represent the first
step in the progressive changes from vegetable substances to mineral coal."
Dana says, "Peat is sometimes entirely converted
into coal."
Sir James Hall says, "I have always looked upon




24        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
the peat of the Old NWTorld as one of the principal sources
of our coal."
Dr. Macculloch, from his researches, determined that
peat is intermediate between simple vegetable matter
and lignite; the conversion of peat to lignite being
gradual, and being brought about in a great lapse of
time by the prolonged action of water.
Many bodies are detected in peat, however, which
are not contained in coal; although the ultimate elements of both are the same.
Viewing it as the product of the decomposition of
plants, carried on through a long succession of ages up
to the present time, it is natural to expect, that, when
cut vertically, differences should appear.
Mr. Williams remarks, "I have seen strata of coal
that bore all imaginable marks of being composed of
wood: the color, the quality, the stratification, the
manner of burning, the ashes, and everything else,
looked like peat."
Dana says, "In temperate climates, it is due mainly
to the growth of mosses of the genus sphagnum.  This
plant forms a loose turf, and has the peculiar property
of dying at the extremity of the roots below, while it
continually grows and increases above the surface; and
by this process a bed of great thickness is gradually
formed."
Dr. Rennie says, "No living animal exists in peat;"
showing the advanced state of decomposition.
In almost every instance, this progressive change is
exhibited; and, consequently, peat is classed by some
authorities into recent peat and older peat, from  the
appearance it presents.
The former bears distinctive traces of its origin in the




ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF:PEAT.         25
roots, leaves, and stems of plants, the structure of -which
is still retained.
It is very porous, tough, and elastic in some tracts,
but in others, especially where the bog is -well drained,
very brittle.
The color varies, with the character of the vegetable
growth, the age, and the progress of the decomposition,
from a light brown to black.
The latter or "older peat," to which the preceding
gradually inclines, shows few traces of fibrous matters,
such as roots, stems, or leaves; but it presents, when
cut, a pitchy, shining hue, and is dense and fine in the
grain.
Preference has always been accorded to this as a fuel,
from its superior gravity, and the greater heat which it
produces when undergoing combustion.
From the change which the vegetable substances pass
through, it is evident that the usual process of putrefaction is carried on in the ordinary way, at the commencement; but as the surface grows, and contact with the
air is cut off, the mass is left to the play of the affinity
of its elements, rendered more active by the steadily
increasing pressure which it has to sustain.
The occurrence of peat is frequently indicated by the
growth of dwarfish evergreens and rank swamp herbage,
and by the elasticity of the crust which supports them.
Dr. Rennie remarks, "Though all peat-moss be of
vegetable origin, yet the situations in which it is formed,
the plants of which it is composed, and the state in which
it is found, being different, it is reasonable to expect
that one moss should differ from another in its appearance, qualities, and the uses to which it may be made
subservient.  This difference may be detected by the
naked eye, whether the moss be in the pit, or dug and




26        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
dried, or burning, or redluced to ashes.  The various
colors that substance assumes, and the external appearance of it, mark the difference.  Some are of a bright
yellow color; others brown, or jet black: some are
composed of a congeries of vegetables in an organized
state; in others, few or no traces of organization can
be seen.  Clay, sand, and shells may be detected in
some; in others, no such mixture can be discovered.
Some are soft and greasy like butter, and form a hard,
brittle, tenacious peat, almost like coal; others are loose
and friable like mould. The water squeezed out of one
moss is of the color of amber; of another, of claret or
port wine; and of a third, as black as ink. In some
cases this water effervesces with chalk; in others, not.
Sometimes it leaves a copious sediment by evaporation,
which is highly inflammable; in other cases the sediment is small, and scarcely inflammable.  Some are
covered with a rich luxuriance of aquatic plants; others
are utterly bare, barren, and destitute of vegetables on
their surface."
Peat-meadows may be easily probed and examined
by means of a pole, rod, or tube, thrust through the
surface, to which the peat, if present, will adhere in
quantities sufficient to determine something of the character of it. A simple instrument, admirably adapted
to such examinations, may be described as follows:Two pointed half-cylinders, of any metal sufficiently
strong for the purpose, say twelve inches in length by
about one or one and a half at their greatest diameter;
an exterior and an interior, so arranged, that, when put
together, the exterior rolls upon the interior, causing
the whole to present the appearance of a conical or
tapering cylinder, attached to a handle made of strong'
wood in lengths convenient to carry, and so arranged.




ORIGIN'AND COMPOSITION OF PEAT'        27
as to be connected at pleasure by means of proper
joints.  The instrument being closed, it is forced into
the peat to the depth at which the examination is to be
made; then, by turning the handle half round, the
pressure on the exterior cylinder forces it behind the
interior; and in this manner the instrument is opened.
It is then forced downward about the length of the cylinder, which immediately becomes filled with the soft
substance; the handle is again turned half round, which
closes it, and secures the contents, which may be withdrawn and examined at pleasure.
The density of peat varies with the position in which
it is found; with the organic substances from which, in
different localities, it'had its origin; the character and
temperature of the atmosphere and climate; the proportion of earthy and mineral matters which it contains;
and the thickness of the strata.
Freshly cut, it is found to be saturated with water to
the extent of from thirty to ninety per cent., according
to locality and density; and even when subjected to
the ordinary process of air-drying, it will be found to
have retained a considerable percentage of moisture for
a long time, even after it has the appearance of being
perfectly dry; and it will readily be understood, that,
beyond a very small percentage, the amount of moisture
so retained will tend to diminish very considerably the
heating power of the fuel.
The degree of decomposition, however, which the
substance has undergone, is supposed to determine,
principally, the difference of specific weight in peat from
the same cutting.
So highly inflammable are some of the denser kinds
of peat, that the characteristic distinctions of bituminized wood are considered insufficient to explain the




28        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
circumstance; and hence the Ince peat of Lancashire is
believed by some to be penetrated by petroleum from
bituminous springs.
Instances of similar character have been reported in
this country, but without sufficient evidence of the fact
to render it certain that such is the case.
In its natural state, peat is highly antiseptic; to which
may be attributed the long period which is required to
elapse before the traces of the substances originating it
are effaced.
This quality has been further proved by the wood
which is found without being in the least injured, although buried in it to great depths for centuries.  Not
only these, but human bodies, and remains of animals,
-the latter, in some cases, of extinct species, — and
other substances prone to putrefaction, have been found
at great depths in a high state of preservation.
In the Philosophical Transactions for 1757, mention
is made of " a stratum of peat on each side of the Kennet, near Newbury, in Berks, which is from a quarter
to a half mile in width, and many miles in length. The
depth of peat is from one to eight feet; and great numbers of entire trees are found lying irregularly in it.
These are chiefly oaks, alders, willows, and firs, and
appear to have been torn up by the roots.  Many
horses' heads, and bones of several kinds of deer, the
horns of the antelope, the heads and tusks of boars, and
the heads of beavers, are also found embedded in it.
Peat always contains some earthy matters in greater.or less proportion, according to the thickness of the
stratum, and its position relative to soil in the surrounding region.
Surface peat generally contains less of mineral matter
than the second and lower strata, which sometimes pos



ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF PEAT.         29
sess so much of these as to render it useless, in point
of economy, as fuel.
In this, as well as from the nature of those matters,
it differs essentially from wood.
These substances are left, when the peat is consumed
by open combustion, in the form of ash; and, from the
nature of the ingredients, it presents various appearances, from white to gray and ochrey-red.
The percentage of ash differs widely, as may be supposed; being reported in the statements of numerous
results, to which we have had access, all the way from.one to thirty-three per cent.  The better qualities, however, or those which may be said to be most used,
would seem to yield a quantity ranging from three to
eight per cent.
The varieties yielding the largest amount of ashes are
valuable as fertilizers, from the fact that they contain a
large amount of phosphates, and other salts which serve
to enrich the soil.
Copious details of the composition of the ashes of
many of the peats of Ireland are given by Muspratt,
in his "Chemistry as applied to Arts and Manufactures."
Referring to the odor emitted by burning peat, Dr
Macculloch says, "It is occasioned by an essential oil.
That odor may, therefore, be useful for the lungs and
head. Indeed, there is a traditional opinion among the
Irish people, that those who use peat-fires are less liable
to consumption than others."
Mr. Jameson, in his "Mineralogy of the Scottish
Isles," remarks that peat is peculiar to cold or cool climates; and thus Nature has provided the means of a
constant supply, from this source, of the necessities of




30        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
the people who dwell in those regions, and who continually require fuel.
As we advance towards the warmer climates, vegetable matter is more rapidly decomposed; until, at the
tropical regions, the putrefaction of animal and vegetable matters is so rapid, that it prevents the formation
of any body of the substance and structure of peat.
In Scotland, it is observed that the peat at the bottom of a mountain is more decomposed than that which
occurs at its top, and that the lignites found in turf
mosses or bogs are more sound upon the summit of a
mountain than at its base.
It is also observed that the peat of the south of England is more decomposed than that of the north of
Scotland, and the peat of France has more of the coaly
appearance than that of England.
Prof. Lyell says, "It has seldom, if ever, been discovered within the tropics; and it rarely occurs in the
valleys, even in the *south of France and Spain.  It
abounds more aend more in proportion as we advance
farther from the equator, and becomes not only more
frequent but more inflammable in northern latitudes;
the cause of *which may probably be, that the carbon
and hydrogen, which are the most inflammable parts,
do not readily assume the gaseous form in a cold atmosplhere."
Darwin states, that, in the southern hemisphere, peat
does not occur nearer to the equator -than latitude 45~;
that the composition there met'with, results from the
decomposition of the plants and grasses. The fact that
no mosses, so far as can be ascertained by strict examination, enter into the species of peat found in South
America, favors this view.
It would be difficult to say at what period this material




ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF PEAT.          31
was first applied to its long-acknowledged useful purposes.  That it was used, as it is at present, from  a
very early period of our history, there can be no doubt;
and, in the absence of ligneous and mineral fuels especially, its great abundance, the comparative ease with
which it is obtained, and singular production, arrest
attention to one of those sources of comfort and convenience which an infinitely wise Creator has laid up in
the storehouse of Nature for the benefit of mankind. It
is clear that its value for purposes of fuel was early
understood in Germany; for Pliny says expressly, that
the Chaucd pressed together with their hands a kind of
mossy earth, which they dried by the wind rather than
by the sun; and which they used not only for cooking
their food, but also for warming their bodies.
Beckmann, in his "History of Inventions," mentions
a letter of sanction, by which an Abbot Ludolph, in the
year 1113, permitted a nunnery near Utrecht to dig
cespites (turf) for its own use in a part of his vena
(turf-bog).  On the same authority, we are told that
the words turba, turbo, turbce, and turfoy, occur for turf
in the years 1190, 1191, 1201, and 1210.  The traffic
in this kind of fuel is recognized in the Leges Burgorun of Scotland as- early as about 1140.  Turbaria,
for a turf-moor, is found in the writings of Matthew
Paris, who died in 1259.  Turbcagium  is found in a
diploma of Philip the Fair, in 1308, where its connection is such as to signify the right of digging turf.
Brito, who lived about 1223, is quoted as mentioning
turf among the productions of Flanders. It may be
added, that words of like signification occur frequently
in the earlier foundation charters of the monasteries in
Germany, as conveying the right to dig turf generally
within a certain limited extent of ground.




32        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Pliny (Hist. Nat. Lib. XVII.) expresses his pity for
the "miserable people" living in East Friesland and
vicinity, in his day, who "dug out with the hands a
moor-earth, which, when dried, they used for preparing
their food and warming their bodies."
Charred peat is said to have been used in the Freyberg smelting-houses about the year 1560; and mention
is made of its use for like purposes in England in the
early part of the seventeenth century.
Dr. King, an Irish writer, in 1685, says of turf, " It
is accounted a tolerably sweet fire; and having very
impolitically destroyed our wood, and not as yet found
stone-coal, except in a few places, we could hardly live
without some bogs. When the turf is charred, it serves
to work iron, and even to make it in a bloomery or iron
work.  Turf charred I reckon the sweetest and wholesomnest fire that can be; fitter fdr a chamber and for
consumptive people than either wood, stone-coal, or
charcoal."
METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.
Where peat-bogs abound, and the inhabitants make
use of it as fuel for domestic purposes, the process of
preparation is very simple, and has varied little, if any,
for ages.
The surface-layer, or turf, which contains the living
plants and their roots in the natural state, is stripped
off to the depth of six, nine, or twelve inches.
The material is then cut with a kind of spade known
as the slane, which has a blade about fifteen inches
long by four and a half inches broad, with a wing on
the side, bent upwards at right angles to the blade, so
as to form, with the latter, two sides of a square.




METHOD)S OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    33
With this the peat is cut in long, square masses, and
laid upon the sward, where it spontaneously loses its
water, partly by infiltration into the soil, and partly by
evaporation.
The tool is worked by the arms alone, and each block
is cut by a single motion.
After the blocks are partially dry, having been turned
at intervals so as to expose the different sides to the sun
and air, they are found to be reduced very materially
both in size and weight, and to have acquired a good
degree of consistency.  They are then piled or cobbled
up in heaps on the sward, care being taken to dispose
them in such manner as will admit of a free circulation of air through the mass; and, after remaining
exposed in this manner for some weeks, they are generally removed to some airy place of shelter, where the
process of drying may continue, and the fuel be convenient of access when the season arrives for its consumption.
Such is the mode generally adopted, both in this
and other countries, when the peat is of sufficient density and elasticity to bear being so handled without
breaking.
When, however, the material is brittle, and will not
admit of being used in this way, it is dug out with
ordinary spades and shovels, and all roots, sticks,
stones, and such like bodies, picked out. It is then
spread upon the greensward, or, in some cases, upon
suitable ground covered with a layer of straw or hay,
in a mass, to the depth of eight to eighteen inches, with
a breadth of about four or five feet, and to such lengths
as may suit the convenience of the laborers.  In this
condition it is brought to a homogeneous mixture by
harrowing, raking, working over with hoes, spades, or
3




34       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
other tools, or by the treading of men or animals,. until
it is of about the consistency of stiff moirtar, when the
surface and sides are smoothed, and it is left in this state
to drain and dry.
After remaining for one, two, or three days, accord-.
ing to the weather, and acquiring a somewhat greater
degree of consistency, it is rendered still more compact
by beating the surface with shovels, spades, or paddles
adapted for the purpose; and in some parts of Europe
this is accomplished biy treading, which is there mostly
done by women and children, who attach flat boards,
about six inches broad, and twelve to fourteen inches
long, to their feet.
By this time the peat has acquired such solidity that
it will bear a person's weight upon it without sinking.
The surface is then marked off, or cut by the sharp
edge of a board, or a large knife adapted for the purpose, to the depth of one or two inches,, into squares;
the sides of which are from three to six inches, according to the size desired for the fuel when it shall have
been thoroughly dried, and ready for use.
In this condition it is left to dry; and, as evaporation
proceeds, the squares contract, the cuttings gradually
open down to the bottom, and the mass is separated into
blocks of somewhat uniform size, standing on end, and
of pyramidal form; the base being still quite moist, and
covering nearly the whole surface, while the top, which
has been most exposed to air and sun, has contracted to
nearly or quite one quarter of its original size, and is
dry and hard.  The blocks are then turned once or
twice, in order to give a more uniform  exposure; and
at the expiration of a few days of good weather, they
are in condition to be removed, and stored for use; care
being taken, however, that it be in a sheltered but airy




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.         35
location, and that it be not too closely packed; for, notwithstanding it may have the appearance of being quite
dry, it will be found to have still retained a very considerable amount of water, and, if too closely packed,
is liable to a fermentative process, which injures the quality, and has been known to raise the temperature so high
as to cause spontaneous combustion.
It is by a process quite similar to this, in most respects,
that peat has recently been manufactured at Barnstable,
Mass., which was sold in considerable quantities in Boston during the winter of 1864-5, and met with very
general favor.
It was sold in large quantities at $8.50 per ton, and
retailed at $9.00 per chaldron of thirty-six bushels, $1.00
per barrel, and 40 cents per busAel.
Experiments, to a limited extent, were also made with
it in Boston and vicinity under stationary and locomotive
boilers, with highly satisfactory results. It cannot, however, be recommended for general use for these purposes, unless solidified to a much greater extent than by
this method.
Another simple process, quite common in Holland
and Ireland, is to take of the mass, after being reduced
to a uniform consistency, somewhat like stiff mortar, as
before described, in bulk equal to the size of an ordinary
brick, and by a rapid process of manipulation with the
hands, easily acquired and practised, to form it into oblong blocks of somewhat uniform size and shape, which
are laid upon the ground until such time as they have
acquired a sufficient degree of consistency to be " cobbed "
up, or stored for for  rther. curing and use, as in the process last before mentioned.
This is called "hand peat," and is considered somewhat preferable to either of the other kinds described.




3 6       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Two machines for cutting peat are thus described
by Prof. Johnson:
" In North Prussia, the Peat-cuttingl Machine of Brosowsky is extensively employed. It consists of a cutter, made like the four sides of a box, but with oblique
edges, which by its own weight, and by means of a
crank and rack-work, operated by men, is forced down
into the peat to a depth'that may reach twenty feet.
It can cut only at the edge of a ditch or excavation,
and when it has penetrated sufficiently, a spade-like
blade is driven under the cutter by means of levers,
and thus a mass is loosened, having a vertical length
of ten feet or more, and whose other dimensions are
about twenty-four by twenty-eight inches.  This is
lifted by reversing the crank motion, and is then cut up
by the spade into blocks of fourteen inches long by six
wide and five deep.  Each parallelopipedon of peat, cut
to a depth of ten feet, makes one hundred and forty-four
sods, and this number can be cut in less than ten minutes. Four hands will cut and lay out to dry twelve
thousand to fourteen thousand peats daily, or thirty-one
hundred cubic feet. One great advantage of this machine consists in the circumstance that it can be used to
raise peat from below the surface of water, rendering
drainage in many cases unnecessary. Independently
of this, it appears to be' highly labor saving, since thirteen thousand machines were put to use in iMIecklenburg
and Pomerania in about five years from its introduction.
The Mecklenburg moors are now traversed by canals,
cut by this machine, which are used for the transportation of the peat to market.
"Lepreux in Paris, has invented a similar but more
complicated machine, which is said to be very effective
in its operation.  According to Herv{ Mangon, this




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    37
machine, when worked by two men, raises and cuts forty
thousand peats daily, of which seven make one cubic
foot, equal to five thousand six hundred cubic feet.
The saving in expense by using this machine is said to
be seventy per cent. when the peat to be raised is under
water."'
He also describes a method of dredging peat, as follows:
"VWhen peat exists, not as a -coherent more or less
fibrous mass, but as a paste or mud, saturated with
water, it cannot be raised and formed by the methods
above described.
" In such cases the peat is dredged fromn the bottom of
the bog by means of an iron scoop, like a pail with sharp
upper edges, which is fastened to a long handle.  The
bottom is made of coarse sacking, so that the water may
run off. Sometimes a stout ring of iron, with a bag
attached, is employed in the same way.  The fine peat
is emptied from the dredge upon the ground, where it
remains until the water has been absorbed or has evaporated so far as to leave the nmass' somewhat firm and
plastic. In the mean time a drying bed is prepared by
smoothing, and, if needful, stamping a sufficient space
of ground, and enclosing it in boards fourteen inches
wide, set on edge. Into this bed the partially dried
peat is thrown, and, as it cracks on the surface by drying, it is compressed by blows with a heavy mallet or
flail, or by treading it with fiat boards, attached to the
feet, somewhat like snow shoes.  By this treatment the
mass is reduced to a continuous sheet of less than one
half its first thickness, and becomes so firm that a man's
step gives little impression in it. The boards are now
removed, and it is cut into blocks by means of a very
thin, sharp spade. Every other block being lifted out




38        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
and placed crosswise upon those remaining, air is admitted to the whole, and the drying goes on rapidly.  This
kind of peat is usually of excellent quality.. In North
Germany it is called'Baggertowf,' i. e. mud peat."
Several peat-cutters have been devised, though we
have seen no published description of any except those
referred to above.
Our own experience, confirmed by the testimony of
others, and by the observations of those who have had
opportunities to see and investigate where we have' not,
is, that for cutting peat in this country, there is no better
machine than the simple slane, in the hands of a stout,
good-natured Irishman, well treated-and fairly paid.
Such a " machine " will easily cut fifty tons crude peat
per day of ten hours.  This statement is often questioned; but the following simple facts and figures will
be found to demonstrate it, and leave a margin besides.
The:blocks of peat, as ordinarily cuit with the slane,
from a well-drained meadow, weigh from twelve to
twenty-five pounds- say fifteen pounds, which is less
than the average.  A man can cut twenty-five or more
blocks in a minute; when working " by the job " he will
cut twenty to twenty-two; and when working " by the
day," he does cut fifteen or more. If, then, taking these
lowest figures, say fifteen blocks of fifteen pounds each,
we have a result, two hundred and twenty-five pounds
per minute, or six and one fourth tons per hour, and consequently sixty-two and a half tons per day of ten hours.
In order to work a bog which is entirely submerged
with water, or which is saturated with wanter to such
extent that it will not retain its form when cut out in the
ordinary manner, it is evident that dredging must be
resorted to.
A variety of machines for this purpose are in use,




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    39
some of which we have seen in operation for harbor,
canal, and river service, but not in a peat-bog; and our
own experience has not been such as to enable us to designate the peculiarities of structure requisite to determine
which would be the best for dredging peat.
In the "Journal of the Society of Arts," for November, 1862, was published a paper on "The Utilization
of Peat," by B. H. Paul, from which we extract a few
paragraphs: 
" In one case we find peat deposits in the form of what
are called peat-bogs,- masses of peat of considerable
superficial extent, and generally of great depth,- twenty, thirty, and sometimes upwards of a hundred feet
deep.
" In the other case, we find, situated ok the slopes of
mountainous country, peat deposits which are never of
very great depth, generally from two to twelve feet, and
where the peat is sufficiently solid to be walked upon
with ease. In these deposits the peat is of a more uniform  texttire and character throughout than in bogs,
although there is always a greater or less difference between the peat at the surface and that at the bottom.
These deposits of mountain-peat are very common in the
Highlands of Scotland and in some parts of Ireland.
Mountain-peat offers very much greater facilities for cutting than bog-peat, and it is generally of much better
quality; capable of taking a high polish when rubbed,
and of a density greater than that of water, the cubic
foot weighing from fifty-three to seventy-eight pounds.
"The method of cutting peat in the Highlands of Scotland is very different from that adopted for cutting from
bogs.  After removing the surface-sod, the peat-cutter,
with a peculiar shaped tool, digs out the peat in slices
of about a foot square, and three or four inches thick."




40        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
The process of cutting and curing is given at some
length, and he proceeds: "When mountain-peat is cut
in slices, as I have described, and spread out on the
ground during dry weather, the drying goes on rapidly;
the surface of the pieces acquires a kind of skin, which is
not wetted again by rain; and the peat in the course
of a week is sufficiently hardened to be handled.  The
pieces are then set up on edge, so that the air may play
on both sides; and, in the course of six weeks or two
months, they are dry enough to be stacked or heaped
up. In the Highlands of Scotland and in the Hebrides,
on the average, there "is rain four days out of six; and
it is only during the months of May, June, and July,
that any continuance of weather favorable for drying
peat can be expected. It is necessary, therefore, to
obtain the utmost advantage of that period for drying;
and to do so the peat must all be cut before the end
of May, at latest.  On the other hand, if the peat is
cut during frosty weather, and becomes frozen, it crumbles to powder when the thaw comes; and for this reason it is not safe to commence the cutting at all before
April, or even May.  As a rule, it may be said that the
month of May is the only time available for cutting peat
in the Highlands of Scotland, and more especially in the,
Hebrides, so as, on the one hand, to avoid the destruction of the peat by frost, and, on the other hand, to
insure the best possible chance of getting it dried.
"Two men working together, one cutting and one
casting the peat, will, in good weather, get through
what is equivalent to ten tons of dry peat; so that, if
they were able to work every day during May, they
would cut from two hundred to three hundred tons of
peat; and, to get ten thousand tons cut and spread, one
hundred men would be required for the whole month."




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    41
One essential quality of peat in relation to its value
as a fuel is its density; and consequently numerous
efforts have been made, and various processes have been
attempted, by which to give it a degree of solidity equal
or approximating to hard coal, and sufficient to stand
the blast required for a very high degree of heat in the
more severe processes of metal manufacture and steam
service.
This has generally been attempted by means of direct
pressure, variously applied, upon the raw material as
taken from the bogs. Radical difficulties, however, stand
in the way of effedting the desired condensation by any
such methods, owing principally to the elastic nature of
the article itself, increased to a considerable extent in
all peat of a fibrous character, which causes a distention
after the pressure is removed.
None of these methods of pressure alone, have proved
practically and economically successful.
We can barely allude to a few of the numerous methods by which it has been attempted to condense or solidify- peat, as any extended descriptions of the various
machines and processes would require space far beyond
our limits.
Mr. C. M. Williams, of the Cappoge Works, a gentleman who has contributed much to the development
of the industrial uses of peat in Ireland, used powerful
hydraulic presses, and was able to produce a fair article
in considerable quantities. It is questionable, however,
if, in this particular department of its manufacture, his
endeavors have been remunerative.
We shall have occasion to refer to him again as we
proceed with our subject.
The manner of compressing, as conducted in the Cappoge Works, was to break up the fibre of peat as much




42        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
as possible, and then to place it, interlaid with coarse
cloths or cocoa matting, under the pressing machine.
After remaining under pressure a sufficient time, the
material was fouind to be reduced to one third its original
volume, and to have lost about two fifths of its weight.
Mr. Cobbold's method is to convert the peat into a
pulp, with the addition of water if necessary; after
which, by means of centrifugal power applied to the
mass, the water is got rid of, and a very dense product
is obtained.
The course recommended by Mr. W. B. Stones, as
described in his patent of March, 1850, is the use of a
box divided into a number of compartments suited to the
size of the machine, and pressure to be exerted upon this
by rollers adapted to one another by means of leverages.
His claims covered a machine for pressing peat; a
process of carbonizing; the application of carbonic-acid
gas to the extinction of glowing char-peat; the employment of peat-gas produced during the operation of carbonizing, for the purpose of heating the retorts; the
application of a series of receivers to the distillation of
the residuum, and the obtaining products therefrom; a
process of obtaining "peatole" and "peupion" by rectification; a process of obtaining "peatine;" the application of sulphur and peat to the manufacture of
bisulphuret of carbon, and application of the peat and
sulphur residuum to the manufacture of gunpowder;
the manufacture of artificial fuel from anthracite and
char-peat; the impregnation of surface-peat with resinoil, &c., for the manufacture of fire-lighters and revivers; the purification of peat-gas, as described; the
obtaining of heat and light by the combustion of peat-gas
in atmospheric air, when a cob or plate of platinum is
employed; a peculiar construction of gas-burner, and




IMETEODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    43
application of these burners, for the purpose of blowpipes, &c.
At the International Exhibition of 1862, a machine
was exhibited, which in the official catalogue is described
as Brunton's; but it was actually the invention of Mr.
Buckland, formerly of the Maesteg Iron Works, South
Wales.
It consists of a solid obtuse iron cone, having a spiral
groove on its exterior, and revolving vertically within a
hollow cone of iron plate, perforated everywhere with
small round holes just like a colander, which in fact it
is. The peat is put into the space between the solid
and hollow cones, and, by the revolution of the former,
is forced in worm-like form through the holes in the
latter.
Thus prepared, it is fashioned into bricks by any
convenient machine, of which one was shown at the
same place.
The bricks are artificially dried; and portions of them
which were exhibited were solid and resisting.
Peat-charcoal prepared from them was also shown.
The machine is an ingenious one, and possesses some
points of interest; but we do not think it can be made
practically useful as a mode of manufacture.  It has
run several " experimental trips" in this country; and
we have had repeated opportunities to see it in operation, and examine it thoroughly.  The work is well
done, so far as it goes. It appears to us, however, to
require to be run with great care, is liable to get out of
order, can do its work well only at a low rate of speed,
and is equal to the production of but a small amount
compared with the power required to run it, and can
therefore be used satisfactorily only by parties who may
desire to run it "regardless of expense."




44        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Another method, practised to some-extent in Southern
Bavaria, is, after drying peat in the ordinary manner,
to pulverize it by passing it through rollers; then to
drive off the remaining water by heat, and consolidate
the dry powder by powerful pressure.
Mr. C. H odgson, in a paper read before the Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, refers to the same
matter, and describes a process whereby he produces
from dry powdered peat, an excellent article of solid
fuel. He employs for its compression an engine patented by himself, which he describes as a horizontal
reciprocating ram, working in a, cylinder five feet long,
with a uniform bore. The powdered peat falls into this
as the ram draws back at each stroke; and soon, filling the whole length, considerable friction takes place
against the sides of the tube, before the frictional resistance of the column is overcome, and the whole mass
moves on; so that the blocks formed at one end are
successively discharged at the other, at the rate of sixty
a minute, making in an hour about fifteen cwt. of compressed peat, equal in density to coal.. This apparatus
was recently in operation at Derrylea, near Monasterevan; and it is said by the inventor to leave no doubt
of the practicability of producing dry compressed peat
on a large scale, and with profit.
Messrs. Gwynne & Co. have taken out several patents for the preparation of peat-fuel.  One of their
processes bears some resemblance to the method last
described.  The peat, as dug from the bog, is deprived
of much of its moisture by being placed in a large centrifugal machine; after which it is ground to powder,
and passed through a series of cylinders revolving in a
heated chamber, where the remaining moisture is got
rid of, and the powder raised to the proper temperature




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    45
for compression.  From the last cylinder it is carried
by pockets to the compressing tables; and, having
passed through them, the solidified peat is ready for
use. It is found that when the peat-powder has been
dried at a temperature of about 1800, and in that state
allowed to enter the hopper of the compressing engine,
the tarry properties of the turf are just sufficiently developed to form a good cementing compound; and the
brick of compressed turf, when cold, forms a dense and
very pure fuel.
In Austria, as well as in some parts of Germany, a
process prevails, to some extent, of grinding the peat
as rags are ground in a paper-mill, reduced, by the addition of a great deal of water, to a very fine and soft
pulp, which is then placed in tanks, basins, or other
suitable receptacles, where, by filtration and evaporation, it is, after a considerable time, relieved of most
of the water, and, when of the consistency of cheese,
can be cut or broken up and stacked for use at a still
later day.
The product is excellent, but the process is slow,
tedious, and expensive, and by no means adapted for
general use.
At Horwich, in Lancashire, England, works have
been erected which are reported as being operated successfully, and are said to be well conducted, and to
produce an excellent article of fuel.
The peat, as it comes from the bog, is thrown into a
mill arranged for the purpose, by which it is reduced to
a homogeneous, -pulpy consistency. The pulp is then
conveyed, by means of an endless band, to the moulding machine, in which, while it travels, it is formed into
a slab, and cut into blocks of any required size. The
blocks are delivered by a self-acting process on a band,




46        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
which conveys them into the drying chamber, through
which they travel forwards and backwards on a series
of endless bands at a fixed rate of speed, exposed all
the time to the action of a current of heated air.  The
travelling bands are so arranged that the blocks of peat
are delivered from one to the other consecutively, and
are by the same movement turned over in order to expose fresh surfaces, at regular intervals, to the action
of the drying currents; so that they emerge from the
chamber dry, hard, and dense.
The next stage in the process is the treatment of the
peat in close ovens, when it may either be converted into
charcoal for smelting purposes, or may be only partially
charred for use as fuel for generating steam, or in the
puddling furnace.
In a paper recently read before the British Association by D. K. Clark, C. E., a somewhat detailed account of these works was given, extracts from which
will be found in the Appendix to this work.
Prof. Johnson, in his narrative of peat operations in
Europe, describes the lMannhardt and NVeustadt methods, by which the Crude peat in its moist state is passed
between rollers, being reduced somewhat in bulk, and
delivered in soft blocks or sheets, after which it is removed to the spreading-ground or sheds to be dried;
also the Lithuanian, LExter's, and Elsberg's, which in
their main features correspond with that of Gwynne,
described above; Versmann's, which is almost identical
in principle and construction with Buckland's; already
described, on page 43, and Czhalleton's, Siemens',
Weber's, Gysser's, and Sch/lickeysen's, which, by m1ethods similar in principle, but varying somewhat in the
detail of construction and operation, pulp the crude
peat, in some cases adding to it a considerable amount




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    47
of water, and deliver it in moist blocks, to be dried
either in kilns or in the open air.
The advantages claimed for Hodgson's, Gwynne's,
Exter's, Elsberg's, and the Lithuanian methods, are,
that the expensive transportation and handling of fresh
peat, containing a large amount of water, is avoided,
and that enough peat may be air-dried and stored during summer weather to supply a machine with work
during the whole year.
It is evident, however, that the " fresh peat containing
a large amount of water " must be handled and dried at
some stage of the operations; and experience has demonstrated beyond a question that a thousand tons of crude
peat, as it lies in the bog, can be taken out, manufactured, and dried cfter it has been manufactured, in less
time and at less cost for labor than the same amount
can be taken out, dried before being manufactured, and
then formed into blocks, as practised by this method;
yielding, moreover, a fuel of superior character in its
mechanical composition.
Of this method of dry pressing, Prof. Johnson remarks, "Its disadvantages are, that it requires a large
outlay of capital and great expenditure of mechanical
force. Its product is, moreover, not adapted for coking.
When wet, the surface of the cakes swells up, and exfoliates as far as the water has penetrated.  In the fire a
similar breaking away of the surface takes place, and
when coked the coal is but moderately coherent.
"The idea that heat develops bituminous matter (in
the process of manufacture), or fuses the resins which
exist in peat, and that these cement the particles, does
not harmonize with the fact that the peat thus condensed
flakes to pieces by a short immersion in water."
A correspondent from Austria writes as follows:



48         PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
"Referring to the preparation of rough peat, there
are five kinds in Germany and Austria.
"1. The fibrous peat is picked out and dried in
the air.
"2. The earthy peat is digged out, stricken to tiles,
and dried in the air.
"3. The peat is ground and put into a great deal of
water, in which the peat forms by itself a very strong
cake.
"4. The peat is handled like by your manner.
" 5. The peat is ploughed like a field, then heaped up
and carried on railroads to the factory. It is ground
like rags; then it runs through a spiral, which is heated
on the outside by steam  or smoke of a far fire for a
boiler; the hot peat falls immediately into the press,
where it is pressed to very strong pieces, about seven
inches long, three inches wide, and only half an inch
thick.  This manner patented for Mr. Exter in MIunich."
These will, perhaps, serve to illustrate the general
characteristics of an infinite number of methods proposed and machines devised for improving the quality
of peat fuel, so as to remove or overcome its characteristic fault; namely, want of density; and its treatment
for other products.  We shall have occasion to refer to
these again, and perhaps to mention others as we proceed.
In this country comparatively little has been done;
and until quite recently no machinery whatever, specially constructed and adapted for the production of
solid fuel from peat, has been put in practical operation.
The impression has seemed to prevail, that the material
is to be treated like clay, and that brick-machines might
be readily made to work the desired results; but the




IMETHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    49
idea is erroneous.  Numerous brick-machines have been
tried, some of them very ingeniously and perfectly constructed, and which have been demonstrated to be almost
perfect in their operation upon clay, but have proved an
entire failure when peat was substituted instead.  It is
true, however, that, with two or three of these machines,
peat has been pressed into compact blocks, having the
appearance of great solidity when. moist; but so soon
as the moisture is evaporated, as it will inevitably be
in time, the mass is found to be porous and light.
Quite a number of presses, some of them exceedingly
ingenious in device and construction, and powerful in
their operation, and supposed to be so aranged as to
press the water out of the mass, and leave the material
compact and nearly or quite dry, have been built and
tested, with failure of success as a uniform result; and
although the records and reports of such cases, both in
Europe and this country, are sufficiently extensive to
explode the idea that any profitable results can be obtained by pressure alone, there are, nevertheless, those
who are still persistent in their efforts to accomplish it
by such means, and are now devising new methods of
applying powerful pressure, which, were they to consider but for a moment the nature of the material in its
crude state, would be seen at once to be clearly of no
avail. The famous Beater Press, which within a few
years has acquired great notoriety, and is probably the
most powerful press now in use for hay, straw, cotton,
tobacco, &c., has been tried several times in New York
and Massachusetts, by parties sanguine of success, but
with only the same results as with other presses.
A multitude of experiments have been tried, and all
sorts of machines devised, but, in most cases, by parties
who, it would seem, have failed to comprehend the
4




50        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
nature of the material, have consequently gone to work
in the wrong way to obtain results, and, as a matter of
course, have, in the majority of cases, been unsuccessful.
So much interest has been had in the matter within
the past year or two, that several parties in different
sections of this country, each in their own way, have
been at considerable, expense to develop it; but in nearly
all of the cases, we hear, thus far, only of larger expenditures without the desired results in product or profit.
We hear of these experiments on Long Island; at Nyat,
near Providence, R. I.; at Schenectady, Poughkeepsie, Syracuse, Oswego, Rochester, and Pekin, N. Y.;
at Belleville, N. J.; and Springfield and Worcester,
Mass.  In some of these cases, brick-machines have
been used, as before mentioned; in others, as at Nyat
and Pekin, the peat is reduced to a mass of about the
consistency of mortar, spread upon the ground, cut
into blocks, and left to dry and cure in the open air: in
this manner a very fair article is made, and can be produced in considerable quantities, and probably at no
great expense.
At Lexington, Mass., operations were commenced in
1864, under the patents of Ashcroft and Betteley, and
have been continued during three seasons.  Their process, as claimed, provides for separating the fibrous
from the thoroughly decomposed portions of the peat
by combing; in doing which the mass is reduced to a
pulp, which is then conveyed into high tanks, where it
is proposed to allow it to remain, until, by its own
weight and pressure, it shall have become sufficiently
dense to be formed into blocks, when, by opening a
small gate near the bottom of the tank, it is presumed
that the pressure of the superincumnbent mass will force.




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    51
it out in a continuous sheet of uniform size, as regulated
by the orifice, which may then be cut in blocks, and
laid away to dry. This, as we understand it, is the
theory.
They have also experimented considerably upon a
method of drying the peat by absorption; the plan being
to. cover the spreading ground with a layer or pavement
of porous brick, arranged in convenient manner, on
which is spread the soft pulp as it comes from the
machine.  The brick, if dry, will undoubtedly absorb a
portion of the moisture from the under side of the mass,
while evaporation is going on from the top; but it is
equally obvious that the bricks will unavoidably absorb
from the earth, gravel, or sand, on which they are laid,
a very considerable amount of moisture, and that this,
with an occasional shower, would do much towards keeping them so well filled with water, that they could not
be expected to be in fit condition for effectual service
in the manner intended, except for occasional and limited periods.  The expense to be incurred for paving
an area sufficient to meet the requirements of a large
establishment would be more than for buildings and
machinery.
If an absorbent is to be used at all, it should be constantly available and comparatively inexpensive.
Operations at these works have been prosecuted vigorously, a great deal of expensive machinery and apparatus has been built, a variety of experiments have been
tried, some good fuel has been produced, and a large
amount of money has been expended; but we do not
learn that the desired results have yet been attained.
The machinery set up at Pekin, N. Y., in 1865, is
the invention of Mr. M. S. Roberts, who is the owner
of a very considerable tract of excellent peat-land in




52        PEAT AS AEN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
that place.  The following description of it is from the
"Buffalo Express," of Nov. 17, 1865: "In outward
form, the machine was like a small frame house on
wheels, supposing the smoke-stack to be a chimney.
The engine and boiler are of locomotive style; the
engine being of thirteen-horse power.  The principal
features of the machine are a revolving elevator and a
conveyer. The elevator is seventy-five feet long, and
runs from the top of the machine to the ground, where
the peat is dug up, placed on the elevator, carried to the
top of the machine, and dropped into a revolving wheel
that cuts it up, separates from it all the coarse particles,
bits of sticks, stones, &c., and throws them to one side.
The peat is next dropped into a box below, where water
is passed in, sufficient to bring it to the consistency of
mortar.  By means of a slide under the control of the
engineer, it is next sent to the rear of the machine,
where the conveyer, one hundred feet long, takes it,
and carries it to within two rods of the end; at which
point the peat begins' to drop through to the ground to
the depth of about four or five inches.  WThen sufficient
has passed through to cover the ground to the end of
the conveyer, - two rods, - the conveyer is then swung
round about two feet, and the same process gone through
as fast as the ground under the elevator, for the distance
of two rods in length and two feet in width gets covered, the elevator being moved. At each swing of
the elevator, the peat just spread is cut into blocks
(soft ones, however) by knives attached to the elevator.
It generally takes from three to four weeks;before it is
ready for use. It has to lie a week before it is touched,
after the knives pass through it, when it is turned over,
and allowed to lie another week. It has then to be
taken up, and put in a shed, and within a week or ten




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    53
days can be used, although it is better to let it remain a
little longer time. The machine can spread the peat
over eighteen square rods of ground —taking out one
square rod of peat- without being moved. After the
eighteen rods are covered, the machine is moved two
rods ahead, enabling it to again spread a semicircular
space of some thirty-two feet in width by eighteen rods
in length. The same power which drives the engine
moves the machine. It is estimated by Mr. Roberts,
that, by the use of this machine, from twenty to thirty
tons of peat can be turned out in a day." Four men
are required to run it.  The cost of this machine is
stated at twenty-five hundred dollars.
In this case, as in several others which have come to
our notice, it is observed that the method proposed
requires that a very considerable quantity of water be
added to the already moist material, before it can be
treated or formed; whereas a great desideratum has
ever been to discover some process by which it might
be discharged of the very large amount of water which
all peats contain in their natural state.
Mr. James Hodges, of Montreal, after considering
the many difficulties in the way of manufacturing peat
successfully, conceived the idea of a manufactory complete, which might be made to float about in the bog,
excavating, pulping, manufacturing, and spreading out
the pulped peat to dry, until some seventy per cent. was
evaporated, or it was fit for carriage to the store or to
market.. After three years' experience, he has arrived
at the conclusion that it may be effected in the following manner:
"An extensive undrained bog, from eight to twelve
feet in depth, — or, if deeper, the better, - having
been selected, the first process is to trace out, at some




54        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
distance from the margin, a contour level line of say
several miles in extent. Along this line, a space of
some nineteen feet in width must be cleared, and the
live moss or turf entirely removed: by the side of this
a space ninety feet in width is to be cleared and drained
to receive the pulped peat.
"At one end of the contour line before-mentioned, a
barge or scow eighty feet long, sixteen feet beam, and
six feet deep, must be constructed, and launched into a
hole dug in the bog to receive her. The barge or scow
is to contain all the machinery necessary for the complete manufacture of the peat.
"At one end of the scow are placed a pair of large
screw augers eleven feet in diameter, which, being provided with proper shafting and gearing, are made to
revolve by means of a steam engine placed on the rear
of the vessel. These augers or screw excavators bore
out the peat in precisely the same manner that a common auger bores itself into wood; and the scow being
made to move onwards as the boring proceeds, it follows that a canal nineteen feet wide, of from four to
six feet deep, is formed, in which the scow, with her
burden of machinery, floats, the water from the adjacent peat draining into and filling the canal as fast as
it is made; the usual speed of the scow being some
fifteen feet per hour.
"A competent engineer should determine and lay out
the canal level, as well as arrange its water supply, upon
which depends in a great measure the successful working of the whole.
"The peat, when bored out or excavated by the screws,
is delivered into the barge, and conveyed by means of
an elevator to a hopper, into which it is tumbled. It
then passes through machinery which removes all sticks




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    55
and roots, and, eventually destroying the fibre, reduces
the peat to a homogeneous mass of soft pulp, like welltempered mortar.
"This pulp then passes into a long spout or distributor, which, extending at right angles over the side of the
scow, spreads out the pulp upon the levelled moss by
the side of the canal, in a thin slab nine inches in thickness and ninety feet in width.
" After the slab of pulp has been deposited for a couple
of days, or in hot weather for a shorter period, it begins
to consolidate, and show symptoms of cracking. Immediately any cracks make their appearance, it must be
marked out by drawing a fraimework, carrying curved
knives, placed six inches apart, across it. A few days
more hardens the pulp, so that by the aid of boards a
man can walk on it, and mark it longitudinally with
cuts eighteen inches apart.
"In about a fortnight the shrinkage of the pulp-slab
causes the cuts made in it to open, and the whole presents the appearance of an immense floor covered with
bricks eighteen inches long by six inches wide. As
soon as the bricks are sufficiently hard to bear handling,
they are separated and " footed; " that is, stood up on the
ends, five in a stook, with one across the top, in which
position they remain until dry enough to be removed to
the store or to market.
"In the manufacture of peat-fuel considerable experience is required, and unless attention is paid to
matters of detail, apparently of little importance, serious
loss may be the result.
"In forming or uncovering the canal track, nothing
more is required than that the turf or live moss, about
six inches in thickness, together with the roots of all
trees upon the surface of the bog, should be removed;




56        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
and, as upon all undrained bogs, the roots of such stunted
trees as grow there are all on the surface, this operation
is easily accomplished.
"In the preparation of the pulp-beds great care is
required, and a surface should be obtained as level
and even as possible. The roots of all trees must be
removed; and this is more readily accomplished with
the trees themselves, by which means considerable labor
may be saved, one man pulling them down on one side,
while another with an axe cuts the lateral roots at sonme
distance from the stem, leaving the smaller portions
behind. The long grass, shrubs, and rank mosses are
cut down with a short scythe, and used in filling up
any irregularities on the surface. Drains from nine to
twelve inches deep should also be cut and covered over
with the spare turf taken from the canal track. The
soil from the drains may also be used in levelling and
filling up inequalities in the pulp bed. In some places
where the growth of shrubs has been very rank and
coarse, the turf upon the whole surface of the pulp-beds
has been cut into strips and inverted; but it is better
to cut drains, and leave the turf in its natural position.
The soft pulp, when poured upon it in a semi-fluid
state, *advances, lava-like, pressing down any small
branches of shrubs and the long grasses which may be
standing in the way of its onward progress.
"The pulp should not be deposited nearer than five
feet of the canal, and upon this space may be placed
any surplus moss or turf from the uncovering of the
canal track, which will not only keep the pulp in place,
but also form a road and towing-path for the canal.
At the rear, or ninety feet from this bank, a double
thickness of turf is all that is necessary to complete the
pulp-beds.




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    57
"The canal track and pulp-beds being prepared, and
the scow with its machinery in position, nothing more
is required than to set it in motion, giving the necessary
feed, say one and a half inches for each revolution of
the screw excavators, which may be increased to three
inches or more if necessary. As the screws revolve,
they cut off continuous slices of the peat, which, by the
assistance of a couple of men, are delivered through
the rear of the shield the screws work in, into a well in
the bow of the scow. These men also remove any
large masses of extraneous material, such as pieces of
wood, roots of trees, &c., which may work in. It is
sometimes required, when working in peat which is
very full of roots, to have a man placed in front to
remove them, as they are brought up by the knives of
the screws, roots as much as a man can lift being occasionally excavated.
" After the peat is delivered into the well, it is carried
by means of an elevator and tumbled into a hopper,
from which it passes through the stick and fibre catcher,
the pulping and distributing trough, without any assistance whatever, it being only necessary to see that the
stick catcher is kept clear, and occasionally, when the
pulp is too stiff or dry, to turn on a pump until it is
reduced to a proper consistency.
"The levelling of the pulp should be done as evenly
and as smoothly as possible. A few days' experience
will enable any intelligent man to accomplish this; and
upon its being well done depends, in some measure,
the.quality of skin upon the peat, so essential, not
only in shedding the rain and preventing cracking from
the sun, but also for giving a permanent toughness to
the bricks.
" The crew of the scow, all told, will number six, in



5 8       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
eluding the master, who keeps the knives of the screw
excavator clean, and sees that all is going- on right;
two men at the screw excavators, one engine-man, one
man levelling the pulp, and one man to attend to the
stick-catcher and the pulping-spout.
"The marking of the pulp-beds into transverse cuts, at
six-inch intervals, is proceeded with as-soon as the pulp
begins to set, or becomes so tough that when the incisions
or cuts are made in it by the knives, they do not re-unite.
The operation is performed by two men, one on each
side of the pulp-bed, who, by means of a rope, pull a
framework of wood, carrying curved knives, to and fro
across the bed.  A little practice enables them to perform the work with great accuracy. The longitudinal
cuts, eighteen inches apart, are made as soon as the
pulp is sufficiently hard to bear the weight of a man
upon a plank laid on its surface. It is performed by
pushing a circular plate of iron, which, cutting like a
circular saw, severs the peat to the very bottom. In
making these last cuts, care should be taken that they
go quite through the peat, so that surface water from
rain may freely pass off through the drains in the pulpbeds into the canal.
"Upon the state of the weather depends the time when
the next operation should be performed; but, if the pulpslab, when first spread out, is not more than nine inches
in thickness, -- which it should never exceed, -- then a
fortnight will be ample time to harden the bricks for
footing.
"The footing is done by gangs of men and boys,
one man and three boys working together: the man,
using a suitable tool, separates the bricks, which the
boys foot, or place in groups or stooks of five; four
stand on their ends, inclining to each other, with their;




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    59
tops touching, the fifth being balanced horizontally upon
them. A man and three boys will foot four thousand
bricks in a day.
" After the bricks have been exposed to the weather for
a few days, they should be refooted or turned, two boys
handling four thousand as a day's work.
Nothing now remains to be done but to wheel the
bricks, when sufficiently dry, into barges, and convey
them to the store."
Mr. Hodges' plan of operations is rather extensive,
not to say immense; but he has had - what at this stage
of affairs we should rarely expect to see - the requisite
enterprise, energy, and perhaps the'location and pecuniary
means to carry it out, and has made clear and convincing statements of results attained, which are of great
importance as demonstrating the comparative value of
this fuel. We have been favored with reports of some
of these, which will be found on subsequent pages, under
the heads of " Steam " and " Iron."
Several trips with his fuel were made over the Grand
Trunk Railway, which were all attended with marked
and satisfactory results, so decided in their character
that a contract has been entered into, extending over
five years, or seasons, during the first of which the
company are to take one hundred tons per day, and
during the four succeeding seasons three hundred tons
per day.
Dr. Louis Elsberg, of New York city, obtained a
patent, in 1864, for a process of grinding and compacting
dry peat, which in its essential features appears to correspond very nearly with the. Lithuanian, Hodgson's,
Gwynne's, and Exter's, already described on pages 44,
45, 46; and the remarks in connection with those would
seem to be equally applicable to this, so far as we are




(0()      PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
able to judge from our own observations and the concurrent testimony of others.  His experimental works
are at Belleville, N. J., and the fuel produced is in good
shape and very dense.
The Boston Peat Company have adopted the process
and machinery invented by T. H. Leavitt, of Boston;
and they are in successful operation.
The process is exceedingly simple, rapid, and successful: the machinery is equally simple, and works
"to a charm." It is compact, and of moderate cost;
and the results obtained in the quantity, quality, and
cost of the fuel produced, exceed the most sanguine expectations of the inventor, and have met the unqualified
approval and commendation of all who have examined
the machinery or the fuel.
The machinery consists of a strong tank, or cistern,
three feet in diameter and six feet high, supported upon
a stout framework, about four feet above the floor of a
suitable building, which should be near the bog, and is
best constructed on a hill-side, so that easy access can
be had to the lower story on one side, from the base of
the hill, and to the second story on the other side.  The
top of this tank is open, and even with the floor of the
second story.  Within the tank, and firmly fixed to its
sides, are numerous projections of a variety of forms,
adapted to the treatment of the material in its several
stages as it progresses through the mill, which is divided
into three apartments: through the centre of the tank
revolves an upright shaft, to which are affixed knives
and arms varying in form and structure to correspond
with the stationary projections in each apartment; below
the tank is a receiver, or hopper; and under this is a
moulding or forming machine, two feet in width and
twelve feet long, of like simple construction, which




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    61
receives the condensed material from the hopper, and
delivers it in blocks of any desired form and size. The
whole is adapted to be driven by a small steam engine,
and requires about six and ten horse power, respectively,
for the two sizes of machines, as at present constructed,
of the capacity of fifty and one hundred tons each of
crude peat per day of ten hours.
The crude material is brought from the bog in ordinary horse-carts, or on small cars running over a cheaply
constructed tramway, to the mouth of the mill, in the
floor of the second story of the building, where it is
dumped or shovelled into the mill in any convenient
quantity; but the arrangement is such that only a given
amount is admitted and under treatment at any one
time, so that all parts have a uniform and regular supply. The treatment is such that the original organization of the peat is entirely destroyed; in the second
stage, the air, of which a large amount is contained in
its cells, is ejected: advantage is taken of some of the
natural properties of the material, and the mass is condensed in its moist state in the lower part of the mill,
from whence it is delivered into the hopper of the
moulding machine, and is discharged in a continuous
line of moulds (which are fed into the rear part of the
machine by a boy), at the rate of from fifty to one
hundred tons per day of ten hours. The work of removing the blocks to the spreading-ground is easily
accomplished; and they are exposed in the open air,
for drying, in much the same manner as bricks are
exposed in a brick-yard.
The amount of water contained in well-drained peat
is ordinarily from 65 to 75 per cent., varying according
to the character of the material and the drainage of the
meadow; so that the weight of dry, hard fuel from the




6 2       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
product of a day's operations, is from 12 to 17 tons, or
25 to 35 tons, from the two sizes of machines, respectively, -the cost of which, by this process, to place it on
the spreading-ground, at present prices of labor ($1.75
per day), is less than $1.50 per ton; to. which may be
added 50 cents per ton for turning the fuel while drying,
and for housing it; making the entire cost $2 or less.
The water remaining in the blocks as they come from
the mill can be got rid of, only by evaporation, which
goes on very rapidly after this method of treatment; and
the fuel is, at the expiration of about eight or ten days,
-- sometimes in four or five,- in condition to be housed,
or transported to market.
The cost, as stated above, is for the product of one
set of machinery; but where several machines are to be
operated, and the business is conducted on an extensive
scale, the cost, pro rata, is very much reduced, as one
man can easily superintend the operation of several
machines, the laborers generally can be employed to
better advantage, and numerous mechanical appliances
to save manual labor and expedite the operations, which
it would not be advisable to construct where a single
machine only was to be run, may be economically introduced on more extensive works; and in this manner
the expense may be very considerably reduced, some
have estimated as low as one dollar per ton.
The parties interested in this latter enterprise have
been diligently pursuing the matter for a long time,
firmly convinced of the value of the article, and of the
practicability of producing it, in mrarketable shape, in
large quantities, and at moderate cost; and are content
that the merits of their machinery, and the value of the
product as an article of fuel, should stand upon the test
which each observer or consumer may choose to apply.




METHOD OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.           63
Their inventions are secured by letters-patent, and the
process can be seen in operation at their works, at East
Lexington, Mass.
Their purpose is to encourage the manufacture of peat
wherever it is found; and to this end they furnish machinery, and rights under their patents, at moderate
rates.
The following is a liberal estimate of the cost of an
establishment for running a Leavitt machine of the capacity of one hundred tons crude peat per day, estimating
labor and material to command about the prices which
rule at the present timei, 1867, which are high:One machine, as above,...$1,500
Engine and boiler, 12 horse,.              1,200
Shafting, belting, and fixtures,....       500
Buildings, roughly constructed,.          1,000
Incidentals,............  300
$4,500
Or for a better establishment, as follows:
One machine, as above,..         $1,500
Engine and boiler, 12 horse.               2,000
Shafting, belting, and fixtures,.   500
Buildings,                                 2,000
Incidentals,........... 500
$6,500
For machines of fifty tons capacity, the cost is $500
less on each machine; the power required is, of course,
less, and the cost for an engine would be reduced proportionately.
The number of machines to be run in one establishment may be increased with comparatively small outlay
for buildings and power.




64        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
The laborers employed, and the cost of labor for running one of these machines, will doubtless be an item of
interest to those investigating the subject.  At the works
of the Boston Peat Company, at Lexington, Mass., they
have been as follows, for 100 tons crude peat per day:
Four men to cut the peat from the bog and load it
into cars; one boy, one horse, and two cars, to haul (on
a tramway) from the bog to the mill; one man to feed
into the mill; one man to put moulds into the mill;
two men to take moulds from the mill; one boy, one
horse, and three trucks to remove the moulds (filled
with peat) to the- spreading ground; two men on the
spreading ground to empty the moulds; one boy to receive the moulds as they come back from the spreading ground; one engineer and one superintendent.
This comprises 12 men, 3 boys, and 2 horses.
Ten of the men are paid. $1.75 per day.. $17.50
The engineer is paid.    2.50  "  "....50
The superintendent is paid 3.00  "  ".     3.00
The three boys are paid.   75  "  "...  2.25
For the two horses we pay 1.25'  "...  2.50
$27.75
In addition to this the blocks of peat require to
be " haked " or turned once while on the spreading
ground, which is done by boys, and the dry fuel is
to be gathered up and placed under shelter, which
can easily be done by two men, and occasionally
an extra man or boy may be wanted about the
premises; all of which is considered to be more
than covered by ten dollars per day,.       10.00
Giving as a total cost for labor on each day's
yield of, say 25 tons or more, of merchantable fuel, $37.75
In this connection, some data concerning peat-beds,




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    65
and the product of manufacture, may be of interest.
We therefore give the following as some of the result!
of our own observation, from repeated practical tests at
the works of the Boston Peat Company, located at East
Lexington, Mass., about ten miles from Boston.
A cubic foot of crude peat, as taken from a welldrained bog, weighs from fifty to fifty-five pounds.
This same quantity is condensed by the machinery
in use at the works above mentioned, from thirty to forty
per cent., according to the character or structure of the
material, and that too, before it is relieved from any of
the water contained in the mass.
In this state it is formed into blocks of convenient
size, which are then exposed in the open air, where
evaporation takes place very rapidly, and is found to be
greatly accelerated by the treatment the material has
received in passing through the condensing mill; so
that the time ordinarily required in the summer season
for drying sufficiently to be housed is about six or eight
days, though it varies from four to ten days, according
to the weather; and by evaporation it is still further
reduced to about one quarter its original bulk, and will,
at this stage, have been found to have lost about two
thirds to three quarters of its original weight, its
bulk having been diminished by the forcible ejection of
the air in the process of condensing, and the loss of
water by evaporation, while its weight is diminished
solely by the evaporation of the water.
A ton of wet peat, as cut, will measure about forty
cubic feet; and about one hundred and sixty cubic feet
of crude material are required to produce one ton of
dry fuel. Some very compact peats, however, require
not more than 140, or even 120, cubic feet for a ton of
dry fuel.
5




66        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
One block, as it comes moist from the moulds,
fleasures 8 X 4 X 21 (80 cubic inches), and weighs
about 3 lb. 6 oz.
The machines turn out respectively 30,000 and
60,000 of these blocks per day.
The best place to dry the blocks is on the grass, in
the open air, where they dry most rapidly and uniformly.
A very economical method of drying is, undoubtedly,
on racks, consisting of a light frame about seven feet
long by three feet wide, crossed with ordinary laths,
convenient to receive 48 blocks each (8 X 6 48), and
are easily handled by two men. These may be piled
one upon another, while good ventilation is secured, and
the cost of handling is less than by any other method,
except upon the grass, as above.
Of those blocks, wet as they come from the mill, 610
weigh one ton.
As these blocks are laid out to dry, an acre of land
will be covered by about 250 tons — spread on the
grass.
If spread on racks or frames, as above described, one
ton will require 13 frames.
One acre of land, then, allowing one fourth the area
for drive-ways, &c., will accommodate 1650 frames (one
deep), or about 125 tons.
The same area, covered with frames 10 tiers high,
will accommodate 1250 tons.
Peat can be manufactured and dried in this manner,
in good weather, so as to make a good fuel, and be suitable to burn, in a week or ten days; but, like good dry
wood, it is undoubtedly much improved in quality when
housed and allowed to cure for a season, say three to
six months.
An acre of peat, of fair quality, well drained, if one




METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL.    67
foot in depth, will generally contain 1000 to 1200 tons,
yielding 250 to 350 tons of dry fuel. Greater depths:.
in proportion.
Few peats, however well drained, contain less than
50 per cent. of water, and most contain 65 to 85
per cent.
Our own estimates have always been made on 75 per
cent. of moisture, which is safe; but it is quite probable that 70 per cent. would be fair in the majority of
well-drained meadows.
When best drained, peat is wQrked to the best advantage, both as regards economy of labor and the quantity
and quality of fuel produced.
Peats vary much in their heating properties, as do
woods and coals, according to their growth and composition. The most thoroughly decomposed and compact
deposits yield, when manufactured, the most dense fuel
at no greater cost for labor than the lighter and more
porous material, and are, therefore, the cheapest.
It is an essential feature of this process, and one
which, in some sections, will be found of great importance, that from light and inferior qualities of crude
peat, we are able to produce an excellent article of fuel.
Pure moss peats are invariably good. The most resinous peats are shown to be the most valuable, especially
for generating steam and for the production of gas.
As to the specific gravity of condensed peat: we have
often heard it said that "peat is equal to the best hard
wood." Now, we know that the best and hardest woods
will float upon water; while it is a fact that, from the
very poorest peats we have ever worked, our machinery
has never failed to produce a fuel which would sink in
water; showing its specific gravity to be greater than
the best of woods.




68        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
We are able to produce fuel varying from  65 to 80
pounds per cubic foot, according to the character of the
crude material, which is equal to from 4 to 5 tons to the
solid cord, or 21 to 3~  tons in its broken condition, as
shovelled up and loaded when dry.
In estimating the weight of dry peat-fuel per cubic
foot, bushel, or otherwise, it should be understood that
the waste space in peat and in wood, as commonly
heaped or piled, is probably not far from 40 per cent.
The quality of peat-fuel, like wood, is improved by
age; that is, the fuel, although housed very soon after
it is manufactured, and considered dry, and in excellent
condition for use, as it really is, will be found to have
improved very much if properly housed, and allowed to
remain and cure for three, six, or even twelve months,
the difference in quality being as readily observed as in
wood, under the same circumstances.
Although peat-fuel, properly manufactured, will stand
considerable exposure to the weather, it will inevitably
be injured, to some extent, by rain and snow, sun and
frost, if left uncovered long after it is fit for use; and
every manufacturer and consumer will find it to be the
wiser course, if he has a good article of fuel, to provide
a suitable place for it, and take good care of it.
Frequent inquiry is made as to the practicability of
drying peat by artificial means, and the best method of
accomplishing it.  That it can be dried by artificial
means has been satisfactorily demonstrated; but we are
by no means prepared to say that the best and most
economical method for accomplishing it has yet been devised. A great variety of kilns are in operation, some
of them certified and acknowledged to work almost to
perfection in drying lumber, cotton, tobacco, &c.; but
wet peat is obstinate, will not yield kindly to the same




PEAT-CHAIRCOAL.                69
treatment, in fact is "a poser."  Its peculiarities have
yet to be fully understood.
The points to be considered in perfecting a process
for artificial drying, aside from the first cost of buildings
and apparatus, are, the time required, the expense for
fuel and labor, and the quality and characteristics of the
fuel produced, as affected by the manner of drying.
We have no idea that artificial drying will be resorted
to, to any extent, during good weather in the summer,
at present, for Nature accomplishes the work for us,
when she does it at all, better than Art can, and at much
less expense; but in stormy weather, and during the
winter season, we are satisfied that it can be done; and
although the best method has not yet been proved, we
are on the direct road to it, and, by patient, persevering
effort, with a willingness to "make haste slowly," we
fully expect to reach it in good time.
A light current of heated air, passing over and through
the mass of peat, is what is required; the details of
buildings, mechanical arrangement of the apparatus,
and cost of fuel and labor, by which to attain the best
results in the most rapid and economical manner, are
points which cannot be said to have been sufficiently
elucidated to admit of' writing definitely in regard to
them.
Steady progress is being made, and time, skill, and
enterprise are sure to demonstrate the best method of
artificial drying.
PEAT-CHARCOAL.
Not merely may we utilize peat in its natural condition, or in its manufactured and solidified state, but we
may carbonize it as we do wood, and produce peatcharcoal.




7 0       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
The common and simple mode of carbonizing or
charring the ordinary peat is in heaps, in the same manner as that of wood. The sods or blocks must be regularly arranged, and laid as close as possible: they are
the better for being large, - say fifteen inches long by
six broad and deep.  The heaps, built hemispherically,
should be smaller in size than the heaps of wood usually
are. In general, some five thousand or six thousand
large sods may go to the heap, which will thus contain
about fifteen hundred cubic feet.  The mass must be
allowed to heap more than necessary for wood; and the
process requires to be very carefully attended to, from
the extreme combustibility of the charcoal. The quantity of charcoal obtained by this method is generally
from twenty to thirty per cent. of the weight of dry
turf.
For many industrial uses, however, the charcoal so
produced from peat in its natural state is too light; because, generally speaking, it is only with fuel of considerable density that the most intense heat can be
produced.
It is, therefore, only from peat in a manufactured or
solidified state that we can expect to prepare a charcoal thoroughly adapted as a fuel for the more severe
processes required in the arts.
By coking this, however, a charcoal is produced of a
density of 1.040 or upwards, which is far superior to
the best wood-charcoal, and is fully equal to that of the
best coke made from coal.
Its calorific power is intense. The quality of charcoal
generally obtained from a good article of solidified peat
is from thirty-five to forty-two per cent. of its weight.
In the great Exhibition at Paris, in 1851, numerous
specimens of peat and peat-charcoal, prepared by differ



PEAT-CHAPCOAL.                71
ent patented processes, were exhibited, which were remarkable for their density and cheapness, and attracted
particular attention. They were stated to be economically employed for stationary steam engines and for
locomotives.
Moulded peat, in small bricks, of density sufficient to
sink in water, is supplied in the city of Paris from numerous sources, mostly for domestic purposes. From
Liancourt, distant seventeen leagues, it is brought, and
sold at the rate of twenty francs for 2204 pounds avoirdupois. It is stated of one firm, that, in 1855, they
converted some ten thousand tons or more into charcoal,
obtaining from forty to forty-two per cent., which was
sold at wholesale for one hundred francs the one thousand kilograms (two thousand two hundred and four
pounds), which was about the same value as woodcharcoal, and about three times the price of wood and
mineral coal for the same weight.
The methods adopted for charring or carbonizing peat
differ somewhat in the various localities where it is prepared. We have seen descriptions of the manner in
which it is conducted in England, Ireland, France, Bohemia, Bavaria, Saxony, Russia, Friesland, and elsewhere; the general principles. being the same, but differing in details, some of which appear to offer decided
advantages in an economical point of view, and in the
production of the greatest amount of compact fuel from
a given weight of the raw material.
From Prof. Johnson we quote:" When peat is charred, it yields a coal or coke which,
being richer in carbon, is capable of giving an intenser
heat than peat itself, in the same way that charcoal emits
an intenser heat in its combustion than the wood from
which it is made.




72        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
"Peat coal has been and is employed, to some extent,
in metallurgical processes, as a substitute for charcoal,
and, when properly prepared from good peat, is in no
way inferior to the latter - is, in fact, better.
"It is only, however, from peat which naturally dries
to a hard and dense consistency, or which has been
solidified on the principles of Challeton's and Weber's
methods (condensed in its moist state), that a coal can
be made possessing the firmness necessary for furnace
use. Fibrous peat, or that condensed by pressure, as
in Exter's, Elsberg's, and the Lithuanian process, yields,
by coking or charring, a friable coal, comparatively unsuited for heating purposes.
"A peat which is dense as the result of proper mechanical treatment and slow drying, yields a very
homogeneous and compact coal, superior to any wood
charcoal, the best qualities weighing nearly twice as
much per bushel.
"Peat is either charred in pits and heaps, or in kilns.
From the regularity of the rectangular blocks into which
peat is usually formed, it may be charred more easily in
pits than wood, since the blocks admit of closer packing
in the heap, and because the peat-coal is less inflammable than wood-coal.'The heaps may likewise be made
much smaller than is needful in case of wood, viz., six
to eight feet in diameter, and four feet high.
"I have carbonized, in an iron retort, specimens of
peat prepared by Elsberg's, Leavitt's, and Ashcroft and
Betteley's processes. Elsberg's gave 35, the others 37
per cent. of coal. The coal from Elsberg's peat was
greatly fissured, and could be crushed in the fingers to
small fragments.  That from the other peats was more
firm, and required considerable exertion to break it.
All had a decided metallic brilliancy of surface."




PEAT IN, EUROPE.                73
The high heating power of peat-charcoal, and its freedoum from properties deleterious to metal, must invest it
with peculiar interest to the smelter, and those who follow after him as manufacturers of the article he produces;
while, to the sanitary reformer and the agriculturist, its
disinfecting and fertilizing qualities may be said to be
of hardly less importance.
PEAT IN EUROPE.
The abundance and accessibility of peat in Ireland
render it of no small importance among the natural resources of that land, especially to the vast mass of the
poorer classes. It is generally of superior cquality, plentiful, and cheap. Not only is it the common fuel of the
poor in the interior, -and, indeed, of all classes, in some
districts, - but it is transported in barges, in immense
quantities, by canal, to Dublin, and there consumed by
the wealthier class of the people.
So extensive is the supply of peat in Ireland, that it
has been estimated to occupy one seventh of its entire
surface. It is stated that Ireland has two canals running
through two million acres of peat-bog. Among other
instances of the value of peat as an article of fuel, it is
stated that a distillery company, by the judicious management of a bog,, had their steam power for half the
cost required for coals, and were, at the same time,
making an estate of reclaimed land for themselves.
The red peat-bogs, which form so remarkable a feature in this country, are chiefly comprised in the great
central plain of Ireland. Unlike the English mosses,
they are rarely level, but undulating; and, in Donegal,
there is a bog which is completely diversified by hill
and dale.




74        PEAT AS AN APITICLE OF FUEL.
These bogs consist of moist vegetable matter, containing a great deal of stagnant water, and, after heavy
rains, have been known to burst, and inundate the
adjoining country.
At a meeting of the British Association, in 1842, Mr.
Griffith illustrated the mode in which he considered the
coal-measures had been formed, by describing the general condition of the peat-bogs of Ireland. They appeared to occupy basins which had formerly been lakes;
but the peat-moss had grown up to the level of the
water, and afterwards, by capillarity, had risen twenty
or thirty feet higher. As a case in point, he mentioned
a bog, the base of which consisted of clay, covered by a
layer of peat which is composed of rushes and flags.
Above this is another bed of peat, closely resembling
cannel-coal, " possessing a conchoidal fracture, and
hard enough to be worked into snuff-boxes."  It yielded twenty-five per cent. of ashes, and contained a large
proportion of oxide of iron.
This bed was covered with black peat, containing
branches and twigs of fir, or pine, oak, yew, and hazel,
only the bark being left; and, where whole trees occurred, the roots were entirely gone.  The surface was
formed of ordinary bog-moss (sphagnum), nearly white.
The whole amount of peat in the bog referred to, would,
he thought, form a coal-seam of at least three or four
feet in thickness.
Wire have seen several statements, of late years, to
the effect that the area of peat-land in Ireland is considerably diminished; some of the bogs having been reclaimed, and converted into arable land, and others
exhausted, drained, or cut out.
The Bog of Dourah, eastward from the Fergus, affords
the principal supply of peat to Ennis and Clare. The




PEAT IN EUROPE.                75
bogs in this district abound in timber.  A  fir-tree,
measuring thirty-one to thirty-eight inches in diameter,
by sixty-eight feet in length, is mentioned as having
been raised from a bog near Kilrush.  The mode of
finding bog-timber is rather remarkable. It is ascertained that the dew does not lie on that portion of a bog
immediately above a tree or log, as it does elsewhere.
Its position can thus be easily ascertained before the
dews rise in the morning; when the finder, after probing with a bog-auger to ascertain whether the wood be
sound, marks the spot with a spade, and proceeds to
raise the timber at his leisure.  Much of this timber is
sound; and from some bogs very large and exceedingly
valuable sticks have been raised, the growth of past ages.
The series of extensive bogs in the central part of Ireland, though separated from each other, have received
the common name of " The Bog of Allen." They vary
much in depth, composition, moisture, &c. They rest,
generally, upon a stratum of blue clay, based on limestone, and are invariably above the level of the sea.
Their greatest elevation, however, does not exceed four
hundred and ninety feet; the mean elevation being two
hundred and fifty feet.
The Parliamentary Commission, appointed about
1812, to inquire into the nature and extent of the several
bogs in Ireland, and the practicability of draining and cultivating them, reported, in 1814, that "the extent of
peat-soil in Ireland exceeds two million eight hundred and
thirty-one thousand English acres," of which there were
at least one million five hundred and seventy-six thousand acres of flat red-bog, considered the most valuable;
the remainder consisting of mountain-bogs, on the surface of the uplands.
The drainage and cultivation of these extensive pro



76        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
portions of the surface of Ireland have long been regarded as objects of great national importance. Numerous
commissions have been appointed to investigate and
report, and frequent attempts have been made to show
that these ends might be attained at no very great expense; but the instances of successful bog cultivation
in any part of the island are very few, and those only
under peculiar circumstances.; The bogs have a value
which none can question, even though they be entirely
useless for purposes of cultivation. They supply the
inhabitants extensively with fuel. In those parts, indeed, where bogs are scarce, they are the most valuable
properties in the country. In some localities, the peat
has been entirely cut out; and where this is the case,
and other bogs are not easily accessible, the inhabitants
have sustained great privations from the want of fuel.
It has been remarked, that "the rainy climate of Ireland, and the wet occupations of the people, together
with the nature of their food, render a fire more essential to their welfare than to most others; and, in fact,
it is frequently the substitute for clothing, bedding, and,
in part for shelter. Had it not been for the bog, the
measures taken in former times to extirpate the nation
might probably have succeeded; but the bog gave them
a degree of comfort upon easy terms, and enabled them
to live under severe privations of another kind."
We have seen an estimate somewhat as follows, intended to show how important to Ireland are her peatbogs in furnishing a valuable fuel, independent of her
deposits of anthracite and bituminous coal.
The quantity capable of being cut for fuel may be
taken as low as two million acres, at an average depth
of three yards; the mass of fuel which they contain,
estimated at five hundred and fifty pounds per cubic




PEAT IN EUROPEE.               77
yard when dry, amounts to the enormous quantity of
6,338,666,666 tons.
Taking, therefore, the value of peat (crude) as compared with that of coal (said to be as one to six), the total
amount of peat fuel in Ireland is equivalent to four hundred and seventy million tons of coal; which, at twelve
shillings per ton, is worth about ~280,000,000 sterling,
or $1,335,000,000.
In regard to the trees which are so frequently found
in the Irish bogs, Mr. Aher remarks, " Such trees have
generally six or seven feet of compact peat under their
roots, which are found standing as they grew; evidently
proving the formation of peat to have been previous
to the growth of the trees." In the bogs in the vicinity
of Londonderry, according to the Report of the Ordinance Survey in 1837, the fact above stated may be verified in relation to fir-trees, the lowest layer of which
is underlaid by from three to five feet of peat.  Not so,
however, with oaks, as their stumps are commonly found
resting on the gravel at the base, or on the sides of the
small hillocks of gravel and sand which so often stud the
surfaces of bogs, and have been aptly called " islands "
by Mr. Aher, and "hummocks " by other writers. It
is a remarkable fact, although very common, that suecessive layers of trees or stumps in the erect position in
which they had grown, and furnished with all their roots,
are found at distinctly different levels, and at small vertical distances from each other.
The bogs contain, it has been ascertained, two important families of trees, the resinous or coniferous trees,
which grew in successive layers or tiers upon the ancient
surfaces of peat; and the hard-wooded, non-resinous
trees, which grew upon the gravel at the original base.
Of the former, the prevailing tree was the common




78       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Scotch pine, or fir, - Pinus sylvestris: of the latter,
the oak, Quercus robur, prevailed.
It may be mentioned here, as a matter of some
interest, that in a "notice of a submarine forest in
Cardigan Bay, North Wales," the author remarks on
the occurrence therein of the Pinus sylvestris, although
the Scotch fir is now excluded from the native flora.
Professor Lyell, in his "Principles of Geology,"
says,"It is a curious and well-ascertained fact, that many
of the mosses (bogs) of the north of Europe occupy
the place of immense forests of pine and oak, which
have, many of them, disappeared within the historical
era.  Such changes are brought about by the fall of
trees, and the stagnation of water caused by their trunks
and branches obstructing the free drainage of the atmospheric waters, and giving rise to a marsh. In a
warm climate, such decayed timber would immediately
be removed by insects or by putrefaction; but, in the
cold temperature now prevailing in our latitudes, many
examples are recorded of marshes originating in this
source. Thus, in Mar Forest, in Aberdeenshire, large
trunks of Scotch fir, which had fallen from age and decay, were soon immured in peat formed partly out of
their perishing leaves and branches, and in part from
the growth of other plants. We also learn that the
overthrow of a forest by a storm, about the middle of
the seventeenth century, gave rise to a peat-moss, near
Lochbroom, in Ross-shire, where, in less than half a
century after the fall of the trees, the inhabitants dug
peat. Dr. Walker mentions a similar change, when, in
the year 1756, the whole Wood of Drumlaurig was
overset by the wind. Such events explain the occurrence, both in Britain and on the Continent, of mosses




PEAT BIN EUROPE.               79
where the trees are all broken within two or three feet
of the original surface, and where their trunks all lie in
the same direction.
"Nothing is more common than the occurrence of
buried trees at the bottom of the Irish peat-mosses, as
also in most of those of England, France, and Holland;
and they have been so often observed with parts of their
trunks standing erect, and with their roots fixed to the
subsoil, that no doubt can be entertained of their having generally grown on the spot.  They consist, for the
most part, of the fir, the oak, and the birch. Where
the subsoil is clay, the remains of oak are the most
abundant; where sand is the substratum, fir prevails.
"In the Marsh of Curragh, in the Isle of Man, vast
trees are discovered standing firm on their roots, though
at the depth of eighteen or twenty feet below the surface.
The leaves and fruit of each species are frequently found
immersed along with the parent trees; as, for example,
the leaves and acorns of the oak, the cones and leaves
of the fir, and the nuts of the hazel.
"The durability of pine-wood, which in the Scotch
peat-mosses exceeds that of the birch'and oak, is due to
the great quantity of turpentine which it contains, and
which is so abundant that the fir-wood from bogs is
used by the country people, in parts of Scotland, in the
place of candles. Such resinous plants, observes Dr.
Macculloch, as fir, would produce a fatter coal than oak,
because the resin itself is converted into bitumen.
"In Hatfield moss, which appears clearly to have
been a forest eighteen hundred years ago, fir-trees have
been found ninety feet long, and sold for mnasts and
keels of ships: oaks have also been discovered there
above one hundred feet long. The dimensions of an
oak from this moss are given in the Philosophical




80        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Transactions, No. 275, which must have been larger
than any tree now existing in the British dominions.
"In the same moss of Hatfield, as well as in that of
Kincardine and several others, Roman roads have been
found, covered to the depth of eight feet by peat. All
the coins, axes, arms, and other utensils found in British
and French mosses, are also Roman; so that a considerable portion of the European peat-bogs are evidently
not more ancient than the age of Julius Caesar: nor can
any vestiges of the ancient forests described by that
general, along the line of the great Roman way in
Britain, be discovered, except in the ruined trunks of
trees in peat.
"De Luc ascertained that the very site of the aboriginal forests of Hircinia, Semana, Ardennes, and
several others, are now occupied by mosses and fens;
and a great part of these changes have, with much
probability, been attributed to the strict orders given by
Severus and other emperors to destroy all the wood in
the conquered provinces.  Several of the British forests,
however, which are now mosses, were cut at different
periods by order of the English Parliament, because
they harbored wolves or outlaws. Thus the Welsh
woods were cut and burnt in the reign of Edward I.,
as were many of those in Ireland by Henry II., to
prevent the natives from harboring in them and harassing his troops.'It is curious to reflect that considerable tracts have,
by these accidents, been permanently sterilized; and
that, during a period when civilization has been making
great progress, large areas in Europe have, by human
agency, been rendered less capable of administering to
the wants of man. Dr. Rennie observes with truth,
that in those regions alone which the Roman eagle never




FRANCE.                    81
reached, in the remote circles of the German Empire,
in Poland and Prussia, and still more in Norway,
Sweden, and the vast empire of Russia, can we see
what Europe was before it yielded to the power of Rome.
Desolation now reigns where stately forests of pine and
oak once flourished, such as might now have supplied
all the navies of Europe with timber.
"At the bottom of peat-mosses is sometimes found a
cake, or'pan' as it is termed, of oxide of iron; and
the frequency of bog iron-ore is familiar to the mineralogist.  The oak, which is so often found dyed black
in peat, owes its color to the same metal.  From what
source the iron is derived is by no means obvious, since
we cannot in all cases suppose that it has been precipitated from the waters of mineral springs. According
to Fourcroy, there is iron in all compact wood; and it
is the cause of one twelfth part of the weight of oak.
The heaths (Ericce) which flourish in a sandy, ferruginous soil, are said to contain more iron than any other
vegetable.
"It has been suggested that iron, being soluble in
acids, may be diffused through the whole mass of vegetables when they decay in a bog, and may, by its
superior specific gravity, sink to the bottom, and be
there precipitated, so as to form bog iron-ore; or, where
there is a subsoil of sand or gravel, it may cement there
into iron-stone or ferruginous conglomerate."
FRANCE.
There are several deposits of peat which furnish the
supply of this material for the Paris market. A portion
of a large peat-bog near Liancourt, on the Northern
Railway, seventeen leagues from Paris, is wrought by
6




82        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Messrs. Debonne & Co., who employ about three
hundred men during five months of the year. The peat
here has an average thickness of about ten feet. The
cuttings from the top and bottom of the bog are mixed,
and, being transferred to flat-boats, is turned over with
shovels and trampled by the feet of men; after which it
is moulded with pressure into' the form of small bricks,
which, when dried, are ready for market.
The quantity annually raised by this concern is from
ten thousand to twelve thousand tons, a large portion of
which is converted, upon the spot, into charcoal, of which
the yield is from forty to forty-two per cent.
The moulded peat is worth, in Paris, about twenty
francs per ton; the charcoal, about one hundred francs
per ton. This peat yields about ten per cent. of ash,
and the charcoal twenty-seven per cent.; which indicates
a quality inferior to most American peats.
M. Herbert, of Reims, prepares a large quantity of
compressed peat of excellent quality, amounting to
about fourteen thousand tons annually, a part of which
is manufactured into charcoal.
The peats and charcoals prepared by the patented
process of Challeton at Clermont Ferrand and Mantauger, specimens of which were shown at the great
Exhibition of 1851, were remarkable for their density
and cheapness, and attracted particular attention. They
were said to be economically employed for stationary
steam engines and locomotives.
Dr. Elisha North, of New London, Conn., writes in.
1825, "I believe, judging from much experience, that
peat of the best quality, if used for producing a genial
and pleasant temperature in common winter weather,
is the best fuel which the earth produces, unless an




FRANCE.                  83
exception be made in favor of a very few species of trees
equally well prepared.
"My opinion respecting its utility has been confirmed
by judicious and candid persons who have been practically and thoroughly acquainted with it."
He adds, "As evidence that public opinion in some
places is in favor of peat, it may be mentioned that Citizen Ribaucourt published by order of the French Government, in the eleventh year of the republic, a regular
treatise on the subject. In this treatise, he says ten
thousand persons are annually employed in preparing
and transporting peat from one peat basin or marsh upon
the lesser branch of the Loire, in the north-west part of
France.  This peat-bed cannot be a great distance from
the city Nantes, where much peat is burnt; or even
from the city of Paris."
A translation of a part, and a synopsis of the remainder, of the report of Ribaucourt, referred to by Dr.
North, was subsequently published in Silliman's "Journal of Science" in 1828. From this it appears that
peat and its various uses had long been known in
France.  Its use, however, had been limited to the departments of Somme, Loire-inf6rieure, Pas de Calais,
some cantons of the departments of Oise, Marne, Eure,
Seine et Oise, Meurthe, Vosges, and to a few others.
There is scarcely a valley which does not contain valuable deposits of it, the thickness varying from six inches
to twenty feet.
He remarks that peat and the coal of peat may be
put to the same uses as wood and charcoal, and may be
advantageously employed in a great number of the arts.
It is employed not only for domestic purposes, but in
furnaces under boilers, in burning brick and lime, and




84        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
in preparing plaster.  The ashes are very valuable in
agriculture, and command a high price. Observations
show that the water which has penetrated peat beds has
antiseptic properties.
We find in the work of De Luc, entitled "A Letter
upon Men and Mountains," some interesting details
upon the progressive accumulation of peat, analogous to
that of glaciers in certain mountains. There have been
found under certain beds, in the Valley of the Somme,
ancient causeways, divers tools, and pieces of money.
From a paper entitled "Peat as an Article of Fuel,"
published in Boston in 1864, we extract the following: -
"; It is estimated, that, in France, there exists the enormous quantity of six thousand million tons of peat, purified and dried in the crude state; or, reduced to charcoal, two thousand six hundred and ten millions of
tons; the heating power of which equals that of woodcharcoal.
"From the figures of the most skilful mining engineers in the empire, we find that -
Degrees of Heat.
1 kilogram of wood-charcoal... yields 7,000
1    "'    purified peat-charcoal   "' 7,000
1    "     coal-coke....   "  7,000
1    "     raw coal.....       "  5,000
I1    "    raw wood...        "  2,600
1    "     raw purified peat..   "  4,300
while condensed peat, deprived of the excess of oxygen,
possesses nearly double the heating power of coal.
"Again: it is proved that the total general annual
consumption in France of all kinds of mineral and vegetable fuels was as follows: —




FRANCE.                    85
Wood-charcoal for iron-works.          667,902 tons.
"    "    " other purposes.         472,630 "
Raw wood for iron-works....       8,405 "'L"   "  " other purposes...       1,989,710'"
Coal-coke for iron-works...... 767,622 "
"'       "  "' other purposes..2,462,400 "
Raw coal for iron-works. 1,108,252'
"L  (' "( navigation, railroads, &c... 3,725,200'
Raw and carbonized peat, actual consumption  359,319 "
Total...                    11,561,440 tons.
"If peat had been used in the place of these different
kinds of fuel, it would have required 15,656,687 tons,
raw and purified, to produce the same effect; and, at
that rate, the supply of peat in France would have sufficed the empire for nine hundred years, without importing a pound of coal, and leaving her free to export
annually the seven million five hundred thousand tons
of coal she raised in 1862, and free likewise from the
necessity of importing eight million tons of coal, as she
did from England and Belgium in the same year.
"It is not believed that France is any better off in
respect to her deposits of peat than the New England
States; and it is safe to say, that, by a proper development of their resources in this respect, these States could
soon make themselves independent of the world, so far
at least as the supply of fuel is concerned, retaining
within themselves all the vast sums they annually expend for fuel, besides giving employment to and enriching their own population.
"But can peat be used at less or even the same expense as other kinds of fuel for manufacturing purposes?
Take the article of pig-iron.  By the French engineers,
it is foand that the cost of working pig-iron, -




86         PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
1 ton, with wood-charcoal, was...   4  s. Od.
1 "   " coal-coke, was..   2 16s. Od..1 "   " raw coal, was.            2 15s. 4d.
1 "   " purified peat-charcoal, was. 2 4s. 10d.
1'   " crude peat (condensed), was. I 10s. Od."
"This is enough to prove the economy of peat for all
purposes.  The general result is thus stated:'For domestic consumption, the economy — all conditions of
heat being equal —would not be less than thirty per
cent. on the cost of fires with wood-charcoal and wood,
coke and raw- coal; and that for large manufactories,
which, on account of the quantity which they annually
consume, should themselves produce this fuel, that calculation of economy would, in certain cases, be raised
to sixty per cent.'"
Similar results follow the inquiry into the economy
of using peat in locomotive engines. Of the eleven
hundred and ninety-nine locomotive engines employed
by four great companies of France, it was estimated that
the whole ran nineteen million five hundred thousand
miles per year.  They used coal and coke concurrently,
amounting in the aggregate to a hundred and eighty-one
thousand tons, at a cost of ~446,711 sterling. Purified
peat would have done the same work for ~271,500,
making a saving of ~175,271, to say nothing of the less
amount of wear and destruction of the boilers, grates, &c.
But as to bulk, does not peat require more room?
"It has been proved and acknowledged, that, for equal
bulk, raw purified peat contains one third more heat
than coke, and less by one fifth only for an equal bulk
of coal of good quality."
Says M. Bute, Superintendent of Railway Engineers for the Kingdom of Hanover, " We can, by the
help of a hopper placed on the tender, carry the quan



ITALY.                     87
tity of peat which would be necessary for a trip of one
hundred to one hundred and twelve English miles. No
difficulty will be presented to the employment of compressed peat for heating ordinary fixed engines, and,
eventually, for that of steamboats.
"On this subject it is sufficient to say, that, by the
process employed by the'General Association for Working the Peat and Metalliferous Deposits of France,' a
density may be given to peat, when condensed, of from
six to fifteen hundred weight per cubic yard."
These facts and conclusions have been principally
obtained from reports of companies in England, and of
scientific associations in France, who have studied the
subject of preparing peat, both as a money making
enterprise and as an element in political economy.
ITALY.
From the reports of the great Exhibition of 1862, we
quote as follows: —
"Looking at the difficulties caused by the neglect of
the forests and by the want of coal, the jury were glad
to award a medal to And. Gregorini of Bergamo for his
successful introduction of peat in the puddling of both
iron and steel."
This was accomplished, as we have occasion to know,
by the Siemens Gas Furnace, a description of which will
be found on subsequent pages, under the head of "Peat
in the Manufacture of Iron."
"The absence of sufficient quantities of suitable fuel,
and perhaps the tendency of the national tastes, keep
the manufacture of iron in the Italian Peninsula at a
lower point than we should expect, who remember that




88        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE O]F FUEL.
some of the oldest and grandest iron mines of the world
are those of Elba.
"Elba produces, on the average, forty-eight thousand
tons of ore, of which twenty thousand tons are smelted
in Fullonica and other places in Tuscany, and yield the
excellent pigs and bars exhibited by the government.
"The total amount of pig-iron produced in Italy does
not exceed thirty-eight thousand tons annually."
FALKLAND ISLANDS.
These islands are destitute of coal or wood of any
kind; but the lack of fuel is abundantly supplied by
their extensive fields of peat, which are found in every
part of the group.  The deposits vary in depth from two
to four feet; and it is gathered, cured, and stored at
small cost.
NEWFOUNDLAND.
Large quantities of peat, suitable for fuel, exist on
this island.
It is stated on good authority, that beneath its surface
occur the trunks and roots of trees much larger than any
which are now growing on the island.
Operations for the manufacture of fuel were commenced at St. John's during the last season, but we are
as yet without details of the results.
NOVA SCOTIA.
Peat swamps and bogs are very numerous in Nova
Scotia, especially in the rocky districts of the Atlantic
coast.  The most extensive are said to be near the
Clyde River, in Shelburne, and the Carriboo Bog of




ASIA.                    89
Aylesford. They consist of vegetable matter which has
grown and accumulated on the spot, forming a black,
carbonaceous moss, some of which has entered on the
first stage of the changes by which it may be converted
into coal; and it is not unusual to find in the bottom of
such bogs a substance much resembling ordinary bituminous coal.
On the north-west arm of the River of Inhabitants,
appears, under twenty feet of bowlder clay, a hardened
bed of peat. It rests upon gray clay similar to that
which often underlies peat-beds.
Pressure has rendered this peat nearly as hard as coal,
though it is somewhat tougher and more earthy than
good coal. It has a glossy appearance when rubbed or
scratched with a knife, burns with considerable flame,
and approaches in its character to the brown coals or
more imperfect varieties of bituminous coal. It contains
many small roots and branches, apparently of coniferous
trees allied to the spruces.
ASIA.
The followung, which we cut from the "New York
Evening Post " of a recent date, is the only mention we
have seen of anything of the character of peat in Asia,
and is interesting in this connection:"At a recent meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
Major Risely described a combustible mud, of which he
first heard last September. It exists in large tracts,
notably in the Pertabghur districts in Oude, where there
is a jheel, or swamp of black mud, which looks like
ashes, and smoulders like wood. The mud, when dried,
blazes quite freely. It has been tried at Cawnpore by
Mr. Taylor, the locomotive foreman, and was found to




90        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
give very nearly as much steam as wood.'It would do
very well for locomotives, and could be supplied at six
annas the maund.' When charred, it can be used in a
blacksmith's furnace.  The ash, of which it leaves a
great deal, will, they say, be very useful as a manure
for poor, sandy soils. Bits of bone and fragments of
decayed wood were found in it at considerable depths.
The Calcutta analyzers call it impure peat, resulting
from the continual decomposition of vegetable matter at
the bottom of- a marsh. It is curious that the natives,
though well aware of its properties, make no use of it,
their reason being that it owes its origin to'enormous
sacrifices of ghee and grain burnt in situ by godlike
people in old time."'
CANADA.
Numerous and extensive deposits of peat are met with
in various parts of Eastern Canada, which seems to present conditions of soil and climate peculiarly favorable
to its growth and accumulation. The peat-bogs, so far
as known, are chiefly confined to the plains along the
St. Lawrence and its tributaries, and appear to have
been formed in shallow lakes, which have been gradually
filled up by the growth and decomposition of mosses.
The peat often rests upon a layer of shell marl,
which at one time formed the bottom of the lake.
From the recent elaborate Report on the Geological
Survey of Canada, made by Sir William E. Logan,
Alexander Murray, Esq., T. Sterry Hunt, and E. Billings, we are enabled to mention the principal deposits
of peat which are as yet known in Canada.
It is to be remarked that few of these deposits have
ever yet been worked; and that it is only in a few local



CANADA.                     91
ities that the thickness of the peat has been determined
by pits or by borings.
Beginning to the westward, a deposit of peat occuiron the twelfth lot of the fourth and fifth ranges of Sheffield, where it overlies a bed of marl, and extends over
three or four hundred acres. The average thickness of
the peat is about four feet, aud it is said to be of a superior quality.  In the level region between the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers, several large peat-bogs occur;
but, from their nature, the vicinity has been avoided
by settlers, and they are, therefore, difficult of access.
There is said to be a considerable area of peat in the
rear of the seigniories of Vaudreuil and Rigaud; aud
also in Caledonia, where its thickness does not appear
to exceed three or four feet. Peat occurs at the sources
of the Pain River in Roxburg, Osnabruck, and Finch;
and also in Clarence, Cumberland, and Gloucester. In
the third, fourth, and fifth ranges of the latter township is a tract known as the Mer Bleu, which consists
of two long peat-bogs, separated by a narrow ridge of
higher land, and occupying each about two thousand
five hundred acres.  These deposits were sounded in
many places,:with a rod, to a depth of twenty-one feet,
without finding bottom: in other parts, the peat was
from eight to fifteen feet in thickness. This tract is situated only three miles from the Ottawa, and is about
two hundred and eighty feet above the level of the sea.
Three large areas of peat, of from one hundred to
three hundred acres each, occur in Nepean and Goulbourn; one of them to the east, and two to the west, of
the village of Richmond. It is also found on the third
and eighth ranges of Beckwick, to the east of Mississippi Lake; and an area of about three thousand acres of
peat occurs in Westmeath, in the rear of front A, and




92        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
from the first to the fifth range behind it. In the ninth
and tenth ranges of l-untley, there are about two thousand
five hundred acres of peat, which in some parts has a
thickness of eight or ten feet, while in other parts no
bottom is found at a depth of fifteen feet. It is probable that peat may be met with in many other localities
throughout this region.
On the north side of the Ottawa, three small areas of
peat have been observed in Grenville. One of these, on
the fourth and fifth lots, covers about thirty-six acres,
and has a depth of ten feet.  It has been used in the
neighborhood, and is pronounced of excellent quality.
Another deposit of about the same extent occurs on the
first lot of the same range, and is in some parts more
than fifteen feet in thickness.  A third, of about thirty
acres, occurs on the fourth lot of the seventh range. On
the fourth and fifth lots of the first range of Harrington
is a bog of about forty acres, the peat of which varies
in depth from ten to twenty-five feet. Another bog is
described as occurring on the first and second lots of the
fifth range of the same township. It extends over about
sixty acres, and has a thickness, in some parts, of twenty-five feet.  All of these areas might be drained without much difficulty. To the eastward of this, a peatbog is met with in the Rang Double of Mille-Iles.  It
exhibits a breadth, on the road from St. Janvier to St.
Jerome, of about half a mile, and has an area of perhaps five eighths of a square mile. Its depth along the
road was found to be, in' several places, from two to
eighteen feet, the greater depth being towards the southeast side; and its average may be taken at eight feet.
A smaller deposit of peat occurs half a mile nearer to
St. Janvier: it has a breadth of about a quarter of a
mile, but its superficies and depth have not been ascer



CANADA.                      93
tained. Upon the, same great plain with these, a little
to the north of the Church of St. Anne des Plaines, and
on the north-east side of tlie road leading to New Glasgow, is a peat-bog, having an area of about a square
mile. Its depth was not determined; but it is supposed
to average about five feet.  The farmers are in the
habit of burning the surface of parts of this bog, and
employing the ashes as a manure for the underlyingportions, until by repeated burnings they reach the subjacent clay, which, mingled with the last thin layer of
peat and a portion of the ash, constitutes a very fruitful
soil.
Near the front of the seigniories of Assumption and
St. Sulpice, there is a peat-bog, three and a half miles
in length, with an average breadth of half a mile, giving an area of about eleven hundred acres.  Its depth
varies -from two to fifteen feet; and the result of ten
trials, made in two lines across the bog, gave an average of ten feet. In the seigniories of Lavaltrie and
Lanoraye, there are two extensive peat-bogs, running
parallel with each other. Of these the northern is the
larger, and is known as the Grande Savanne.  It has a
length of'about eight miles from north-east to southwest, and a breadth of from half a mile to two miles and
a half, covering a superficies of from. twelve to fifteen
square miles. Two sections were made across this bog;
one on the line of the railway between Lanoraye and
Industry, which traverses it about three miles from its
south-west extremity.  It here reaches to within four
miles of the St. Lawrence, and has a breadth of two and
a half miles. The depth along this line was found to
be from four to fourteen feet, the' average of twelve
trials giving about eleven feet. The other section, along
the Lavaltrie Road, about four miles to the north-east,




94:   PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
gave a breadth of half a mile, and a depth of from seven
to fourteen feet; averaging, as before, eleven feet. The
smaller of these bogs lies between that just described
and the St. Lawrence, at a distance from the last of
about two miles.  On the line of the railway it has a
breadth of over half a mile, and an average thickness of
about five feet. It has a length of more than five miles,
extending four and a half miles to the south-west of the
railway, and a superficies of about three square miles.
In the fief of St. Etienne, about a mile and three
quarters south-west of the Gras, on the St. Maurice
River, the main road crosses a peat-bog, which is there
half a mile in breadth, with an average depth of about
six feet. Its extent to the north-east and south-west has
not been ascertained. Another was met with in the
seigniory of Champlain, about three miles from the St.
Lawrence, and on the road from the church to the River
Champlain.  Its breadth on the road is about three
quarters of a mile; and its average depth, in this part,
five feet.  Its length from  north-east to south-west
appears to be about two miles, giving to the bog an area
of about a mile and three quarters. In the fief D'Auteuil, on the road between Cap Sant6 and the village of
L'Enfant J4sus, there is a peat-bog, with a breadth of
about a quarter of a mile, which has not been farther
examined. Several other peat-bogs are known to exist
between this last locality and the vicinity of Quebec.
On the south side of the St. Lawrence, there is a
large area occupied by peat on the west side of the
River Richelieu. It covers portions of the seigniories
De L6ry and Lacolle, and of the townships of Sherrington and Hemmingford, embracing perhaps fifteen or
twenty square miles. This area is drained in part by
the Lacolle River. It has not been carefully examined




CANADA.                    95
as yet; but it contains in some parts, particularly, it is
said, in Sherrington, a very great thickness of peat.
Of two specimens from this township, one, which was
dark colored, fine grained, compact, and so heavy as to
sink in water, gave only 3.53 per cent. of ash; while
the lighter peat, from near the surface of the bog,
yielded 4.66 per cent. of ash. Both of these are very
pure; and the compact peat, which is remarkable from
its great density and its freedom from earthy matters
is particularly worthy of attention.
A large peat-bog occurs in the seigniory of Longueuil,
on the road to Chambly; and an attempt was made, a
few years since, to raise the peat, and introduce it to
the Montreal market. A peat-bog of large size is found
in the seigniory of Ste. Marie de Monnoir; and another
in the parish of St. Dominique, including parts of Ste.
Rosalie and St. Pie. Its dimensions may be five or six
miles in one direction by three or four in another. This
extent is covered by a layer of peat, which, from two
or three feet at the edges, attains a depth of six feet,
and in some parts, it is said, is eighteen feet in thickness.  The bog has been partially drained, and portions
of the land reclaimed for agricultural purposes. The
drained land, being first cleared of trees, is ploughed,
and then, in the dry season, set on fire. In this way,
eight or ten inches of peat are burned, leaving an ash
which serves as manure, and enables the surface to yield
one or two crops of barley or oats. After two years,
the soil becomes exhausted, and it requires to be again
burned over to render it productive. When, by several
repetitions of the process, the peat has been reduced to
a few inches, the remaining portion is mingled, by
ploughing, with the underlying clay, and a rich, mellow
soil is obtained.  The peat from this bog yields, when




9 i       ]PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
heated in close vessels, about thirty-six per cent. of coke,
and contains from six to seven per cent. of ash.
In the seigniory of Riviere Ouelle, there is a peat-bog
which covers about four thousand acres; and another
one occurs in the seigniory of Riviere du Loup, having
a superficies of six thousand acres. Its breadth, on
the Temiscouata Road, is a mile and a quarter; and its
depth in some parts has been ascertained to be eighteen
feet. Peat is found in abundance on the first and second
concessions of the seigniory of lie Verte; and, from a
point two miles below the Rimouski, there is a belt of
peat-bog extending nearly all the way to the M6tis River,
a length of over twenty miles. Its distance from the
St. Lawrence is from a quarter to half a mile, and its
breadth from a quarter of a mile to a mile. The depth
of the deposit, where observed, was from one to six
feet.  To the east of the Rimouski River, there is a
peat-bog, which has a length of three or four miles, in
the townships of Duquesne and Macpes, with a breadth
of about three quarters of a mile, and a thickness which
was found to be from five to twelve feet: it is said to be
in one place thirty feet in depth. Another locality of
peat is stated to be in the townships of Matanne and
Macnider, between the Rivers Blanche and Matanne.
A peat-bog of about one hundred acres occurs on the
left bank of the Madawaska, just above the twelfth
mile-post on the road to the Little Falls.
The most extensive peat deposits in Canada are found
on Anticosti.  Along the low lands on the south coast
of ihe island, from Heath Point to within eight or nine
miles of South-west Point, a continuous plain, covered
with peat, extends for upwards of eighty miles, with an
average breadth of two miles; thus giving a superficies
of more than one hundred and sixty square miles. The




CANADA.                    97
thickness of the peat, as observed on the coast, was
from three to ten feet; and it appears to be of an
excellent quality.  The height of this plain may be, on
an average, fifteen feet above high-water mark; and it
could be easily drained and worked.  Between Southwest Point and the west end of the island, there are
many smaller peat-bogs, varying in superficies from one
hundred to one thousand acres. In the vicinity of Port
Daniel, in the Gasp6 District, extensive deposits of peat
are found.
The vegetation consists, for the most part, of mosses
belonging to the genus Sphagnunm.  Besides these,
however, the bogs often support a growth of tamarack
and of various ericaceous plants. The leaves, roots,
and stems of these, help, with the moss, to make up
the peat. The peat near the surface consists of the
moss but little altered, and is very soft and porous; but
in the older and deeper portions of the deposit it is more
dense, and darker in color, the vegetable tissue having
undergone a partial decay, by which its fibrous structure,
to a greater or less degree, disappears, and the substance
assumes a more cheese-like texture.
The various shell marls which are often associated
with the peat deposits in Canada, have, in all cases
where they have been examined, proved to be nearly
pure carbonate of lime.
At Bulstrode, on the Three Rivers and Arthabaska
branch of the Grand Trunk Railway, Mr. Hodges
has, for some three years, been conducting operations,
experimental and practical, on a somewhat extensive
scale, the results of which, obtained during the past
year, have proved highly satisfactory.
Numer6us experiments with fuel prepared at his
works have been tried on regular trains over the Grand
7




98         PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Trunk Railway (some of which are reported on subsequent pages), from which, it is stated that "it would
appear that in heating power, a ton of peat is equal to
five sixths of a ton of coal, or to a cord and a quarter
of wood."
These experiments having all proved so satisfactory,
as to result in a contract extending over five years or
seasons; during the' first of which the Company are to
take 100 tons per day, and during the four succeeding
seasons, 300 tons per day.
The following extracts from an article which recently
appeared in the " Trade Review," published at Montreal,
may serve to indicate the importance which attaches to
this enterprise in Canada:" One of the most important questions that can arise
for a country like Canada, where winter reigns supreme
for from four to six months out of the twelve, is that
of affording a cheap means of providing the heat actually necessary to existence.
" We have hardly any data on which to base a calculation of the yearly cost to the country of the fuel consumed, but we may approximate to its cost in some
measure.
" Making due allowance, on the one hand, for these
fortunate localities, where cord-wood can be had for the
cutting and hauling, and where the cost may be set as
low as two dollars per cord, and also taking into consideration, on the other hand, the large quantities of
wood (or coal at an equivalent valuation) consumed
in cities at six, seven, and even eight dollars per cord,
we think the average cost of fuel may be taken at four
dollars and a half, which, in all probability, is below
rather than above the mark. Now, let us say that there
are four hundred thousand families in Canada, burning




CANAI)A.                  99
at the rate of twelve cords per annum (and this, too,
is a low estimate when allowance has been made for the
fuel used for steam purposes, and in warming churches,
stores, warehouses, etc., etc.), and the consumption of
fuel will represent a total cost of $21,600,000, or not
far from double the entire expenses of carrying on the
government of the country. It will, therefore, at once
be seen how great is the economic importance of endeavoring to provide fuel at the lowest possible cost, as
well as of using that fuel in the most profitable way.
"Every invention which will tend to secure economy,
either in cost or consumption, will increase by so much
the wealth of the country, in setting free, for-other productive purposes, capital and labor now employed in the
cutting and carrying to market of wood, and in the importation of coal.
" One description of fuel,.hitherto unused, though not
exactly unknown in Canada, is peat. Several experiments have been made in past years, and unsuccessful
attempts to introduce it into general use; but, at last,
it seems a mode of preparing it for market well and
cheaply has been discovered; and, if only a sufficient
quantity can be supplied to meet the demand, one mode
of economizing fuel will have been obtained.
"By the experiments of the Grand Trunk Railway,
it would appear that, in heating power, a ton of peat is
equal to five sixths of a ton of coal, or to a cord and a
quarter of wood. We are. not aware that any careful
experiments have been made to test the comparative
heating and lasting qualities of peat, and the various
kinds of coal and wood; and these would be necessary
before any exact calculations could be made as to the
gain in the use of the new fuel. But, as far as we can
judge from the trials made, the gain will be at least, Bfie




100       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
thirty to thirty-five per cent., as compared with wood
or coal. Now, a saving of even thirty per cent. on
our estimate of the annual consumption of fuel will be
nearly six and a half millions of dollars, and, were the
precise facts known, would amount to very much more.
Were this saving to be applied to the payment of the
public debt, it would not take long to reduce it to very
small proportions; and it is a question whether the government should not take steps to aid private enterprise
- say by opening credits in a judicious way- to secure
so very great an advantage.
"In addition to the experiments to test its qualifications for steam-raising purposes, a trial has lately
been made with a view of seeing how the peat would
answer for smelting purposes. Experienced gentlemen
present, who watched the experiment with great interest,
pronounced the castings to excel in toughness and
quality of chill any specimens they had before seen.
" With regard to the probabilities of a sufficient
supply, peat is to be found in a great many localities,
and in great abundance; and, according to the official
reports of the Geological Commission, in the following
places throughout the Province: Sheffield, Caledonia,
Gloucester, Huntley, Grenville, Harrington, MilleIles, St. Anne des Plaines, St. Sulpice, Lavaltrie, St.
Maurice, Champlain, Lacolle, St. Dominique, Riviere
Ouelle, Riviere du Loup (en bas), Dufresne, Sherrington, Longueuil, and the Island of Anticosti.
"In the last mentioned locality, the beds are very
extensive. One of them possesses a superficies of not
less than one hundred and sixty miles, and several
others an extent of 4,000, 6,000 and 10,000 square
acres respectively."




MAINE.                   101
The "Montreal News," alluding to the efforts now
being made to utilize peat, says, -
" There is no social question that causes more anxiety
to those friends of Canada who peer into the future
than the difficulties of securing a supply of cheap fuel.
Great suffering and privations are even now endured in
old settlements in consequence of the destruction of the
forests. In the houses of many a habitant who owns a
good farri, the fires are put out at nine o'clock to economize wood; roots are dug up, and branches gathered
for fuel, which in by-gone years would have been rejected. Yet year by year the forest is falling back, and
the price of an indispensable article of consumption
rising in price."
The supply of material from which to produce a
superior fuel at small cost is nowhere more abundant
than in Canada, and it will require only a moderate
amount of enterprise and capital to place it in the
market.
MAINE.
Dr. C. T. Jackson, in his geological survey of this
State, directed attention to the numerous valuable deposits, or rather accumulations, of peat.
At the localities which he designates, this substance
may be most advantageously wrought for fuel. It is
said by him to be found at the depth of three feet from
the surface, amid the remains of rotten logs and beaver
sticks; showing that it belongs to the recent epoch.
Some of the deposits are twenty feet in thickness,
resting on white silicious sand.
In one instance, coal is stated to have been found
while digging a ditch to drain a bog. He says, "On
examination, I found that it was formed from the bark




102       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Of some tree allied to the American fir, the structure
of which may be readily discovered by polishing sections of the coal, so that they may be examined by the
microscope." His analysis shows that it contains -
Bitumen.72
Carbon.21
Oxide of Iron..                         4
Silica                                   1
Ox. Manganese..                         2
100
" This substance is, therefore, a true bituminous coal,
remarkable indeed for containing more bitumen than. is
found in any other coal known. I suppose it to have
been formed by the chemical changes supervening upon
fir balsam during its long immersion in the humid peat."
This is a very interesting discovery; and the same
substance appears to exist in other peat-bogs of the
State.
The same author notices the accumulation of peat at
Quoddy Head, near the south-east angle of the State.
This deposit is fifteen feet in thickness, and is of an
excellent quality for fuel.
"The time may arrive, when, even in Maine, wood
becoming scarce, her neglected peat-bogs will be resorted to for fuel; though here, as in many other sections,
were the superiority of the article over even wood or
coal known and appreciated, the bogs would be worked
now rather than to await the period at which, for lack
of other fuel, their valuable deposits shall be drawn
upon."
Dr. Jackson adds, "There are so many localities of
peat in Maine, that I have thought it hardly necessary to
describe them, but would, however, point out localities




NEW HAMPSHIIRE.               103
on the railroad route in Bangor, at Bluehill, near the
Marsh Quarry in Thomaston, in the town of Limerick,
and on the Coolidge Farm in Waterford.  Near Lewiston also are very considerable deposits, which have been
worked to some extent.  These localities are among
the most abundant, and may be most advantageously
wrought for fuel, which may be used for the burning of
lime and for domestic purposes." Valuable deposits are
said to exist also in the vicinity of Portland, Augusta,
Kennebunkport, and Bangor, and we learn of practical
operations proposed in several of these localities for the
coming season.
The Island of Campo Bello, at the most easterly extremity of the State, and now celebrated as the spot where
Fenian squadrons were first "set in the field" during
the late attempt to capture British North America, is
said to have been recently sold for its "mineral resources;" but it has since transpired that a very large
proportion of the area is peat, of excellent and uniform
quality, and it would seem to be a pertinent question,
whether'a small amount of capital invested in manufacturing this material into fuel would not be likely to bring
larger and quicker returns than a very large sum expended in developing the "mineral resources."
NEW lHAMPsHIRE.
In this State, peat has been used but very little as an
article of fuel; though, as an important ingredient in
forming a compost, it is extensively used, and its value
recognized. Deposits are numerous, and in some places
are known to be of excellent quality for fuel; as in
Meredith, Canterbury, Rochester, and Franconia, especially the three former. Valuable deposits are also found




104       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
in Northumberland and vicinity, Whitefield, Littleton,
Dublin, Warner, Franklin, Kingston, Lancaster, Lyndeborough, and other localities.
Extensive deposits, some of them of superior quality,
are found in Rockingham County; and it is understood
that the manufacture of fuel is to be undertaken on a
large scale, in one or more localities within its limits, the
coming season.
VERMONT.
The Report on the Geology of Vermont, by Professor
Hitchcock and Mr. A. D. Hagar, contains many items
of interest concerning peat, from which we extract most
of what follows.
Peat-beds may be found in every town in the State.
The number is so great that we shall not endeavor to
enumerate them all. We will, however, mention some
of special interest, mostly from the observations of Rev.
S. R. Hall.
The peat throughout the State, -it is thought, will
average about five feet in thickness, and is in many
places covered with a growth of timber consisting of
cedar, black ash, tamarack, spruce, and pine. Occasionally it is reported of great depth, as in the following,
which is an extreme case:
In boring for water near Whiting Depot, on Otter
Creek flats, ten miles south from  Middlebury, they
pierced through eighty feet of peat, and at seventy-two
feet from the surface passed a sound log of wood. The
land is now covered with a heavy growth of pine and
ash, while under the roots of the standing timber are
distinctly visible the decaying trunks of a former growth.
How old is that bed of peat?
In Albany, on the farm of Zuar Rowell, east of Great




VERMONT.                  105
Hosmer's Pond, overlaying marl, is a bed of peat four
feet thick, covering from six to ten acres. It is computed that each acre contains about one thousand five
hundred cords of peat.
On the land of G. W. Powers, in the south-east part
of the town; half a mile north, upon Mr. Orne's farm;
in the north-east part of the town, on land of Mr.
Church, Mr. Hovey, and others, there is a large amount
of peat. Near the new church there is a bed of peat,
evolving sulphuretted hydrogen when disturbed.
Peat is also described as abundant in the towns of Andover, Barnet, Barre, Barton, Berlin, Bethel, Bradford,
Brattleborough, Bridgewater, Brookfield, Brownington,
Calais," Cavendish, Chelsea, Chester, Corinth, Coventry, Craftsbury, Danville, Derby, Dummerston, Eden,
Elmore, Glorr, Greensborough, Hancock, Hardwick,
Hartford, Holland, Hydepark, Jamaica, Londonderry,
Lowell, Ludlow, Marshfield, Montpelier, Moretown,
Morristown, Newfane, Norwich, Peacham, Plymouth,
Putney, Pownal, Randolph, Rochester, Rockingham,
Royalton, Ryegate, St. Johnsbury, Springfield, Thetford, Townshend, Troy, Waitsfield, Walden, Wardsborough, Warren, Washington, Waterbury, Waterford,
Weathersfield, Westminster, Westmore, Williamstown,
Windsor, Woodbury, Woodstock, Wolcott, and WXorcester. If particulars concerning these beds are desired,
they will be found described as muck, in the Second
Geological Report of Professor Adams.
Numerous, and in some cases very valuable, beds of
marl are disposed in all parts of the State; and the remark is made, that most of them are associated with
beds of peat and other forms of organic vegetable
matter.
Many of the peat-beds are observed to occur in




106       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
meadows formerly the haunts of beaver; and numerous traces of the works of these busy little animals are
discovered as excavations are made.
It is an interesting fact, that one of the most remarkable fossils ever found in New England was discovered
in a peat-bed in Vermont, on the line of the Rutland
and Burlington Railroad.
IWe allude to the remains of an elephant, which were
found in Mount Holly in 1848.  The following is Professor Thompson's description of it:"The Rutland and Burlington Railroad crosses the
Green Mountains, in the township of Mount Holly, at
an elevation of one thousand four hundred and fifteen
feet above the level of the ocean; and the bones.of the
fossil elephant were found at that height. It was in
a peat-bed, east of the summit station, that these bones
were found. The basin in which the peat is situated
appears to have been originally filled with water, and
to have been a resort for beaver, a large proportion of
the materials which formed the lower part of the peat
consisting of billets of wood about eighteen inches long,
which had been cut off at both ends, drawn into the
water, and divested of the bark by the beaver, for
food. The peat was fifteen feet deep before the excavation for the railroad was made.
"In making this excavation, the workmen found, at
the bottom of the bed, resting upon gravel, which separated it from the rock below, a huge tooth. The depth
of the peat at that place was eleven feet. Soon afterwards, one of the tusks was found, about eighty feet
from the place of the tooth above mentioned, which was
a grinder. Subsequently, the other tusk and several of
the other bones of the animal were found near the same
place. These bones and teeth were submitted to the




VERMONT.                  107
inspection of Professor Agassiz, who pronounced them
to be an extinct species of elephant.
"The grinder is in an excellent state of preservation,
and weighed eight pounds; and the length of its grinding surface is about eight inches. The tusks are somewhat decayed, and one of them badly broken. A cord
drawn in a straight line from the base to the point of
the most perfect tusk measures sixty inches; and the
longest perpendicular, let fall from that to the inner
curve of the tusk, measures nineteen inches.  The
length of the tusk, measured along the curve on the
outer surface, is eighty inches, and its greatest circumference twelve inches. The circumference has diminished very much since the tusk was taken from the
peat-bed, on account of shrinkage in drying; and
several longitudinal cracks have been found in it, extending through its whole length; and it was found
necessary to wind it with wire to prevent it from splitting to pieces."
In 1858, the remains of another elephant were found
in Richmond, which are now in the cabinet of Vermont
University.
So late as 2d Sept., 1865, the tusk of a fossil elephant
was found in a peat-bed, about five feet below the surface, on the farm of D. S. Pratt, in Brattleborough, by
a man-who was excavating for compost. The following
account of it is given in " The Vermont Record" of 5th
Sept.  The tusk is forty-four inches in length, and
eighteen inches in circumference at the largest end, and
eleven inches at the smallest. It is in a fair state of
preservation, although some parts of it crumbled after
being exposed to the air. The workman, on discovering
it, took a piece to Mr. Pratt, remarking, as he handed it
to him, that he had found a curious piece of wood.




108       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Mr. Pratt, on looking at it, discovered its true nature.
This tusk belonged to a species of elephant long since
extinct, supposed to be the Elephas Primogenius (or
mammoth), Blumenbach, that inhabited the northern
parts of North America, having wandered across the
Siberian plains to the Arctic Ocean and Behring Straits,
and beyond to this country south to about the parallel
of forty degrees. Their bones show them to have been
about twice the weight and one third taller than our
modern species."
Rev. S. R. Hall, in his Report on the Geology of
Vermont, says, "Nearly all the peat or muck of Vermont would answer a good purpose for fuel; but at
present it is not needed. It would furnish an abundance of carburetted hydrogen, if employed for producing gas-lighzt, much less expensive than coal, oil, or
resin. The gas is harmless, inoffensive; and has, in
respect to healthfulness, great advantages over some
other kinds."
On the summit of Mansfield Mountain, in the town
of Stowe, the highest point in the State, 4348 feet, are
found beds of peat and the spha~gnous moss that produces them.  This is one of the very few cases in New
England where peat occurs at great elevation. In
Europe, the cases are numerous.
MASSACHUSETTS.
In his Report on the Geology of Massachusetts, Dr.
Hitchcock says, "Taking the State as a whole, peat is
but little used, either as fuel or manure; yet for both
purposes its use is rapidly increasing, especially in the
eastern part of the State, where fuel is more expensive.
In view of its importance, I have made some efforts to




MASSACHUSETTS.              109
ascertain its probable amount in our swamps. But this
is very difficult; both because our swamps where it
occurs have been but slightly explored, and because
much is called merely mud that deserves the name of
peat."
He then proceeds to enumerate various localities
where it is known to exist, and gives. data for forming
an approximate estimate of the amount of this deposit
in the State, and adds, "It will be seen that scarcely
any towns in the four western counties of the State are
mentioned. This is partly explained by the fact that fuel
is more plenty there than in the eastern counties, so that
public attention has never been directed so much to our
fossil resources. But I think it undeniable that the
amount of good peat in the western counties is much
less than in the eastern.' Although, perhaps, the swamps abound as much in
vegetable matter that would be useful in agriculture,
yet it does not seem to be converted into genuine peat;
though I do not doubt that it will be easy to find a large
amount of it when there is a demand for it.
"Excluding these western counties, and taking the
*amount of peat given in the statements made to me as
a fair average of its quantity in all the towns of the
other counties (excluding the large towns), it would
follow that eighty thousand acres, or one hundred and
twenty-five square miles, are covered with peat in that
portion of the State, having an average thickness of six
feet four inches. This area and depth would yield not
far from one hundred and twenty-one million of cords.
"If this should be thought by any to exceed the
quantity of good peat existing in that section, I presume no one will consider it too high an estimate of the




110       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
amount of swamps filled with vegetable matter. I presume it falls far short of the true amount.
" We hence get an enlarged view of the quantity of
matter in the State that may be employed as fuel, or in
agriculture, which has hitherto, except in some limited
districts, remained almost untouched.
"It is true that peat (unmanufactured) is not so convenient and agreeable a kind of fuel as good wood or
coal; yet it certainly answers a very good purpose; and
the facts in the case tend to allay the apprehension
which must sometimes rise in the mind of one who sees
in the gradual diminution of our forests a future check
to our prosperity and population.
"It is gratifying to learn from so many towns that
the inhabitants are awaking so much to the use of peat
and peaty matter. Some gentlemen have even spoken
of it as a'peat fever.' I hope it has not yet reached
its crisis."
Recent personal experience, and considerable intercourse with numerous persons who have during the past
season used solidified peat as fuel, has convinced us
that Dr. Hitchcock underestimated the convenience and
agreeableness of peat as compared with " good wood or
coal." We consider it preferable by far to either, in
many respects. His remarks referred to the crude,
unmanufactured article.
The following list of towns where peat is known to
exist includes those mentioned by Dr. Hitchcock, and
others of which we have personal knowledge: —
Abington,       Athol,           Bernardston,
Acton,          Barnstable,      Billerica,
Amesbury,       Bedford,         Boylston,
Andover,        Bellingham,      Brewster,




:MASSACHUSETTS.             111
Bridgewater,    Ipswich,        Roxbury,
Buckland,       Kingston,       Seekonk,
Cambridge,      Lancaster,      Southborough,
Carver,         Leverett,       South Reading,
Chelmsford,     Lexington,      Sharon,
Chilmark,       Longmeadow,   Shrewsbury,
Cohasset,       Ludlow,         Shutesbury,
Concord,        Lunenburg,      Spencer,
Danvers,        Lynnfield,      Stoughton,
Dennis,         Medfield,       Sudbury,
Dightop,        Medway,         Sunderland,
Dover,          Methuen,        Tisbury,
Duxbury,        Millbury,       Topsfield,
Eastham,        Milton,         Truro,
Falmouth,       Nantucket,      Uxbridge,
Farmingham,    Natick,          Wales & Holland,
Greenfield,     Needham,        Walpole,
Groton,         Newton;,        Waltham,
2Hadley,        Northborough,   Watertown,
Halifax,        Orleans,        Wellfleet,
Hamilton,       Oxford,         Westford,
Hanover,        Pittsfield,     Weston,
Hanson,         Randolph,       Wilmington,
Hingham,        Reading,        Wrentham,
Holden,         Rowley,         Yarmouth.
Hopkinton,
In his " Geology of Massachusetts," 1833, Dr. Hitchcock says of peat, "There are two varieties, the fibrous
and the compact. In the former, the moss, turf, and
roots, out of which peat is formed, have not lost their
fibrous structure; but in the latter they are converted
into a compact and nearly homogeneous mass.




112       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
" ThV fibrous and compact varieties probably exist at
nearly every locality.
"I am sure of their occurrence in Cambridge, Newton, and Lexington, and in large quantities. Peat is
abundant in Seekonk, Uxbridge, Cohasset, Duxbury,
Hingham, Medfield, Walpole, Wrentham, Dover,
Framingham, Sudbury, Topsfield, Ipswich, and Nantucket.
"It exists and has been dug, in greater or less quantities, in Pittsfield, Hadley, Leverett, Shrewsbury, Lancaster, Southborough, Hopkinton, Medw/y, Halifax,
Stoughton, Boylston, Reading, Milton, Needham, Concord, Billerica, Bedford, Waltham, Watertown, Acton,
Wilmington, Danvers, Chellsford, Hamilton, and in
nearlyw all the towns in Barnstable County; certainly
in Yarmouth, Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet,
and Truro.
" I cannot but regard the existence of so large quantities of peat on Cape Cod and Nantucket as a great
blessing to the inhabitants; yet, from the little of it
which I observe to be dug there, I am apprehensive
they do not realize its value.
" Not a town in the State can be named where more
or less peat does not exist. The eastern section, however, is certainly best stored with those varieties that
may be employed for fuel; and it is an unexpected fact,
that the south-east part of the State, which abounds
with sand, contains also a large amount of peat.
"The beds of peat on Nantucket, and the small adjacent Island Thuckanuck, Muskegut, and Gravel, contain, according to a report of Lieutenant Prescott, six
hundred and fifty acres of peat from one to fourteen
feet thick, and generally of good quality. This must
afford an inexhaustible supply of fuel for the inhabit



AASSACHUSETTS.                113
ants; and yet I was surprised to learn that so little use
was made of it."'We are told of a deposit of peat at Barnstable, resting upon a thick bed or matting of cranberry vines, the
vines and berries still preserving their original form
until brought to the surface and exposed to the sun
and air.
We have ourselves seen at Lexington, Mass., a rich
deposit of pure black peat, six feet in depth, resting
upon a compact bed of clean moss, of the consistency
of wet hay, and retaining its light green color.
It is a curious fact also, and worthy of note, that,
along the coast in the south-east part of the State, the
remains of ancient forests, now submerged, are not
uncommon.
This is the case in the harbor of Nantucket, as reported by Lieutenant Jona. Prescott, who superintended
the dredging of that harbor. Portions of cedar, maple,
oak, and beach trees were found, some of them in an
erect position, accompanied by peat. Another submarine forest exists at Holmes Hole.  Near the southwest extremity of the Vineyard, we learn of another.
On the north side of Cape Cod also, opposite Yarmouth,
cedar stumps are found, extending more than three
miles into Barnstable Bay.  The same thing is said to.occur in the bay of Provincetown, on the side opposite
the village.'Professor Lyell, in his second visit to the United
States, mentions a submerged forest "at Hampton, on
the way from Boston to Portsmouth;' also one near
Portsmouth, N. H., "now submerged at low water,
containing the roots and upright stools of the white
cedar, showing that an ancient forest must once have
extended farther seaward."  In his first visit to North
8




114       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
America he mentions a submerged forest, somewhat
similar, near Fort Cumberland, in Nova Scotia. He
records other observations in relation to submerged
trees at the mouth of Cooper River, near Charleston,
S. C., and of the Altamaha, in Georgia.
A letter from Elias Phinney, Esq., of Lexington,
dated Jan. 30, 1839, and addressed to Dr. C. T. Jackson, upon the subject of peat, has been many times
referred to, and so often quoted that it may be regarded
as authority. It will be found copied entire in the
Report of the New York Survey, submitted by Dr.
W. W. Mather, in December, 1839; and in the Geological and Agricultural Report of Rhode Island, 1840.
A few extracts from it will be of interest here: " I
consider my peat-grounds by far the most valuable part
of my farm; more valuable than my wood-lots for fuel,
and more than double the value of an equal number of
acres of my uplands for purposes of cultivation.
"In the first place, they are valuable for fuel. I have,
for twenty years past, resorted to my peat-meadows
for fuel.  It gives a summer-like atmosphere, and
lights a room better than a wood-fire. The smoke from
peat has no irritating effect upon the eyes, and does not,
in the slightest degree, obstruct respiration, like the
smoke of wood; and it has none of that drying, unpleasant effect of a coal-fire. The ashes of peat are not
more troublesome, and are less injurious to the furniture
of a room, than the ashes of coal.   --
"The best peat is found in meadows which have for
many years been destitute of trees and brush, and well
drained, and where the surface has become so dry, and
the accumulation of decayed vegetable matter so great,
that but little grass or herbage of any description is seen
upon the surface.




MASSACHUSETTS.               115
"A rod square, cut two spittings deep, each spitting
of the length of eighteen inches, will give three cords
when dried. It may be cut from May to September.
If the weather in autumn be very dry, the best time for
cutting will be from the middle of August to the middle
of September.  If cut in the latter part of summer or
early in autumn, it dries more gradually, and is not so
liable to crack and crumble as when cut early in summer. It is considered a day's work for a man, a boy,
and a horse, to cut out and spread a rod square. It will
require about four weeks of dry weather to render it fit
to be housed for use.
"Peat taken from land which has been many years
drained, when dried, is nearly as heavy as oak-wood,
and bears about the same price in the market."
As early as 1815, the subject of peat as an article of
fuel was by some considered of so much importance,
that Dr. Aaron Dexter, President of the Massachusetts
Agricultural Society, submitted to the trustees a paper
which -he had prepared upon the subject, being an
abridgment of a work in two volumes, by Dr. Robert
Rennie, of Kilsyth, in Scotland, accompanied by some
remarks upon the valuable deposits in our own State,
and the importance of improving them. The paper was
published; and from it we make the following disconnected extracts: -
" Peat-water possesses astringent, antiseptic qualities.
Rain or river water, when allowed to stagnate, especially in warm weather, becomes putrid: peat-water
does not.
" Rosier observes that the air of peat-mosses is always
salubrious; that, by a wonderful provision of Nature,
oxygen is exhaled, and hydrogen absorbed; and, by
rC.ason of the low temperature of the moss, carbonic




116       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
acid is not evolved, so that by this means the air is never
infected with these deleterious gases.
" Carr, in his'Stranger in Ireland,' mentions that this
is the case in that country.  Dr. Walker makes a similar remark.  He says,' Stagnant rain-water, especially
in warm weather, occasions, in fenny countries, intermittent fevers and putrid diseases, whereas no such
effects are felt from stagnant moss-water.' The moors
and mosses in Scotland, and the turf-bogs in Ireland,
are inhabited by as healthy people as any in the world.
No intermittent fevers, no putrid sore throats, prevail
among them. M. de Luc makes the same remark. He
says,'Over the whole continent of Europe, which I
examined, the air of the mosses, even in the lowest valleys, is very salubrious. The inhabitants of these districts are remarkably healthy: they are not liable to the
fever and ague which prevails in other low level lands
in their immediate vicinity, where there are no mosses.'
The oxygen they discharge must purify the air, and promote the health of those who inhabit such districts.
"Some peat, when dug, becomes so hard, so heavy,
and so glossy in the fracture, that it is with difficulty it
can be distinguished from some of the softer coals. On
the contrary, Mr. Williams says that he has seen coal
so soft, that it was with difficulty it could be distinguished from the hard, black, glossy peat.
"There are the strongest reasons for supposing that
all coal has been at one period of its formation in a soft,
pulpy state, like the above species of peat when newly
dug; that coal, wherever it has been discovered, has
certainly been exposed to a degree of mechanical pressure far beyond that which was ever applied to peat by
art. It would be superfluous to offer any proof of this;
and, if the best peat was subjected to the same degree




RHODE ISLAND.                117
of compression, it is obvious that it would become
equally compact and equally heavy, bulk for bulk, and
equally as inflammable as coal; in no respect distinguishable from that substance, in color, consistency, or
chemical qualities.  The external appearance of coal
shows its alliance to peat in color and consistency: the
resemblance is often clear."
RHODE ISLAND.
Dr. Jackson, in his Report on the Geological and
Agricultural Survey of this State, says, "Peat and
swamp muck occur in almost every town in the State; "
and goes on at considerable length to give his views in
regard to the value of both, the former as fuel, and both
as fertilizers.
He mentions the following localities in which peat
of excellent quality for fuel is found, as shown by
analysis, statements of which are incorporated in his
report:Block Island,    North Kingston,    Warwick,
Bristol,         Nyatt,              Woonsocket,
Cranston,        Pawtuxet,           Wickford.
Cumberland,      South Kingston,
We also learn of extensive deposits, of excellent quality, in the immediate vicinity of Providence; arrangements are being made to work some of them on a pretty
large scale, and there can be little doubt that the already
extensive and prosperous manufacturing interests of the
State will be largely promoted by this newly-found
source of fuel.




118        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
CONNECTICUT.
This State is rich in deposits of peat; and although,
until recently, little use has been made of it except for
agricultural purposes, her people are among the earliest
to perceive the importance of putting it to practical account in the shape of fuel, and to avail themselves of
the methods of manufacturing it: and it can hardly be
matter of surprise now, if the little State which has so
long enjoyed the reputation of making nutmegs from
beech-wood should succeed even better in producing a
solid fuel from her hitherto worthless and neglected
bogs.
Professor S. NW. Johnson, of Yale College, in an
exceedingly interesting and valuable essay on peat and
muck,_ especially as relates to their nature and agricultural uses, -  which was published at Hartford some
years since, but is now, as we are informed, out of
print, -gave an amount of information upon the subject, which it is to be regretted  should have been
limited in the extent of its circulation to a single small
edition.* In addition to a thorough treatment of the
whole subject, as relates to the use of peat for agricultural purposes, he had been at considerable pains to
obtain somewhat detailed statements concerning the
character and extent of peat-beds in different parts of
the State, with their several peculiarities of formation,
location, elevation, surroundings, &c.; and accompa* The work has recently been revised and enlarged, and under
the title of "Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and Fuel, by Samuel W.
Johnson, M. A., Professor of Analytical and Agricultural Chemistry,
Yale College," is published by Orange Judd & Co., 41 Park Row,
New York. 1866. Price, $1.25.




CONNECTICUT.                 119
nied it with report of analyses of numerous specimens
obtained from the bogs described.
These show clearly that there.are stores of good peat
within the State, although there are some meadows,
which, from their peculiar situation, have been subjected to so much wash of earthy matter from the surrounding hills, that the fuel to be produced from these
would necessarily be of a somewhat inferior quality.
He mentions peat-beds in Goshen, Milford, Plainville, Berlin, Griswold, Colebrook, Cornwall, Granby,
Brooklyn, Poquonock, Collinsville, New Haven, Rockville, Stonington, New Canaan, and Salisbury. We
might add Hartford, Bridgeport, Meriden, Somers,
Broad Brook, New London, Willimantic, Waterford,
and numerous other localities, of which we have had
more or less personal knowledge.  Certain it is, that
some of the finest specimens of peat we have ever seen,
and best adapted for fuel, have come from meadows in
Connecticut.
Preparations, in some places quite extensive, are being
made for the manufacture of fuel the coming season;
and, while the demand for domestic purposes will doubtless absorb a very considerable portion of the product
of the first season, the numerous manufacturing establishments and railroads, some of which are in close
proximity to large beds of very pure peat, will doubtless, without much delay, discover its value and economy for their several requirements, and thereby create
a demand which can be supplied only by constantly
extending works.
These deposits of peat are a source of wealth to individuals and the State, the extent of which, it is presumed, few will comprehend until the developments now
in progress shall have begun to demonstrate it.




120       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
NEW YORK.
In the several Geological Reports of this State, made
by Professor Mather, Mr. Vanuxem, and Dr. Emmons,
special mention is made of the rich deposits of peat,
and the certainty, that, sooner or later, they will undoubtedly prove to be of great value for the production
of fuel.
A great number of localities are indicated and estimates made of the amount of peat " on deposit."
Dr. Emmons furnishes some particulars of peat
within his district, points out the high economical value
which he considers must attach to it as a combustible,
and says, "Perhaps it would be saying too much to
assert that peat is more valuable than coal: but when
we consider, that, for creating heat, it is not very inferior to bituminous coal; that it contains a gaseous
matter equal in illuminating power to oil or coal-gas;
that its production is equally cheap; and, in addition to
this, that it is a valuable manure if properly prepared,
its real and intrinsic worth cannot fall far short of
the poorer kinds of coal."
It should be borne in mind that these remarks refer
to the article in its crude, unmanufactured state. It
will, we anticipate, be found that the manufactured and
condensed peat produced by the method recently introduced, is, for many purposes. of domestic use, but especially for steam, and in the manufacture of iron and
steel, superior to any other kind of fuel now in use.
This statement will undoubtedly be considered an
extravagant one; but facts which are daily coming to
our notice are fast conspiring to demonstrate that such
is the case.




NEW YORK.                  121
Dr. Mather, in his report in 1838, says, "During
the surveys of the past season, I have collected specimens
of peat from  various localities.  Some of them, now
when dry, are compact enough to receive a slight
polish, and have as great a specific gravity as bituminous
coal, and would probably give out as much heat."
In his report in 1839 on New York, Westchester,
and Putnam counties, he says, "Peat is now coming
into use as a fuel, and -must, before many years, be extensively employed for this purpose in this part of the
country, where coal and wood are so expensive.  The
marshes of the Hudson River, in these counties, that
will yield peat, may be estimated at 1000 acres, with a
yield of 2000 cords per acre, or 2,000,000 cords.
These include those near Sing Sing, Verplanck, Peekeville, Anthony's Nose, Constitution Island, and numerous smaller ones.  The peat in some of these marshes,
where it was examined, is of inferior quality, fibrous,
and contains much earthy matter. That formed in
marshes in the interior of those counties is of much
better quality, and far superior as an article of fuel."
And later, in 1840, he writes: "I would again urge
upon our farmers and other citizens the importance of
making use of peat for fuel.  It is a cheap and valuable
fuel; and, when properly prepared, it also makes one
of the best renovators of the soil.  Peat is equal in
value to oak-wood, bulk for bulk."'
Rev. Mr. Shafter, of New York, says, "The peat,
by drying, acquires a high degree of solidity. It is
easily kindled, burns with a bright flame, yields a bluish
smoke, and produces an odor similar to that which attends the combustion of gramineous substances.  But
this is momentary.  When thoroughly kindled, it burns
with less flame, yields a small proportion of blackish




122        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
smoke, and sulphurous acid gas is evolved, though I
cannot discover any pyrites.  It burns for a long time,
and emits a great body of heat. It leaves a very small
proportion of light and grayish-white ashes. I cannot
refrain from expressing my opinion that this variety of
peat will answer as an excellent substitute for the best
Liverpool coal."
Professor E. Emnmons says, "From the abundance
of peat in this State, it appears that the climate and
other circuinstances are favorable to its production.  It
is not so hot as to cause a rapid decomposition of vegetable matter, nor so cold as to prevent those changes,
somewhat allied to fermentation, which are required for
its formation.
"Contrary to expectations, I find it in great abundance in the counties of Clinton, Warren, and Hamilton; and I may state, in general, that most of the flies
in those counties abound in this substance.
"The only places where it can occur are those of
a marshy character, and the substance itself may be
tested by any person by first drying and then igniting
it.  If it burns, it is peat.  As its presence may be
suspected in all low, wet places, especially those bordering on ponds' and lakes, it will be well to search for
it-in all such places by thrusting down a pole or stick,
and trying the matter that adheres to it, as it regards
its combustibility; or it may generally be found wherever the surface of the ground is easily agitated by
passing over it.  One of the largest collections of this
substance, which has fallen under my observation, is in
Champlain, in the county of Clinton.  The peat marsh
or fly to which I refer is in the west part of the town,
and is about two or two and a half miles in length, and
fronm a half to three fourths of a mile in width.  Over




NEW YORK.                  123
the whole extent of this fly, a pole may be thrust down
from twelve to thirty feet, and probably in many places
to twice thirty feet.  It is, of course, nearly inexhaustible. Others of nearly equal extent occur in the county,
and many which are less extensive. One fact which
applies to all the peat-marshes of this neighborhood is,
that they are situated far above the level of the lake,
and that those marshes which are on or near the same
level as the lake do not contain peat.
t Peat, as is well known, answers a good purpose for
fuel, and undoubtedly ranks next to coal for sustaining
for a long time a high temperature. There is no substance which would remove so much suffering among
the poor as the general introduction of this substance
for fuel in our larger towns and cities. Its abundance
and cheapness recommend it to the attention of the
public; and if measures could be devised to bring it
into use in this State, many important results would
follow."
The following are some of the most valuable localities
in the State, though there may be many others of equal
or greater importance: —
A large portion of what was once a part of Peat Marl
Pond, four miles north of Kinderhook, is filled with
peat, and has become a marsh. Other parts of this
pond are filling with the same combustible and with
shell marl.  It is estimated that sixty or seventy acres
of this pond and marsh are filled with peat.  It has
probably a mean depth of at least six feet, and ought
to yield sixty thousand cords of good peat.
A small bog, of about six acres, is on the farm of
Cornelius P. Van Allen, three miles north of Kinderhook. The peat is of fine quality, at the depth of two
feet from the surface.  It has a mean depth of about




124       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
nine feet, and ought to yield nine thousand cords of
good peat.
Another, similar to the above, in the north part of
Stuyvesant, contains about the same quantity.
Round Pond, in the north part of Kinderhook, contains two thousand to three thousand cords.
The marshes and shallows of Kinderhook Lake probably contain twenty thousand to thirty thousand cords.
A small bog between this lake and North Chatham
contains perhaps two or three acres of peat.'In the marsh west of the post-road, one mile north
from Kinderhook, there is said to occur a considerable
quantity of peat.
The marsh belonging to Mr. Lucas Hoes, one mile
south-west of Kinderhook, near the post-road on the
east side, contains about thirty acres, with a mean
depth of six feet.
Several other localities are said to occur in the valley
of Kinderhook Creek, between Kinderhook Village and
Stuyvesant town-line.
A peat-bog is also said to occur two miles north-east
of Valatie.
Peat-bogs occur in many places in New Lebanon,
among which may be mentioned those on Mr. Gillett's
and the adjoining farms, and on Mr. Tilden's.
Another, south of Mr. Carpenter's, of fifteen acres;
and three to twelve feet deep.
Another, south of Fitch & Kirby's store, owned by
Mr. Waite, of about thirty acres.
Peat occurs near the west side of Canaan Mountain,
around Adgate's Pond.  The aggregate amount in this
township is probably four hundred thousand cords.
Peat occurs on Rowland Story's farm, a quarter of a
mile east of Lafayette Corners, in Milan.




NEW YORK.                  125
A bog of peat, five or six acres, with a depth of five
or six feet, occurs a mile and a half east of Upper Red
IHook.
Another between Stormville and Hopewell.
Several bogs between Hopewell and Fishkill appear
to be peat-bogs. They contain probably an aggregate
surface of forty acres.
A peat-bog of five or six acres is located about a mile
and a half from Stormville, on the road to Beekman.
An extensive peat-bog extends north from Long Pond
down the valley of its outlet.
A large body of peat is said to exist on Mr. Legget's
farm, in Ghent.
Peat probably exists in the marsh east of Great Nutten
Hook.
Extensive deposits are found a mile or two west of
Malden.
Two or three small peat-bogs occur in the south part
of the town of Ghent. They may contain ten or fifteen
acres.
A small marsh of ligneous peat occurs about a mile
and a half north of Hillsdale.
There is an extensive peat-bog on Lawrence Smith's
and the adjoining farms in Amenia. Professor Cassels
reports it to have an area of about one hundred and fifty
acres, containing probably one hundred and fifty thousand cords.
He also reports that there is a peat-bog four miles
north-east of Dover, on the east side of the creek;
another, one miTe south of the above; another, one
mile south of the last mentioned; one also two miles
south of Dover; and one eight miles south of Dover.
These contain an aggregate of probably seventy-five
thousand cords.




126       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Extensive peat-bogs are found east of Elbow Mountain, which lies east and north-east of Dover. They are
in the valley through which the road passes from Kline
Corners to the Columbia Furnace, in Kent. The northern one is about three quarters of a mile long, and two.
hundred to three hundred yards wide, with an unknown
depth. Its depth was measured in several places, and
it was generally five feet deep within five rods of its
edge. It was once a lake, now filled with peat. Its
mean depth may probably be placed at nine feet, its
area at sixty acres, and its contents at ninety thousand
cords.
The other bog south of this probably contains forty
acres, with a depth of six feet; and its contents may be
estimated at forty thousand cords.
Peat is found abundantly in the vicinity of Pine
Plains, and some of it is of very good quality.  A
small bog is observed one mile south of Pine Plains.
Cranberry Marsh and Cedar Swamp, near Stessing
Pond, are filled with peat. It is rapidly forming in
some parts of Stessing Pond.
Peat is forming on Woodward's farm, in Copake. In
Taghkanic, about a mile and a half or two miles west
of Crysler's Pond, a peat-bog occurs of thirty or forty
acres.
From descriptions of the drowned lands in Aucrain,
it is probable that peat abounds there. This marsh has
an area of several hundred acres.
The marsh in the valley of Stessing Pond contains a
great body of peat: probably five frundred acres are
underlaid by it, two yards deep; and its contents may
be estimated at five hundred thousand cords.
On Mr. Hoag's farm, in Stanford, considerable peat
is found. Professor Cassels reports that an extensive




NEW YORK.                  127
bed of peat occurs three miles -east of Poughkeepsie. It
is on the farm of Peter Van Voorhis, and contains about
twenty-five acres. It is quite deep.
A small bog occurs near the red school-house, about
two miles from Union Corners, in Dutchess County.
Professor Cassels thinks the bog is deep.
In Clinton, four miles east of Union Corners, is a
peat-bog of about sixty-five acres. It is on the land of
Messrs. Underwood & Denison, and contains about
sixty thousand cords.
A large deposit of peat was observed by Professor
Cassels, two miles south of Union Corners, on the land
of Elias Tompkins. It was estimated by him at ninety
acres.
Mr. Merrick observed a small peat-bog, about two
miles north of Hurd's Corner, in Pawling, containing
probably five thousand cords.
Another, of nearly sixty acres, in the south-east part
of Stanford, with a depth of about six feet.
Shaw Pond and Mud Pond, between Stanford and
Washington, and Round Pond, in Washington, are filling up with peaty matter.
Rev. Mr. Shafter, of New York, observed peat in
Rhinebeck, Northeast, and Clinton, in 1817.
It may be estimated that there are five square miles
of peat in the salt marshes of Westchester, or three
thousand two hundred acres, which will yield upon an
average one thousand cords of peat of the second quality
to the acre, or, in round numbers, three million two
hundred thousand cords. The marshes of the Hudson
River in New York, Westchester and Putnam  Counties, that will yield peat, may be estimated at one thousand acres, with a yield of two thousand cords per acre,
or two million cords. These include those near Sing




128       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Sing, Verplanck, Peekskill, Anthony's Nose, Constitution Island, and numerous smaller ones. The peat in
most of these marshes is supposed to be of inferior
quality, fibrous, and containing much earthy matter.
That formed in marshes in the interior of those counties
is of much better quality, and far superior as an article
of fuel.
On Joshua Raymond's farm, one fourth of a mile west
of Bedford, in Westchester County, Professor Cassels
reports that there is a peat-bog of sixty acres.
Also on Abraham Underhill's farm, two and a
half miles south of Crumb Pond Village, Westchester
County, Professor Cassels reports fifty acres, averaging
twenty feet in depth.
A peat-bog of thirty or forty acres lies near the east
side of Mahopack Pond, in Putnam County.
A large peat-bog was observed near Patterson, Putnam County.
A peat-bog of six or eight acres was observed in
Phillipston, on the Phillips estate, about two miles eastnorth-east of West Point.
Another, on the same estate, about eight miles from
Cold Springs, on the turnpike road to Putnam Court
House, may contain fifteen or twenty acres.
Another, on the road from Putnam Court House, to
Patterson, in Putnam County.
Another, four miles south-east of Peeksville, of six
or eight acres.
Another, about one mile south of Scrub-Oak Plains,
Westchester County.
Another, east of Stewart's iron mine, at the base of
the hill.
Another, half a mile south of this mine, in the town
of Phillipston.




NEW YORK.                   129
Another, near Davenport's Corners, five miles northeast of Cold Springs.
Another, half a mile west of Saxon Smith's, in the
south-south-east part of Phillipston.
There is said to be a fine deposit of about one hundred and fifty acres east of Croton, and about four miles
south-east from Sumerstown Plains.
Several of the salt marshes in this region contain peat,
mostly fibrous, and of inferior quality. That of finer
texture and quality may probably be found at a depth
of four or five feet. A moderate estimate of peat of
second quality in these salt marshes would be five hundred thousand cords.
A peat-bog of about forty acres was examined by Professor Cassels, about one mile south of the Long Clove,
in Rockland County. It is on land of Isaac B. Van
Houten, and is supposed to have a mean depth of six
feet.
Another is in the valley of the Hackensack River,
about two miles west of Nyack, and contains about fifty
acres, with a mean depth of six feet.
Peat, a few acres in extent, was observed by Professor Cassels at the north end of Rockland Lake.
Professor Cassels reports a peat-bog of forty acres on
land of John Snediker, one mile south-west of Snediker's Landing, with an average depth of six feet of good
peat. This peat-bog has been wrought for the New
York market.  It was opened during the summer
of 1838, —
The proprietor receiving... 25 cents per chaldron.
The cartage to dock,.         37      "      "
Freight to New York,.... 37 
Expense of digging and curing,. 50   "
$1.50




130       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
It has been sold in New York at $3 per chaldron, or
$4.50 per cord.
Professor Cassels observed a bog of fifty acres of peat
between the lower village of Clarkston and the Hackensack River.  Its average depth is stated to be six
feet. It is on lands of William O. Blines, Levi J.
Gurnee, and others.
Extensive peat-bogs were observed on the mountain,
near the turnpike from Haverstraw to Munroe Works.
One contains about forty acres, another about fifty acres.
Some other smaller bogs were seen, containing perhaps
twenty thousand cords. Another was seen in the valley of
Stony Brook, containing, probably, ten thousand cords.
At the north end of Long Pond, near the west line
of Rockland County, a deposit of peat was observed.
A peat-bog of about ten acres occurs about one mile
south-west of Stony Point.
Several small peat-bogs were observed near Fort
Montgomery, that in the aggregate may contain ten
thousand cords. There is a small one south of Fort
Putnam, and near it; another south-east; another southwest; all within one fourth of a mile.
A peat-meadow occurs on the mountain, half a mile
west of Round Pond, five miles south-west of West
Point, on land of Mr. Wilkins, and contains ten thousand cords.
A small peat-boog was seen between the Limestone
Ledge and Duck Cedar Pond, in Warwick, and may
contain four thousand cords. Another was seen near
the Patterson Mine.
Another near the Crossway Mine, and another east
of the Starling Mine.
Another, of sixty to one hundred acres, in the valley
of Smith's Clove, between Wike's and Galloway's.




NEW YORK.                 131
A peat-bog lies west of Townsend's ore bed, in Canterbury, and contains ten thousand cords.
In the slate and graywacke region of Orange County,
peat is everywhere abundant;' and the localities are so
numerous, that it would be tedious to enumerate them.
The drowned lands, the Graycourt Meadows, and the
Black Meadows, are the most extensive of these deposits. The former marsh is most extensive, and contains
seventeen thousand acres. At a low estimate, there
must be twenty-five thousand acres of peat-bogs in
Orange and Rockland Counties that have not been estimated; and we may calculate, in round numbers, that
they contain twenty-five million cords of peat.
In the drowned lands, several thousand acres are covered with this substance: it is from three feet to several
yards in depth, and, on trial, proves to be a good fuel.
The Graycourt Meadows, lying in Goshen and Blooming Grove, contain five hundred acres of peat, several
feet in depth. It exists in great abundance in Warwick, Minisink, Goshen, Monroe, Cornwall; Blooming
Grove, New Winsor, Newburg, Montgomery, Hamptonburg, Crawford, Walkill, and Mount Hope; all the
towns in the county, except Deerpark. In this latter
town the quantity is small. The quantity in the county
is unusually large in proportion to' its extent; perhaps
as much or more so than any other county in the State.
It would require a great amount of time to ascertain
the number of acres. It is perfectly inexhaustible.'If
its consumption for fuel ever becomes as general as it is
in some parts of Europe, the Graycourt Meadows and
drowned lands would prove a source of immediate and
immense revenue to their proprietors.
Many smaller deposits of this substance are found in
the towns of Schroon, Chester, Warrensburg, Johns



132       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
burg, Queensburg, Lake Pleasant, and Wells, varying
in extent from one to five acres.
The summits of the Delaware and Hudson Canal,
between Wurtzborough and Red Bridge, in Sullivan
County, contain about fifty thousand cords.
A marsh extending down the valley of the Basher's
Kill, from near Wurtzborough towards Cuddebackville,
contains a thousand acres.
A bog a few miles west of Ellenville is said to contain about one hundred acres.
The bog in the valley of Three Brooks, south of Monticello, about four hundred acres.
The marsh one mile south-west of Monticello, belonging to Hon. Mr. Jones and others, about fifty acres.
The marsh half a mile south-west of Monticello,
belonging to Hon. Mr. Jones, eight acres.
The marsh half a mile west of Monticello, belonging
to.Hon. Mr. Jones, say ten acres.
Several marshes between Monticello and Bridgeville,
on the Neversink, perhaps fifty acres in all.
Bog between Dashville and Esopus, on the north end
of the Passant Binnewater, say forty acres.
Bog one mile north of the above, on the north branch
of the south fork of Black Creek, in Palts, Ulster
County, perhaps ten acres.
Bogs on Black Creek, near the Poughkeepsie and
Palts Turnpike, about fifty acres.
Bog in the valley of the east branch of the Delaware,
in Roxbury, Delaware County, on Mr. Straton's farm,
about ten acres.
Bog in Marlborough, on the south road from M'larlborough to Pleasant Valley, on land of G. Birdsal,
Mrs. Bingham, and D. Cassman, in Ulster County,
about twenty acres.




NEW YORK.                  133
A few deposits of this substance have been discovered
in Otsego County, on the farm  of Mr. Clark.  Two
miles south of Cooperstown is a small peat-swamp,
nearly surrounded by alluvial hills, covering an area of
six acres. The peat is apparently of good quality, and
may be made accessible with little expense. Several
other small marshes of a similar character are found in
this neighborhood.  On the road from Cooperstown,
west towards Oakville, are several small deposits. Two
miles south of New Berlin, on the east side of Madilla,
is a peat-swamp, covering an area of forty-five or fifty'
acres.  This'is the most extensive deposit of the kind
of which we have any knowledge in this region. Its
depth is unknown: in several places a pole was thrust
down ten feet. It is probably much deeper.
In the towns of Great Valley and Little Valley, the
" sags," or depressions in which the clay is formed, contain more or less extensive bodies of peat. The largest
is upon the land of Mr. Sweetland. About ten acres
are spread over by the bog; and the depth of peat varies
from a foot or two near the margin to more than twelve
towards the centre.
About ten acres between Reed's Mineral Spring and
Argyle, in Washington County; fifty acres at the south
end of Summit Lake, in South Argyle, and one, or two
other deposits, comprising perhaps thirty acres, in the
same town; twenty-five acres on A. McNeil's farm, in
N. Greenwich; ten acres on P. Reynolds's farm in the
same town. About one hundred acres lie between N.
Argyle and Hartford; seventy acres one mile south-east
from N. Greenwich; ten acres in Greenwich, about a
mile and a half south-west from Lakeville; and probably about four hundred or five hundred acres in various
places in Greenwich, about a mile south from Lakeville;




134       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
ten acres on Stephen Durham's farm; and about ten
acres on Simeon Burton's land, in Easton.  In Salem,
about three miles north from the village, is a tract of
about one hundred and sixty acres; and about four
miles north-east from the village is a tract of one hundred and thirty acres. In WTest Hebron we find about
twenty acres, two miles south-west from the village; and
in Kingsbury, on the Champlain Canal, lie something
like a thousand acres. At Fort Ann, two miles northeast from Mount Hope Furnace, is about thirty acres;
and between the two lakes south of Mount Hope lie
about fifty acres.  In Dresden are several deposits,
amounting to about one hundred acres. In Putnam,
four miles north-west from the ferry, there are about
thirty acres. In Greenbush, on the Boston Turnpike,
is a small deposit; and another of a few acres on land
of Mr. Clark, at Coyeman's, three miles from New Baltimnore, in Albany County. In Hamilton County, Marion River, about seven miles in length, connects the
Eckford Lakes with Racket Lake: it passes through an
immense marsh containing an inexhaustible quantity of
peat, and upon which, as in numerous other localities,
there is a great amount of tamarack, especially valuable
for ship-timber.
Bones of the mastodon were found in 1790 and 1800
in the town of Montgomery, about twelve miles from
Newburg, in Orange County, ten feet below the surface,
in a peat-bog in marl.  Several bones of the legs, some
of the vertebra, several ribs, and some of the bones
of the head, were obtained.  One of the leg-bones
measures more than forty inches round the joint, and
thirty-six on the cylindrical part of the bone, and is
nearly five feet long. The teeth are nearly seven inches
long, and four broad: they are found white, and fast in




NEW YORK.                  135
the jaw, without appearance of decay. The holes in the
skull, where the nostrils appear to have been, measure
eight inches in diameter.
Eight similar skeletons have been discovered within
eight or ten miles of this point, and some of'them were
fifteen or twenty feet below the surface of the earth.
Some bones of these animals were found in 1782,
three miles south of Ward's Bridge, in Montgomery;
another, one mile east of this bridge; another, three
miles east; another, seven miles north-east; another,
seven miles east; another, five miles westwardly; and
another, ten miles north, in Shawangunk. Similar remains were found in digging the Delaware and Hudson
Canal, in a peat-bog between Red Bridge and Wurtzborough, in Sullivan County. Fossil bones of the mastodon and elephant have been found in other parts of
Orange County.
These facts are gathered from a paper by Sylvanus
Miller, published in the "Medical Repository," New
York, 1801. Mr. Miller in a letter to De Witt Clinton
in October, 1814, narrated some of them, and mentioned
the additional circumstance, that, in some cases, considerable locks and tufts of hair were found with the skeletons. It was of a dunnish-brown color, from one and a
half to seven inches in length, and retained its natural
appearance until exposed for some time to the air, when
it gradually mouldered away into a kind of impalpable
dust.
Mention is made of the skeleton of a mastodon found
in Genesee, in marl, below a bed of peat.
In September, 1866, the jaw-bones of a mastodon
were discovered in a peat-bed, some thirty feet below
the surface, at Cohoes. The length of each jaw-bone is
thirty-two inches; the breadth across the jaw, at the




136       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
broadest point, twenty inches, and the extreme depth
about twelve inches. On one side is a tooth four inches
in length and two and a half in width, and on the other
side two teeth, one of which is six and a half inches
long, the other four, and both uniform in width and
shape with the tooth opposite.
On the side of the single tooth there is no cavity to
indicate that any other ever existed, and it is evident
that the animal died in possession of all the dental conveniences that nature ever gave him. The front of the
jaw is comparatively light, showing that the creature
was not given to carnivorous diet, but subsisted chiefly
on herbs.
About a month later, most of the remaining bones of
the skeleton were discovered and exhumed. They lay
at a depth of eighty-five feet below the surface, and consisted of the back-bone, a number of the ribs, the hipbones, shoulder-blades, and bones of the hind legs, two
tusks, the upper jaw, and cranium.
The tusks were each nearly six feet long, and about
nine inches in diameter.- One of them, upon exposure
to the air, crumbled to pieces like clay, resembling that
substance in appearance and texture.  The ribs, of
which fourteen were found, are about four feet long, the
largest being four feet nine inches. The upper jawbone is four feet nine inches long from the extremity of
the mouth to the cranium; across the forehead measures about three feet.  So heavy is the skull that it was
with difficulty that four laborers could move it. The
sockets in which originally were located the eyes of the
monster, are almost large enough to admit the head of
a man. The hip-bone is five feet long, and weighs one
hundred pounds; the shoulder-blades measure two feet
nine inches, and weigh about fifty pounds each; the bone




NEW YORK.                  137
of the leg, at the knee-joint, measures thirteen inches in
diameter; the vertebrae of the back-bone are eight inches
in diameter. The other fragments found are in harmonious proportion to those already mentioned.
The bones have been carefully prepared, the missing
parts ingeniously replaced with wood, and the whole set
up and united by means of wires, and placed in the State
Geological Museum at Albany.
We understand that in the same peat-bed was likewise discovered an ostrich egg, at about thirty feet
below the surface.
The peat was covered with a slate rock, which was
cut through in digging foundations for a mill. On each
side of the peat-bed are perpendicular rocks, in which
are large semicircular cavities, evidently worn by the
action of water, and showing that a stream once flowed
over the spot.
On Long Island, throughout its entire length, there
are mlmerous peat-beds, some of them of great extent,
most of them of rather unusual depth, if we are rightly
informed, say from ten to forty feet; and nearly all of
them are believed to be of quality adapted to make,
when properly manufactured, good fuel.
Within the last two years, extensive explorations,
and, in some cases, very large purchases of peat-lands
have been made, some for actual use and development,
and others unquestionably for speculative purposes;
and so clearly manifest is it that' stores of solid wealth
are to be found in these hitherto waste-places, that several of the leading railroad and manufacturing interests,
as well as numerous private parties, are committed to
the development of this fuel question, and are preparing
for extensive operations the present year.
New York, in the, length and breadth of the State,




138      PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
may be said to be wide awake on the subject of peatfuel. Large quantities will be manufactured the present year; and the day cannot be far distant when her
peat-beds will be added, as no inconsiderable item, to
the list of her already abundant resources of wealth.
NEw JERSEY.
The deposits of peat in this State are numerous and
rich, and a lively interest is manifested in utilizing them.
It is well known that numerous shell marl-beds or pits
are exclusively and profitably worked for fertilizing purposes. These marl-beds are usually found to rest upon
a bed of clay, sand, or gravel, and are succeeded by
peat or muck, the depth of the peaty deposits varying,
according to the statements we have seen, from three to
twenty feet. Peat, varying in quality for purposes of
fuel, is found in Montague, Harrisville, Belleville,
Hohokus, Sandiston, Vernon, and other localities.
It will be interesting in this connection to note something of the cedar-swamps, which are a remarkable
feature of Southern New Jersey. They are common in
all the counties south of Monmouth; but probably the
most ext~ensive are in Cape May, and the adjoining parts
of Cumberland and Atlantic Counties.  The CedarSwamp Creek, which runs into Tuckahoe River, and
Dennis Creek, which runs into D)elaware Bay, head in
the same swamp; and the whole length of the two
streams - a distance of seventeen miles  is one continuous cedar-swamp. The wood is the white cedar. It
grows on peat, and its roots run near the surface. In
the present growth of standing timber, scarcely any
trees are to be found more than one hundred years old;
but these rest upon a formation containing we know not




NEW JERSEY.                 139
how many generations of trees which have lived and
fallen before them. Large stumps are frequently found
standing directly on other large logs, and with their roots
growing all around them, and then other logs still under
these; so that one soon becomes perplexed in trying to
count back to the time when the lower ones were growing.
Dr. Beesley, of Dennisville, some years since, communicated to the newspapers an article on the age of
these cedar-swamps, which was copied by Professor
Charles Lyell, in his "Travels in the UTnited States;"
in which Dr. Beesley says that he "counted 1080 rings
of annual growth between the centre and outside of a
large stump, six feet in diameter; and under it lay a
prostrate tree, which had fallen and been buried before
the tree, to which the stump belonged, first sprouted.
This: lower trunk was five hundred years old: so that
upward of fifteen centuries were thus determined, beyond the shadow of a doubt, as the age of one small
portion of a bog, the depth of which is as yet unknown."
Mr. Charles Ludlam counted seven hundred rings of
annual growth in an old tree, which was living when
cut down.  The trees stand very thick upon the ground,
and grow rapidly at first; but as they increase in size,
and crowd each other, the tops become thin, and the
annual growth exceedingly small. The rings near the
centre of a large cedar log are often almost an eighth of
an inch in thickness, while those near the bark are not
thicker than paper. The soil in which these trees grow
is a rich black peat, composed of vegetable matter,
which, when dry, will burn, leaving not more than three
or four per cent. of an ash almost insoluble in acids, and
without the slightest alkaline taste. This peat is of various deptlis, from two or three up to twenty feet or
more; and the trees which grow on it have their roots




140       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
extending through it in every direction near the surface,
but not penetrating to the solid ground. When this
soil is opened to the sun and rains, it decays rapidly;
but when covered with a growth of trees, and so shaded
that the sun does not penetrate to the ground, it increases
rapidly, from the annual fall of leaves, and from the
twigs and small trees which die and fall. Trees are
found buried in this peaty earth, at all depths, quite
down to solid ground.  The buried logs are generally quite sound: the bark on the under side of many
of them is still fresh in appearance. The color of the
wood is preserved, and its buoyancy retained. When
they are raised, and floated in water, it is observed that
the side which was down in the swamp is uppermost.
These logs are so abundant in some parts of the swamp,
and in the salt marshes bordering on them, that a large
number of men are constantly occupied in raising and
splitting them into rails and shingles. Our authority
states that in Mr. Ludlam's swamp this business was
commenced fifty years ago, and has been carried on
every year since; the annual product sent from Dennisville alone, averaging, for a number of years, not
far from 200,000 rails, worth $8 to $10 per hundred,
and 600,000 shingles, worth $13 to $15 per thousand.
The size of the logs raised is generally from one and a
half to three feet in diameter, though four feet is not
uncommon; and they have been taken out five, six, and
even seven feet in diameter. In searching for logs, the
Workman uses an iron rod, which he thrusts into the
mud until it strikes one; then, by repeated trials, he
judges of its direction, size, and length: the stumps,
roots, and earth are removed from over it; it is loosened
by means of levers, and soon rises, and floats in the
water which has accumulated in the excavation.




PENNSYLVANIA.                141
PENNSYLVANIA.
Of peat in Pennsylvania, the great coal-bearing section of this country, we shall hardly be expected to say
much; but some remarks contained in the Geological
Report of that State, published in 1858, upon the analogies of origin and structure of peat and coal, are of so
much interest, that we shall make brief extracts.
Peat-bogs are nothing but beds of coal, not entirely
ripe or burned out.  We have to mention some very
interesting and striking analogies, such as the presence
of bitumen in both formations.  It has been asserted
that bitumen could not proceed from plants, but it is
everywhere obtained by the distillation of peat.
" We would show the identity of the geographical distribution of both formations, though it has been long
asserted that the peat formation belongs to a cold climate, and the coal to a warm one; also the affinity of
forms in their plants, -forms particularly adapted, it
seems, to the absorption of the vapors, and the transformation of carbonic acid in woody matter; and show the
large amount of wood in the plants of our peat-bogs,
even in the mosses (sph/agna), which, though very
fragile, soft, and thread-like plants, have a larger proportion of woody matter than the hardest of trees.
"The analogy of formation being established, we do
not see any reason to theorize about the general flora
of the period of the coal formation.
" Our peat-bogs have more than seventy species of
mosses, five or six species of lycopodiacece, and as
many species of ferns, eighteen or twenty species of
palm-trees, reeds, and phanerogamous monocotyledonous plants; and our peat-bogs are now essentially a
compound of such plants, sedges, grasses, reeds, &c.




142       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
The trees that are now living on these bogs -viz., the
pines, birches, &c. - probably take the places of the
large series of palm and fern trees of the marshes of
the Old World."
After making the above quotation from  a French
author, the report continues —
"The above was written ten years ago: since then,
the palaontology of the plants has made very great
progress, and a great many new species have been discovered. Nevertheless, this analogy in the vegetation
of both formations-the coal and the peat -has become more and more evident.
"In the peat-bogs of North America, ordinarily
named cedar-swamps, there are, first, about twenty
species of mosses of which the growth directly contributes to the formation of the peat." They are enumerated.
"Of these species, one only is peculiar as an American plant; all the others, without exception, have the
same plan,'the same destination, and are found in the
same abundance, as in the peat-bogs of Europe. There
are, second, many other species of mosses which are
growing only on the peat, but which do not claim a
large share in the combustible matter.
"The sedges and grasses are distributed, also, in the
same proportion.
"The trees have some species which cannot be compared; but a great many of them, the birches and
alders, are nearly alike.
"The type of the flora of the peat-bogs is everywhere
the same, and is susceptible of proof, as well from our
explorations in the great bogs of Southern Virginia as
from the observations of travellers in the Australian
hemisphere.




PENNSYLVANIA.               143
"It has been long asserted that the peat-bog formation belongs particularly to cold climates, and.that the
preservation of the woody matter is essentially due to
low temperature. Our researches in Europe on this
subject have already proved that this is not the case,
and that the area of the peat-bogs occupies exactly the
same latitudes as that of the oldest coal formations.
And since we have been enabled to pursue the same
explorations in America, we have found on this continent exactly the same distribution; for in this country
the peat-bogs are found from-far above the northern
shores of. Lake Superior, as high as 600 of latitude, to
the Great Dismal Swamp in South Virginia, 350, exactly in the same latitudes as are occupied by the great
coal basins of America.  We have made on the same
subject very long researches.
"But how is it possible to account for the vegetation,
in our latitude, of those immense trunks of trees, perhaps of fern-trees, to which we find an affinity only in
the tropical regions, if we do not admit of a great
change of temperature?
"In the peat-bogs of northern countries,-of Denmark, Sweden, and Switzerland, -we find sometimes,
heaped in very thick strata, much larger trunks of trees'than those which have been found in the coal.
" The following is a description, given in 1846, of a
peat-bog which we visited, near Waldsmarslund, thirty
miles above Copenhagen:'These deposits of wood are
a true forest heaped upon another, and buried in the
peat, which in the marshes of Denmark are found everywhere with alternating beds of the same species of trees.
At the bottom, upon a bed of peat from four to six feet
thick, are pine-trees, lying flat, nearly always in the
same direction as the inclination of the basin; viz., the




144        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
roots against the borders. These pine-trees are ordinarily from six to ten inches in diameter: their slightest
branches are preserved, and they are embedded in a
mass of their own leaves, cones, mushrooms, &c., of
which the form is not at all altered. Upon these pines
is a bed of black peat, from five to six feet thick, overlaid by a forest of prostrate white birches. Upon the
birches there is again six feet of less decomposed peat,
covered with enormous trunks of oaks, which have no
less than three feet of diameter, and of which the wood
is so well preserved that it is sawed on the place, and
used for building material. The peat in which these
trees are buried does not preserve any trace of the leaves
of these oaks, but only some acorns.  It is evident,
nevertheless, that they have grown on the place where
they are found, being preserved in their integrity, with
their smallest branches and their bark. These trees are
covered by from six to eight feet of peat, in which or
upon which is found sometimes a fourth forest of trees,
and this time of beech-trees, the same trees that now
form the forest around.'
"'The size of the trunks buried in the peat-bogs is,
as is easily seen from the above description, in favor
of our present formations. In the Dismal Swamp of
Virginia, we have seen, in the peat, trunks of magnolia
measuring more than one hundred feet, without great
diminution in their diameter.  The trees of the coal
which are ordinarily ascribed to a genus of plants like
the ferns, and so to fern-trees, were not true ferns, but a
peculiar species of plants, of which we have no living
representatives, and of which the nearest relatives are
the lycopodiacea, a genus of plants of which the largest
species known are living in the peat-bogs and the forests
of our northern hemisphere.




PENNSYLVANIA.                145
"Our human race is young, but the world lived long
before it.  Truly, Nature has prepared our home.  It
has heaped, for the future welfare of our race, those
inexhaustible beds of combustibles that afford us so
much comfort; but it has done this without any miracle,
without any of those sudden transitions which we are so
prone to discover for the satisfaction of our own pride.
This coal formation" (and the same is equally true of
peat) "is an admirable one, andsnwe can look to- it only
with wonder, and with faith in an overruling Director;
for this heaping of combustible matter was by itself
nothing but a useless proceeding.  The bed to put it in
was to be prepared, a long time in advance, by a thick
layer of clay, to prevent the egress and the dispersion
of the bitumen after its separation from the woody matter. It required, also, an impermeable covering to
prevent too strong an action of the oxygen, and the
mingling of sand and other strange matters, which
would have entirely changed its combustible property.
This, as well as the formation of iron, which is also
ordinarily in progress with the formation of the peatbogs, has been obtained by the simplest laws and the
slow progress of Nature.
"This proceeding does not come to its end without a
great many changes.
"We have seen some beautiful illustrations of these
changes in Germany and Denmark.  Near Leipsic
there is a bed of lignite, formed of large trunks heaped
about fifteen feet thick. The matter is entirely soft,
and all the trunks flattened, measuring in one direction
scarcely half the diameter they have crosswise. It is
also entirely black, and yields an excellent fuel. It is
extracted with shovels, like peat, after its surface has
10




146       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
been laid bare from twenty feet of sand and gravel
lying upon it.
"In Denmark, about twenty miles below Copenhagen,
near the sea-shore, there is an extensive plain, covered
with the finest grass, and affording excellent pasturage
to large herds of cattle. By digging there, they find,
under one foot of humus, a bed of peat, entirely composed of bark of birches. This bark is heaped six feet
thick, and closely packed and flattened.  It is cut out
and dried in long rolls, entirely void of earthy matter.
The woody matter, nearly fluid, or transformed into a
very soft yellow mass, is at the bottom of these beds,
and is takert out of the excavations with buckets, spread
on layers of straw, through which the water percolates,
and, when thickened, it is beaten hard, dried, and burnt
like coal."
VIRGINIA.
The peat interest of this State may be said. to centre
in the Great Dismal Swamp, which, it is ascertained,
contains some of the most extensive and superior deposits of peat of which we have any knowledge in this
country.
The Virginia Condensed Peat Company and the Great
Dismal Swamp Peat Company have already taken the
initiatory steps, and we hear of other companies and
individuals who are operating with a view to the development of this immense fuel region.. The last-named
company, in their published statement, say, -
" The peat of the Dismal Swamp has been the growth
of uncounted ages.  Recent geological investigations
have established the fact, that'the Bare Garden,' which
is the richest and best portion of this enormous peatfield, was once covered by a gigantic forest of resinous




VIRGINIA.                   147
woods, principally the gum-tree, cypress, juniper, and
pitch-pine, which flourished in primeval luxuriance.
When these forests were prostrated by convulsions, or
the slow process of decay, they were decomposed and
covered by mosses and grasses, which accumulated for
many centuries, until, by gradual chemical changes,
the whole became one vast homogeneous mass of perfect
peat, extending to undiscovered depths, and richer in
calorific ingredients than almost any other peat hitherto
discovered."
Samples of these peats were furnished to Professors
Johnson and Silliman, of Yale College, for examination
and analysis, and their reports upon them  are as follows:
"  SHEFFFIELD SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL OF YALE COLLEGE,
"NTEW HAVEN, CONN., November 27, 1866."
GENTLEMEN:
" I have examined the two samples of peat sent by
you as coming from the Great Dismal Swamp. These
sarMples, brought to perfect dryness, gave, -
Surface Peat.  At 4 ft. depth.
Volatile matter.62.56                      65.74
Coke (ash-free).               31.21       31.81
Ash.....6.23   2.45
100.00      100.00
"Calculated with the usual content of water (twenty
per cent.) occurring in air-dry peat-fuel, we have, —
Surface Peat.  At 4 ft. deptlh.
Water.20.00   20.00
Volatile matter.               50.05       52.59
Coke (ash-free)......24.97                 25.44
Ash.                             4.98  1.97
100.00      100.00




148        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
"Both of these samples are of excellent quality. The
sample taken from a depth of four feet, especially, is
remarkably free from  ash, which adapts it for gasmaking, metallurgical purposes, &c. For iron smelting
and working, this peat, properly condensed, would answer admirably.
"Very truly yours, &c.,
"SAMUEL W. JOHNSON,
"Professor of Agricultural and Analytical Chemistry, Yale College."
"GENTLEMEN:
"My examination of the specimen of peat from the
Dismal Swamp, which you placed in my hands, has
yielded the following results:"As received, the peat appears like a thick mud, dark
brown in color, impalpable in fineness, crossed here and
there with root fibrils, and remarkably uniform.
Annexed are the results of its analysis: —
I..II.      III.    IV.
Water... 78.89    20.22        -       10.00
Volatile matter. 13.84    52.31    65.53    58.08
Charcoal..  6.49    24.52    30.82    28;59
Ash.....78     2.95     3.65     3.33
100.00   100.00   100.00   100.00
"No. I. is the wet peat, as received; II., the same,
after drying for six months in my laboratory; III., the
perfectly dry peat; and IV., another portion, calculated
with ten per cent. of water.
" From these figures it is at once evident that this peat
has an excellent composition. The large amount of
combustible matter it contains, and the correspondingly
small proportion of ashl, greatly enhance its value as a fuel.
Moreover, the percentage of coke which it yields is so




VIRGINMA.                 149
considerable as to prove that its conversion into charcoal
for use in the manufacture of iron, for example, may be
made- remunerative; and especially so for the above
purpose, since an analysis of the ash failed to show the
presence of any injurious substances.
"I regard the physical and chemical examination to
which I have subjected your peat as highly satisfactory.
And I do not doubt that, by the use of the approved
modes of preparation which you are employing, you
will be able to place in the market an exceedingly useful
and merchantable fuel.
Yours respectfully,'B. SILLIMAN.
" YALE COLLEGE LABORATORY,
New Haven, Jan. 1, 1867."
We have ourselves had samples of this same peat,
and applied to them the practical tests which every purchaser of fuel applies to wood or coal, in order to satisfy
himself of its real value, or, in other words, how much
money he is willing to pay for it.
The scientific analyses above reported confirm our
practical tests, and we think there can be no doubt
that the extensive deposits of peat in the Great Dismal Swamp are among the purest and best in this
country.
An officer who served during the late war, and was
for a considerable time stationed in this region, and
improved his opportunities for observation, writes, -
"There can be little doubt that the Great Dismal
Swamp was once a vast fresh-water lake, below the
level of the neighboring lands, fed by the springs and
rills therefrom. Gradually the mosses and dense sedges
vigorously growing in the rich soil of its quiet margin
encroached on all sides, increasing in height and firm



150      PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
ness,  fed by drenching rains and frequent fogs, until
they have nearly filled the huge basin, - and crowding
the waters inward and upward to an elevation of twelve
feet above the level of the lands at the verge of the
swamp, hold Lake Drummond compressed to one tenth
its original size, and imprisoned in forest and bog.
"The broad canal built by the U. S. government
through the eastern part of the swamp is fed by a raceway from the lake; and the lake is so much higher
than the canal, and the middle of the canal so much
higher than the ends at the edge of the swamp, that the
water flows from the lake into the canal, and each way
into the Elizabeth and Pasquotank Rivers.
"The graphic delineation of Porte Crayon, and the
startling romance of Mrs. Stowe, alike fail to convey
an adequate conception of the weird wildness of this
unique locality. Equally impossible is it to estimate
and describe the exhaustless wealth of this mysterious
spot, in the choicest timber and in the richest and purest
of American peat.
"In America the dryness of the air, the rareness of
fogs, and the heat of summer, render the climate less
favorable than that of Europe for the normal production
of peat by the steady growth of vegetation.
On the cool and humid coast of Labrador, in foggy
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and in the Great Dismal Swamp of South Virginia, with abundant moisture
from its lake, and the dense vapors from the adjacent
ocean, peat formations bear close resemblance to the
huge bogs of Ireland and Germany.
" Nature seems to have provided fuel where it is most
wanted.  Below 35~ of latitude little fuel is needed,
and wood grows with great rapidity; above 60~ few
live to need fuel. Whether or not this be the quiet




VIRGINIA.                 151
reasoning of busy Nature, or her divine Author, certain
it is that above the limit named the cold interferes with
the requisite growth and decomposition of the proper
vegetation, while below that limit the heat and dryness
of the air largely absorb moisture, and cause a decomposition too rapid for the formation of peat. The Great
Dismal Swamp is substantially the southern limit of peat
in this country. It may well be doubted whether peat
of the finest quality would have been formed there had
not the vast size of the swamp, the abundant water in
its large lake, and the added moisture of the dense and
frequent fogs from the adjacent ocean more than neutralized the effect which the heat of the climate and the
dryness of the air would have produced upon a smaller
inland swamp.
" The water of the Great Dismal Swamp, though of
a dark reddish color, is clear and fit for all domestic purposes: I have often used it to quench my thirst, in
preference to the water of the springs or wells of that
vicinity. Indeed, the people near the swamp believe it
to possess medicinal qualities, and declare that those
who steadily use it will not be troubled with ague or
the bilious disorders incident to summer in that region.
"I have heard the inhabitants of the neighborhood
repeatedly affirm that to visit the swamp and partake
of the waters beneath the dense shade of its luxuriant
magnolias, lofty junipers, and white cedars, was as invigorating as a trip to the Sulphur Springs or the healing waters of Saratoga. We smile, as if the idea was
absurd; but certain it is, that the juniper water, as it is
called, possesses as stringent qualities, at least, - and
the experience of the army abundantly proves fhat it is
much more wholesome to those not acclimated,.- than
the waters of various villanous properties, drawn from




152       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
the wells of that torpid locality.  To us the huge,
strange swamp itself was much less dismal and unpleasant than the flat, half-tilled border land of our encampment."
From a letter received from the superintendent of the
Virginia Condensed Peat Company, we make the following extracts —
" The juniper, cypress, gum, poplar, and other valuable woods, so common in this swamp, have long been
a source of trade; from which cause parts of the swamp
are wholly or nearly cleared of its heavy growth.
Extensive fires, which have occurred more or less
every year, have served also to clear the way for peat
operations.
" The peat is of the first quality, as proved by careful
analysis. It varies in depth from four feet to forty or
fifty feet. In the locality occupied by our company it
is ten feet deep and upwards.
"The facilities for getting the peat to market are
good. The Dismal Swamp Canal, which runs through,
not exactly the centre, but the eastern part of it, affords a water communication. Vessels of light draught
may come alongside.the works, located on the banks,
take in the peat, and sail for any port they please, north
or south.
"Many get the idea from the name of the swamp, " dismal," that it is a gloomy and unhealthy place. It is not
so. It is more pleasant and beautiful to the eye than
the low, sandy, level plains that border upon it, and far
more healthy.  Negroes have been known to live for
years in the swamp, enjoying excellent health and
strength'.'Lumbermen,' says Mrs. Stowe, in her thrilling romance of the Great Dismal Swamp,'who spend
great portions of the year in it, cutting shingles and




staves, testify to the general salubrity of the air and
water.  The opinion prevails among them that the quantity of pine and other resinous trees that grow there impart a balsamic property to the water, and impregnate
the air with a healthy resinous fragrance, which causes
it to be an exception to the usual rule of the unhealthiness of swampy land.'
"It is even so. Such is the universal belief of the inhabitants, both black and white, who live in the vicinity
of the swamp. The water is clear as crystal, though of
a reddish color, caused by the abundant growth of the
tree which gives it its name,'Juniper water;' it is
sweet and healthy, and used for all culinary purposes.
In no part of this vast swamp is stagnant water to be
found. Like the water in all perfect peat-bogs, it is
pure and free from malaria.
"In digging the peat it might naturally be supposed,
owing to the woody growth of the swamp, that the roots
would be a great hinderance. These roots are near the
surface, and are no very serious detriment.  At the
depth of two or three feet, you are free from  them;
then the peat comes pure, of the consistency of butter or
lard, and unlike most of the morenorthern peat, it contains no fibrous roots.  From  our limited experience
thus far, we perceive no material difference in the quality of the peat, whether lying near the surface or at a
greater depth.
"Owing to the situation of the swamp, at the southern
limit of the peat region, the season for manufacturing it
comprises nearly the whole year."
Another correspondent, an officer, who likewise served
in this region for several months, and was so much impressed with the value and importance of it, that he has




154       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
since revisited it, and devoted a good deal of time to
explorations and investigations, writes as follows —
" With the exception of a single locality in Virginia,
I have been unable to learn of any depdsits in the Southern States.
"Decomposition of vegetable matter is so rapid in all
warm climates as to prevent the formation of peat. In
this case, however, a combination of natural causes produces a climate similar in most respects to that of Ireland,
and consequently peat is formed there equal in quality to
the finest varieties of the Irish bogs.
"This deposit is situated a few miles from Norfolk,
on the line of the Dismal Swamp Canal, in the vicinity
of Lake Drummond.
"Heretofore these swamp lands have been valued
only for their timber; and for at least a century the
cypress and juniper logs, dug from beneath the'black
bog' (as the negroes call it), have constituted quite an
important article of commerce.
"It is only within two years that the discovery has
been made that the peculiar preservative properties of
this'bog' were identical with those of the Irish swamps,
and that this vast waste of saturated, spongy substance
contained all the elements of a most valuable fuel.  So
soon as it became known, gentlemen from New York
and Baltimore secured all the available tracts, and are
now preparing to work them. These tracts comprise in
the aggregate about fifteen thousand acres.
" As the depth of this deposit is in no case less than
six feet, and in many places from forty to sixty feet, it
will be readily seen that Nature has established here an
immense depot for the supply of fuel to all the seaboard
cities.  As the entire transportation will be by water,




VIRGINIA.                 155
the expenses of marketing the fuel will be materially
less than though land carriage were necessary.
"Samples of this peat in a crude state have been analyzed by distinguished chemists, and I understand that
you have their reports.
" From them, it will be seen that the Dismal Swamp
peat is not only a valuable fuel, but that from its unusual purity it is especially adapted to the manufacture
of illuminating gas, and for all the purposes of metallurgy.
"It would not be surprising, should the capitalists
now engaged in developing the rich deposits of gold and
copper in North Carolina and Virginia find that the peat
of the Great Dismal'Swamp was the best and most econoinical fuel they could employ for the smelting and desulphurizing of their ores.
"One peculiarity of this swamp is its entire freedom
from malaria.  While on the open lands surrounding
it, ague and congestive fevers prevail, none has ever
been known within it, although there are lumbermen
now at work who have spent fifty years among its recesses. During the prevalence of yellow fever in Norfolk, the swamp proved a safe retreat for hundreds of
people.
"There is no doubt but that this salubrity of climate
is due in a great degree to the balsamic nature of the
principal trees with which this vast area was once entirely covered.
" The water of the lake and swamp is of the color of
sherry, and, although perfectly quiescent, it never stagnates, but remains perfectly pure and sweet.
"For a great many years the naval authorities at
Gosport have been in the practice of filling the watertanks of all vessels bound on long voyages with this
juniper water, and sailors have never known it to spoil."




156       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
The concurrent testimony, from all these sources, in
regard to the " sweet water " of this swamp, is of interest as bearing upon the question of the antiseptic properties of peat, which will be more fully referred to in
succeeding pages.
We have credible information of a barrel of this water
which has been in the possession of a gentleman for more
than thirty years, which is apparently as sweet and
clear now as when first taken from the swamp.
OHIO.
We have, at present, but very little information relating to the deposits of peat in this State; have learned
of but few, and those mostly on the lake shore.  We
are seeking information from this section, aud hope to
be able to present, in a subsequent edition, some detailed statements.
MICHIGAN.
In a letter recently received from Professor A. Winchell, of the University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, he
says,
" I have not been unobservant of your efforts for a few
years back to introduce machinery that should enable
us to utilize the vast deposits of peat existing in various
parts of our country.  I have anticipated that the time
would arrive when the existing deposits of the lower
peninsula of Michigan would come into requisition.
"I am induced to think that the time has now arrived.
Cord-wood commands, throughout the southern portion
of the State, not less than five to eight dollars per cord;
and the coal which is worked at Jackson and Corruna
and other points, though obtainable for three to four




PEAT IN MICHIGAN.              157
dollars per ton, is not of quality suitable for domestic
use. In this state of things, we are introducing coal
from Pennsylvania, -Scranton, Lackawana, and Lehigh,- at twelve to thirteen dollars per ton delivered.
This coal is cheaper than cord-wood; but its use involves an unreasonable expense, as long as we have,
within the limits of every county of the State, a deposit
of combustible matter sufficient in extent to supply the
wants of the people for a long time, provided we have
the. means for effecting its inexpensive desiccation and
preparation for use.
"The peat-beds of the State were described in a general way in the Geological Reports made by Dr. Houghton and his assistants, thirty years ago.
"Eleven years ago I published an account of them in
the Michigan Farmer, then edited in Detroit. In 1860,
I made further mention of them in my Reports on the
progress of the Geological Survey; and in January,
1865, in an address before the Legislature, at Lansing
(also published by the Legislature), on the'Soils and
subsoils of Michigan,' I again made reference to the
subject.
" In none of these documents, however, are our peat
accumulations described in detail.  The notices embraced in the Geological Reports are general and hasty,
such as would be suited to reports of progress only.
No final Report has ever been made, and hence no opportunity offered to record the numerous details of which
observations have been taken.
"The facts are, however, that few States in the Union
afford so extensive accumulations, or so fine a quality
of combustible muck and peat.
"I cannot now specify many of these accumulations
of peat, neither is it necessary. I know of very extensive




158       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
beds in Washtenaw, Jackson, and Lenawee Counties.
I have not made special explorations of many of these
beds.  There has been no occasion for it.
"Whenever the time arrives for drawing upon these
stores of fuel, local observations can be made, and measurements of depth and tests of quality undertaken.
"You seem to incline to the opinion that the peat deposits in Michigan are rather thin, and not of very good
quality. In this you are quite mistaken. The fact is,
as I have already stated, our peat deposits are numerous, often from four to twenty feet deep, and of good
quality.
"I know of some peat-bogs of forty to one hundred
acres in extent. In Ingham County is one of more than
a thousand acres in extent; another in Lapeer County.
As nearly as I can recollect, a bog occurs in Washtenaw County, one or two hundred acres in extent;
another in the south part of Jackson County, fifty acres
in extent.
"I am unable to say what depth the peat attains in
these particular places, but I know that in many other
places it is ten or fifteen feet to the bottom."
The Detroit Free Press, in a recent article, says,-' The discovery of immense beds of peat in Michigan,
which are already being developed, and the fact that
the article is now produced for commerce, is a matter of
great importance to every housekeeper, as well as to the
capitalist and manufacturer.
" Specimens of crude and condensed peat have been
forwarded to the Board of Trade in this city, for exhibition at their rooms, by Mr. Elisha Congdon, an enterprising merchant and farmer of Chelsea, in this State.
The bed from which the specimens were taken is situated in Chelsea, Washtenaw County.  It is what is




INIDL&NA.                 15 9
known as a dry bog, containing about one hundred
acres, with an average depth of ten or twelve feet at
least. Soundings have been made of some parts of it,
giving over twenty feet, without reaching the bottom of
the bed.
"Professor Douglas, of the Michigan State University,
after a thorough analysis, pronounced it a very superior
article, yielding only three and two tenths per cent.
of ash.
" These beds of peat.are almost inexhaustible, and being found in the dry bogs, can readily be worked; and the
quality of the material having been fully tested, we may
expect soon to have our markets supplied with it as a
regular article of traffic.
" Mr. Congdon is now erecting a building in which he
will place one of the Leavitt peat machines, and expects
to prepare for market, during the coming spring, fifteen
to twenty tons per day of the concentrated peat.
"To what extent this traffic may reach is beyond calculation; for it is believed that throughout the State
there are hundreds of peat-beds which a proper system
of drainage will develop, and thus furnish an abundant
supply of fuel, when the productions of our forests will
have become curtailed to such an extent, and its cost as
fuel so enhanced, as to prohibit its use for that purpose.
"We hope that the owners of the numerous peatmarshes in the county will profit by the example of Mr.
Congdon."
INDIANA.
It is well known that there exist, in various parts of
the State, immense tracts of swamp-lands; and that
during the past few years, large portions of these have,
by a systematic method of draining, been reclaimed for




160       PEAT AS AN- ARTICLE OF FUEL.
cultivation, and have proved very valuable for that
purpose.
Some thousands of acres of these lands, it is now reported, are found to be deposits of peat, of good quality
for fuel, and operations on a limited scale for manufacturing it have been commenced at one or two points
during the past season.
We have seen it stated that along both sides of the
Kankakee River, extending from South Bend to the
Illinois line, is a peat-bog of more than sixty miles in
length, with an average width of three miles. In some
places it is known to be over forty feet deep; but even
though it average only one half or even one quarter of
this depth, the aggregate amount of fuel it contains, it
must be admitted, is beyond comprehension.
It is, we understand, quite practicable to drain this
entire marsh to the depth of ten or fifteen feet, at small
expense.
South of the Kankakee, the peat-bogs between there
and the Wabash are simply immense, and they are
traversed by three railroads.
Near the head of Lake Michigan, within ten to fifty
miles of Chicago, there is peat-fuel enough to supply
that city, if it lives to the age of Jerusalem. The
marsh along the Calamie River will measure at least
thirty miles, averaging a mile wide, and is of unknown
depth, and undoubtedly good peat.
There would seem to be no good reason why these
rich and extensive deposits should not be improved for
fuel, to the pecuniary profit of individuals and greatly
to the advantage of "the people."




ILLINOIS.                 161
ILLINOIS.
In the northerly part of this State are valuable deposits, some of them quite extensive; but we are not,
at present, in possession of sufficient reliable data to
make mention of them in detail.
From a lengthy and somewhat elaborate article upon
the subject of " Cheap Fuel" in a recent issue of the
Chicago Times, we make the following quotations,
which appear to be pertinent in this connection, and
which, although relating more particularly to the interests of the city of Chicago, are perhaps equally applicable to all that region:
"The supply of coal from the vast beds which underlie so large a portion of Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, have gone far to make up for the deficiency of
wood in these districts. Yet, notwithstanding these
supplies of coal, in many places fuel is both scarce and
high. The cost of mining at most of the Illinois mines
is, at the present time, not less than $3.50 per ton,
while at the mines nearer Chicago, the priceSis much
greater. When we add to this price the cost of transportation and the profits of dealers, it will be found that
coal becomes a costly fuel to all who live at a distance
from the mines.  The freight for one hundred miles on
the cheapest route is $2 per ton, and a great part of the
Illinois coal brought into Chicago, is taxed from $3 to
$5 per ton for freight.
" Illinois, however, furnishes but a fraction of the whole
amount of coal consumed in Chicago. During the year
ending March 31, 1865, we received 251,038 tons of
coal by the lake, most of which was the product of
Pernsylvania mines; and but 66,725 tons from the
Illinois mines. During the past season, the imports of
11




162       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
coal by the lakes increased to 288,771 tons. This coal
is carried by railroad from the mines, some of them 200
miles distant, to Lake Erie, and then shipped by water
a thousand miles. It will be evident that the cost of
this fuel is greatly enhanced by the cost of transportation. So it must always be. Unless such improvements are made in navigation and locomotion as to
lessen the cost of transportaion 50 per cent. or more,
fuel must be high, except in the vicinity of the place
where it is produced.
"These considerations make it important that all the
sources of fuel in the west be fully investigated and
developed.
"Wood and coal have been long and well known by
every one, and wherever found, their value is appreciated; but ignorance of the nature and value of peat as a
fuel has prevented the development of the beds of this
material, which, it seems, are found in many parts of
Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, and in some, sections
where there is no coal, and but very little wood.
" This substance is found, on examination, to be composed of various mosses and aquatic plants, partially
decomposed and solidified. It is, in fact, incipient coal,
representing the first steps in the progressive changes
which transform vegetable substances into mineral coal.
Its ultimate elements are the same as those of wood and
coal, namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
According to Sir Humphrey Davy, from 60 to 99 per
cent. of the substance of dry peat is combustible, the
remainder consisting of earthy matter which forms ashes.
" Machinery has been invented by which the peat, as it
comes from the bog, is compressed into hard and compact masses, resembling Unburned brick in consistency,
and not easily broken.  This condensed peat is not only




ILLINOIS.                  163
as easily transported as so much coal, but it is also a
very superior fuel, burning freely in an open grate, or in
a wood- or coal stove, with intense heat, and beinog so
compact in form as to present unusual advantages for
making steam, especially in locomotive engines, and,
indeed, for almost all manufacturing purposes.
" For domestic purposes, it unites the cleanliness of
wood with the heating advantages of coal, and for open
fires it is charming.
"For manufacturing purposes it has remarkable advantages; for, being entirely free from sulphur, iron can be
worked in it without injury.  The extraordinary heating
power of peat charcoal, together with its freedom from
sulphur and other substances deleterious to metals, renders it peculiarly adapted for smelting purposes, and for
all manufactures of metals.
"'In some countries it is highly prized as a fuel for
locomotives, and for making steamn generally, for which
its strong flame and freedom from clinker admirably
qualify it.
"In Northern Illinois, deposits have been discovered
in various places; the largest, so far as known, being
in Whiteside County, near the Mississippi River. One
of these bogs is said to be four miles in length, and one
in breadth, and twelve feet deep. The value of these
deposits, situated, as they are, where there is very little
wood and no coal, is almost beyond computation.
Doubtless, peat may be found in many other parts of
the State; and it would be well if trials were made of
the contents of all the swamps, which, in some sections,
render useless a considerable portion of the surface.
" Our farmers may find that these waste places, now
producing nothing better than rushes and water-lilies,
are the most valuable parts of their land.




164       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
"Along Lake Michigan, both in Indiana and Illinois,
beds of peat have been found, some of which are of excellent quality, though where the deposits are very near
the lake, the quality of the peat has been vitiated by the
admixture of sand.
" In view of the importance of the fuel question in the
north-west, every effort should be made to discover and
develop the beds of peat which are known to exist in
many localities, and which probably may be found in
many more.
"The wood and coal consumed in the city of Chicago, during the past year, have cost our citizens fully
$5,000,000.
"If the peat-beds of the the north-west are once fully
developed, it is probable that the cost of fuel will be
diminished at least one half, and thus $2,500,000 be
saved to the city annually.  Moreover, the superior
qualities of peat and peat-charcoal for the manufacture
of iron and the generation of steam will be sure to
secure the attention of manufacturers, and, if we can
be abundantly supplied with this material at cheap
rates, Chicago will be sure to become a great manufacturing, as well as a commercial city."
Explorations are being made all through this region,
and sharp eyes are watching for results; for in no section of the country is there a more ready appreciation
of the value of fuel, and wherever peat is found it will
doubtless be turned to good account.
WISCONSIN.
Throughout the valleys of this State, peat is very
abundant; and, in a district where vegetable and mineral fuel is so scarce, it seems highly probable that it




WISCONSIN.                165
will, at some future day, be resorted to as an extremely
valuable substitute for coal and wood. These valleys
present a very peculiar character in one respect; which
is, in the singularly level planes which are maintained
in their entire breadth. They appear as if they had
once been filled to a uniform level, in the manner of a
dam, from bank to bank, or like artificial reservoirs
from which the waters have escaped. These level bottoms consist of peat-beds to an unknown depth; and
small streams meander through them, having muddy
bottoms, and frequently expanding into swamps.
It would seem that these Wisconsin valleys have acquired this peculiar uniformity of plane surfaces from
the depositions of earthy matter in the first instance,
succeeded by the growth and decay of that class of
coarse aquatic vegetables which prevail under such
circumstances.
Considerable interest was awakened in this subject
some ten years ago: the matter was discussed, and
efforts were made to utilize the peat for fuel; but, from
the fact that no machinery could be procured adapted
for the purpose required, no practical results were realized. But now that the needful process of manufacture
has been discovered, and machinery effectual for the
purpose is to be had, the subject is again receiving the
attention it deserves; parties in various parts of the State
are investigating it, and the manufacture of peat-fuel
has already been commenced in a few places.
We have seen a report made in 1857 by Dr. A. A.
Hayes, of Boston, State Assayer of Massachusetts, to
soime parties owning extensive peat-bogs near Madison,
WVis., in which he says of the sample placed in his
hands, "Its flaming quality is of a marked character.
Its inflammable part has a high heating power, and




16(6      PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
burns freely and cleanly from the ash. Taking the
fifty-nine parts of inflammable compounds as representing the positive combustible matter of this- peat, we have
a caloric equivalent closely corresponding to that of
oak-wood; and I am led by my results to expect an
equal heating-power from an equal weight of this peat,
burned in comparison with coal." He adds, "Your
peat has a marvellous power in producing good gas.
It exceeds all common cannels, and, of course, is far
above any bituminous coal, and can be worked with
poor coal to make good gas.  There are only two or
three cannel coals known which afford so much illuminating material, placing this peat in the first class of
gas materials."
It is claimed that the most extensive beds of peat
known to exist in the west are in Wisconsin.
As this State has but little wood accessible to the fertile and well-settled counties, and no mines of coal, these
deposits of fuel are of great importance, and may be
of immense value when manufactures shall have been
more generally introduced.
From a number of articles upon this subject, which,
during the past year, have appeared in the various newspapers of the State, we select one from the "Northern
Farmer," published at Fond du Lac, from which to make
a few extracts covering a good deal of ground.
"We have been examining into the merits of peat as
an article of fuel, and are convinced that it is destined
to become one of the most important sources of wealth,
as it is in some respects more valuable than coal.
"It can be taken from its bed, and manufactured into
fuel, at a much less expense than is required to obtain
coal from the most favorably located coal-beds, without
taking transportation into consideration.  This country




WTISCONSIN.                 1 ( 7
contains peat deposits of sufficient magnitude to supply
all the wants of a densely-populated community for several generations; so that our valuable timber, now being
consumed for fuel, would be preserved for mechanical
purposes. We hope that public attention will be aroused
to this matter in time to save this wholesale destruction
of our valuable oaks, maples, hickory, ironwood, and
other varieties of timber.  When these are all turned
to ashes, necessity will compel us to look for a substitute for fuel: this will be found in peat; but we doubt
being able to find a substitute to supply our workshops
with material that has been consumed to supply our
growing population with heat during our long winters.
"Our city alone requires 30,000 cords of wood annually, and the demand constantly increasing. Old residents can see what were extensive forests, rapidly
disappearing before the axe; and, unless a check is
put upon their wholesale destruction, they will soon be
a thing of the past.'" The ingenuity of man now steps forth, and appears
in the form of numerous styles of machinery for preparing the products of these heretofore apparently worthless marsh-lands into valuable fuel deposits, each, owing
to its ease of access, superior to a mine of coal.
" We believe the mode of preparing consists in pulverizing, pressing, and drying, which is done very rapidly; and in ten days' time it is an article of merchandise
ready for use. Samples, that we have seen, appear as
solid as Breckenridge coal, and will weigh nearly as
much to the cord.
" We should be glad to see some of the surplus money
that has been invested in oil-wells pumped out and invested in peat-beds and machinery for preparing it."




1(68       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
IOWA.
The subject of peat is one of vast importance to the
people of Iowa, and especially to those in the northern
portion of the State, where the article is believed to
exist in large quantities, on and near the head-waters
of the Iowa and Des Moines.  Dr. White, the State
Geologist, we are glad to know, is devoting a good share
of attention to this subject, among others; and we doubt
not his investigations will develop facts which will be
highly beneficial to the people of the State.
The great drawback to the settlement of a prairie
State, like Iowa, where many miles often intervene without any timber at all, has been the want of fuel; and
that will continue to operate against the rapid settlement
of the State, and, in fact, of all prairie country, until
science shall discover a remedy.  The artificial growth
of timber has been resorted to, but it is usually for protection only, and not for fuel. Peat and coal, however,
offer the readiest solution of the difficulty; and, for that
reason, all information upon these subjects, and especially upon the former, which promises to be at once
made practicable, cannot but be of value.
The following letter from Dr. White, the State Geologist above referred to, appeared in the "Burlington
Hawkeye," in September last:"QUINCY, IOWA, Sept. 10, 1866.
" EDITORS HAWKEYE:
" Concerning the origin of peat, there is at the present day almost no difference of opinion. It is the result.of partial decomposition of vegetable matter under
water, which condition arrested the decomposition at a
certain stage.  Wherever a pond has existed, rank
grasses and plants have grown upon its borders, and




IOWA.                    16 9
the frosts of each returning November laid them beneath
its surface; their comnminuted fragments narrowing the
area, and lessening the depth of its waters, until it became the proper habitat of a peculiar moss, which continued to flourish luxuriantly upon the rapidly decomposing bodies of its parent stems, until the pond became
filled to the brim with the carbonaceous matteir thus
produced, reseambling in appearance soft black mud, the
upper portion being usually thickly interlaced with
fibrous roots.  Peat, then, can never be found where
there have been no ponds, and is not likely to exist, in
large quantity, in well-drained regions.
W" When the continent was first raised from the diluvial
sea, the surface of that portion of it which is now our
State, was not so uneven as it now is; but shallow depressions only existed, which gave initial direction to
the streams. The rains and frosts of the unnumbered
years which have passed since then, have worn their
channels deeper and deeper, causing the deepening also
of their tributaries, as well as of the multitude of small
depressions and ravines which lead into them. Thus,
wherever the streams are numerous, and their valleys
deep, the country is perfectly drained, and, consequently, no ponds are found. But in a region where
many streams have -their rise, each depression in the
surface would become a pond, because no accumulation
of waters beyond sends a current across it to form a
channel for its outlet.  The southern portions of Iowa
present an excellent example of a well-drained region,
and a part of the northern portion of the State, near
the head-waters of its streams, possesses that character
of surface upon which we may expect to find deposits
of peat. In some parts of the world this substance forms
the chief article of fuel; and the principal reason why




170       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
its use has been heretofore discarded for that purpose in
regions favored with wood and coal, has been the want
of knowledge of a proper method of preparing it for
convenient use.  This is now accomplished so effectually, that, in the Eastern States, peat is coming into
successful competition with coal; and, since it contains
no sulphur, as bituminous coal usually does, it is considered superior to that fuel for many purposes.  Many
machines have been constructed for its preparation, some
of which have failed to perform the work in the manner
desired. The only one of these which has been brought
definitely to my notice, and probably the most successful
one yet constructed, is manufactured by Messrs. Leavitt
& Hunnewell, of Boston, Mass.
"The scarcity of timber in some of the counties of
the northern part of the State, and the improbability of
finding coal there, make the discovery of peat a subject
of the greatest importance.  In view of these facts, I
have sent my assistant, Mr. Childs, to the counties of
Franklin, Wright, Cerro Gordo, Iancock, Worth, and
Winnebago, with instructions to examine them for the
purpose of ascertaining the extent and character of such
deposits there. Peat will doubtless be found in many
other parts of the State, wherever the peculiar conditions of its formation have existed; but, considering
their position to the streams of the State, the counties
named seem to present the best field for present investigations of this kind. C. A. WHITE, State Geologist."
MINNESOTA.
The same general remarks which have been made, as
relating to Wisconsin and Iowa, are probably equally
applicable, in the main, to this State.




MINNESOTA.                  171
The following, which was cut from  the. "St. Paul
Press," is so much to the point, and tells the story so
much more forcibly and concisely than we could expect
to, that we are glad to avail ourselves of it, in lieu of a
longer article prepared for this edition.
It will be seen that it was written on receipt of a former edition of this work;  and while modesty might
lead us to clip off the first and last paragraphs, other
considerations prevail, and we acknowledge with thanks
the kindly notice and manifest good will of the "Press."
It says, -
"We have before us a large volume of 168 pages,
issued by Leavitt & Hunnewell of Boston, entitled
tFacts about Peat as an Article of Fuel,' in which the
whole subject of peat, its origin and composition, its
various methods of preparation for fuel, its geographical
distribution, its use in the smelting and manufacture of
iron, steel, &c., its superiority as a fuel in generating
steam for locomotive or mechanical purposes, for the
production of gas and for other purposes, are elaborately discussed.'Peat exists in exhaustless deposits in every northern
State, and this volume furnishes a vast deal of valuable
information respecting the peat-bogs- of each, generally
compiled from geological authorities.
"The writer recognizes the existence of large and valuable deposits of peat in Minnesota, but does not seem
to be aware that we'beat all creation' on peat.
"Minnesota is chock full of peat.  We don't know
how it is in the southern part of the State, but in the
northern there is hardly a square mile of land which
does not contain a bog of peat.
"There is peat enough in the corporate limits of St.




172       PEAW AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Paul to supply the city with fuel for many decades to
come.
"It is a singular fact that these immense peat deposits,
in every northern State, have lain almost entirely neglected, until within the past year or two, - the mass of
people being almost wholly ignorant of their existence;
while it was only in very rare and exceptional instances
that peat was used for fuel anywhere in the United
States.
"It is another singular fact, that, by a movement
apparently simultaneous and universal,'Peat' has succeeded Oil' as the great excitement of the day, from
the Atlantic to the Mississippi.
"The publication of the book before us is itself a
curious proof of the wide popular interest taken in this
subject.  But a still more remarkable and substantial
evidence of this interest is manifested in the practical
and characteristically Yankee form of'peat machines,'
of which, within a year or two, the mechanical genius
of Yankeedom has been prolific.
" We don't know how many varieties of peat machines
there are, but the book before us presents an engraving
of a set of machinery which is described as capable of
turning out 100 tons of crude peat per day, yielding, if
cut from a well-drained bog, about 25 to 40 tons of
hard, dry fuel; furnished to order for fifteen hundred
dollars, - weight about 4500 pounds.
"This is'Leavitt's Peat Condensing and Moulding
Mill,' which we hereby advertise'free gratis for nothing,' in the hope that some of our enterprising citizens
may be induced to give it.a trial, and relieve us from
the miseries of green bass-wood at eight dollars a cord,
or thereabouts."




PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   173
KANSAS, NEBRASKA, COLORADO, UTAH, AND NEVADA.
Rumors and reports of deposits of peat through this
section of the country have reached us, from time to
time, but as yet are not of such character as to afford
definite or reliable information.  Enough has been
learned, however, to convince us that there are extensive deposits of good peat scattered through this region.
That such is the fact, has been made so clear to our
government that orders have been issued from Washington, to the quartermasters on numerous military outposts and stations, to explore, investigate, and report.
The enormous expense incurred for the fuel required
at many of these stations, amounting not unfrequently
to fifty, and even one hundred dollars per cord or ton,
renders the discovery of local supplies of any material
which can be made to serve the purpose, a matter of no
inconsiderable importance to our government.
CALIFORNIA.
The tula marshes of this region appear, so far as we
can learn, to be identical with peat. They abound in
some sections of the State, and the matter is beginning
to be investigated. Government has instituted inquiries and explorations, the result of which will doubtless
be made public in due time.
PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.
It is not generally understood that peat can be advantageously used in the manufacture of iron; but the instances we are able to cite, and the facts we gather from
various sources, will, to say the least, go far to show




174        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
that there is good reason fo believe that it may be used
economically and profitably, and that it will tend to the
production of superior qualities of iron.
The time was, when the English forge-masters maintained, with all the energy of conviction, that pit-coal
could never be used in the fabrication of iron; and they
treated with ridicule all who made such attempts. We
have witnessed the success of those who proved by persistent efforts and experiments that it could be done,
and the result is its universal and successful application.
So also with the employment of anthracite coal in the
process of iron-making.  It had baffled, for a long series
of years, every attempt to employ it, and was repeatedly
pronounced so surrounded with difficulties as to be impracticable; but it is well known that it is now managed
with equal or even more facility than bituminous coal.
We expect to be able to show that it is not only practicable to employ peat as the fuel in fabricating iron, but
that it has absolutely been in full operation on an extensive scale; in high filrnaces, in puddling and refining,
in cubilot and in reverberatory furnaces, in forges, and,
in fact, in nearly all the processes of iron manufacture.
It has been satisfactorily experimented upon; but
with a very few exceptions, we are not aware that it
has been used to any extent, for any of these purposes,
in our own country.
One of the largest wire-making establishments in
Massachusetts, famed for the superior quality of its
wires, especially the finer grades, such as are used for
cards, piano-fortes, &c., has consumed annually, for the
last twelve years, from 1500 to 2000 tons of peat, cut
and dried in the ordinary manner; and the quality of
the wire produced is said to be owing, in great measure,
to the use of this fuel.




PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   175
In England, France, Italy, Bohemia, Bavaria, ]Westphalia, Wurtemberg, and in several adjacent provinces,
it has been successfully employed on a large scale, and
with very satisfactory results.  rThese practical tests
and proofs of the value of peat for the purposes under
consideration, surely cannot, if generally known, remain long unheeded or unimproved by the enterprising
iron manufacturers of our own country.
In a paper on this subject, by Mr. A. S. Byrne, published in 1841, he remarks that charcoal iron is the best
known at present in the markets, and, as an illustration of its value and superiority, states that large
quantities had been annually imported into England
from India and China, and sold at the (then) enormous
price of ~36 (=-$173) per ton. He contends that peatcoke is of still greater value than the best charcoal,
and that in the manufacture of iron it stands unrivalled as a fuel.
The admixture of peat, even in its natural state,
with common coke, in smelting iron, materially improves
its quality; in some instances changing the pig-metal
from' the state of "white iron" to that of "gray iron,"
technically called ".foundery."
Good peat is shown to be preferable to any other fuel,
not only for the process just mentioned, but in welding,
and for softening steel plates, &c.
For the finer iron-works, peat and peat-charcoal are
known to be better than wood-charcoal.
Sir Robert Kane, in his " Industrial Resources of ITeland," published in 1844, demonstrates that the precious
Baltic iron, for which, at that time, ~15 to ~35 per ton
was readily paid, could be equalled by Irish iron, smelted by Irish turf, for ~6 6s. per ton.
From other sources we learn that iron manufactured




176       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
with peat fuel is more malleable than Swedish, and that
tools made from it are of superior quality.
It has been doubted if peat could be used in the puddling furnace, except with a diminished produce; yet
the working of iron by this fuel is known to improve its
quality, and the welds, especially, are superior to those
made with coal.
It has been proved that, after peat has been well carbonized, it may be employed in puddling and reverberatory furnaces and forges. As to its use in blast
furnaces, peat, which is the lightest of all coals, would
consequently seem to be the least fitted for the reduction
of ores. But even this difficulty has, in great measure,
been surmounted in the high furnaces of Germany.
M. V. Lamy made a series of experiments to determine the quantity -of heat evolved by the burning of
peat, compared with other combustibles, with the following results -
One kilogram, or 21 lbs., of the varieties of fuel
mentioned below, evolved of caloric the following
parts:Wood charcoal.. 75 parts
Coal Coke..66
Charred Peat..63 "
Bituminous Coal..60 "
Charred Wood..39 "
Dry Wood....36  "
Raw Peat..25 to 30 "
Wood with F moisture.            27  "
Thus, as regards charred peat or turf charcoal (from
unsolidified peat), it appears preferable to bituminous
coal in the manufacture of iron, and is almost equal to
wood charcoal.
Compressed peat, thoroughly dried, gives a steady




PEAT IN THE - MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   177
and intense heat, and can be used with decided advantage in a puddling furnace. In fact, it has been extensively used,. and the results have been very carefully
investigated by men of science, as well as of profound
practical attainments, and with uniformly gratifying
results, demonstrating conclusively the superiority of
the article, although it cannot be claimed that any one
has yet arrived at a perfect method of preparing and
using it; but enterprise and inventive genius are fast
developing both.
From  a statement of experiments made by M. Le
Serge, found in the:Repertory of Arts," vol. v., it
would appear that ordinary turf, charred, is capable of
producing a far more intense heat than common charcoal. It has been found preferable to all other fuel for
case-hardening iron, tempering steel, forging horseshoes, and welding gun-barrels.
Since turf is partially carbonized in its native state,
it must evidently, when properly manufactured andcondensed, and fully charred, afford a charcoal very superior in calorific power to the comparatively porous
article prepared from wood by fire.
At KIinigsbronn, in Wurtemberg, they execute with
peat alone, the refining and second fusion of the- pig
metal; its puddling, the reheating of the lumps and
rolling the bars and plates; in fine, all the operations
that are made with coal in English forges. The works
are under the care of M. Veberling.
The peat is of three kinds, as follows —
1st.  Peat of Dattenhausen. - Color varying from
dark yellow to brown, and containing a very considerable amount of fibre or interlaced filaments; yields ashes
31 to 4 per cent.
12




178       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
2d. Peat of Guntzburg. -Color, dark brown to
black, compact, and yields ashes 6 to 7 per cent.
3d. Peat of Wilhelmsfield.  Dark brown, and
yields ashes 5 to 6 per sent.
The peat used at these works is first dried in the air
at the place where it is dug, the blocks being turned
occasionally, and, after some three or four weeks' exposure, are transported to the iron-works, and there
further dried in kilns by artificial heat, and stored in
dry quarters for use.
Of the three kinds of peat mentioned above, the
proportionate diminution of weight and volume, when
dried, is as follows:
1st.   2d.    3d.
Diminution of volume...24.10.13.5;'    " weight.....10.19.12
Cost of one metrical quintal = 220 lbs., delivered at
the iron-works of Itzelberg, is 1 fr. 29 c. = 36 cents,
or about three dollars and fifty cents per ton; the distance being two kilometres, or 1 miles.
M. Berthier's analysis of peat used at KIinigsbronn is
as follows:
Carbon..24.40
Volatile Matters.                     70.60
Ashes.5.
It is employed without admixture of other fuel in the
refining, puddling, and reverberatory furnaces.
According to M. Lefebvre, whose statements appeared in the "Annales des Mines" in 1839, peat was
used to a considerable extent at the iron-works of
Ichoux, in Les Landes; and the proportions which
resulted from the operations at the refining and puddling
furnaces and forge operations at these works, chiefly
through the use of peat, were as follows:



PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   179
114 kilograms pig iron produced 100 kilograms bar
iron, with 93 kilograms peat, and 52 kilograms wood.
116 kilograms pig iron produced 100 kilograms bar
iron, with 93 kilograms peat, 37 kilograms wood, andi
9 kilograms coal.
The peat of Ichoux contains two and a half times
more ashes than the peat used at KIinigsbronn, in Wurtemberg, of which mention has just been made on previous pages.
In 1842, the establishment in Ichoux was the only
one in France where peat was used to any extent for
the processes above referred to; but with the knowledge
of the success attained there, and the low price at which
it might be obtained at numerous points in the kingdom,
it would seem impossible that many years should elapse
without its general introduction and use in the numerous iron and steel works there.
At the iron-works of Ransko, in Bohemia, peat is
used with great success.  These works are situated at
the south-west extremity of Bohemia. They consist of
two high furnaces and two cubilots, which are worked
with a mixture of turf and charcoal. There are also
several refining fires, and the establishment gives employment to about four hundred men.
The turf is brought from turbaries situated some
leagues firom Ransko. It is there dug or cut in the
usual manner, in bricks or oblong pieces, a-bout fourteen
inches long by six inches square. These bricks are
exposed in piles in the open air during the fine season,
where, in drying, they contract to nearly one third their
original size. In general these peat bricks are not
used until a year after having been dug. They are
stored under sheds attached to the high furnaces, and
sheltered from the rain, but receive no other or further




180        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
attention or preparation.  It was at first proposed to use
it in the carbonized state; but, as regards this particular
kind of peat, the carbon obtained was not found to be
much, if any, more advantageous than the article in its
crude state; and as the process involved some expense,
without corresponding profit, it was abandoned as useless. Numerous other experiments were tried in the
preparation and curing of it; but most were abandoned,,
for the reason that little, if any, profit was obtained over
the original methods adopted; and they therefore continued to employ non-compressed turf, simply dried in
the open air.
Two varieties of peat are used here, weighing respectively four hundred and five hundred and eightyseven lbs., the cubic metre of thirty-five and one quarter
cubic feet English.  They cost at the iron-works 13d.
English, or 26c.'United States, per cubic metre of
thirty-five and one quarter cubic feet English. The
weight and cost of the same measurement of the different kinds of charcoal used in the high furnaces with the
peat are as follows:Weight.  Cost at the Works.
Charcoal, resinous wood.. 275 lbs..80c.
6'   heavy wood... 468 "          1.06c.
"    as mostly used.. 314'.84c.
The cost of a volume of charcoal is thus shown to be
more than three times that of an equal volume of peat,
and it would therefore seem to be desirable to exchange,
as soon as possible, the charcoal for the peat.
The ore smelted here is clay iron-stone of moderate
quality, and the fuel is generally turf and charcoal
mixed.  The quantities employed in the making of a
ton of iron are, turf thirty-five cwt., costing 8s. 10d.,
and charcoal thirty cwt., costing 24s. 7d.,- together,




PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   181
~t  13s. 5d.; and iron of the very highest character is
produced.
At Schlakenwerth, in Bohemia, near Carlsbad, is a
high furnace which works with a mixture of equal quantities of wood charcoal and peat charcoal. The peat is
found upon the plateaux of the Erzgebirge, at an elevation
of more than one thousand metres, and the weather and
climate are such that it can be produced to advantage
only during about two months in each year. It is then
carbonized in much the same manner as wood, in circular piles; and a very dense charcoal is obtained, which
on an average does not contain more than five per cent.
of ashes. The cubic metre of thirty-five and one quarter
cubic feet English of this peat charcoal weighs six hundred and sixty lbs., while the same amount of wood
charcoal weighs only three hundred and ten lbs. The
analysis of this peat charcoal shows fixed carbon sixtyseven, volatile matters thirty, ashes three.
In the cubilot furnaces of Bohemia, also, a mixture
of equal parts of peat charcoal and wood charcoal is
employed with results highly satisfactory.
Peat is employed in the iron-works of Weiherhammer,
in Bavaria. It is procured from the numerous tourbieres of the Fitchtelgebirge, which are worked during
the fine season, after which the turf is left to dry for
about six months. It is then stored, but is not employed in the iron-works until a year after it has been
dug.  The peat is of good quality, compact and heavy,
and, on burning, yields not more than four to five per
cent. of ashes.
At the Weiherhammer Works are two puddling
furnaces, one of which is generally in operation. The
puddled iron is converted into bars in the ordinary
charcoal forges, or in a chafing fire, which is fed with




182       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
peat alone. The density of this peat is hardly sufficient to produce the temperature required to remelt the
iron; combustion is therefore hastened by means of a
forced current of air, which is furnished by the blowing
machine of the refining furnace, and in this manner the
re-melting of the pig metal is effected with the greatest:facility.  The result of these operations is stated as
follows: Two hundred and eighty-one lbs. pig metal,
with eighty-five and thirty-two one-hundredths cubic
feet raw peat, produced two hundred and twenty lbs.
bar iron.  These proportions are equivalent to two
thousand eight hundred and sixty-one lbs. pig metal
and eight hundred and sixty-eight cubic feet of raw
peat to produce one ton (two thousand two hundred
and forty lbs.) of bar iron.
In Germany, the gas of the high furnaces where peat
is used has been satisfactorily employed in the refining
of iron and the puddling of steel. At Magdeburg, in
the Hartz, not only is iron refined, but steel of excellent
quality is fabricated, by the use of gas. The beneficial
results obtained by the use of gas in refining iron, the
economy of the fuel, the smallness of the loss, and the
amelioration of the quality, have been urged as reasons
why it should be extensively introduced in peat-producing countries.
It is considered that the known successful iresults of
this method are of the greatest importance to the whole
of Northern Germany, where extensive beds of turf and
lignite prevail, which will afford a great resource to
those districts.  The same process would not be less
beneficial to France. It has been adopted to a considerable extent in Sweden, where coal is scarce.
In an able pamphlet published some twenty years ago
by J. W. Rogers, it was suggested that the overplus




PEAT IN THE IMANUFACTURE OF IRON.   183
working population of Ireland might be permanently
and advantageously employed in the preparation of different kinds of fuel from the immense bog, districts.
He states that he "has been in the habit of having peat
charcoal prepared for smith's use, infinitely in preference to any coal," and that "if within the reach of the
manufactories of iron, at the price for which it can be
produced, no other fuiel would be used."  He adds,
"Charcoal of peat has been found by analysis to possess
almost identical qualities with wood charcoal. Prepared as it hitherto has been, however, it is more
friable, and therefore more fitted for many purposes,
such as the working of iron, manufacture of gunpowder,
&c.; but peat charcoal is quite capable of being prepared so as to obtain a density little if at all inferior to
wood charcoal."  This, it should be borne in mind,
refers to charcoal from peat in its crude or unmanufactured state.  Mr. Rogers adds, - and the correctness of
his remarks is confirmed by s...ments from numerous
sources, - that, " when condense.''eat is carbonized,
it gives a fine coherent coke, which F- kounts to about
thirty per cent. of its weight, and cont.'s very little
ash.  The density of this coke is greater t;-i that of
wood charcoal, being found to range from 913 to 1040.
The objection often urged, as regards iron ships of
war in action, that the splintering is so great that this
material cannot be safely used, is met by the assertion
that the evil arises entirely from one cause, —that of
iron being made mostly by sulphurous fuel.  Iron gmade
with peat charcoal will not splinter.
We have seen it stated, that, in some parts of England, horse-shoes made with peat are considered so much
more durable than those made with any other fuel, that
nearly double the ordinary price is paid for them.




184       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
M. Bussou de Maurier, a propos of the prizes of
three thousand francs, offered by the Soci&t6 d'Encouragement of Paris, in 1855, for the best process by
which a fuel adapted for household and manufacturing
purposes may be economically prepared from peat,
notified that society to the effect that he had succeeded
in preparing an excellent solid, compact, and tenacious
charcoal, or rather coke, by distilling peat mixed with
small bituminous coal.
This coke, he says, is admirably adapted for the
forging of steel and other metallurgical operations.
A paper of considerable interest and importance
appeared in the "London Times," soon after the International Exhibition of 1862, upon the distinct varieties
of fuel, peat, and coal, of which several specimens were
there exhibited.
Not much was to be learned from the display of mere
lumps of raw peat; yet there were several illustrations
connected with peat, of great practical value.
Peat is applied as fuel in Great Britain in the smelting of lead in the "ore hearth."  This method is
extensively employed in the north, and, in the case of
rich ores, is maintained by some experienced smelters
to be superior to every other.
It is a singular circumstance, that in former times it
was practised successfully in Derbyshire, where it became extinct; and that attempts to re-introduee it have
signally failed.
In Bavaria, peat-bricks are extensively used under
locomotive boilers; and, in Sweden, Ekman has long
employed peat in his gas-welding or reheating furnaces.
It is fashioned into bricks, and subsequently dried by
artificial heat, at a temperature almost sufficient to cause
incipient charring.




PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   185
In the Swedish department were specimens of iron
manufactured in such furnaces, with prepared peat as
the fuel, by Baron Hamilton, Nericia, at whose works
the annual consumption of peat for this purpose is said
to be very large.
In the Italian department, And. Gregorini exhibited
steel made in Siemens' gas puddling furnace, with peat
and lignite as fuel,
Furnaces constructed on this principle, whether for
the use of peat or other kinds of fuel, are strongly recommended as worthy the, attention of our iron-masters
and other practical metallurgists who are interested in
economizing fuel.  It is claimed also that they are
specially adapted for the manufacture of glass.
Messrs. Siemens, of London, are said to have been
most successful in the application of this principle; and
we have, therefore, obtained from their agents, Messrs.
Tuttle, Gaffield & Co., of Boston, a description of their
furnace, which we insert at length, not only for the interest which we are sure it will have with iron and glass:
manufacturers generally, but from the fact, so distinctly
claimed for it, that it is especially adapted for the successful and economical treatment of metals and glass,
by the use of peat-fuel.
The Siemens Regenerative Gas Furnace is the joint
invention of Messrs. C. IW. and F. Siemens, of London.
For many years they labored to bring their ideas into a
thoroughly practical form; and the result has been the
introduction of one of the most perfect arrangements
for the conservation and utilization of heat that has ever
been put in practice.
The inventors claim  the following advantages for
the Regenerative Gas Furnace.
1st. Saving of fuel, amounting to from fortyto-fifty




186       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
per cent. in the quantity, besides which the most inexpensive qualities of fuel, such as peat, slack, coke-dust,
and lignite may be employed, producing a money-saving,
in many instances amounting to seventy-five per cent.
2d. Unlimited command of heat without intense
chimney draught, owing to the principle of accumulation
involved.
3d. Great purity and gentleness of flame, which
largely diminishes the oxidation or deterioration of the
material heated in the furnace, and improves the quality
of the product.
4th. Increased durability of furnace, owing to the
absence of ashes, and a perfect uniformity of heat
throughout the furnace.
5th. Saving of space within the works, and great
cleanliness of operation, the fuel being converted into
gas outside the works.
6th. Complete command of the intensity of the heat,
and of the chemical nature of the flame, which may be
arrested or changed from a reducing to an oxidizing
flame, or the reverse, at any one moment, tending to
facilitate and improve all metallurgical operations.
7th. Complete absence of smoke from the stack,
which renders this furnace beneficial to the public in
large towns.
As now made, this furnace consists of two distinct
parts: the producer, in which the fuel is converted into
gas for supplying the furnace, and the furnace proper,
including the regenerators.
The gas-producers are of various forms, according
to the nature of the fuel used, and are quite simple in
their construction. They are situated outside the furnace building, and the gas is conducted to the furnace,
through flues, to any distance which may be desired.




PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   187
The furnace is so constructed that, underneath the
heating chamber, are placed transversely four regenerator chambers, which are filled with fire-bricks, built
up with spaces between them to admit the passage of
gas and air.
These regenerator chambers work in pairs, the two
under the right hand end of the furnace communicating
with that end of the heating chamber, while the other
two communicate with the opposite end.  For instance,
the gas from the producer passes through the main gas
flue, and enters at the bottom of one of the regenerator
chambers, at the right-hand end of the furnace, and the
air at the bottom of the other, whereby they are kept
separate up to the moment of entering the heating chamber, but are then able to "mingle intimately, producing
at once an intense and uniform flame, which distributes
itself all over the heating chamber.  The heat, having
once performed its work in the furnace, is not now
wholly released from further service, or only partially
utilized, as in the old style of furnaces, but is bound to
an endless round of duty, and is carried down into the
other pair of regenerators, and all but a very trifling
portion of it is there arrested by the packing of firebricks, and garnered up for future service.
When this pair of regenerators has become fully
heated by the passage of the hot products of combustion from the furnace, ahd'the opposite pair correspondingly cooled by the upward passage of the cold gas and
air, the valves in the main gas and air flues are reversed,
and the separate currents of gas and air enter at the
bottom of these heated regenerators, beneath the lefthand end of the furnace, take up the heat that has been
stored in them, carry it back to the furnace, and the
surplus is then deposited in the right-hand set of regen



188       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
erators. And thus the process of reversing is repeated
at fixed intervals, so that two of the regenerators are
always accumulating the heat which would otherwise be
wasted, but which, when the action of the furnace is
reversed, is always carried back to the furnace by the
incoming currents of gas and air, which, as they pass
upwards through these heated regenerators, attain a
temperature equal to a white heat, before they meet and
ignite in the furnace, and thus add the carried heat to
that due to their mutual chemical action. The arrangement is so perfect that, while the furnace and upper
portions of one set of the regenerators are charged with
a most intense heat, the amount which escapes through
the waste flue will not exceed 300 Fahr.
Although the saving of heat is made most prominent in this description, there are other great advantages
gained by this process which would commend this kind
of furnace to general use even if the same amount of
fuel was required to work it as in the old process.
It is evident that the purity of the flame not only
insures, in all metallurgical operations, a superior product, but a much smaller percentage of waste, and an
increased durability of furnace.  And the pecuniary
value of these combined advantages far exceed even the
gain which is made in the cost of fuel.
One of the most important advantages to be gained
by the adoption of this invention is observed in the fact
that it utilizes what has been heretofore regarded as in-.
ferior fuel, such as sulphurous coal, and the slack and
waste of the mines, &c., as also those immense deposits
of peat to which the attention of manufacturers is now
being largely directed.  Professor E. Daniels, of Chicago, in alluding to this subject, says, -
"It is scarcely possible to estimate the advantages




PEAT IN THE MAINUFACTURE OF IRON.   189
which the west may derive from this invention. Our
coal is at once redeemed from comparative inferiority,
and becomes a source of cheap heat and motive power,
adequate, both in quantity and quality, to the vast and
varied demands of manufacturing industry."
What Professor Daniels so truly says of the inferior
coals of the west, will apply-with tenfold force to those
extensive tracts of undeveloped fuel which abound
throughout the northerly portion of the United States.
This fact has been recognized in Europe; and in many
parts of the Continent, particularly in Italy, where coal
is comparatively dear, peat has been used in these furnaces for the manufacture of iron and steel, with the
most successful results; and in this country measures
are now being taken to build furnaces in which peat
alone shall be used, on the plan of those now so successfully worked by M. Gregorini, in Lombardy.
After years of patient application, the Messrs. Siemens now have the pleasure of seeing their valuable
invention adopted and successfully operated by the most
important of the iron, steel, and glass manufacturers in
Europe.  Among them can be enumerated the establishments of Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co., Messrs.
James Russel &  Co., Mersey Steel and Iron Co.,
London and North-western Railway Co., Messrs. T.
Firth & Sons, Messrs. Nayler, Vickers, & Co., the
Royal Arsenal, Woolwich; Messrs. Krupp &Co.,
Essen, Prussia; Messrs. Mayer c& Co., Styria, Austria;
Arsenal Imperial de Lorient, France; Peelroso Iron
Co., Seville;' M. Gregorini, Italy; the Paris Gas
Co.; the Plate Glass Co.'s of St. Gobain, Cixey, Aix
la Chapelle, &c.; the Vielle Montagne Zinc Co., &c.
It is natural to suppose that the manufacturers
of the United States will not be backward in securing




190       PEAT AS AN ARTIJCLE OF FUEL.
the use of this important invention; and several of the
most enterprising iron, steel, and copper manufacturers
have already arranged for the immediate construction of these furnaces in their works: and the results
which these will show' cannot fail to insure their universal adoption, and must produce- a complete revolution in the application of heat in all metallurgical operations.
The Moulded Peat Charcoal Company, at the International Exhibition of 1862, "showed a material of
apparently excellent quality; but, without satisfactory
statistics on the economy of the processes by which it
was produced, the jury could not pronounce upon it."
The jury (1862) gave an honorable mention to Mr.
J. Brunton.  "His statements as to employment of the
condensed peat on a large scale referred only to a very
short period, and were considered as requiring further
confirmation."
Mr. W. E. Newton, in 1862, before the Society of
Arts, said that peat, if properly prepared and properly
used, gave a calorific power equal to, if not greater than
coal; but the use of peat in manufactures was of greater
importance than simply as a fuel for heating purposes.
A great many experiments, more particularly on the
Continent, had been made with peat as a fuel for metallurgic purposes, and it had been found that it produced
iron of a very superior quality. He had seen specimens
which came up to the best quality of Swedish iron.
Every iron manufacturer knew that if he could get peat
to stand the blast, then it was infinitely superior to coal
for those purposes, for the simple reason that it contained
no sulphur. They could produce iron with peat, from
the worst brands, which would almost equal the best
Swedish or Russian iron, simply owing to the absence




PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   191
of these deteriorating chemical agents which existed
in coal.
D. K. Clark, C. E., in a paper read before the British Association in London, in 1865, says, —
"In Germany, peat mixed with wood-charcoal is very
extensively used in the production of iron; the peat, as
prepared there, not being sufficiently solid to do the
work alone: but it is found that the greater the proportion of peat that can be used, the better is the quality of
the iron produced.- The gas delivered from the high
furnaces has also been satisfactorily employed in the refining of iron and the puddling of steel.  The value of
peat in the production of iron has long been established.
Iron metallurgists are agreed in the opinion that iron so
produced is of very superior quality. In every stage of
iron manufacture, and in welding, peat-charcoal is most
valuable. At Messrs. Hick & Son's forge, in Bolton, a
large mass of iron, about ten inches square, was heated
to a welding heat with peat charcoal, made at Horwich.
The time occupied was less than the operation would
have taken with coal; the whole mass was equally heated through without the slightest trace of burning on the
outside; and in hammering out the mass, as much was
done with one heating as ordinarily required two heatings to effect. The importance of obtaining an abundant supply, at cheap rates, of peat-charcoal, cannot,
therefore, be too highly estimated."
The charcoal made from peat, at Horwich, is extremely dense and pure. Its heating and resisting powers
have been amply and severely tested, and with the most
satisfactory results.  At the H orwich Works pig-iron
has been readily melted in a cupola. About 80 tons of
superior iron have been made with it in a small blast
furnace, measuring only six feet. in the boshes, and




192       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
about 26 feet high.  The ore smelted was partly red
hematite, and partly Staffordshire; and the quantity of
charcoal consumed was I ton 11 cwt. to the ton of iron
made; but, in a larger and better-constructed furnace,
considerably less charcoal will be required.  It has also
been tried in puddling and air furnaces, with equally
good results, considerably improving the quality of the
iron melted. For this purpose, the fuel was only partially charred, in order not to deprive it of its flame,
which is considerably longer than that from coal.  Some
of the pig-iron made at Horwich was then converted
into bars, which were afterwards bent completely double,
when cold, without exhibiting a single flaw.
Mr. Sanderson, of Sheffield, in a report made to an
English company, says," You are certainly the first who have succeeded in
smelting iron ores in a blast furnace with peat alone as
a fuel; and I am convinced that you have thereby
opened out a large field of industry both for England
and Ireland, as well as Scotland, and doubtless other
countries.
"All iron metallurgists have agreed in one opinion,
that if peat by any means could be produced of sufficient density to enable it, when charred, to stand the
blast necessary for the production of iron, the iron so
produced would be of a very superior quality. Some
have thought it would be even superior to iron made
with wood-charcoal.  You have most fully succeeded in
obtaining this density in your peat fuel. Indeed, I have
seen samples, taken from the bottom  of your furnace,
which had been subjected to a high heat from forty to
fifty hours, perfectly hard and strong. The sample of
pig-iron which I have received and tested for malleable
iron, is very satisfactory.  As you progress, and pro



PEAT IN THIE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   193
produce grayer pig-iron, and further manufacture it
into malleable iron, its superior quality will be appreciated for cables, boiler-plates, armor-plates, wire,
and all other kinds of iron requiring more than ordinary strength.  Do not allow yourselves to suppose
that you have already produced iron of the value and
quality which you will be able to produce when proper
appliances are brought to bear upon what you have
already done."
Mr. Fothergill, when reporting on experiments with
peat-charcoal iron conducted under his supervision at
Messrs. Platt's Iron Works, at Oldham, says, -
"I have no hesitation in stating that the experiments
were a great success. The directors can judge of the
tenacity and quality of the iron from the severe character of the test to which it has been submitted, namely',
having been completely doubled over when cold, without exhibiting a single crack. I deem it my duty to
assure the directors that I am fully aware of the important position in which they are placed; yet I have no
hesitation in saying, that I have every confidence in
their ultimate success: and the opinions I have previously expressed as to the importance and value of the
undertaking remain not only unchanged, but considerably strengthened, by the results of the experiments
referred to."
Messrs. Brown and Lennox certify, that the strength
of the peat-charcoal iron, proved by them in the ordinary manner, is considerably above the average strength
of iron of the best brands.  The latter testimonial is especially valuable, considering the disadvantage necessarily attendant on smelting iron in a new furnace with
new materials.
Professor Emmons, Geologist to the State of New
13




194       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
York, concludes some remarks on the subject of peat as
follows: "I shall state only one more application of this
material, viz., as a substitute for charcoal in the reduction of iron.  The coal which is formed from it is equal
to any coal: hence it may become of great importance
in those sections of country where fuel is' scarce, or as
it furnishes a resource in this important business when
the ordinary means are expended."
Mr. McDougall, of the Caledonia Iron Works,
Montreal, who supplies the Grand Trunk Railway with
car wheels, states that, for giving toughness to the
metal and uniformity of chill, qualities so essential to
car wheels, peat fuel is unsurpassed.
We have the following brief report of an experiment
in smelting iron with peat, at these works, made in
October last.  The cupola was charged with two layers
of iron and anthracite coal. The third or topmost
layer was iron and peat. The time was forty minutes
less than with coals alone. The iron smelted by the
peat was hotter when drawn off from the coals, and
was said to be more compact, and more like wrought
iron, than the other.  The test was a severe one, the
proportion being twelve of iron to one of peat; the.proportion for coals being seven to one.
The "Montreal Gazette," of Dec. 1, 1866, says,"We were shown, yesterday, a small piece of bariron from  the puddling and rolling mills of Messrs.
Morland, Watson, & Co., from the first blooms ever
made in this country with peat fuel alone, and, we
believe, the first on this continent.  The specimen
shown to us was of'the very highest quality, and equal
to the very best Swedish iron. It was bent, when
cold, by a vice, and doubled close up at right angles,
with an edge without a crack or flaw appearing, the




PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   195
outer edge remaining smooth and sharp.  A  severer
test of the tenacity of the iron could not have been
applied; a result so satisfactory could scarcely have
been hoped.  We are told that no iron manufactured
from coal in this country would stand such a test. The
fact is one of great importance for Canada, in view of
its large supplies of peat and iron.  We may add that
the time taken in the manufacture was not greater than
that usually taken when coal is used. There was no
special adaptation of appliances.  The furnace was an
ordinary coal one, and the men were accustomed to the
use of coal."
Mr. Campbell, manager of the mills above referred
to, states that"The peat fuel was tested in an ordinary puddling
coal furnace, and no alteration or adaptation was made,
although this might have been done, and a large saving
of fuel effected.' The pig-iron used was Dalmellington brand A, a
strong iron, soft and very tough.
"The quantity of peat fuel consumed was nearly
double the weight of coal used on ordinary occasions.'"In my opinion, and with the present furnaces, by
mixing peat with Pictou coal, we could produce iron
equal to the best charcoal iron, and at no more expense
than the present cost of our iron, the quality of which
is equal to the best refined English iron.
" With the furnaces as at present constructed we
could not use peat alone, the combustion of the gas
given out not being sufficiently perfect to produce the
heat required for puddling to advantage, resulting in
waste of fuel, and additional labor to the men.
" If we could get the extra price for the quality of
iron turned out, there would be no doubt about the




196       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
result, but I fear this could not be obtained, as almost
any description of iron seems to sell which is cheap.
"I send you samples of the iron, made at the trial,
which I consider equal in quality to best charcoal iron,
and superior, almost, to any description of iron imported."
Professor Johnson remarks, "Dried peat is extensively used in puddling furnaces, especially in the so-called
gas puddling furnaces, in Corinthia, Steyermark, Silesia, Bavaria, Wirkenberg, Sweden, and other parts of
Europe. In Steyermark, peat has been thus employed
for twenty-five years.
"When peat or peat coal is employed in smelting, it
must be as free as possible from ash, because the ash
usually consists largely of silica, and this must be
worked off by flux.  If the ash be carbonate of lime, it
will, in most cases, serve itself usefully as flux. In
hearth puddling, it is important, not only that the peat
or peat coal contain little ash, but especially that the
ash be as free as possible from sulphates and phosphates,
which act so deleteriously on the metal.
"It has been found, at Rothburga, in Austria, that
by substitution of machine-made and kiln-dried peat for
wood in the gas puddling furnace, a saving of 50 per
cent. in the cost of bar-iron was effected in 1860.
"What is to the point, in estimating the economy of
peat, is the fact that, while 62 cubic feet of dry firwood were required to produce 100 lbs. of crude bar,
this quantity of iron could be puddled with 43 cubic
feet of peat.
"In the gas furnace, a second blast of air is thrown
into the flame, effecting its complete combustion.  Delivik asserts, that at Lesjoeforss, in Sweden, 100 lbs. of
kiln-dried peat are equal to 197 lbs. of kiln-dried wood
in heavy forging.




PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON.   197
" In other metallurgical and manufacturing operations,
where flame is required, it is obvious that peat can be
employed."
A gentleman formerly employed in the iron business
in Austria, writes to us recently, " Peat is the only fuel
of many rolling mills in Austria. The peat of the
Alps there is of good quality. In a puddling furnace
there are wanted 163 to 200 English cubic feet of dry
peat per English ton of puddling-iron, and in a reheating furnace about the same quantity of very dry
peat per ton of wrought iron. This iron is puddled
from white pig-iron. The furnaces for puddling and reheating are all gas furnaces.
"Also in blast furnaces for making pig-iron, peat is
used in Austria, but not converted into coal, only dry.
Peat is mostly mixed with charcoal in the older Austrian
blast furnaces, the half of every part; but in blast
furnaces, which are built especially for using peat, this
fuel can be used alone or mixed with coke or anthracite."
The "London Mechanics' Magazine," in a recent
issue, after dwelling at some length on the use of peat
fuel for railroad and steamship service, concludes as
follows: "Mere compression of the peat is not sufficient
to insure its economical use: it requires condensation,
which quality cannot be imparted to it by the most
powerful pressure.
"But however successful may be the results of using
peat, either in locomotives or for marine boilers, we do
not think it is destined, at present, to play so important
a part here as in the manufacture of iron. It is here
that peat fuel will, in all probability, come first into
exclusive use, owing to its great superiority over coal
in every stage of iron and steel manufacture."




198       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM.
Sir R. Kane, before quoted in these pages, stated, in
1844, that the steamers plying between Limerick, Clare,
and Kilrush, in Ireland, were using peat for fuel.
The " Garry Owen" steamer made the passage between
Kilrush and Limerick, fired with turf (although in the
midst of a coal region), in three hours twenty minutes:
distance, about forty-five miles.  The Shannon steamers
were mostly using it; and its consumption in mills,
factories, workshops, as well as for domestic purposes,
was steadily increasing.
Some years since a patent was obtained by Mr.
Williams, managing director of the Dublin Steam
Navigation Company, for a method of converting the
lightest and purest beds of peat moss or bog into the
four following products, each of which possesses very
valuable properties:1. A brown combustible, solid, denser than oak.
2. A charcoal twice as compact as that of hard
wood.
3. A factitious coal.
4. A factitious coke.
One of the most important results ascertained with
these products was, that with ten hundred weight of
the factitious coal the same steam-power was obtained
in navigating the company's ships as with seventeen and
a half hundred weight of pit-coal alone: thereby saving
thirty per cent. in the' stowage of fuel.
Mr. D'Ernst, artificer of fireworks at Vauxhall, proved,
by the severe test of colored fires, that the turf-charcoal
of Mr. Williams was twenty per cent. more combustible
than that of oak.




PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM.  199
Mr. Oldham, Engineer of the Bank of England,
applied it in softening his steel plates and dies, with remarkable success.  Mr. Williams's method of preparing
the peat was given as follows: When freshly cut, the
fibre of the peat is broken up, and the mass is placed
between cloths, and pressed by a powerful hydraulic
press, which condenses it to one third of its original
volume, and to three fifths of its weight, through the
loss of moisture. This condensed peat, when carbonized, gives a fine coherent coke of about three tenths the
-weight of the turf as cut; burns freely, producing intense heat, and leaving only a very small percentage of
ash. Its density is greater than wood-charcoal, and the
cost of production is about twenty shillings per ton.
Mr. Brunton, before the Society of Arts, in 1862,
called attention to the fact, that trials with his prepared
peat, upon a sufficient scale, under the boiler of an ordinary steam-engine of twenty-horse power, had demonstrated that the peat, as a heating power, did two and
one third timnes the duty of coal. The ordinary consumption of coal in the furnace, was twelve cwt. per
hour. An equal quantity of his prepared peat lasted
two hours and twenty minutes, producing the same
amount of steam per hour, and doing the ordinary work
of the engine.
Mr. Paul, in the paper we have before referred to,
says, "As regards the use of peat for fuel, it now remains only to consider what are the circumstances under
which it can be used for this purpose, and under which
there is an advantage in using it rather than coal.
"I can best illustrate this by a case within my own
experience. During the last four years I have had occasion to manufacture a large quantity of bricks in one
of the western islands of Scotland, and for that pur



200       PlEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
pose required fuel for raising steam to drive the brick
machinery, and for burning the bricks. Coal could be
delivered at the works, including 4s. for cartage, at 22s.
per ton: but I found that the peat, of which there was
abundance close to the works, was capable of raising
steam well, and of being used for burning the bricks,
and that I could, for 8s., put down at the boiler, or at the
kiln, a quantity of peat equivalent to one ton of coal;
thus making a difference of 14s. between the use of a ton
of coal and the use of a quantity of peat equivalent to it.'P This was equivalent also to a saving of 7s. per thousand in the cost of the bricks. The advantage would
have been still greater had there been more efficient
means for bringing in the peat from the moor, which,
as it was in this case, cost as much as the peat on the
moor, or about 2s. per ton.
"The applicability of peat for the purpose of fuel
on board steamers is indubitable. I have employed peat
as the only fuel for steam-boilers during the last four
years, and have found it to answer admirably. It has
also been tried by Mr. James Napier, of Glasgow, on
board his steamer, the' Lancefield;' and he is of opinion that it might be used in the place of coal."
Professor Emnons, in'a report to W. H. Seward,
Governor of New York, in 1839, says, " I have been informed that peat, as a fuel for steam-engines, has been
proved, by actual experiment, of great value. To impart to it the power of emitting, during combustion, a
lively flame, a small quantity of tar is mixed with it,
which, of course, creates a larger volume of flame,
which is a matter of considerable moment when employed in generating steam. The experiments referred
to were made on board the'Great Western' during her
last passage; and such was the result, that a large




PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 201
amount of peat was taken on board for her homeward
passage."
From the "London Engineer" we learn that " a paper was read by Mr. P. F. Nursey, before the Society
of Engineers, at Exeter Hall, which contained some
interesting and valuable information.  The paper alluded to the probability of an exhaustion of English coalfields, owing to the increasing annual consumption,
which, between the years of 1850 and 1860, was at the
rate of two and three fourths million tons..... The
question of peat was considered at some length. The
author, considering the subject of great importance, had
collected much valuable information.
"The deposits of peat in Great Britain and Ireland
were stated to occupy an area of about six million acres,
and to vary in thickness from two feet to fifty feet; and,
at an assumed average of twelve feet, an acre would
yield about 3500 tons of dried peat, or a total quantity
of 21,000,000,000 tons. The process of manufacture
of' condensed peat' was fully detailed.  It was shown
that the cost of the fuel produced did not exceed that of
coal at the pit's mouth. It was shown to possess qualities superior to coal, especially its heating power. Trial
of the condensed peat had been made by Mr. B. Fothergill on a river-steamboat, in which twelve cwt. were
consumed in two hours twenty minutes, the ordinary
consumption of coal being twelve cwt. per hour. The
peat gave no smoke, and left no clinkers.  The locomotive engineer of the Belfast and Northern Counties Railway had tried the condensed peat on that line. In a
trip of seventy-four miles, the total quantity of fuel burnt
was fourteen cwt., one quarter, fourteen lbs., - the
train, including. engine and tender, weighing seventy
tons. The time occupied was three hours, nine min



202       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
utes.  The trial proved satisfactory. An analysis of the
peat by Mr. Ricard was given, which showed it to contain but a trace of sulphur, and no phosphorus, which
rendered it peculiarly adaptable for iron-smelting and
other purposes, where the presence of either of those
bodies was so pernicious.
"Particulars were given of an experiment, on a practical scale, by Mr. G. Murrall, at the Creevelea Iron
Works, Leitrim, in which condensed peat was used for
smelting iron-ore.  The iron was equal to any charcoal
iron. It was tried by Mr. Anderson, C. E., whose
report showed the strength of the iron to be forty per
cent. above ordinary Scotch pig.
"The peat was also tried in a puddling furnace, at the
Mersey Steel Works; and the iron produced therefrom
was drawn into tubes and T irons, - a very high test.
"The question of producing gas was gone into, and
experiments by Mr. Jones and Mr. Versmann, the foriner engineer and the latter consulting chemist to the
Commercial Gas Co., were detailed, and tables of results
given, which showed the superiority of condensed peat
over coal in this particular. It was proved to yield a
larger quantity of gas in a shorter time than coal.
"The author concluded by observing that the
question of fuel was a most important one, especially so
in its economical bearing; and -expressed a hope that
the merits of peat, as a fuel, would be allowed to weigh,
that the subject might be investigated with that vigor to
which it was entitled."
The following is abridged from the "London Mechanics' Magazine ": -
" The upper portions of a peat-bed abound with roots
and coarse fibres, and produce an inferior fuel, which
will not stand the blast nor make good charcoal.  To




PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 2()3
make good fuel, the roots must be removed and the
smaller fibres broken up.  A machine does this, and
makes'condensed' peat, which burns freely, bears a
strong blast, gives great heat, is smokeless, and leaves
less ash than average coal or coke.  Two and a half to
three tons of peat make one ton of excellent charcoal.
The heating power of condensed peat has been proved
to be superior to that of coal; and it is well adapted to
steam-engines, marine, stationary, or locomotive. It
saves half the time of getting up steam, and will do
double duty as compared with coal. The absence of
smoke and clinkers, and the preservation of the grates
and fire-boxes from the effects of sulphur, are important
additional advantages. This peat has been tried on a
river-steamer with success.  The vessel was under steam
2h. 20m., during which time only 12 cwt. was burnt, the
average consumption of coal being 12 cwt. per hour;
and in this case the full effect was not obtained, as the
grate-bars were too far apart for peat, and a portion fell
through.
"The locomotive superintendents of three railways in
Ireland-made a trial of condensed peat on the Belfast
and Northern Counties Railway, to test its fitness for
locomotives.  During a trip of twenty-seven miles,
there was an excess of steam, though the fire-door was
continually open, and the damper down, for the greater
part of the distance. The pressure at starting was 100
pounds.  The commencement of the trip was up an incline of 1 in 80, four miles long, with double curves.
While ascending this incline, the pressure rose to 110
pounds, and afterwards to 120 pounds, with the firedoor open. The speed was forty miles per hour. While
running, there was no smoke, and little at the stations.
The fire-box was examined at the end of the trip, and




204        PEAT AS AN ARTI(LE OF FUEL.
Xvery little clinker was found; and the smoke-box was
free from cinders and dust, - a proof that the fuel had
stood the blast well; and it is the recorded opinion of
the experimenters that the peat was, in every respect,
well suited for locomotives.
"In view of such facts, the wonder is that it has not
come into more extensive use.  One reason why it has
not may be in the limited quantity made for steam purposes, the greater value of peat lying in its conversion
into charcoal, for which it is used with the best results.
Another cause may be the reluctance to leave the beaten
track.
"This substitute for coal deserves attention in connection with the working of underground railways. It
is agreed that a radical change must be made in the
motive-power; that even Mr. Fowler's new engine must
be superseded by one having no fire at all; and that the
engine must contain water already heated to a temperature necessary to produce a sufficiency of steam to work
the required distance without combustion in the tunnel.
In this extremity, why not try the fuel which did so
well on the Irish railway trip? The absence of smoke
and sulphurous vapor should be a sufficient inducement,
independent of the economy that is very probable."
A foreign correspondent, before referred to, writes,
"For all the locomotives of the railroads in South
Bavaria, peat is the only fuel;" and the economy
effected by its use, in the wear and tear of the engines,
is stated by the officials, in their reports, to be very
considerable.
At a colliery in the north of England, connected by
a railway with large iron-works, several trips were made
with condensed peat fuel, a number of empty trucks
being conveyed to the pit's mouth, and brought back




PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 205
loaded.  The fuel served admirably, and all present
were satisfied it did quite as much duty as coal.
On one trip, however, they were obliged to wait some
time at the pit's mouth, the load not being ready.  The
fireman, from some cause, neglected his fire; and consequently, when the trucks were loaded, and the train
ready to start, he found the steam-gauge indicated a
pressure of only sixty pounds, and the fire very low.
This alarmed him, as the return journey was up a steep
incline, and he had already been delayed very considerably.  However, in three'minutes after throwing into
the furnace a few shovelfuls of peat, the steam rose to
one hundred and ten pounds, and the train was soon
speeding its way back. Had coal been thrown on,
instead of peat, it would have smothered the fire, so
little was there in the furnace at the time.
The above illustrates very clearly the freedom of
combustion which characterizes peat, and the intensity
of heat produced by it.
At the Horwich Works, the fuel was tested against
coal under the boiler there.  This was done on two
consecutive days, the fire having, on each occasion,
been raked out the night previous. The following
results were obtained: Coal got up steam to 10 lbs.
pressure in 2 hours 25 minutes, and to 25 lbs. pressure
in 3 hours; peat-fuel got up steam to 10 lbs. in 1 hour
10 minutes, and to 25 lbs. in 1 hour 32 minutes; 21
cwt. of coal maintained steam at 30 lbs. pressure for 9~
hours; 111 cwt. of peat-fuel maintained steam at the same
pressure for 8 hours. But. in addition to this a large
economy is effected by the use of peat-fuel for the generation of steam, in the saving of boilers and fire-bars
from the destruction caused by the sulphur in coal, from
which peat is free.




206       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
WVe have seen a statement of a locomotive running
upwards of three months, over seventy miles of road,
and using peat, which show a saving of more than
thirty per cent. by weight over coal, using coal furnaces
and flues, with dampers down and fire-doors open all
the time.
A trial on the Paris and Lyons (France) Railroad
is thus reported by the engineer: "We got up steam
with peat in thirty minutes, coal requiring two hours.
WVe ran sixteen miles to a gravel pit, up a steep grade,
and from there took a load of 136 tons, eighty miles
farther, when the blaze escaped a considerable distance
above the chimney, which became red hot, and the
boiler covering taking fire, we had to stop and extinguish it. After repairs we returned to Paris at a speed
of thirty-eight miles per hour, the heat again increasing
as we advanced.
"The fuel having no smoke and much gas, keeps up
a constant hot flame. The pressed peat gives far better
results than that which is not pressed. In fact, while
using it, the generation of steam was so rapid that I
stood with my hand on the valve lever all the time,
fearing an explosion."
Although numerous experiments and trial trips have
been made in this country with peat for fuel, it has not
vet been used to any great extent upon any of our principal lines, owing mainly to the fact that it has not been
manufactured in any one place on so large a scale as to
afford a constant supply, indeed, notwithstanding it
has been produced in numerous places, few engaged
in the enterprise seem to comprehend the enormous
amount of this or any other kind of fuel which is
requisite to supply the market. The arrangements for
the present year, in some places, however, bid fair to




PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 207
be on a scale somewhat commensurate with the fuel
interests which are likely to draw on them for supply.
It is well known, that in every experiment tried upon
railroads, the testimony of engineers and practical men
has been unanimous in favor of peat, even when it has
been used in its crude state, and under every disadvantage.
Although many cases of this kind have come to our
knowledge, from sources which we cannot but consider
reliable, still we have experienced great difficulty in obtaining written reports covering that amount of detail as
to time, weight, service, and comparative value which
we should be glad to make record of.
We select a few, which give the general character of
the whole, and from which it cannot but be apparent
that the fact is clearly demonstrated that peat is the fuel
for railroad service.
Some of its advantages are plainly discernible, and
may, perhaps, be briefly stated as follows: -
It ignites readily and burns freely, generally with a
large volume of flame. Combustion appears to be
almost perfect, with a very clear and intense heat, producing no cinders, no sparks, no soot, very little smoke,
and no clinker; the consequence of which is, that under
a boiler, steam is generated very much more quickly
than by coal, the flues and tubes of the boiler are kept
free from soot, clean and bright, and therefore in better
condition to make the heat available, and the grate-bars
are not burned out and injured as with, coal, while on
the score of comfort to travellers, it may be said that
the annoyance and actual suffering' occasioned by cinders, sparks, and smoke, which, in spite of the numerous devices for consuming them, we are now constantly
subjected to, are, by the use of this fuel, entirely obvia



208       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
ted,; and so clearly are these advantages demonstrated,
that we are satisfied that wherever this fuel is fairly
tried, every railroad will endeavor to have its own peat
bog and fuel manufactory,
Another writer adds, " The economy of peat in the
matter of burning out grates and furnaces is well worth
the attention of railroad men and manufacturers.  The
average destruction of locomotive furnaces on the New
York and New Haven Railroad is said to be more
than two per day. Sometimes a furnace is ruined by a
single trip of the engine. Peat will destroy no more
furnaces than wood."
N. F. Potter, Esq., of Providence, R. I., President
of the Narraganset Brick Company, informs us that he
has used peat under their large boilers for several
months, with highly satisfactory results as to its heating
properties, and at a large reduction of expense as compared with wood or coal.
He has also found it equally serviceable and economical in running a small steamboat, likewise for a portable engine used for occasional out-door service.
A trial was made on the New York Central Railroad,
Jan. 3, 1866, of which the following account is furnished us by the master machinist: —
"Engine No. 248, built at Schenectady Locomotive
Works - cylinder 16-inch bore, 24-inch stroke, 5 feet
driving-wheels: Michael Cosgrove, engineer, Michael
Fox, fireman.  Left Syracuse at 8 o'clock and 40
minutes (40 minutes behind time), with 25 empty 8wheel box freight cars. Started with 120 pounds of
steam: the engine worked well, and took us along pretty
sharp, as we made up the 40 minutes in going 25 miles,
and arrived at Port Byron on time.  The steam did not
run below 120 pounds any of the time, and was often




PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 209
from 125 pounds to 130 pounds. When the engine was
working the strongest she would steam the best.
"We made time all the way very easy, although we
had a strong head wind all the way, and snowing at times
quite fast, and very cold. We took on a trifle over
four tons of peat at Syracuse, which was all we had.
We could have run to Fairport with it (71 miles) if we
had not been detained at Palmyra about one hour and a
half, waiting for a break-down.  We had to keep our
fire up while waiting, and used peat enough to take
us much farther. We took wood at Palmyra. After
leaving Palmyra we used our peat up before reaching
Macedon, and finished the trip with wood. Five tons
of peat would have taken us to Rochester with the train
we had, although it wars a -very bad day. The same
engine would have used about 3, cords of wood running
to Palmyra, while we used not quite 4 tons of peat for
the same distance. It gave us as much steam as wood,
and burned a beautiful fire. Our trip was a perfect
success, and I am sorry that there was not more present
to witness it. We used a coal-burning grate.
"' I am confident that we can use peat ip locomotives
for fuel, as well as for stationary engines, with the peat
properly cured, and the right kind of grate used for
burning it in."
The "Hartford Times," of June 5, 1866, furnishes
the following account of two trips made on the Hartford and Springfield Railroad:"Some facts were developed on the experimental railroad trip from this city to Springfield, last Saturday,
with peat for fuel on the locomotive, which are worthy
of the public notice, in view of their bearing on the subject of our undeveloped natural wealth, and important
questions of economy.
14




210       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
"'Without attempting full speed, the trip to Springfield was made in 40 minutes, including a stop of three
minutes at Thompsonville, which is five minutes better
time than the regular express train makes.
" On the round trip, 1400 pounds of peat were used
(the box contains between two and three tons; so it will
be seen that peat is by no means too bulky for long railroad distances between cities).' It is thus proved (and
it corroborates the results of. the previous trial) that,
compared with coal, a trifle over one ton and a quarter
of peat is equivalent, on a locomotive, to a ton of coal.
"This ton of coal, however, costs the railroad folks,
say seven to eight dollars.
"Peat, on the contrary, can be furnished in abundance at $1.50 per ton I The Hartford and New Haven
Railroad Company have paid out during the past year
over $100 000 for coal, using, perhaps, 12,000 toMs.
"They now own a peat-bed in Berlin, contiguous to
the line of the railroad, and containing eighty acres of
peat, of great depth, from which they can supply the
machine shops and locomotives with peat, at a saving
of more than seven tenths of the annual cost of coal.
"There was found to be but very little smoke from
the peat, what there was, was light, thin, and not offensive; not one tenth of the smoke produced by wood,
and, what is still more important to the travelling public, no cinders. The whole substance burns to ashes.
It was found to burn the freest, and to give the greatest
rate of speed, when the furnace full had burned away
to about one third full.
"It generated steam faster than either wood or coal,
gaining so rapidly that the furnace had to be thrown
open; and the last six -miles of the return trip was made
without using a particle of fuel.




PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 211
"The capacity of peat to generate and maintain a
high and equal rate of steam power was tested a few
days since by the trial of this fuel on a train of ten
cars, very heavily laden with Portland stone. Before
reaching this city the brakes were put down so as to
increase the resistance to an. amount equal to five more
cars, without very sensibly affecting the motion."
A trial of peat-fuel was recently made on one of the
railroads leading from Boston, particulars of which we
have taken pains to ascertain from the superintendent
of the road, although he states that the fuel was used,
not for the purpose of making an accurate test at that
time, but simply to ascertain something of its burning
qualities, and the arrangement of fire-box, &c., necessary for making, at a subsequent time, careful test trival
of its value for locomotive use, compared with wood,
which is, the fuel now used on the road.
The section over which the trains were run is a branch
road of only seven miles, — down and return; of this
seven miles, four miles average a grade of 45 feet, and
2~ miles average 65 feet to the mile, while one mile of
the 21 is at a grade of 80 feet.
The quantity used was not weighed. The engine was
a wood burner, with large fire-box and very strong
exhaust, kept for occasional extra service, and noted
as an enormous consumer of wood.
Neither the superintendent nor the engineer had ever
used this kind of fuel, and neither had ever seen it used.
The trips were made, down and up, on good time, and
with steam at 100, and blowing off at that, except while
going up grade, when, at the hardest point, it fell to
70, but rose to 100 readily before the end of the trip.
On one trip ten pounds of steam was gained while going
up the 80 feet grade.




212       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
The superintendent says, "We made good steam,
and run our trains on time, and that is wliat was never
done-with coal, on the first time trying, by a long shot.
It makes a splendid fire, gives an intense heat, with no
cinders, no soot, and very little ashes; and I see no reason why it should not be used on locomotives, if they are
only properly' fitted for it. We want pure peat, free from
sand, in order to avoid the clinker which melted sand
will make, and then all we want is to learn how to use
it; but that we can learn much easier than we learned
how to burn coal. I am going to try it again; but I
think I have done well, certainly for the first time, the
whole thing being. entirely new to us, and considering
also that we tried it on an old engine which we never
use except in case of emergency, because she burns
three cords of wood where the other burns only two."
Wte also learn of trials made on the Hudson River
Railroad, the Eastern, and the Vermont Central, each
of them with uniformly successful results.
The following reports of the use of this fuel on the
Grand Trunk Railroad are conclusive as to its merits,
and will be found to give details and suggestions which
cannot fail to be of importance to those who would investigate the matter with a view to practical operations —
An experiment was made with well-dried peat fuel
upon engine No. 158, five-feet driving wheels, sixteeninch cylinders, and twenty-six-inci stroke, drawing
twelve loaded cars.
Distance run per ton of 2240 lbs. of fuel.    40.33 miles.
Fuel used per mile.........55.54 lbs.
Greatest pressure of steam.. 140    "
Least pressure of steam.. 100  "
During the experiment fuel was put on in small quan



PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAMS. 213
tities, no smoke issued from the stack, a steady, brilliant,
white fire was kept up, and steam generated with great
rapidity. The damper was kept closed, and air admitted
through a slot in the furnace door.  Not an atom of ash
or cinder was left in the smoke-box, ash-pan, or upon
the wire gauze of spark-catcher. The grate inside was
one of Lester's patent, having a well in centre, with
horizontal openings to admit draft. The bottom of firebox was scarcely ever entirely covered with the fuel, the
steam  being generated too rapidly to allow of a large
quantity of fuel being put into the furnace.
Experiment with green peat fuel, containing twentyfive per cent. of water, upon engine No. 65, six-feet
driving wheels, fifteen-inch cylinders, twenty-one-inch
stroke, drawing an express train of nine passenger cars,
all heavily laden, from  Montreal, going west, Oct.
3, 1866: —
Distance run.101 miles.
Fuel used..   8000 lbs.
Fuel used per mile......  79 "a
Average speed, including stoppages, per hour.  23 miles.
Greatest pressure of steam.              123 lbs.
Least pressure of steam.                  90 "
This experiment was one to show whether, with an
engine out of order and very much overburdened, steam
could be made with green peat in sufficient quantities to
meet an unceasing: demand during the whole time of
running.
The grate was one of  Mr. Eaton's patent, with horizontal openings, and the furnace door had a slot to
admit air.
In ascending grades the pressure of the steam gauge
invariably increased.  The damper was nearly closed at
all times, the slot in the door open nine by two inches,




214        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
and with never more than from six to nine inches of fuel
in the fire-box. Abundance of steam was raised; and
for a distance of many miles the pressure of steam did
not vary.
On the return trip next day, with a similar weight
of fuel, and train of six passenger cars, -
The total distance run was. 112 miles.
Fuel used per mile...                  71 lbs.
Average speed, including stoppages.      22 miles.
Greatest pressure of steam..             125 lbs.
Least pressure of steam..                  85 "
Experiment with engine No. 65, in good working
order, and with peat fuel containing about 20 per cent.
of water (express train, consisting of six passenger
cars) -
Total distance run.... 177 miles.
Total consumption of fuel..            7936 lbs.
Consumption per mile...45 4
Maximum consumption between stations        60 "
Minimum consumption between stations..  30 "
Average speed, including stoppages.        25~ miles.
Greatest pressure of steam..              125 lbs.
Least pressure of steam....          86 "
Distance run per ton of fuel.....      5  miles.
Cost of fuel for the trip, at $3.50 per ton. $12.25
Cost per mile run for fuel..        7 cents.
During the experiment the damper was kept partly
open, and the slot in furnace door of an area about
nine inches by two inches. Fuel was fed in sufficient
quantities to hide the bottom of the fire-box, and throughout the trip there was not the slightest deficiency of
steam.
On the return trip the consumption of fuel was less,
the train being lighter.




PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM,  215
How these results compare with those obtained from
coal and wood, will be seen from the following state
ment, recently published, derived from  experiments
made on the Boston and Worcester Railway in August
last -
Average miles run to one ton of coal...     59.91
Average miles run to one cord of wood..... 40.09
Average miles run with one ton of peat, as above. 50.50
The value of these results will be better appreciated
from a comparison of cost of the several fuels.
For the amount of coal, wood, and peat required to
run a locomotive the distance mentioned in the foregoing
experiment, say 177 miles, the cost is stated as follows -
Coal, 2.95 tons, at $10.....                  $29.50
Wood, 4.41 cords, at $7.                30.87
Peat, 38 tons, at even $5.                    17.50
The country at large, as well as the railroad interest,
is concerned in these developments in reference to an
article of fuel which has lately attracted so much attention.
Another experiment was made on the same road, with
the view of determining whether, with a diminution of
the blast, the same quantity of steam could be generated
as obtained on former occasions, with theblast usually
employed for wood.
For this purpose the nozzle of the blast-pipe was increased one half of an inch, or from  2~ to 2- inches
diameter, making an additional area of fifty per cent.
The same engine, No. 65, was employed as on former
dccasion.  Mr. Eaton accompanied the train, for the
purpose of putting the fuel to the severest test possible.




216        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
The engine, when strained to the utmost of its power in
ascending heavy grades, or in quick running on a level
road, produced abundance of steam, and kept blowing
off the whole time.  By this diminution of the blast additional power was gained, and the consumption of fuel
smaller than on any previous occasion.
Still another experiment made on the same road in
November, 1866, affords in detail, the results effected
with enlarged blast-nozzles of the engine.  Engine No.
158, with 16 freight, 1 passenger, and 1 baggage car,
run from Montreal to Prescott Junction, 112 miles.
Total rise in grade....              260 feet.
Total weight of 18 cars and freight. 665,000 lbs.
Distance run.                            112 miles.
Lost time made up in running between Vaudreuil and Matilda, 75 miles.... 110 minutes.
Total weight of peat consumed.         7450 lbs.
Value of fuel, at $3.50 per ton $. 11.65
Fuel consumed per mile run.               66, lbs.
Cost of fuel per mile.                   10 cents.
Number of car-miles run..       2016 miles.
Fuel consumed per car-mile run.... 3.69 lbs.
Cost of drawing a car, containing over ten tons of
freight, one mile, a little over half a cent.
The engine was in the same condition as for burning
wood, with the exception of the blast-nozzles, which
were enlarged from 2] inches to 23 inches diameter, or
34 per cent.
The engine driver had never before seen peat burn.
The fuel used on all these trials was from the Bulstrode
Peat Works, owned by James Hodges, Esq., of Montreal.
Messrs. Parsons & Co., refiners of oil, at East
Boston, required for their process super-heated steam




PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 217
to degree and extent which it was found extremely
difficult to obtain with wood or coal of any kind; and
under the most favorable circumstances required two
furnaces, one for generating and the other for superheating. A faithful trial of' peat was made, in view of
statements concerning the intensity of heat generated
by it, detailed report of which was promised us, but has
not yet come to hand. The result, however, may be
briefly stated as follows: The peat fuel proved to be
entirely satisfactory.  Steam was not only generated,
but super-heated to the full extent and temperature
required; and it was satisfactorily demonstrated that
with this fuel the whole service demanded might be had
from one furnace instead of two, - an item of no light
importance.  The fuel was from  the works of the
Boston Peat Company.
A trial of the same fuel was recently made at the
Lowell Bleachery, under their large boilers (engine,
500 horse power), of which we have only verbal,
though reliable report. It made more steam than coal,
and accomplished with ease the severest service required
at the works. The superintendent says he considers it
a perfect success, and that all now required is to adapt
the fire-boxes for it, and learn how to use it.
This latter remark will doubtless be found to express
the opinions of numerous parties when commencing to
use peat fuel.  That it is a good fuel is universally
conceded, which is much more than was even admitted
for coal when that was first introduced. The important questions now are as to the arrangements of
furnaces, grates, drafts, etc., and the manner of using
the fuel to the best advantage; in other words, "the
people " have to learn how to use it, but the task is an
easy one.




218        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
PEAT FOR DOMESTIC PURPOSES.
We have heretofore dwelt mainly upon the use of
peat in the manufacture of iron, and for steam purposes
as relates to manufacturing and transportation interests.
For domestic purposes generally, we can have no
doubt, from our own experience and the testimony of
others, that ton for ton, it is of equal value with, and
in some respects more economical, than coal.
It is not our habit to commend this fuel as invariably
and for all purposes superior to all others, but in a
multitude of cases where parties have had small lots for
trial, they have brought their ready testimony, that it
was the best fuel they ever used; and this, we firmly
believe, is to be the general verdict.
~In saying this, however, we wish it to be borne, in
mind distinctly, that with peat fuel, as with every other
kind of fuel, its value for service depends as much or
more upon the manner in which it is used, and the
methods and  appliances for using it, as upon the
peculiar qualities and characteristics of the fuel itself.
It can be burned in open grates, close stoves, furnaces.,
ranges, and all the ordinary variety of heating apparatus
in use in dwelling-houses.  As regards open grates,
ranges, and furnaces, it will be found that the fire-pot, or
receptacle for fuel, should be smaller in area and of less
depth than are at present in use for coal. It requires
to be renewed somewhat more frequently than coal,
and should be burned with very much less draft, indeed
so soon as the fuel is once well ignited, it will generally
be found desirable to close the draft almost entirely.
On subsequent pages, under the head of "How to
use Peat Fuel," we shall offer some suggestions, which
are of importance in this connection.




PEAT FOR DOMESTIC PURPOSES.         219
We have taken no pains to obtain written certificates
bearing upon its use for these purposes, and probably
sufficient testimony has been given, incidentally, on
preceding pages; but we have at hand letters from
two gentlemen, for many years residents of Lexington,
and well known there, which are sent to us voluntarily,
and which, as exceptions to the general rule, that "a
prophet is not without honor save in his own country,"
are perhaps to be considered as even stronger evidence
than testimony obtained farther from home, and are
illustrative of what we have learned to be the experience
of many others.
Mr. S. W. Robinson, of Lexington, writes, —
"I have of late been using peat, which was prepared
at your works, and am favorably impressed with its
importance as an article of fuel. That it is better than
the coal with which families in this vicinity have been
supplied for two or three years past, there can be no
reasonable doubt. It is easily ignited, burns freely,
and leaves neither cinders or other impurities behind.
One great advantage it possesses is, that it may be used
in smaller quantities than coal, and may be burned anywhere, in grate, stove, or hearth. I am persuaded that
it is well adapted to culinary purposes, and is not only
better, but more economical than coal or wood, which
is surely an important desideratum."
Captain Win. D. Phelps, of Lexington, writes," We used two tons of your peat during the summer
and autumn, in a Stewart's cooking stove of medium
size; and for all purposes of the kitchen we give it the
preference to wood or coal, especially for baking and
broiling meats, &c., and for heating irons; and, as a
peat fire can be graduated to suit the weather and the
occasion, it is far preferable to coal. It makes a hotter




220        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
fire also, and takes but fifteen minutes from the starting
of the fire to heating the oven ready for baking.  My
neighbors who have used your fuel are satisfied and
pleased with it."
The following extracts from an article in the "Boston
Transcript," are also to the point:
"Possibly a few words in relation to peat may not be
without interest to your readers.
"I have used it for the past two months, both at my
residence and place of business, in furnace, range, and
open grate; and am convinced that any who try it will
be surprised, as I have been, to find how rich an article
of fuel we have lying in immense quantities in the
swamps about us, and capable of being produced at
moderate cost. I have experimented with it in various
ways, and am decidedly of opinion that, although the
process of manufacture is doubtless open to considerable
improvement, the article, as at present furnished, is, in
many respects, superior to coal. It ignites readily,
burns freely, leaves a handsome white ash, but no
clinker, gives an intense heat, and is easily managed.
For open fires it is charming.
"Many years ago, as doubtless many of our oldest
citizens will recollect, peat in its crude, unmanufactured
state, was sold in Boston in considerable quantities. It
is extensively used in many places in New England,
and that, too, in preference to wood, even where wood
is abundant.  The high price of fuel the past season has
led many to seek for it; and I have heard of those who
have laid in considerable quantities of it in Newton,
Reading, Lynn, and in numerous places on the Cape.
" In many parts of Europe it constitutes the principal
article of fuel for domestic purposes, and is used to
some extent on locomotive engines and in'large manu



INTENSITY OF HEAT GENERATED BY PEAT. 221
facturing establishments.  For the manufacture of iron
and steel, it is said to be superior to any other fuel in
existence. Is not the fact that abundant stores of this
fuel are'on deposit' in various sections of New England worthy the attention of enterprising men? "
It is quite probable that peat will soon be manufactured in a neat form, specially adapted for kindling
purposes; and movements are also projected for introducing it for sale in our cities, in boxes, in much the
same manner as kindling-wood is now sold, while for
ordinary purposes it will be sold in bulk, like coal.
INTENSITY OF HEAT GENERATED BY PEAT.
It is an acknowledged fact, that peat produces an
intense heat,- a feature of so much importance as to
entitle it to prominent mention and careful consideration. Its virtue in this respect is much increased when
properly prepared, solidified, and dried, and it reaches
its maximum of heating power when solidified and
charred or coked.  Mention has been made of its
peculiar qualities in this respect, in several of the
statements on preceding pages, but their importance
will be more clearly comprehended when taken in connection with the facts in an interesting article on the
" Calorific  Valuze of Fuel," which we find in the
"American Railway Times," and which contains remarks so pertinent on this point, that we quote as
follows:"There are, in all, five important kinds of fuel only:
these are wood, peat, coal, charcoal, and coke; the first
three being natural, and the last two artificial fuels.
The elements of which each of these is composed are
practically identical, the differences of character being




222        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
due to the proportion of those elements entering into the
composition of each kind of fuel; and according to
those proportions, each fuel takes its relative position in
the scale of value. Taking the comparative chemical
composition of the various kinds of fuel, according to
Dr. Machaltie, their percentage stands thus: —
Carb.  Hyd. Oxyg,. Nitr. Sulp. Ash.
Wood (dried at 280~ F.). 50.0 6.0 42.9 1.0.. 1.0
Peat (dried at 2200 F.). 57.0 5.5 31.0 1.5.. 5.0
Coal..    85.0 5.0  4.0 1.0  1.0 4.0
Charcoal.87.0 3.0  7.0... 3.0
Coke.92.0.                        1.5  6.6
The amount of heat produced by fuels in their combustion does not always constitute their relative value.
For some purposes, it is apparent that this would be
the best criterion, but as a rule, in metallurgic processes, the quantity of heat is of far less importance
than the intensity, or power to raise substances to the
highest temperature; and the fuel which affords the
greatest quantity of heat is sometimes incapable of
producing the greatest intensity.
"In determining the intensity of the heat produced,
it is necessary to know the available quantity of heat
produced in the combustion of a pound of fuel, the
weight of the products of combustion, and the quantity
or number of units of heat required to raise the products of the combustion of a pound of fuel one degree
Fahrenheit.
"Where very high temperatures are required, the fuel
which should be selected ought to approach as near as
possible to pure carbon in its composition, and for the
reason that carbon is the best substance for the purpose.




HOW TO USE PEAT.              223
" We now see the reasons for making coal into coke,
and wood into charcoal. Coal cannot produce a temperature equal to that obtained from coke, neither can
the temperature of wood be compared with that of charcoal. And this results from the relative accession of
carbon, and reduction of oxygen and hydrogen in them.
This must be referred to the great difference between
quantity and intensity of heat. If we cannot raise
sufficient steam from a boiler by the use of one ton of
coal, we can easily meet the point by burning two tons;
but, if the fusing point of metal cannot be attained with
one ton of coal, it by no means follows that any additional amount of fuel will insure the required result.
The great distinction to be observed is between quantity
and intensity of heat.  The first of these two conditions
depends upon the quantity of fuel; but the last is referred entirely to the quality of fuel.
"Twenty tons of coal will not give a temperature so
great as that afforded by one ton of coke."
The intense heat generated by peat-fuel is a subject
of frequent remark, and will eventually be dwelt upon,
we think, as a very important consideration in estimating its value.
How TO USE PEAT.
It should be borne in mind that peats differ in quality
and characteristics, and consequently in their heating
properties and value, full as much as wood and coal in
all their varieties; and that the results obtained from
peat-fuel, as from any other, will, in all cases, depend
very much upon the manner in which it is burned.
WVe are told that a certain service is obtained from a
boiler with one cord of wood or one ton of coal, but
unless we know whether the wood be pine or hickory,




224       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
or the coal Pictou or anthracite, we have no certain
data from which to make accurate or even approximate calculations; so also of peat, it is necessary to
know somewhat of its characteristics in each case reported, in order to form a correct estimate of its relative
value for the service done. The terms by which to
designate these characteristics and qualities, so as to be
generally understood and adopted, have yet to be determined upon, but the necessities of the case will doubtless bring them out in good time.
That peat is a good fuel is universally conceded,
which is much more than was even admitted for coal
when that was first introduced. The important questions now are, as to the arrangements of furnaces,
grates, drafts, etc., and the manner of using the fuel to
the best advantage; in other words, "the people" have
to learn how to use it, but the task is an easy one.
It is an acknowledged fact that very few people have
any correct idea of the economical use of fuel of any
kind.
Everybody is supposed to know how to burn wood,'but very few burn it economically, or even prudently.
The waste of wood is immense.
So also of coal. It was a long time after hard coal
was introduced before the'community became even
tolerably familiar with its use; but at the present time
it is otherwise.  With plenty of kindling wood, an
abundant supply of coal, a clear grate and a strong
draft, a good fire is started and kept up, "regardless
of expense;" but for a moderate fire on a mild day, or
for light service, few are skilful enough to kindle or
maintain it.
Such being the case in regard to wood and coal, is it
reasonable to expect that any one, at the present time,




HOW TO USE PEAT;                225
is thoroughly posted as to the best and most economical
methods of using peat?
Our own experience has taught us that, as a general
thing, peat-fuel should be burned in smaller area and
bulk than coal, but renewed in small quantities somewhat more frequently, and with very much less draft.
The heat is clear and intense. The quantity of kindling
wood required is very small.
It is a matter of no slight importance to ascertain and
introduce the best stoves, furnaces, grates, ranges, &c.,
for burning peat.
Thus far little has been done in this line, though a few
enterprising stove dealers have already turned their
attention to it, with good prospect of success; and
their advertisements are beginning to announce "Peat
Stoves," &c.
The appliances required are simple, and there will be
little difficulty in producing what is wanted, or in altering and adapting, by very simple changes, many of the
favorite styles now in use for coal.
It is not, however, in the matter of stoves and appliances for domestic purposes alone, that these improvements are called for, but in fire-boxes for locomotives,
furnaces under boilers, and wherever fires are to be used
in the arts, manufactures, &c.; and it is clearly to be
seen that this opens a wide field for experiment and
invention among boiler and engine-builders.
As relates to the use of peat-fuel for locomotives,
Mr. Hodges, before referred to, has offered some remarks which correspond so nearly with our own observations and the general tenor of statements made to us
by others who have investigated the matter, and are,
withal, so clearly expressed, that we quote: —
"Peat-fuel, even with the limited experiments as to the
15




226       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
best mode of using it economically, has proved itself
equal if not superior to any known fuel, and it is no
more than reasonable to anticipate greater results when
its use becomes general, and furnaces are expressly
adapted to its use.
"As locomotives are now constructed for the combustion of wood, coal, or coke, the waste of steam power
to create a blast or draft is enormous, it being estimated by competent authority that two fifths of the
whole quantity of fuel consumed is expended for that
purpose. Now, well-dried peat requires but very little
draft through the furnace bars, it being necessary,
for a perfect combustion of the immense quantity of
gas that it gives out, to admit air through the furnace
door. It is therefore much more than probable that,
by altering the blast to meet the limited requirements of peat-fuel, at least twenty per cent. additional
power will be given to all peat-burning engines, or a
corresponding decrease in the quantity of fuel used may
be effected.
"No sparks issue from the smoke-stack of a locomotive
when burning peat-fuel, even with the present enormous
blast; and-when they are especially adapted for it, fires
from sparks will be unknown.
"Peat-fuel, containing from twenty-five to thirty per
cent. of water, may be burned in a locomotive with a
blast, and arrangement of fire-box precisely the same as
for wood, and used in the same way, with this difference only, that with wood the fire-box is always kept
full to the top, while with damp peat not more than six
inches covering of the grate is necessary. In ascending
long inclines, or with an overloaded engine, it may be
necessary, perhaps, to increase the quantity to nine
inches; but under no circumstances has the writer




HOW TO USE PEAT.               227
ever seen  a twelve-inch  covering  to the fire-bars
requisite.
"When it is considered that in burning a ton of green
peat, containing only fifteen per cent. of moisture in
excess of ordinary air-dried peat, thirty-three gallons of
water have to be dried out of it or evaporated during
the combustion; and, in addition, that the weight of
solid matter in the ton of fuel is reduced fifteen per cent.
by the water it contains, the difference of work performed
by dry peat over that of wet is not so great as might
be expected. This, however, may be accounted for by
the little experience we have hitherto had with the fuel,
and also from the fact that locomotives have not been
adapted to its use.
" The amount of blast required for green peat is not
so great as that required for wood; but it burns well in
a furnace arranged for consuming wood.
"For dry peat, very little blast is required; and when
burning in engines adapted for wood, the fuel has to be
applied in such small quantities that it is scarcely possible to keep the fire-bars covered without raising more
steam than is required. It therefore seems apparent
that, although an approximate maximum of work may
have been got out of green peat, the experiments with
dry fuel need repeating many times to give any adequate
idea of what it will do in properly constructed furnaces,
and with a suitable amount of blast."
The strong exhaust in most of the locomotives at
present in use is by no means needful or favorable for
obtaining from this fuel its best service; and there can
be no doubt that in this respect a radical change will be
found desirable as one of the essential features of a good
peat burner. The area and depth of the fire-box, and
the arrangement of the grate-bars, for both locomotive




228       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
and stationary engines, are also likely to be modified to
a considerable extent.
" Chemical analysis shows that peat, weight for
weight, contains only three fifths of the heating properties of coal, and it is therefore the opinion of many
that it is little more than half as valuable for raising
steam.
"Now this is all very well in the closet; but as practice shows that, even with the best constructed furnace
thirteen per cent. only of the heat-giving properties of
coal are utilized, there is still a pretty good margin for
peat, and a possibility that, by being able to economize a greater percentage of the heat-giving properties it contains, to make it do double the work of
coal.
"It is true that Dr. NWhelpley, of Boston, by his
wonderful pulverizer, reduces refuse coal to an impalpable powder, and, by a peculiar mode of combustion,
makes this dust do six times the work of the best coal,
at a cost perfectly insignificant compared with the result.
That he will succeed eventually in making a revolution
in the use of fuel there can be no question; but as peatfuel can be reduced to dust as easily as coal, there is
still a hope that peat-fuel may keep its position as the
best fuel in the world."
We cannot claim to be sufficiently well informed upon
this very important part of our subject to undertake to
give definite instructions applicable to all cases.  ltany
useful hints bearing upon it have been given on preceding pages, and it must now await the result of experiment and investigation, which, with the "inventive
genius and combining skill" already enlisted ill this
great enterprise, are sure to meet the requirements of
the case. The field is a wide one.




HOW TO USE PEAT.               229
The following, which we cut from  the "American
Gas Light Journal," is pertinent in this connection, as
relating to economy in the use of fuel.
"Take as a period the last fifty years, and see what
improvements have been made in this direction. While
our forefathers were content to warm the humble cottage
by the aid of the'fire-place,' which occupied one side
of the dwelling, whose capacious jambs required the
immense'back-log' and'fore-stick,' and the various
components to form the huge pile for a respectable fire,
their children employed the'box' and'Franklin' stoves,
&c., which used both coal and wood, and were, scientifically, an improvement in the degree of radiation attained, and because they did not carry the most of the
caloric up the chimney in the tempest.
"From this we come to the more modern and scientific appliances for heating, cooking, &c., embracing
heaters and registers, radiators, base-burners, smoke
and gas-consumers, patent cooking-stoves, ranges, galleys, and numberless other inventions.  So, also, in
equal or greater degree, has there been improvements
in the various processes of smelting, and in steam engines, both land and marine, by the aid of improved
draft or blast, by return, horizontal, and inclined
flues, patent jackets, grates, condensers, &c., to more
completely consume the smoke and gases, to increase
the radiating surfaces, and various other improvements,
until, when we look back to the old methods, we smile
at their primitiveness and inefficiency.
"Science is progressive; and the inquiring mind will
ever be on the alert to improve the various appliances
now in use, where coal or other fuel is employed, to
more completely utilize and economize the caloric
evolved during combustion, to devise more economy'




230       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
in mining, and to discover and apply substitutes for
coal fuel.
"It is safe to say that by modern improvements we
get from one to two hundred per cent. more caloric, or
work, — which is but another name for it, -from a
given amount of fuel consumed, than we did fifty, or
even twenty-five years ago; and there is no reason to
believe the inventive genius of the age will not improve
upon the present methods of consuming fuel economically, during the next hundred years, in a similar ratio
at least."
GAS FROM PEAT.
For gas, its properties have been tested in several
places in this country, as also in Paris, Plymouth, Dartmoor Prison, Dublin, Munich, Kempton, and other
places in Europe, with uniformly satisfactory results,
but varying considerably, according to the character of
the crude material. Its yield may be said to be about
the same as the Newcastle coal; but, in most cases, the
light produced has been pronounced superior in brilliancy and power.
Gas of an excellent quality for lighting, and in large
quantities, can be produced from some kinds of peat;
and in the ordinary progress of events must, we think,.
be extensively used, and that at no distant day. Numerous and very successful experiments in this direction have been made, and results published from time
to time. As long ago as 1683, J. J. Beecher published
an account of his having produced gas from common
coal in England, and from peat in Holland; and, from
that time to the present, abundant proof of its value and.easy production has accumulated.
For purposes of making and refining iron, the gas




GAS FROM PEAT.               231
produced from peat has been extensively used in France,
Germany, Prussia, and Sweden. In many plaqes in
Europe it is used for both purposes, and its consumption
is regularly augmenting.
On Dartmoor, the peat is cut by the convicts from the
prison, working in gangs; and, after being dried, it is
carefully stored in one of the old prisons.  From this
peat, by a most simple process, gas is made with which
the prisons at Princetown are lighted.
The illuminating power of this gas is very high. The
charcoal left after the separation of the gas is used in the
same establishment for fuel and for sanitary purposes,
and the ashes eventually go to improve the cultivated
lands of that bleak region.
Attempts were made here many years since to distil
the peat for naphtha, paraffine, &c.; but the experiments not proving successful, the establishment was
abandoned.
An article in "Silliman's Journal," 1855, after remarking upon discussions had in the city of Paris in
connection with the renewal of the engagements of the
city with the gas companies, goes on to say, "Attention
has been called to the gas manufactured from peat,
which for some time has been used in Paris.
"M. Foucault has been charged with measuring the
comparative illuminating power of coal and peat gas,
and the result is in favor of that of peat, its power being
three hundred and forty-two, while that of coal gas is
one hundred.  The manufacture of peat gas is also
more simple than coal. The peat, if put into an iron
retort, heated to a low red heat, affords immediately a
mixture of permanent gases and vapors, which condense
into an oleaginous liquid, which two products separate
on cooling. The oil is collected in a special vessel, and




232       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
the gas passes into a gasometer.  This carburetted hydrogen is wholly unfit for illumination, as it gives a very
smajl flame, nearly like that from brandy. The oil from
the peat is a viscous, blackish liquid, of a strong odor.
It is subject to a new distillation, and resolved wholly
into a permanent gas and hydrogen very richly carburetted. This mixture is strongly illuminating, giving
a flame six or eight times brighter than the first, and of
a more lively brilliancy. The two are mixed, and a gas
of intermediate character obtained, which is delivered
over for consumption.
"M. Foucault made his trials with a photometric
method not then made public. Its unit was not a single wax candle, but a collection of seven candles, arranged in a hexagonal manner, with spaces of one
centimetre. A single candle is liable to too much variation, a compensation for which is secured when a number are employed. By this method a mean of five
determinations gave for a burner of peat gas a light
equivalent to twenty-three and one fourth candles, and
the same burner, with coal gas, six and three tenths
candles.
"The illuminating power of the pure oil from peat,
the illuminating material, par excellence, has been found
at equal pressures, seven hundred and five, the intensity
of coal gas being one hundred; and, with equal volumes, their numbers are as seven hundred and fifty-six
to one hundred."
From the absence of sulphur in peat, the purification
of this gas is much more easily accomplished than that
from coal.
Mr. Paul, to whom reference has before been made,
stated before the Society of Arts, in 1862, that for
a long time he had manufactured gas from peat to light




GAS FROM PEAT.               233
his works; that the bituminous black peat of Scotland produced gas of good illuminating power, which
required no purifying process for ordinary purposes;
and he considered the applicability of peat for gas-making a matter well worthy of consideration.
Mr. Keats, before the same society, said he had made
experiments of a like character, and had obtained as
much as ten thousand cubic feet of gas from a ton of
peat; but the percentage of carbonic acid was so great,
in some cases amounting to twenty-two per cent., that
it operated as a prohibition of the use of the gas until
some cheap means for removing that difficulty should be
found.
Mr. Brunton stated that trials made with his prepared
peat had shown not only that there was a large amount
of gas in the peat, but that the gas was of such high
illuminating power as to bear advantageous comparison
with gas distilled from coal, while the difficulty of the
carbonic acid gas was done away with, in a; great measure, by the partial charring or baking of the peat before
it was used for the manufacture of gas.
Mr. Versmann had conducted experiments, and came
to the conclusion that this prepared peat was a most valuable material for gas purposes, and that it would produce from twelve thousand to fourteen thousand cubic
feet of gas per ton, of an illuminating power exceeding
that of ordinary coal gas, the amount of carbonic acid
not exceeding ten per cent.; and although that was
somewhat in excess of the average of coal gas, yet there
were advantages in peat which more than counterbalanced the disadvantages arising from the excess of carbonic acid.
Professor Emmons, in his report on the Geology of
New York, remarks upon peat, and says, " It contains




234       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
a gaseous matter, equal in illuminating power to oil or
coal gas." And again: "Peat furnishes an abundance of carburetted hydrogen, and hence may be
employed for producing gas-light.
"Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger, of New York, has made
known to the American public the experiments of
Merle, a director of a gas-light company in France.
The advantages of peat for the production of gas
are as follows: 1st. It is less expensive than gas from
coal, oil, or resin.  2d. The product is nearly as
much as from those substances.  3d. The gas is quite
harmless and inoffensive, and has, in respect to healthfulness, great advantages over some of the other kinds
of gas. After it has been employed for gas the coke
may be used for fuel, and is equal to any charcoal.
" If the above details may be relied upon, and if the
experiments of Merle are satisfactory, if peat can be
employed to advantage in the production of gas, it becomes one of the most important natural productions in
the State, second only to coal for fuel, and equal to it
for producing a beautiful and agreeable light. It would
at once become a source of individual wealth, and furnish employment for a multitude of laborers, and increase the amount of transportation from the interior of
the State to the cities and larger villages. It would
employ a vast amount of material lying useless and unproductive, and one, too, embraced in our own territory.
It would be using a great capital which has been accumulating for a long time, and has been reserved in store
for this age of enterprise."
Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Boston, gives the following
report of test, made by him, of peat sent to him from
Wisconsin, as a material for the manufacture of illuminating gas: —




GAS FROM PEAT.                235
"The sample weighed eighteen pounds only, and was
therefore used with other coal, substituting peat for a
portion of the charge. One hundred and fifty pounds
of coal make a charge for one retort.
" One hundred and thirty-four pounds of Pictou coal
and sixteen pounds of Wisconsin peat were taken, and
afforded
Coke...... 101 lbs.
Gas........... 620 cub. ft.
Ammonia water and tar
" The gas had, after perfect purification, a spec. grav.
0.538, and measured 620 cubic feet.  100 parts contained olefiant gas 11.85. 5 cubic feet afforded as
much light as 29 4.10 candles of standard spermaceti.
"134 lbs. Pictou coal would have afforded 536 cubic
feet of gas; 5 feet being equal to 17 candles, or the
whole to 1779 candles.
134 lbs. Pictou coal added to 16 lbs. Wisconsin
peat afforded 620 cubic feet; 5 feet being equal to
29 4.10 candles, or the whole to 3645 candles.
"There are only two or three cannel coals known
which afford so much illuminating material, placing this
peat in the first class of gas materials.
"It exceeds all common cannels, and, of course, is
far above any bituminous coal, and can be worked with
poor coal to make good gas."
At the Portland (Me.) Gas Works experiments were
made, and the gas produced was used for lighting the
city one or two evenings, with highly satisfactory
results; the light furnished being, as we understand,
full as good, if not better, than the, quality ordinarily furnished from the coals which it is their custom
to use.




236       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
The results of four experiments may be briefly stated
as follows, it being understood that a given quantity of
Albert coal was used in the retorts with the peat, as it
is their custom to use it with the poorer coals from
which most of their supply is obtained:1st.  720 lbs. Peat
100 "Abert 1st hour 1450 ft. equal to 28 candles.
100" Albert
2d'  1250 "- "  " 19   "
3d  4"  160"  "'  "' 15
2d. 1080' Peat   1st        390            27
270 " Albert
2d'"  2000"  "  "~ 18  "
3d  "   510   " "    10  "
3d.. 1080 " Peat                           24
270 " Albert"  "     24
2d  "  1960"  "  " 20  "
3d  "   480 "  "'      9
4th. 1080 " Peat             2830 
270 " Albert 1st  "  2830 "  "  " 25  "
270 c~ Albert
2d'"  1810"  "  "  7  "
3d  "   350"  "  "4  7  "
A gentleman connected with one of the large manufacturing establishments in Utica, N. Y., writes us as
follows: "I have obtained from  160 lbs. of your condensed peat 612 cubic feet of illuminating gas. Our
retorts were not well adapted to give the article a
thorough test, and therefore am unable to give you a
statement of its comparative cost."
Another correspondent writes, in Dec.,: 1865, "A
piece of dried peat, containing less than six cubic'
inches, distilled in a small iron retort, with pipe-stem
attached to the discharge pipe, furnished, for 33 minutes,
a beautiful jet of pure clear gas, inodorous without
puxiiecation, the illuminating power of which appeared




GAS FROM PEAT.               237
(without actual test) to be greater than that we have
from a single burner with ordinary gas."
Experiments were recently made at the Lansingburg
(N. Y.) Gas Works.  The peat used was simply dried
in the sun, without pressing, and was then placed in the
retorts.  The gas was pronounced to be in every way
superior to that made from the best coal. It gave a
whiter, clearer, and much stronger light than the gas
ordinarily produced there from coal, and stood the
chemical tests well.
Professor Johnson, in his recent work, remarks, -
"It is essential that well-dried peat be employed.
The retorts must be of good conducting material, therefore cast iron is better than clay. They are made of
the P form, and must be relatively larger than those
used for coal. A retort of two feet width, one foot
depth, and 8 to 9 feet length, must receive but 100 lbs.
of peat at a charge.
"The quantity of gas yielded in a given time is
much greater than from bituminous coal. From retorts
of the size just named 8000 to 9000 cubic feet of gas
are delivered in 24 hours.  The exit pipes must, therefore, be large, not less than 5 to 6 inches, and the
coolers must be much more effective than is needful
for coal gas, in order to separate from it the tarry
matters.
"The number of retorts requisite to furnish a given
volume of oas is much less than in the manufacture
from coal.  On the other hand, the dimensions of the
furnace are considerably greater, because the consumption of fuel must be more rapid, in order to supply
the heat which is carried off by the copious formation
of gas.
"Gas may be made from peat at a comparatively




238         PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL,
low temperature, but its illuminating power is then
trifling.  At a red heat alone can we procure a gas of
good quality.
"The chief impurity of peat gas is carbonic acid: this
amounts to 25 to 30 per cent. of the gas before purification, and if the peat be insufficiently dried, it is considerably more. The quantity of slaked lime that is
consumed in purifying is therefore much greater than
is-needed for coal gas, and is an expensive item in the
making of peat gas.
"While wood gas is practically free from sulphur
compounds and ammonia, peat gas may contain them
both, especially the latter, in quantity that depends upon
the composition of the peat, which, as regards sulphur
and nitrogen, is very variable.
"Peat gas is denser than coal gas, and therefore cannot be burned to advantage except from considerably
wider orifices than answer for the latter, and under
slight pressure.
"The above statements show the absurdity of judging
of the value of peat as a source of gas by the results
of trials made in gas works, arranged for bituminous
coal.
"As to the yield of gas we have the following data,
weights and measures being English: —
Cubic ft.
100 lbs. of peat of medium quality from Munich, gave REIssIG. 303
"4   air-dry peat from Biermoos, Salzburg, gave RIEDINGER 305'~  very light fibrous peat gave REISSIG.... 379 to 430
"    Exter's machine-peat, from Haspelmoor, gave... 367
"Thenius states that, to produce 1000 English cubic
feet of purified peat gas, in the works at Kempten,
Bavaria, there are required in the retorts 292 lbs. of
peat.  To distil this, 138k lbs. of peat are consumed in




PEAT IN GUNPOWDER AND FIREWORKS.   2.3)
the fire; and to purify the gas from carbonic acid, 91~
lbs. of lime are used. In the retorts remain 117 lbs.
of peat coal, and nearly 6 lbs. of tar are collected in the
operation, besides smaller quantities of acetic acid and
ammonia.
"According to Stammer, 4 cwt. of dry peat are required for 1000 cubic feet of purified gas.
"The quality of the gas is somewhat better than that
made from bituminous coal."
Quite a number of experiments have been made with
peat during the past year, in this country, for the purpose of testing its value for the production of illuminating gas; but we are not possessed of sufficient data
concerning them  to give any thing like accurate or
reliable reports. The opinion is, however, freely expressed by those who have given most attention to it,
that peat is destined at no distant day to be used very
extensively for this purpose, both on account of the
quality and quantity of the gas produced, and the low
cost of the material, when compared with the coals at
present most in use.
PEAT IN GUNPOWDER AND FIREWORKS.
For the production of gunpowder, many varieties of
peat are superior to the charcoal of dogwood and
alder.  We have seen the black peat of Massachusetts
so perfectly prepared and granulated, without any explosive admixture, that it was impossible to distinguish
it fromn the best rifle powder, even by a well-practised
eye.
In the manufacture of fireworks, also, it is reported
to have been used with marked success, from the fact
that combustion is even more instantaneous and perfect




240       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
than from the materials ordinarily in use, and that the
fires produced exceed in brilliancy any thing heretofore
attained.
Mr. J. B. Hyde, C. E., states that, "It has long
been used by pyrotechnists in Europe in the composition of fireworks, particularly for colored fires, giving
them greater brilliancy than could be effected by any
other carbon.' The artificer of Vauxhall Gardens, London, who declares it to be twenty per cent. more combustible than
any other charcoal, long retained the secret of the
material used by himself, which gave his works a wide
reputation for their superiority."
CHEMICAL PRODUCTS FROM  THE DISTILLATION OF
PEAT.
In 1849, public attention in England was very much
excited by an extraordinary statement made in the House
of Commons by Mr. Mahon, and supported by Lord
Ashley, asserting the immense area of bog in Ireland
to contain substances of great economic value, to be
produced at comparatively small cost. Lord Ashley's
statements were based upon the authority of Mr. Owen,
whose experiments went to show that, chemically treated
at remunerative cost, the product would be the following substances: carbonate of ammonia, soda, vinegar,
naphtha, paraffine, camphene oil, common oil, gas of
value, and ashes.
The publication of this remarkable statement was
quickly followed by a letter in the "Times," from Mr.
Henry Seaman, of Plymouth, asserting that he and his
neighbors lost ~20,000 in an attempt to turn the peatbogs of Dartmoor to profitable account, in the same




ChIEMICAL PRODUCTS -FLOM PEAT.       241
manner as the peat of Ireland had been treated by Mr.
Owen and his partner.
This letter was followed by one from Mr. Robert
Oxland, a practical chemist, residing at Plymouth, who
rather confirmed the principal parts of the statement
made by Lord A&shley.
Subsequently the whole matter was taken up and
thoroughly dissected in an article in the "Illustrated
London News," No. 384, from which we quote a single
paragraph: "No doubt a fair marketable value is taken
for the several items; but we believe, and we express
this most conscientiously, that the cost of production
would exceed their commercial worth."
Again: in November,. 1850, in the" Times," is found
the following statement: "It now appears that Mr.
Owen, whose course, from  the first, was in no way
inconsistent with Lord Ashley's testimony respecting
him, has been, for the past year and a half, quietly
engaged in testing the merits of the process to an extent that would properly authorize a definitive estimate
of its results. These labors have been carried on partly
under the superintendence of Dr. Hodges, the Professor
of Agriculture in Queen's College, Belfast, and partly
in the neighborhood of London, at the premises of
Messrs. Coffey & Sons, engineers; and the conclusions
now represented to have been arrived at, are of an exceedingly satisfactory nature.  They do not promise the
five hundred per cent. originally talked of, but according to a certified estimate rendered by:Messrs Coffey &
Sons, they show a profit of upwards of one hundred
per cent.
".This estimate, which is framed for an establishment
consuming 36,500 tons of peat per annum, is as follows:16




242       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF F'UEL.
Expenditures.
"36,500 tons of peat, at 2s. per ton..    ~3650
455   "   sulphuric acid, at ~7.     3185
Wear and tear of apparatus, &c....          700
Wages, labor, &c:....2000
Cost of sending to market, and incidentals..   2182
Profit..11,908
~23,625
Produce.
365 tons sulphate of ammonia, at ~12.. ~4380
255  " acetate of lime, at ~14.        3570
19,000 gallons naphtha, at 5s...      4750
109,500 lbs. paraffine, at is......    5475
73,000 gallons volatile oil, at Is.         3650
36,000   "   fixed oil, at Is...             1800
~23,625"
After referring again to the experience of Sir Robert
Kane, as given in his " Industrial Resources of Ireland,"
and the experiments made by the Dartmoor Company
on a large scale, the'Times" says, "We wish these
results may be realized; but we have no hope of any
thing so satisfactory."
Professor Brande read before the Royal Institution,
in 1851, a paper upon peat and its products.
Special mention was made of the "tallow-peat" of
the banks of Lough Neagh, which, from the brilliant
flame attending its combustion, has been used for illuminating purposes as well as for fuel.
He says, " Peat may be rendered valuable either from
the charcoal which may be obtained from it, or by various products derivable from what is called its destructive distillation.




CHEMICAL PRODUCTS FROM PEAT.            243
"VWhen it is desil ad to convert peat into charcoal, the
plan adopted by the Irish Amelioration Society is to
carbonize blocks of peat, partially dried on trays of
wicker-work, in movable pyramidal furnaces.   The
charcoal so obtained varies in character with that of the
peat which produces it; and, when the peat is compressed previous to its carbonization, the resulting charcoal exceeds the density of common wood charcoal.
"The efficacy of this charcoal in the manufacture of
iron, in consequence of the small quantity of sulphur
it contains, was mentioned, and its deodorizing and
purifying qualities experimentally exhibited.
"The elements of peat are essentially those of wood
and coal; viz., carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and
oxygen."
In conclusion, Professor Brande reviewed the various
products of peat derived by distillation, and their uses.
They appear to be,1. Sulphate of ammonia. This substance is employed in
the preparation of carbonate and muriate of ammonia, of
caustic ammonia, and in the manufacture of fertilizing composts.
2. Acetate of lime, which is in constant demand as a source
of acetic acid, and of various acetates largely consumed by
calico printers.
3. Pyroxylic spirit (or wvood alcohol), used in vapor-lamps,
affording a brilliant light, and for the preparation of varnishes.
4. Nacphtha, used for making varnishes, and for dissolving
caoutchouc.
5. Heavy and fixed oils, applicable for lubricating machinery, especially when blended with other unctuous substance,
or as a cheap lamp-oil, and as a source of lampblack.
6. Parafize.  This article is largely used for the manufacture of candles.




244       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
An article in the "Annual of Scientific Discovery,"
for 1851, relating to improvements in treating peat in
England, says, "In addition to gas and ammonia, there
is also obtained from the distillation of peat a peculiar
acid, and a bitumino-adipose compound, which is called'paranaphthadipose.' One of the products of this is a
good solvent of gutta-percha, caoutchouc," &c.
The crude residues from the rectification of the oils
of peat and bitumen, if burned in proper apparatus,
furnish abundance of lampblack.
A writer in the "London Journal of Arts," for December, 1855, states that the peat-charcoal which is left
in the retorts, after all the volatile constituents of peat
have been distilled away, possesses the property of depriving colored vegetable solutions of the whole of their
coloring matters.  He adds that twenty-five per cent.
more of this charcoal is needed than of bone-black;
but the latter is about six times as expensive.  Before
using the peat-charcoal, it must be purified from iron,
and sulphate of lime, and all alkaline matters.
In 1854 a company was formed, called the Irish Peat
Company, having a factory near Athy, in Kildare, Ireland; its purpose being to' produce, from  peat, tar,
paraffine, oil, naphtha, sulphate of ammonia, and to
manufacture iron, the furnaces being heated with the
gas manufactured or produced Prom the peat. It was
under the general management and superintendence of
Dr. Sullivan. The peat was distilled in furnaces, like the
ordinary blast furnaces, thirty-two feet seven inches high,
made perfectly tight by being incased in boiler plate iron,
and covered at the top with a close conical valve and a
double hopper.  Air was blown in, in limited quantity,
through three tuyeres at the base. The volatile products
were taken off at the top by two twelve-inch pipes, and




CHEMICAL PRODUCTS FROM PEAT.          245
conveyed into an hydraulic main three feet in diameter,
from which the tar and other liquids flow into a tank, and
the gases and vapors through series of condensing and
purifying pipes and other apparatus, in which their separation is effectually completed. The charcoal is entirely
consumed in the furnace.  Various experiments gavegreat encouragement to the company, and the projectors,
who were men of considerable standing and eminence,
were sanguine of success.  They started their works,
however, at immense cost, and with the intention of producing everything from peat, in paying quantities, and
consequently failed. It was well known, moreover, that
the original outlay for buildi!ng, machinery, &c., was
enormous (something like $300,000), and the peat operated upon was of an inferior quality: the result of the
enterprise, therefore, is no criterion for the commercial
results of a prudently managed establishment.
Probably one of the reasons why several of the peat
enterprises which have been started have met with so
little real success has been that they wanted to do too
much.
If people will undertake to obtain in one establishment all the products capable of being derived from peat,
the probabilities are that they will fail of profit, and
make a loss; but an establishment devoted exclusively
to the preparation of peat as fuel, leaving others to char
or distil it, will probably succeed commercially.
Mr. B. H. Paul read to the British Association, in
1863, a paper " On the Manufacture of Hydro-carbon
Oils, Paraffine, &c., from Peat."
The author described the results'which had been obtained at some works erected under his direction at
Stornway, on the Island of Lewes.
The peat of that locality was described as a peculiarly




246        PEAT AS AN ARTICLt OF FUEL.
rich bituminous variety of mountain peat, yielding from
five to ten gallons of refined oils and paraffine from the
ton.  The results obtained at these works were contrasted with those obtained at the works of the Irish
Peat Company, where the product of oil was not more
than two gallons per ton. This difference in the produce was ascribed, in a great degree, to the improper
mode of working adopted at the Irish works.
One of the most important points dwelt upon was the
necessity of regarding the hydro-carbon oils and the
paraffine as the only products that would afford a profit in
the distillation of peat.  Dr. Paul concluded his paper
by expressing his opinion that, though the working of
peat was surrounded by many serious difficulties, there
was every reason to believe that such peat as that occurring in the Highlands of Scotland could be advantageously worked; and that, if the manufacture of oils
were undertaken with earnestness and perseverance, it
would become the means of greatly improving the condition of those parts of the country, and a fertile source
of profit.
In a recent conversation with a gentleman of this city,
a native of Germany, he gave a very interesting account
of a large peat establishment near his father's residence,
"as large," he remarked, "as Chickering's Factory,"
where the products above mentioned are produced on an
extensive scale, yielding, according to his statements,
large profits to the proprietors of the works.  He mentions also another production realized at these works, of
which we have nowhere seen mention in connection with
peat.  We allude to aniline colors, which he states are
there produced from peat, though in very small quantities; but, owing to their exceeding richness and strength,
are sold " so many drops, so many dollars," which, being




ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT.    247
interpreted, means one dollar per drop.  The fitest
candles used in the Catholic service in that country are
manufactured from paraffine extracted firom peat.
ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT.
The ultimate elements of peat are essentially those of
wood and coal; viz., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen.  If, therefore, peat be distilled in close vessels, the resulting products must be those of a similar
operation on coal or wood.
In this way, as stated in the preceding chapter, it has
been made to yield ammonia, acetic acid, pyroxylic spirit,
tar, naphtha, oils, and paraffine, — all of great value in
the useful arts.
Reports of analyses of peats are somewhat numerous,
though in our own country but few have thus far appeared.
Peat always contains earthy matter to some extent,
according to its position, thickness of stratum, &c.,
though sometimes in quantities so minute as to be. accounted for only by the accumulations from the minute
dust of the air.  In other cases the situation is such that
large amounts of earth are occasionally washed in from
surrounding hills or blown in from more exposed locations.  In this respect, therefore, certain deposits of
peat may differ materially from wood. When the peat
is consumed, these substances are left in the form of
ash, and according to the nature of the ingredients of
which it is composed, the ash is found to differ in color
from white to gray and ochrey red.
Professor Johnson, who has devoted a good deal
of personal'attention to the matter in connection with
agricultural interests, made report, in 1858, of results




248        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
obtained by him from upwards of thirty specimens procured from various parts of the State of Connecticut.
The following brief resume of his more elaborate report
will serve to show something of the great variety of
composition of this material -:
Organic  Inorganic          Organic  Inorganic
Matter.   Matter.           Matter.   Matter.
1.      60       40       17.       70       30
2.      90       10        18.      35       65
3.      95        5        19.      23       77
4.      96        4        20.      32       68
5.      98        2       21.       60       40
6.      64       36       22.       26       74
7.      83       17       23.       25       75
8.      59       41        24.      28       72
9.      86        14       25.      92        8
10.      82       18        26.      97        3
11.      47       53        27.      84       16
12.      93        7        28.      90       10.
13.      90       10        29.      68       32
14.      91        9        30.      88       12
15.      90       10        31.      73       27
16.      26       74       32.       76       24
Analyses of four samples of peat from Virginia, as
conducted by him in November, 1866, are reported as
follows -
I.      II.      III.     IV.
Water..   20.00    20.00       Dry.    Dry.
Volatile matter   50.05    52.59    62.56    65.74
Coke.           24.97    25.44    31.21    31.81
Ash...          4.98     1.97      6.23     2.45
100.00   100.00   100.00   100.00
Four samples from the Great Dismal Swamp, analyzed in January, 1867, by Prof. B. Silliman, yielded as
follows: -




ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT.             249
I.       II.       III.      IV.
Water... 78.89        20.22     Dry.      10.00
Volatile matter   13.84    52.31      65.53     58.08
Charcoal..   6.49     24.52    30.82    28.59
Ash....78      2.95      3.65      3.33
100.00   100.00   100.00   100.00
The following analyses by Regnault and Mulder show
the contents of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen: —
Locality.      Carbon.   Hydrogen.  Oxygen.
ulcaire.  59.57    5.96    34.47   Regn.ault.. 60.40    5.86    33.64   Mulder.
60.06    6.21    33.73   Regnault.
g  60.89    6.21    32.90   Mulder.
60.21    6.45    33.34   Regnault.
Chap de Fe 61.05  6.45    32.50   Mulder.
Freisland.. 59.42      5.87    34.71   "
Freisland.. 60.41      5.87    34.02'~
Holland... 59.27    5.41    35.35            4
The fact that a greater or less quantity of nitrogen is
invariably contained in peat, appears to have been entirely overlooked in this case.
The "Dublin Journal of Industrial Progress" published an account of the results of analyses conducted by
Drs. ~Kane and Sullivan, from which the following are
selected, as indicating, apparently with great accuracy,
the contents of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Caibon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen.
Surface Peat, Phillipstown..  58.694   6.971   32.883  1.4514
Dense Peat       "..  60.476   6.097  32.546.8806
Surface Peat, Bog of Allen.  59.920  6.614  32.107  1.2588
Dense Peat    "    "..  61.022   5.771  32.400.8070
Surface Peat, Twicknevin..  60.102   6.723  31.288  1.8866
Surface Peat, Shannon....   60.018   5.875  33.152.9545
Dense Peat     "...   61.247   5.616  31.446  1.6904




250          PEAT AS AN  ARTICLE  OF FUEL.
It should be observed that previous to analyses these
samples were dried at a temperature of 220~ Fahrenheit.
Further analyses, referring to the same subject, conducted by Kane, Ronalds, and WVoskressensky, are given
by Muspratt, as follows:
Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen.        Nitrogen.
Peat from Westmeath.  61.040   6.670       -      30.470
"'  Clare....   56.630   6.330               34.480
"  Kildare...  51.050   6.850            39.550
" " Tuam....   57.207   5.655   28.949                3.067
"   "    "i...  58.306   5.821   29.669            2.509'"   "    ".....   59.552   5.502   28.414          1.715
" "  East'nRussia  39.084   3.788                51.088
The following table of analyses of peat, both in the
raw and carbonized state, from various localities, is
found in Taylor's "Statistics of Coal:"By.whomanalyzed..5                    Locality and Description.
By whom analyzed.            I -O, a W    Locality and Description.
David Mushet, Esq.   25.20  72.60   2.20  Scotch Peat, raw.
Dr. Kane......   61.04  37.53  1.83  Bog of Allen, Ireland.
M. Marcher..   I 65.00  22.00  13.00 Carbonized Peat.
37.00  48.00  15.00 Raw Peat.
M. Debette.... 6. 6700  30.00   3.00  Bohemia, carbonized.
38.40  28.00  17.40  Carbonized.
M. Bertier  24.40  70.60   5.00  Wurtenmberg, raw.
Dr. C. T. Jackson.   21.00  72.00   7.00  Maine, U. S., raw.
M. Savage.....   22.00  69.70   8.30  Ardennes, France, raw.
M. Diday......         9.00  58.00  33.00  Basse Alps,  "     "
From numerous analyses of dried peat, by Regnault,
Mulder, Kane, Sullivan, Ronalds, and others, the average of results may be stated to be about as follows: -




ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT.    251
Max.      - Min.   Average.
Carbon..       61.247      51.05      60
Hydrogen..    6.971        5.41       6
Oxygen... 35.35~        30.47      33
Nitrogen..    3.067        0.8070     1=100
Comparing these numbers with those afforded by dry
wood, it would appear that an excess of ten per cent.
of carbon and two per cent. of hydrogen is contained
in the peat, over the quantity of these elements which
wlood ordinarily affords. This difference may have arisen
from the decomposition which the matter of the peat
has undergone.
"In general," says Sir Humphrey Davy, " one hundred parts of dry peat contain from sixty to ninety-nine
parts of matter destructible by fire, and the residuum
consists of earths, together with oxide of iron."
The following, which comprises a considerable variety,
will indicate the percentage of ash remaining after peat
is burned.
Ash. Observer.
Black firm peat from Neumiinster. 2.2  Suersen.
C" "   "   "  Sindelfingen.. 7.2  Schubler.
Brown peat.   "  Schwenningen. 2.3       "
Old peat... "  Vulcare..  5.58 Regnault.
" " -.." Long.                4.61
Peat.. "  Champ de Feu   5.35    "
".    -.. "  Berlin... 9.30 Achard.
"-     ~ ~    "    "... 10.20    " 
Black old peat  "  Alaglin... 14.40 Eirchof.
Brown young peat s'... 14.30    "
Peat.. "  Eichfield.. 21.50 Buchholz.'~.               " "     23.-  "'
"..."        "... 30.50';
33.-     "'i'.. "..
Grass peat, light brown... 1.5  Karmarsh,
Pitch peat.                       8.-  "




252       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Young peat, dark brown... 7.-  Karmarsh.
Old peat.......   10.-               "
41 kinds from Erzgeberge 1.  () 24.   Winkler.
3  "   "  Holl. &Fries. 4.61 (i 5.580 Mulder.
27  "   "  Bogof Allen 1.120(a) 7.898 Kane&Sullivan.
3  "   "  Tuam.3.695 X7 4.819 Ronalds
9  "   "  Saxony       5.300 (i 3.710 Wellner.
Fronm this it will be seen that while some of these
varieties are remarkably pure, in others no less than one
third of the entire weight consists of incombustible substances, which, it is evident,. is quite too large a quantity
to admit of their being used as fuel. Such varieties
are, however, valuable as manures, owing to the fact
that they contain a large amount of phosphates and other
salts, which serve to enrich the soil.
A knowledge of the composition of peat-ashes is of
importance in determining their value for agricultural
purposes, which is the use to which they are at present
mainly applied, so far as we know, although it cannot
be doubted that they possess a value for other purposes
beyond what has thus far been developed.
Professors Kane and Sullivan, before referred to, are
our authority for the analyses of nearly thirty specimens
of ash, from which we take the following at random, as
sufficient to illustrate the variety of their composition: -




l1   l2        3       4       5      6       7   1  8   1  9     10
SPECIFIC GRAVITY...   0.297   0.405   0.669   0.434  0.984.1.-058    0.481|  0.280  0.335  0.924 
Potassa..........   0.362    1.323  0.461   0.641  0.347   0.744    1.667  0.146  0.491  0.280 
Sod..........1......   1.427    1.902  1.399   1.875  0.679' 0.704   2.823  0.466   1.670  2.180
Lime............  26.113  36.496 40.920  22.702 45.581 40.623   20.907  8.492 33.037 30.744
Magnesia.............  3.392    7.634  i.611   6.809  1.256  4.352  15.252  4.702  7.523  9.237
Alumina.........   4.180   5.411  3.793   1.109  0.129   1.671   2.034  10.705   1.686  2.027
Sesquioxide of Irn..      11.591  15.608 15.969 29.845 15.974 10.368  17.040  15.052 13.281 19.797
Phosphoric Acid........  1.461   2.571   1.406  2.019  0.188   1.114    1.447   1.557  1.438  1.290 
Sulahuric Acid......... 12.403  14.092  14.507  16.381 44.371 24.208   23.375  13.974 20.076 20.857 o
Hydrochloric Acid.1.568    1.482  0.983   1.591  0.337   1.052    1.424  0.196   1.747  3.128 
Silica in Compound  decom-.0.980   3.595   1.111  0.737   1.043   6.317   6.634  12.476  2.148   3.096  t12
posable by Acids..... 
Sand and Siicates Undeco- }22.519   2.168  2.107  14.505  2.653  3.710   10.682 31.198  7.683  3.163
posable by Acids......
Carbonic Acid.......  13.695   7.761  15.040   1.470 16.120  4.981    6.721..  8.340  3.570
_      o_ a        _..........__...
Total                    99.691 100.043 99.307 |99693 99.678 99.844  100006 98.928'99.120 99-369,..... 1'~0.~81~9.3-~71-~7~17~.~-~s~8ZY~1~.-~0~~;~sI:~     o       ND




254       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
As to the chemical products of peat, a series of experiments was instituted in the laboratories -of the
Museum of Irish Industry, under the superintendence
of Sir Robert Kane and Professor Sullivan.
These were conducted upon specimens of peat, from
various peat deposits in Ireland, in a two-fold manner.
First, by distilling the peat in close vessels, and
secondly, by effecting the distillation by a combustion
of' a part of the material with a blast of air.
In operating.by the former method, a retort was used
similar to that employed in the distillation of coal in the
manufacture of gas.  To the exit pipe from this retort,
a series of WoulTe's bottles were adapted, wherein the
greater portion of the tar and other aqueous products
were deposited, the remainder being condensed in a
worm fixed in a barrel of water, and the permanent
gases collected.  In each trial one hundred pounds of
wet peat was worked off in eight to fourteen charges,
according to the density of the substance.
The following table represents the quantity of the
gross products obtained as the result of seven experiments -
Water.    Tar.    Charcoal.    Gas.
I.1.        23.600    2.000    37.500    36.900
2.           32.273    3.577    39.132    25.018
3..   38.102    2.767    32.642    26.489
4..     38.628    2.916    31.110    32.346
5.           32.098    2.344    23.437    42.121
6..... 38.127    4.417    21.873    35.693
7.....      21.189    1.462    18.973    57.746
Average.. 31.378    2.787    29.222    36.616
The amount of ammonia, acetic acid, and naphtha
contained in the aqueouf product was next determined,




ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT.              255
as well as that of the oil and paraffine in the tar, and
the following table contains the results obtained: —
Acetic  PyroxYlic      Volatile  FixedOil.
Ammi Acid.   SpDirit,  Paraffine.   il Fixed Oil.
or Naphtha
1:.... - 0.302   0.076   0'092   0.024   0.684   0.469
2...      0.187   0.206   0.171   0.179   0.721   0.760
3..      0.393   0.286   0.197   0.075   0.571   0.565
4.        0.210   0.196   0.147   0.170   1.262   0.617
5.....  0.195   0.208   0.161   0. 196   0.816   0.493
6.....  0.04   0.205   0.132   0.181   0.829   0.680
7...      0.181   0.161   0.119   0.112   0.647   0.266
Average..  0.268   0.191   0.146   0.134   0.790   0.550
In the second series of experiments in which the peat
was consumed by igniting it, and then supporting the
combustion by a blast, the following results were obtained
from  the same peats used in the former experiments,
selecting from them those kinds which had shown the
greatest dissimilarity.
Water.      Tar.     Ash.      Gases.
1.  31.678    2.510      2.493    63.319
2.... 30.663     2.395    7.226    59.716
3.   29.818    2.270       2.871     65.041.
Average. 30.720     2.392    4.197    62.692
The amount of ammonia, acetic acid, naphtha, paraffine, and oils, obtained in the same way, were as
follows  -
Ammonia. Acetic Acid.' Naphtha. Paraffine.   Oils.
1... 0.322   0.179   0.158   0.169   1.220
2.. 0.344   0.268   0.156'  0.086   0.946
3.. 0.194   0.174   0.106   0.119   1.012
Average 0.287   0.207   0.140   0.125    1.059




256        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
The average results of both methods of operation
gave for the distillation in close vessels,Maximum. Minimum.  Average.
Aqueous products. -. 31.678   29.818   30.614
Tar.2.510  2.270  2.392
Ashes.                7.226  2.493' 4.197
Gases.....     65.041   59.716   62.392
The watery products and tar afforded, were, -
Maximum. Minimum.  Average.
Ammonia..... 0.344    0.194    0.287
or as
Sulph. of Ammonia. 1.330    0.745    1.110
Acetic Acid... 0.268    0.174    0.207
or as
Acetate of Lime.. 0.393    0.256    0.305
Naphtha.... 0.158    0.106    0.140
Paraffine.... 0.169    0.086    0.125
Volatile and Fixed Oils 1.220    0.946    1.059
The relative value of the two methods is as follows:Aver age product Average product
from close dis- from distillation
tillation.  in blast of air.
Ammonia....  0.268  0.287
or as
Sulph. of Ammonia..  1.037       1.110
Acetic Acid..0.191      0.207
or as
Acetate of Lime. 0.280      0.305
Naphtha..0.146   0.140
Paraffine.. 0.134  0.125
Oils.. 1.340  1.340
The similarity of these numbers shows that very little
difference exists between the results obtained from the
distillation of the substance in close vessels, and from
its decomposition in the fire by a blast of air.  In the
first case, however, there remains an average of twentynine parts of charcoal, which might determine- a preference for that method were it not that the greater part




ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT.              257
of this is consumed in carbonizing the matter in the
retort.
A similar and independent series of experiments was
conducted by Dr. Hodges, whose results, as contrasted
with those arrived at by Professors Kane and Sullivan,
we are enabled t4o give in connection with the statement
of products anticipated by the Irish Peat Company, before alluded to, and which formed the basis of their
operations and calculations of gain.
KANE ANX              IRIStI PEAT CO.
SULLIVAN.   HODGES.   PROSPECTUS.
Per ct.   Per ton.  Per ct. Per ton. Per ct.| Per ton.
Sulph. Ammo...... 1.10 24- lbs. 1.000 22lb. 1.000 222  lb.
Acetic Acid......0.207 4bs. 0.328 74-lb.
or as
Acetate of Lime.... 0.305 6 lbs....  0.700 15&7 lb.
Naphtha....... 0.140 501 oz. 10.232 83~ oz. 0.185 66T3a oz.
Tar......   2.3921534 lbs. 4.440 99- lb.
Products of  Paraffine 0.125 24 lbs...0.104 3  lb.
the Tar. S Oils.    1.059 24-gals.         0.071 241 gal.
These results show  a good degreee of similarity,
especially when it is considered that there was a very
considerable variety in the quality and characteristics
of the samples experimented upon.
The heating power of peat turf, dried but not condensed, and peat charcoal, as estimated with reference
to the heating power of carbon, which is taken as unity,
is thus stated in t Scheerer's Metallurgie ":Imperfectly air-dried turf, with 30 per cent. of  0.37
hygroscopic moisture and 10 per cent. of ash, f
Best air-dried turf, with 25 per cent. of moisture } 0.47
and no ash,...........
Kiln-dried turf, with no moisture and 15 pert 0.55
cent. of ash,.
17




258       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Best kiln-dried turf, without moisture or ash,.. 0.65
Poorest kind of air-dried peat charcoal, with 10  0.85
per cent. moisture and 56 per cent. ash,
Best air-dried peat charcoal, with 10 per cent. }0.8
moisture and 4 per cent ash,.
With a view to ascertain its relative calorific power,
Mr. C. Cowper, of London, experimented by the
"litharge test," recommended by Berthier, upon peat
from the Bog of Allen.  This test consists in mixing a
given weight of fuel with a sufficient quantity of litharge,
and heating it in a crucible: the heating power is in
proportion to the quantity of lead reduced. By his
experiments, the following comparative results were
obtained, being averages of six or eight experiments
each -
10 grains of good Newcastle coal gave. 284 grains.
10  "   " oven coke gave.....  302  "
10  "   "common  peat (unmanufac- 144 "
tured) gave...       j
10  "   " same, coked in a crucible, gave. 259   "
The foregoing comparison is founded upon a wellknown fact, that the quantity of heat generated during the
combustion of any fuel is in exact relation to the quantity of oxygen consumed in the process. Hence, in order
to ascertain the relative calorific power of different kinds
of fuel, it is only necessary to ascertain the quantity of
oxygen which each consumes in burning.
These experiments show that seven tons of coke from
crude unmanufactured peat were equal to six tons of
good coal coke; but the real value of the experiments
and their results are very much lessened from the fact
stated, and for which no reason is given, that the peat
used was " of an inferior quality."




AnALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT.    259
Professor Everitt conducted similar experiments, with
results as follows -
10 grains peat coke, picked surface, gave. 277 grains.
10  "    "    "  lower strata, gave.  250'
10  "   pressed peat gave.....   137'
Investigations conducted by Berthier, Griffiths, and
Winkler, upon the same principle, are reported as
follows 
Pounds of lead Pounds of water
reduced  by  heated from
one lb. peat.  32~ to 212~ by
one lb. peat.
Peat from Troyer.           8.0        18.1 Berthier.
"  " Ham.....              12.3    27.9  "
" 6" Passy..13.0   29.2  "
4" ". Framont. 15.4        34.9'"
~"  ". Ischoux.. 15.3        34.6   "6
"   - "  SKonigsbrunn.. 14.3        32.4    "
"   "  Bog of Allen..  27.7        62.7 Griffiths.
~"   "    "  "   "~..... 25.0        56.6    "
"   "' among 24 kinds from )
Hartz Mountain,  11.9          26.9 Winkler.
the worst gave.
C'"   "  the best gave... 18.8        42.6   "
Peat charcoal from Seine... 17.7        40.1 Berthier.
~"     "     "'  Ham... 18.4           41.7  1"'~"    "     "  Essone.. 22.4          50.7   "
"      "     " "   Framont.. 26.0       58.9   "
Peats differ as much in specific weight as in composition.  The cause of the difference is, perhaps, not
so clearly ascertained, but it is supposed that the degree
of decomposition which the substance has undergone
determines principally, in most cases, the difference of
specific weight in peat from the same locality.
Professor Everitt's investigations of the common




260       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF. FUEL.
Lancashire peat show that, in regard to comparative
specific gravity,Compressed peat possesses..      1.160
Less pressed peat possesses.910
Peat coke, hard pressed, possesses. 1.040
Peat coke, less pressed, possesses.913
Charcoal from hard woods, possesses.400 to.625
Hence it appears that the coke prepared from compressed peat is nearly double the density of ordinary
charcoal. In common practice, it has been the custom
to estimate that one hundred pounds of charcoal occupy
the same space as two hundred pounds of coke.  Peat
coke would occupy, weight for weight, the same space
as common coke.
Professor Everitt adds that, where bulk of stowage
and high intensity of heat are important considerations,
the peat coke is superior to charcoal. Moreover, the
density of peat coke may, by means of improvements in
the mode of manufacture recently introduced, be carried
up from thirty to fifty per cent. beyond that indicated
above; which, of course, increases the comparison in its
favor.
The calorific value or power of peat coke may be
commercially averaged as equal to coal coke.  The
evaporating powers of the two are nearly equal; but
peat coke has the advantage of freedom from, sulphur,
and those conversant with the use of fuel in the manufacture of metals will readily appreciate this.
Its superiority is decided when used for the following purposes:For the working of malleable iron.
For melting unmalleable or cast iron.
For the smelting and general manufacture of iron
from the ore; and




TESTS, EXPERIMENTS, AND TESTIMONY.   261
For all descriptions of brass and copper work.
Karmarsh arrived at the following results in regard to
the specific weights of Hanoverian peat, to wit:Light colored young peat, nearly unchanged
moss.... 0.113 to 0.263
Young brownish black peat, an earthy matrix
intersected with roots....... 0.240 to 0.600
Old earthy peat, without any.fibrous texture. 0.564 to 0.902
Old or pitch peat........ 0.639 to 1.039
Of a large number of samples examined by Sir Robert Kane and Dr. W. K. SuIlivan, the results, as shown
below, serve to indicate the wide difference which is
found to exist in this respect in European peats:1.. 0.297 5.. 0.351  9.. 0.655 13.. 0.523 17.. 0.323 21.. 0.629
2.. 0.405 6.. 0.661 10.. 0.434 14.. 0.274 18.. 0.924 22.. 0.280
3.. 0.669.7.. 0.335 11.. 0.984 15.. 0.394 19.. 1.058 23.. 0.546
4.. 0.450 8..0.476 12.. 0.681 16.. 0.437 20.. 0.481 24.. 0.855
The maximum showing a density of 1.058, and the minimum 0.235.
Similar results may be said to characterize the peats
of this country, varying, as there, according to the age,
location, climate, and character of the deposits.
TESTS, EXPERIMENTS, AND TESTIMONY.
We had intended to devote a chapter especially to
statements relating to trials of this fuel which have been
made, as demonstrating the practicability of using it, its
relative value, and the great variety of purposes for
which it may be easily, effectually, and economically
used; also statements and opinions of practical and scientific men, which would be of interest, and are entitled
to consideration in this connection.




262      PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
So much testimony and so many statements of this
character have, however, been incorporated in what we
have said in preceding chapters, that more are not required, and it is deemed sufficient simply to indicate on
what pages those already recited may be found, to wit:.Miscellaneous, -Pages 32, 59, 67, 71, 72, 74,
82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 98, 99, 100, 103, 110, 112,
114, 115, 116, 120, 121, 122, 123, 141, 147, 148,
149, 162, 165, 166, 170.
Peat Charcoal.-70, 71, 72, 243, 244, 250, 254,
256, 257, 258, 259, 260.
Working Iron.-174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179,
180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 188, 189, 190, 191,
192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197.
Generating Steam. - 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203,
204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210,: 211, 212, 213, 214,
215, 216, 225, 226, 227, 228.
Domestic Purposes. - 217, 219, 220.
Intensity of Heating Power. -71, 72, 222, 257,
258, 259, 260.
HIow to use Peat. - 225, 226, 227, 228.
Gas.-166, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236,
237, 238, 239.
Gunpowder and Fireworks. - 240.
Chemical Products. —240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245,
246, 254, 255, 256, 257.
Analyses and Properties.-248, 249, 250, 251,
252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257.
Specific Gravity.-259, 260, 261.
As before remarked, it should be borne in mind that
peats differ in quality and characteristics, and consequently in their heating properties and value, full as
much as wood and coal in all their varieties; moreover,
that the results obtained from this fuel, as from any




PEAT FOR PAVEMENTS.             263
other, will in all cases depend very much upon the manner in which it is burned.  We are told that a certain
service is obtained from a boiler. with one cord of wood,
or one ton of coal; but unless we know whether the
wood be pine or hickory, or the coal Pictou or Lehigh,
we have no certain data from which to make accurate or even approximate calculations.  So also of peat;
it is necessary to know somewhat of its characteristics in
each case reported, in order to form a correct estimate,of its relative value for the service done.  The terms by
which to designate these characteristics and qualities, so
as to be generally understood and adopted, have yet to
be determined upon; but the necessities of the case will
doubtless bring them out in good time.
PEAT FOR PAVEMENTS.
The solid bitumen from the distillation of peat may
be employed like asphalt in the preparation of mastic
for paving; and experiments have shown that peat itself
may be converted into a similar material by the following process: Having been well dried, it is mingled with
from ten to fifteen per cent. of coal-tar, and the mixture
boiled for several hours, until the peat dissolves into a
viscid liquid, which, when cooled, is solid, and resembles asphalt.
Another account says, -
"For pavements, when combined with an artificial
asphaltum composed of carbonate of lime and coal-tar,
it is said to form a solid and elastic road, superior, in
many respects, to native asphaltum. The tendency of
this artificial asphalt to crack and break is counteracted
by the strong fibre of the peat; which, if added to the
chalk and tar while warm, acts as a binder when the
mass is cooled, and obviates its brittleness."




264       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
PAPER FROM PEAT.
J. Lallemand, of Besancon, France, procured, in
1854, a patent for producing paper from the fibrous
portions of peat, mixed with from five to ten per cent. of
rag pulp, the peat having been treated by a peculiar
process described by him; after which, the mixture is
subjected to the ordinary processes for making paper.
Experiments on a limited scale, in this country, have
demonstrated the practicability of producing good paper
from some kinds of peat.
PEAT FOR BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL WORK.
During the past season we have several times suggested that the characteristics of peat were such that it
required but little ingenuity to make use of it for building, ornamental, andother purposes, in the same manner as, or as a substitute for, terra-cotta and papiermach4.
More recently a paragraph has been shown us, cutfrom the "Builder" (1860), stating that improvements
in manufactures of peat had been patented by Mr. H.
Hodgson, of Ballyreine and Merlin Park, and Mr. P.
M. Crane, of the Irish Peat Works, Athy, which consist in preparing from peat, in its natural state, blocks,
slabs, or pieces of any size, form, or thickness, which,
when so prepared, are said to be useful and economical
in the construction of parts of buildings, and for various
other purposes.
These blocks are placed between cloths, of woven or
textile fabric, or other suitable material; and the peat
is placed between shelves, and submitted to hydraulic




PEAT FOR TANNING LEATHER.            265
or other pressure. Part of the water is forced out, and
the peat solidified; and drying is effected either by exposure to the atmosphere, or in a room heated artificially,
or by any other process.  They are then put again- between the plates of an hydraulic or other press, and
extreme pressure put on them.
If the product of this invention be required for use
for inside work in building, such as partitions, linings,
inside roofing, or for other work, as a non-conducting substance, they do not require other further preparation than shaping, provided they are not to be
exposed to moisture.  But the slabs or pieces used for
roofing (instead of slates, tiles, or other things of that
nature) are prepared to resist the wet or action of the
atmosphere by steeping them in, or saturating or coating them with, some fitting material to resist moisture.
Toys, fancy articles, and even rings and jewelry, have
been produced from peat, and have much the same
appearance as the same articles made from India rubber.
PEAT FOPR T-ANNING LEATHER.
It has recently been stated, on what appears to be
good authority, that the amount of resinous and vegetable matter in some peats render them apparently a
superior material for tanning purposes.
If this should prove to be the case, it will require
only to demonstrate and establish the fact, and a market
will readily be created. Once adopted, the consumption of it would be large and steady. The matter is
certainly worthy of careful investigation.




266       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
ANTISEPTIC PROPERTIES OF PEAT.
We have had occasion several times to refer to the
antiseptic properties of peat.  On this subject, Professor Lyell, whom we have before quoted, says,"One interesting circumstance attending the history
of peat-mosses, is the high state of preservation of animal substances buried in them  for periods of many
years. In June, 1747, the body of a woman was found
six feet deep in peat, in.a peat-moor in the Isle of
Axholm, in Lincolnshire.  Upon the feet were leathern
shoes, or sandals, each cut out of a single piece of
tanned ox-hide, folded about the foot and heel, and
piked with iron. Such are described by Chaucer as
being worn in his time.  This certainly afforded evidence of her having been buried there for many ages;
yet her nails, hair, and skin are described as having
shown hardly any marks of decay. In a turbary on
the estate of the Earl of Moira, in Ireland, a human
body was dug up, a foot deep in gravel, covered with
eleven feet of peat: the body was completely clothed,
and the garments seemed all to be made of hair. Before the use of wool was known in that country, the
clothing of the inhabitants was made of hair; so that
it would appear that this body had been buried at that
early period: yet it was fresh and unimpaired. In the
Philosophical Transactions, we find an example recorded
of the bodies of two persons having been buried in
moist peat in Derbyshire, in 1674, about a yard deep,
which were examined twenty-eight years and nine
months afterwards.'The color of their skin was fair
and natural; their flesh soft as that of persons newly
dead."'




ANTISEPTIC PROPERTIES OF PEAT.         267
In Dr.'Rennie's Essays, reference is made to several
other instances of like character.
" Among other analogous facts, we may mention that,
in digging a pit for a well near Dulverton, in Somersetshire, many pigs were found in various postures, still
entire.  Their shape was well preserved; the skin,
which retained the hair, having assumed a dry, membraneous appearance.  Their whole substance was converted into a white, friable, laminated, inodorous, and
tasteless substance, but which, when exposed to heat,
emitted an odor precisely similar to broiled bacon.
" We naturally ask whence peat derives this antiseptic
property. It has been attributed by some to the carbonic
and gallic acids which issue from decayed wood, as also
to the presence of charred wood in the lowest strata of
many peat-mosses; for charcoal is a powerful antiseptic,
and capable of purifying water already putrid. Vegetable gums and resins also may operate in the same
way.  Dr. Macculloch suggests that the soft parts of
animal bodies, preserved in peat-bogs, may have been
converted into adipocere by the action of water merely.
"The Solway Marsh is a flat area, about seven miles
in circumference, situated on the confines of England
and Scotland. It is related that at the battle of Solway,
in the time of Henry V1II. (1542), when the Scotch
army, commanded by Oliver Sinclair, was routed, an
unfortunate troop of horse, driven by their fears,
plunged into this morass, which instantly closed upon
them. The tale was traditional; but the fact that a
man and horse in complete armor were actually found
by peat-diggers in the place where it was always supposed the affair had occurred, tends to authenticate the
story. The skeleton of each was well preserved, and the
different parts of the armor were easily distinguished.




268       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
"This same moss, on the 16th of December, 1772,
having been filled with water during heavy rains, rose
to an unusual height, and then burst. A stream of
black, half-consolidated mud began at first to creep over
the plain, resembling, in the rate of its progress, an
ordinary lava current.  No lives were lost; but the deluge totally overwhelmed some cottages, and covered four
hundred acres. The highest parts of the original.moss
subsided to the depth of about twenty-five feet, and the
height of the moss on the lowest parts of the country
which it invaded was at least fifteen feet."  Several
other instances of a similar character might be cited.
"The antlers of large and full-grown stags are among
the most common and conspicuous remains of animals
in peat. They are not horns which have been shed;
for portions of the skull are found attached, proving
that the whole animal perished. Bones of the ox, hog,
horse, sheep, and other herbivorous animals, also occur;
and in Ireland, and the Isle of Man, skeletons of a
gigantic elk; but no remains have been met with belonging to those extinct quadrupeds of which the living
congeners inhabit warmer latitudes, such as the elephant,
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, hyena, and tiger, though
these are so common in superficial deposits of silt, mud,
sand, or stalactite, in various localities throughout
Great Britain. Their absence seems to imply that they
had ceased to live before the atmosphere of this part
of the world acquired that cold and humid character
which favors the growth of peat.
"We are informed by Deguer, that remains of ships,
nautical instruments, and oars, have been found in many
of the Dutch mosses; and Gerard, in his'History of
the Valley of the Somme,' mentions that' in the lowest
tier of that moss was found a boat loaded with bricks,




PEAT AS A DISINFECTANT AGENT.        269
proving that these mosses were, at one period, navigable lakes, and arms of the sea, as were also many of the
mosses on the coast of Picardy, Zealand, and Friesland.
The canoes, stone hatchets, and stone arrow-heads, found
in peat, in different parts of Great Britain, lead to simnilar conclusions."
Professor Lyell, in a work on geology, published in
London in 1865, says of the peat of Denmark, "In the
lower beds of peat (a deposit varying from twenty to
thirty feet in thickness), weapons of stone accompany
trunks of the Scotch fir; while, in the higher portions
of the same bogs, bronze implements are associated
with trunks and acorns of the common oak. All the
quadrupeds found in the peat agree specifically with
those now inhabiting the same districts, or which are
known to have been indigenous in Denmark within the
memory of man."
PEAT AS A DISINFECTANT AND DEODORIZING AGENT.
Peat is very commonly used as a disinfectant and
deodorizer, and every farmer knows its efficacy in these
respects, when placed about vaults and drains, or other
receptacles of filth.
A famous " Chemical Deodorizing Powder," which
has been extensively sold throughout the country for.fifteen years past, is simply peat, charred, pulverized,
and put up in neat packages convenient for use, which
are inscribed as follows -
"Nature is ever true to  erself- This preparation is the greatest absorbent of carbonic acid gas in
nature, and also. of all those noxious andt poisonous
miasima which are generated in thickly populated districts, from the decomposition of animal and vegetable
substarnces. It is a great antiseptic, and will prevent




270        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
the cholera and fever from entering your premises, as it
absorbs all those noxious malaria which are so prevalent during the warm season. It is indispensable in the
sick room and in sleeping rooms, as a small quantity in
an open vessel will keep the air pure and agreeable. It
supersedes every other neutralizing substance, as it is
entirely harmless and without odor of any kind. It is
highly recommended by eminent chemists and medical
men.  It is really the abater of every nuisance."
Although " nothing but peat," we are satisfied from
our own experience, and testimony abundant, that the
statement is true, and that it does possess the properties
and virtues claimed for it.
-PEAT AS A FERTILIZER.
Peat, as a fertilizer, possesses a value to our farming
and agricultural interests beyond what is generally accorded to it.  The "Muck Manual," by S. L. Dana, of
Lowell, published in 1843, is considered standard authority upon this latter point, and will-be consulted with
interest and profit by our farmers, as will also' "Johnson's Essays on Peat, Muck, and Commercial Manures,"
recently republished, with additions, under the title of
"Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and Fuel," * in which
the author treats of the characteristics that adapt it for
agricultural uses, as, for instance, its remarkable power
of absorbing and retaining water, both as a liquid and as
a vapor; its power of absorbing ammonia; its effect in
promoting the disintegration and solution of mineral ingredients of the soil, and its influence on the temperature
of the soil. He also treats of the ingredients and qualities which makepeat a direct fertilizer; which are, the organic matters, including nitrogen; the inorganic or min* Published by Orange Judd & Co., 41 Park Row, N. Y., 1866.
$1.25.




PEAT AS A FERTILIZER.                 271
eral ingredients; also.some peculiarities relating to the decay of peat.  The whole subject is treated with care and
in detail, and much valuable data is given for estimating
and illustrating its practical value as compared with
stable manure, guano, &c.  Farmers ought to have the
book, and we cannot do them better service than to advise them to buy it and read it.
Professor Dana says, " Peat is too well known to render it necessary to say that it is the result of that spontaneots change in vegetable matter which ends in geine.
Peat is, among manures consisting chiefly of geine,
what bone-dust is among manures consisting of animal
matter.  Peat is highly concentrated vegetable  food.
When the state in which this food exists is examined,
it is found not only partly cooked but seasoned.
"Peat consists of soluble and insoluble geine and salts.
The proportion of these several ingredients must be
known before the value of peat can be compared with
similar constituents in cow-dung. This proportion is
exhibited in the following table of constitution of Massachusetts peats per 100 parts:Soluble  Insoluble  Total  Salts and
Localit~y.        Geine.   Geine.   Geine.  Silicates.
1. Dracut......  1.-.14.           72.     86.     14.
2. Sunderland.....  26.      56.60   85.60   14.40
3.- Westborough...   48.80   43.60   92.40    7.60
4. Hadley......34.       60.     94.      6.
5. Northampton....        38.30   44.15   82.45   17.55
6....       32.  54.90  86.90 j3.10
7.     "...  12.          60.85   72.85   27.15
8......    10.         49.45   59.45   40.55'9.     ".....    33.        59.     92.       8.
10.     ".4...        46.     46.80   92.80    7.20
Average                 29.41   55.03   84.44   15.55
11. Watertown, pond mud.   5.10    8.90   14.      86.
12. Danvers, pond mud..   8.10    6,50   14.60   84.40




272       PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
"Under the general name of peat, are comprised
several varieties, which may be distinguished as, 1st.
Peat, the compact substance generally known and used
for fuel, under this name. 2d. Turf, or swamp muck,
by which is to be understood the paring which is removed before peat is dug. It is a less compact variety
of peat. It is common in all meadows and swamps,
and includes the hassocks.  Both these varieties are
included in the foregoing, from No.1 to No. 10. It includes also the mud of salt marshes.  3d. Pondsmud,
the slushy material, found at the bottom of ponds when
dry, or in low grounds, the wash of higher lands. This
seldom contains more than 20 per cent. of geine. Nos.
11 and 12 are of this description.
" These varieties comprise probably a fair sample of all
the peat and swamp muck and pond mud which occur
in the various parts of the country. The results stated
are those of the several varieties, when dried, at a temperature of 240~ Fahr.
"Peat ashes contain all the inorganic principles of
plants which are insoluble, with occasional traces of the
soluble alkaline sulphates and of free alkali.
"All peat shrinks by drying, and when allowed to drain
as dry as it will, it still contains about ~ of its weight
of water.  It shrinks from 2 to 3 of its bulk.  A cord
wet becomes; to ~ of a cord when dry.  To compare
its value with cow-dung, equal bulks must be taken.
"It is found, on analysis, that this does not differ much
from fresh cow-dung, so far as salts, geine, and water are
concerned. The salts of lime are actually about the same,
while the alumina, oxide of iron, magnesia, in the silicates, added to the salts of lime, make the total amount
of salts, in round numbers, equal that of cow-dung."
He gives the following comparative weights and com



PEAT AS A FERTILIZER.                273
position of a cord of cow-dung and a cord of each of
two kinds of peat referred to in the foregoing table:Soluble   Insoluble  Total  Salts of
Weight.   Geine.  Geine.   Geine.  Lime.
Dung.... 9289 lbs. 128 lbs. 1288 lbs. 1416 lbs. 92 lbs.
Peat, No. 9.. 9216 "   376 "   673 " 1049 "  91"
Peat, No. 10.. 9216 "   519 "   529 " 1048 "  81 "
A  cord of pond mud (No. 11) weighs, when dug,
6117 lbs., and contains solid matter 3495 lbs., composed of geine 495 lbs., of silicates and salts 3005 lbs.
The salts of lime in pond mud are 2~ per cent.
The salts and geine of a cord of peat are equal to the
manure of one cow for three months.
It is certainly a very curious coincidence bf results,
that Nature herself should have prepared a substance
whose agricultural value approaches so near to coQwdung, the type of manures.
The power of producing alkaline action on Ithe -insoluble geine is alone wanted to make peat good cowdung, and the question arises, How is to be given to peat
(a substance which, in all its other characters, is so nearly allied to cow-dung) that lacking element, ammonia?
How is that to be supplied? Without it, cow-dung
itself would be no better than peat, not so good even;
for in peat nearly one half of the geine is already in a soluble state. By the addition of alkali to peat, it is put
into the state which ammonia gives to dung, and it is
found that for all agricultural purposes the desired result
is - obtained by adding to every cord of fresh dug peat
90 to 100 lbs. pot or pearl ashes, or 60 to 65 lbs. of
soda, or 16 to 20 bushels of common wood ashes.
Abundant testimony is afforded that a cord of clear
stable manure composted with two cords of peat, forms
a manure of equal value to three cords of green dung.
18




274       PEAT -AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
ASHES OF PEAT.
The ashes of peat are of very considerable value,
are used to great advantage on some soils, and highly
esteemed.  Details of the composition of a variety of
samples are given on page 253.
Professor Dana says, "Peat ashes abound in carbonate, sulphate, and especially phosphate of lime. Free
alkali may always be traced in peat ashes; but alkali
exists in it, rather as silicate, as in leached ashes."
A correspondent writes, " Ship-loads of peat ashes
from Holland, for the use of the London market gardeners, are imported every year. They are grand for
young clover."
They also make a very serviceable cemnent, and are
used to some extent for that purpose. It has been
suggested that they would make an excellent, polishing
powder for lithographic stones, metals, &c. They certainly possess a value, and should not be allowed to go
to waste.
CONCLUSIONS.
In view of these statements, thus hastily given, and
which have been extended beyond our original plan,
although barely sufficient to introduce the subject, it
must, we think, be evident to the most hasty reader,
that the substance of which we treat is of sufficient importance to command earnest attention, not only from
the business man, on the score of its application to
domestic purposes, manufactures, and the arts, but
from the philanthropist, in view of the relief it may be
made to afford as one of the necessaries of life.
The facts narrated, aside from those derived from




AUTHORITIES QUOTED.                275
personal experience and observation, are collected from
a variety of sources; and, in the hope that others may
be led to investigate and pursue the subject more at
length, we add a list of authorities, from nearly all of
which we have drawn something (using freely, in many
cases, the exact language of the several writers in connection with our own), in many of which the subject is
treated in detail, and in some with great ability.
Geological Surveys of Great Britain.
Martin's Statistics of the British Colonies.
Lindley and Hutton's Fossil Flora of Great Britain.
Macculloch's Statistics of the British Empire.
Macculloch's Geographical and Statistical Dictionary.
Sullivan's Journal of Industrial Progress.
Kane's Industrial Resources of Ireland.
Ireland and its Economy.
Wakefield's Account of Ireland.
Ordinance Survey, and report of the County of Londonderry.
Lyell's Principles of Geology.
Dana's Manual of Geology.
Jameson's Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles.
Dr. R. Rennie on Peat.
Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines.
Appleton's Dictionary of Mechanics.
Muspratt's Chemistry as applied to Arts and Manufactures.
Encyclopaedia Americana.
Encyclopmdia Britannica.
New American Cyclopsedia.
Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopsedia.
Rees' Cyclopmedia.
Encyclopaedia Pertheasis.
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana.
Tomlinson's Encyclopaedia.
HI-oman's Cyclopaedia of Commerce.
Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture.
Buckland on Coal.




276        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
Johnson on Coal.
Williams on Combustion of Coal.
Taylor's Statistics of Coal.
Holland's History of Fossil Fuel.
Parkinson's Organic Remains.
Johnson's Essays.
Dana's Muck Manual.
Field Book of Manures.
Report of Great Exhibition of Industry of all Nations, 1851.
Report of Juries of International Exhibition of 1862.
Patent Office Reports.
Geological and Agricultural Reports of Nova Scotia,
Canada, and the several New England, Northern, Middle, and Western States.
Numerous miscellaneous articles from
Silliman's American Journal of Science.
Farmer's Magazine.
London Mining Journal.
Penny Cyclopmadia.
Hunt's Merchants' Magazine.
Mining Review.
Philosophical Transactions.
Scientific American.
London Engineer.
Proceedings of Geological Society, London.
Engineering.
Reports of American Institute, New York.
Edinburgh Philosophical Journal.
Annales des Mines.
Association Allemande, faits commerciaux.
Year Book of Facts.
Annual of Scientific Discovery.
Repertory of Arts.
Repertory of Patent Inventions.
Various Papers on Fuel, Iron, Gas, Steam, &c.




THE
UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST WITH PEAT,
FOR THE PRODUCTION OF AN EXCELLENT FUEL, AT MODERATE COST,
SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR STEAM SERVICE.
FROMlv time to time, during many years, attempts have
been made, both in Europe and in this country, to utilize
various kinds of inexpensive or waste materials for fuel, the
majority of which have had special reference to the fine
coal and coal dust, technically denominated slack, which, it
is well known, accumulates in immense quantities at the
mines, and in no inconsiderable quantities on the wharves
and in the coal yards of dealers and large consumers.
The amount of this material generally estimated to accumulate at the mouth of a mine is said to average full thirty
per cent. of the entire quantity mined. This is considered
not only as useless material, but an incumbrance-upon the
property and an item of expense in the business, requiring,
as it does, no inconsiderable amount of labor to remove it,
and area to store it, and so enormous have been these accumulations at some mines, in a series of years, that the
owners have been obliged to purchase or secure " dumping
ground " at a distance, and pay large sums annually for transportation in order to remove it and admit of the proper prosecution of mining operations.
This " slack" may ordinarily be said to be of the same
quality as the coal of merchantable size, sent from the same
mines, and consequently, of equal value, aside from the
simple difference in size.
For some purposes, by means of furnaces specially adapted, it has been found practicable to make use of this slack
in the condition in which it comes from  the mines, and
(277)




278        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
where this is practicable, it has a market value of about one
third to one half the current value of merchantable coal. It
is also used to a considerable extent in the manufacture of
brick. The uses, however, to which it can be applied are
limited, and the demand is of course limited, and at the present time is not sufficient to absorb the amount of screenings
which inevitably accumulate in our city coal yards.
The first point generally sought to be attained in attempting to put this material into merchantable form, is to give it
cohesion and size in such form as to render it available for
use in much the same manner as the larger coals.
For this purpose it has generally been mixed with some
adhesive substance of combustible character, as tar, rosin,
asphaltum, or, other resinous materials, formed into balls or
blocks under pressure, and in this condition delivered for use.
It will readily be understood that a fuel compounded of
such materials would be not only combustible but highly
inflammable, and if perfectly made, would be of considerable
value for certain purposes. It is, however, open to the objection, that thus far it has not been practicable to produce from
such mixtures any other than an exceedingly sticky mass,
disagreable to handle and liable to leave a black mark, not
easily removed, on anything with which it comes in contact.
The combustible character of the materials used is, moreover,
so dissimilar, that the more inflammable portion, as tar, rosin,
&c., is not only ingnited but almost entirely consumed long
before the coal is burned out, so that unless great caution is
used, the mass of fine coal will gradually fall through the
grate bars or become imbedded in the bottom of the fire-box,
so closely as to be almost impervious to a sufficient draft of
air to sustain combustion, and is therefore self-destructive of
the results sought to be obtained.
Added to this, is the fact, that in most of these cases the
cost of the resinous materials, and the labor required, has
been more than the real value of the fuel after it was in
shape for use.
A  method  has been  devised, and  its practicability




THE UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST.            279
thoroughly demonstrated and tested, by which this material
may be rendered of the same value for fuel as merchantable
coal, and that, too, by simple means, and at very moderate
cost.
Numerous theories and plans have been proposed to accomplish this end, but without attaining, until now, the results
essential to a business success in the enterprise,  the irnportant feature being the production of a really good fuel at
small cost.
For several years past, Dr. H. S. Lucas, of Chester,
Mass., has devoted.time and attention to the practical solution of this problem, and has, from time to time, obtained
such results- as gave promise of good success, until the spring
of 1866, when his experiments, which until that time had
been conducted on a limited scale, showed results of so
marked a character that it was deemed advisable to test the
whole matter on a somewhat larger scale, and in a more
public manner; the results of which have given proof,
beyond a question, of the perfect success of the method of
manufacturing the fuel, and of its superior value as an article
of fuel, especially for steam and smelting purposes.
The coal dust is mixed with crude peat in given proportions, and by a very simple process is manufactured into
blocks of convenient size and form, which are dense and cohesive, and may be used for fuel very soon after passing from
the mill, though it improves by exposure to the air for a few
days.
The cost of manufacturing the fuel, after the materials are
at the mill, is less than one dollar per ton.
The buildings and machinery necessary for producing it
are quite inexpensive, and the laborers employed may, for
the most part, be of the least expensive class.
The expense of transportation of the materials to the mill,
and:thence, after manufacture, to the place of sale or con-;umption, will generally prove to be the most important item
f cost to be considered.
The most advantageous locality at which to make this fuel




280         PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
will generally be found to be near to or by the side of a peat
bog.
One very important discovery in relation to this matter is
the fact that salt water, or marine peats, are equally valuable
for this purpose as the best inland peats, and some of the experiments made, go far to prove that in certain respects they
are superior for this purpose; so that, in this simple fact, we
have opened up an immense value to marshes by the sea,
which are almost without limit in extent, while at the same
time they afford, for this special purpose, the material required, at the very point where the main.item. of cost (transportation of the coal dust), would be at its minimum; for
vessels bringing it from point of shipment, can discharge
directly at the place of manufacture, on or by the side of
these marshes.
Our numerous lines of railroad, which now carry coal
directly from the mines to various points inland, are, of
course, equally available for transporting the same material
in the form of dust or " slack," and many of them pass directly by or through extensive beds of peat, where it can be
dumped and manufactured with the utmost facility.
For inland consumption, where supplies of coal are now
received by vessels to the seaboard, and thence by rail, the
same means are equally available for dust.
In all these cases, this advantage is also apparent, that the
quantity required to be brought fronm the mines to yield a
given amount of fuel here, is less, by a very considerable
percentage, than of merchantable coal; that is, a concern
which uses five thousand tons of coal would require to purchase only three thousand tons of "' slack" instead, saving
thereby, of course, the freight on two thousand tons. They
also save the first cost of two thousand tons of coal, and the
difference between the first cost of coal and slack on three
thousand tons; against which is the cost of manufacturing
the whole with peat, and the expense of re-shipment and
transportation to the place of consumption or sale; the difference between these being very nearly the net gain or
saving by the operation.




THE UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST.           281
The following report of the use of this fuel on the Western Railroad is deemed sufficient, " without note or comment," to satisfy the most incredulous, that our statements in
regard to its value for " severe steam service " are not exaggerated: -
CHESTER, MASS., Sept. 5, 1866.
T. H. LEAVITT, Esq.
DEAR SIR: I am happy to comply with your request to
give you detailed statement concerning the trials made on
the Western Railroad, from this point, with the compound
fuel (peat and coal) manufactured under my direction, at the
works of your company in Lexington.
The fuel arrived in good order, and, by the consent of the
managers of the road, we were allowed to use the freight
locomotive Rhode Island, built at Lowell in 1838, twentyeight years ago,- weight, twenty-six tons; four feet six
inch driving-wheel; sixteen inch cylinder; twenty inch
stroke; two inch exhaust pipes; a wood-burner, one of the
poorest on the road,.and by no means adapted for burning
our fuel to advantage.
The first trial was made 12th July last, on a regular trip
from Chester to Washington, -the latter point being the
"summit" of the road; and the section between here and
there is well known to be the most difficult portion of the
whole line to traverse, having several short and some double
curves, with a grade of eighty-three feet to the mile for a part
of the distance, and requiring the most severe steam service
from locomotives.
The distance is twelve miles, and the total rise or elevation between the two stations is 950 feet.
We weighed and took on 1000 pounds of the fuel,.and
started fromn the station at 3.15 P. M., with sixty pounds
steam; engineer, Theo. Dandurand, who has been on the
road for ten years.
Our train consisted of eleven freight cars, three of them
loaded, which is equal to fourteen empty cars, -a heavy
train for this grade. Rail bad.




282        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
The grade, on leaving the station', rises for half a mile, and
then descends for, perhaps, the same distance; and then
commences the heavy grade.
Nine minutes after starting the steam had run up to 140,
and we had to open the furnace door.
Twice we pumped cold water into the boiler, - once with
both pumps, - when the steam fell ten degrees, from 130 to
120; but in five minutes was up again to 130. Had we
been burning wood, and used both pumps in the same manner as in this case, the steam would have run down sixty
degrees to 70, - so said the engineer.
The furnace door was open nearly four fifths of the time.
We made seven miles in thirty minutes, having passed the
worst curves and the heaviest grade.
Here our fuel gave out, - steam standing at 130; and we
were obliged to commence using wood for the remaining five
miles of the trip. Steam soon fell to 120, and we were
unable to raise it above that point.
We ran the first seven miles, by far the hardest portion of
the route, in thirty minutes with our fuel; while the remaining five miles, with wood, took forty-five minutes.
The facts brought out are these: It will burn in any
wood-burning engine, though, if it is to come into common
use, we shall doubtless have fire-boxes specially adapted for
it, which can easily be done; and a little experience will
teach economy in its use. The, exhaust pipes should be
larger than for hard wood, perhaps three or three and a half
inches. Combustion appeared to be almost perfect; there
was no caking of the fuel in the fire-box, and it made but
very little smoke. The heat is clear, steady, and extremely
intense.
The engineer was astonished and delighted; said it was
the greatest fuel for making steam that he ever used. He
thinks the half ton, if -burned in one of their large locomotives with six foot driving-wheel, would have carried a passenger train from Chester to Pittsfield, twenty-four miles.
lIe thinks a ton of the fuel would take a passenger train




THE  UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST.           283
over a common grade road, one hundred miles, and says
a tender will carry four tons of it. If his estimates and
opinions are correct, you will see at once that, at a cost of
even ten dollars per ton for the fuel, it would cost but ten cents
per mile to draw a passenger train; but, if the railroad
company were to make it themselves, at your figures of first
cost to produce, the expense would be but little over three
cents per mile to run a train.
But, leaving figures and estimates for the present, the fact
is fully demonstrated and established that this fuel will make
more steam than any other of which I have any knowledge.
About the same time we made two other trips with the same
fuel. Of one I made notes, as in this case, and of the other
I did not. They fully confirmed the results of the first trial,
and were so similar in character that it is hardly necessary
to repeat the story. With the improvements you have made
in your machinery, and the apparatuls you are now perfecting,
especially adapted to the manufacture of this fuel, I cannot
doubt that you will produce an article superior even to what
you sent me, and, I should presume, at even less cost.
In order to a better understanding of the relative amount
and cost of this fuel, as compared with wood, I should state
that I went over the same route with the same engine, burning wood. We took on 2~ cords by measurement; were
sixty-nine minutes running time between the stations; stood
at Becket fifty minutes waiting for trains to pass; and, on
arriving at Washington, found by measurement that we had
consumed two cords lacking ten feet. Cost of wood for the
trip, at $7.00 per cord, was $13.27.
Yours, truly,
iHENAN S. LUCAS.
CHESTER, MASS., Nov. 29, 1866.
I have read the foregoing statement, and hereby certify
that it is in strict accordance with the facts in the case.
THhEODORE DANDURAND, Engineer.




284        PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.
CIHESTER, MASS., NOV. 29, 1866.
By invitation of Dr. Lucas, I went over the road on the
engine, on two of the trips made with' the mixed fuel, and
am happy to give my testimony to the entire accuracy of the
within statements.               HENRY D. WILCOX.
HARTFORD, CONN., Dec. 10, 1866.
I was fireman on the locomotive "' Rhode Island " at the
time the trials were made.  The above statements are
strictly true.                   GEORGE MARSHALL.
The fuel used on these trials was manufactured at the
works of the Boston Peat Company, at Lexington, Mass.
This company use and control the Leavitt Peat Machine,
and their works are managed under the personal direction
of Mr. Leavitt.
He has cooperated with Dr. Lucas in his experiments,
and has produced a modification of his machinery, with additions, which are now perfected, and by means of which
this fuel is manufactured at the rate of fifty tons per day, at
a cost for labor of less than one dollar per ton. The machinery is simple, is easily set up and operated, and requires about ten-horse power to run it.
In the progress of these investigations and experiments,
Dr. Lucas has likewise ascertained and developed the fact,
that this improvement may be adapted, by certain modifications, to the smelting of various kinds of ores; also to the
desulphurizing of ores, in the most perfect manner, - the
process in all these cas'es involving but very small expense,
compared with the cost of methods which now prevail.
The ores and flux are crushed, mixed with coal and peat
in ascertained proportions of each, and the whole is manufactured together in the form of fuel, with which the furnace
is charged at pleasure; and the results obtained show a
superior product of metal at small cost.
The quick,: intense heat generated, gives this fuel a decided
advantage over any of the coals at present in use.




THE UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST.           285
For the purposes of gas companies, this method of mixing
and preparing fuels has some very important advantages.
It is well known that most companies use two or more
kinds or qualities of coal for generating gas, -the poorer
and cheapest kinds for volume, and the richer and more
expensive, for body or strength.
Numerous experiments, some on a large scale, have clearly
developed the fact that peat has a very considerable value
for the same purpose, the volume being larger, while the
strength or illuminating power is believed to be above the
average of coals.
Doubtless still other uses of the principle of this invention
will be discovered in time, but enough is already known to
establish for it an important place in connection with the
subject of cheap fuel.








APPENDIX.
WE have felt a degree of pride at the exceedingly favorable mention which has been made of the former editions of
this work by the press, in all directions, but we have experienced  a much greater degree of satisfaction in observing
the remarks, oftentimes at considerable length, which have
been added, upon the subject-matter of which it treats, showing a quick appreciation of its importance, and a readiness,
voluntarily, to aid in disseminating information concerning
it, which is rarely accorded to any new enterprise.
Some of the following extracts are of general, others of
local, interest; but all are worthy of careful perusal: certain
it is, that all, with one accord, bear earnest testimony to the
value of " peat as an article of fuel."
From  "' The New York Independent."
THE ECONOMICAL VALUE OF PEAT. -The great desideratum as to the use
of peat has been to devise a method of consolidating it into a manageable and
merchantable form at a moderate expense. The practicability of condensing it
so as to produce an article of fuel of great value has been abundantly proved by
numerous successful experiments. And it has also been shown by experiment
that this fuel, when well prepared, has qualities which make it equal to any
other, and, for some uses, superior to any.
To burn in an open grate, in a sitting-room, it is both economical and agreeable; and for an open fire in a sick-cehamber (where none but an open fire ought
ever to be allowed), it is invaluable as a purifier of the air, without the production of any sulphurous or other injurious gas. For steam purposes, it is quicker and more effective than any thing else, and would be of great use in driving
our steam fire-engines. In making and refining iron, it is at least equal to
charcoal; and, in the finer grades of iron-work, it is invaluable. It furnishes
an illuminating gas, having, at least, double the power of coal gas; and many
experiments place its comparative value much higher, while a great saving is
effected in the manufacture by the entire absence of sulphur.
The one essential problem has been to invent an economical method by which
its natural porousness could be overcome so as to solidify it in more convenient
(287)




288                          APPENDIX.
blocks, that can be handled and transported, and that will burn without crumbling to pieces in the fire. The Boston Peat Company, No. 49 Congress Street,
Boston, have perfected a process which appears to be completely successful,
and at such a moderate expense as to admit of general application wherever
there are peat-bogs of the extent of even an acre or more.
By a machine of simple construction, but on a novel principle, the crude peat,
wet as it comes from the ground, is dumped into a hopper, completely pulverized, so as to destroy the porousness, which no pressure can wholly overcome,
and delivered in moulds, like bricks, which are dried in the open air for two
or three weeks, and are: then ready for delivery as good solid fuel, nearly as
heavy as Liverpool coal. The machine costs fifteen hundred dollars, requires
ten-horse power, and will work one hundred tons of crude peat in a day, making twenty-five tons or more of condensed fuel per day to each machine. The
ordinary calculation in the city for that amount of steam-power is about twentyfive dollars a week; but as this machine would produce its own fuel, and may
even be run with the refuse and unmerchantable stuff, the cost is much reduced.
A further reduction would take place where several machines are run by one
engine. The cost of ground for drying, and sheds for storage, may be less or
more at pleasure. As neither the peat, nor the land it occupies, possesses any
value in its natural state, all that is charged for royalty is simply so much
wealthecreated by this great discovery.
There is no lack of peat in this country to supply abundance of fuel for centuries. It is found in all parts of the Northern'States,, and as far south as
Virginia, in vast quantities. The Geological Report of the State of New York
describes and locates more than ten thousand acres in the river counties
alone. In the central and western sections, the quantities are almost illimitable. In Massachusetts, the Geological Report names nearly one hundred
towns which have supplies of peat. Is is so in New Jersey, in Connecticut, on
Long.Island, and elsewhere.
In sections where other fuel is difficult to be obtained, and very costly, they
may have by this process an abundance of the best and most pleasant kind of
fuel, both for domestic uses and for manufactures.
When we consider that every acre of peat is calculated to be good for a
thousand tons of condensed fuel, worth now-eight or ten dollars a ton, at a
cost of less than three dollars a ton for preparation, the amount of solid wealth
which this invention will add to the country quite leaves petroleum in the
background.
From  " The Boston Journal."
The high price of coal, and the rapid destruction of our forests, ought to
stimulate the people of New England, and indeed of the whole North, to an
investigation of the feasibility of bringing peat into general use as an article of
fuel. Wood is every year growing scarcer it New England, and the use of coal
is fast spreading among country towns, where, a few years ago, the article was
never seen. Our people have been prodigally wasteful of their wood-lots; and
we are fast becoming dependent upon Pennsylvania and the British Provinces'
for all our fuel. As a consequence, we have been compelled to pay seventeen
dollars per ton for coal in this city the past winter; and inland towns have paid
eighteen or twenty dollars, while wood was sixteen dollars per cord. All the
great cities on the Atlantic coast have been entirely at the mercy of coal operators and speculators, and most exorbitant prices have been asked.
Were wood and coal the only articles that can be used for cooking and heating purposes, we might be reconciled to this state of things. But there is in
New England, and indeed throughout the North, a great abundance of peat.
One obstacle to the use of peat has been the difficulty of compressing it so as




APPENDIX.                             289
to render it less bulky, owing to its fibrous nature, which stoutly resists condensation. This difficulty has been overcome by machinery.
Experiments have recently been made, under the auspices of some enterprising merchants of Boston, for utilizing peat as a fuel. The experiments
made here have been completely successful; and, if the sanguine expectations
of those who have been engaged in this are realized, New England will, at no
distant period, supply her own fuel.
It is well known that peat has been used for fuel, to some extent, in Eastern
Massachusetts for several years. There is an abundance of it-thousands of
millions of cords - scattered all over New England; and it is time, as we remarked at the outset, that our people were stirring themselves to see if it may
not be brought into general use in order to stop the waste of our forests, now
growing every year more valuable for timber, cheapen the cost of fuel, and
render us less dependent upon coal monopolists and, speculators for this indispensable article. It lies at our very doors, and there is no reason why its
value should not be developed.
From  " The Portland (Me.) Transcript."
Any thing that will give the people relief from the present high prices of
coal, and tend to break up the monopoly of the coal-mining interest, while, at
the same time, it saves our forests from further destruction, is worthy of a
hearty patronage and encouragement; and we hope to see the attention of
capitalists turned to the manufacture of peat. The people of Maine, so far
removed from the coal-region, and paying so much for its transportation,
should no longer neglect the rich deposits of fuel in the peat-beds scattered
throughout the State. Dr. Jackson, in his Geological Survey of Maine, long
since directed attention to the numerous valuable accumulations of this fossil
fuel. He says,-' The time may arrive when, even in Maine, wood becoming scarce, her
neglected peat-bogs will be resorted to for fuel; though here, as in many other
sections, were the superiority of the article over even wood or coal known and
appreciated, the bogs would be worked now, rather than to await the period at
which, for lack of other fuel, their valuable deposits shall be drawn upon."
He also says, that the localities of peat in Maine are so numerous, that it is
hardly necessary to describe them, but points out localities in Bangor, Bluehill,
Thomaston, Limerick, Waterford, and near Portland.
From  "The Berkshire County Eagle."
The subject is one which should receive especial attention in New England,
where the resources of fuel are not what they need to be.
Railroad men and manufacturers regard peat as superior to coal for the generation of steam, and the manufacture of iron and steel.
From A" The New York Evening Post."
It is one of many unphilosophical things in the social history of our people,
that so little progress has been made in the use of peat. It would seem as
though we had been slow to believe that it was made to be-used. As a natural
product, under the wise ordering of things by the Creator, it is found in abundance in all parts of the country, as low down as the Dismal Swamp of Virginia, in positions easily accessible; and in forms and qualities suited for every
purpose of fuel.
In its crude state, the peats most common are not so agreeable as wood or
coal for domestic purposes.; but the finer qualities of peat are preferable to
19




290                          APPENDIX.
either, and most of the common sorts are capable of being condellsed into a
perfect and most desirable fuel. Being entirely free from  sulphurous and
other objectionable ingredients found in coal, it makes a delightful fire in the
grate, giving a charm to the parlor, and a delight to the sick-chamber. For
raising steam, it is unrivalled by any other substance. One advantage is, that
it creates no clinkers, and does not spoil the grate-bars like anthracite. In
making the best iron, and in the finer processes of working iron and steel, it
stands alongsidle of wood-charcoal..When charred, it is said to be better for
welding purposes than charcoal itself. Many peats are also superior to the
best bituminous coals for making gas. It is said that some varieties of peat
are better for gunpowder than the charcoal made from dog-wood and alder.
In the preparation of peat for convenient handling and uses a great variety
of methods has been tried. The oldest and best peats are so solid and fine,
that they dry into a hard substance like cannel coal, without any artificial process except cutting the blocks of proper size out of the bog, and laying them
on the ground to dry. But most kinds are too light and porous for convenient
use, and burn with much smoke and less heat, unless artificially condensed.
The most common method was by pressure; but this is expensive, and not
fully effectual.
We have seen specimens of condensed peat, prepared by the Boston Peat
Company, which appear to come nearer to the ideal fuel than anything else
within our knowledge.
A single machine, driven by a six-horse steam power, will work fifty tons
of raw peat in a day, which will yield about one fourth to one third of its
weight in condensed fuel.
As a peat-swamp is generally unproductive, and therefore useless for agricultural purpose, it follows that the cost of fuel is the expense of manufacture,
with the addition of the value which the demand may give to land otherwise
worthless. The Boston Peat Company have patented their processes, and sell
their machines.
From "' The Syracuse Journal."
PEAT AS FUEL. - This article is soon destined to enter into lively competition with anthracite; and the probable effect will be that the " coal monopolists " will be brought to their senses and fair terms at the same time.
The article of peat as fuel was put to a test on the Central Railroad yesterday,
and proved highly satisfactory.
There is an extensive bed of peat at Oswego Falls, opposite the village of
Fulton, in Oswego County, on land owned by Bradford Kennedy. Esq., hardware merchant, of this city. For the purpose of testing its quality as fuel, a
quantity was dried and prepared in the usual way, to be tested on one of the
locomotives of the Central Railroad. Half a ton of that article, dried and
ready for use, was sent down to this city, and Engine No. 106, a wood-burner,
made ready for a short trial trip. Superintendent Lapham, of the Central, and
Superintendent Van Vleck, of the Oswego Road, together with a party of other
gentlemen, including Messrs. Howe and W. S. Nelson of Fulton, Derastes
Kellogg of Skaneateles, Mr. Geddes, Jr., Mr. Southmeade of New York, and
others, witnessed the trial. The locomotive was fired up at the Round Hlouse
in this city, adjacent to the Central machine-shops, and run to Warner's Station
and back, a distance of twenty miles, in the space of forty-five minutes. The
engine drew but the car containing the excursionists, and was propelled at a
moderate speed, without any attempt at "making time; " the object being
merely to test the article of fuel. The peat made a beautiful fire, throwing out
intense heat, and burned with a steady flame. The steam was kept at an even
gauge of from ninety to one hundred pounds during the trial trip, and Superin



APPENDILX.                           291
tendents Lapham and Van Vleck were highly pleased with the test of peat as
fuel, pronouncing it a success. We understand that the usual amount of fuel
consumed by coal-burning engines is a ton to every twenty miles; but, in this
instance, only half a ton of peat was used, giving evidence of its value as a substitute for anthracite.
From  "The Springfield (Mass.) Republican."
Peat contains the same chemical constituents as coal; indeed it seems to be
only an imperfect form of the same material, - young coal, coal in the crude.
In Maine, beds of coal have been found in draining a bog, evidently formed
from the wood of a species of fir, the balsam of which had been changed to
bitumen, with which the deposit is very highly charged.
Peat has long been used for firing in some locations, especially in Ireland,
where it makes a sweet and wholesome fire, safer for delicate lungs than either
coal or wood. The heat is less drying, the ashes less troublesome, and the
smoke does not irritate the eyes.
In its native beds, peat is heavily charged with water; and the want of a
cheap method of drying and condensing it has prevented its being burned to
any extent in this country; but modern researches have removed this objection, and means have been found for preparing it as fuel in large quantities, in
merchantable shape, at a cost of four or five dollars a ton. The process has
been patented; and the company, organized in Boston, has works now in operation in Lexington, Mass. The fuel is claimed to surpass coal for many purposes, especially for generating steam, and for the manufacture of iron and
steel.
Peat-charcoal is denser than that from wood; and, as it contains no sulphur,
iron made with it is of superior quality, and will not splinter.
Gas from peat has been used for some time in Paris: the hydrogen obtained is very richly carburetted, and is better than that from coal for illuminating purposes.
There are numerous indications that the stores of peat found in almost every
township, the accumulations of past ages, will prove a rich inheritance to us
and our children.
From  "The Hartford Press."
The fuel question is already a serious one in manufacturing New England,
which requires a greater supply for purposes of warmth, and for its thousands
of engines, than almost any other part of the country. Our wood has long
been scarce and costly; and we are so far from the great coal-beds as to make
that material expensive. Attention has lately been directed to peat as a substitute for wood and coal, and, it is believed, with favorable results. A process
has been discovered by which peat can be converted into a dry solid substance,
in great quantities, at a moderate cost. The fuel so produced burns readily,
gives a mellow but intense heat, is most agreeable for burning in the open
grate, and is especially adapted to furnaces for generating steam.
From  "The Madison (Wis.) State Journal."
The recent invention of machinery for pressing peat, in connection with
the increasing scarcity of fuel in the West, and the exorbitant prices of
wood and coal, has attracted attention anew to the extensive peat-beds near
this city.
The subject of manufacturing fuel from this material was discussed quite
prominently some ten years ago among our citizens;  but the comparative
cheapness of wood at that time, and the absence of any perfected machinery




292                         AP-PENDIX.
for reducing it to proper form, as well as the financial revulsion which shortly
followed, led to a postponement of the project.
A further investigation of the qualities of this peat, of the extent of the
deposit, and of the practicability of cheaply manufacturing from it an article
of fuel equal in heating-power to the best coal, induces the belief that it will
speedily become a source of immense profit to the fortunate proprietor, and
of great advantage to the city and adjacent country. It will also, when
worked into convenient compass for transportation, constitute an important
article of export to the neighboring cities with which we have railroad connections.
We recently witnessed some experiments with it, as an article of fuel in a
common wood-stove. The peat used was unpressed. The specimens burned
with a flame clear and brilliant as seasoned maple or hickory, and produced
no unpleasant odor like that of coal. From the trial we saw made of it, we
conclude that it will make a most desirable article of fuel; and we trust the
day is not distant when it will be made available, and this market supplied
with it. If we are not mistaken, Colonel Slaughter, in opening this peatbed, will, if he does not " strike oil," find a source of wealth not less valuable
and remunerative.
From  "The Madison (Wia.) Patriot."
We feel an interest, in common with our people, in keeping the subject of
Wisconsin peat before the public, that it may so interest the attention of capitalists as to insure its more complete development, which we believe to be all
that is necessary to bring it into general use, and prove it a source of very
great benefit to our people. The middle, southern, and some of the western
counties of our State, are but sparsely timbered; and the very limited quantity
of timber is growing less every year, until the scarcity and price of fuel have
become a question of serious inquiry with the people.
Peat or coal must be used' as a substitute, -the latter we have not, nor can
it be had, only at a heavy cost; but peat we have in abundance, and within our
own limits. To this we must sooner or later resort, and the sooner the better
for those who are compelled to pay the present high prices of wood.
The peat-beds near this city will, when developed, furnish an abundance of
cheap fuel; and, as it is inexhaustible in quantity, its use will prove a source
of wealth, not only to the enterprising proprietors, but to the country.
We have seen the peat tried, and find it an excellent substitute for coal. It
has been used in our press-room furnace in driving our engine, and found equal
to the best coal. We have therefore no hesitation in bearing witness to the
good qualities of the peat, having used it; and.unite most cordially in the general wish, that this rich mine of wealth may be speedily developed, and the
peat brought within the reach of those who would so readily avail themselves
of its use. Our wood lands are principally oak openings, and the wood is
rapidly disappearing. The price is now from seven to eight dollars per cord.
Dr. Hayes, of Boston, the first analytic chemist in our country, pronounces
this peat equal to good oak-wood fuel, and for gas equal to the best cannel
coal. Many experiments have been made with it in this neighborhood for
fuel by our most judicious men, and their accounts correspond with Dr.
Hayes's analysis. It must be of great value to the proprietors, as well as
benefit to the country.
From "The Milw-alkee Sentinel."
Upon a recent visit to Madison, wve were shown by  r.l Homlgh, County Surveyor, a plat of the peat-bog lying six miles west of that town, and immediate



APPENDIX.                            293
ly upon the Madison and Milwaukee Railroad. In-company with an intelligent
Irishman, who informed us that, in density and endurance it was far superior
to the Irish peat (not so inflammable, nor vested with the peculiar odor in
burning), we instituted some experiments; in the first place by burning in a
blacksmith's forge, where it gave out a steady, brilliant heat, though not as intense as that of bituminous coal, yet heating iron readily. We placed a peck
of it with an equal amount of Briar Hill Coal in the open coal grate, and found
it not only to outlast the coal, but to give a far preferable fire; quietly, pleasantly, not snappishly inclined, and free from the odious smoke and soot of coal,
which will be a great desideratum to neat housekeepers.
The owners are making arrangements to work the beds extensively during
the next season; and we predict for it a large sale, even within our own city,
should its, cost be even greater than coal, solely on account of its cleanliness.
My credulity was heavily taxed while at Madison, through the stories told of
its comparative value with wood in generating steam, at a steam saw-mill in
the neighborhood of the beds; but I must confess myself astonished at my own
experiments, proving it of far more value than I deemed possible, and worth
not less than $1,000,000 to the fortunate owners, should no other extensive
beds be discovered to mar its value. Surely such unheard of " diggings"
ought to stimulate other explorations.
From  "The Lewiston (Me.) Journal."
M. W. Farwell, Esq., has used peat in his house anid under the boilers in
his bleachery. He began his experiments last year, and, though the peat is
not of the best quality, yet it proves to be so valuable that he will cut a
thousand cords the present season. He regards it quite equal to charcoal.
It makes a cheerful fire, and lights a room better than wood: its smoke does
not irritate the eyes, nor does it obstruct respiration. It can also be used for
many manufacturing purposes.
From  "The Brunswick (Me.) Telegraph."
The introduction of peat is no mere fancy, but a subject of grave importance, especially in these times of exorbitant prices for coal, and unreasonable
prices for wood. The " Journal " speaks of its making a cheerful fire. True;
and one of our most cherished recollections is that of an old farmhouse in
Byfield, Essex County, Mass., the residence of a grandfather. The kitchen
fireplace was large enough to admit an ox-cart; and in that same fireplace
always blazed in winter, a peat-fire, giving both light and heat. Beside it we
have sat for hours, watching the roasting of potatoes, cracking of nuts, drinking of cider, and maliciously (little rascal that we were) eying the young rascals who were courting the girls, our respected aunts. Those were glorious
times; and we have ever since had a fondness for peat as an article of fuel. The
fires of love never burn dimly beside it.
From  " The Newport (R. I.) News."
We have received from the publishers "Facts about Peat." The work is
deserving of more than passing notice. No subject is of wider interest to the
whole family of man than that of fuel; and its high price in this country for
some time past, gives the subject a peculiar interest to us in America.
Hitherto the world has been dependent upon wood and the different kinds of
mineral coal. It has not been a generally recognized fact that there exists
another article, formed of wood-deposits like coal, but of a much more recent
formation, and known by the name of peat, which is destined to be brought




294                          APPrENDIX.
into an important competition with its two rivals, wood and coal. Many
people in our own community, we will venture to say, never saw a specimen
of it, and have scarcely heard of it.
Its supply is said to be abundant along the lines of our railroads, and in the
vicinity of our machine-shops and founderies in all parts of the country where
there is woodland. As the article of fuel is one, of great expense in our domestic economy, this subject cannot fail to interest all; and the introduction of a
new, cheap, and abundant article of fuel, to be dug out at our own doors, as it
were, is an important matter. We commend this work, and the subject upon
which it treats, to the attention of all.
From  "The Fall River News."
We consider this a valuable work, especially at the present time, when coal
is almost beyond the reach of the laboring classes. Hitherto we have been
entirely dependent upon wood and coal, while almost'every township has peatbeds sufficient to furnish the inhabitants with a fuel, in every respect, when
properly prepared, equal, if not superior, to either. We cheerfully commend
this book to the attention of all; for the whole community are interested in the
subject on which it treats.
F'rom  "The Nantucket Inquirer."
The peat-beds on Nantucket and the adjacent islands are estimated at six
hundred and fifty acres, from one to fourteen feet in thickness. The rapid
destruction of our forests, and the constantly increasing price of wood, have
now brought the article of peat to the notice of manufacturers and railroad
companies, and will no doubt stimulate some enterprising Yankee to get up a
machine that will press the peat dry, as it is taken from the beds, and turn it
out in the shape and consistence of bricks. Then will our peat lands prove to
be a mine of wealth to the owners.
_From  "The Biddeford (Me.) Journal."
The subject is beginning to excite considerable attention, not only on account
of the fears of a growing scarcity of wood, its high price, and also that of coal,
but because it forms one of the products of industry, which, when perfected
from its raw state, forms, like mines of iron, lead, copper, and silver, great
wealth to a nation.:From  "The Brooklyn Union," Oct. 2, 1865.
PEAT. —A  NEW  PROCESS. —Through the benignity of the Creator, our
country is richly provided with the means of counteracting the strikes of
miners, combinations of dealers, and quarrels of corporations, which so often
distract the coal market, and make fuel scarce and dear. In all directions there
are to be found immense beds of peat, which is an excellent fuel for many purposes, even in its crude state. And we are assured that a very ingenious and
simple process has been discovered, by which the chief inconveniences in the
use of crude peat are removed, and a substance produced which is in some
respects preferable to anthracite.
The process, which is patented, requires about two weeks to make the
article fit for use, and then it is in as good shape for handling and tranportation as coke.
In this shape, it is found to be almost pure charcoal, easily lighted, burning
with a clear fire, producing very little smoke, and leaving only a small residuum of ashes. The ashes are equal to those of wood for fertilizing purposes.
The prepared peat has been used for raising steam, for wire-drawing, for




APPENDIX.                            295
brass-working, and for cooking and heating rooms; and for all these purposes
it has been highly approved by good judges. If we are correctly informed, the
company profess to be able to furnish fuel equivalent to a ton of anthracite for
five dollars.
The development of such a source of wealth, and of general relief, lying all
around in lands that are otherwise utterly valueless, will add at once to the
general resources of the country, and to the means of comfort and life of all
classes of society. If this new method is what it is represented to be, - of
which we have satisfactory evidence, -we earnestly hope it may attract the
attention of capitalists and business men without delay.
The high price of coal, the scarcity of wood, and the necessity for an abundant and consequently cheap article for fuel, have turned the attention of several
of our own citizens to the peat which is found to a very considerable extent on
Long Island. In other parts of the Eastern States, the interest of the people
is already thoroughly aroused on the subject.; and, if we are correctly informed,
a company is established in Boston which is experimenting with peat, and has
met with some very favorable results.
There is abundance of peat on Long Island, within reach of this city; and the
season is not yet too far advanced for cutting and drying it for use in its natural
shape. Perhaps there is now hardly time enough to get up establishments for
its improved preparation this season, as some machinery is required to be set
up. And yet, we believe, if the matter would be taken hold of at once, with a
few thousand dollars of capital, and a moderate share of judgment and energy,
something valuable might be accomplished even this year, and we should at
least be in good readiness for another season.
From  the same paper, Oct. 14, 1865.
MORE ABOUT' PEAT. -The use of peat for fuel is but little known in this
country; but it has become necessary to resort to it as a substitute for coal, as
a remedy against strikes, extortion, and monopoly. If the experiments now
in progress to consolidate the crude peat, so as to make it capable of being
handled and transported without crumbling, and so that it will burn clear like
coal, are successful, it will prove a formidable rival for anthracite itself. It is
believed that deposits of peat suitable for fuel are scattered all over the Northern States -in such abundance as would supply a very considerable part of the
demand for fuel, and at a price much below that of anthracite, because it lies
on the surface of the ground, is procured with very little labor, and, being
found in almost every neighborhood, Would make a great saving in the cost of
transportation.
The great desideratum has been to contrive a process by which it can be put
in merchantable shape at a cost not inconsistent with its value for fuel. Most
of the numerous experiments, both in this country and in Europe, have resulted
in nothing, either because they failed to effect the object, or that they were too
expensive in working. A large part of the contrivances looked to the application of powerful pressure to solidify the peat into blocks convenient both for
handling and for use; but powerful pressure is not only expensive: it does
not effect the object. Peat is so porous and elastic, that it will not give up
either its moisture or air by pressure.
A company in Boston have proceeded on a different and quite novel principle,
and have at length completed the invention of a simple and rational process,'by
which crude peat, as it is taken from its bed, can be converted into a solid, dry
fuel, in good shape, in large quantities, and at a moderate cost. The machinery
required is simple, and not too expensive for use, and tan be easily set up and
run by the side of the peat-bed, wherever a small yard can be levelled for




296                          APPENDIX.
drying it in the open air. They are now prepared to furnish their machines at
reasonable prices, with a guaranty that they Will work as represented. The
machine receives the crude peat as taken from the bog, and delivers it, in a
very few minutes, condensed, and formed into blocks of any desired form,
ready to be dried in the open air, and with but small cost for manual labor.
Its tenacity for water is so far changed, that it dries in a small part of the time
required for curing the ordinary peat.
We have seen specimens of the peat condensed by this process, and are
acquainted with the principle on which the machine works, and think there
is no reason to doubt its efficiency. The personal character of the principal
managers is fitted to inspire confidence that they would not come before the
public unless they had got a good thing, calculated to be a general benefit.
Indeed, their method may fairly claim to be not only the best, but the only
one, so far as is known, in this country, that is at once effectual, cheap, and
rapid. They are the pioneers of the present movement in favor of the use of
peat, having been engaged for several years in their experiments and inquiries.
Their actuary, Mr. T. H. Leavitt. has published a pamphlet of a hundred and
eighteen pages, containing more information —historical, scientific, and practical - about peat, we venture to say, than any other man in the country is
possessed of. And his perseverance is well entitled to the success which seems
about to be realized.
Those who wish to become thoroughly informed should procure this pamphlet; and those who would transact business with the company, should address
the agents, Leavitt & Hunnewell, 49 Congress Street, Boston.
From s" The Lowell Joburnal."
This is a good-looking pamphlet of a hundred and sixty-eight pages, giving
us all the information upon the subject of peat that-the most laborious'and
extensive research can possibly furnish.
The subject of fuel is one in which all of us are directly interested. Wood
and coal, their different varieties and properties, are tolerably well understood;
but peat, to a considerable extent, among us, is a new article; and even those
who have used it in its crude state do not realize the extent to which it might
be used, especially for manufacturing purposes, if properly prepared, and
placed in the market.
From  "The Prairie Farmer," Chicago, Ill.
This subject is attracting much attention at various points, on account of the
scarcity and high price of fuel.
From  "The Northern Farmer," Fond du Lac, Wis.
We have received from Messrs. Leavitt & Hunnewell, of Boston, Mass., a
pamphlet on the preparation and uses of peat. With their improved method
of preparing it, it bids fair to become of great value to our State, as we have,
no doubt, abundance of it here. It may eventually fill up the greatest. deficienoy of our State, by furnishing an article equal to coal for fuel and smelting purposes.
IFrom " The Kenosha (Wis.) Telegraph."
A GOOD THING. — Madison, in this State, and Chicago, Ill., have been boasting for some time past of having in their immediate vicinity large beds of peat,
which are capable of being turned. to good account for fuel for domestic purposes, but more especially for mechanical purposes. Well, Kenosha cannot




APPENDIX.                            297
afford to be behindhand in any of these great natural resources; so she also
boasts of her inexhaustible peat-beds.
Our fellow-citizen, Harvey Durkee, informs us that he has, on his farm, about
two and a half miles from the city, a deposit of peat, which has been pronounced, by those qualified to judge, to be of the very best quality of that
article. Old men who have used peat most of their lives, in Ireland, declare
this to be in every respect equal to the best that country produces. This bed
is three fourths of a mile in length, twenty rods wide, and ten feet in depth.
Mr. Durkee has dried and tried some of this peat, and finds that it burns freely,
makes a very hot fire, and leaves no residuum but a small amount of white
ashes. He put a hodful of the prepared peat into his coal stove, and it burned
as long, and gave out as much heat, as the best quality of hard lump coal.
With the proper facilities for cutting and preparing the peat for use, we understand it can be furnished, probably, for $8 per ton; and one ton of the peat will
go as far, and make as much heat, as two tons oifthe best Lehigh coal, for all
mechanical purposes.
Now, if anybody or any company wish to start a woollen factory, or a cotton
factory even, here is the material for the necessary fuel, so cheap as to throw
the advantages of water-power into the shade. Since Mr. Durkee proved the
qualities of this peat, we understand he is decidedly in favor of starting both a
woollen and cotton factory, confident that no other locality in the State presents
so many advantages for such manufactures.
From "The Brunswick (Me.) Telegraph."
Peat was first discovered in this town by Henry Putnam, Esq., about fifty
years since, in the swamps east of Stetson Street. Several persons were nruch
excited about it as a valuable discovery; but nobody was disposed to go into a
peat speculation. I do not think, in the usual manner of cutting and drying, it
can ever become a popular fuel. The difficulty of getting it thoroughly dry,
would, in our uncertain climate, be a serious objection; but if it can be cheaply
manufactured into neat, compact, solid blocks, I see no reason why it should
not compete successfully with coal and wood.
This matter interests every one who has to buy a cord of wood. The article
is abundant in this town: I presume all our swamps are underlaid with it.
There is a large tract intersected by the McKeen Road, which drains into Mere
Brook; the Duck Pond Swamp is another large deposit; the Dunning Swamp
on Union and Pleasant Streets; another lies east of Federal Street; and another
still farther east, extending from near the river, at the'place formerly occupied
by Mr. Bow, down to Humphrey's Mills; and there are doubtless many other
localities in the town.                                        N. S.
From " The Hingham Journal."
The use of peat as fuel is now attracting, generally, the attention of railroad
men, manufacturers, and others; and, in this view, the issue of the pamphlet
is timely. The treatise is prepared with care, and embodies much useful
knowledge.
From  "The Vermont Watchman."
FACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL.- -A well-timed and wellexecuted compilation of important facts. We never knew of any use of peat
for fuel in Vermont, wood having been, and in some portions of the State still
being, very abundant. There are regions in the State, however, where peat
swill be more economical than wood or coal; and we —shall be glad to see it
tried. Peat abounds in the State, fiom mountain tops to valley swamps; and




298                        APPENDIX.
doubtless in many places it is of sufficient depth and solidity for fuel. This
book describes the article, the mode of cutting and curing, and its uses. For
many purposes, good peat is at least equal to wood, and for some superior;
while its use will drain swamps, and turn them to agricultural account, and
prevent that denuding of the hills, of the woods, which is fast robbing us of
water springs, and exposing the hills to be washed clean of the most valuable
soil, and, in time, to become as ugly and sterile as the hills in the oldest parts
of Maryland now are. Of all men, the farmers should turn their attention
to peat, for the preservation of their best forests for more valuable uses
than fuel.
From "The Pawtucket (R. I.) Gazette."
%No doubt can be' entertained by those who have even a limited knowledge
of peat, that it can be advantageously used for fuel; but it has thus far received but very little attention in this country.  Mr. Leavitt's facts and
remarks throw a great amount of light upon the subject, and they ought to
have a wide circulation. We have an abundance of peat; and the pamphlet
before us tells us of its importance as an article of fuel, and how to prepare
and use it.
From" The Lowell Citizen.".
In late years, peat has come to be extensively used, not only for fuel, but as
a source of motive-power, for the manufacture of gas, paper, gunpowder, and
even for building and ornamental work. The questions of its supply, preparation, and most economical use, are of high interest; and this pamphlet embodies much needed information, which will aid in their solution.
From' The Essex County Mercury," Salem, Mass.
Peat has long been used to a considerable extent for fuel in different parts
of Essex County; and not a few of the elder portion of our readers can well
remember when it was much used in Salem. At the present prices of coal and
wood, peat is much to-be preferred to either of them, for most uses.
From  "The Providence Daily Press."
" Facts about Peat " are not only interesting, but of the highest value. The
company who have undertaken to develop the value of peat ought to be encouraged by all who have money to invest in new and probably remunerative
channels of trade or manufactures. For ourselves we have often wondered
how little use was made of peat.
The glowing heat and cheerful light of a peat-fire, are the very ultimata of a
social evening; and our recollections of such a fire on the hearth at Johnny
Campbell's, at the head of Loch Rannoch, are of the pleasantest character; so
pleasant, indeed, that deprived of the sight of the fire, and the smell of the
reek, we have even endeavored at times to find an insufficient consolation in the
taste of the peat-reek in the genuine Glenlivit.
From  "The Lawrence Sentinel."
There can be very little doubt-of the utility of the great peat deposits in this
Commonwealth, to which public.attention has but to be rightly directed, to
enhance greatly its value; and this work (" Facts about Peat ") will be found
to possess a permanent value.




APPENDIX.                          299
From " The Waltham  (Mass.) Sentinel."
The peat-bogs about us are represented to contain a large percentage of bituminous matter; and, when the peat is subjected to great pressure, it becomes a
species of bituminous coal. Peat is said to be the last stage of vegetable matter
before changing to coal.
If the working of the peat-bogs will save our woods, which are being cut
down in such haste, and with so little of consideration, then we hope. the attention of the people will soon be turned to this matter.
From "' The Portland Advertiser."
We do not know how extensively this pamphlet has been circulated; but
we are persuaded that its perusal by every consumer in New England would be
productive of great good, and excite a new enterprise throughout the New
England States.
From " The Middlesex Journal," Lowell, Mass.
Peat, as an article of fuel, has long been known; but it has not been so
extensively used as its merits would warrant. The attention of intelligent
men in manufacturing and railroad circles has, however, recently. been turned
to the subject; and, we may hope, ere long, that it will take its proper place in
the household, the manufactory, and on the railroad.
With coal at $16 and $17 per ton, the public have a deep interest in any
thing which promises to render fuel more abundant and cheap.
In many localities in New England, and throughout the country, the earth
is well stored with peat, which promises to add much to the wealth of those
farms and districts of country where it is found.
From "The Boston Traveller."
FACTS ABOUT PEAT.- It is a thorough production; the author proceeding
exhaustively, and arranging his abundant matter in a manner that renders the
task of following him easy and profitable. He has mastered his subject, and
evidently has neglected nothing that is calculated to illustrate it, and to press
useful facts on the mind of the inquirer.
Various, minute, and copious in its facts, and showing how valuable is peat
as an article of fuel, this work must have a great effect in directing attention
to a neglected agent for the production of heat; one which Providence has
placed most freely at the command of man, and which ought to be made to
enter very largely into human consumption.
Mr. Leavitt is literally correct when he says, that the substance of which
he treats so well " is of sufficient importance to command earnest attention,
not only from the business man, on the score of its application to domestic
purposes, manufactures, and the arts, but from the philanthropist, in view of
the relief it may be made to afford as one of the necessaries of ilifie."
It needs only that the value of peat should be understood to bring it into
general use, to the great relief of all interests.
From  "The Scientific American."
In peat we shall find an economical substitute for coal at its present prices
(April, 1865), and even at rates much below;'for the marketing of the former
substance, or preparation of it so as to render it available, must certainly
cost far less than coal.
No shafts have to be sunk, no extensive and costly system of engineering




o00                          APPENDIX.
and surveying are needed; and beyond the expense of the machinery for condensing it, little seems to be required to utilize the deposit with which Nature
has covered large tracts of land in this country.
The testimony of scientific men is freely given as to its value.
From  "T'he Syracuse Journal."
Dr. B- is making arrangements to prepare his peat for market. Now let
us estimate the quantity upon the fifteen acres. Fifteen acres, at an average
depth of eight feet, will produce 40,8.36 cords. Estimating a cord of peat to be
worth a cord and a half of hard wood, there will, be equal in value to 54,448
cords of hard wood. Estimating wood at six dollars a cord, the total value of
this peat-bed, when marketed, will be $326,688. Allowing sixty-six and two
thirds per cent. cost for preparing and transporting it to market (which is a
large allowance), and there will remain a net profit of $108,896.
Peat emits a considerable flame -about between hard coal and hard wood;
it leaves no cinders to sift; it burns equally well in a coal-stove, wood-stove, or
fireplace, and makes a very pleasant fire.
From  " The New York Evening Post."
The high prices of coal are having an effect which will soon be turned to the
advantage of the community. Already they have brought into existence several
enterprises, which, in a few months, will produce a large supply of fuel from
the peat deposits of this country; and it will be likely to come into close competition with the fuel from the coal mines.
The probability of continued high prices, together with the favorable results
of recent experiments with peat, and new discoveries of it in quantities, have
called the attention of many business men to this substance, as a new source of
supply.
The burning or heating properties of the best peat are nearly equal to those
of anthracite coal.
There are many peat-beds in this State. A trial of it is making at the American Institute Fair against coal, with satisfactory results.
Great interest is felt by many citizens to whose knowledge these facts have
come, and they are confident that a material change will eventually take place
in regard to the fuel supply of the country. The tendency will be, in any
event, to protect the public from speculations and monopolies in coal.
From  "The American Artisan."
The very high price which coal has lately reached in this country has led some
enterprising capitalists to turn their attention to the subject of obtaining supplies of peat for fuel.
There are in the United States, large quantities of this valuable material. In
Western Newv York and on Long Island there are extensive beds; and there is
little doubt that in and near the neighborhoods where it is found it may be made
to serve as an economical substitute for coal, even when that is at a much lower
priice than at present (August, 1864).
Ftrom  "The Lockport (N. Y.) Daily Union."
The rapid advance in the price of wood and coal within the past few years,
and the near approach of the time when wood, on account of its scarcity, shall
cease to be generally used as fuel, have led many to investigate the practicability of bringing into use as a substitute, peat, which was known to be in large
quantities in various parts of the country. It was found to be impracticable to




APPENDIX.                             301
be used as fuel in its natural state, on account of the foreign matter, and its
unwieldiness and bulk; being thus impossible to make it a mercantile commodity, and difficult and unhandy to use. Many experiments have been tried by
which the foreign matter could be separated, and the peat put in some neat and
compact form, thus making it easy to handle. More or less success has attended
the various attempts; and in some parts of the country it is rapidly being
brought into use.'
In this country, we have inexhaustible beds of peat; and if this experiment
is the success that is hoped, we need no longer tremble as we see our forests rapidly falling away, or sigh when we read of a strike in a coal mine. It is estimated
that the cost of manufacturing will be one dollar per ton. All that it will
bring over three dollars will go to the manufacturer as a profit and interest on
thee capital invested in the bed. Prices, however, regulate themselves in accordance with the demand; but it is- hardly probable, with all the peat-beds in the
country producing fuel, that wood and coal can lord it much longer in their
present manner. One ton of this peat is estimated to burn as l1hg as a ton of
coal or two cords of wood. The smoke from it is much like that from hickory
wood -thin and blue; there appeared to be no unpleasant odor; and the
ashes are not troublesome, like coal-ashes. In fact, there appears to be no
reason why, if it can be put in merchantable form, that it should not become
our staple article of fuel.
The prospect of such a revolution in fuel will undoubtedly interest the community at large.'From  "The Springfield (Mass.) Republican."
The high price of coal and wood is very naturally turning the attention of the
public to the vast beds of peat which exist in various parts of the country, with
the hope of finding in them the much-desired cheaper fuel. In old countries,
peat has long been used as an article of fuel, especially among the poorer classes,
who have, in fact, known nothing else. But in this comparatively new country, where hitherto both wood and coal have been abundant and cheap, our
peat-beds have, for the most part, been allowed to lie unmolested, as the product
could not be taken out and prepared for market at a cost low enough to make it
any object to bring it into competition with other articles of fuel.
But with ingenuity, stimulated by the present high prices, the problem of
how to prepare peat for market at a reasonable cost bids fair to be speedily
solved, if, indeed, it is not already satisfactorily answered. Of the value of
peat, properly prepared, as an article of fuel, there is no question. Besides its
worth for domestic purposes, in which the majority of people are most interested, it is unrivalled by any other substance for raising steam, and has lately
been tried with marked success in the locomotives of the New York Central
Railroad. Being free from sulphur, peat is also well adapted for the reduction
of ores; and in making the best iron, and in the finer processes of making iron and
steel, it is equal to wood-charcoal; and, when charred, it is pronounced better
for welding purposes than charcoal itself; while some kinds of peat are equal
to the best bituminous coal for making gas.
At present, the great bulk of peat would make the item of freight a large
one if it was transported any great distance. But we do not see why, already,
peat cannot be furnished to those who live near the beds, at a cost much less
than coal, to which it is said to be equal, ton for ton, for many purposes. Labor and freight are, of course, the principal items in the cost of peat; and, as
soon as quick and cheap methods of extraction and condensation are really discovered, there will be a large use of peat, and some of the profits that now go
into the pockets of owners of coal mines will be transferred to the proprietors
of peat-beds.




302                          APPENDIX.
It may not be generally known that there are almost inexhaustible peat
deposits within a few miles of this city. Mr. Reuben Brooks, of West Springfield, owns a large peat-bog, and there are others in WVest Springfield and other
towns in this vicinity. Mr. Brooks has long used peat in his own family with
satisfactory results, burning it in a common coal grate, where it gives forth a
blaze like wood, and a heat much softer and pleasanter than that from the common anthracite or even bituminous coals. We have no means of knowing how
the price of it delivered would compare with the price of other kinds of fuel;
but peat is going to be the fashion before many years, and Springfield is to be
congratulated on having a large supply close at hand.
From a Paper recently read before the British Association, by
D. K. Clark, C. E., of London.
" TORBITE:"   A NEW PREPARATION OF PEAT. —The writer had occasion
a short-time since to inspect professionally the works established at Horwich,
in Lancashire,Ap manufacture fuel and charcoal from peat, and was so struck
with all that came under his notice, and impressed with the importance of the
results obtained, that he feels that he cannot bring a more interesting subject
before the meeting.
The question of the manufacture of peat into fuel is in reality a question of
supplementing the natural supplies of coal with a fuel which may be made superior to it in every respect, more abundant, and more readily accessible. The consumption of coal is so enormous, and goes on annually increasing at such a rate,
that, for some time past serious apprehensions have been entertained that our
coal measures will be exhausted at no very distant period. Our stock of coal,
excluding all that lies at a greater depth than 4000 feet, has been estimated at
83,544,000,000 tons. In 1863, the consumption reached 86,300,000 tons; and the
average rate of increase for the last ten years has been two millions of tons a
year. Thus, supposing our stock to have been correctly estimated, in less than
a hundred years our coal will be exhausted. Fortunately, however, Nature has
not left us dependent on our coal measures alone, but has also given us our bogs.
Peat, it is well known, possesses many most valuable properties as a raw
material for fuel; but the attempts hitherto made to utilize peat on a large scale
have proved failures, owing to the difficulty of dealing with a substance exceedingly bulky, very loose, and holding from seventy-five to eighty-five to eighty-five per cent.
of water.
To separate the water, and to condense and mould the peat into convenient
sizes at a cost sufficiently low to render it commercially available as fuel, is a
problem which has baffled the efforts of many operators. In most instances,
compression has been applied for the purpose of imparting the requisite degree
of solidity, by means of powerful hydraulic presses, or other machinery. In
the process adopted by Messrs. Gwynne and Mr. C. Hodgson, the peat is first
dried and powdered, and then pressed into blocks; but the action of compression is purely mechanical, and, though it imparts great compactness by bringing
the particles of the peat into close contiguity, it does not really solidify the
substance, since, on being exposed to heat, it resumes its original form, and
crumbles to pieces. Fuel thus prepared is totally incapable of resisting the
action of a blast, or even of a moderate draft; and, though Mr. Hodgson still
carries on the manufacture of fuel by this process, the consumption is very
limited.
According to Mr. Cobbold's mode of treatment, the peat is immersed in water
for the purpose of separating the fibre from the more decomposed matter, and
the water is afterwards got rid of either by simple evaporation, or by means of
centrifugal power; but, though by this means a very dense fuel is obtained, the
separation of the fibre deprives the fuel of -coherency, besides which the process




APPENDIX.                             303
is laborious and costly.' Attempts have also been made in Ireland to utilize
peat by manufacturing it solely for the sake of its chemical products. Many
valuable products have thus been obtained, from which even paraffine candles
have been made; but the cost far exceeded the market value.
But such attempts have not been altogether in vain, inasmuch as the experience thus gained in the treatment of peat has proved of great value. To know
what will not do, is a great step towards knowing what will do. By the system
of manufacture at Horwich, mechanical compression in any manner is studiously
avoided, being not only costly, but also ineffectual. The means of separating
the water suspended in the peat have been carefully perfected. The necessity
of dealingwith and getting rid of such a large proportion of water has been a
standing difficulty from the first, and the cause of excessive expenditure. At
Horwich, the problem has been carefully studied, and the difficulties appear to
have been successfully overcome. Until a mode of artificially drying peat
rapidly and econo0flically had been worked out, air-drying was necessarily resorted to; and where limited quantities of fuel - say about a hundred tons a
year- only, are required to be made, air-drying may suffice; but for large
quantities it would be, in our fickle climate, too uncertain a process to be depended on, and for seven months in the year, it would not be available at all.
According to the system matured and established at Horwich, the peat, as it
comes from the bog, is thrown into a mill expressly constructed, by which it
is reduced to a homogeneous pulpy consistency. The pulp is conveyed, by
means of an endless band, to the moulding machine, in which, while it travels,
it is formed into a slab, and cut into blocks of any required size. The blocks
are delivered by a self-acting process on a band, which conveys them into the
drying-chamber, through which they travel forwards and backwards on a
series of endless bands at a fixed rate of speed, exposed all the time to the
action of a current of heated air. The travelling bands are so arranged that
the blocks of peat are delivered from one to the other consecutively, and are
by the same movement turned over in order to expose fresh surfaces at regular
intervals to the action of the drying currents; so that they emerge from the
chamber dry, hard, and dense. To the peat substance thus treated the name
of " torbite " has been given, from the Latin torbo, by which name peat is constantly mentioned in ancient charters.
The next stage in the process is the treatment of the torbite in close ovens,
when it may either be converted into charcoal for smelting purposes, or'may
be only partially charred for use as fuel for generating steam, or in the puddling furnace.
The whole of the Horwich system has been planned with a view to the
utmost economy of time and labor. The raw peat is nearly altogether automatically treated by steam power. Introduced at one end, it issues from the
other in the form of charcoal within twenty-four hours after it is excavated
from the bog; and the manual labor expended is almost entirely limited to the
first operation of digging: consequently the actual outlay in labor and fuel, in
the production of the charcoal, does not exceed from 10s. to 12s. per ton; but,
in addition to the economy thus effected by charring in close ovens, a considerable quantity of valuable chemical products are yielded, as ammonia, acetic
acid, pyroxylic spirit, and parafline oils, the sale of which alone will nearly
cover the expenses of the whole process.
The fatty matter, separated by distillation, forms an excellent lubricating
grease; #he yield of which averages about five per cent. of the weight of charcoal
produced. In its ciude state, it has been sold for ~12 per ton at Horwich.
The charcoal made from torbite is extremely dense and pure. Its heating
and resisting powers have been amply and severely tested, and with the most
satisfactory results. At thelHorwich Works, pig-iron has been readily melted




304                          APPENDIX.
in a cupola. About 80 tons of superior iron have been made with it in a small
blast furnace, measuring only 0 feet in the boshes, and about 26 feet high. The
ore smelted was partly red hematite, and partly Staffordshire; and the quantity of charcoal consumed was 1 ton 11 cwt. to the ton of iron made; but, in a
larger and better constructed furnace, considerably less charcoal will be required. It has also been tried in puddling and air furnaces, with equally good
results, considerably improving the quality of the iron melted. For this purpose, tihe fuel was only partially charred, in order not to deprive it of its flame,
which is considerably longer than that from coal. Some of the pig-iron made at
Horwich was then converted into bars, which were afterwards bent completely
double, when cold, without exhibiting a single flaw. Messrs. Brovwn & Lennox, in testing this iron for chain cables, have reported that its strength was
proved to be considerably above the average strength of the best brands.
In Germany, peat mixed with wood-charcoal is very extensively used in the
production of iron; the peat, as prepared there, not being sufficiently solid to
do the work alone; but it is found that the greater the proportion of peat that
can be used, the better is the quality of the iron produced. The gas delivered
from the high furnaces has also been satisfactorily employed in the refining of
iron and the puddling of steel. The value of peat in the production of iron has
long been established. Iron metallurgists are agreed in the opinion that iron
so produced is of very superior quality. In every stage of iron manufacture,
and in welding, peat-charcoal is most valuable. At Messrs. Hick & Son's
forge, in Boltdn, a large mass of iron, about 10 inch square, was heated to a
welding heat with peat-charcoal, made at Horwich. The time occupied was
less than the operation would have taken with coal; the whole mass was
equally heated through without the slightest trace of burning on the outside;
and in hammering out the mass, as mucli was done with one heating as ordinarily required two heatings to effect. The importance of obtaining an abundant supply of peat-charcoal, at cheap rates, cannot, therefore, be too highly
estimated.
For the generating of steam, the fuel made at Horwich has also been well
tested, and its superiority over coal, practically demonstrated, both in locomotives and stationary engines. On the Northern Counties Railway of Ireland, a
train was driven with it from Belfast to Port-rush, a distance of seventy miles.
The result at the end of the journey showed a saving, as regards weight consumed, of 25 to 30 per cent. over the average of three months' working with
coal on the same journey. There was an excess of steam throughout the run,
though the fire-door was constantly open; and the damper down. At starting,
the pressure was 100 lbs., but during the trip, and *while ascending a steep
incline, it rose to 110 lbs., and afterwards to 120 lbs., with the fire-door open.
While running, there was no smoke, and very little when standing still.
At the Horwich Works, the fuel was tested against coal under the boiler
there. This was done on two conlecutive days, the fire having, on each occasion, been raked out the night previous. The following results were obtained -
Coal got up steam to 10 lbs. pressure in two hours 25 minutes, and to 25 lbs.
pressure in 3 hours; peat-fuel got up steam to 10 lbs. in 1 hour 10 minutes,
and to 25 lbs. in 1 hour 32 minutes; 21 cwt; of coal maintained steam at 30 lbs.
pressure, for 9J houre, for 9s; 11 cwt. of peat-fuel maintained steam at the same pressure for 8 hours. But, in addition to this, a large economy is effected by the
use of peat-fuel for the generation of steam, in the saving of boilers and firebars from the destruction caused by the sulphur in coal, from whichipeat is
free. In Bavaria, peat-fuel has been used on the railways for several years
past; and the economy effected by its use in the wear and tear of the engines is
stated by the officials, in their reports, to be very considerable.
The bogs of Great Britain and Ireland cover an tfrea exceeding five millions




APPENDIX.                            305
of acres, the average depth of which may be taken at twenty feet. Nature has
thus supplied us with the means of adding to our stock of fuel some twenty
thousand millions of tons. In Ireland, about a million and a half of acres
have been thoroughly surveyed. In the reports of these surveys, it is stated,
that beneath the peat an excellent soil, well situated for drainage, was found,
fit for arable or pasture land.
When it is considered what peat is capable of doing, and all the results involved in the question of utilizing peat, it is impossible not to feel impressed
with the conviction, that the foundation has been laid of an undertaking of
great national importance and interest.             ~
From "The American Railway Times."
STEAM  FUEL. —Wherever the main source of artificial motion-may lie
hidden away, awaiting ultimate development, whether in air, or in water, or
in the heat of the earth itself, matters less to the practical man than to the
philosopher.
Coal has long been the main source from which that power has been obtained. How much longer it may continue so to be is uncertain, not so much
from any immediate probability of failure in the supply, as that, of late, other
substances have been utilized which hitherto were comparatively unknown, or
considered inapplicable to the purpose of steam generation. It becomes us to
consider, not only how to economize that supply, which we can at present call
our own, but how to produce a fuel which shall satisfactorily occupy its position as well now as when our coal-fields cease to yield.
The two main sources from which the present generation may expect to
derive practical benefit, and to which we may look for aid in the economizing
of our coal, are peat and petroleum.
The deposits of peat in Great Britain and Ireland occupy an area of about six
million acres. The thickness of peat varies in different localities, from two to
forty or fifty feet. Assuming the average thickness to be only twelve feet, an
acre would yield about 3500 tons of dried peat; consequently the aggregate
estimated acreage in this country would produce twenty-one thousand million
tons of dried peat, equal to the supply of twenty-one million tons per annum
for a thousand years. It cannot be supposed that these enormous masses of
vegetable matter were created to be either useless or noxious. Nor is it a matter for wonder that attention has often been directed in this country, and in
others where similar deposits exist, to the means of utilizing the peat, and reclaiming the land which it covers.
The value of peat, when properly dried, is well known and admitted, both
for domestic fuel and for generating steam; and charcoal properly made from
such peat is, in all respects, equal, if not superior, to wood-charcoal. When
dug from the bog, peat generally contains from fifty to seventy-five per cent.
of water.
The inference drawn from practical experience is, that, to insure commercial
success in utilizing peat, the operation must be inexpensive and expeditious,
costly machinery being avoided.
From four to five tons of peat, as taken from the bog, are required to make
one ton of dry condensed peat. The cost varies in different localities; but it
may be safely assumed that the average cost will not exceed that of coal at the
pit's mouth. Peat thus prepared burns very freely, will stand a powerful
blast, rnits great heat, is smokeldss, and produces less ash than the average
of coal or coke. It is impervious to water, improves by keeping, and is incapable of self-ignition. From two and a half to three tons of prepared peat will
make one ton of excellent charcoal, according to the degree of' carbonization
required.
20




-306                         APPENDIX.
The general heating power of the condensed peat has been proved to be very
superior to that of coal; and, in fact, this article appears to be well adapted as
a fuel for steam-engines, whether marine, stationary, or locomotive. Its use
has been found to effect a saving of fifty per cent. in time in generating steam,
and it will do double duty as compared with coal. The absenceof smoke and
clinkers, and the preservation of furnace-bars and boilers from the destructive
effects of sulphur from coal, are additional and important advantages.
The locomotive engineers of three railways in Ireland united to carry out a
practical trial of the condensed peat on the. Belfast and Northern Counties
Railway, with tkview of testing its qualities as a fuel for locomotives. The
trip was made fir Carrick Junction to Ballymena, a distance of twenty-seven
miles. During the whole of the journey there was ian excess of steam, although the fire-door was kept continually open, and the damper down, for the
greater portion of the distance. The pressure at starting  was a hundred
pounds per square inch. The commencement of the journey was up an incline
of one in eighty, four miles long, and with double curves; while ascending
the incline, the pressure rose to a hundred and ten pounds, and afterwards to a
hundred and twenty pounds; and this with the fire-door open.. The speed was
about forty miles an hour. While on the way, the fuel emitted no smoke, and
-very little when at stations. The fire-box was examined at Ballymena, and a
very small portion of clinker was found. The smoke-box was perfectly free
from cinders or dust, - a proof that the fuel had stood the blast exceedingly
well; and it is the recorded opinion of the experimenters that the condensed
peat was in every respect well adapted as a fuel for locomotive purposes.
In the face of such results as these, bearing the testimony they do to the
fitness of properly prepared peat as a steam-fuel, the wonder is that it has not'been generally brought into use. One reason why it has not, may lie in the
limited quantity manufactured for steam purposes, the greater value of peat
lying at present in its conversion into charcoal for smelting, for which purpose
it is used in considerable quantities with the best results. Another cause for
its non-adoption may be the hesitancy to depart from the old beaten track,
which so often stops the way of improvement. The success of the practical
trials it has undergone ought to be sufficient to commend its further use. No
serious alterations to machinery are involved in its adoption, the only thing
necessary being a reduction of space between the fire-bars to insure perfect
combustion.
Such a substitute for coal or coke deserves attention. The comparative absence of smoke, and the total absence of all sulphurous vapors, ought to be a
sufficient inducement, independently of the economy effected. *
The question of the use of peat in locomotives is not a new one. About
twenty years since Lord Willoughby d'Fresby had some tried in the Hesperus
Locomotive on the. Great Western Railway. This engine was of Hawthorn's
patent return-tube construction, and required about one third more peat than
coke, with equal drafts. Mr. Vignoles has also interested himself in the
same direction. Opposite opinions, however, have always existed as to the
economical merits of peat; but it may yet prove an efficient substitute for coal
in all its varied uses.
From  an Article in the New York Reformer, by Dr. W. V. V.
Rosa, of Watertown, N. Y.
What is peat? Where should we look for it, and how shall we know it?
In what is it better than wood or coal, and in what respects inferior? Is it
scarce or abundant? Is a peat-bed of much value in money? and what is the
history of peat?




APPENDIX.                            307
All these, being questions of keeping warm and cooking and gas -and motivepower and making money, are asked almost daily; for peat is becoming a subject of active interest everywhere at present from the high priceswve have to
pay for wood and coal.
All over tVe State, just now, solitary individuals in high boots, and tro uers
tucked in, with a long pole over the shoulder, and speculation in their ees,
may be seen following a sloppy, crane-like course of life, mysteriously wading
about where bullfrogs most do congregate, who, if they are asked what in the
world they are doing way out there, return a very swampy kind of answer;
while they hurry on and leave you as clear as mud upon the mystery of their
queer accoutrements, and unaccustomed advent, and their marshy ways. Yet,
if you become familiar with the matter but just a little, the fog will rise from
the subject, and you'll understand it easily,'that it is peat-beds they are looking
after; and that, if one should happen to exist upon your farm, it may be an excellent thing for yourself to know, as an acre of peat may be worth a thousand
dollars, or two thousand even, instead of being a worthless bog and a nuisance,
so given up to croakings and paludal dirges, that even abundant liquidation
cannot still these " voices of the night."
But to return to the peat, - to the what and where is it. In answering, let
us review for a moment what we all know concerning wood. It will assist in
following the changes which take place in one form of it, - the vegetable fibre
of mosses and ferns, for instance, -while it is passing into peat; most pest
being the product of partially decomposed and partially preserved beds of
mosses and ferns in swampy places.
Wood, then, is a compound substance, mainly carbon,-that is, coal-united
variously with some mineral substances, such as potash, lime, silex, together
with gases, - oxygen and hydrogen, and with water, &c., in the form of gums,
~resins, starch, sugar, and the like,.in great variety.
These substances, in burning, form new compounds, such as carbonic acid,
creosote, wood-vinegar, naphtha, alcohol, and the like, which pass away in:smoke and vapor; and the other parts remain as ashes.
If, however, we wish to convert the wood into charcoal, the process is controlled and modified somewhat. The wood, gathered in bulk, is covered over
thickly with earth, to prevent free access of air; a very little being admitted
below, sufficient, and a trifle more, however, to consume that portion near the
air-holes., A tolerably high heat is thus diffused throughout the pit; and the
slight excess of air thereby quickened in its action, soon causes new combinations to take place,-and decomposes and carries off the more destructible parts;
and then, the draft being closed, the fire goes out, the pit cools down, and, the
earth being removed, the coal is ready for use. By this means, excepting just
about the air-holes, only a part, the more volatile and destructible constituents
of the wood, are burned or recomposed, or pass away, while the main partthe carbon and mineral part — is left unconsumed.
Now what is understood by burning? When we say a substance burns, it
signifies usually that the substance- coal or gas, wood, weeds, grass or moss,
for instance- unites very rapidly with oxygen, which is abundant in the air;
the substance burned being thus changed in its form, but not destroyed, not
annihilated, as that, of course, would be impossible. All that existed in the
wood before, still continues to exist, though in other shapes; mainly in gases,
partly in liquids, and partly in mineral, as in the ashes. During this process,
or rather by it, heat is created. If the process goes on very fast, it is very hot;
if slow, less hot; and though so very slow indeed that no heat can be-perceived,
the burning is in reality still going on, though the heat is unobserved. It will
exist, however, though in a degree too slight to cause sensation of the slightest
warmth.




308                          APPENDIX.
Mletals - iron, for instance - may burn, that is, unite, the same as wood or
coal, with oxygen. In this case but little gas is formed; nearly the whole
remainingu   oxide of iron; that is, as rust. Rust is the ashes of iron. If the
oxidation is rapid, as when it is burned in a jar of pure oxygen, great heat and
ligg are caused; if slow, as when iron rusts in damp air, or under water, none
is 0oserved; but yet the rusting of iron under water is as really a burning of
the iron as when the same occurs in oxygen, or at the forge, with intensest
heat and light.
Water, indeed, being composed in part of oxygen, and holding a little extra
in solution, is a good substance (strange as it may sound) to burn things with;
in some instances better by far than air. And this is an essential point to observe in studying the formation of peat, that water is a good substance to burn
things with; that is, if you are in no hurry, if you have years to spend in burning a very little, - so very slowly that an insurance policy might run out and be
renewed, and out again a score of times, before the job is finished.
Although water, by preventing the free contact between actively burning
bodies and the air, will'; put out" fire, that is, will stop the rapjid combustion
which air favors and supports, still in reality the water does not put out the
fire absolutely, as chemists would define the term, but rather, in many cases,
makes its continuance certain, though centuries might be the measure of the
slowness of the work.
One thing more, essential: Though water will burn many things better than
air (even iron for instance, which, unless very highly heated from without, will
not rust at all, that is, not burn, in dry air), still it is slower, or will not burn
other substances which are easily consumed in air. And coal is just one of
these. Coal will not oxidize, that is, not burn or rust or decay in even hot
water. It will keep there forever.
And now, it being clear that water prevents rapid oxidation by excluding
free access of air, and yet insures its slow continuance to a certain stage by
furnishing a little, and that it burns and converts most substances easily or
surely, and stops at others, among which is coal, it may be understood with
but little further thought, how peat is-formed, and where it is most likely to be
found.
We can see that where large quantities of woody substances, such as mosses,
ferns, &c., are for a long time accumulated, and remain always. thoroughly
soaked with water, as in many swampy localities, such places may be considered much like very slow-burning coal-pits; that they are places where
mainly, by an exceedingly lingering oxidation, new compounds and recompositions take place, and the more easily consumable portion of the vegetable
matters there gathered, being volatilized or burned, pass off, and leave the
coaly portion especially, unconsumed, much in the same way, in principle, that
it is made and left in ordinary pits, the water acting here, in part, as the earth
covering does there, to govern and moderate the changes and oxidation by
preventing free access of air, yet allowing or furnishing a little; and finally,
when the coal-state is reached, the bedhbeing already cool, the oxidation, absorptions, and recompositions cease, and the carbon, ready for use, is preserved
for centuries.
When wood or vegetable fibre dies, and remains in places freely exposed to
air and sun, it is soon almost wholly decomposed, passing away in gases mainly, as has been mentioned; and but very little of it remains. If, however, in a
cool climate, and other circumstances being favorable, it falls in large amount
into places kept always thoroughly wet, then the decomposition is only partial,
and the most of the carbon remains.
A peat-bed, therefore, during its formation certainly, must be looked for, at
least in this climate, in swampy, boggy places, yet not too wet for vegetation
to exist.




APPENDIX.                            309
The great body of most peat-beds result from a variety of moss called
Sphagnum palustre; in part also from ferns or brakes, rushes, reeds, and other
plants; and even fallen timber occasionally constitutes a part. This bog-moss,
of which there are many varieties, flourishes luxuriantly in such positions; its
fibres growiqg even a foot and a half in length. And it has this quite remarkable peculiarity, that, while its old roots and lower portions die in the Vret
soil or water, new roots spring out from the stem above; and thus, without
interruption, it continues to grow and accumulate year after year, in a deep
and deeper bed for centuries, at length resulting in a vast collection of carbon,
frequently almost as pure as bituminous coal.
Peat-beds, however, are not always wet places after their formation, though
they must have been so during it. The swale may have been gradually filled
up with the growth of peat itself, and then soil may have been formed or
washed over it. In some instances, -as over parts of the Oswego bed just
opened,- even large trees are growing. The beds are frequently covered with
cranberry-bushes, hazel, willow, and the like, similar to the vegetation on old
beaver meadows. In some countries, as in Ireland, parts of Switzerland, and
Fuegia, in humid and quite cool climates, peat may form on plains, and even on
hill-sides. This is called mountain or hill peat. In a few instances it has been
found at the bottom of the sea, formed there under peculiar circumstances,
from beds of sea-weed. The mountain peat, and that on plains, is of an inferior kind; and its beds usually do not exceed four feet in depth. We need
not look for any in this region, except that formed in swamps or ponds, unless
it be in low prairies. Our climate is usually too dry for that on plains or
hill-sides.
The influence of heat, it may be mentioned, is so great, that peat is never
found near the tropics. In the United States, it does not generally occur south
of the Dismal Swamp. Vegetation, even under water, in hot climates, changes
too fast and too completely to leave much carbon. In looking for beds in this
region, we should examine only such places as are or have been quite depressed. Generally they will be found surrounded on all sides by higher land,
making a basin-like depression, supplied with a moderate amount of water,
and generally underlaid with clay, which, with the high land, prevents thewater from either flowing or filtering away. Frequently the growth of moss
and ferns in such places -is favored by surrounding woods and the shade of
bills. In such a place, if moss is growing plentifully, and the quantity of
water is not too great, the probability is strong for a deposit of peat. The
surface of beds, as stated, varies greatly, as is indicated by the various names in
common use, such as turf, bog, moss, moor, and heath. Sometimes it is so
wet, that the peat may be dipped out with a kind of scoop-net, as is occasionally done in Holland. The surface of others is firmrenough to be crossed on
foot, by stepping carefully on the more solid parts, the clumps of higher
growth, or by jumping from hummock to hummock,-tussocks, as they are
called in Scotland. Of others the surface is drier and more even, yet trembles
as you pass over it: quaYcing bogs they are sometimes named in England and
Scotland.
Animal remains in bogs are quite abundant, especially in Ireland, Flanders,
and the Isle of Man; yet none have been found belonging to quadrupeds wiose
living species are peculiar to the tropics, such as the elephant, rhinoceros,
hyena, tiger, hippopotamus, though remains of such are very common in other
superficial deposits in Great Britain. These facts together demonstrate the
geologically recent date of these bogs, as well as the existence of a tropical
climate at an earlier time, even thus far north.
Usually peat-beds are. very slow of growth. Occasionally, however, they
increase with some rapidity. One case is mentioned of seven feet gain ih



310                         APPENDI)IX.
thirty years.'At the bottom of them, besides the clay mentioned, there are
often deposits of marl, sometimes shell marl. This occurs when beds have
grown in shallow lakes or ponds. Frequently these marl deposits are sufficient
in amount to be used freely in agriculture. Occasionally thick crusts of bogiron form on the bottom, and may be of much commercial value in some
instances.
But how does peat look in the bed? The top layers, more generally called
turf, are quite fibrous, loose, porous, full of leaves, roots, sticks, &c. Deeper
down, it is more perfectly formed, pure, and dense.. A few feet farther down,
if good, it is quite free from roots and stems; and, if very good, is free from
grit, stones, or other foreign matters. In color, it varies from yellowish and
reddish and dark brown to pure black, called sometimes turbary bog.
In consistence, the deeper peat varies from thin mud to that of clay prepared for making brick; some so thin that it may be dipped up, while the
drier peat will cut about like paste-blacking, and looking much like it. When
thoroughly dry and pressed, it may appear like a rough cake of chocolate,
with or without fibres in it, though under the knife it is much harder; or, if
of better quality, it will look and cut like licorice-ball. Sometimes it crumbles when dry, but this is an indication that it is poor and imperfectly formed,
too much like common muck. Usually when dry, if tolerably pure, it is quite
firm and solid. When wet, if pure, the better qualities feel smooth, greasy
soft, unctuous, like pure blue clay. Generally, though there are exceptions,
it has but little odor, and but little taste. In weight it varies with the pressed
and unpressed, the pure and impure specimens, from some so fibrous that it
will even float on water, to others about the gravity of bituminous coal.
And now, knowing how it appears, and having reached the place, if you
please, where we may reasonably hope to find it, how shall the examination
be made?
If the surface is soft, run down a pole, and see if any comes up sticking to
it. See if there is clay or marl on the end of the pole, if you have' reached the
bottom; or run down a gas-pipe, or a tin conductor from your eaves-trough, or
a gun-barrel, and then push out what comes up inside;, or tie a wide-mouthed
vial to the end of your pole, with a string attached to the cork, and then, pulling out the cork at the depth you choose, bring it up, filled of course. If the
bed is quite dry, dig off the top, and go down, first with the spade, then with
the gas-pipe, &c. Be a Yankee, and you can examine it easily enough. When
you have dried some, see how freely it will burn; how much ashes it leaves.
It should burn in a stove or grate or fireplace, or heap out of doors, and without much smoke, if it is tolerably pure and dry.
It generally gives out, when burning, a bituminous odor, and sometimes, if
quite turfy, the " peaty'" odor, which some few will recognize, having observed
it in their youth, when partaking of Irish or Scotch whiskey-punch, in the
making of which whiskey, barley, malted with a peat-fire, is used, which thus
communicates the peculiar flavor imitated here imperfectly with creosote.
Occasionally, in a very dry time, peat is discovered by fire which may have
taken in it from a summer fallow, or from the Woods. The peat is recognized
from the burning continuing so long and deep. If you remember such a fire,
it mry be well to make examination. Very possibly, however, it will prove to
be only muck, so poor in carbon that it will have but little value.
Next comes the question whether it is probable that much peat may be
found, if properly prospected, in this country. Is peat of quite rare, or of
frequent occurrence? A little study will show that it is found, and is still
more frequently to be found, in vast amounts, and in very many places all
through the Northern States.
Wood and coal, in this country, have been so cheap, that, thus far, peat has




APPENDIX.                             31 1
been discovered mostly by accident rather than by search, and is as little
understood and valued as petroleum was but a few months —not years —
ago. With us, its general usefulness and peculiar excellence for certain leading purposes have excited no proportionate interest. But all this is changing
fast, and it will not be long before peat will stand prominent among the
earth's great wealths; only a short time and. like iron and coal, it will be
considered among the great natural accumulations of riches, and power, and
national comfort, and well-being with which these Northern States are almost
over-blessed.
Hundreds of beds are known, and thousands will be discovered, some in
almost every county of the North. A word as to its abundance, first abroad,
and then at home.
More than one tenth of Ireland is covered with peat; over 1,000,000 acres.
One of the mosses on the Shannon is fifty miles in length by two or three in
breadth. Beds vary from thin layers to ninety (90) feet in depth.- In 1856,
there were raised and registered in Ireland, England, and Scotland, 66,645,450
tons. The average depth of English beds is computed at 19- feet. The bog
of Montoire, near the mouth of the Loire, in France, is fifty leagues in circumference. On an average, there is employed in France the work of 50,000
men for forty days each year, in the cutting and preparation of peat. It is
abundant throughout all Northern Europe.
As to the United States, though as yet so little looked for and so little used,
it is already known to a great extent. A number of beds have lately been
discovered within thirty miles of Watertown, and there are without doubt
many more. The peat from some of these is apparently of the finest quality,
pure, black, even, dense, free from fibres and impurities.
The -Oswego bed, but lately opened, is about 270 acres in extent, varying
from five to fifty feet in depth. Ten years ago even, it was estimated that in
Massachusetts there were at least 120,000,000 cords.  By the Massachusetts
Geological Reports, it is mentioned in about one hundred towns; the beds
being frequently underlaid with marl. It is abundant in New Jersey, in Connecticut, and Maine; in fact in all the New-England States. In New York, it
is especially so along the Hudson River, - over 10,000 acres, it is stated, - and
an immense supply in the central and western counties. One bed in Warren
County is sixty feet in depth, and by report of Professor Emmons, must have
been some 800 years in forming. Near Cold Spring a bed was discovered, the
railroad track built over it having sunk in and disappeared.
In Washington County are over twenty beds; in Columbia County, thirty
beds; in Dutchess County, forty beds; in Orange County are many beds: over
15,000 acres. The whole being over 30,000 acres. In twenty-eight of these
beds marl is found. These last statistics, it should be remembered, are found
in the New York Geological Survey, made twenty-two years ago, and the figures for the present would be much increased of course.  Near Rome it is
abundant, and near Littler Falls, Cooperstown, Cherry Valley, Syracuse, &c.,.
&c.: it will be found plentiful in St. Lawrence County and Lewis, and probably in Jefferson also. In Jefferson, there are some localities apparently well
adapted to its growth; especially, perhaps, the towns of Theresa, Alexandria,
Antwerp, Orleans, Pamelia, Philadelphia, Ellisburgh, Henderson, Cape Vincent, and Wilna. This, however, is by judging mainly from glancing over the
map, and observing the distribution of low lands.
Now, what is it good for? and what is it worth? It is good in a stove, in a fireplace, in a furnace, for locomotives, - much used that way in England and Bavaria, -for stationary engines, wherever motive-power from fire is wanted, in
the forge, in making pig-iron and steel, for puddling iron, for gas, as a fertilizer,
for paraffine, &c., as mentioned below. It makes no clinkers in burning, nor are




312                          APPEND)IX.
grate-bars consumed by it as by anthracite. The very best quality, well ground,
pressed and dried, bulk for bulk, is nearly or quite equal to common bituminous
coal for general purposes, and much superior for otters. From this it goes
down to almost worthless qualities. The coal, after the coking of some varieties, so it is stated, is preferable in making gunpowder to even that from dogwood and alder. Used as a fertilizer, it is ~sometimes first burned, at others
unburned, mixed with manures, lime, &c., after it has been subjected to the
frost and air. Its effects are said to be very permanent on land, lasting
for years. In the manufacture of iron, especially in puddling iron, good
qualities are far superior to mineral coal, and if first coked, is better even
than charcoal. In Sweden, particularly, it is now employed for this purpose.
Iron men will appreciate its excellence over anthracite in its being usually
free from sulphur and phosphorus. It will probably be much used in this
country before many years, both in blast and puddling furnaces, and perhaps
in making steel.
Some varieties are of the very first value in manufacturing gas. The French
have given this department especial attention.
Most good peat will produce much resin and paraffine, which last is quite
valuable. It closely resembles spermaceti, and is used for candles, which burn
like those from wax.
First-class dry peat, on analysis, averages about as follows to the 100
parts:Carbon.....................  55
Hydrogen......                                      5
Oxygen......35
Ashes.......................  5
100
The first three constitute the base from which the paraffine, oils, &c., are
formed. (It should be mentioned, that in some instances, while peat is forming, part of the carbon of the woody fibre, among other chemical changes,
retains hydrogen, and thus compounds result richer as hydrocarbons than the
original fibre.) The very best peat contains about ninety per cent. of combustible matter.
Now, how is it prepared for use? This varies much with the service it is
to perform. For ordinary fires, it is simply dried in the sun after being cut
out in bricks with a three-sided spade. For some purposes it is pressed before
drying. For other purposes it is ground previous to the pressing and drying.
For others it is coked.
There are various machines for the grinding and pressing. The Boston Peat
Company, whose office is 49 Congress Street, Boston, Leavitt & Hunnewell
being the agents, use and also sell a machine said to be economical for beds
even of an acre. It is reported, with ten-horse power (steam), to grind and
press one hundred tons of crude peat, producing twenty-five tons or more of
conde ised fuel per day, nearly as solid as bituminous coal. This machine costs
$1500; and as each bed, of course, furnishes itself with fuel gratis, the cost of
working is stated to be about two dollars per ton.
As to the general market value of peat, at present but little can be said. Of
prices at particular beds, the following are quotations: At the Oswego bed,
pressed and dry, it goes at about $7 per ton, and delivered at Oswego, $7.50. At
the Lexington bed mentioned,- or rather peat from  it at Boston,- has
heretofore usually sold for $10 per ton- of 2000 pounds; but at present, if
on hand, it would readily bring, by the thousands of tons, $12, - coal standing
there at $15.
The cost of production and the price in market will hereafter, of course, vary




APPENDIX.                           313
exceedingly. A large bed, tolerably dry, or.favorably situated for draining,
located near a place of great consumption, and of pure, dense quality, may be
worth anywhere from a thousand to some hundreds of thousands of dollars.
If, however, badly located, very wet, quite poor, 8&c., it would be worth something to you if it was not on your farm.
There is one great advantage in looking for peat over boring for oil,. for
instance; for peat you put down your well with a pole, and it costs you only
a couple of wet feet; and if you don't strike peat, peat has not struck you, -
you are not floored; your financial eye is not closed up; you can go on looking; and if at last you see it, you can start business on a fair scale with only
a spade or two; and thus this is a branch of industry eminently open to universally. competitive enterprise, with small means and no indorser. How
much-capital, by the way, do you suppose is now, after only so few years'
operations, engaged in petroleum? There are 1100 petroleum companies,
with $100,000,000 of absolutely paid-in capital, $600,000,000 nominal. The
product of this year, 1865, it is estimated will be 1,500,000 barrels, averaging
about $14.50 per barrel.. Peat and petroleum (as their names indicate) are of the same family (Old
King Coal being the head); and it would not be strange if the younger
brother, with thd shorter name, should do the longer and larger business
after all, and become the greater favorite of the two.
There is more democracy in peat, more disposition to be useful generally,
not distant at all, but at home on everybody's hearth; ready to lend a hand
in the kitchen, or work in the shop, or start an engine, or run -a factory, an
iron-mill, if you call on him for a big job, anything'most, and without much
fuss and fixing; a good-natured, industrious, valid, and capable, rather" unwashed," rough sort of fellow, but a fellow substantial withal, plenty of
means, and ready and able to do a good thing for you, and a big thing, too,
if you want it. You had better make his acquaintance immediately if he
happens in your neighborhood.                                   R.
From  "The Waltham  Sentinel."
There is more in peat than is dreamed of in most men's philosophy.




FACTS ABOUT PEAT.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.'; An elaborate pamphlet, designed to show the economy of peat as a substitute for wood and coal, especially where fuel is required in large quantities.
To this end, Mr. Leavitt has prepared an exhaustive statement of the history
and properties of peat, the localities of peat-beds, the methods of preparation
and manufacture, its applicability to the various arts, as well as to the production of heat, and other incidental matters of practical importance." - Worcester
Spy.
" It will be found especially interesting to manufacturers and railroad managers."-  Hfartford Courant.
"' It is full of information as to the value of peat, and its whereabouts." -
Bridgeport Farmer.
" Mr. Leavitt shows conclusively, that peat is equally as good as coal, and for
many purposes unquestionably superior, especially for generating steam, and
for the manufacture of iron, steel, and other metals." - Cheshire Republican.
"The treatise is prepared with care, and embodies much useful information.
The use of peat is now attracting, generally, the attention of railroad men, manufacturers, and others; and, in this view, the issue of the pamphlet is timely."
- Roxbury.Journal.
" An octavo pamphlet of 120 pages, elegantly printed, compiled by T. H.
Leavitt, Esq. It is a thorough production, the author proceeding exhaustively,
and arranging his abundant matter in a manner that renders the task of following him easy and profitable. He has mastered his subject, and evidently has
neglected nothing that is calculated to illustrate it, and to press useful facts on
the mind of the inquirer. Various, minute, and copious in its facts, and showing how valuable is peat as an article of fuel, this work must have a great effect in directing attention to a neglected agent for the production of heat, one
which Providence has placed most freely at the command of man, and which
ought to be made to enter very largely into human consumption. Mr. Leavitt
is literally correct, when he says that the substance of which he treats so well'is of sufficient importance to command earnest attention, not only from the
business man, on the score of its application to domestic purposes, manufactures, and the arts, but from the philanthropist, in view of the relief it may be
made to afford as one of the necessaries of life.' Mr. Leavitt's work should be
read by all, as it is full of information, and it needs only that the value of peat
should be understood, to bring it into general use, to the great relief of all
interests." - Boston Traveller.
(314)




APPENDIX.                           315
"The pamphlet is full of most interesting facts on the subject." - Hartford
Press.
"Replete with interesting and instructive'Facts,' demonstrating that abundant sources of supply are to be found in all the New England States, and its
economy over wood and coal. We are persuaded its perusal by every consumer
in New England would be productive of great good, and excite a new enterprise
throughout the New England States." - Portland Advertiser.
"We would recommend any one whose pockets are interested to the amount
of $25 for fuel, to get the book and read it." - Brunswick, Me., Telegraph.
"A well-timed and well-executed compilation of important facts. Of all men,
farmers should turn their attention to peat for the preservation of their best
forests for more valuable uses than fuel." -Vermont Watchman.
" The development of such a source of wealth and of general relief, lying all
around, in lands that are otherwise utterly valueless, will add at once to the
general resources of the country, and to the means of comfort and life of all
classes of socicty. If this new method is what it is represented to be, of which
we have satisfactory evidence,, we earnestly hope it may attract the attention of
capitalists and business men without delay." -Brooklyn Union.
"A very interesting-work. The subject is beginning td excite considerable
attention, not only on account of the fears of a growing scarcity of wood, its
high price, and also that of coal, but because it forms one of the products of industry, which, when perfected from its raw state, forms, like mines of iron,
lead, copper, and silver, great wealth to a nation." - Union and Journal, Biddeford, Me.
"A good-looking pamphlet of 120 pages, giving us all the information upon
the subject of peat that the most laborious and extensive research can possibly
furnish." -Lowell Courier.
" It contains more historical facts on the formation of peat-beds than any
thing we have heretofore seen." -- ew York Spirit of the Times.
" A company in Boston have at length completed the invention of a simple
and rational process, by which crude peat, as it is taken from its bed, can be
converted into a solid, dry fuel, in good shape, in large quantities, and at a
moderate cost.' The machinery required is simple, and not too expensive fb?
use, and can easily be set up and run by the side of the peat-bed. We have seen
specimens of the peat condensed by this process, and are acquainted with the
principle on which the machine works, and think there is no reason to doubt its
efficiency. The personal character of the principal managers is fitted to inspire
confidence that they would not come before the public, unless they had a good
thing, calculated to be a general benefit. Indeed, their method may fairly claim
to be not only the best, but the only one, so far as is known, in this country,
that is at once effectual, cheap, and rapid. They are the pioneers of the present
movement in favor of the use of peat, having been engaged for several years in
their experiments and inquiries. Their actuary, Mr. T. H. Leavitt, has published a pamphlet of 118 pages, containing more information —historical, scientific, and practical — about peat, we venture to say, than any other man in the
country is possessed of; and his perseverance is well entitled to the success
which seems about to be realized.
" Those who seek to be thoroughly informed should procure it. And those
who would transact business with the company should address the agents,
Learvitt & Hunnewell, 49 Congress Street, Boston." - Blooklyn Union.
"A very handsomely printed and valuable pamphlet, containing'Facts'
which are not only interesting, but, if borne out by actual experiment, of the




316                        APPENDIX.
highest. value. Turning listlessly to its title-page, we became so much absorbed
in its pages, that we read it as closely as an editor ever finds time to read anything; and we came to the conclusion that the company who have undertaken
to develop the value of peat ought to be encouraged by all-who have money to
invest in new, and probably remunerative channels of trade or manufactures.
The glowing heat and cheerful light of a peat fire are the very ultimatum of a
social evening." - Providence Daily Press.
"The work is deserving of more than passing notice. We commend it, and
the subject of which it treats, to the attention of all; for no subject is of wider
interest than that of fuel."-Newport Daily News.
"There is an abundance of it, thousands and millions of cords, scattered all
over New England, and indeed throughout the North. It lies at our very
doors. It is time that our people were stirring themselves to see if it may not
be brought into general use, in orderto stop the waste of our forests, now growing every year more valuable for timber, cheapen the cost of fuel, and render us
less dependent upon coal monopolists and speculators for this indispensable
article. The' Facts,' compiled by Mr. Leavitt, embrace much interesting and
valuable information." - Boston Journal.
"' A glan'ce over its pages shows that the compiler has labored with care and
discrimination in the collection and presentation of his materials. We have a
fondness for peat. The fires of love never burn dimly beside it. Its introduction as an article of fuel is no mere fancy, but a subject of grave importance."
- Bruznswick Telegraph.
" A thorough treatise on the qualities and practical uses of peat." - Old Colony Memorial.
"We consider it a valuable, timely, and interesting work. The whole community are interested in the subject of which it treats." -Fall River News.' The questions of its supply, preparation, and most economical use, are of
high interest; and this pamphlet embodies much neededinformation, which will
aid in their solution. It embraces much curious and instructive matter of practical and scientific interest." - Lowell Citizen.
"Mr. Leavitt's facts and remarks throw a great amount of light upon the subject, and they ought to have a wide circulation. We have an abundance of
peat; and the pamphlet tells us of its importance as an article of fuel, and how
to prepare and use it." - Pawtucket, R. I., Gazette.
"A valuable pamphlet, containing' Facts.' "- Salem Mercury.