___ — ~-~ ~'~x - ~...... h...'."~'; __ — ___-~ __ ~~~~ C C _________:-': —-7~- -= —— i —- --- --' I~UHMBOLDT GLACIEI, GR~EENqLAND. ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. BY EDWARD HITCHCOCK, D.D., LL.D., PROFESSOR IN AMHERST COLLEGE, AND CHARLES H. HITCHICOCK, A.AI,, LECTURER ON ZOOLOGY AND CURATOR OF THE CABINETS IN AMHERST COLLEGE. A NEW EDITION, REMODELED, MOSTLY REWRITTEN, WITH SEVERAL NEWV CHAPTERS) AND BROUGHT UP TO THE PRESENT STATE OF THE SCIENCE. FOR USE IN SCHOOLS, FAMILIES, AND BY INDIVIDUALS. NEW YOR I: IVISON, PHINNEY & CO., 48 & 50 WALKER ST. CHICAGO: S. C. GRIGGS &; CO., 39 & 41 LAKE ST. BOSTON: BROWN & TAQ(GARD. PIIILADELPHIA: SOW0ER, BARNES k CO.,.AND J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. CINCINNATI: MIOOI'E, W'ILSTACII, KEYS & CO. SAVANNAH: J. M. COO'PER & CO. ST. LOUIS: KEITHI & WOOi)S. NEW ORLEANS: E. R. STEVENS & CO, DETROIT: RAYMOND & LAPHIAM. 1862. OTHER WORKS BY EDWARD HITCHCOCK, LL.D. 1. RELIGION OF GEOLOGY AND ITS CONNECTED SCIENCES. A new and enlarged edition. 1859. $1 25. Crosby, Nichols, Lee & Co., Boston. 2. THE SAME WORK: the Author's Copyright Edition. 1859. Two Shillings. James Blackwood, London. 3. RELIGIOUS TRUTH ILLUSTRATED FROM SCIENCE. 1857. $1 25. Crosby, Nichols, Lee & Co., Boston. 4. RELIGIOUS LECTURES ON PECULIAR PHENOMENA IN THE FOUR SEASONS. 1859. One Shilling and Sixpence. James Blackwood, London. The American edition is out of print. 5. HISTORY OF A ZOOLOGICAL TEMPERANCE CONVENTION IN CENTRAL AFRICA. Pp. 160. 18mo. 1854. $0 25. Bridgman & Childs, Northampton. 6. OUTLINES OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE GLOBE. 1 Vol. 8vO. Pp. 136, and Six Plates. With a Geological Map of the Globe, and another of North America. 1853. $1 25. Crosby, Nichols, Lee & Co., Boston. 7. ICHNOLOGY OF NEW ENGLAND. Quarto. Pp. 220; with 60 Plates. 1858. $5 00. J. S. & C. Adams, Amherst, Mass. 8. ILLUSTRATIONS OF SURFACE GEOLOGY. Quarto. Pp. 155; with 12 Plates. Second edition. 1860. $3 00. J. S. & C. Adams, Amherst, Mass. 9. FINAL REPORT ON THE GEOLOGY OF MASSACHUSETTS. Quarto. Pp. 831; with 55 plates. 1841. $6 00. Bridgman & Childs, Northampton. 10. ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. 31st Edition. Rewritten, ana over 200 Illustrations added; making 420 in all. 1 vol. 12mo. Pp. 430. $1 25. 1860. Ivisou & Phinney, New York. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860, BY EDWARD II I T CCOCK, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. ELECTROTYPED BY SMITH I& MODoIrOAL, 82 & 84 Beekman-st. PREFACE TO THE THIRTY-FIRST EDITION. THE steady demand for thirty editions of this work, during the last twenty years, has called for frequent revisions, lest it should fall behind the state of the science. In making the present revision-so rapidly has geology advanced of late —we found it desirable to rewrite nearly the whole, as we have done. We have also modified the plan not a little, to give it greater unity. Some of the old Sections have been left out, but more new ones added. The wood-cut illustrations have been increased from 208 to 418. We have tried to reduce the size of the work, by leaving out every thing not indispensable. But the great amount of new matter and of new illustrations, as well as the expansion of the typography to improve the appearance, have well nigh thwarted our efforts. We are aware that teachers sometimes can not find time to carry their pupils through the whole of a science which so abounds in facts and important applications as does geology. Two methods have been adopted by authors to meet this difficulty. One is, to leave out a large part of the science, and retain only the most striking and brilliant parts. But this is too much like attempting to perform the play of Hamlet with Hamlet left out. And teachers and pupils ought to know, that the study of such abridgments does not make them acquainted with geology, which still remains to be learned. We prefer to give a condensed view of the whole subject, Viii PREFACE. and to designate the parts most important to be thoroughly studied, by a larger type. We have often, too, placed the most difficult reasoning in small type, that the teacher may allow those pupils not mature enough to master it to pass over it. He can also, when necessary, do the same with some whole sections; say Part I., Section 6, on Metamorphism; Part II., Section 3, the Laws of Paleontology; and Section 4, the Inferences from the facts; although in truth these parts, to those who mean to master the whole subject, are indispensable. Part IV., on Economical Geology, can also be omitted, as well as Part V., on American Geology. And it may be that some might profitably study the descriptive and phenomenal parts of the subject, who are too young to understand its religious applications in Part III. Thus while we present the whole subject, both for the sake of teachers and private individuals who wish to study the science, we put it into such a shape that it can be accommodated to the age and time of the pupil, and also lead him to see that until he has mastered the whole, he does not understand geology. In this revision I have associated with me my youngest son, who has borne a large share in the work. As assistant in the geological survey of Vermont, a large part of the last three years has been devoted by him to the study of the rocks in the mountains, and in writing out their descriptions. Should it happen, as most likely it will, that this is the last revision of the work I shall ever make, and he should survive me, I trust he will be found fully competent to keep the work up to the advancing state of the science, should the public call for its continued publication. EDWARD HITCIICOCK. AMHERST, June 1, 1860. CONTENTS. PAIRT I. DESCRIPTION AND DYNA!kMICAL GEOLOGY. PAGE SECTION I. —GENERAL STRUCTURE OF TilE EARTIH, AND THE PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION................................... 15 SECTION II.-THE CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOdY OF GEOLOGY....... 47 SECTION III.-LITHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ROCKS............ 59 SECTION IV.-OPERATION OF ATMOSPHERIC AND AQUEOUS AGENCIES IN PRODUCING GEOLOGICAL CHANGES................. 94 SECTION V.-OPERATION OF IGNEOUS AGENCIES IN PRODUCING GEOLOGICAL CHANGES............................................ 170 SECTION VI.-METAMORPHIS OF Roc.......................... 211 PARIT II. PAL.IONTE OLOGY. SECTION I.-PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES............ 233 SECTION I.- PALAONTOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF THE ROCKS........ 246 SECTION III.-LAWS BY WIIICH ORGANIC REMAINS HAVE BEEN DISTRIBUTED.................................................. 361 SECTION IV.-INFERIIENCES FROMI PIAL2EONTOLOGY IN CONNECTION WITH DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY..................... 370 X CONTENTS. PART III. PAGE BEARINGS OF GEOLOGY UPON RELIGION................... 377 PART IV. ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY..................................... 394 PART V. NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY.............................. 406 INTRODUCTORY NOTICE TO A FORMER EDITION By DR. J. PYE SMITH, OF LONDON. IN a manner unexpected and remarkable, the opportunity has been presented to me of bearing a public testimony to the value of Dr. Hitchcock's volume, ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. This is gratifying, not only because I feel it an honor to myself, but much more as it excites the hope that, by this recommendation, theological students, many of my younger brethren in the evangelical ministry, and serious christians in general, who feel the duty of seeking the cultivation of their own minds, may be induced to study this book. For them it is peculiarly adapted, as it presents a comprehensive digest of geological facts and the theoretical truths deduced from them, disposed in a method admirably perspicuous, so that inquiring persons may, without any discouraging labor, and by employing the diligence which will bring its own reward, acquire such a knowledge of this science as cannot fail of being eminently beneficial. It is no exaggeration to affirm that Geology has close relations to every branch of Natural Iistory and to all the physical sciences, so that no district of that vast domain can be cultivated without awakening trains of thought leading to geological questions; and, conversely, the prosecution of knowledge in this department, cannot fail to excite the desire and to disclose the methods of making valuable acquisitions to the benefit of human life. In our day, through every degree of ex Xii INTIIODUCTORY NOTICE. tensiveness, from the perambulation of a parish to the exploring of an empire, TRAVELING has become a " universal passion," and action too. Within a very few years, the interior of every continent of the earth has been surveyed with an intelligence and accuracy beyond all example. Who can reflect, for instance, upon the activity now so vigorously put forth, for introducing European civilization, the arts of peace, the enjoyment of security, and the influence of the most benign religion, into the long sealed territories of Central Asia, and not be filled with astonishment and delightful anticipation? Similar labors are in progress upon points and in directions innumerable, reaching to the heart of all the other vast regions of the globe; and the men to whomn we owe so much, and from whom so much more is justly expected, are geologists, as well as transcendent naturalists in the other departments. Whoever would run the same career must possess the same qualifications. Even upon the smallest scale of provincial traveling for health, business or beneficence, acquaintance with natural objects opens a thousand means of enjoyment and usefulness. The spirit of these reflections bears a peculiar application to the ministers of the gospel. To the pastors of rural congregations, no means of recreating and preserving health are comparable to these and their allied pursuits; and thus, also, in many temporal respects, they may become benefactors to their neighbors. In large towns the establishment of libraries, lyceums, botanic girdens, and scientific associations, is rapidly diffusing a taste for these kinds of knowledge. It would be a perilous state for the interests of religion, that " precious jewel" whose essential characters are "wisdomrn, knowledge, and joy," if its professional teachers should be, in this respect, inferior to the young and inquiring members of their congregations. For those excellent men who give their lives to the noblest of labors, a work which would honor angels, "preaching among the heathen the umsearchable riches of Christ;"a competent acquaintance with natural objects, is of signal importance, for both safety and usefulness. They should INTRODUCTORY NOTICE. Xiii be able to distinguish mineral and vegetable products, so as to guard against the pernicious and determine the salubrious; and very often geological knowledge will be found of the first utility in fixing upon the best localities for missionary stations; nor can they be insensible to the benefits of which they may be the agents, by communicating discoveries to Europe or the United States of America. To answer these purposes, and especially in the hands of the intelligent and studious ministers of CHRIST, this work of Professor Hitchcock appears to me especially suited. Though I flatter myself that I have studied with advantage the best English treatises on Geology, and find ever new improvement and pleasure from them; and have also paid some attention to French and German books of this class; I think it no disparagement to them to profess my conviction that, with the views just mentioned, this is the book which I long to see brought into extensive use. The plan on which it is composed, is different from that of any other, so far as I know, in such a manner and to such a degree, that it is not an opponent or rival to any of them. Yet, in this arrangement of the matter, there is no affectation: all is plain, consecutive, and luminous. It is more comprehensive with regard to the various relations and aspects of the science, than any one book with which I am acquainted; and yet, though within so moderate limits, it does not disappoint by unsatisfactory brevity or evasive generalities. Such is the impression made upon me by the filrst edition of the " Elementary Geology," and I cannot entertain a doubt but that the ample knowledge and untiring industry of the author will confer every practicable improvement upon his proposed new edition. I received a deep conviction of the Professor's extraordinary merits, from his "Report" upon the Geology, Botany, and Natural History generally, of the Province of Massachusetts, made by the command of the State government; a large volume, published in 1833, and the second edition in 1835; and from his papers in the "American Biblical Repository," which were of great service xiv INTRODUCTORY NOTICE. to me in composing a book on "' The Relation between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of Geological Science." But I did not till recently know that he was a "faithful brother and fellowlaborer in the gospel of Christ." An edifying manifestation of this, it has been my privilege to receive in Dr. Hitchcock's " Essay and Sermon on the Lessons taught by Sickness," prefixed to "A Wreath for the Tomb, or Extracts from Eminent Writers on Death and Eternity." It is my earnest prayer that great blessings from the God of all grace may attend the labors of my honored friend. J. PYE SMITH. HOMERTON COLLEGE, NEAR LONDON, March 16, 1841. ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. PART I. DESCRIPTIVE AND DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY. SECTION I. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF TIHE EARTH, AND PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. GEOLOGY, from the Greek yi/, earth, and )oJyog, discourse, is the history of the mineral masses that compose the earth, and of the organic remains which they contain. The two primary divisions of the science relate to the mineral masses and the organic remains: hence Part I. will embrace exclusively the description of the structure and composition of the rocks, and the forces concerned in their production. This is Descriptive and Dynamical Geology. Part II. will treat of the character and distribution of organic remains. As Geology has an important bearing upon other subjects, we shall consider it Parts III. and 1V. the Relations of Geology to Religion and to the Economical interests of society. A brief account of the Geological structure of North America, in Part V., will conclude the treatise. From these statements it will appear that an acquaintance with Chemistry and Mineralogy is necessary for a thorough knowledge of the mineral masses of the earth, and an acquaintance with the structure of animals and plants, or Zoology and Botany, for the study of the organic remains. We shall presume upon some knowledge of these branches in the student. Geology is a history, not merely in the sense of description, but as a record of events. It narrates the condition of things from the period previous to the existence of organic life, through successive dynasties of more perfect races, to the dominion of man. Physical catastrophes, and the birth and extinction of races, are indelibly written upon the stony leaves of natures' volume. But this record is much less perfect than the written history of man. It is what the history of empires would have been, had our means of knowledge been confined to the works of man's art, like the sculptures of Nineveh and Egypt, obscurely fashioned by successive nations. 16 STRUCTURE OF TIIl EARTH. Every part of the globe, which is not animal or vegetable, including water and air, is regarded as mineral. The term rock, in its popular acceptation, embraces only the solid parts of the globe; but in geological language it includes also the loose materials, the soils, clays, and gravels, that cover the solid parlts. The.Earth as a VThole.-The form of the earth is that of a sphere, flattened at the poles: technically, an oblate spheroid. The polar diameter is about 26 miles shorter than the equatorial. Not only does astronomy prove this theoretically, but the measurement of the degrees of the meridian in different latitudes shows it to be true. Hence it is inferred that the earth must have been once in a fluid state; since it has precisely the form which a fluid globe, revolving on its axis with the same velocity as the earth, would assume. Taken as a whole, the earth is from five to six times heavier than water; or 2.5 times heavier than common rocks. Proof 1. Careful observations upon the relative attracting power of particular mountains and the whole globe, with a zenith sector. 2. The disturbing effect of the earth upon the heavenly bodies. WXTe hence learn that the density of the earth increases from the surface to the centre; but it does not follow that the nature of the internal parts is different from its crust. For in consequence of condensation by pressure, water at the depth of 362 miles, would be as heavy as quicksilver; and air as heavy as water at 34 miles in depth; while at the centre, steel would be compressed into one fourth, and stone into one eighth of its bulk at the surface. Configuration of the surface.-The surface of the earth, as well beneath the ocean as on the dry land, is elevated into ridges and insulated peaks, with intervening valleys and plains. The highest mountains are about 29,000 feet above the ocean level, and the mean height of the dry land is about 1,000 feet. The highest mountain in Asia is AMt. Everest, one of the tIimalayahs, 29,002 feet; the highest in Europe is nit. Blanc, 15,700 feet; the highest in North America is Mit. Elias, 17,850 feet; the highest in South America is Aconcaguna, in Chile, 23,910 feet. The mean height of land in Asia is 1,100 feet; in Europe, 600 feet; in North America, 710 feet, and in South America, 1,000 feet. SU RFACE O F TIE EA rTH. 17. Fi-. t.!oD 9 Fn, 7, 60 50 0 o 20o LongiLude West Fromt Greenwich -1 0.00 - - i C- 9'0 0 "'0 5 -- M0-;' Botonm of the Atlantic Ocean. The mean depth of the ocean is probably between two and three miles. Fig. 1 represents the configuration of the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean between Southern Mexico and Northern Africa. Occasionally parts of the interior of a continent are below the ocean level. The Caspian Sea is 84 feet below the Black Sea, and the Dead Sea is 1,350 feet below the Mediterranean. Hence it appears that the present dry land might be spread over the bottom of the ocean, so that the globe would b3 entirely covered with water. For nearly three-fourths of the surface is at present submerged. The dry land is mostly situated in one hemisphere. For if we place the north pole at London, as may be illustrated upon an artificial globe, the northern hemisphere will be seen to embrace most of the land, while there will be little but water in the southern hemisphere. In carrying out the order already indicated, we shall treat of the general structure and arrazngement of the materials composing the exterior crust of the earth in Section I.; their chemical and mineralogical characters in Sections II. and IIl. The remainder of Part I. will relate to the forces which have modiied these mineral masses. 18- S TRATIFIED R O C KS. STRATIFIED ROCKS. The rocks that compose the globe are divided into two great classes, the STRATIFIED and UNSTRATIFIED, or AQUEoUS and IGNEOUS. Stratification consists of the division of a rock into regular masses, by nearly parellel planes, occasioned by a peculiar mode of deposition. Strata vary in thickness from that of paper to many yards. The term stratum is sometimes employed to designate the whole mass of a rock, while its parallel subdivisions are called beds or layers. The term bed is also employed to designate a layer, whose shape may be more.or less lenlticular, or wedge-shaped, included between the layers of a more extended rock; as a bed of gypsum, a bed of coal, a bed of iron, etc. In this case the bed is sometimes said to be subordinate. When beds of different rocks alternate, they are said to be interstratified. A seam is a thin layer of rock that separates the beds or strata of another rock; ex. gr., a seam of coal, of limestone, etc. A bed or stratum is often divided into thin laminie, which bear the same relation to a single bed as that does to the whole series of beds. This division is called the lamination of the bed; and always results from a mechanical mode of deposition. The lamination is sometimes parallel to the planes of stratification; sometimes the layers are much inclined to each other; and often they are undulating and tortuous. Fig. 2, shows the different kinds of lamination.'Without Laminae. With waved Laminme..___________ - Finely Laminated. Finely Laminated. Coarsely Laminated. 7W////X///////// 7//////Obliquely Laminated. Parallel Lamine. Fig. 3, is a sketch of a block of sandstone, six feet long, from Mount Tom, in East Hampton. Its face is a fine example of the oblique lamination above described, resulting from counter currents and depositions of coarse sand on surfaces sloping in different directions. Such examples are common in that locality. LAMINATIO N. 19 Origin of lamination.-All the lamination of stratified rocks was undoubtedly produced originally by deposition in water, and the varieties have resulted from modifying circumstances. 1. The parallel laminae are the result of quiet deposition upon a level surface. 2. The waved lamination, in many instances, is nothing but ripple marks; such as are seen constantly upon the sand and mud at the bottom of rivers, lakes, and the ocean. In the secondary rocks this is too manifest to be mistaken. 3. The oblique lamination has generally been the result of deposition upon a steep shore, where the materials are driven over the edge of an inclined plane. 4. Highly contorted lamination has often resulted from lateral and vertical pressure, as illustrated by Fig. 4. This is sometimes seen in deposits of clay. Fig 4. illustration If pieces of cloth of a different colors be placed upon a table c, and covered by a weight, a. and then lateral forces, b, b, be applied; while the weight will be somewhat raised, the cloth will be fblded and contorted precisely like the laminme. of many rocks; as is shown in the figure. How to distinguish between c strata and lamince.-This cannot be done by the relative thick 20 DIP AND STRIKE. ness, since strata are sometimes as thin as laminse. But strata can, and laminam can not, be easily split apart. A stratum marks some pause or change in the deposition; but the lalinine were formed rapidly between the pauses. Hence the latter are more closely compacted together, and generally the rock will break more easily in any other direction than in that of its lamnine. Inclination of strata.-The angle which the surface of a stratum makes with the plane of the horizon is called its inclination or dip; and the direction of its upturned edge is called its strike or bearing. Of course horizontal strata have neither strike nor dip. The exposure of a stratum at the surface is called in the language of' miners its outcrop or basseting. An outlier is a detached ledge or mass of strata. As a general fact, the newer or higher rocks are less inclined than those below. The highest are usually horizontal; while the oldest are often perpendicular. But this is not an universal rule. The instrument employed for ascertaining the dip of a stratum, is called a Fig. 5 clinometer. The inclination may be determined by the eye either by itself, or with the help of the hands situated as in Fig. 5. The person must stand opposite the strata, and placing the hands in the range between the eye and the rock, notice the position of the planes when compared with the lines of reference. Each dotted line incloses with. & a..Axes.-The line along which the strata dip in opposite directions is called an anticlinal line, or anticlinal axis. In Fig. 6, a represents a simple anticlinal; b and c Fig. 6. show the conto nr of the surface when denudation has removed tile srata ridge, and d represents a complex, anticlinal. In some instances the strata have been folded together on ef..x~~ —- --— ~] ilVT~ a vast scale, and in such a manner as to bring some of the newer rocks,k~4LS~b~C~i~ beneath the older. Fig. 7 is a secdita Hi tion of this character. Originally the strata were probably folded, as is shown by the curved lines passing from 1 to 1, 2 to 2, and so on. ]But their upper parts AXES. 21 have been denuded, so that the present surface is a, a. The oldest strata are now found to be 6, 6; and they correspond outward on each side of these; as, 5, 5; 4, 4; etc. Such an example as this has been called a folded axis, or an inverted anticlinal. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. a —s~a Folded Axis. When the strata dip toward each other they constitute a synclinal axis. In Fig. 8, a is a shallow synclinal, b a sharp synclinal, c and d complex synclinals. When the strata dip from any point in all directions outward, (a) around the crater of a volcano,) the dip is said to be quaquaversal. Metamorphic Stratified Rocks.-According to the views of the ablest geologists at the present time, we ought perhaps to limit both the terms stratification and lamination to rocks whose mechanical texture proves them to have been deposited from water. But there is a large class of rocks that have been powerfully metamorphosed, so as to become crystalline, yet are divided by parallel planes very analogous to stratification and lamination; and it is usual to regard the former structure, that is, stratification, as extending through them all, and to have resulted from original deposition in water. But the subdivisions of the strata, viz.: cleavage, foliation, and joints, which often cross the strata, appear to have been for the most part superinduced: that is, they were produced after the original deposition of the strata by other agencies than water alone; although some of them, as foliation and cleavage, in some instances seem to be mere modifications of original lamination. Joints.-Both the stratified and unstratified rocks are traversed by divisional planes, called joints; which divide the mass into determinate shapes, which are different from beds and their subdivisions. 22 JOINTS AND CLEAVAGE. The most important of these joints, called master-joints, are more or less parallel, and so extended as to imply some general cause of production. When these joints cross the beds obliquely, as they usually do, and there are two sets of them, they divide the rock into rhomboidal masses of considerable regularity; though wanting in that perfect equality in the corresponding angles of the prisms which is found in crystals of a simple mineral. They do the same in the unstratified rocks, producing a pseudo-stratification, and are of great help in quarrying. Figs. 9 and 10 are examples of joints in unconsolidated clay, in West Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig 11. Fig. 12. Springfield, Massachusetts. Figs. 11 and 12 are more complicated forms from the quartz rock of Bernardston, in Massachusetts. Sometimes fissures are quite irregular in direction; but they assist in breaking the rock into fragments. The fissures are sometimes occupied by a foreign mineral, such as calcite; but these are properly veins. Cleavage.-Rocks of homogeneous composition, especially clay slate, are often divided by parallel planes, sometimes conforming in dip and direction to the bedding or stratification, and sometimes not. They differ from joints in causing the rocks to split into plates indefinitely thin, and also by being far more extensive, F OLI AT ION. 23 and but rarely crossed by other planes as joints are. Roofing slate is a good example. We venture to doubt, however, whether the indefinitely thin plates, generally regarded as an essential property of cleavage, are always present. For we have not unfrequently met in quartz rock and in some siliceous slates with parallel divisions, which could not properly be referred to joints or stratification, where the plates could not be split thinner than half an inch, and often not so thin; and if not cleavage, we can give them no name. May we not omit thinness of the plates in our definition of cleavage, and still not confo*d cleavage with joints? The cleavage planes may be inclined to the Fig. 18 planes of stratification at any angle from 00 to 900, and sometimes the two planes dip in opposite directions. The cleavage planes are remarkable for their almost perfect parallelism, while strata, laminae and folia are often contorted. Fig. 13 represents cleavage planes, bb, crossing irregular strata, act. In Fig. 14 are represented the planes of stratification, B B, B B; the joints A A, A A; and the slaty cleavage, dd. Fig. 14. B 2 A a d Foliation.-A change in metamorphic rocks analogous to cleavage is called foliation. It is a crystalline lamination, or a separation of the different mineralogical compounds into distinct layers, much resembling strata. In districts where these crystalline rocks have not been much disturbed, the foliation coincides with the stratification. In regions much corrugated or disturbed the foliation often intersects the strata at a considerable angle, like cleavage planes. In fact, 24 PLICATION. foliation appears to be the result of the same forces as cleavage, except that in the former the process was carried so far that crystallization resulted. Fig. 15. a b b Fig. 15 represents foliation as it -- " —-\x x,\'\'ffiQ, ~~,'\X,,Q~ ~is seen in talcose conglomerate in'c~:,o?~i \, ~~\, x~ ~\M Richmond, Vermont: aa shows'i~ ~,,, -:.'a the inclination.,'0 c o;%$S The rocks in which foliaN \ \ b tion exists are called schists, " as mica schist, talcose schist. b Gneiss, however, is foliated, and some contend that foliation is sometimes produced in unstratified or igneous rocks. The term slate ought to be limited to those fissile rocks that are honlogeneous, and schist to those where the materials are heterogeneous, and are arranged in alternate layers. Few geologists, however, have as yet carried out these new views rigidly, so that their works still speak of mica slate, hornblende slate, &c. The theory of the origin of the various superinduced structures will be deferred to the chapter on Metamorphism. Fig. 16. Plicationand Con-' tortion.-The lami\ times,but the foliated; d \\A an d metamorphic much oftener, present examples of (k]!\ii I t~ folding, plication and contortion most re/ markable, and in.V_\ ~'\ \,general the more, ~~__~ j \thorough the metaI \ 4! 0 \ } -'~ morphism the greater i |l —-<~ \the curvatures and', \( l-_:< — \\\ =tortuosities. Fig. 16 o 1j at Cbo, Ct was sketched from a block of gneiss [/__l < * lying by the roadContortedl Laminac of Gneiss: Collbrook, Ot. FOLDED AXIS. 25 side in Colebrook, Connecticut, and is no W/l/// unusual example of plic.ation in the fulia //// of that rock. /// / Fig. 18, for a sketch of which we are indebted Z / to 1Vr. Eben A. Knowlton, sho-ws a remarkable' specinen belonrgwing t the cabinet of Amherst Col-' lege, firom Shelburne Falls, in Mlassachusetts. It is six feet long, weighs a ton, and was worn smooth by the water and ice of Deerfield river. It con- /// sists of beautifully contorted or plicated strata; or more properly, perhaps, folia, of' white gneiss? and black hornblende schist alternating. The / /AULT minute flexures, which frequently become saw-like, can not be exhibited, and actual inspection can / alone give a correct idea of its beauty. We shall $ refer to it again under Metamorphism. These delicate curves in foliation are a mininture representation of what occlnm in, _ the strata of most of the great imountain - ranges of the globe. Fig. 17, is an actual, section in the Alps, extending southtasterly from the top of the well-known Righi.. i Here we have mountains thousands of feet t, J high, looking as if crumpled together by sollle Mighty IIand. Doubtless it vwas t done by lateral forces in the hand of Nature.' In this country we have thle same plle- _ nromena on a magnificent scale. Frolim l, Canada to Alabama, a distance of at least C 1200 miles along the Appalachian Moun- tains, the strata have been folded into o numerous anticlinal and synclinal axes by a force crowding theln from southeast to northwest, making the southeasterly slopes quite gentle, and the northwest ones m steep and abrupt. A section across the Appalachian chain, say through Neow -1 I Jersey and Pennsylvania, is given in Fig. t / 19; and though it be an ideal section, it will convey a good idea of the structure = of this chain of mountains almost any 0 L 2 2aLI CATI ON AND CO- NTO TI ON. rig. 18. / CONCRETIONARY STRUCTURES. 27 where between Canada and Alabama. HIow stupendous must have been the force, thus to fold up the vast strata of the mountains, as if they were merely the leaves of a book! Yet how easy: t for hIim who directs and energizes the forces of >3 nature! The manner in which these forces have "~ operated will be better understood after we have.. developed the doctrine of interral heat. CONCRETIONARY STRUCTUPES. S 1 In clay beds containing disseminated carbonate' ) of lime, we frequently finld nodules of argillo-cal- i careous matter, sometimes spherical, but mole t a i usually flattened. These are generally called a "'' claystones, and the common impression is, that " a that they were rounded by water. But they are - the result of a tendency of particles to gather about a common center, called molecular attrac-... tion. The slaty divisions of the clay extend -. <. through the concretions; and on spliting them =C."' open, a leaf, a fish, a shell, or some other organic' a relic is frequently, but not invariably found. In v & New England, however, the slaty structure, and t the organic nucleus are generally wanting., Fig. 20. Fig. 20 will convey an idea of the manner in which'o s, these concretions are situated in the clay. The claystones of New England have been B A. classified according to their shapes. There are -O at least six predominant forms; all of which seem to start with the sphere. A combination of > several of the primary forms sometimes pro-. duces mimic resemblances to familiar objects. 28 CONCR ETIONARY STRUCTUR ES. Fig 21 shows one from Walpole, New HIampslhire, which mimics Fig. 21. Fi. 22. Fig. 28. a human head in relief very closely, with the head-dress and cue behind. Fig. 22 resembles a hlat or bonnet, and Fig. 23 a cat. Fig. 24. Fig. 24 shows a perfect rino froin Rutland, Vermont. The original is 11 inches in diameter. CONCRETIONARY STRUCTURES. 29 Similar concretions abound in argillaceous iron ore, which is often disseminated in clay beds or shale. These nodules are usually made up of concentric coats of ore; but sometimes the slaty structure of the rock containing them extends through them, and organic relics are found to form their nucleus. Fig. 25. Fig. 25 is a concretion of iron ore with a nnlcleus of lignite, from Gay Head, in Massachusetts, 7 inches across. The internal parts of these concretions of limestone and hydrate of iron often exhibit numerous cracks, which sometimes divide the matter into columnar masses, but more frequently into irregular shapes. When these cracks are filled wvith calcareous spar, as is often the case in calcareous concretions, Fig. 26 they take the name of ludus helmontii, turtle stones, or more frequently of septaria. From these is prepared in England the famous Roman cement. Fig. 26 shows a section of one of these. Certain limestones called oolites, are often almost entirely composed of concretions made up of concentric layers; but the spheres are rarely so large as a pea. The concretionary structure, however, often exists in limestone on a very large scale, forming spheroidal masses not only 30 CONCRETIONA Y S T UCTURES. many feet, but many va(rds i;n diameter. Fig. 27 represents some TFig. 2T. [A I~na:II Concretions in Sandstone, Iowa. large concretions of carboniferous limestone, at Muscatine, irn Iowa, as described by Professor Owen. UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS. The unstratified rocks occur in four modes. 1. As irregular masses beneath the stratified rocks. 2. As veins crossing both the stratified and unstratified rocks. 3. As beds of irregular masses thrust in between the strata. 4. As overlying masses. Fig. 36 illustrates these modes. The phenomena of veins, being very important, require a more detailed explanation. Veins arc of two kinds. 1. Those of segregation. 2. Those of injection. The former appear to have been scparat(ed from the general mass of the rock by elective affinity, when it was in a fluid state; and consequently they arc of the samne age as the rock. Hence thley are often called contemporaneous veins Fig. 28. represents a bowlder of granitic gneiss, in Lowell, Massachusetts, about five feet long. traversed by several veins of segregation, whose comrposition differs not greatly from that of the rock, except from being harder and more distinctly granitic. Where veins of this description cross one another, they coalesce so that one does not cut off the other. TEINS AND DYKES. 38 Fig. 2S. i'ns o f,Ses jegtdiom iin Galeios., Lowcell. The second class were once open fissures, which at a subsequent period were filled by injected matter. Veins of segregation are frequently insulated in the containing rock; they pass at their edges by insensible gradations into that rock, and are sometimes tubercular or even nodular. Injected veins can often be traced to a large mass of similar rock, from which, as they proceed, they ramify and become exceedingly fine, until they are lost. Usually; especially in the oldest rocks, they are chemically united to the walls of the containing rock; but large trap veins have often very little adhesion to the sides. Fig. 29 exhibits granite veins protruding from a large mass of granite into lorlulaende schist, il Cornwall. Fig. 29. __ _~- _ _ ___ 32 VEINS AND DYKES. The large veins that are filled with trap rock or recent lava are usually called dykes. These differ firom true veins, also, by rarely sendin:g off branches. Dykes of trap are sometimes several yards wide, and nearly a hundred miles long; as in England and Ire. land. Dykes and veins frequently cross one another; and in such a case the one that is cut off is regarded as the oldest. By this rule it may be shown that granite has been injected at no less than four different epochs. Fig. 30 represents a bowlder of granite in Westhampton, Massachusetts, whose base was the product of the earliest epoch of eruption. This is traversed by the granite vein, a, a, a, which was injected at a second epoch; b, is a granite vein cutting a, and was therefore produced at a third epoch; while b, as well as a, are cut off by the granite veins c, and d, of a fourth epoch. Fig. 30. Granite Veins ian Gr anite, It'esthampton. By the same rule can be proved successive eruptions of the trap rocks, as well as other igneous veins. In one remarkable example of veins of different kinds, eleven epochs of the injection of unstratified rocks can be traced. This case is in the city of Salem, Massachusetts, near the entrance of the bridge leading to Beverly, on the west side. It is shown upon Fig. 31. The age of the veins is indicated by the figures (1, 2, 3, etc.) attached. No. 1, the basis rock, is syenitic greenstone. The others are mostly granite and greenstone. Veins and dykes usually cross the strata at various angles. But not unfiequently for a part of their course they have been DY KES AND VEINS. 33 intruded between the strata; and hence have been mistaken for beds, and have given rise to the inquiry whether granite is not stratified. Fig. 31. Dykes are usually nearly straight; but granite veins are sometimes very tortuous. 10 h10 34 VE INS. Fig. 832...1,I Fir. 32, shows two small but very distinct granite veins in lomnogeneous imicaceous limestone in Colrain, Massachusetts. Fig. 33 is a tortuous vein of granite in talcose schist, in Chester, Massachusetts, crossing the strata irregolarly. 3 The unstratified rocks, especially when exposed to the weather, are usually divided into irreg!lar fragmnents 1 by fissures in various directions. Sometimes, however, these rocks have a concretionary structure on a large scale; that is, they are coinposed of concreted layers whose curvature is sometimes so slight that they Cases of this sort can be distinguished from stratification, first, by the concreted divisions not extending throlugh the whole rock; secondly, by the want of a foliated structure in the parallel masses. VEINS. Sly A fine example of this concreted structure occurs at one of the quarries in syenite near Sandy Bayv, on Cape Ann. Another is at the Lower Falls, upon the Lower Anlmonoosuc River, in Nlew Hampshire, among the White Moua. tains. It is in-granite. An interesting variety of jointed structure in some of the un. stratified rocks, is the prismatic, or columnar, by which large masses of rocks are divided into regular forms, from a few inches to several feet in diameter; but with no spaces between them. This curious phenomenon will be more particularly described in a subsequent section. Fig. 34 is copied from a pebble of black slate, traversed by almost innu. merable veins of calcite, from the shores of Lake Champlain, in Vermonth: Some of them are cut off and slightly removed laterally, so that they must be veins of injection-doubtless filled by aqueous infiltrations. Many rods square of jet black slate may be seen thus traversed and checkered by these snow white veins, Fig. 35 shows a feldspathic vein conforming to the tortuosities of mica schist, in Conway, M:assachusetts. It ought probably to be regarded simply as a layer of the rock, rather than a vein, and a result of metamorphism. But it was probably forne;l just as seno veins are, and is, moreover, a fine example of the: plicatiolis of imic seo'is.i The unstratified rocks, both the masses and the veins and dykes, undoubtedly had an igneous origin, either from dry heat 3B tr U'STIRATIFIED ROCKS. or more usually from aqueo-igneous fusion. But the theory willI be more fully stated in the Section on Metamorphism. AAmount of Unstratified Rocks. —Unstratified rocks do not probably occupy one-twentieth part of the earth's surface. In Great Britain they do not cover a thousandth part of the superficies of the island. In Massachusetts, they occupy less than a quarter of the surface. But there isreason to suppose that these rocks occupy the internal parts of the earth to a great depth, if not to the centre; over which the stratified rocks are spread with very unequal thickness, and sometimes are entirely wanting. Fig. 36 will convey a better idea than language, of the relative situation of the two classes of rocks. The different groups of stratified rocks are seen resting upon each other in successive order, and the wvhole upon the unstratified series. Granite is repr esented as the foundation, but intrusive masses of syenite and porphyry, of granite, of trap, and lastly of lava, are shown to have successively pushed up from beneath the granite, and spread themselves over the surface. A variety of granite is seen rising to the top of the Mesozoic, trap to the top of the Mesozoic, slightly lapping over upon the Tertiary; and finally the lava comes up friom the very bottom of the whole, and spreads itself over the Alluvium. Although this is not a section of any particular portion of the earth's crust, it will give a correct idea of the relative situation of the two great classes of rocks, and the reason why the unstratified rocks occupy the whole of the interior of the earth, while they barely reach the surface. We shall refer to this section again after stating the names of the successive formations. Fig. 37. id b' a'b'b a. c - In addition to the last more general figure, we add Fig. 37, specially devoted to the unstratified rocks. a, a, Irregular masses beneath the stratified rocks. b, b, Veins (the black irregular lines) crossing both kinds of rocks. c, Irregular beds between strata. d, Overlying mass. e, A mass injected forcibly, thereby uplifting the strata upon both sides, and causing them to break at f, f. te: Fig. 86.. ALLUVIAL TERTIARY Y _ CRETACEOUS _ —-- GRANITE.. _ ~OOLITI TC --— 7/ SYENITE O 0 IT F I A S SI C \ / PR OTOGIN E TRIASSIC PERMIAN |/ CARIBONIFEROUS i- 1 ____- ------ 2ll~~~nM ~~~~~ —-~~~~0 - C / I F "....I/ A | DEVONIAN -- || UPPER SILURIAN / LOWER SILURIA0I )Qcg/ CAM1R IAN UNSIRA i. - IED AZOIC <' / GRANITICi~~~~~ atrchia....................... 5 8 139 200 34 72 416 223 25 42 13 1 1385 8000 F iims.............................. 76 210 1i 4 8,' Teleostel..............9.................... auolea......1....... 77 29 23 820 435.... ) 684 Glacoideas......~ ~~~~ ~~~- ~~3 80 123 5 44 9 96 17 19 9 4 Pla' o: de..................................... INSETS.1 1..-I.. i.. I-ir I ~~ 134 2 1.. 11. 1688 65.800 Myriopods................................ 2 15 17 200 Ayriopodsa......................2 1 127...1 ] 600 Arnslda p..............................9 131 2 14 149 1551 65.(00,ns.cts pr-oper................... —'..'' Z (JRU5TACiEA.~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~ ~-~~.. " 1 213 198 88 13 10 8 46 64 89 26 25. 1 702 791 Trilobites.1............. ~~~~~~........213 198 58 13 483 ther Orders.............2.... 22 1. 10 8.46 6 89 26. 5 1 2]5. ~~~~~ANNELIDA...''2 7 8 9 2425 23 21 23 21..144 EcNODEATA.................46 48 84 177 1 44 833 421 1 8 46 48 9 1382 498 c-4 M~OLL.U5CXI..... ~~~~~~~~...'2 8'0 421 822 622 1U9 382 2174 2429 1811 1261 1328 126 11.804 11.482 CephalophorL........1....................94 404 324 28 193 929 939 1222 964 983 1 6152 Conehiapoa.....................8....... 36 190 120 81 154 1025 862 W2 250 878 123 3704 0 Conr llvsT - ~.x............................... 1 5 Baheiopoda.............................. 137 27 218 212 83 83 16 84 21 4 4.. 156.2188241 10 26 9 84 3894 86 48 10 2 628 980 Brozou........................... 14,'' 2 3 2 1 2 98 Ac.8 17 109 4 11 150 176 118 88 28 2 910 ACINZX..................... 25~ 83 12T 09 Alcyonaria........................... 884 4 222 16ugova...................... ~ ~ 5 5...1 86 84 1'- "22 ZoanLLUaia.................. 20 42 41 2 2 11 10 173 10 5 2677 1 1 22 2 61 Hyd-ozoa.. 1....2........... m 8 A5TOM A~T~............-......~.... — ~~~~~~ 2 8 8 4 8 85 166 464 213 300 128 1381 pongiadaT. 2 8 8 1 4 85 102 2.o9 8 1 868 orammnifera....................... 8 4.. 64 275 211 299 128 964 1000 Modmmanif............................... MrsupialoidsA............................. M irs s...............~.............. 3 hBirds.~................................ 8 IS 87 4~~~~~~o Che~~~~~~~~~~~~on~~~~i ns. I 5b6. iochise.............................1.. I ishes..~.r~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~... 2 1 4 Crus:iaCeans.... ] /1 6 1 Crustaceans and Insects................. 19 Anne ids.............................. I.. C olluscs............................... 1 LI I~~~.......~~~~~~~~(~I~ -i-=i ~',. ~- 1-;- ~, /-l- l-; ~ ~;_ 360 FOSSIL PLANTS. 5 Zoantharia, and 4 Foraminifera. This is very unsatisfactory; but these numbers can easily be deducted from those given in the Table, if any one pleases. We have made no changes in the number given by Jukes, save in a very few cases, where some interesting species have been quite recently discovered. We have, however, annexed to the Table a group of animals, not yet thought to be determined with sufficient certainty to be placed in the divisions to which they belong, if there is no mistake as to their nature. These are the Lithichnozoa, or animals known only by their tracks. We believe that in many instances a track furnishes quite as good a means of determining the character of an extinct animal, as the imperfect fragments of their skeletons from which their nature has been inferred. But paleontologists are reasonably slow in admitting any new principles, and therefore let this group stand by itself, and pass for as much as it is worth. The enumeration which we give must of course be very imperfect; yet it is interesting to see that there is scarcely a formation that has not already its Ichnology. Professor Owen has fully installed this branch of Palaeontology into its proper place in his admirable work on Palaeontology, from the Encyclopedia Britannica, Eighth Edition, and there is the best account of Ichnology as a whole which we have seen. FOSSIL PLANTS. Unger in his work on Palseophytology has presented us with the following estimate of the genera and species of fossil plants arranged under the three divisions of Dicotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Acotyledons..Dicotyledons. Genera. Species. Thalamiflore, 24.. 84 Calyciflore, 56. 182 Corolliflorac,. 23.. 60 IM/onochlamydese Angiospermse, 48.. 221 Gymnospermse,. 56.. 363.Monocotyledons. Dictyogenae,. 2.. 5 Petaloidem,.36. 125 Glumiferae,..... 5.. 12 Acotyledons. Thallogene,.31. 203 Acrogene,. 121.. 969.Doubtful,.35. 197 437 2421 These are distributed through the rocks as follows: Species. Cambrian, Silurian and Devonian, 73. Carboniferous,. 683 Permian,. 76 Magnesian Limestone, 21 Trias or Upper New Red Sandstone, 38 Trias, Shell Limestone,. 7 Trias, Variegated Marls,. 70 Lias,. 126 Upper Middle and Lower Oolite, 168 1262 Forward. DISTRIBUTION OF FOSSILS. 361 Species. Brought forward 1262 Wealden,.. 61 Green Sand and Chalk,. 122 Eocene,.414 Miocene,... 496 Pliocene,... 35 Pleistocene,...... 31 Fossil Species, 2421 SECTION III. LAWS BY'WHICI- ORGANIC REMAINS IIHAVE BE3EN DISTRIB4UTErD. WVe have seen in the last Section that the ani'mals and plants have experienced great changes, as we have briefly reviewed them in their several formations. We now proceed to point out the laws by which these changes have been regulated. For, however irregular and capricious the operations of nature may seem to superficial observation, we find that wise and harmonious laws are always concerned. First Law.-Species of animals and plants have had a limited duration, rarely extending from one formation into another. We apply the word species in fossils just as we do in living animals and plants. A number of species closely related constitute a genus; a number of genera, having certain common characters, form an Order: several orders a Class, and several classes a Province, or Sub-kingdom, or Kingdom. Now it is of the species only that we speak under this law. The larger divisions, genera, orders and classes, do extend through more or less of the formations; but in nearly all cases the species become extinct at the close of the great periods pointed out in previous pages of this work. Some distinguished naturalists, if we understand them, as Agassiz and D'OrbignTy, are of opinion that there are no exceptions. Even the tertiary species they regard as extinct; but how far they would extend this view into the post-tertiary, we do not know. " The number of species still considered identical in several successive periods," says Agassiz, "is growing smaller and smaller, in proportion as they are more closely compared." Hence he reasonably infers that probably all will be found unlike. Professor Bronn thinks.that species sometimes pass not only into a second but into a third formation, and others state, as we have mentioned, that some living species of foraminifera began their existence as low down as the oolite. According to Bronn, out of 2,055 species of plants, 12 pass into other fobrnations; and of 24,366 animals, 3,322 pass out of the rocks where they are most abundant. So that each species had an average duration of 1.12 of a formation. In respect to the rocks below the tertiary, all would agree tihat the law has scarcely an exception, ]2j 3152 LAWS OF DISTrIBU3 TION. and still higher, as stated above, they will doubtless diminish upon more careful examination. Second Law.- lVith the exception above named, the fossil spe. cies have all perished. This is merely an inference from the first law; bnt it is so common to suppose recent species identical with the fossil, that we make the inference a distinct law. Third Law.-" The duration of types and species as a general rule, is usually proportioned to rank and intelligence. The most highly organizedfossils have the smallest range."-( Owen.) The great lizards of the Jurassic series, the mammals of the tertiary, and especially man, are examples of this law. By a type we mean a set of characters by which a genus, or family, or group is distinguished from all others. It is the model or pattern on which such groups are forined. Thus the horse family, the cat family, the ostrich family, the pigeon family, have certain characteristics by which we know them, though sometimes difficult to describe; and it is found that many of these types have gradually changed. This law declares that these types have the shortest duration among the higher tribes. Fourth Law. —Each type of organism has had but one term of n.interrupted existence, and sometimes has extended only through part of a formation. There are some seeming exceptions to this law; as for instance the appearance of the marsupial animals in the trias and oolito, and then their failure in the chalk and tertiary, and reappearance in the alluvial. But the probability is that they existed during these intermediate periods, since they are found in the pleistocene, of Australia. Among the animals extending through a part of a formation, we may mention such us the Mastodon, Elephant, Dinotherium, Zeugloden, and Man, which are found only in parts of the tertiary anll alluvial. Fljfth Law. —Most of the great Sub-Klingdoms of animals and plants, two thirds of the classes and nearly half the orders, and a few of the genera.extend through all the formations. The only exception in respect to the sub-kingdoms, is, that vertebrate animals are not found in the Lower Silurian, and no deeper in the Upper Silurian than the lower Ludlow Rock; and flowering plants are not found lower than the Devonian, where Hugh Miller has detected coniferous trees in the lower Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. But perhaps in considering this subject we ought to have reference to a palmeontological classification, rather than one founded partly on litholoaical characters, and this would bring all the sub-kingdoms into the lowest life period, which reaches as high as the top of the Permian. It will be seen by referring to the Table of Organic Remains, which we:have presented at the end of the last Section, that while many of the classes and orders of the less perfect animals and plants extend through all the formations, those of the higher vertebrate type rarely reach through the whole LAWS OF DISTRIBUTIOXN. 363 series. The number of orders has more than doubled since the earliest times, so that more than half do not reach through all the strata. In the Palaeozoic formations there were.... 31 In the Triassic Period..... 21 In the. urassic........ 41 In the Cretaceous....... 41 In the Tertiary......... 71 Much fewer is the number of genera that have survived all the changes which the globe has undergone. The following statement by D'Orbigny shows strikingly how great have been the changes of the organic world. It is confined to animals: Number of living genera of animals,.1324 Number of fossil genera.1. 457 Of these there yet live,. 539 Have become extinct. 933 Have survived all changes, only.16 All of these surviving venerable genera belong to the different familie. of Molluscs, while of all the other animals not a genus has been extended through all past periods. Sixth Law. — Complexity and perfection of organization as well as intelligence increase as we ascend in the rocks. This is true as a general fact; but in particular tribes we find the reverse, viz., retrogradation from a lower to higher condition. " All our most ancient fossil fishes," says Professor Sedgwick, " belong to a high organic type; and the very oldest species that are well determined, fall naturally into an order of fishes which Owen and Miller place, not at the bottom, but at the top of the whole class." Says Hugh Miller, "in the imposing programme of creation, it was arranged as a general rule, that in each of the great divisions of the procession, the magnates should walk first. We recognize yet flrther the fact of degradation specially exemplified in the fish and the reptile." "The Cephalopods, the most perfect of the molluscs, which lived in the early period of the world," says D'Orbigny, " show a progress of degradation in their generic forms. The molluscs as to their classes have certainly retrograded from the compound to the simple, or from the more to the less simple." Such statements are not inconsistent with the law we have stated above; for there may be upward progress by the introduction of higher and higher forms of life, while some of the groups may suffer deterioration, as seems to have been the case. A' simple inspection of thle tabular view we have given of organic remains will show how strong is the evidence of progress. The only way to escape the inference is to say that higher forms may yet be discovered in the lower rocks. But this is a point of so much importance in its bearings upon certain hypotheses that we shall recur to it again in the next Section. More impressively to exhibit these facts and to show to the eye the periods when the most important races came upon the globe, we copy Fig. 409 from Professor Owen. We shall have occasion to refer to it again in another coirnection. Seventh Law. Particular classes, orders, and genera, as well as wholefaunas and foras, have had their periods of expiansion, culmination, diminution, and sometimes extinction. Fig. 410, prepared by Prof. Owen, shows these facts in respect to the orders of Reptiles. The shaded lenses and triangles indicate the periods of their Fig. 409. Feet 2,00-0. _ -— ~~- BIRDS AND difcerent E MAMMAIA LIA. orders. o.. o o e o o o O o o oo o Z0 o c 0 ~ ei " Iak a C o o 0 FISH (softscaled). 1,303. C n O ~ o~o oa ~ o G 0 O O oD n' 0'L; * O. 0 O. ~~ 900. I 3ARSUPIALIA. -M M __ _= APRSUPIAL MAMIMALA. FIStI (homocerque). W 2,009. _ _ BR_ _ _ _ _DS wingless, by footsteps. "_: R _==,RPTILIA. r-7 ~___j —=t _ =BATRACHIA 4,000 ___ Millstone Grit - -- (Insects) TRACE OF REPTILE - 99 —| EATF.ACHIA I4~I~ 10,000 Ui iierludtwcack ~ FISH (hleterocerque). o Gistre limestone IS I4a T limestone __~e_ 92,500. eMOLLUSCA Cophalopoda, asteropoda, Brachiopoda. INVERTEBRATA. Crustacea, &c. Annelids, &c. Zoophytes, &Rc. 20,000. DISTRIBUTION OF REPTILES. 3,5~ commencement, expansion, diminution, and extinction. The Chelonia, Lacertilia, Ophidia, and some of the Batrachia, are shown as on the increase at the commencement of the alluvial period; while the Crocodiles and some of the Batrachia then nearly died out. Several of the orders became extinct at the close of the cretaceous period. Fig. 410. ~ 0 ~ 0 Q tj M W v o 0?lioce-ne.:..' ~'l1ocene. 1 ____ __ _ __ __ Sliocene. [ocene. iretaceous. l _ * W ealden. - I __ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ Oolite.asv I, Trias. io hea Permian. j, Io Carboniferous. I Devonian. l Silurian.. Distribution of Reptiles. Indeed, Prof. Owen says that "the class of reptiles, unlike that of fishes, is now on the wane; and that the period when Reptilia flourished under the greatest diversity of forms, with the highest grade of structure, and of the most colossal size, is the mesozoic." D'Orbigny finds that of seventy-seven orders of fossil animals fourteen have decreased in the number of their genera since their first appearance, and sixty-four have increased. These are distributed as follows: Decreasing. Increasing. Radiated animals.4.... 12 Molluscs.. 4 10 Annelids... 1 18 Vertebral kingdom. 5 23 Of these decreasing orders six are found in the palaozoic rocks, viz., the Placoid and Ganoid Fishes, the Trilobites, a part of the Cephalopod and Brachiopod Molluscs. and the fixed Crinoids. In the Jurassic series occur the Saurian Reptiles and the free Crinoids. In the Cretaceous series, two families of Molluscs, one of Foraminiferse and one of Amorphozoa. In the tertiary series are the Edentate and Pachydermatous Mammals. The greatest expansion of particular and peculiar Faunas and Floras has been employed to characterize certain periods. Thus the Paleozoic Period has been called by the botanists the Reign of Acrogens, because that tribe of plants then predominated; the Mesozoic Period, the Reign of Gymnospernms; and the Tertiary Period, embracing also the living plants, the Reign of Ailgiosperms. In respect to animals, the Palaeozoic Period has been called the Reign of Fishes, the Mesozoic the Reign of Reptiles, and the Tertiary the Reign of Mammals. 366 LAWS OF DISTR I IUTIO. Eighth Law. The older the rock the more unlike the existing fauna and flora are the fossil animals and plants. If we compare the plants and shells of the tertiary with those now living, a casual observer would see but little difference. But let the successive groups in the lower rocks be brought into comparison, and the naturalist would be obliged to form new genera and orders for their reception. Still more rapidly do the forms of the higher animals and plants deviate from existing types as we descend. There are some exceptions to this statement; for some forms are wonderfully persistent. Take, for example, the ammonite and nautilus; how much like the living nautilus I So the terebratulidae, living and extinct, are closely related. So in the tertiary, although the Dinotherium, the Paleotherium, the Zeuglodon, etc., are quite unlike living forms, yet in the same formation certain small mammifers can hardly be distinguished from those living. Ninth Law. The fossil faunas and floras were, for the most part, of a tropical character, whatever be the present climate where they are found. Even the tertiary plants and animals agree, for the most part, with those of intertropical regions better than those of temperate regions; and it was essentially the same even in post-tertiary days, when Europe and the United States were filled with elephants, rhinoceroses, lions, tigers, hyenas, etc., thougrh the hair and wool of the Siberian fossil elephant indicate a colder region than the intertropical; but unless warmer than that at present along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, so many of these huge animals could not have subsisted as are found buried there. As we go deeper into the rocks the evidences of a former tropical, or even ultra tropical climate, multiply. The coal formation especially, which has been traced beyond Melville Island in N. latitude 75~, is decidedly and strikingly tropical everywhere. The old' fossil corals found over equally wide arctie recioan —at Melville Island, for instance-tell the same story. And so do the numerous and sometimnes gigantic chambered shells so widely diffused. Some facts see.n to indicate alu occasional alternation of a colder with the tropical clienite, at aL earlier data than drift, when we know that in northern regiois there was a glacial priol. Similar temporary Reductions or the temperature m:ny have taken plac3 earlier. But these cases do not invalidate the general law of the prevalence of a tropical climate. Even in the Pleistocene Periol1, " Grand, indeed," says an English naturalist, " was the fanna of the British Islands. Tigers as large again as the biggest Asiatic species, lurked in the ancient thickets; elephants of nearly twice the bulk of the largest individuals that now exist in Africa or Ceylon roamed in herds; at least two species of rhinoceros forced their way through the primeval forest, and the lakes and rivers were tenanted by hippopotami as bulky and with as great tusks as those of Africa." To these he might have added the great cave bear and cave hyena, two species of huge oxen, and an elk tell feet add four inches high. Tenth Law. In the distribution of species in the ancientfaunas and fioras, they had a much greater range than at present, while in the newer rocks their limits differed but little from existing zoological and botanical provinces. In the palaeozoic strata animals and plants have a striking resemblance over almost the whole globe. As we ascend, diversity increases when we L A w S OF DISTRIB UTION. 367 compare species together from widely separated localities; andt of^ the mammalia in the tertiary and post-tertiary, Prof Owen says, "particular forms were assigned to particular provinces, and the same forms were restricted to the same provinces at a former geological period as they are at the present day." If we only admit the high temperature of the globe in paleozoic days, and that it has since gradually decreased, the facts above stated are just what we should expect. When a tropical climate existed over the whole earth, the same animals and plants essentially would be placed on every part. But as the temperature fell and the diversities of climate now existing came on, the animals and plants would be gathered more and more into provinces, which would gradually approach to, and finally culminate in those now existing. Eleventh Law. The fossil animals and plants had the same general structure as those now on the earth, and their modes of living in both classes have been the same. Comparative anatomy has not found it necessary to frame any new law to embrace the relations of the extinct to the living races. Physiology, also, finds that these extinct races, although greatly differing in form from existing nature, were sustained by the same kinds of food which was digested by analogous organs. They had the same senses; they breathed in the same modes; they were reproduced in the same manner; they were carnivorous and herbivorous; they suffered and enjoyed, and were subject, like the living species, to accident, disease, and death. Twelfth Law.-" The phases of development of all living animals correspond to the order of succession of their extinct representatives in past geological times." (Agassiz.) This law represents the extinct adult animal as corresponding more nearly with the embryonic than the adult state of its living representative. In the ancient world the individual, though an adult, did not pass beyond the present embryo state; but among living species the analogous animal passes on to a higher state, or more complete development. Pictet thinks that this law is not applicable to the whole animal kingdom, but to certain groups. Agassiz, however, regards it " as a general fact, very likely to be more fully illustrated as investigations cover a wider ground." To name a few examples, he regards the Trilobites embryonic types of Entomostracea (a tribe of living crustaceans); the Oolitic DIecapods embryonic Crabs; the Zeuglodonts embryonic Sirenidae; and the Mastodonts embryonic Elephants. Th/irteenth Law. —Many of the fossil animals had a combination of characters which among living animals are found only in several different types or classes. Agassiz very appropriately calls such types Prophetic Types. For they form the pattern of animals that were to appear afterward. It is found that almost all the existing animals were thus typified by some characters that existed in the fossil animals. The facts show how completely the whole plan of creation lay in the Divinle Mind. We give a few examples: The Sauroid Fishes were true fishes, yet they had some strongly marked reptilian characters. " The Plesiosaurus," says Buckland, " to the head of a 368 FOSSILS COMNPARIED'WITHI LIVING SPECIES. lizard unifed the teeth of a crocodile, a neck of enormous length resembling the body of a serpent; a trunk and tail having the proportions of an ordinary quadruped; the ribs of a chameleon, and the paddles of a whale." The Ichthyosaurus, as its name denotes, had a close affinity to fishes. " Its general external figure," says Owen, " must have been that of a huge predatory abdominal fish, with a longer tail and a smaller tail-fin; scaleless, moreover, and covered by a smooth, or finely wrinkled skin, analogous to that of the whale tribe." The Archegosaurus seems to have been " a transitional type between the fish-like Bratrachia and the lizards and crocodiles." The Labyrinthodonts were "reptiles having the essential bony characters of the Batrachia, but combining these with other bony characters of crocodiles, lizards, and ganoid fishes." (Owen.) The Rhynchosaurus had a "lacertine structure leading towards Chelonia and birds, which before were unknown." (Owen.) The Dicynodontia were a race of " reptilian animals once living in South Africa, presenting in the construction of their skull characters of the crocodile, the tortoise, and the lizard, coupled with the presence of a pair of huge sharp-pointed tusks, growing downwards, one from each side of the upper jaw, like the tusks of the mammalian morse or walrus." (Owen.) The Pterodactyle, the most anomalous of ancient forms, lhad the head and neck of a bird, the mouth of a reptile, the wings of a bat, and the body and tail of a quadruped. If more examples were wanted, ichnology would furnish them abundantly in such remarkable animals as the Otozoum, Anomcepus, Plesiornis, and Gigantitherium. Fourteenth Law.-The fossilfar exceeded the living species in number. WVe should expect this if there have been several distinct creations; and in respect to quite a number of classes it is proved by the facts in a most satisfactory manner; though we can not suppose that half the fossil species have yet been found, and many sorts of animals and plants are too soft and frail to be preserved. As to plants, so small is the number found fossil compared to those now living, that we may perhaps donbt whether the single flora now living is not more numerous than all those which have ever lived. The following table will show the proportion between the fossil and living species in Great Britain: Living Fossil Proportion of Species. Species. Living to Fossil. Plants....... 1600 flowering 655 6.7 to 1 2800 flowerless Zoophytes..... 70 435 I to 6.2 Polyzoa.... 70 258 1 to 3.7 Testacea (Molluscs, etc.) 513 4580 1 to 8.9 Echinodermata... 70 492 1 to 7.0 Crustacea. 225 298 1 to 1.3 Fishes........ 162 41 1 to 4,6 Reptiles...... 18 180 1 to 10.0 Birds.332 11 30 to 1.0 Mammals...... 0 110 1 to 1.5 Here we find that six times more zoophytes, nine times more mulluscs, seven times more echinoderms, five times more fishes, and ten times more reptiles have lived in Great Britain during geological times than now exist SUCCESSIVE SYSTEMS. 369 there. The argument is irresistible to show that many distinct creations have occupied the surface successively and passed away; corroborating the same conclusion drawn from other facts. Fifteenth Law.- Contemporaneous species in ajzy one loccallt, or in localities not distant from one another, have appeared and disappeared together. Some have maintained that the formations pass insensibly into one another, so that near the limits, the fossils of the'two adjoining formations are mixed together; and that as individual species have died out, others have taken their place. And it.is sometimes true, that there is no trenchant division between adjacent formations. Moreover species do sometimes become extinct, as we have shown elsewhere in respect to existing nature, though there is not the slightest evidence that these species, as they drop out, are replaced by new ones. But in the rocks the group of species that characterize a formation in almost all cases, show themselves together at the bottom, and continue to live together till the close of the period, when all disappear, and the new formation that follows contains an entirely distinct group. So few are the exceptions to this distribution of the species, that it must be considered as the general law, and the exceptions the result of local and unusual causes. Sixteenth Law.-Numerous and successive systems of life, all different from one another, have occupied the -globe since it became habitable. Long ago Deshayes, a distinguished naturalist, declared that " in surveying the entire series of fossil animal remains, he had discovered five great groups so completely independent that no species whatever is found in more than one of them." Adding the existing group, it makes six entire changes of inhabitants, which accords with the palkeontological classification which we have given, viz., the first reaching to the top of the Permian; the second embracing the Trias; the third the Oolite; the fourth the Chalk, and the fifth the Tertiary. But the ablest paleontologists of the present day feel as if this were a very inadequate view of the subject, falling far short of the number of changes in inhabitants which the earth las experienced. Says the late eminent palaeontologist, M. Alcide D'Orbigny, " A first creation took place in the Silurian stage. After that was annihilated by some geological cause, and after a considerable time, a second creation took place in the Devonian stage, and successively twenty-seven times have distinct creations repeopled all the earth with plants and animals, following each time some geological disturbance, which had totally destroyed living nature. Such is the certain but incomprehensible fact, which we are bound to state, without trying to pierce the. superhuman mystery that envelops it." Seventeenth Law.-All the diversities of organic life that have appeared on the globe were only wise and necessary adaptations to its changing condition. There is abundant evidence that changes of climate, food. etc., have been great and numerous, and had there not been a corresponding change in the 16* 370 I NF E R E N CES. nature and habits of animals and plants, suffering and death must have been the consequepce, as the history of existing races proves. But there is not the slightest evidence that any such effect followed the moditication of forms. Peculiar as they often were, they seem to have been wisely prepared to subserve the wants and happiness of the species, nor was life thereby shortened. Eighteenth Law. —All the minor systems of life that have appeared, were but harmonious parts of one all-comprehending system of organization, whose culmination we witness in existing nature. Diverse as the different floras and faunas are in the different creations, they are all embraced in the same system of classification, which groups together existing organisms. They have all had similar organs and similar senses, have been both carnivorous and herbivorous, have had the same relations to light and heat as at present. Nowhere do we find different and antagonistic systems, but all the wide diversities of structure and habit coalesce into one harmonious whole; showing that the complicated and numberless details, stretching over almost interminable ages, were but the development of the vast plan of creation in the Divine Mind. SECTION IV. INFERENCES FROM PALAEONTOLOGY, IN CONNECTION WITH DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY. Inference 1. The present continents of the globe (except, perhaps, some high mountains) have been for long periods beneath the ocean, and have been subsequently elevated. Proof 1. Two thirds at least of these continents are covered with rocks, often several thousand feet thick, abounding in marine organic remains; which must have been quietly deposited, along with the sand, mud, and calcareous or ferruginous matter in which they are enveloped, and which could have accumulated but slowly. 2. Some very high mountains contain marine fossils at or near their summits. For example, there are marine shells of cretaceous age upon the tops of the Pyrenees; cretaceous and tertiary fossils upon the summits of the Rocky Mountains, and foraminifera of cretaceous age high up on the flanks of Mt. Lebanon. The amount of land above the ocean has varied in every period of the earth's history, and it may be that large tracts, now submerged, once were important theatres of terrestrial life. Inference 2. The periods of repose between catastrophes have been long. Proof 1. Catastrophes are indicated by unconformability of the strata, or a great change in the character of the deposits. 2. Catastrophes have been comparatively infrequent, while deposition has always continued slowly CATASTR OPr ESIE 3'71 to build up formations. For example, several thousand feet of strata were deposited during the Lower Silurian period, between two catastrophes. The periods of disturbance must have been very short, and the interval of repose very long. 3. The deposits appear generally not to have been disturbed by any elevating force while in a state of formation, as this would have changed the character of the organic ramains. There are instances where there seems to have been a quiet, gradual elevation for an immense period, without catastrophes. But often this elevation has been sudden and very great. Some single local dislocations are of enormous size, amounting to 3,000 or 4,000 feet; as in the Penine region of thle north of England; and it is difficult to conceive how such faults could have resulted from a succession of minor forces acting through long intervals. Inference 3. Catastrophes have generally corresponded to changes in fossils. Elie de Beaumont has long maintained that the changes in the zoological and botanical characters of the formations correspond in general to the epochs of elevation; that is, the period of elevation seems to have been the time for the destruction of one grQup of organic races and the introduction of new species. The progress of Pal'eontology tends greatly to increase the number of distinct systems of life, and it may not be possible in all cases to find evidence of any great geological disturbance at the close of all the life periods. Yet D'Orbigny, who contends for the largest number of these, still maintains, by a course of strong arguments, that the faunas and floras have all been destroyed by catastrophes, such as the sudden elevation of mountains, though they may have taken place at a distance, and the destruction may have resulted from the great inundating waves that spread far and wide from the center of disturbance. He believes, also, in the existence generally of a long interval between the destruction of one group and the creation of a new one. " We can not then explain," says he, " the annihilation of all the faunas which have succeeded each other twenty-seven times, but by powerful geological disturbances. We have seen that whenever in past ages a dislocation of the crust has taken place, capable of effecting a displacement of the seas, the existing fauna has been annihilated by the movement of the waters at the points dislocated, and even in other points not dislocated." These decided views may need some modification when the whole subject of the disappearance of species has been more fully studied. At present uwe know not how to resist the evidence adduced by D'Orbigny in his Cours Elementaire de Paledntologie et de Geologie. Inference 4. The whole period since life began on the globe has been immensely long. Proof 1. There must have been time enough for water to make depositions more than ten miles in thickness, by materials worn from previous rocks, and more or less comminuted. 2. Time enough, also, to allow of hundreds of changes in the materials deposited: such chances as now require a long period for the production of one of them. 3. Time enough to allow of the growth and dissolution of animals and plants, often, of microscopic littleness, sufficient to constitute almost entire mountains by their remains. 4. Time enough to produce, by an extremely slow change of climate, the destruction of several nearly entire groups of organic beings. For although sudden catastrophes may have sometimes been the the immediate cause of their ex 372 o BJECTIO N S. tinction, there is reason to believe that those catastrophes did not usually happen, till such a change had taken place in the physical condition of the globe, as to render it no longer a comfortable habitation for beings of their organization. 5. Time enough for erosions to have taken place in the rocks, in an extremely slow manner, by aqueous and atmospheric agencies, on so vast a scale that the deep cut through which Niagara River runs, between Niagara Falls and Lake Ontario, is but a moderate example of them. We must judge of the time requisite for these deposits by similar operations now in progress; and these are in general extremely slow. The lakes of Scotland, for instance, do not shoal at the rate of more than six inches in a century. Obj. 1. The rapid manner in which some deposits are formed at the present day; e. g., in the lake of Geneva, where, within the last 800 years, the Rhone has formed a delta two miles long and 600 feet in thickness. Ans. Such examples are merely exceptions to the general law, that rivers, lakes, and the ocean are filling up with extreme slowness. Hence such cases show only that in ancient times rocks might have been deposited over limited areas in a rapid manner; but they do not show that such was generally the case. Obj. 2. Large trunks of trees, from twenty to sixty feet long, have sometimes been found in the rocks, penetrating the strata perpendicularly or obliquely; and standing apparently where they originally grew. Now we know that wood can not resist decomposition for a great length of time, and therefore the strata around these trunks must have accumulated very rapidly; and hence the strata generally may have been rapidly formed. Ans. Admitting that the strata enclosing these trunks were rapidly deposited, it might have been only such a case as is described in the first objection. But sometimes these trunks may have been drifted into a lake or pond, where a deep deposit'of mud had been slowly accumulating, which remained so soft, that the heaviest part of the trunks, that is, their lower extremity, sunk to the bottom by their gravity, and thus brought the trunks into an erect position. Or suppose a forest sunk by some convulsion, how rapidly might deposits be accumulated around them, were the river a turbulent one, proceeding from a mountainous region. Obj. 3. All the causes producing rocks may have operated in ancient times with vastly more intensity than at present. Ans. This, if admitted, might explain the mere accumulation of materials to form rocks. But it would not account for the vast number of chances which took place in their mineral and organic characters; which could have taken place, without a miracle, only during vast periods of time. Obj. 4. The fossilifarous rocks might have been created, just as we find them, by the fiat of the Almighty, in a moment of time. Ans. The possibility of such an event is admitted; but the probability is denied. If we admit that organic remains from the unchanged elephants and rhinoceroses, of Siberia, to the perfectly petrified trilobites and terebratule of the Palmozoic strata, were never living animals, we give up the whole groundwork of analogical reasoning; and the whole of physical science falls to the ground. But itis useless formally to answer an objection which would never be advanced by any man, who had ever examined even a cabinet collection of organic remains. Inference 5. —Thleperiod before life appeared, was also immensely long. Proof 1. We can trace indications of life into the upper part of the Canmbrian series. Below this horizon there are at least 30,000 feet of stratified DI V I N E CREA TIN G P OW ER 373 rocks, which must have required an immense period for their formation. 2. Previously to the production of the stratified rocks, the globe had cooled from an incandescent state, at an inconceivably slow rate. It is not unlikely that this period of time was greater than the whole of the fossiliferous era. 3. If we admit the truth of the hypothesis that the world was condensed from a gaseous to the liquid state, we have another period previous to the existence of life immensely protracted, to cool the surface sufficiently to allow of the presence of water. Inference 6.-The changes which the earth has experienced, and the different species of organic beings that have appeared, were not the result of any power inherent in the laws of nature, but of special Divine creating power. The opposite hypothesis, when fully stated, embraces three distinct blanches. The first supposes the present universe to have been developed by the power of natural law from nebulous matter, without any special Divine interposition, according to the views of the eminent mathematician, La Place. This has been called the cosmogony of the subject. The second supposition is, that certain laws, inherent in matter, are able of themselves to produce the lowest forms of life without special creating power. This forms the Zoogony of the subject. The third supposition is, that in the lowest forms of organization thus produced, called monads, there exists an inherent tendency to improvement. And thus from a mere mass of jelly vitalized, higher and more complicated organic forms have been eliminated, until man at last was the result. This called the Zoonomy of the subject. * The supposed proof of this hypothesis is derived from astronomy, physiology, galvanism, botany, zoology, and geology. But it is only the argument from the latter subject that can receive any attention in this work. When this hypothesis is fully carried out, it is intended and adopted to vindicate atheism. When advocated by a professed believer in the Deity and even in revelation, it is made to assume a much more attractive aspect. In favor of this hypothesis of creation by laws, it has been argued, 1. That in the oldest fossiliferous rocks we find chiefly the more simple invertebrate animals and flowerless plants, and the more perfect ones came in gradually, increasing in numbers and complexity of organization to the present time. The lowest vertebrate animals were fish; then reptiles succeeded, then birds, then mammals, then man. Here we see the series gradually expanding, just as this theory requires. 2. There was probably a distinct stirps, or root, for each of the great classes of animals and plants, with which it started, from which the development proceeded along as many great lines as there are classes. This supposition shows why we find representatives of all the classes in the lowest rocks. In answer to these arguments, and as proofs of the sixth inference, we remark 1. That in all the more than 30,000 species of organic remains dug from the rocks, they are just as distinct from one another as existing species, nor is there the slightest evidence of some having been developed from others. 2. The gradual introluction of higher races is perfectly explained by the changing condition ofthe earth, which being adapted for more perfect races, Divine Wisdom introduced them. 3. For the most part the new races were introduced by groups, as the old ones died out in the same manner. The new groups were introduced at once; pointing clearly to creation rather than development. 4. If anywhere, we ought to find evidence of development and metamorphosis in the human species. But so immeasurably is 374 PROGRESS. man raised by his moral and intellectual faculties above the animals next below him in rank, that the idea of his gradual evolution from them is absurd. Mlan's moral powers, for instance, which are his noblest distinction, do not exist at all in the lower animals. Nothing but miraculous creation can explain the existence of man. 5. The admission of a distinct stirps for each of the classes, is a virtual abandonment of the whole hypothesis; for it admits, for example, that a flowering plant and a vertebral animal commenced two of these series, although to reach such a height or organization, requires, by the same hypothesis, a transmutation through all the flowerless plants and invertebrate animals. 6. There is decisive evidence that in many cases during the geological periods, animals, instead of ascending, descended on the scale of organization from the more to the less perfect. 7. Geology shows us that there was a time when organic life first appeared on the globe, and an indefinitely long period when no animals or plants existed. What gave the laws of nature the power, all at once, to start the new races? Why was not that power put forth earlier, or even from eternity, if the world existed from eternity? In short, of all the sciences, geology affords the fewest facts to sustain this hypothesis. No other science presents us such repeated examples of special miraculous intervention in nature. Inference 7. The changes which have occurred on the globe, both organic and inorganic, have shown progress from the less to the mnore perfect. Proof 1. As the temperature of the interior of the earth is much higher than that of surrounding space, by the laws of heat there must be a constant radiation of heat into space, and unless this can be proved to have proceeded in a cycle, or without end,-which can not be done,-the earth must have been constantly undergoing physical changes. If this process of refrigeration has been going on long enough, there must have been a time when the surface was too hot for any kind of organic beings to exist upon it. And when it became possible for some sorts to be placed upon it, it was still unadapted for those of complicated orginization. 2. Accordingly, we find but a few of the flowering plants, or of vertebral animals, in the lowest rocks. and their number and perfection have for the most part increased from the first, while the lower classes have made but little progress, and perhaps in some instances have retrograded. 3. The surface has been rendered capable of sustaining beings of a higher organization in three modes; first, by the operation of aqueous and atmospheric agencies the quantity of soil has been increased; secondly, animals and plants have eliminated lime from its more hidden combinations, and converted it into carbonate and sulphate; thirdly, the surface has reached a statical condition, and the climate is more congenial to such natures. Obj. Almost every year brings to light in the rocks evidence of the existence of more perfect animals and plants at an earlier date than had been known, and since the greater part of the earlier fossils are marine, perhaps the number of air-breathing vertebrate animals and of flowering plants found among them, is almost as great as we ought to expect, even if the present condition of things has existed from the earliest Silurian periods. An,2,. It is true that one or two examples of Batrachians and Chelonians have been found as low as the Devonian series, but not one in the vast formations below, nor a single example of mammals till we rise to the trias; whereas in the tertiary we find 392 species of mammals, and in the alluvial 358 species; antd among existing animal~ 2,030 species; and a similar prodigious increase of more perfect forms exists in almost all other vertebral INTENSITY OF CUSES. 3 75 tribes and vascular plants. While, therefore, the discovery of now and then a species of higher organization shows that their existence was possible at the earlier periods, yet it will require a vast number of such discoveries to prove the proportion between the more and the less perfect to have been then as now. And until that be proved, the evidence of progression remains unaffected. Inference 8. The causes of geological change have varied in intensity. There are two theories upon this subject. In his address before the London Geological Society in 1851, Sir Charles Lyell states what is called the uniformitarian hypothesis, as follows:-" That the ancient changes of the animate and inanimate world, of which we find memorials in the earth's crust, may be similar, both in kind and degree, to to those which are now in progress." Proof 1. It is agreed on all hands that the nature of geological causes has been the same in all ages; although even as late as the time of Cuvier, he says that " none of' the agents nature now employs were sufficient for the production of her ancient works." 2. An indefinite repetition of an agency on a limited scale, can produce the same effects as a paroxysmal effort of the same agency, however powerful; provided the former is able to produce any effect, as, for instance, in the accumulation of detritus, the elevation of continents, the dislocation of strata, etc. Now it is unphilosophical to call in the aid of extraordinary agency, when its ordinary operation is sufficient to explain the phenomena. 3. Nearly every variety of rock found in the crust of the globe has been shown to be in the course of formation by existing aqueous and igneous agencies; and if a few have not yet been detected in the process of formation, it is probably because they are produced in places inaccessible to observation. The opposite hypothesis admits that no causes of geological change different in their nature from those now in action, have ever operated on the globe; in other words, that the geological processes now going on, are in all cases the antitypes of those which were formerly in operation; but it maintains that the existing causes operate now, in many cases, with less intensity than formerly. Proof 1. The spheroidal figure of the earth, and other facts already detailed, seem to render almost certain the former fluidity of the globe. Now, whether that fluidity was aqueous or igneous, or both in part, it is certain that the agencies which produced it must have operated in early times with vastly greater intensity than at this day, and that their energy has been constantly decreasing from that time to the present. 2. Still more direct is the evidence from the character of organic remains in high latitudes, of the prevalence of a temperature in early times hotter than tropical; too warm, indeed, to be explained by any supposed change of levels in the dry land. And if this be admitted, heat must have been more powerful in its operation than at present; and this would increase the aqueous, atmospheric, and organic agencies of those times. 3. No Agency at present in operation, without a vast increase of energy, is adequate to the elevation, several thousand feet, of vast chains of mountains and continents, such as we know to have taken place in early times. A succession of elevations by earthquakes, repeated through an indefinite number of ages, the vertical movements being only a few feet at each recurrence, is a cause inadequate to the effect, if we admit that earthquakes have exhibited their maximum energy within historic times. 370 INTENSITY OF CAUSES. 4. In a majority of cases, the periods of disturbance on the globe appear to have been short compared with the periods of repose that have intervened; as is obvious from the fact that particular formations have the same strike and dip throughout their whole extent; unless some portions have been acted upon by more than one elevatory force; and then we find a sudden change of strike and dip in the formations above and below. Whereas, had any of the causes of elevation now in operation lifted up these formations by a repetition of theirpresent comparatively minute effects, there ought to be a gradual decrease in the dip from the bottom of the fbrmation upwards, and no sudden change of dip between any two consecutive formations, unless some strata are wanting. At the periods of these elevatory movements, therefore, the force must have been greater than any that is now exerted, to produce analogous effects. 5. The sudden and remarkable changes in the organic contents of the strata, as we pass from one formation to another, even when none of the regular strata are wanting, coincides exactly with the supposition of long periods of repose, succeeded by destructive catastrophes. Nor is the supposition that species of animals and plants have become gradually extinct, and have been replaced by new species, by a law of nature during periods of repose, sustained by any facts that have occurred within the historic period: no example having been discovered of the creation of a new species by such a law; and only a few examples of the extinction of a species. 6. Upon the whole, were we to confine our attention to the tertiary and alluvial strata, it might be possible to explain their phenomena by existing causes, operating with their present intensity. But when we examine the secondary, paleozoic, and hypozoic rocks, we are forced to the conclusion that this hypothesis is inadequate; and that we must admit a far greater intensity in geological agencies in early times than at present. 8. But the question here arises, how long a period shall we assume as a measure of the intensity of existing agencies? The most strenuous advocates of the doctrine of uniformity will admit of some oscillation in the intensity of these agencies; because a single year shows it. How, then, shall we determine how wide that oscillation may be? In order to obtain the average intensity, how can we say but that all geological cycles must be included? To make any particular portion of time the measure of all the rest, must be an arbitrary assumption. And, therefore, we can not ascertain what is the standard or the average of intensity; and until this can be done, is the subject considered under this head any thing more than a controversy about words? PAPiT III. CONNECTION BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND NATURAL AND REVEALED RELIGION. 1. ILLUSTRATIONS OF NATURAL RELIGION FROM "GEOLOGY. 1. Geology shows us that the existing system of things upon the globe had a beginning, Proof 1. Existing continents have been raised from the bottom of the sea, where most of their surface was formed by depositions. 2. WVith a few exceptions, the existing races of animals and plants must have been created since the deposition of all the rocks except the alluvial, because their remains do not occur in the older rocks. Hence it appears that not only the present races of organic beings, but the land which they inhabit, are of comparatively modern production. Inf. 1. Hence it is inferred that the existing races of animals and plants must have resulted from the creative agency of the Supreme Being; for even if we admit that existing continents might have been brought into their present state by natural causes, the creation of an almost entirely new system of organic beings, could have resulted only from an exertion of an infinitely wise and powcrful Being. Indeed, the bestowment of life must be regarded as the highest act of omnipotence. Inf. 2. Hence the doctrine which maintains that the operations of nature have proceeded eternally as they now do, and that it is unnecessary to call in the agency of the Deity to explain natural phenomena, is shown to be erroneous. Inf. 3. The preceding inferences being admitted, natural theology need not labor to disprove the eternity of matter, since its eternal duration might be admitted, without affecting any important doctrine. 2. In all the conditions of the globe from the earliest times, and in the structure of all the organic beings that have successively 378 UNITY OF DESIGN. peopled it, we find the same marks.of wise and benevolent adaptation, as in existing races, and a perfect unity of design extending throayh every period of the world's history. Proof 1. The anatomical structure of animals and plan's was very different at different epochs; but in all cases the change was fitted to adapt the species more perfectly to its peculiar condition. 2. To communicate the greatest aggregate amount of happiness, is a leading object in the arrangements of the present system of nature; and it is clear fiom geology, that. this was the leading object in all previous systems. 3. The existence of carnivorous races among existing tribes of animals tends to increase the aggregate of enjoyment, first, by the happiness which those races themselves enjoy; secondly, by the great reduction of the suffering which disease and gradual decay would produce, were they not prevented by sudden death; and thirdly, by preventing any of the races from such an excessive multiplication as would exhaust their supply of food, and thus produce great suffering. Now, we find that carnivorous races always existed on the globe, showing a perfcct unity of design in this respect. Thus, when the chambered shells, so abundant in the secondary rocks, and which were carnivorous, became extinct at the commencement of the tertiary epoch, numerous univalve molluscs were created, which were carnivorous; although till that time these races had been herbivorous. I)?f. From these statements we infer the absolute perfection, and especially the immutable wisdom of the Divine character. A minute examination of the works of creation as they now exist, discloses the infinite perfection of its Author, when they were brought into existence; and geology proves Him to have been unchangeably the same, through the vast periods of past duration, which that science shows to have elapsed since the original formation of the matter of our earth. 3. Geology furnishes many peculiar proofs of the Divine benevolence, so peculiar that they have sometimes been quoted in proof of penal inflictions. Most of these proofs are derived from agencies whose immediate effects are destructive and desolating. Thus soils, which are little else than comminuted rocks, can not be prepared and spread over the valleys without long and powerful erosions by ice and water, P OSPECTIVE BEN EVOLE N CE. 379 storms and inundations, glaciers and icebergs. But though sometimes involving men and animals in destruction, yet whllo will doubt the benevolence of the operation? So the processes by which the various ores have been put into the earth's crust, hlave been accompanied by violent fiacture and dislocation, and a semifusioft of most of the strata. How little like benevolence, also, to have seen the crust bent, crumpled and fractured, here ridged into mountains, and there sunk into valleys. Yet without all this man never could have got access to many of the useful minerals and rocks, water would have stagnated on the level surface, and the beautiful scenery of the globe would never have been seen. In the fearful history of volcanoes and earthquakes, though full of scenes of appalling suffering, yet who knows how essential they may be to preserve the balance of nature, and prevent the great furnace of heat within the earth from rending it to atoms? If any inquire why God coula not have secured the good without the evil? it can only be said, this is a fallen world, where man requires the discipline of evil, and therefore it is mixed with all sublunary things. 4. Geology furnishes interesting examples of what may be called prospective benevolence. By this is meant a special benevolent provision for the happiness of animals, made long before their existence. The following are examples: 1. The vast amount of coal found in the earth is the result of long and slow processes in the ages far back towards the beginning. Vast forests, almost untenanted by animals, and seemingly of no use then, were buried beneath the soil and waters, and gradually changed into peat, brown coal, bituminous coal, and some of it into anthracite. WVhat if this storehouse of fuel had not been laid up? Human society could not have advanced much beyond barbarism, nor have multiplied as it has done. 2. Gold seems not to have been introduced into the rocks till just long enough before man's appearance to allow erosive agencies to collect it in the low spots, where man could obtain it. Before man no animal needed it, but how great a blessing to man It does seem as if the time and manner of its introduction into 380 S P E C IAL ITE P OS I t O N S. the earth's crust pointed most unmistakably to man as an act of prospective benevolence. 3. It looks like the same benevolence that prepared by slow processes a richer soil to greet man than had ever before existed, and afford him nourishment. 4. So, too, there is reason to suppose that certain miasma, such as an excess of carbonic acid, were gradually removed from the atmosphere to adapt it to his health and happiness. 5. Geology proves repeated special divine interpositions, or miracles, in nature as well as special providences. A miracle is an event that can not be explained by the laws of nature, but takes place in opposition to those laws or by their agency intensified or diminished. A special Providence is an event brought about apparently by second causes, but those causes have been so arranged or modified by Divine agency out of sight, that some specific object is accomplished, which would not otherwise be effected. Geology abounds with examples of miracles and special providences as thus defined. We know that the time was when no animal or plant lived on the globe, because it was a molten world. What but a miracle could have filled it with inhabitants? We know that in after ages whole races died out and new ones came in, so that numerous entire changes of population occurred. A miracle certainly was essential at each change-to create the new ones, if not to destroy the old races. Or if we set aside all these cases, we know that man was introduced among the latest of animals; and if his creation was not a miracle, no event could be. So the various circumstances mentioned under the last head as examples of prospective benevolence, all pointed through long ages so significantly to man, that true philosophy must regard them'as arranged with special reference to him by the Deity, and are therefore indicative of special providence. Thus may we with confidence put down miracles and special providences as articles in the creed of natural religion, where they have not till lately been found. They of course take away all presumption against analogous doctrines in revelation. 6. In spite of these evidences of Divine benevolence, geology unites with all other sciences, and with experience, in showing the world A FALLEN T ORLD. 381 to be in a fallen condition, and that this condition was foreseen and provided for, long before man's existence, so that he might.find a world well adapted to a state of probation. Proof 1. It appears that the laws and operations of nature, have been the same, essentially, as at present in all ages. 2. That the same systems of sustenance, reproduction, and death, have always prevailed. Inf. 1. Hence it must always have been impossible, in this world, to have avoided severe suffering; e. g., pain and death. Inf. 2. Hence it has never been a such a world as perfect benevolence would have prepared for perfectly holy and happy beings; though benevolence has always so decidedly predominated in it, as to show it to be a world of probation and mercy, not of retribution. 7. Geology enlarges our conceptions of the plans of the Deity. 1. The prevailing opinion, until recently, limits the duration of the globe to man's brief existence, which extends backward and forward only a few thousand years. But geology teaches us that this is only one of the units of a long series in its history. It develops a plan of the Deity respecting its preparation and use, grand in its outlines, and beautiful in its execution; reaching far back into past eternity, and looking forward, perhaps indefinitely, into the future. 2. Each successive change in the condition of the earth thus far, appears to have been an improved condition; that is, better adapted for natures more and more perfect and complicated. In its earliest habitable state, its soil must have been scanty and sterile, and almost destitute of calcareous matter, except in the state of silicates, which plants decompose with difficulty. The surface, also, was but little elevated above the waters; and of course the atmosphere must have been very damp; though the temperature was very high. Every subsequent change appears to have increased the quantity and fertility of the soil, the amount of the salts of lime and humus, and the dryness of the atmosphere. Should another change occur, similar to those through which it hlas already passed, we might expect the continents to be more fertile, and capable of supporting a denser population. 3. It appears that one of the grand means by which the plans of the Deity in respect to the material world are accomplished, is 382 GEOLOGY AND REVELATION. constant change; partly Inechanical, but chiefly chemical. In every part of our globe, on its surface, in its crust, and we.have reason to suppose, even in its deep interior, these changes are in constant progress; and were they not, universal stagnation and death would be the result. We have reason to suspect, also, that changes analogous to those which the earth has undergone, or is now undergoing, are taking place in other worlds; in the comets, the sun, the fixed stars and the planets. In short, geol6gy has given us a glimpse of a great principle of instability, by which the stability of the universe is secured; and at the same time, all these movements and revolutions in the forms of matter essential to the existence of organic nature, are produced. Formerly the examples of decay so common everywhere, were regarded as defects in nature; but they now appear to be an indication of wise and benevolent design;-a part of the vast plans of the Deity for securing the stability and happiness of the universe. 2. BEARINGS OF GEOLOGY UPON REVEALED RELIGION. Since many truths are common to natural and revealed religion, it is not easy to draw the line exactly between the bearings of geology upon these two departments of theology. There are, too, some erroneous notions widely prevalent on the subject, which need to be corrected before a person can look at it in its true light. One is, that geologists in their writings have arrayed the facts of their science against revelation. But the fact is, that the whole range of geological literature scarcely furnishes an example of this sort from any geologist of distinction. Such attacks, when made, have come from mere sciolists in the science, or from men learned in other departments, but no geologists. Another is, that the bearings of geology upon religion are those of conflict rather than of illustration and corroboration. The fact is, that most cases of supposed collision have turned out already to be mere illustration: just as modern astronomy has shown us how to understand certain passages of the Bible relating to the rising of tfle sun aid immobility of the earth, so has geologrv cast silnilar light upon passages relating to the age of the world and the introduction of evil. And although some few points may still have an aspect of collision, the reverse is almost universally true; and FALSE NOTIONS. 383 we may now say that geology illustrates rather than opposes revelation. A third false notion is, that the principles of geology are unsettled and constantly changing, and that in fact it is chiefly made up of vague and conflicting hypotheses. That there are in geology, as in other physical sciences, unsettled points and doubtful hypotheses, is admitted. But its leading principles are as well settled nearly as those of chemistry, astronomy, and physiology. Especially is it true that those principles which bear upon religion are rarely modified by new discoveries, but rather established more firmly. Hence we see how false is the position some professed friends of religion take, who say that the time has not yet come to attempt a reconciliation of geology and religion, and therefore they will believe the latter on the principle of faith, because the Church does, and wait for further developments. Such a sort of belief, with philosophic minds, is usually little else but covert infidelity, and instead of honoring, it dishonors religion, by admitting that as yet it canll not be defended against the attacks of science. Hence, too, we see the error of maintaining, as some do, that geology ought not to be allowed to modify at all our views of the meaning of Scripture, or any of its truths. For astronomy, chemistry, and physiology, as well as civil history, have been allowed to make such modifications; why should a like power be denied to geology, if its leading principles are settled? Diferent stand-points from which to judge of the Religious Bearings of Geology. Three classes of men have written concerning the connection between geology and religion. The first are professed believers in revelation; but they do not suppose the Mosaic record to be inspired and infallible as to history or science; and hence they are not surprised to find discrepancies and absurdities in what they regard as a myth or fable of the creation got up by Moses to accomplish some important purpose, but not inspired. The second class are firm believers in the Bible, but rot in geology, which they consider so unreliable that it ought not to be taken into account at all in the interpretation of Scripture; nay, they consider the science, as well as its teachers as really hostile 384 TIME OF CREATIO N. to Scripture, and therefore to be met by the most determined resistance. The third class believe in the divine inspiration and authority of every part of the Bible; but they admit also the great principles of geology, and think the two records not only reconcilable, but that they cast mutual light upon each other, and that geology lends important aid to some of the most important truths of revelation. With this last class our views coincide entirely, and we regard it as useless in this work to describe the theories by which the other classes attempt to sustain their views, since the authority of the Bible is destroyed by the first, and the settled principles of science ignored by the second. The third is the stand-point which we shall occupy in enumerating the most important illustrations and corroborations derived by revelation from geology. We think it is an error committed by some of the ablest writers on this subject, that they have attempted to draw out a complete system of reconciliation and illustration between Genesis and geology. For it is obvious that the Mosaic account is fragmentafy; or, as an able writer has expressed it, it gives us only the memorabilia of creation, but not a full and detailed account. Hence if we expect to find in the Scriptures something corresponding to all the details of geology, and in the same order, we shall be disappointed; because it was not the object of Moses to give us a full account of the creation, and in a scientific dress. Let us now enumerate some of the points in revelation that derive support or illustration from geology, and also show the harmony of the two records. 1. The Scriptures and geology agree in not fixing the time of the creation of the world. The Bible says it was made "in the beginning," and language is scarcely capable of more indefiniteness as to time; nor is there any necessary connection between this general proposition and the facts which follow. Geology is alike indefinite. We see, indeed, on its records a great number of distinct facts, but no clue is given as to their chronology; and in fact no hint as to the first act, the production of matter. We might stop here, and with good reason take the ground, that having proved the preceding proposition, nothing further is ~WHEN MAN APPEA RED. 385 necessary entirely to answer all objections against revelation on the ground that its chronology does not agree with the records of geology. No matter how old geology makes the world; it is not older than the " beTinn;ing" of Scripture. 2. They do fix the tinme when man appeared. The Bible represents him as the last of the animals created, and from him a series of chronological dates is carried forward to the present time. His remains, too, are found only in alluvium, the most recent of the formations. This is a most interesting coincidence. 3. They agree in representing creation as the work of God. This is very marked in the Bible, and geology presents numerous exigencies in which no law of nature, no transmuting process will answer,-nothing but the special creating power of the Deity. 4. They agree in representing instrumentalities as employed in the work of creation. God commanded the earth to bring forth grass, and herb yielding seed, on the third day, and the waters every living thing that'noveth, on the fifth. Divine energy was of course concerned, but these were the instruments. So from geology we learn that immense periods were consumed in preparing by natural operations for the introduction of animals and plants. 5. Thley both represent creation to be a progressive work, completed by successive exhibitions of Divine power, with intervals of repose. How long the intervals were, according to the scriptures, will depend on the meaning which we attach to the word day. But if they were only common days, the acts of creation would still be successive and the work progressive. Geology, too, teaches us most distinctly that the various animals and plants were not introduced at once, but at intervals widely separated. This is an interesting coincidence between the two records; because we should beforehand presume that all the races would be introduced by one creative act. 6. They agree in representing the continents as covered an indefinite period by the ocean, and subsequently elevated above it. Geology testifies to several vertical movements of this kind; the scriptures mention but one, which perhaps was intended to stand as a representative of all. 7. They agree in giving to the earth a very early revolution on its present axis. The very first day in the Bible, while yet the ocean covered the continents, is represented as having its evening 17 386 INTE RVAL AFTER T IE BEGINNING. and morning, just like all the rest. This was before the existence of animals and plants. But geology shows that this evening and morning commenced still earlier, even while yet the earth was in a molten state; for we find the earth flattened at the poles exactly so much as it would b3 by a revolution on its axis in twenty-four hours. After its consolidation, such a revolution would not have thus flattened the poles; and while fluid, if it had turned faster than it now does, the poles would have been more flattened; or if slower, they would have been less flattened. The proof is conclusive, therefore, that it revolved as it now does as early as when it was in a molten state. This fact is fAtal to several fine theories, which have been based on the supposition that before the fourth day, when the sun and moon was created, the earth's revolution was much slower than afterward; and, therefore, Moses did not intend us to understand the days as periods of twenty-four hours. Science now shows that such has always been their length. 8. The Miosaic account of creation altows us to suppose an inde.finite interval between the beginning and the first day, which may correspond to the vast periods of geological history. After the first production of matter, it is said to have been covered by water and darkness, and to be without form and void, that is, invisible, or waste, and unfinished. Now how long it may have remained in such a condition, who can tell 2 It may have been long enough to pass through the changes which geology discloses, except that which prepared the way for the introduction of the present races. All this may be admitted, whatever views we take of the nature of the six days. If all will admit this, as nearly all do, why may we not rest here, and say that it is unnecessary to go farther in order to show the harmony between geology and scripture. For here we have an admitted interval in the Mosaic account, sufficient to stretch over all the geological periods, and why need we trouble ourselves to inquire into the nature of the six days, whether they be natural days or longer periods. We fully vindicate the scriptures fiom collision with science, by planting ourselves on this admitted interval. And this is the second resting-place of this kind which we hlave already found. But inquisitive minds are not satisfied without an attempt to enucleate the meaning of the term day in Genesis, and therefore we take up that subject. DAYS OF CREATION. 387 9. The six days of creation, in the view of eminent writers, may be used figuratively for indefinite periods. This opinion found advocates as early as the times of the Christian fathers, Augustine, Origen, etc., and ia more modern times has been ably defended by HIalln, De Luc, Professors Lee and WTait of England, and by Professors Silliman and Guyot of this country. They maintain that the word day is used thus figuratively in all langa'-ges; that it is so used in Gen. 2-4; that the seventh day, or Cod's Sabbath, has not yet terminated, and, therefore, the previous days may have been equally long, and that such an interpretation corresponds remarkably with the traditions and cosmnogonies of many heathen nations. Yet others object that such a meaning is forced and unnatural in a passage where everything else seems literal, and that the sacred writers have shown what meaning they attached to this word in the fourth commandment, where it is impossible to doubt that the six days in the first part are literal days, because they are days of labor; and so must also be the six days referred to in the latter part, in which the Lord made heaven and earth. But though it is difficult to believe that Moses had any other than natural days in mind, most reflecting persons who read the whole chapter, will feel that in reality they must be different, and perhaps they will say, like St. Augustine, " it is very difficult to conceive, much less to explain, what sort of days those were." Another view has been proposed which excites unusual interest at the present time. It is the following: 10. We may understand the days as symbolically representing indefinite periods. A symbol is the representative of something else. The word is taken in all respects in its literal signification, yet it has a higher meaning. Moses probably understood,-and meant his readers should understand, the days of creation as literal days; but they actually symbolize higher periods; just as days, weeks, and times are used in prophecy (which often has a symbolical form) for years. The great advantage of this view of the subject over that which makes the days a figurative representation of long periods, is, that hereby we can take the scriptural statement in its plain, literal sense, yet those literal days may be stretched by symbolization over the widest periods which geology shows to have separated 388 SUCCESSION OFl PICT URES. the Divine creative acts. It is no error, if a man chooses to understand the six days of creation as literal days; nor any error for the geologist to make them symbolize vast periods. 11. The biblical account of creation may be regarded as a succession of pictures with existing nature on the foreground. Ever since this, the pictorial method, was suggested by Dr. Knapp, in 1789, it has been a favorite mode of representation among authors; the most brilliant exhibition of which was by TIugh Miller. But three errors have generally pervaded these representations. The first is, that the six pictures in Genesis embrace every geological change the earth has undergone; secondly, that they are given in true chronological order; and thirdly, that in the life pictures the plants and animals now found fossil, not the existing species, occupy the foreground. Inextricable confusion and discrepancy have resulted from the mixture of such elements. But only admit that the sacred writer intended to give only certain prominent scenes in creation (its most important memorabilia), and not always in true chronological order, and that existing animals and plants were the models before him, the fossil species coming in on the background only by implication, and all the pictures become luminous, beautiful, and harmonious. 12. By such a mode of description the sacred writer was not bound to give, and indeed could not give, always the true chronological order of creation. To make this evident we subjoin in parallel columns the principal events as they are revealed by the sacred penman and by geology. The right hand column gives as fair a view as we can of the order of creation as developed by geology; the names of the several classes being given when they first appear, and their greatest development by small capitals. The left hand column gives the principal results of the six days' work according to Scripture; and where there seems to be no doubt of parallelism, they are placed opposite to events in the geological record. An examination of this table leads to several important conclusions. 1. We learn that some events found in one column do not occur in the other. The igneous fluidity of the globe is one of the best established conclusions of geology; but it is not narmed in the Bible. The introluction of numerous groups of animals and plants at different periods is another settled fact in geology; but ORDER OF CREATION. 389 MMAN: FULL FAUNA AND FLORA, MAN, Alluvium. Mammals, and MOLLUSCA, ARTIOULATA. Day Reptiles. IMAMMALIA; DICOTYLEDONS. Tertiary. RtADIATA; MOLLUSCA. ~~~~Birds ~Chalk. and BIRDS; ItEPTILES. Oolite. Sea Animals. Reptiles. Trias. Saurian Reptiles. Sun, Moon, Pernian. and Stars Dicotyledons; ~~Day. ~~ACROGENS. Created. Carhoniferons. Batrachians. FISI Es. 3 Plants of all sorts. Coniferre Devonian. Day. Land emerges. Fishes. Articulata. 2 Atmosphere Radiata. Mollusca. Day. Created. Alga. Day. Created. Algae. Silurinn and CaTll)rian. Light, Mostly ocean. I)a. Dakness and Ocean. Azoic. Igneous Fluidity. the Scriptures name only one creation of the great classes. On the other hand, the creation of the atmosphere on the second day, and of the sun, moon, and stars on the fourth, have no counterpart in the geological record. 2. There are several rather striking coincidences between the two records as to the order of events and the kinds of organisms introduced. Both show us, in early times, the continents beneath the ocean, and subsequently lifted out of it. Birds and sea animals are introduced on the fifth day, which may reasonably correspond to oolitic times, when birds and reptiles appeared in large numbers, if we may depend upon the tracks of the former as proof. Land reptiles and mammals, or quadrupeds, come in not till the sixth day, which may well be regarded as synchronous with the tertiary formation, when, according to geology, they cere first fully developed. MAan, too, on both records is represented as the last animal created: a coincidence of great interest. 3. There exist also several diversities on the two records as to the nature and order of events. We do not call them discrepancies; for they are so different in nature as to be incapable of being compared. Thus, the creation of the atmosphere is repre 390 CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. sented as occupying the whole of the second demiurgic day. But geology has no record of such an event, and therefore no comparison can be instituted. The same is true of the creation of the sun and moon on the fourth day. It does seem remarkable, however, that these luminaries should be represented as created not until after the vegetable world on the third day, if the writer had intended to preserve the true chronological order of events. No impostor would have been so short-sighted as to commit such a blunder; hence there must be some other reason for such an arrangement. Alike strange is it to find the creation of the atmosphere placed so much before that of the heavenly bodies, when these, as things now are, seem indispensable to atmospheric phenomnena. 4. The most important conclusion drawn from this table is, that the sacred writer did not and could not give the true chronological order of events. The different classes of animals and plants, according to the geological record, appeared at different periods; the same class often several times repeated, and with different degrees of development. Thus, plants began with the lowest class, the Aloge, and not numerous, in the Cambrian slates, the oldest of fossiliferous rocks. In the Devonian a few acrogens and coniferous plants appeared. In the Carboniferous there was an immense development of acrogens, or flowerless trees, and some dicotyledons. The latter, however, the most perfect of plants, were not fully developed till the tertiary, and still more fully in alluvium. Yet plants are all represented as created on the third day. How was it possible, then, to give the chronological date or order of their creation unless the sacred writer had gone into the scientific details above hinted at? The same is true of the groups of animals, which in the Bible are more comprehensive and indefinite than those of science, because they are such as are in popular use. By the plan of the inspired writer, the time and order of their appearance could not be given, and, therefore, the discovery of any diversity in this respect between revelation and science is no objection to the former, because it is not responsible for the time and order of events, but only for their truth. And if this is so in regard to the organic world, why may it not be so in regard to the other events described? Moses wished to give a pictorial representation of some of the principal events in the work of LEA DING FACTS PRESENT ED. 391 creation, and, therefore, he conformed to a chronological order only so far as his leading object required. It would be natural for him to begin his pictures with the world in a chaotic state, buried by darkness and water, with the light just breaking in. According to ancient ideas there was an ocean above as well as below, and this might have suggested the formation of the firmament on the second picture. It was natural next to bring up the submerged land and adorn it with vegetation. This might awaken the thought of introducing the heavenly bodies. And now it might occur that everything was ready for the introduction of animals into the atmosphere and the waters; and last of all to let the most perfect of animals come in with man. These may not, and probably were not the reasons why, as we suppose, Moses departed from a chronological arrangement of his six pictures; but they show that there might be reasons for doing this. It has been and still is almost universally assumed, that Moses gives a connected and chronological history of creation; and then ingenuity has been taxed to the utmost to accommodate the facts to such a supposition. But if we may reasonably suppose that he meant only to give certain leading and selected facts, conformed to a chronological order only so far as suited his purpose, just as one might select certain facts from the early history of the country, and show them by pictures arranged so as to produce the best effect, without reference to dates, it relieves the sacred writer from all responsibility as to chronological order and scientific arrangement, and really does more to bring out the beauty of the Mosaic history of creation, and to bring it into harmony with science, than almost all other principles. 13. Geology and the Bible agree in representing physical evil as in the world before man. Geology shows that the same mixed system of suffering and enjoyment, of liability to painful accident and inevitable death, has always prevailed as they now do. The Bible, too, intimates that death and other evils preceded man. Of what use was the threatening of death if no example of it existed among animals? Again, plants were created with seeds in them, and animals made male and female for the production of a succession of races, and such a system implies a correspondent system of death. The human family might have been specially preserved by the fruit of the tree of life, perhaps, from the com 392 NOAH S DELUGE. mon lot, till they had sinned, when they too must die. Again, the selection and fitting up of a spot eastward as the Garden of Eden, as a place for man while holy, and his expulsion from it after he had sinned, implies that the world generally was, as now, a world of evil and suffering. It was made so from the beginning, because it would ultimately become a world of sin, and sin and death are inseparable. If animal existence is, on the whole, a blessing in such a world as the present, or if animals may live hereafter, and receive some compensation for their sufferings here, the time when they suffer, be it before or after man's apostasy, makes no difference. 14. Zoology and geology throw doubt over the literal universality of the deluge of Noah. The many vertical movements of continents taught by geology afford a presumption in favor of the Noahian deluge. But the science also shows the absurdity of a wide-spread opinion, that the numerous marine shells and plants found fossil in the rocks were deposited by the deluge. For they extend through more than ten miles in thickness of rocks, and are arranged in systematic order, and most of them are changed into stone by a slow process; and to impute all this to a transient deluge of less than a year, is to impute effects to a totally inadequate cause. The doubts about the flood's universality result, first from the difficulty of covering the whole earth for so long a time with water; secondly, to find a place in an ark 450 feet long, 75 feet broad, and 45 feet high, for 1,658 species of quadrupeds, 6,000 species of birds, 642 species of reptiles and tortoises, and 120,000 species of insects-all of which have been shown by naturalists to exist. But the grand difficulty is to collect them all in one spot, and then to disperse them again, without a special miracle; and if a miracle be introduced, all reasoning is nonsense. MAoreover, if the regions inhabited by man, then probably quite limited, were covered, what was the use of drowning the rest of the world? The language of Scripture, though at first view seeming strongly to teach a literal universality, is in many other cases quite as strong, although we know that it does not imply universality; but is an example where universal terms are employed to designate only a great many. See Genesis xli. 57, Exodus ix. 25 and x. 15, Acts ii. 5, Colossians i. 23, etc. C O NCLUSI O NS. 393 15. The Bible teaches that the earth will be, and geology that it may be, destroyed by fire and its surface renovated. The Bible declares that the earth will be burnt up and its elements melted, which would reduce it to a molten globe. Geology shows that the globe contains all the elements necessary to bring about such a result. At the rate the internal heat increases, melted matter would be reached in less than 100 miles. How vast the amount of melted matter below, on that supposition, Fig. 125 will show. It is clear that if from any cause, natural or supernatural, such a crust in one part should be broken through and sink into the molten ocean below, all the rest might founder and disappear, and a melted globe alone remain. Then would begin anew the formation of another crust, on which another economy of life might be established, and this might be the new heaven and new earth described in the Scriptures as the future residence of man glorified. Conclusions. First, in order to show that there is no discrepancy between revelation and geology, we can take any one of three positions, each of which is sufficient. We may show that Moses does not fix the time of the material creation; or, secondly, that his account admits an indefinite period between the beginning and the first day; or, thirdly, that the days stand symbolically for long periods, and that on the plan of description adopted bythe sacred writer he could not give, in all cases, the chronological order of creation. Either of these positions, in the view of any unprejudiced mind, completely vindicates the Mosaic account from any collision with geology. Secondly, geology furnishes very important illustrations of the Mosaic account, and corroborates several truths of revelation. Thirdly, still more remarkably does geology illustrate the principles of natural religion, and add to its creed several doctrines generally regarded as exclusively revealed. Hence it is high time for believers in revelation to cease fearing injury to its claims or doctrines from geology, and to be thankful to Providence for providing in this science so powerful an auxiliary of religion, both natural and revealed. 17* PART IV. ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. Economical Geology is an account of rocks with reference to their pecuniary value, or immediate application to the wants of society. These practical applications may be included under the three general heads of mining, engineering and architecture, and agriculture. 1. MINING. Mining is usually understood to relate chiefly to the means employed for extracting metallic ores from veins. We shall apply it to the extraction of ores from all metalliferous deposits. Previously, then, to the details of the process, we must describe the different modes in which the metals are found, and their origin. Metalliferouts Deposits. Metallic Veins. —The metallic matter, called ore, rarely occupies the whole of the vein; but is disseminated more or less abundantly through the quartz, sulphate of baryta, wacke, granite, etc., which constitute the greater part of the vein, and are called the gangue, matrix, or veinstone. 0lten the ore and the gangue form alternating layers. Sometimes there are cavities lined with crystals, which cavities are called dreses. Metallic, like other veins, vary very much in extent, both in a vertical and a horizontal direction. They are of unknown depth; for scarcely ever have they been exhausted downward. The deepest mine that has been worked, is that at Truttenburg in Bohemia, which has been explored to the depth of 3,000 feet. In all cases metallic, like other mineral veins, are filled with matter different from the rocks which they traverse. In some instances they are obviously of the same age with the containing rock, but in a majority of cases they are fissures that have been subsequently filled. They exhibit almost every variety of dip and strike, and yet it has been thought that they very often affect an east and west direction, though frequently they run north and south, and their dip usually approaches the perpendicular. These veins often ramnify and diminish until they finally disappear. Their width is very various; from a mere line up to some hundreds of feet. The metallic veins of Cornwall vary from an inch to thirty feet in width. The contents are sometimes arranged in successive and often corresponding layers on each side. The contents of metalliferous veins often vary in the same vein, in different rocks through which it passes, both perpendicularly and in the direction of the vein. Its width also varies in the same manner. It is often found that all the veins of the same neighborhood have essentially the same direction; and if there should be two distinct systems of veins in the same locality, one system, if they are both metalliferous, will contain a metal not found in the other. The rock in which metallic veins are found is called the country; the veins themselves are lodes; unproductive veins, intersecting tha lodes, are callDd cross courses the dip or inclination of the vein is its hade, slope, or underlie; METALLIC VEINS. 395 strings and threads are small filaments into which the vein sometimes rami-.fes. The two sides of the sheet or lode are called its walls; and if the dip of the vein is considerable, the upper one is termed the hanging wall, and the lower the foet wall. Metallic veins are most numerous in hypozoic and palIozoic rocks. No vein is worked in Great Britain above the nlew red sandstone. Nor are any explored of much import- Fig. 412. ance, above the carboniferous limestone. In the " \m"g Pyrenees, however, hematitic and spathic iron occurs in palaeozoic strata, in the lias, and the chalk. In the Cordilleras of Chile, also, tertiary strata, which have become crystalline by the proximity of granite, are traversed by true metall c veins of iron, copper, ar-, sanic, silver, and gold, which proceed from the un- derlying granite. As a general fact, metallic veins are most productive near the junction of stratified and unstratified e rocks Their productiveness depends also on their relative direction. If one lode is rich, another lode c! near it, with nearly the same direction and in nearly the same country, will probably be found rich in that part opposite the rich part of the first lode. It is also considered a favorable indication of rich metallic; veins, to find at the surface decomposed masses of _ _ the ore called gossan. -- The latest writers upon metallic veins argue that / the ores are richer near the surfaco than at great X depths. Metallic, like common veins, have been produced N ~' at diTferent epochs. Mr. Carre finds evidence in. i). Cornwall of the existence of metallic veins of no less.. than six or eight different ages; a case analogous ~ to the one exhibited in Fig. 31, in Section I. ~ a. Fig. 412 is a section of tin and copper veins near Redruth, in Cornwall. They generally pass from t --.\\j the killas, or slate, into the granite beneath. The - section reaches to the depth of 1,200 feet. The' N'..dotted lines represent the tin lodes (veins), and the continuous lines the copper lodes. -\ " Leade Veins of the Upper Mississippi.-The most extensive deposits of galena in this country ara in the valley of the Upper Missiszippi, in rocks of the Hudson River group. The simplest form of the lodA is a vertical sheet, from the thickness of a knife- ~ blade to several feet; or a number of these sheets, may be grouped together. / Sometimes the sheets terminate downwards in a large horizontal bed of ore, not usually less than four nor more than fifteen feet thick. Thie sheets Z/ connected with these beds or openings, are called chimneys, as may be seen in Fig. 413. [. ", Very frequently these openings are not filled $ with ore, but are merely cavities in the rock, and often contain bones of extinct species of animals-as the wolf, peccary, etc. Or these openings may be partially occupied by ore. Fig. 414 represents 396 OPIGIN OF VEIlNS. Fig. 413. Fig. 414. the Marsden's lode, showing both an open- | -_ _ - ing, e, partially filled with galena, and the e composite structure of some of the lodes. a is the cap rock, b a layer of blende, c of pyrites, d of blende, and the galena in the opening, e. is twelve inches thick. This lode is what is called a flat sheet. These deposits are generally completely isolated, having no connection with each other laterally or vertically. Nor do they extend definitely downward. Ores in the form of Beds.-The ores of iron sometimes occur in lodes, but more frequently as beds interstratified with sandstones, schists, etc. Tin, lead, and copper are rarely found associated with these beds of iron, but not in large quantities. These beds are undoubtedly of sedimentary origin. Alluvial Deposits.-Gold, platinum, and tin are often found in gravel aMd sand. The same forces that removed the gravel and sand from the ledges also washed away the ores from the veins, and deposited them as a part of alluvium. It is much more profitable, in general, to obtain gold and platinum from alluvium than from the original veins. ORIGIN OF METALLIC VEINS. 1. Werner supposed that metallic veins were fissures filled by aqueous infiltration from above. 2. Hutton supposed that metallic veins were filled by melted matter injected from beneath. It is probable that many metallic veins were thus produced. 3. Professor Sedgwick supposes some metallic veins to have been produced by chemical segregation from the rock in which they occur, while that was in a yielding state; just as nodules of flint were segregated from chalk, or crystals of simple minerals from the rocks in which they are now found imbedded. 4. Mr. Fox and M. Becquerel refer the origin of many metallic veins to electro-chemical agencies which are operating at the present day, to transfer the contents of veins even from the solid rocks, in which they are disseminated, into fissures in the same. The former of these gentlemen has shown conclusively that the materials of metallic veins, arranged as they are in the earth, are capable of exerting a feeble electro-magnetic influence; that is, they constitute galvanic circuits, whereby numerous decompositions and recompositions, and a transfer of elements to a considerable distance may be effected. HTe was induced to commence experiments on this subject, by the analogy which he perceived between the arrangements of mineral veins and voltaic combinations. And he thinks if such an agency be admitted in the earth, it shows why metallic veins, having a nearly east and west direction, are richer in ore than others; since electro-magnetic currents would more readily pass in an east and west than in a north and south direction, in consequence of the magnetism of the earth. M. Becquerel has shown that even insoluble metallic compounds may be produced by the slow and long-continued reaction and transference of the elements of soluble compounds by galvanic action. lIe has also made an impo:taat practical application of these priu MININ. 397 ciples, which is said to be in successful operation in France, whereby the ores of silver, lead, and copper are reduced without the use of mercury. This ingenious theory bids fair to solve many perplexing enigmas relating to metallic veins, and to prove that some of them may even now be in a course of formation. 5. M. Neckar and Dr. Buckland suggest that some mineral veins may have been filled by the sublimation of their contents into fissures and cavities of the superincumbent rocks, by means of intensely-heated mineral matter beneath. Thus it has been shown that by heating galena in a tube, and causing its vapor to unite with that of water, a new deposition of that mineral was produced in the upper part of the tube; and in a similar manner boracic acid, which by itself does not sublime, may be carried upward and deposited anew. Probably it will be necessary to call in the aid of all the preceding hypotheses to explain the complicated phenomena of mineral veins. The third and fifth of these hypotheses meet with the greatest favor with geologists at the present day. MINING. Preliminary Operations.-Valuable veins may be discovered by attentively observing the fragments of rock strewed over the surface. Their sources will be either upon the sides of the valleys in which they are scattered, or in the direction of the drift current. Ravines and steep hill-sides in the neighborhood should be carefully explored foibr traces of veins, which are usually prominently marked, either by elevation above the enclosing rock, depression below it, or by peculiar products of decomposition; When these means are not available, shoading or costeaning must be tried. This consists in digging a series of narrow pits, a few feet deep, at right angles to the supposed course of the lodes. If the course of the lodes can not be satisfactorily conjectured, there should be two series of pits at right angles to each other; and these should be connected by underground galleries, that no traces of ore may be overlooked. If a productive lode has been discovered, the first operation, if the situation requires it, is to drive an adit level. This is a gallery intersecting the lode as far as possible below the surface, and yet secure the draining of the mine. The second operation is to sink a pit or shaft intersecting the lode at a Fig. 415. // ~ ~ ~ v// 7, // >' / 398 EXTRACTION OF ORES, proper distance from the surface. It is designed as the thoroughfare through which the ores are brought to the surfhace, and ingress and egress are afforded to tile miners. The simplest mode of conveyance is by means of a windlas mounted on the shaft, to which two buckets are attached by a long rope and made alternately to ascend and descend in the pit. Fig. 415 represents three lodes traversed by an adit level. Three shafts are also represented. Fig. 416 shows the interior of a shaft. As the work progresses, horizontal galleries are excavated at different levels, striking the lode at different points, and connecting with the principal Fig. 416. shaft. These are called cross cuts; and by means of railways the ores are conveyed to the shaft, [ Kl iiwhere they are drawn to the surface by the simple windlass, or a whim-a contrivance employing horse power-or by a steam engine. Sometimes, for purposes of ventilation and the readier working of the mine, pits are sunk from one level to another, without being directly connected with the surI face. These pits are called winzes. Methods of attacking the Rock.These vary with the nature of the rock. If it be soft, pick-axes and shovels may be used. If it be hard, but traversed by seams, k. steel wedges or gads may be used JK'|;7i~lM L iza1 Sto split off large fragments of ore. Most usually, however, the rock iil~ ~ njmaust be excavated by blasting c — ~with gunpowder. When the rocks are soft, or there is danger of sliding, walls of stone or frames o' timber must be constructed, to preserve the openings and galleries. Extraction of Ores.-The materials excavated to form the galleries may be largely composed of ores, but these form a very small part of the valuable fragments which must be preserved. After the ore has been removed, the worthless rubbish may occupy its place, and thus the valuabeo portions be easily obtained at the different levels. When the progress is from a higher to a lower level, the operation is called stoping; but if the progress is upward, the opening is called a rise. Fig. 417 exhibits the excavations in the Hu-l Crofty Copper Mine in Cornw.-;ell. The perpendicular excavations represent the shafts and winzes, and tlhlo portions shaded black represent those parts of the lode which have been removed by stoping. The levels in this mine, like most of those in Cornwall, are ten fathoms apart. Mechanical Preparation of Ores. —When the ores reach the surface, the valuable portions are picked out and prepared by various mechanical operations for metallurgic processes. Crushing. —Many ores are prepared for smelting by crushing. The fragments are brought beneath two large cast iron cylinders, revolving in contrary directions, and kept in place by a heavy weight. After b ing crushed, the ores pass over a sieve, which separates the fragments of different sizes; tASIII NG O F ORES. 399 Fig. 41T. I11 II iLl _o r 11i i passing the larger pieces beneath the rollers again, until they are sufficiently reduced. Stamping.-Many ores, instead of being crushed by rollers, are pounded into small fragments by huge pestles moved by water or steam power. The pestles usually weigh from 300 to 400 pounds. TVashing.-Though the ores have been thoroughly crushed or stamped, they are not yet quite ready for the furnace. There may be foreign substances mixed with them. These are commonly separated from the valuable parts by washing. The principle of the separation is, that in consequence of the different specific gravities of the ores and refuse matters, the two classes of fragments, if made to fall in water, will settle in different layers; and the most valuable layer, after the water has been poured off, may easily be separated from the others. The simplest apparatus for the washing of oires is the hand-sieve. It may be compared to a large tub having a sieve at the bottom. The tub is partly filled with the crushed fragments, then it is placed in a large tank filled with water. The tub is speedily filled with water, and by giving it a sort of undulatory motion with the hands, the heavier particles will settle at the bottomn, and thus be separated for the metallurgist. There are other methods of washing the ores by machinery, which are in more general use than the hand-sieves; but they all involve essentially the same principle. The native metals, such as gold and platinum, which are worked in alluviumrn, need only to pass through this process of washing to be prepared for use in the arts. But most ores, when they have been carried through the processes already described, must be reduced in a furnace to the metallic state. Itis the province of METALLURGY to describe the methods of reduct:on. Amount of l'etals Mfined. It may be of interest to some to learn the amount of metals that are annually mined in the world. We add, therefore, two tables, the first giving the estimated value of metals obtained by mining in 1854, and the second givinr their amount. For these tables we are indebted to The Metallic Wealth of the United States, by J. D. Whitney. 0 0 Estimated Value of Xining Products in 1854. Gold. Silver. Mercury. Tin. Copper. Zinc. Lead. Iron. Russian Empire............ $14.SS0.C00 $92S.000.....$........... $3.900.000 $440.000 $92.000 $5.000.000 Sweden.................... 496 5..................... 900.000 4.400 23.000;.750Y.000 Norway....................... 272.000................... 830.000................. 125.000 Great Britain............. 24.800 1.120.000.......... $4.20.o0 8.700.000 110.000 7.015.800 75.000.000 Belgium.......................................................... 1.760.000 115.000 7.50.000 Prussia................................................... 900.000 8.630.000 920.000 3.750.000 IIarz................ 488 480.000.......... 00.000 1.100 575.000.......... Saxony.................... 960.000......... -60.,00 303.000.......... 230.000 175.000 itest of Germany.................. 48.000.................... 115.000 2.500.000 Austrian Empire........... 1.41.00 1.440.000 $250,000. 3 1i.9SG.000 165.000 805.000 5.625.000 Switzerland............................................................ 85.000 France...........................0........ 12.00 15.00.000 Spain...................... 10.416 2.000.000 1.250.000 6.000 500.000 8.450.000 1.000.000 Italy....................... 1............150.000 57.500 625.000 Africa...................... 92.000.................... 360.000.............................. S. Asia and E. Indies........ 6.200.000.3.00. 1.800..................... C Australia and Oceanica...... 87.200.000 128.000........... 2.100.000.............................. Chile....................... 744.000 4.000.000.......... 8.400.000.......................... Bolivia................... 297.600 2.080.000.900.000........ Peru...................... 4T1.230 4.900.000 0.00......... 900.000........... Equador, New Granada, etc. 8.720.000 208.000.................................................. Brazil...................... 1.488.003 11.200..........j..................................... Mexico..................... 2.480.000 28.080.000............................................. Cuba..................................... 1,......... Unite(t States............. 49600.000 352.000 50.0o......... i;.c 550.000 1.725.00 25.000.000 Total................. $119.523.600 -7.44.200 $2.1,0.(,00 fS.196.000 $4.140.000 $.660.560 $15.295.000 $ 14.425.000 E XG I N: E RtI N G. 401 Amouzn t of Jnle.,s obtained buy Jining in 1854. Gol. Silver. r- Tin. Copper Zinc. Lead. Iron. cu ry._ lbs. lbs. Troy. Troy. lbs-.Ax. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. IRussian Empire....... 60.00 53... 000.5500 4.000 800 200.000 s ll.........2 3.50o.............. 1..500 40 200 150.C00o Norway............ 1.00........ 550...... 5.000 Great Britain.......... 16; 70.000......... 14.500 1.000 61.000 3.000.000 Belgiun................1.......... 16.000 1.000 300.000 Prussia............... 3,0.00)........ 1.500 33.0C0 8.000 150.000 I [arz 3d......C e0.0;,01.......... 150! 16 5.00(i........ Saxony.........1......... 60.000..... 2.000 7.000 est of Gcr.:y......000............................ 1.000 100.000 Austrian Em)ire....... S. 90.000 500.00 5) 3.0 1.500 7.000 225.000 Switzerland....................................... 115.000 France...................... 5.000........................... 1.500 600.000 Fiannce... 1.500 600.000 Spain................ 4 125.000 2.500.000 10 50 0...... 0 40.000 Italy............................................... 250 500 25.000 Africa. 4...600 S. Asia ani E. Indlies. 25.005.000............... Chile................ 3.G00 250.000'.. 14.000..................... Brazil...........6......................... * 0 Mexico................ 10.000 1.50.000...... CuLba.....................................2.000.................. United States.......... 200.00 2.000..003.500 5.000 15.000 1.000.000 Total.. S1.950 2.965.200 4.200,000 13.660 50.900 60.550 133.000 5.819.000 2. EINGINEERING AND ARCIIITECTURE. The spheres of the engineer and the architect are so similar that we may conveniently bring under one head what we have to say of the uses to which they may apply geology. The engineer has to locate railroads, common roads, and canals, to tunnel mountains, to construct embankments, harbors, breakwaters, quays, and bridges. The architect selects the sites of public and private buildings; and both must select materials for their works. Their applications of geolooy, then, will fall under two heads-i. Location of their works. 2. The materials to be used in construction. 1. -Location. In the location of railroads, as well as of carriage roads, an engineer famrniliar with geology will be able often to prevent great losses and failures by a judicious selection of routes. The greatest danger lies in the loose or imperfectly consolidated materials at the surface. Where there is an alternation of sand, gravel, and clay, especially if the strata are at all inclined, and deep cuts are made through them, slides will be apt to occur subsequently in very wet or very dry weather. He who knows all this beforehand can, by a variety of expedients, guard against such accidents, to which lie who has never studied surface geology will be liable. The same difficulties meet the architect in selecting the site of large buildings. If be can find a little below the surface what is called hard pan, that is, gravel and sand more or less consolidated, he could not obtain a better 432 ENGINEE I NG. foundation. But this hard pan may have but little thickness and be under. laid by loose materials, even by quicksand. Its thickness, therefore, should be ascertained, and no building, bridge, or embankment placed upon it which will be liable, by its weight, to break through the stratum. C'ay, especially such as occurs in alluvial formations, is one of the foundations most to be suspected. For although very solid when dry, powerful rains wi.l convert it into mortar; or it may be underlaid by that most slippery of all foundations, quicksand, which, if a stream of water should find access to it beneath the clay, will be swept away with astonishing rapidity, undermining, of course, the superincumbent structure. A case of this kind occurred in East Hampton, Massachusetts, in the summer of 1860; when a factory, just erected by lion. Samuel Williston, was injured in one night to the amount of some $50,000. But the engineer and architect should be acquainted with the solid strata beneath alluvium; not only with their nature, but their position, whether horizontal or inclined. For if inclined, the loose materials above will be very liable to slide down, and therefore without due precaution no structures of great weight and importance, whether embankments, quays, or houses, should be placed upon them. The dip and strike of the strata, as well as their nature, should also be known to the engineer, in laying out railroads and canals, on other accounts. To locate them on the line of strike is the most unfavorable of all directions, while the most favorable is to cross them at right angles. Still more important are the dip and strike in tunneling To carry a tunnel through a hill on the line of strike, or with the rock dipping from the workman, is most unfavorable, bucause the work must be done on the edges of the strata. The most favorable is where the drilling can be made on the broad face of the strata. The nature of the rock, too, is very important. Some formations have so little coherence, that if a tunnel be made through them, the roof will fall in. Others are so hard, that it is almost as easy to drill and blast iron. This is especially true of the compact trap rocks and some varieties of porphyry. Cuttings through them are so costly, that, if possible, they should be avoided; though the tufaceous traps are not difficult to blast. These trappean rocks are apt to occur when least expected, and the ngineer, before he decides upon an extensive cutting or tunnel, ought to be confident that he shall not unexpectedly encounter these hard materials. He ought to find out, if possible, also, where faults exist, what strata are pervious or impervious to water, and where springs may be expected. The question as to the probable success of boring Artesian wells has become, at this day, one of great interest and importance, and also one of' great difficulty, concerning which the most practiced geologist may be mistaken. Certain'principles, however, are true in respect to such explorations. One is, that we can not expect success if the underlying rock in the region is all unstratified, nor unless some stratum can be reached whose outcrop rises higher than the surface of the well; that is, although water may be found, it will not rise to the surface. So if all tlie strata are equally pervious to water, no hydrostatic pressure will force it upward. 2. Mlaterials. For most common purposes of construction men are obliged to use such materials as are easily accessible, though perhaps not the best. The most valuable are often remote and costly. Some kinds of rocks, however, the world over, are always highly prized. Such are the marbles, granites, porphyries, serpentines, alabasters, soapstones, etc. The most valuable monu B UILDING ATE ER I ALS. 403 ments of antiquity, that have survived the ravages of time, were of this description, and they are now used more extensively than ever. Analogous materials, holwever, of coarser kinds, answer well for coalnon purposes; and the engineer and architect must make tile best selection they ca.1 out of materials at hand, taking into account their accessioility, cheapness, and durability. The following are the rocks generally employed for the purposes of construction, rooting, and flagrgiag, as well as Jbr macadamizing roads: 1. Limestone. 2. Sandstone. 3. Clay slate. 4. Micaceous and talcose schists. 5. Gneiss. 6. Soapstono. 7. Granite, syenite, and trap. Limestone is, upon the whole, the most important. Sometimes it is sim'ply carbonate of line, or a double carbonate of lime and magnesia, called dolomite; in both which states it forms beautiful white marble, and is very esaduring. In Philadelphia especially, and more or less in other Atlantic cities, this white marble formts the fronts of houses; and in the City Hall in New York, the entire edifice is made of it. The large pillars around Girard College in Philadelphia are of this stone, obtained fromt Sheffield, in Massachusetts. It is less common in European cities, though the new Houses of Parliament in London are built of dolomite; but it is scarcely crystalline, and coames fram the permian formation. The oolite furnishes most of the best building stone in Great Britain, especially from the famous quarries in the Isle of Portland and near Bath. But this rock is. entirely wanting in our country. Yet vast beds of the white and gray, or variegated limestones of the azoic rocks. run along the whole length of the Appalachian chain of mountains from Canada to Alabama. Farther west the limestones take argillaceous matter into their composition and form admirable building stones, as mayv be seen in our Western cities. The great amount of steatite, or soapstone, in the Appalachian chain of mountains, especially in New England, has led of late to its employment for the fronts of houses in New York and elsewhere. It has the advantages of being worked with great ease and of keeping free from mosses and lichens, but it is not handsome, and is easily marred. Sandstones of various colors, hardness, and of different degrees of fineness from the tertiary to the azoic rocks, are widely employed in most countries. From the well-known quarries of Portland, ia Connecticut, and near Newark, New Jersey, large quantities of this rock are carried to almost every portion of the country accessibbl by water. This rock is red or gray, and belongs to the oolitic or triassic group. Other sandstones, from the palaeozoic rocks, are extensively used in many parts of the country. Most of these sandstones are very enduring and beautiful In this country clay slate is used almost exclusively for roofing. But in the vicinity of some of the European slate quarries, as in Wales, it is employed for the floors of houses, for doors, fences, troughs, coffins, and almost every thling, in fact, for which boards are used in other countries. For flagging stones the most usual rocks employed in our country are devonian gritstone and mica and hornblende schists. The beautiful mica schist of Bolton, in Connecticut, and the gritstono of the Hamilton group of rocks along ilulson River, furnish flagstones for a large part of thle cities of this country. The first is perhaps the most beautiful, but the latter the most enduring. In Great Britain gneiss is hardly spoken of as a stone for construction, and hence we conclude that it is not used. But in this country, especially in New England, it is one of the most valuable of all our rocks. Composed of the same materials as granite, it is equally enduring, and it has the advantage of splitting easily in the direction of the stratification, though there is some dif 404 AGIrICULTURA.L GEOLOGY. ficulty in hewing it smoothly across the layers. The quarries of this rock in New England are very numerous, and some of them furnish most beautifnl stone, much to be preferred to sandstone. The unstratified rocks are also described by English writers as " not very often employed in the construction of public edifices." Very different is the case with us. Trap and porphyry are not, indeed, much used on account of the difficulty of bringing the blocks into a regular shape, as they can only be broken, but not hewn. But granite and syenite are used almost everywhere, if obtainable, and form the most solid and enduring of structures. The syenitic quarries at Quincy and Cape Ann, in Massachusetts, as well as those of pure white granite at Hallowell, in Maine, at Barre, in Vermont, at Chelmsford and Fitchburg, in Massachusetts, and many other places, furnish inexhaustible quantities, and in the northern cities form a large part of the most imposing public as well as private buildings. Enormous blocks are sometimes got out at these quarries to form solid columns of great size and length, as may be seen in several public edifices in Boston and elsewhere. It is an important and difficult point to ascertain whether an entire rock will endure long exposure without disintegration. In Europe, where buildings from the quarries have stood for several centuries, this point can generally be determined. But in this country we must resort to other means. The mineral composition will give us some information, and in general the more perfectly crystalline the rock, the less liable it is to disintegration, though there are some exceptions. A better test is to examine ledges that have been for ages exposed to atmospheric agencies, and observe the amount of erosion. A method of testing the influence of dampness and frost by the use of a boiling solution of Glauber's salts is said to afford good results in a short time. The details, which we have not room to give, may be found in Ansted's Geology, vol. ii., p. 458. 3. AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. The first inquiry in Agricultural Geology is, what is the composition of good soils? The matter in all soils capable of sustaining vegetation exists in two forms, inorganic and organic. The first contains twelve chemical elements, viz., oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, and the metals potassium, sodium, calcium, aluminum, magnesium, iron, and manganese. In the organic part the elements are four: oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. The inorganic elements are derived from the rocks; the organic elements from decaying animal and vegetable matter. So that it is with the earthy constituents of soils that geology has to do. The above-named ought all to be present. They do not indeed occur in their simple state, but as water, sulphates, phosphates, carbonic acid, silicates of potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, iron, etc. The average amount of silicates or sand in soil is 89 in 100 parts. The second inquiry is, whether these elements of the soil are found in the rocks. In the table of their analysis given on page 93, it will be seen that they are all present except phosphorus, which, however, is not unfrequently found in them in the condition of phosphates. Moreover, the proportion of the ingredients in the rocks does not differ much from that of the soils. Hence the conclusion is, that the latter are only the former comminuted, with the addition of from three to ten per cent. of organic matter. Since the rocks differ considerably in composition, we should expect a corresponding difference in the soils derived from them. And such is the fact to a considerable extent where the soil is simply the result of the disintegration of the rock beneath it. It is enough so ia many districts to form char AG ICULTUI RAL G EOLOGY. 405 acteristic soils. Thus over quartz rocks and some sandstones we find a very sandy and barren soil, though it is said that in nearly all soils enough silicates of lime and magnesia are present to answer all the purposes of vegetation. But the alkalies and phosphates may be absent. When the rock is limestone, the soil is sometimes quite barren for the want of other ingredients, and in consequence of the difficulty of decomposition. Clay, also, may form a soil too tenacious and cold. The sandstones that contain marly beds, and some of the tertiary rocks of analogous character, form excellent soils. So does clay slate, and especially calciferous mica schist. The amount of potash and soda in gneiss and granite often makes a rich soil from those rocks, and the trap rocks form a fertile though scanty soil. But, in the third place, in most countries aqueous and glacial agencies have so mixed the soils together that their original peculiarities are lost, and new and compound characters are given them. This is particularly the case in northern countries, where the drift agency has swept over the surface and torn off and mixed together the disintegrated portions of the several formations. Subsequently rains and streams have carried tile finer portions of the drift into the lowest places, and there formed alluvial meadows; and although these are usually the best of soils, they are often derived from many different rocks. The drift left upon the higher grounds is generally quite barren, chiefly because of its coarseness. A fourth service which the geologist renders to agriculture is by the discovery of fertilizers. Sometimes he can point out deposits of the phosphates either in a crystalline state, or as coprolites or guano. He can also show what rocks contain carbonate of lime, or discover sulphate of lime, or marl beds, or green sand, or decomposing fossil shells, or deposits of carbonaceous matter. He can also find what rocks contain enough of potash or soda to be of service when pulverized. The subject of drainage, as well as the discovery of springs of water and the best means of bringing it to the surface, belong to Ayricultaral Geology i but our limits do not allow us to enter upon the details. PA R T V. NORTH AMERICA'N GEOLOGY. THnE history of American Geology commences with the present century. A few collections of minerals and rocks served as the nucleus around whic!i the interest of the public gradually accumulated. The first attempt at e:cploration was commenced by William Maclure in 1807, who published a geological map of the States then in the Union, giving the old Wernerian classific.atio.l oi tile rocks. Great service has been rendered to American geology by tile Amorerican Joarnal of Science and Art, commenced by Professor Siiiiman, Senior, in 1818, and continued to this day as the ablest American scieutilic joaru:. Au iatpo.mtat feature in the history of American geology is the numerous geolog.d slrve;'- that have been executed, or are still in progress, under the patronage an l directionl of the dilferent State authorities, as well as the United States government. The leading object of these surveys is to develop those mineral resources of the country that are of economical value. But, with a co.nmendable liberality, the legislatures have encouraged accurate researches into the scientific geology, and sometimes also into the botany and zoology of their several States. The first survey authorized by the government of a State was that of North Carolina, whc[e was committed to Professor Denisoi Olmsted in 1824. Two small pamphlets embodied its results. A year or two later, Professor Vauuxein was commissioned to explore the geology of South Carolina, but its rasults were publishled only in the newspapers. Massachusetts, in 1830, commenced a geological survey of its territory upon a mare exteasive scale, under tile direction of the senior author of this work.'Tie first report was made in 1832 a pamphlet of seventy pages. In 1833 a full report was made, of 702 pages, wimh an atlas of plates and a geological map; and in 1841 a final Report of 831 quarto pages, with filty-five plates. Within ten years the example of Massachusetts was followed by fifteen other States. Nearly every State and Territo.y in the Union, at the present date (1860), has been more or less explored, or is now conducting a survey. Tile survev of. Neow York was commenced in 1836, and has been conducted upon the most liberal principles. Nearly twenty large quarto volumes have been published by her legislative authority upon all the branches of Natural History, including agriculture, at an expense of half a million dollars. In consequence of these accurate researches, the rocks of New York are classic ground fobr American geologists; and the names employed by the New York geologists, though derived fro:n localities within the State, are applied to contemporaneous deposits over tile whole continent. These Reports relate chiefly to the Silurian and Devonian Systems. The magnificent Report of Professor H. D. Rogers upon the Carboniferous System of Pennsylvania, has laid a foundation for describing all North American coal fields. The New England and Canada Reports describe the azoic rocks more particularly. Morton has given a system to the cretaceous, and Conrad to the tertiary deposits of the country. Besides the State surveys, scientific societies and associations in the principal cities have done much toward the development of our Natural History. NORTH AtMERnIC(XN GEOLOGY. 407 The, Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Society of Natural History in Boston, are prominent among them. The American Association for the Advancement of Science is an organization including members from all parts of the country, and meets annually in different places. It was originally an Association of Anerican Geologists. Then it included all the Naturalists, and ultimately, in 1847, was enlarged so as to admit all soiences, and received its present name. Nor should we neglect to mention those Cabinets of Geology and Natural History which begin to compare favorably with those of Europe. The largest collections may be found in the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, the State Collection at Albany, N. Y., that of the Boston Natural History Society, the collection of the Canada Survey at Montreal, the Cabinet of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, and that of the New York Lyceum of Natural History. A magnificent museum of Palieontology and Zoology is commenced at Cambridge. Among the Colleges, the most extensive Cabi. nets are those at Amherst and Yale. These museums are thronged with visitors. For example, the resister of t'le Cabinet at Amherst shows that the collections are visited by 15,000 people annually. GEOLOGICAL MAP OF NORTH AMERICA. Accompanying this section, we present a small map of the geology of North America, compiled from tha most reliable sources. Owing to its small size, only the more general classes of rocks can be represented. There are six distinctions upon it:'1, Azoic rocks; 2, Palaeozoic rocks, including all the formations between the Cambrian and Permian series, except a part of the Carboniferous series; 3, that part of the Carboniferous series which is underlaid by valuable beds of coal; 4, Mesozoic rocks; 5, Calnozoic rocks; and 6, Igneous rocks, such as have been erupted since the commencement of the Triassic period. A general division of the geology of North America is into three great fossiliferous basins resting upon azoic rocks. The first is the Arctic basin, occupying the greater part of the islands and peninsulas within the Arctic circle. This may be connected with the other basins. The second may be called the Hudson's Bay basin, because it is chiefly developed about Hudson's Bay. The third is the great Continental basin of the interior. The last is the one best known. The Arctic basin has been explored by Arctic voyagers. An excellent map of it is given in McClitltock's Narrative of the Expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. Silurian, carboniferous, and mesozoic rocks are found there. The Hudson's Bay basin is composed entirely of palaeozoic rocks, so far as any thing is known concerning it. The Continental basin embraces fossiliferous rocks of every age, from the Cambrian to the latest Cainozoic. The form of the continent is that of a great triangular basin, as described in Section V., Part I. The mountainous regions correspond very nearly with the areas occupied by the azoic rocks, except that along the Pacific coast they are mostly covered by cretaceous and tertiary strata-the latter constituting most of the summits of the Rocky Mountains. It corresponds also with the views already stated, to find that the igneous rocks are generally located near the oceans. The Rocky Mountains belong to the longest chuin of mountains upon the globe, and, with one exception, the highest. Commencing in the extreme southern part of South America, it extends through the whole length of that continental area, under the name of Andes or Cordilleras. On the Isthmus Y 0999~~~~~~~~~~~~~00 V -V 0 - I 0. ~r~ ~~~ + f %'-(4 Qa:O 0 64L~~~~~~~~36~000 D ~~~0 O 111~~~O.0e.10 a+.,ob 000~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ a.OQ90C 60~~a + ++ Poo +0U o k. wu09 + *~. opo0 ~~ a ~~OoYO coOCa 00 ~ ~ o aca;Vaou ba C)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Og~oar i*' Q*j a 4 a-4~i /#~+ croo t~ 4~ 0 o~o ffo ~ _ (~ " i....../ lS /- -_.-.- ao I I I I I 4,I I I I4O I3 II — i4 I o.,l4 it, +'Ifl 000, 0000'j1 --— o "-'o aIIe, O~ -' 0 0 -- -----...-. — o..V! jI IIiii Ii I.,, Io 0' —0 —- --, oII~Ii0N!.'I,,,,, 0,, 0 B'o o4B~...' 30 V'o —. —___. l,:ooo "i~'- ~:''' i' "'Iij' l" 0'0'o 1 —— Ill rii lii ff i I 1. i' Ogi, i-t-I- j'I~IIIIIia.~y 00 o 00o0o0. - EXPLANATIONS OF'jl iilIIi;% 00 00o~0 0o THE MARKINGS. H 0ll4 L- o 0000000 Pal:lozoic. I l l Ill0 ll0 Coco i. htt~lf/Ol "0 0000~~~~~~~~~~~~~:::,~o II0,i I I... 4l4 0 III I. Cairtozole. 00'O00 0 + 120 so — rbD 0 O C):oooooo.:,,,,,,, iol,:-.~, ~ oe tl0' O,V~ II,,111111,~.,~~~~~~ o~ ~ t.: 1 II'I,O~'~~~ ~oa 00:, Ii.. ~l IJ ii' i+++Z++~t. tt ~.~ o aoo~~~~~~~~~o:"1'1'i'1,11 I'1:!111ogo o oo ollll;I'1 II ~-_.i:-:~-.oo ooo-:ti~ ~-= kieds"O of1Io!:l.I r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\ ~~-~0''': L,I,,,~ -:~,,, —-- oo, o,. Bo:. { —--- ~~~~~~ oo,,,,:,, ~~~ —~ I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.vo oo3a0 o. ~x, ~_z__~z-. o~~oo....c~ Bells of Cod.~B ~ O0 00~'17 o croc~~~~~~~~~~, i~~1 ii ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 8' 41-0 AZOIC ROCKS. of Panama it sinks into a comparatively low ridge, but rises into the table lands of Guatemala, Mexico, and the ridges and plateaux of the western United States and British America, quite to the Northern Ocean. The whole of the interior of North America may be regarded as a vast plateau, gradually passing into the Appalachian ranges upon the east, and the elevated table lands upon the west; but gradually descending to the Northern Ocean and the Mexican Gulf, from a water shed in the middle of the continert. AZOIC ROCKS. The azoic rocks are represented on the map by those areas which are covered by small crosses. They embrace all the crystalline and unfossiliferous rocks of every age, but chiefly the hypozoic or Laurentian groups. They are gneiss, mica schist, talcose schist, quartz rock, clay slate, saccharoid azoic limestone, granite, syenite, and the ancient porphyries. Laurentian System.-On the north shore of the St. LaWrence there are two ranges of mountains running parallel to the river; one at the distance of fifteen or twenty miles, and the other 200 miles distant. Here are the Lalrentine Mountains, from whence the name was derived. The system extends from the shores of the Arctic Ocean, passing round the Hudson's Bay palaeozoic rocks, including the Laurentines, and occupying the eastern shores of the continent, to the north of the St. Lawrence. Greenland, Grinnell Land, and other islands to the north, are supposed to be of the same age. The space thus occupied has the form of the letter V. The other deposits of this age, east of the Rocky Mountain range, are mostly insulated. In the northern part of New York the Adirondacs belong to this system, and are hardly separated from the Laurentines north of the St. Lawrence. Another isolated area of these azoic rocks is in Northern Michigan. In New York they are composed chiefly of Labradorite and hypersthene rock. Of the same age are the Ozark Mountains in Missouri, the Washita Hills, south of the Arkansas River, the Whitchita Mountains in Northern Texas, and other eminences in Central Texas. The azoic rocks of Russian America, which extend uninterruptedly as far as Mexico, are supposed to be Laurentian, although analogy would lead us to suppose that many of them are of palaeozoic age. Two or three interrupted ranges, with a few isolated patches of these azoic rocks, are represented along this region, extending into Mexico. The same rocks occupy the southern part of Mexico and most of the larger islands of the West Indies. The Laurontian rocks contain large masses of magnetic iron ore. Those in Missouri are among the largest on the globe. They are connected with porphyry, and are separated from metalliferous limestones by a deposit of granite with trap dykes, six miles in width. Pilot Knob, which rises 500 feet, is partly, and the Iron Mountain, 300 feet high and two miles in circumference, is entirely composed of this ore. Vast deposits of iron ore exist also in the northern parts of New York. Many valuable gems are found in these rocks. Azoic Rocks of later Age.-As yet, the only rocks of the age of the Cambrian discovered in this country are the azoic rocks about Lake Huron. These have already been described. The latest researches render it probable that most, if not all of the azoi. rocks of New England and the British Provinces, which are continued along the eastern coast of the continent to Alabama, are of palteozoic age. There are two methods employed to prove that the Appalachian azoic rocks are palaeozoic. 1. The northern extremity of the ranges gradually merge into the unaltered silurian and devonian members. For example, a range SILU IA N SYSTM i. 411 of mica schist in Connecticut becomes calciferous in Vermont, and just over the Vermont and Canada line, Favosites Gothlandica, and other silurian fossils, are found in it. 2. Crystalline schists both overlie and are interstratified with fossiliferous deposits. For example, there is a belt of Upper Helderberg limestone underlying the talcose schist of western New England, in the northern part of Vermont-and in such a way as precludes the idea of inversion. It was this phenomenon of the interstratification of these two kinds of rock that first unsettled the old ideas of geologists in regard to azoic lucks. The Professors Rogers suppose that the eastern part of the azoic rocks of the Appalachian range are hypozoic, and that a part of the western border is Cambrian. Taconic Rocks.-Along the western border of the azoic ranges just described, there is a succession of thick deposits, partially metamorphosed, which Professor Emmons has grouped under the name of laconic System. They consist of quartz rock, limestones, dolomites, marbles, imperfect talcose and micaceous schists, and clay slate. They may be found along nearly all tlhe Appalachian range, and, according to Professor Emmons, also upon its eastern side in Maine, Rhode Island, and North Carolina. Professor H. D. Rogers has described these rocks in Pennsylvania as Lower Silurian. The quartz rock he calls Potsdam or Primal Sandstone, the limestones the Auroral or Lower Silurian Limestones of New York; the schists and slates as the Hudson River Group, or Matinal Shales. The authors of this book have been examining these rocks as they are developed in Vermont, and take the following positions, the details of which are not yet published: 1. Some of the slates in a few localities, pronounced Taconic by Professor Emmons, belong to the Hudson River group of New York. 2. The remainder, including the typical localities, are of Upper Siluriau and Devonian age. 3. The slates and schists are at least as high as Upper Silurian, overlying the Oneida conglomerate. As they' so much resemble the Hudson River group, and are the rocks from which the name is derived for the Lower Silurian member, the name Upper Hudson River Group may be assigned to them. 4. Some of the limestones contain fossils, apparently identical with certain Devonian forms. Hence they are regarded as Devonian; and as the place in that series is yet uncertain, the name Dorset Limestone may be applied to the group, from Dorset Mountain in Vermont, where the whole series is beautifully developed. 5. The quartz rock, being associated with the Dorset limestone, must be newer than Lower Silurian. SILURIAN SYSTEM. During the hypozoic period, and at its close, the strata were disturbed by forces of elevation, so that the more elevated parts assumed a V form, as in the northern part of the continent, and there were several islands in the southern part. The Cambrian period seems to have been one of general inactivity; but strata were deposited unconformably upon the older rocks about Lake Huron. Lower Silurian.-The Huronian rocks were also elevated before the deposition of the Silurian, as is seen at Lake Huron. The first positive evidences of the introdaction of life in North America are found in the Potsdam sandstone. In New York the Lower Silurian is divided into the Potsdam sandstone and calciferous sandrock, which form a separate group by their structural and palkeontological affinities, which may be called the Potsdam Group; the Chazy limestone, Birdseye limestone, Black River limestone, and Trenton limestone, or the Trentoz Group; the Utica slate and Hudson River group, both of which may ba taerl3ed the Hvd3on Group. 4t2 UPPIER SILURIAN. These members are distributed over most of the continent, and may generally be recognized by tolerably constant lithological characters. The limestones in the Western States are often magnesian, instead of the simple carbonate of lime. The Hudson River rocks are the most variable. Typically, they are slates, with a few strata of conglomerate and limestone, or dolomite. In Canada, besides the slates there are great accumulations of conglomerates and sandstones, often ccmposed of pebbles of limestone, and called provincially the Quebec Group. In Ohio and other Western States, the whole series is changed into the blue or Galena limestone. Along the eastern coast north of Cape Cod, and as far as Nova Scotia, various slates occasionally occur containing the Paradoxides ITariani, which is at the base of the silurian system in Europe. These slates are supposed to ba of the same age as the Potsdam sandstone. The Lower Silurian rocks are not distinguished upon the map, but their general position is at the edges of the paleozoic rocks, contiguous to the oldest azoic rocks. Often, as in northern New York, they encircle an insulated portion of the older groups. Upper Silurian.-The Lower Silurian periods were closed by a revolution or dis~trbance of the strata, so that in some localities, as at Gaspe', in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Upper Silurian strata rest unconformably upon the Lower Silurian. There are three periods in this system of rocks. The first embraces the Oneida conglomerate and the Medina sandstone, formations quite variable in composition and thickness. The local name of Sillery sandstones has been applied to the Oneida conglomerate in Canada, where it attains a thickness of 4,000 feet. As the range passes through Vermont, it becomes by turns silicious and calcareous, or dolomitic, and is exceedingly variable in thickness. A mere knife-edge thickness of limestone may suddenly expand into 100 feet within the distance of a mile. The range continues in this erratic way along the whole Alleghany range, and, in conjunction with the Medina sandstone, is found from western New York to Wisconsin, through Canada West. While a somewhat turbulent agency was depositing this curious rock within the continent, at its border, near the mouth of the St. Lawrence there was a quiet accumulation of limestones, under conditions suitable to the development of' life. As the lithological characters are so distinct, the group, which consists of six divisions, embracing the equivalents of the upper part of the Hudson River group, the Oneida conglomerate, Medina sandstone, and the Clinton group, has received a distinct name, the Anticosti Group. The first period embraces besides the conglomerates, and having the same general geographical distribution, the Clinton and Niagara groups, consisting of alternate layers of shales and limestones. They are quite productive in interesting forms of life. There is also a belt of Niagara limestone in Canada, running down to 1emfflphremnagog Lake, which seems to pass into calciferous mica schist, an azoic rock lying east of the Green Mountain range. The second great period of these upper rocks embraces only the Onondaga salt group, a series of limestones and shales 1,000 feet thick. Its developmenlt is less extensive than the preceding groups. Tile third great period is now called the Lower Helderberg group, embracing the following earlier divisions: Pentamerus limestone, Delthyris shaly limestone, Encrinal limestone, and the Upper Ponent series. These rocks are distributed in general conformity with the Niagara group west of Canada East. fMineral Deposits.-There are some remarkable mineral deposits in the silurian rocks. In the Northwestern States there occurs one of the most re DE ONIA: SYSTEM 413 markable deposits of lead in the world, in the Hudson River group. It covers 3,000 square miles, chiefly in Wisconsln, but found also in Iowa and Illinois.'The greatest amount of lead produced from it in any one year was 315,700 tons. Copper is abundant; in the same vicinity; lbut especially about Lake Superior, in Potsdam sandstone. Masses of native copper have been uncovered there weighing fifty tons; and bowlders from the lodes are scattered ovcr an area of several thousand square miles. The salt springs of the United States issue invariably from the silurian rocks. Probably all the gold in the United States, both along the eastern and western shores, is located in metamorphic rocks of Silurian or Devonian age. A long the Appalachian ranges it has been found all the way from Canada East to Alabama, being particularly abundant in Northl Carolina. The CalifLrnia deposits are the most extensive in the world. DEVONIAN SYSTEIM. The formations of the Devonian system are ten in numbeor in New York, wVhich may be arranged, by structural resemblances, into five groups. The Oriskany Group embraces the Oriskany sandstone and the Cocktail grit. The group extends from southern New York southwesterly to Tennessee, and westerly about 300 miles. The upper part is characterized by a fucoid resembling the tail of a cock, whence its name. The Upper Helderberg group embraces the Scoharie grit and the Upper Tfelderberg limestone, or, as at first divided, the Corniferous and, Onondaga limestones. The limestones of this group are widely developed through theo Appalachian chain south of Hudson River, and westward, both in the United States and Canada, as far as the palaeozoic rocks have been explored. It is also represented in the Dorset limestone of New England, a belt of lime. stone in Northern Vermont east of the Green Mountains, and probably at Cernardston, in the northern part of Massachusetts, upon Connecticut River. It is the lowest rock in North America which contains ichthyolites. The three remaining groups are mostly sandstones and shales The 1iamilton division embraces the Marcellus shales, Hamilton group, and Genessee slate. This division is best developed in the Appalachian chain in Pennsylvania and Virginia, thinning out gradually between the Hudson and Mississippi Rivers. The Hamilton group in Iowa is mostly calcareous, containing many interesting fossils. The fourth group embraces the Chemung and Portage rocks of New York. From New York they extend southwesterly to Tennessee. In Ohio they have received the provincial name of Waverly sandstone. Farthen west and north their equivalents have not been ascertained. The fifth group is the Catskill red sandstone, lithologically the old red sandstone of Europe. This is principally developed in New York and Pennsylvania, so far as its equivalency has been determined. Devonian rocks are found in Eastern Massachusetts, Maine, Canada East, and in the more northern parts of the continent, but their equivalency with the deposits already specified has not been determined. From the study of the Silurian and Devonian systems the following conclusions have been reached: 1. Until we reach the Genesee slate, all the orga:ic remains found in these two great systems are marine. Here the first land plants are found. The formations appear to have been deposited successively near the shore of the palaeozoic ocean, for besides the fossils ripple 414 C A I RBOxI nE s OS YTEu., marks and shrinkage cracks occur, even in some of the limestones. 2. The rocks are thickest near the borders of the continents. This is certain respecting the eastern side, and probable respecting the western. 3. The rocks of the east coast are mostly silicious-shales, sandstones, or their altered forms: those of the interior are mostly calcareous. 4. The outline of the future continent is strongly marked at the clIs3 of the Devonian periods. The Appalachian, and perhaps the Rocky Mountain ranges, form long sand reefs, hemming in more or less perfectly an interior sea, covering the area now occupied by the Mississippi and its branches. At the same time the two other smaller northern basins received their outline. CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM, The best classification of the Carboniferous system is that adopted by the Professors Rogers. They divide into the Vespertine, UmbraI, and Seral series, or the Lower Carboniferous, Middle CArboniferous, and Coal Measures. The lowest division consists of sandstones and conglomerates, with darkcolored slates sometimes containing beds of coal. This division is most rabundantly developed upon the eastern side of the Appal;achian basin, sometimes being entirely wanting elsewhere. In Ohio it constitutes the upper portion cf the Waverly sandstone, and in Tennessee it is a, buhrstone and lirnestone. The Middle Carboniferous strata are quite variable in composition. In Nova Scotia, etc., they are red shales, sandstonesr and various marls. In Pennsylvania they are red shales, associated farther south with a bed of limestone, which continues to increase in thickness southward. These strata are nearly all limestone in the Western States, where they are thicker than in the eastern coal fields. In the true Coal lMeasures the rocks are sandstones, conglomerates, shales, limestones, and beds of coal. Some have traced resemblances between some cf the con-lomerates and the millstone grit of England. Upon the map the farea covered by this division is represented as perfectly black. Coal fields.re represented in the islands of the Arctic Ocean, in Newfoundland, New lrunswick, Nova Scotia, Neow En-land, the Appalachian Basin, in Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Texas. The amount of coal is almost inexhaustible. In Iowa the Carboniferous system is divided as follows: Burlington limeatone, IKeokuk limestone, St. Louis limestone, Kakaskia limestone, and Coal'.asures. These members are remarkably prolific with beautiful remains of' radiate animals. Permian Serics.-Until recently the existence of Permian strata in the U;ited States was unknown. Professor Emmons first announced that the fossils of the red sandstones of North Carolina corresponded with known Permian types. These fossils were plants and Thecodont saurians. If this position can be settled, then at least the lower part of the Mesozoic conglomerates east of the Appalachian range are Permian. Some geologists doubt the correctness of this view. But every one admits the discoveries of Messrs. Hawn, Swallow, Meek, and Hayden in Kansas, etc, to be genuine. These gentlemen have established the Permian character of many deposits in Kansas, Nebraska, and Illinois, which were at first confounded with the Coal Measures. There is an excellent development of these rocks at Leavenworth, in Kansas. They are 861 f~et thick, and have b3cn divided into Upper and Lower Permian. About 100 species of fossils la.ve bean oollQcted and described frora these strata. MESOZOIC R OCICs. 415 Subsequently to the deposition of the Coal Measures, and previously to the production of the Appalachian Mesozoic strata, the numerous plications in the Appalachian ranges were produced. The time of plication is known by the fact that there are folds in the Upper Carboniferous strata and none in the later rocks. Trunks of carboniferous trees, originally upright, are inclined at various angles, according to the amount of dislocation. Inasmuch as fissures would be produced during these disturbances, through which heat would escape from the interior and penetrate through all portions of the strata, perhaps in connection with water and other essential agents of alteration, we may suppose that the azoic rocks along the Atlantic coast were metamorphosed during the time of these disturbances, or the Permian period. In the absence of any evidence, we may conjecture that a large part of the azoic strata forming the basis of the Rocky Mountain ranges were metamorphosed during the same period. But there is evidence to show that rocks are undergoing rapid alteration on the Pacific coast still later, even during the Alluvial period, as the action of heat is very great there at the present day. The metamorphism of these palsaozoic rocks along the coasts nust not be confounded with the alteration of the Laurentian series, for the 1 ttter were elevated and metamorphosed previous to the deposition of the Potsdam sandstone. At the close of the Paleozoic periods tile form of tile continent resembled its present shape, but the amount of land above the ocean covered only about two thirds of its present surface. Yet the general continental features, the mountains and plains, were the same as now. OLDER MESOZOIC SYSTEMS. The older Mfesozoic rocks are included upon the map with tlhe Cretaceous groups, which are the most abundant, the former occupying comparatively little space. In the eastern British Provinces, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, we first find the red sandstones, conglomerates, and shales of Mesozoic age. They are next admirably developed in the valley of Connecticut River in Massachusetts and Connecticut, where the most remarkable fossils, the iclinites, have been discovered. The dip of the rocks in this terrain is almost invariably to the east. In going south of Hudson River the same rocks are found in several b.s:ns, all dipping to the west. The series appears first in New Jersey, where it forms a wide belt southeast of the Highlands. Thence it passes through Pennsylvania, from Bucks to York counties; thence into Frederick county, in Maryland; thence into Virginia. Throughout the whole extent of this deposit, from Nova Scotia to Virginia, ores of copper, bituminous shales and limestones, and protruding masses of greenstone, are associated with it. In Virginia the deposit appears to be eminently calcareous; and one of its lowest beds is the well-known brecciated Potomac marble. In North Carolina there is another basin, somewhat irregular in its shape, 150 miles long, from Tar River to Wateree River. Here the strata also dip west. This is the basin examined by Professor Emmons. Several characteristic fossils of the Lia-3 were found by Captain McClintock in the Arctic basin. The extent of the strata containing them was not ascertained, and hence they are not represented upon our map. There has been, and still is a great variety of opinions expressed in regard to the age of these sandstones, it being generally assumed, perhaps incorrectly, that all the terrains are precisely contemporaneous. The older geologists (.\aclure, Eaton, Silliman, and Cleveland) regarded those in the Connecticut 416 CR:ETACEOUS SYSTEM valley as old red sandstone. In 1833 the senior author of this work, in his Repqrt on the Geology of Massachustts, presented arguments to show that the upper beds were the equivalents of the new red sandstone; and that opinion was generally adopted in this country and in Europe after they had been examined by Sir Charles Lyell. Professor W. B. Rogers subsequently maintained that the sandstone containing beds of workable coal near Richmond, Virgiuia, an isolated deposit, was of the age of the European Oolite. The fossils relied on to prove this are species of plants, viz., Zamites, Calamites, Equiseta, Tteniopteris, Pecopteris Whitbyensis, Posidonia-a species of mollusc —and several Fishes, as a Tetragonolepis. E. Hitchcock, Jr., has discovered a tree fern near the middle of the series in ]Massachusetts, the Clathropteris rectiusculus, some specimens of which can with difficulty be distinguished from the European species C. meniscoides-a characteristic fossil of the beds of passage betwneTe the Tr:ia3 and Lias. Hence he argues that the ichniferous or upper beds of the series are Jurassic or Oolitic. Professor Emmons has discovered, in North Carolina, species of plants and Thecodont Saurians, which, with several European authorities, he regards as distinctly Permian. Professor Agassiz considers theo ichthyolites of New England and New Jersey, occurring in these rocks in connection with the ichnites, as corresponding best, by their structure, with European specimens from the Upper Trias. The Messrs. Redfield find some traces of Oolitic structure among the fishes. The heteroclitic forms of the Lithichnozoa correspond best with the bizarre forms of the Oolite. From these discoveries and opinions we regard one point as settled, and a second as rendered probable. 1. A belt of rock, eccupying the middle portions of the Connecticut River sandstone, below which no tracks are found, is of Upper Triassic age. The ichniferous strata above are either Liassic or Oolitic. 2. Probably the whole series of rocks, from the Permian to the Oolite inclusive, are represented in these strata. The strata are at least 5,000 feet thick in Massachusetts, and this is adequate to embrace the whole, so far as they have been measured in other countries. In connection with palaeozoic and cretaceous rocks in Kansas and Nebraska certain rocks have been described, which, upon careful examination, may prove to be Triassic or Jurassic. These different basins of older Mesozoic rock were probably formed in estuaries; or, as the Professors Rogers maintain, in some of the basins there may have been large rivers, depositing the materials in their beds, without any marine deposits. The physical features of the continent were being perfected while these deposits were forming. The lower layers have a higher inclination than the upper, amounting to absolute unconformability in some parts of the basin alon, the Connecticut River valley. If the lower be Permian or Palmozoic, and the upper Triassic or Ocolitic, we should expect such a difference of dip. CRETACEOUS SYSTEM]. The varieties of rocks composing this system, and the comparison of the different members in.the different parts of the continent, are treated of in Section IIL. of Part I. The Cretaceous system occupies more territory, perhaps, than any other system in North America. It probably commences as far east as Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and extends continuously from New Jersey along the Atlantic coast to Mexico, and then covers nearly one third of the width of the continent, from near the Gulf of Mexico to British America, with occa.,ioaal interruptions of older or newer strata. Along the Atlantic seaboard TERnTIA:nY S Y STEM. 417 it is not represented upon the map, because the greater part is covered by t rtiary deposits, but may be occasionally observed in deep excavations. There is some uncertainty respecting the northwestern limit of this system, but it is n) doubt of as much extent as is indicated upon the map. Other Cretac:ous beds are marked upon the map in Yucatan, Mexico, and the north part of South America. Dr. J. S. Newbury, United States Geologist, who has just returned (1860) from exploring the San Juan and Upper Colorado Rivers, in Utah and New Mexico, found the Cretaceous system there 4.000 feet thick, and "occupying an immense area west of the main divide of the Rocky Mountains." About 100 species of shells have been discovered in this system, of which twenty-five per cent. are identical with European forms. Several interesting forms of vertebrate life have been discovered, as the Hadrosaurus in New Jer. sey-an animal resembling the Iguanodon of England. The area occupied by the Mesozoic upon the map, shows what were the outlines of North America in the Cretaceous period. The Atlantic coast was at the western margin of this group, and the Gulf of Mexico extended even into British America, covering the cretaceous rocks. A part of the Rocky Mountains was also beneath the water, as some of their summits contain marine shells of Cretaceous age. Yet the interior ocean may have been shallow, and thus the continental area have been substantially the same as at present. Gypsum is found in small quantities in Mesozoic rocks in North America. But the most extensive deposit is probably of Cretaceous age. Captain Marcy, in exploring the sources of the Red River in 1852, traced out a thick deposit of this substance extending from the Canadian River, in 99~ W. longitude, nearly to the Rio Grande, at least 350 miles long, and from 50 to 100 miles broad. TERTIARY SYSTEM. The Surface represented as Cainozoic upon the map is mostly underlaid by the Tertiary system. There are three great deposits. 1. Along the Atlantic coast, outside of or covering the cretaceous rocks, from Boston to Southern Mexico, including the whole of Florida and large parts of Louisiana and Mississippi. 2. Along tho Pacific coast, from Lower Califbrnia to Russian America. 3. Occupying the great table lands of the Rocky Mountains, covcring more square miles than the Cretaceous system, though not as wide, though we suspect, since Dr. Newbury's researches, that here is some mistake. Other deposits of small extent are found along the Alleghany ranges, upon the shores of the Arctic ocean, in Yucatan, and in South America. There are also several detached tertiary tracts upon the great interior cretaceous deposit which are not represented upon the map. The latest researches show that the European divisions of Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene, can be traced upon this continent. The deposits along the Atlantic seaboard (including the Mexican Gulf) have received local names. The Clairbornegroup corresponds to the older Eocene, having the following characteristic fossils: Cardita planicosta, C. Blandingii, Crassitella alta and Ostrea sellieformis. The Vicksburg group corresponds to the newer Eocene, containing the following characteristic fossils: Dentalium thaloides, Sigaretus arctatus, and Terebra costata. The Yorktown group embraces both the Miocene and Pliocene. The Eocene strata are in too many localities to be here specified. The great Zeuglodon cetoides is found in them in the Southern States. A most extraordinary Miocene deposit has been brought to light in one 18* 418 I GXE OS r O C Ix. S. of the insulated basins in Nebraska. It is in the Mfauvaises Terres, or Bad Lands, on White River. There is a basin 300 feet below the general level, in which there are thousands of abrupt, irregular, prismatic, and columnar masses, frequently capped with irregular pyramids, and stretching up to a height of from 100 to 200 feet, or more. So thickly are these natural towers studded over the surface of this extraordinary region, that the traveler threads his way through deep, confined, labyrinthine passages, not unlike the narrow, irregular streets and lanes of some quaint old town of the European continent. But the most interesting facts there brought to light are the bones of numerous extinct quadrupeds, some of them of enormous size, and differing from all fossil animals hitherto described, though of the same families. Species of rhinoceros and tiger, large tortoises, a paleotherium eighteen feet long and nine feet high, the archaeotherium, the oreodon, machairodus, etc., are described by Dr. Leidy; and doubtless many more will soon be brought to light from this singular fresh-water deposit, where some of the same genera of animals occur as in the Paris basin. MAocene.-The other Miocene deposits of the continent, as at present known, are confined to the two oceanic tertiary belts-upon the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. The strata consist largely of sandstones, conglomerates, and shales, with scarcely any limestone. Too little is known respecting the immense area of tertiary desposits in the Rocky Mountain district to pronounce with certainty their age. The presumption is in favor of the older tertiary. Pliocene.-The Pliocene strata have not yet been much studied in this country, except at certain localities. In distribution they correspond to the Miocene; viz., along the coasts. But there are, along the Appalachian chain, occasional beds of clay and iron ores with which no fossils are associated. In 1852, however, the senior author of this book explored a bed of lignite associated with these beds of iron, in Brandon, Vermont, and found in them a large number of fruits (figured in Part II.) which are evidently of the age of the Pliocene. From these data we have supposed all the deposits in similar positions throughout the range to belong to the Pliocene, although no lignite has been discovered in connection with them. Alluvium. —The drift and alluvial deposits of North America have been so largely treated in Section IV. of Part I., that we simply refer to them in this connection, with no additional remarks. IGNEOUS ROCKS. That part of the map which is covered with small dots represents the distribution of the more recent igneous rocks, the traps and basalts. They are most abundantly developed along the Pacific coast. The largest area occupied by them is along the Columbia River in Oregon and Washington Territory. There are multitudes of smaller deposits along the Rocky Mountain ranges in Mexico and the Territories, which are not shown, three or four dotted areas standing as representatives of a large number. Farther north a similar series of trappean rocks is represented as a continuous belt. Igneous rocks are abundant, also, about the Arctic Ocean, especially in Greenland. Trappean dykes are abundant along the Appalachian ranges and about Lake Superior; but they do not overflow the surfice like those just described, and occupy too little space to be indicated upon the map. The granitic and the oldest igneous rocks are included under azoic rocks. NOTE.-Captain J. II. Simpson:, who in 858 and'59 explori::l t1.~ Great IG1:E OuS POCKS. 419 Basin lying between the Wahsatch and Sierra Nevada Mountains, "never before traversed by a white man," has just published (April, 1860) a not3 from Messrs. F. B. Meek and H. Englemann, respecting the new geological discoveries made by them in those terre incognitce. In west longitude 116~, they found, near the Humboldt Mountains, extensive deposits of Devonian rocks, 1,200 miles farther west than ever before known. Nearly as far west they found extensive Carboniferous formations, though not much coal. In several places east of Lake Utah they found Triassic red sandstone, with numerous beds of gypsum and rock salt, as in Europe; which, according to Marcou, Blake, and Newbury, is developed on a grand scale in New Mexico. Jurassic rocks occur, also, near the same place in Utah; also on Weber River Cretaceous strata; also both Eocene and Miocene tertiary near Fort Bridger and elsewhere; all of which, like the tertiary of Nebraska and elsewhere at the West, seem to have been deposited in brackish waters. What an interesting field for American geologists opens in these vast western regions I INDE X. A. Anticosti Group, 64, 412. Antimony, where found, 5,. AcoNCAGUA Mt., n S. A., 16; volcanic, 170. Apatichnus, 312. Acanthicnus, 815. Aprocrinites, 254, 299. Acrogens in coal measures, 273. Apteryx, 163, 342. Adarnsite, 225. Aptornis, 342. Adlit level, 397. Aqueous rocks, 41; Agencies, 94.:A-pyornis, 163. 343. Arachnidans, fossil, 282. Agassiz, his theory of the movement of Ararat, an extinct volcano, 182. glaciers, 10W; his classification of ani- Archegosaurus, 285. mnals, 237; on tracks of Ocypode, 257; Archiunedipora, 280. on fishes in Ludlow Rocks, 264; classi- Araucaria, 280. fication of fishes, 269; on tertiary fos- Architectural geology, 401. sils, 328; on identity of species, 361; Arenieolites, 248. on prophetic types, and phases of de- Arsenic, where found, 56. velopmnent, 367. Artesian Wells, 124; temperature of, 189; Age of rocks, how determined, 40, 90. where successful, 402. Agency (geological) of Man, 163. Articulated animals, 238. Agency igneous, 170. Asphaltum, 123. Agricultural geology, 404. Asterophylliteme, 279. Algae, fossil, 260. Astrea, 267, 332. Allegany Mts. plicated, 25. Atlantic Ocean, section of its bottom, 17. Alligator fossil, 336. Atmospheric agencies, 94, 215. Alluvium defined, 71; fossils of, 841. Avalanches, 104. Alumina in rocks, 48. Avicula. 252. Alps, plicated strata in, 25. Auk, 168. Amphibia, 886. Aulopora, 267. Ampllilestes, 309. Auvergne, extinct voicanoes of, 181. Alnphitheriumn, 309. Augite and hornblende, 50. Amazon, delta of, 118. Axis, anticlinal and synclinal, 20. Amlllypto;rus, 2838. Axis, folded, 21. Ambonychia, 252. Aymestry Limestone. 64. American Geology, history of, 406. Azoic Rocks, 42, 60; in North America, 410. Ammonites, 281, 298, 299. Amygdaloid, 82. B. Analogy, the basis of reasoning, 94. Anatomy Comparative, 230. BAnBAGE on the propagation of heat, 213. &ncyloceras, 325. Baccillaria, 352. Aneyropus, 315. Baculite, 297. Aneroid Barometer, 46. Bailey, Prof., on Infusoria, 352. Animnals recently extinct, 163. Baphetes, 286. Aninmals fossil, 357; adapted to the changing Barometer, Aneroid, 46. comn(lition of tue earth, 8738; Extinct, Barren Island volcanic, 176. 862; Filst appearance of, 247; Order of Basalt described, 82; Localities, S5; has their introlluction, 35S. been protruded solid, 78. Anitnal Kingdoll classified, 23T. Bat fossil, 340. Animals, fossil,sometimnes ha(l a combination Batrachol, us, 2S6. of characters, 367; most numerous, 368. Batrachians fossil, 271, 287; tracks of, 314. Animalcula, living, 352; fossil, 351. Beaches, ancient, 148; localities orf, 148; Anisopuls, 309. 1 how foirmed, 158. Annelids fossil, 299; tracks of, 259, 856. Beach period, 71. Annularia, 279. Bears, fossil, 387. Anomoepus, 309. Beaullmont, Elie de, on the elevation of Anoplotlierium, 8338. mountains, 203. Anthozoah, 248. Beaver fossil, 340. Anthracite, where found, 58; of Pennsyl- Becquerel on veins, 396. vania, Massachusetts and Rnodle Island, Beds of rock defined, 18. 54. Belemnnites, 297. Anticlinal axis, 20. Beginning to the present system, 877. IND R X, 421 Belemnosepia, 293. Champlain Clays, 149. Bellerophon, 253. Changes improve the world, 878; geologiBenevolence of God proved, 379; prospec- cal, how produced, 94, 170. tive, 379. Changes the means of stability, 381., Bible and Geology. 382. Chazy Limestone, 64. Big Bone Lick, 346. Cheebewrling, 116. 1Bifurculapes, 315. Cheirotheroides, 315. Billings, kE. on cystidefe, 255. Cheirotherium, tracks of, 2938. Bismuth, its ores, 56. Chelonians, tracks of, 287, 315. Birds fossil, 308; their tracks, 310; their Chelonia, 326. coprolites, 808; in Oolite, 327; in the Chemistry of Geology, 47. Tertiary, 337. Chemical Deposits, 59. Bitumen, 123; in Burmah and Virginia, Chemical elements in the rocks, 47. 123. Chemung Group, 65. Blanc, Mt., 16; chain of, 104. Chile, its coast elevated, 1l4. Bog Ore, 75, 122. Chloride of Sodium, its deposition, 75. IBolabola, island of, 165. Chlorite schist, 61. Bone Caverns, 346. Chlorine in the earth, 48. Bones of the fallen angels, 234. Cidarites, 299. Borings for water, 124. Clailborne Group, 417. -Bowlders defined, 71; their size, 131; in Classification of rocks, 40; of the Silurian trains, 139. and Devonian, 43. Brachiopods, 251. Clathropteris, 295. Bramatherium, 338. Clay, 73. Breccia, 59. Claystones in clay, 27, 28. Bronn, on identity of species, 361. Clay state, 60, 62; for roofing, &c., 403. Brontozoum, 810. Cleavage, 22. Brown Coal, where f(und, 53. Clepsiosaurns, 287. Bryozoa, 280. Climate of early times tropical, 195; ultra Buckland on metallic veins, 397; on the tropical, 195; gradually grew cooler, Pterodactyle, 307. 366; Lyell's hypothesis of, 187 Bunter Sandstone, 68. Clinometers, 46.. Clinkstone, 82; porphyry, 82. C. CClinton Group, 64. CABINETr of Natural History, 407. Coal, varieties of, 53; basin, sketch of, 54; Cainozoic period, 41; system, 70. measures, 65; in different countries, 66 Calamites, 278. metamorphic, 54; coal fields, 66 Calcaire glossier, 280. Cobalt, its ores and situation, 56. Calcareous ttfa, 74. Cock-tail Grit, 65. Calceola, 267. Coincidences between geology and revelaCalcite, 50. tion, 884. Calciferous Sandrock, 64. Columnar structure, 85. Calymene, 262. Comets, 209. Cambrian rocks, 63; fossils in the. 247; Comparative Anatomy, its use, 236. Lithichnozoa in, 247; in North Amer- Compact feldspar, 81. ica, 410. Compass, pocket, 46. Camel, fossil, 3.8. Conchifera, 252. Canons, 109; in New Mexico and Utah, 110; (Concretions in clay, 27, 28; of iron ore, 29; on the Eastern Continent, 110. of unstratified rocks at Sandy Bay and Cape Ann Syenite, 404. in New Hampshire, 34; in sandstone, Caradoc Sandstone, 64. Iowa, 30. Carbon in the earth, 47; its orioin, 53. Conformable stratification, 39. Carbonic acid as a geological agent, 95. Congelation, perpetual line of, 1S7. Carboniferous system, 65; limestone, 65; Conglomerate, 59; of Newport mad Verfossils of, 278; in the United States, mont, 219. 416, 414; Roger's division of, 414. Coniferte and Cycadese, 293. Carcharodon, 3.3 Coniopteris, 296. Carnivorous races from the first, 378; fossil, Connecticut river sandstone, 415. 3837. Constancy of nature, 94; subordinate to Caryocrinus, 262. the higher law of change, 381 Caspian Sea, 17. Consolidation of rocks, 168. Catastrophes, interval between, 370, 271. Continents elevated from the sea, 370, 8S5; Catenipora, 260. present vertical movements of, 199; Catskill Red Sandstone, 65. configuration of, 203. Causes geological, intensity of, 375; might Contortion of the strata, 24; in the Alps, produce all rocks, 169. 25; in Massachusetts, 25; in AppalaCentral heat, 1S9. chian mountains, 25. Cephalaspis, 270. Conularia, 262, 264. Cephalopods, 254; amount of, 2S1; their Copeza, 315. horny beaks, 281. Coprolites, of birds, 318. Cetacea, 337. Copper, its ores and situation, 55; in the Chalk, 70. United States, 415; near Lake SupeChambered Shells, 281. rior, 413, 422 INDEX. Coral Reefs, 75, 164; their extent. Diamond, where found, 55. Corbula, 332, Dictyocephalus, 291. Cornean, 82. Diluvium, or Drift defined, 71 (see Drift). Cornstone, 65. Dinornis, 163, 342. Cosiguina, volcano of, 172. Dinosaurials, 304. Cosmogony, 233. Dinotherium, 839; head of, 840. Costeaning, 397. Diorite, 82; porphyry, 82. Cotopaxi, lava thrown from, 176. Dip of strata, 20. Craters defined, 180; size of the ancient, Diprotodon, 345. 182. Discrepancies alleged between geology and Creation progressive, 885; instrumentali- revelation, 382. ties emnployed in, 3s85; in six days, Disturbances, geological, beneficial, 378. 885; centers of, 240; bylaw, 873; by Divisional structures, 21. Divine Power, 373, 877; a succession Divine Benevolence, proofs of, 378. of pictures, 388. Divine character pertect, 378. Creations distinct, number of, 369. Dl)'Orbigny on distinct creations, 869; on Cretaceous system, 69; of United States, catastrophes, 371. 416; fossils of, 320. Dodo, 163, 344. Crinoids, 254. l)og fossil, 837. Crocodile fossil, 386. Dolerite, 82. Crocodilia, 836. Dolphin, fossil, 3840. Cross courses, 394. Domite, 84. Cross cuts, 398. Downs or Dunes, 96; in Egypt, 96; Europe Crossopodia, 259. and United States, 97. Crow's tracks, 857. Drift defined, 71, 127; modified, 128, 71, 73; Crushing of ores, 898. dispersion of, 129; in North America, Crust of the earth, 76,,197; its thickness, 129; in Scandinavia and Russia, 180; 190. in Siberia none, 130; in the Alps, 129; Crustacea. 255; tracks of, 315. in Great Britain and the European Currents, Oceanic, 117; their velocity and Continent, 130; in Syria and India, 130; effects, 118. in South America, 131; Vertical and Cuttle Fish, 297. horizontal limits of, 140; transported Cuviel;r, his classification, 237. from lower to higher levels, 188; by Cyathophyllumn, 261, 262. what agencies produced, 158; time Cycadoidea, 294. since, 162; and alluvium one formation, Cycas, 293. 162; size of bowlders, 131; strite, 135; Cycadacee, 293. theory of preferred, 156. Cypraea, 332. Drift wood, 167. Cypris, 243. Dromatherium, 292. Cyrtoceras, 268. Drongs, 115. Cystideoe, 255. Duncan, Rev. Dr., discovers fossil tracks, D. 287. Dyke defined, 39. DANA, Prof. J. D., on Kilauea, 178; on re- Dykes of trap in Cohasset and Salem, 32; frigeration, 198; on the Almerican con- in Vermonlt, 35; systems of, 202; in nent, 207. Pelhamn, 219. Dapedius, 302, Dynamics of volcanoes, 176; table of, 177; Darwin, on the Megatherium, 850. of geological agencies, 94. Days of Creation, their nature, 38S7; supposed long periods, 387; supposed E. symbolical, 387. Den.d Sea depressed, 17; its origin, 182. EAGRE in India, 117. Death before the fall, 391; inseparable Earth, its form, 16; had an early diurnal froml sin, 391. revolution, 385; its specific gravity, Debris of ledges, 96. 16; once melted, 16; earliest condition Deer fossil, 338S. of, 208; future destrluction of, 893; exDegradation of rocks, 96, 95. isted long before mnan, 371; its crust, Delos, 178. 190; as a whole, 16; its density and Delta of the Mississippi, Rhine, Nile, Rhone, form of the surface, 16; once all melted, Amazon, Ganges, &c., 112. 194; its changes have been improveDelthyris, 262. mient, 374. Deluge of Noah, 392; the supposed cause Earthquakes, their proximate cause, 183; of most geological changes, not univer- their precursors, 1883; cnnected with sal, 392. volcanoes, 183; their effects, 183; holes Dendrerpeton, 285. formed by, 184; the most remarkable, Denudation, proofs and amount of, 119; in 183; number of, 185; extinct, 181. Wales, 121; in New ]England, 121. Echinodermata, 254. Deposits Chemical, 121. Eaypt, dtnes of, 96. Deposition of rocks horizontal, 76. Ehrenberg on Infusoria, 852. Detritus of ledges, 96. Elements in the earth, 47. Development Theory, 373. Elephant in frozen mud in Siberia, 348; Devonian System, 65: fossils of, 265; in the fossil species, 33887, 346; teeth of, 839; United States, 415, 413. living species, 348. I D )E YX. 423 Elevation of strata, 197; of continents, 265; in Massachusetts and Connecticut, 199; of the coast of Chile, 184. 809; in Vermont, 259; in PennsylvaElevations and subsidences, 199. nia, 257, 286; in Scotland, 278; in Elk, trish, 349. Wales, 259, 287; in England, 286; in Embossed rocks, 138. Germany, 292; names of the animals Emb ryonic character of fossils, 867. that made them, 244; the most remarkEmmoln's, Prof., his discoveries, 67, 287, able locality of, 309; synopsis of, 82u; 292, 291; his Taconic System, 62; his theory of, 319; books of, 819. Permian rocks, 414. Foraminilbra, 280. Encrinal limestone, 65. Forbes, Prof. J. D., on the motion of glaEncrinites, 254; families of, 254. clers, 103. Engineering and geology, 401. Forbes, Prof. E., his researches in the English Channel, how olrmed, 114. AEgean Sea, 241. Eocene strata, 70. Formation defined. 88. Epoch geological defined, 45. Formations, tables of, 41. Equisetaceee, 2T8. Fossil anilnals, number of, 857. Erosion, agents of, 95; proofs of, 119; Fossil defined, 2338; man, 358. amount of, 121; by the ocean, 114; by Fossil plants, their number, 860. rivers, 108; by glaciers, 97; by the FossiLs, number of species of, 357, 860; tadrift agency, 127; in New England, ble of, 358; laws of their distribution, 121. 861; classification of, 358. Eruptions, volcanic, their number, 171; Fossiliferous rocks, 41; their thickness phenomena of, 172. and extent, 43, 44, 242. Escars, 147; in Andover and Aroostook, Fourier on internal heat, 191, 194. 147. Fox on metallic veins, 396; on the air in Etna, eruptions of, 1738; quality of its lava, mines, 193. 179. Fractured rocks in Vermont,Massachusetts, Euomphalus, 262. and Great Britain, 1838. Euphotide, 82. Frozen Wells, 153. Eurite, 79. Fruits, fossil, at Brandon, Vermont, 329 Everest mountain, 16. Fucoides, 260. Evil physical in the world before man, 391. Fulgur, 332. Expansion of rocks by heat, 196; of land Fumerole, 170. and water unequal, 196. Fusibility of rocks, 92. Extinct volcanoes, 181. Fusulina, 280. Eyes of trilobites, 256; of insects, 256. G. GAILENRUTH, cavern of, 846. F, Galt, 69. Galvanism, its metamorphic agency, 216. FASCICULIPORA, 332. Ganges, delta of, 112. Favosites, 261. Gangue of a vein, 894. Fault defined, 89. Gas springs, 126; their origin, 127. Fauna, 286. Gasteropoda, 2538. Felstone, 81. Gastornis, 88337. Ferns living and fossil, 275; tree ferns, 273. Gay Head, strata of, 71. Fertilizers, 405. Gems, where found, 55. Field ice, 106. Genesee slates, 65. Fingal's Cave, 85. Geological Map of North America, 407; Fiords, 115. Surveys, 406; in North Carolina, South Firestone, 62. Carolina, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania. Fishes, number of living species, 26S; of and New York, 406; basins in North fossil, 268; scales of, 269; olassifica- America, 407. tion of, 269; homocercal and heterocer- Geologists have not attacked revelation, cal, 288; tracks of, 815; in the lifferent 882. formations, 269, complaint of, 284; Geology and religion, 8377; natural religion, first appearance of, 264; tracks of, 377; revealed religion, 882; mutually 265, illustrate each other, 882; men who Fissures in the earth's crust, 202. have written concerning them, 8S3. Flaggi ng stones, 403. Geology defined, 15; its principles how far Flora, 236. settled, 383; dynamical, 15; of other Flustra, 249. worlds, 209; its history, 233; of North Folded axis, 21; strata, 201. America, 405. Foliation, 22. Geologists, how far agreed, 388. Fool's gold, 58. Geysers, of Iceland, 185; of California, Footmarks fossil, 24-3; in the Cambrian 213. rocks, 247; in lower Silurian, 257, 259; Giant's Causeway, 86, in upper Silurian, 265; in Devonian, Gibbes, Prof., on fossil Squalidae, 334. 273; in coal measures, 286; in Per- Gigantitherium, 313, 312. mian, 287; in Trias, 292; in Oolite, Giraffe fossil, 8338. 309; in Wealden, 320; in Alluviuml, Glaciers described, 97; advance and retreat 356; in Canada, 257; in New York, of, 98; sketches of, 99, 101, 104; mo 424 INXI DEX. raines of, 10O) in the Alps, 97; in Hawaii, volcanic, 179. Greenland, 97; Humboldt glacier, 98; Hedge hog, fossil. 340. former extent of, 141; in Wales an(i llelderberg Group, 64, 412. Scotland, 142; in New England, 142; Herculaneutn buried, 173. strise of, 10J; cause of their motion, Hexapodichnus, 315. 103. Hippopotamus, fossil, 838, 349. Glacier theory, 154; action, 97; period(, Hippurites, 3'24. 154. Historic Period, 71, 162. Globe, its earliest state, 203; once all Hog, fossil, 338. melted, 194; when first inhabited, 227; Holyoke, Mt., trap of, 87. improved by change, 381. lIoloptichnus, 271. Glyptodon, 350. Hlornblende and augite, 50; schist, 62. Gneiss, 61; porphyritic, 61; for agricultural Hornitos, 178. purposes, 403. Hornstone, 82; porphyry, 82. Gold, where found, 56; in what rocks, 56; Horsebacks or Escars, 147. in the United States, 57, 413, 415; iin Horse, fossil, 349. California, Russia and Australia, 57; IHudson River Group, 64. recently introduced into the rocks, 56, HIuman remains in rock, 352; in caverns, 879; its amount obtained in 1854, 67; 354; in alluvium, 854; whether pretheory of its origin, 56. adamic, 355. Goniatites, 268. Humboldt glacier, 106, 98. Gorge or Canon defined, 40; on Niagara, Hummock on Holyoke, 137. Genesee, Potomac, Mississippi, Mis- Humrs, in soil, 165. souri, the Rhine, the DI)nube, &c., 109; Huronian rocks, 60, 63, 411. on Red River, 110; on Cox River, 11i; Hlutton, on veins, 396. on the Colorado, 110. Iiyoena, fossil, 349. Gould, A. A., on tracks, 356. Hydatina, 852. Graham Island, 178. Hydrate of iron, 122; of mangapese, 123. Granite defined, 78; porphyritic and Hydra with many heads, 249. graphic. 78, 79; concretionary and tab- Hydrogen in the earth, 47. ular, 79; its origin, 228; its economical Ilypanthoerinus, 262. use, 52; has been protruded solid, 78; Hypersthene rock, 82. water concerned in its prodaction, 228; Hylpogene rocks, 60. for structures, 403. Hypozoic rocks, 60. Granitic Group, 42, 77, 78. Granitic veins, 218. I. Graphite, 54. ICEBERG, 104; theory, 154. Graptolites, 249. Ice caverns, 153. Gray, Prof. Ass, his classification of plants, Ice islands, 108; floes, 107; rafts, 107; 236, belts, 107; icebergs, 107; foot, 107. Graystone lava, 84. Ice preserved by lava, 180. *Greenland, undergoing a see-saw move- Ichnolithology, 243. ment, 2!n0; its glaciers, 97 Icunology, 243; history of, 244; principles Green Mountain Giant, 133. of, 245. Greenstone described, 82; columnar, 85; Ichthyocrinus, 262. in Mts. Holyoke and Tom, 87; on the Ichthyopodulites, 286. Hudson, 8S; in Oregon, 88; on Lake Ichthyosaurus, 303. Superior, 87; and basalt in Iceland, 85; Icthyodoruli'tes, 284. in North Carolina, 88. Igneous agency, 170. Green sand described, 69, 70; its use in Igneous rocks, 42, 77; in North America, agriculture, 70. 418. Gres bigarre, 68. Iguanadon, fossil, 305; tracks of, 320. Group defined, 38. Iguana, 305. Guadaloupe, fossil, man in, 353. Improvement in the earth's condition, 374. Guano. 405 Inclination of strata, 20. Gypsum, 51; where found, 52. Index paleontologicls,.357. H. Inferences from paieontology, &c., 370. Infusoria, 351; Agassiz; views ot;239; fossil, IIABITABITITY of other worlds, 210. 165. 248; Owen's views of, 239; frolt IIade, 394. B.rlLn, 352; from Verlmont, 352; froum hIa. rosaurus, 327. Richmond, 352. lIall, Prof., his system of the New York Inoceramus, 325. rocks, 43; his discoveries in the Grap- Insects, fossil, 2S2; eyes of, 256; in the diftolites, 250. ferent formations, 282; in the ConneuHalsyites, 260. ticut Valley, 301. Halysichnus, 313. Instability the means of stability, 8S1. Hammers, Geological, 46. Intensity of geolocical causes, 375. Hlamilton Group, 65. Internal heat of tile earth, 1SS; proofs of, IIamipes, 315. 189; objections to, 193. Harmites, 297. Interior of the earth in a melted state, 191; Hare, fossil, 340. proofs of, 191. LHastings sand, 69. Interposition I)ivine special, 860. I -N D E X. 425 Interval after the beginning, 386. Lithographus, 815. Iron in the earth, 48; its ores, 55; pyrites, Lituites, 254. 58, in United States, 408. Lizards, tracks of, 312. Islands formed by volcanoes, 178. Llandeilo flags, 64. Location of roads, &c., 401. J. Lodes, 394. Logan, Sir Wm., his classification, 60; on JARDTNE, Sir Wm., on Ichnology, 287. fossil tracks, 257. Jerboa, fossil, 340. Lower Silurian rocks, 64; fossils of, 248. Joints defined, 21; their origin, 222. Ludlow shale, 64. Jorlullo, volcanic, 180. Ludurs Helmontii, 29. J.uLke's ct.alqgue of fossils, 357. Lycopodiacee, 277. tJupiit'eciiversl by a fluid, 209. Lyell, his hypothesis of ancient climate, Jurassic system, 68; fossils of, 293. 187; of causes in action, his objection to central heat, 194; his division of the K. tertiary, 328; on fossil men, 854. Lyriodon, 324. KANE, Dr., on ice phenomena, 107. L Kangaroo fossil, 845. X. Katakekaumena, 181..MACLURE'S Map, 406. KtLup, on Cheirotherium, 293. Maclurea, 253. Kilauea described, 85, 174, 189. Macrauchenia. 351. Knapp, Dr., his exegesis of the Mosaic ac- Magnetism of rocks, 88; in Europe, 90; in count, 388. United States, 89; on Vesuvitls, Etna, Kupperscheiffer 68. and Ararat, 90; the origin of, 90. L. Magnesia in the earth, 48. Malpais, eruption in, 173. LABYRBNTIIODON pachygnathus, description Malnmalia, orders of, 237; fossil where first and sketch of, 291. found, 292; in the tertiary, 337. Labyrinthodonts, characters of, 290. Mammotsl, the Siberian, 848; type of, 348. Laecertilia, or lizards, 284. Man, when first appeared, 885; the last Lady geologists, 298. animal created, 355; his geological Lakes, bursting of, 113. agency, 163; fossil, 352. Lamarck's hypothesis of transmutation of Manganese, its position, 55. species, 270. Map, Geological, of IN orth America, 408, 409. Lamination defined, 18; contorted, 18; in- Marble for structures, 403. clined, 18; its origin, 19. Marcellus shales, 65. Landslips, 105. Marcy, Capt., his discoveries in Texas, 419. Laurentian rocls, 60, 410. Marl, where found, 74; in alluvium, 74; Lava, its character, 77, 179; aqueo-igneous, shell, 121. 179, 212, 229; trachytic 84; augitic, 84; Marsupials, in Oolite and Trias, 308. graystone, 84; vitreous, 84; its amoaunt, Marsupialoids, 809. 177; ice beneath, 180. Mastodon's teeth, 3889; Newburg, 346. Laws of palneontology, 361. Mastodon fossil, 339, 846. Lead, its ores and situation, 56; in the Materials fJr structures, 402. western States, 414 in the upper Miss- Matrix of a vein, 394. issippi, 895. Matter, its supposed eternity, 377. Lebias. 383. Manna Kea, volcano of, 174; Loa, 174. Ledges firactured, 138; debris of, 96. Mayuvalise Terlres, 418. Lee side of ledges, 133. Medina Sandstone, 64. Leidy, Prof., describes new animals, 420. Megaceros, 849. Lenian lake, deposit in, 372. Megalonyx, 351. Lepidodendron, 278. Megalosaurus, 304. Leptuena, 262. Megatherium, 850. Leiptodactylous birds, 810. Megatheroids, 851. Lias, 68. Melaphyre, 82. Libellula, 801. Memorabilia of creation described by revLife systems of, 369; when commenced, elation, 384. 227, 373. Mercury, where found, 56. Lignite, 53. Mer de Glace, 97, 103. Lily Encrinite, 289. Merrimack river, its deposits, 113. Lilie in the earth, 48. Mesozoic rocks, 41, 67; fossil characteristics Limestone, its varieties, 60; crystalline, 61; of, 328; in the United States, 415. mountain, 65; metamorphic, 61;. for Metallic veins, character and repletion of, construction, 408. 394. Linestones, varieties of, 60. Metalloids in the rocks, 47; hypothesis of, Lindley, his experiments on plants, 275. 192. Linmlla flays, 64, 251. Metallurgy, 399. Lithichnozoa, 244; in different formations, Metals in the earth, 47; where found, 55; 244; in the Connecticut Valley, 309. modes in which they occur, 55; their Lithohogical characters of the stratified distribution, 55; amount of, by mining, rocks, F59; of the unstratified, 76. 399. 426 I N D Ex. MIetamorphism, 211; ex'tends throuIghl the Novaculite, 62. the whole globe, 231; its agents, 211; 1Nova Scotia, waste of, 114. its effects, 216, 222; still going on, 22); Nummrnulites, 331; from the Sphinx, and explains the origin of schists, 226; and Pyramids, 831. of granite and trai,, 228; table of, 232. Mica, -9. 0 Mi,,ca schist, 61, 403. Miciolestes, 292. OBSIDIAN, 84. MIlier, Htugh, on tracks, 2S6, 318. Ocean, its depth, 17; its temperature, 193; Millstone grit, 65. its btottoll, 17; its geological agency, Mineral waters, 125. 114; its bed depressed, 198. Mineral and organic forms, 16. Ocypode, tracks of, 257. Minerals, simple, 48; in the rocks, 43; nse- Oldhamia, 247. ful, their situation, composition of, 51; Old 0 Red sandstone, 65; conglonerate, 65. altered 223. Old river beds, 152. M neralogy of geology, 47. Onondaga salt group, 64. MIi aeralizers of organic remains, 235. Oolitic system, 68; fossils of, 293. Mlinrs, temperature of, 189; how wrought, Ophicalce, 51. 839?.' -t Ophiolite, 51. Mlinin', theoretical, 894; practical, 397; Ophidia, 337, products, table of, 400. Ophite, 51. Miocene strata, 70. Ophiura, 262. liir lel dehe-fined, 3SQ8; in nature, 883. Order of creation, table of, 364, 83S9; perhaps Afisssii ppi, delta of, 112. not given in ail cases in scripture, 3S3. Moa, 341. Orders, fossil, increasing and (lecreasing, 3G5. MohI fiiiced drift, 143; forms of, 144. Ore in veins, 894; in leds, 395; extraction Modiolpsis, 252. of, 39S. MIole, fossil. 340. Organic geological agencies, 365. MoI)ilsca, living and fossil, 3859, ~332, 833. Organic remains described, 231; how preTMonailnoc, striae on, 183; embossed rocks served, 234; how chanrged to stone, 23:'; upson, 134. whether now being petrified, 235; how Monkey, fossil, 837. determined, 235; classified, 242; Inostly Mom)n, volcanic, 209. marine, 242; amnount olf; 42; height Moraine terraces, 144; in Truro, 145; in above the sea, 243; in different firNorth Adats, 146; tie sites of cemle- mations, 243; how far they i(lentify teries, 145. strata, 40; vertical range of, 362; comnMososmlrus, 327. pared with living sl)ecics, 366, 3667; Molintain limestone, 65. number of species, 367- table of; 358; Mountains, the highest, 16; of Europe ele- tropical in hi-gh latitu(des, 366; in the vated at different periods, 207; of North Cambrian, 247; in lower Silurian, 248; Amnerica, 2i6; Beaumionts theory or, in upper Silnrian, 259; in I)evonian, 203; objections to, 208; how elevated, 265; in Carboniferous, 273; in Permlian, S 195; near the coasto of continents, 2U6. 286; in Trias, 288; in Oolite, 293; in Mouse, fossil, 340. chalk, 320; in tertiary 328; in alluvium, hllrex, 332. 341. MIsceleikkak, 68. Organization more perfect as we ascend, Mlitrchison, Sir R. I., on the beginning of 363. life on the globe, 227. Oriskany sandstone, 65. Murchisonia, 253. Ornithoid Lizards and Batrachians, 310. AMvlodon, 353. Ornithopus. 311. Myriopods, 299. Oronoco, delta of, 1138. Myrmnecobius, 292. Ortihis, 252. Mystriosaurus, 3;&S. Orthocera, 254. Orthodactylns, 814. Osars, 146; whether in this country, 147. NATURAL religion illustrated by geology, Ossiferous caverns, 346. 377. Ostrea, 324. Nautilus, living and fossil, 281. Otozoum, 314. Nebul:e, 239. Outcrop of strata, 20. Neckar on metallic veins, 397. Ovibus, 355. Neuro(l)teris, 274. Owen, Sir Richard, his classification of N6vb of (laciers, 97. animlals, 237; his work on paleontology, Newbury, I)r. G. S., his discoveries in Utah 360; his views the Protozo.t, 239; on an:l New Mexico, 419. trilobites, 257; on reptiles, 284; on the New Rted Sandstone, 68. Labyrinthodon, 290; on the tracks of BNkwy York system of rocks, 42. birds, 3C8; on the extinct birds of New Niagara falls and river, 113. Zealand, 342; on Mamrroths, 34S; on Niagltarl' roap, 64. the Mylodon, 351; on duration of types, Niger, delta of, 112. 362; distribution of reptiles, 365; his Nile, delta of, 112. orders of creation, 364. Noeagerithia, 287. Ox, fossil, 349. Iotorlnis, 343. Oxygen in the earth, 48. INDEX. 427 Plication of the strata, 24. P. 1Pleistocene str.ta, fossils of, 342. Pliocene strata, 70 PAcnYDACTYLOUs birds, 310. Plumbago, where found, 54 Pachydermata, extinct, 851. l'luton Geysers, 2138. Pahleobatrachus. 336. Plutonic rocks, 91. Paleoclhorlt, 247. Po, delta of, 112; embankment on the 112. Palaocoma, 326. Polemarchus, 312. Palheontology, 233; its division into two Polypiaria, 24S. parts, 233. 243; restricted by some to Polypi, or polyps, 243. animals, 2:33. Polythalamia, 2a0,'381. Palaeontological classification, 45. Pomlpeii, buried by lava, 1'3. Paleeontological characters of the rocks, Popocatapletl, 1S8. 246. Porcupine fossil, 340. Palveoniscus, 283. Porphyry, 81; trachytic, &c., 81. Palheosaurus, 287. Portland stone, 403; quarries, 403. Pahleotherium 335. Posidonomnyn, 267. Paleozoology, 233; laws of, 361. PIotassa in the earth, 4S. Paloeophytology, 233. Potsdam sandstone, 64. Palaplteryx, 342. Precious stones, where foun'l, 55. Palweozoic rocks, 41, 62; period, 45; fossil Primary rocks, 60; their origin, 226; limecharacters of, 287. stone, 61. Palisadoes, 88. Prismatic or columnar structure,,5. Palms, fissil, 329. Productus, 287. Papandayang, volcaqno of, 178. Progression, organic and inorganic, 374; Paradoxides. 25?7, 412. objections, 874. Paroxysmal movemlents, 370, 197. Prospective benevolence, 379. Pear Encrinite, 254. Protogine, 81. Peat, 74; how formed, 166. Protosaurus, 287. Pebbles, elongated, 220. Prototichnites, 258. Pedomneter, 46. Protozoa, 280. Pegmatite, 78. Providence of God over the world, 830; Pele's lair, or volcanic glass, 85. special, 380. Pentacrinite, Briarean, 254, 299. Provinces in zoology, 240; botanical and Pentaimlerus, 261. zoological, 240. Pentrernite, 281. Pterichthys, 270. Peperino, 85. Pterodactyle, 305. Period defined. 45; long in geology before Pterosauria, 305. the six (lays, 3S6; historic, terrace, Pumice, 84. beach, osar, and dIrift, 156; of organic Purbeck strata, 69. beings (n the globe, 45. Patrgatories, 115; at Newport, 115. Permian system, 67; in the United States, Pyroxene, 50; porphyry, 81. 67, 416; fossils of, 286. Petlrifaction, its nature, 235; recent, 235. Petroleum, 123. Q. Petrosilex, 81. Pezohaps Solitarius, 344. QUAQTUAVERSAL, dip, 21. PhIscolotheriln, 30(;9. Quartz, crystallized, 48. Phillips, Prof. John, on metamorphic rocls, Quartz rock, 62; its origin, 224. 211. Quaternary Period, 45. Pholadomya, 832. Quebec group, 412. Phonolite, 82. Phiytopsis, 248. Pic, volcano of, 173.'itet, on tertiary strata, 329; his paheon- RADIATA, 239. tology, 357. Raindrop impressions, 319; on clay, 357. Pierr,! a Bot, 131. Ramparts, pond and lake, 113; in Russia, Pitch lake, in Trinadad, 123. 114. Pitchstonoe, 84. Rana diluviana, 336. Placodus, 289. Raniceps, 2S5. l'lagiaulax, 309. Rat, fossil, 340. Planetary space, temperature of, 1S8. Reasoning in geology, basis of, 94. Planets, geological state of, 209. Recent Plutonic rocks, 91. Plans of the Deity as shown by geology, Red river raft, 167; canon on, 110. 381. Red sandstone, new, 68. Plants, geological agency of, 166; land, Religion, natural, its connection with geolwhere first found, 260; fossil in the ogy, 377; revealed, 382. rocks, classified, 236, 360. Reptiles, the earliest, 271; tracks of, 273; PlastisitS of older rocks, 216. their development, 365. Platinull, where found, 56. Revelation and geology, 882; in harmony, Plesiosaurrus, 304. 393. I'leurocystites, 256. Rhinoceros fossil, 338. 428 I N D E X. R hone, delta of, 113. Serpentine, 51; where found, 52; a metal'thyncholites, 281. morphic rock, 51, 62. l'hynchosainrus, 291. Serpula, 299. I'ivers, their geological agency, 10S. Shale, 59. lioches moutonnes, 133. Shalrks fossil, 334; friom N. Carolina, 334. Lock salt, where found, 53; in the United Shells, chambered, 281, 297; their vertical States, 53; in the eastern worl(l, 53. range, 298; the number of fossil, Rocking stones, 72; in Barre, 72; at Fall Shepherd, Forrest, on the Pluton Geysers, River, 73. 213. Rocks, chemical composition of. 47, 93; how Ship Rock, 132. worn down, 94; aqueous, 18; igneous, Shoading, 897. IS; azoic, 42; fossiliferous, 41; hypo- Shrew, fossil, 340. zoic, 41; metamorphism of, 211; their Siberia rich in gold, 57; no proper drift lithological characters,59; their pale- there, 130. ontological characters, 246; smoothed Sigillaria, 276. and striated, 132; embossed, 133; Silica in the earth, 48. plicated, 24; stratified, 18, 41; un- Siliceous marl, 75; sinter, 75, 122. stratified, 42; relative age of, 9); Silliman, Prof. B. Senior, his journal, 406; metamorphic, 21; sedimentary, 59; his views of the Mosaic (lays, 387. chemical, 59; soluble in water, 95; their Silurian system, 63; lower and upper, 64; endurance, how tested, 404. in North America, 411. Roges, Professors, their system of classifi- Silver, vwhere found, 56. cation, 43; their experiments on solo- Simple substances in the earth, 47; minbility of rocks, 95; the IIenry D.'s r1'C- crals in the rocks, 48. port on Pennsylvania, 406. Sinaite, 80. RomaL.n cement, 29. Sinter siliceous, 75. lIutiodon, 287. Sirenia fossil, 337, 339. S. Sivatherium, 338, 850. Skaptar, Jokul, quantity of lava from, 183. SABr.rNA, 178. Shark, tooth of, 333. Sauroid fishes, 367, 284. Shepard, Pr-of. C. IT., on Adamsite, 225. Saurian reptiles, 271, 285. Silicates in trap and granite. 92. Sauropus, 273. Slides on the Green and White Mts., IC5. Saliferous rocks, 68, 126. Slime-pits near the Dead Sea, 182. Salt, its origin, 169; in Siberia and Mexico, Slope in mining, 895. 169. Snipe, tracks of, 356. Salt springs, 126; their origin, 126; in Soapstone, 403. United States, 415, 413. Soda in the earth, 48. Sandstone for structures, 4813. Soils, their composition, 73, 404; a proof of Sandwich Islands, volcanic, 174 Divine benevolence, 378; their formaSao, 257. tionl, 165, 404; from different rocks, Saturn covered by a fluid, 200. 405; mixed, 405. Saurians, 287. Solitaire, 344. Sauroid fishes, 284. Solfatara, 170. Scalites, 253. Somma, 174. Scandinavia a center of drift dispersion, 129. Spalacotherium, 309. Scaphites, 297, 325. Species had once a wider range, 366; their Scelidotherium, 3851. distributi. n, 361; living and fossil comiScheuclizer on fossil fishes, 234. pared, 366, 367; in the different fornnaSchoharie Grit, 65. tions unlike, 361; new, how introducetd, Scolithus, 248. 373; not transmuted, 270, 373; had a Scorpion, fossil, 2S2. limited duration, 361. Scrope on Auvergne, 181. Spliagnnm, 166. Sea bottoms, ancient, 148. Sphenopteris, 266. Sea beaches, ancient, 148. Sphenophyllum, 280. Seals, their numlber, 164; fossil, 337. Sphinx, its geological character, 831. Seam defined, 18. Spiders, fossil, 300. Secondary rocks, 67; plutonic, 91; period, Spirifer, 252. 45. Spirula, 297. Section, ideal of the earth's crust, 836, 837; Spondylus, 324. ideal of terraces, 150; across the Alps, Spimings, phenomena of, 123; salt, in Unrited 25; across the Appalachians, 27; of the States, 126; their origin, 126; mineral, bottom of tie Atlantic ocean, 17; in 125; gas, 126. New York, 63; in Derby, Vt., 225. Squalid;e, 333. Sedgwick on metallic veins, 396. Squirrel, fossil, 840. Sedimentary rocks, 59. StabrlE, buried, 173. Semliophorus, 333. Stability secured by change, 3S2. Semneca oil, 123. Stalactites, 74. Sepia, 297, 298. Stalagmites, 74. Septaria, 29. Stamping of ores, 319. Series of rocks. 08. Steatite, 61. Serpents, fo;ssil, 837. Stelleria, 163, 355. IND rX. 429 Stereognathus, 309. on the Rhine, in Scotland, 151; Gorge, Stigimaria, 275. Delta, Lateral, GIlacis, 151; of South Stoss side of a ledge, 133. America, Utah, &c., 152; how formed, Strata defined, 19; bent, 21; overturned, 159. 21; in the Alps, 21; their thickness, Terrace period, 159. how measured, 75; in Europe, 76; ill Tertiary strata described, 70; Plutonic rocks United States, 43, 44; metamorphosed, ol,; 91; period, 45; in North America, 226; how identified, 40; table of,; 41. 70, 419; fossils of, 328; division of, 828. Stratified rocks deposited froml water, 75; Tetragonolepis, 302; fossil character of,841. metamorphosed, 226; tilted up, 76; Theory of surface geology, 1W8. folded, 201. Tihecodontosaurus, 287. Stratification, how distinguished from lain- Theories of metamorphism, 216, of drift, inatin, cleavage, and foliation, 19; its 158. character, 18. Thermal springs, 185; theory of, 185. Stri:s by glaciers, 102; by drift, 135; sev- Tiiles, their geological effect, 116. eral sets,of 136; their courses, 135. Tilestone, 65. Strike of strata, 20. Tin, its ores, and situation, 56. Strings, 395. Titan's pier, 88; Piazza, 87. Strolnboli c)onstantly active, 183. Toadletone, 83. Structure in rocks original, 18; superin- Toads preserved alive in rocks, 283, 284. duced, 222. Tortoises, fossil, 327; tracks of, 278. Subaqueous ridges, 147. Totten on the expansion of rocks, 196. Submnarine forests, 200. T'oxo(lon, 851. Subsidence on Columbia River, ISi. roxodontia, fossil, 837. Subterranean forests, 295. Trachyte, 88. Sulphur in the earth, 4T. Trachytic lava, 83; porphyry, 84. Sumbawa, erulption in, 172. Tracks human, 857; of animals (See Fossil Sun, its present state, 209 Footmarks); settled characters of, 245; Superposition of rocks, 37. in clay, 856. Surface geology, 127; theories of, 154; the Trains of angular blocks, 189. theory adopted, 156 Transmutation supposed of species, 378. Survey, geological, of North Carolina, South Trap Rocks, 42; on Lake Superior, 88; west Carolina, and Massachusetts, 406; of of Rocky Mountains, 88; in Rowan New York and other States, 406. county, North Carolina, 88. Sweden, its shores rising, 199. Trappean rocks, 42, 77, 81. Syenitic greenstone, 82. Travertin, 74. Syenite, 80; of Quincy, &c., 80, 404; con- Tree ferns, 274. glornerate, 80; for structures, 404. Trends of coast lines, mountains, &c., 204. Synchronism of rockE6 40. Triassic system, 68; fossils of, 288. Synclinal axis, 21. Triconodon, 809. System of things the same in all agres, 8378; Trigonia, 324. the present had a beginning, 387. Trigonotreta, 26T. Systems of elevation, 207'; of organic beings Trilobites, 255; eyes of, 256; families of, 26T. on the globe, 369. Trinadad, pitch lake in, 123. Tufa or tuff, volcanic, 84; calcareous, 74. Turbinolia. 8832. T. Turrilite, 297. TABLE of the composition of rocks, 93; of Turritela, 325. organic remains, 858; of the metals Turtle stones, 29. mined, 408; of simple minerals, 51; of Type (lefined, 362; each had one term of rocks, 41. existence, 862. Taconic Rocks, 411. Typical forms of continents, 205. Talc, 50. Talcose schist, 61, 403. U. Tapir, fossil, 838. Telerpeton, 271. ULODENDRON, 278. Temperature of the globe from external Ultra tropical, character of fossils, 366. sources, 186; friom internal causes, 188; Underlie, in mining, 394. of springs in mines, 189; of rocks in Unger, on fossil plants, 360. mines, 189; of Artesian wells, 189 of the Unfossiliferous Rocks, 42. planetary spaces, 188; ofthe ocean, 193; Uniformity of nature, 94; subordinate to increases toward the center, 188; its the higher law of change, 381. rate of increase, 190; of the air, 187. UInisulcus, 818. Temple of Jupiter Serapis, 200. United States, geology of, 406; geological Teneriffe, 179. map of, 408. Terebra, 332. UInity of the l)ivine plan, 878. Terebratlla, 251. Univalve shells, fossil, 833. Terrain, 38. Unstratified Rocks, 42, 76; varieties of, 42, Terraced valleys, 110. 77, 92; fusibility of, 92 composition Terraces described, 150; of a val, 110; of, 92, 93; mode of their occurrence, 36; kinds of, 151; of rivers, 151;,i' lakes, of aqneo-igneous origin, 228; relative 152; marine, 152; in Vermont, N. 1i., age of, 90. 430 IN DE X. Uralian mountains, gold in, 57; eruptions, 171; phenomena of, 172; Upper Silurian rocks, 63; fossils of, 259, 412. dynamics of, 176. Useful rocks in the earth, 52. Volcanic rocks, 42, 77. Utica Slate, 64. Voltzia, 289. V. W. VALLETS of elevation, 109: of denudation, WACKE, 83. 109; original, 109; of subsidence, 109; Wad, 123. terraced, 110. Wall, in mining, 321. Variegated Marls, 68. Water, its distribution, 203; in the rocks, Vegetable life, when first appeared on the 212; its expansion in freezing, 97; its globe, 248. agency in the metamorphism of rocks, Vegetable kingdom, classified, 286. 211; in the production of the igneous Vertebral anilllals, 237, 268. rocks, 212; in lava, 212. Vesuvius, 173. Watt's experiment on basalt, 88. Veins defined, 30; in Lowell, and Cornwall, Waves, their effects, 116; of translation, 31; in West Hampton, 32; in Salem, 3.3; 117. in Colrain, 34; ini Vermont, and Conway, Wealden formation, 69; clay, 69. 35; general sketch of, 36; metallic, their Wells, frozen, 153. width, rocks traversed by, 895; most Wells, Artesian, 124. productive near unstratified rocks, 895; Wenlock shale, 64; limestone, 64. of segregation, 80; of imnjection, 30; of Werner's theory of veins, 396. different ages, 395. Whale, fossil, 837, 340. Vermonter, the, 132. Whim, 398. Vertical movements of land, 199; without Whitsunday Isle, 164. earthquakes, 199; accounted for, 198. World, very old, 371, 372; had a beginning, Vertical range of animals and plants, 863. 384; its supposed eternity, 877; titme Vesuvius, minerals from, 84; eruptions of creating not fixed, 354;. in a fallen firom, 173. state, 380; in a condition of mercy, 881. Vicksburg group, 417. Wyman, Prof. J, on Raniceps, 285. Villarica, constantly active, 180. Volcanic action, 170; hypothesis of, 192; Y. breccia, 85; craters, 170; ancient, 182; beneficial upon the whole, 879; power YORKTOWN group, 417. its seat, 176, 180; glass. 85; conglomerate, 85; islands firmed by, 178, 181. Volcanoes, extinct and active, 170; sub- Z. marine and subaerial, 170, 17S; con- ZEUGLODOIN, 840. stantly active, 180; intermittent, 171; Zinc, its ores, and situation, 56. in lines, 170; products of, 84; amount Zoological provinces, 240; classification, 237. lava from, 177; number of, and of Zoophytes, 248. 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