A SCHIOOL DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. ABRIDGED FROM THE LARGER DICTIONARY. BY WILLIAM SMITlH, LL.D., EDITOR OF THE DICTIONARIES OF " GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES," AND "BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY." WITH CORRECTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS, BY CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D., PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW-YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL. N E W-Y O RK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 82 CLIFF STREET, 18 5s 1. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New-York. PRE F AC E. THE present work is designed to supply a want that has been long felt by most persons engaged in classical tuition. Hitherto we have had no work in the English language which exhibited, in a form adapted to the use of young pupils, the results of the labours of modern scholars in the various subjects included under the general term of Greek and Roman Antiquities. The "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities" is intended for the more advanced student, and contains, moreover, information on a vast variety of subjects, which is not required by those who are commencing their classical studies. It has therefore been supposed, that an Abridgment of that work illustrating the Greek and Roman writers usually read in the lower classes of our public schools, and omitting all such matters as are of no use to the young student, might prove an acceptable addition to our school-literature. In fact, the Abridgment was undertaken at the suggestion of the head-master of one of our great public schools, and no pains have been spared to adapt it to the class of persons for whom it is more especially intended. Conciseness and clearness have been chiefly studied; all discussions on doubtful and controverted subjects have been omitted; and such of the articles as are susceptible of it have been illustrated by woodcuts from ancient works of art. Though this work has been drawn up chiefly for the use of the lower forms in our public schools, the wants of another class of persons have also been consulted. It is believed that the work will be found to be of no small assistance to those who have not studied the Greek and Roman writers, but who frequently need information on many points connected with Greek and Roman Antiquities. Care has been taken not to presume too much on the knowledge of the reader; and it is therefore hoped, that most of the articles may be read with advantage and profit by persons who are unacquainted with the classical writers. iv PREFACE. It should be borne in mind, that this work does not profess to give an abridged account of all the subjects which are comprised in the larger work. On many matters, such as those relating to Jurisprudence, and several departments of Art, the reader must refer for information to the other Dictionary. On many subjects likewise, which are contained in this Abridgment, only the most important facts are stated; those who desire more detailed information, and an account of the conflicting views held by modern scholars on certain points, must consult the original work. In such cases the present work will serve as a convenient introduction to the other, and will enable the student to use the latter with more advantage and profit than he would otherwise have been able to do. It has been considered unnecessary to give in this Abridgment references to ancient and modern writers, as they are not required by the class of persons for whose use the book is designed, and they are to be found in the original work. WILLIAM SMITH. London, May 20th, 1845. PREFACE TO THEr AMERICAN EDITION. THE Editor believes that he is rendering a very acceptable service to the young student, in presenting him with a corrected and improved edition of the present work, both on account of the aid which it will afford him in his classical reading, and because the information contained in it will be found to be far more accurate and worthy of reliance than that given in any similar work ever published in this country. In preparing this volume for the press, errors in the London edition have been corrected, many important articles have been added, and the amount of illustrations has been very materially enlarged. The Greek Index, also, which abounded in errors, has been carefully revised and augmented. Col. Coll. Feb. 9th, 1846. SCHOOL-DICTIONARY op GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. A'BACUS (6,3a~), denoted primarily a in sacrifice. The word is derived from ablesquare tablet of any description, and was gere, in imitation of the Greek 67roAyetv, hence employed in the following significa- which is used in a similar manner. These tions: — parts were also called Porriciae, Prosegmina, 1. A table, or side-board, chiefly used for Prosecta. [SACRIFICIUM.] the display of gold and silver cups, and other ABOLLA, a cloak chiefly worn by soldiers, kinds of valuable and ornamental utensils. and thus opposed to the toga, the garb of The use of abaci was first introduced at peace. [TOGA.] The abolla was used by the Rome from Asia Minor after the victories of lower classes at Rome, and consequently by Cn Manlius Vulso, B. c. 187, and their intro- the philosophers who affected severity of ductions was regarded as one of the marks of manners and life. the growing luxury of the age. 2. A draught-b6ard or chess-board. 3. A board used by mathematicians for drawing diagrams, and by arithmeticians for the purposes of calculation. 4. In architecture, the flat square stone which constituted the highest member of a column, being placed immediately under the architrave. Aoacus. Abolla, Military Cloak. ABLEG'MINA (&iLrot7ey/zoL) were the parts ABROGA'TIO. [LEx.J of the victim which were offered to the gods ABSOLU'TIO. [JUDsX.] A 2 ACCUBATiO. ACINACES. ACA'TIUM (ca'irtov, a diminutive of aeea- other hand, we find cases of women reclining, aog), a small vessel or boat used by the where there was conceived to be nothing bold Greeks, which appears to have been the or indelicate in their posture. Such is the same as the Roman scapha. The Acatia were case in the following woodcut, which seems also sails adapted for fast sailing. ACCENSUS. 1. A public officer, who at-... tended on several of the Roman magistrates. He anciently preceded the consul who had i not the fasces, which custom, after being long disused, was restored by Julius Casar in his first consulship. Accensi also attended on the I governors of provinces. 2. The accensi were also a class of soldiers in the Roman army, who were enlisted after the full numnber of' - the legion had been completed, in order to supply any vacancies that might occur in the legion. They were taken, according to the census of Servius Tullius, from the fifth class of citizens, and were placed in battle in the rear of the army, behind the triarii. ACCLAMAI'TIO was the public expression of approbation or disapprobation, pleasure or displeasure, by loud acclamations. On many Accubatio, Act of Reclining occasions, there appear to have been certain intended to represent a scene of matrimonial forms of acclamations always used by the felicity. The husband and wife recline on a Romans; as, for instance, at marriages, Io sofa; their two sons are in front of them; Hymen, Hynienaee, or Talassio; at triumphs, and several females and a boy are performIo Triumphe; at the conclusion of plays, the ing a piece of music for the entertainment of last actor called out Plaudite to the spectators; the married pair. orators were usually praised by such expres- For an account of the disposition of the sions as Bene et praeclare, Belle et festive, Non couches, and of the place which each guest potest melius, &c. occupied in a Greek and Roman entertainACCU'BITA, the name of couches which ment, see SYMPOSIUM and TRICLINIUM. were used in the time of the Roman emperors, ACCUSA'TOR, ACCUSA'TIO. [JUDEX.] instead of the triclinium, for reclining on at ACERRA (Ovutarilptov, Zteavo-r-pif), the meals. The mattresses and feather-beds were incense-box or censer used in sacrifices. softer and higher, and the supports (fulcra) of them lower in proportion than in the triclinium. The clothes and pillows spread over them were called accubitalia. ACCUBA'TiO, the act of reclining at meals. The Greeks and Romans were accustomed, in later times, to recline at their meals; but this practice could not have been of great antiquity1 |l in Greece, since Homer always describes persons as sitting at their meals; and isidore of Seville, an ancient grammarian, also attri- - - butes the same custom to the ancient Romans. Even in the time of the early Ro- man' emperors, children in families of the highest rank used to sit together, while their fathers and elders reclined on couches at the Acerra, Incense-Box. upper part of the room. Roman ladies continued the practice of sitting at table, even The acerra was also a small moveable altar after the recumbent position had become com- placed before the dead, on which perfumes mon with the other sex. It appears to have were burnt. The use of the accerrae at funebeen considered more decent, and more agree- rals was forbidden by a law of the Twelve able to the severity and purity of ancient Tables as an unnecessary expense. manners for women to sit, more especially A'CIES. [ExERcITus.] if many persons were present. But, on the ACI'NACES (acKtv&dcrj7), a Persian sword, ACROSTOLIUM. ACTIO. 3 whence Horace speaks of the Medus acinaces. (CKlpoor6O otov), which was frequently made in The acinaces was a short and straight weapon, the shape of an animal or a helmet, &c., apand thus differed from the Roman sica, which pears to have been sometimes covered with was curved. It was worn on the right side of brass, and to have served as a weapon of the body, whereas the Greeks and Romans offence against the enemny's vessels. usually had their swords suspended on the left ACROTE'R1UM (&lKPWT7ptov), signifies side. The form of the acinaces,with the mode the extremity of anything, and was applied by of wearing it, is illustrated by the following the Greeks to the extremities of the prow of Persepolitan figures. a vessel (idcpoor6Xtov), which were usually taken from a conquered vessel as a mark of victory: the act of doing so was called citcp( ypt i lpte v. ACTA DIURNA (proceedings of the day), was a kind of gazette or newspaper published daily at Rome, under the authority of' the V I \ \ 1 I \ government. It contained an account of the / proceedings of the public assemblies, of the law courts, of the punishment of offenders, and a list of births. marriages, deaths, &c. The proceedings of the public assemblies and the law courts, were obtained by means of reporters (actuarii). The proceedings of the / senate (acta senatus) were not published till the time of Julius Cwesar, but this custom was prohibited by Augustus. An account of the proceedings of the senate was still preserved, though not published, and some senator seems to have been chosen by the emperor to compile the account. The Acta Diurna, which were also called Acta populi, Acta publica, Acta _..._. urbana, and by the simple name of Acta, were Acinaces, Persian Ssord frequently consulted and appealed to by later ACL1S, a kind of dart with a leathern thong historians. attached to it. [AMENTUM.] ACTA SENATUS. [ACTA DIURNA.] ACROA'MA ( p6ayua), which properly A'CTIA (irrea), a festival celebrated every means anything heard, was the name given three years at Actium in Epirus, with wrestto a concert of players on different musical in- ling, horse-racing, and sea-fights, in honour of struments, and also to an interlude performed Apollo. There was a celebrated temple of during the exhibition of the public games. Apollo at Actium. After the defeat of Antony The word is also applied to the actors and off Actium, Augustus enlarged the temple, musicians who were employed to amuse and instituted gamnes to be celebrated every guests during an entertainment, and is some- five years in commemoration of his victory. times used to designate the anagnostae. A'CTIO, is defined by a Roman jurist to be [ANAGNOSTES.] the right of pursuing by judicial means what ACRO'POLIS (rpd67ro2ti). In almost all is a man's due. Greek cities, which were usually built upon The old actions of the Roman law were a hill, rock, or some natural elevation, there called legis actiones or legitimae, either because was a castle or a citadel, erected upon the they were expressly provided for by the laws highest part of the rock or hill, to which the of the Twelve Tables, or because they were name of Acropolis, higher or upper city, was strictly adapted to the words of the laws, and given. Thus we read of an acropolis at Athens, therefore could not be varied. But these forms Corinth, Argos, Messene, and many other of action gradually fell into disuse, in conseplaces. The Capitolium at Rome answered quence of' the excessive nicety required, and the same purpose as the acropolis in the the failure consequent on the slightest error Greek cities; and of the same kind were the in the pleadings, and they were eventually tower of Agathocles at Utica, and that of An- abolished by the Lex Aebutia, and two Leges tonia at Jerusalem. Juliae, except in a few cases. ACROSTOL'IUM (idpoo't)ortov), the ex- In the old Roman constitution, the knowl tremity of the ar6oCf. The (rdSof projected edge of the law was most closely connected from the head of the prow, and its extremity with the institutes and ceremonial of religion 4 ACTIO. ACTIO. and was accordingly in the hands of the pa- or the subject-matter of the suit, with the tricians alone, whose aid their clients were amount of damages, &c., as the case might obliged to ask in all their legal disputes. App. be. Claudius Caecus, perhaps one of the earliest When the praetor had granted an action, the writers on law, drew up the various forms of plaintiff required the defendant to give secuactions, probably for his own use and that of rity for his appearance before the praetor (in his friends: the manuscript was stolen or jure) on a day named, commonly the day but copied by his scribe Cn. Flavius, who made one after the in jus vocatio, unless the matter it public; and thus, according to the story, in dispute was settled at once. The defenthe plebians became acquainted with those dant, on finding a surety, was said vades dare, legal forms which hitherto had been the ex- vadimonium promittere, or facere; the surety, clusive property of the patricians. After the vas, was said spondere; the plaintiff, when abolition of the old legal actions, a suit was satisfied with the surety,was said vadari ream, prosecuted in the following manner:- to let him go on his sureties, or to have sureAn action was commenced by the plaintiff ties from him. When the defendant promised summoning the defendant to appear before the to appear in jure on the day named, without praetor or other magistrate who had jurisdictio: giving any surety, this was called vadimonium this process was called in jus vocatio; and, ac- purum. In some cases, recuperatores [JUDEX] cording to the laws of the Twelve Tables,was were named, who, in case of the defendant in effect a dragging of the defendant before the making default, condemned him in the sum of praetor, if he refused to go quietly; and al- money named in the vadimonium. though this rude proceeding was somewhat If the defendant appeared on the day apmodified in later times, we find in the time of pointed, he was said vadimonium sistere; if he Horace that if the defendant would not go did not appear, he was said rvadimonium desequietly, the plaintiff called upon any bystander ruisse; and the praetor gave to the plaintiff to witness, and dragged the defendant into the bonorum possessio. Both parties, on the court. The parties might settle their dispute day appointed, were summoned by a crier on their way to the court, or the defendant (praeco), when the plaintiff made his claim or might be bailedby avindex. Thevindex must demand, which was very briefly expressed, not be confounded with the vades. This set- and may be considered as corresponding to tlement of disputes on the way was called our declaration at law. transactio in via, and serves to explain a pas- The defendant might either deny the plainsage in St. Matthew, v., 25. tiff's claim, or he might reply to it by a plea, When before the praetor, the parties were exceptio. If he simply denied the plaintiff's said jure agere. The plaintiff then prayed for claim, the cause was at issue, and a judex an action, and if the praetor allowed it (dabat might be demanded. The forms of the excepactionem), he then declared what action he in- tio, also, were contained in the praetor's edict, tended to bring against the defendant, which or, upon hearing-the facts, the praetor adapthe called edere actionem. This might be done ed the plea to the case. in writing; or orally, or by the plaintiff taking The plaintiff might reply to the defendant's the defendant to the album [A LBUM], and show- exceptio. The plaintiff's answer was called ing him which action he intended to rely on. replicatio. If the defendant answered the reAs theformulae on the album comprehended, plicatio, his answer was called duplicatio; and or were supposed to comprehend, every pos- the parties might go on to the triplicatio and sible form of action that could be required by quadruplicatio, and even further, if the matters a plaintiff, it was presumed that he could lind in question were such that they could not among all the formulae some one which was otherwise be brought to an issue. adapted to his case; and he was, accordingly, A person might maintain or defend an acsupposed to be without excuse if he did nt tion by his cognitor or procurator, or, as we take pains to select the proper formulae. if should say, by his attorney. The plaintiff he took the wrong one, or if he claimed mort and defendant used a certain form of words than his due, he lost his cause (causa cadebat); in appointing a cognitor, and it would appear but the praetor sometimes gave him leave to that the appointment was made in the presamend his claim or intentio. It will be ob- ence of both parties. The cognitor needed served that as the formulae were so numerous not to be present, and his appointment was and comprehensive, the plaintiff had only to complete when by his acts he had signified select the formulae which he supposed to be his assent. suitable to his case, and it would require no When the cause was brought to an issue, farther variation than the insertion of the a judex or judices might be demanded of the names of the parties and of the thing claimed, praetor, who named or appointed a judex, and ACUS. ADONIA. 5 delivered to him the formula, which contained male head. This fashion has been continued his instructions. The judices were said, dari to our own times by the females of Italy. or addici. So far the proceedings were said to be in jure: the prosecution of the actio before the judex requires a separate discussion. [JUDE:X.] ACTOR, signified generally a plaintiff. In a civil or private action, the plaintiff was often called petitor; in a public action (causa publica), he was called accusator. The defendant was called reus, both in private and public causes: this term, however, according to Cicero, might signify either party, as indeed we might conclude from the word itself. In a private action, the defendant was often called adversarius, but either party might be called adversarius with respect to the other. Wards brought their actions by their guardian or tutor. eregrini, or aliens, originally brought their action through their patronus; but afterwards ill their own name, by a fiction of law, that they were Roman citizens. A Roman citizen might also generally bring his Acus Pin used to fasten the Hair. action by means of a cognitor or procurator. [ACTIo.] ADDICTI. [NExI] Actor has also the sense of an agent or man- ADFINES. [AFFINEs.] ager of another's business generally. The ac- ADLECTI, or ALLECTI, those persons tor publicus was anl officer who had the super- under the empire who were admitted co the intendence or care of slaves and property be- privileges and honours of the praetorship, longing to the state. quaestorship, aedileship, and other public ofACTORS on the stage. [HisTRIo.] fices, without having any duties to perforn. ACTUA'RIAE NAVES,transport-vessels, The senators called adlecti, seem to have been seem to have been built in a lighter style than the same as the coniscripti. the ordinary ships of burden, from which they ADMISSIONA'LES, chamberlains at the also differed in being always furnished with imperial court, who introduced persons to the oars, whereas the others were chiefly pro- presence of the emperor. They were divided pelled by sails. into four classes; the chief officer of each ACTUA'RII, short-hand writers, who took class was called proximus admissionum; and down the speeches in the senate and the pub- the proximi were under the magister admissiolic assemblies. In the debate in the Roman num. Their duty was called officium admnissenate upon the punishment of those who sionis. They were usually freedmen. had been concerned in the conspiracy of Cat- ADOLESCENS, was applied in the Roiline, we find the first mention of short-hand man law to a person from the end of his writers, who were employed by Cicero to take twelfth or fourteenth to the endl of his twendown the speech of Cato. ty-fifth year, during which period a person ACTUS, a Roman measure of length, also was also called adultus. The word adolescalled actus quadratus, was equal to half a cens, however, is frequently used in a less jugerum, or 14,400 square Roman feet. The strict sense in the Latin writers in referring actus mnnimus, or simplex, was 120 feet long, to a person much older than the above-menand four broad, and therefore equal to 480 tioned age. square Roman feet. Actus was also used to ADO'NIA ('Adveta), a festival celebrated in signify a bridle way. honour of Aphrodite (Vent;s) and Adoinis in ACUS (Ec26evr7, 3e2'ovig, ta~i~), a needle, most of the Grecian cities. It lasted two days, a pin. and was celebrated by women exclusively. On Pins were made not only of metal, but also the first day they brought into the streets of wood, hone, and ivory. They were used statues of Adonis, which were laid out as for the same purposes as with us, and also in corpses; and they observed all the rites cusdressing the hair.'I'e node of platting the tomary at funerals, beating themselves and hair, and then fastening it with a pin or nee- uttering lamentations. The second day was die, is shown in the annexed figure of a fe- spent in merriment and feasting; because A2 6 ADOPTIO. ADULTERIUM. A*~nis was allowed to return to life, and When a person was not in the power of his spend half the year with Aphrodite (Venus). parent (sui juris), the ceremony of adoption ADO'PTIO, adoption. 1. GREEK.-Adop- was called adrogatio. Originally, it could tion was called by the Athenians ei7rgooinatg, only be effected at Rome, and only by a vote or sometimes simply -oibyatC, or Ogatg. The of the populus (populi auctoritate) in the comiadoptive father was said 7roteeOatL, eisrotel- tia curiata (lege curiata); the reason of this cOat, or sometimes TTOtEiv: and the father or being that the caput or status of a Roman mother (for a mother after the death of her citizen could not, according to the laws of the husband could consent to her son being adopt- Twelve Tables, be effected except by a vote ed) was said Enoteiv: the son was said she- of the populus in the comitia curiata. CloiroteOe0at with reference to the family which dius, the enemy of Cicero,was adrogated into he left; and el7roteorl0at with reference to a plebian family, in order to qualify himself to the family into which he was received. The be elected a tribune of the plebs.' Females son, when adopted, was called 7o0lt6C, eig- could not be adopted by adrogatio. Under irotr6Sq, or 0eso-6, in opposition to the legiti- the emperors it became the practice to effect mate son born of the body of the father, who the adrogatio by an imperial rescript. was called yvcator. The effect of adoption was to create the A man might adopt a son either in his life- legal relation of father and son, just as if the time or by his testament, provided he had no adopted son were born of the blood of the male offspring, and was of sound mind. He adoptive father in lawful marriage. The adopmight also, by testament, name a person to ted child was entitled to the name and sacra take his property, in case his son or sons privata of the adopting parent. A person, on should die under age. passingfrom one gens into another, and taking Only Athenian citizens could be adopted; the name of his new familia, generally retained but females could be adopted (by testament the name of his old gens also, with the addiat least) as well as males. tion to it of the termination anus. Thus The adopted child was transferred from his Aemilius, the son of L. Aemilius Paullus, own family and demus into those of the adop- upon being adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio, tive father; he inherited his property, and assumed the name of P. Cornelius Scipio maintained the sacra of his adoptive father. Aemilianus, and C. Octavius, afterwards the It was not necessary for him to take his new emperor Augustus, upon being adopted by the father's name, but he was registered as his testament of his uncle the dictator, assumed son in the register of his phratria (cparplKcv the name of C. Julius Caesar Octavianus. ypauuare-ov). Subsequently to this, it was ADORA'TIO (rpogKcivVlac), adoration necessary to enter him in the register of the was paid to the gods in the following manadoptive father's demus (?ijtapxtKov ypau- ner:-The individual stretched out his right pa'relov), without which registration it ap- hand to the statue of the god whom he wished pears that he did not possess the full rights to honour, then kissed his hand, and waved it of citizenship as a member of his new demus. to the statue. The adoratio differed from the 2. RoMAN.-The Roman relation of parent oratio or prayers, supplications, which were and child arose either fiom a lawful marriage offered with the hands folded together. The or from adoption. Adoptio was the general adoration paid to the Roman emperors was name which comprehended the two species, borrowed from the Eastern mode of adoration, adoptio and adrogatio; and as the adopted and consisted in prostration on the ground, person passed from his own familia into that and kissing the feet and knees of the emof the person adopting, adoptio caused a capi- peror. tis diminutio, and the lowest of the three ADROGA'TIO. [ADOPTION.] kinds. [CAPUT.] Adoption, in its specific ADULTE'RIUM, adultery. 1. GREEK. sense, was the ceremony by which a person Among the Athenians, if a man caught who was in the power of his parent (in potes- another man in the act of criminal intercourse tate parentium), whether child or grandchild, (/uotXeia)with his wife, he might kill him with male or female, was transferred to the power impunity; and the law was also the same of the person adopting him. It was effected with respect to a concubine (7rao2alc?). He under the authority of a magistrate (magistra- might also inflict other punishment on the tus), the praetor, for instance, at Rome, or a offender. It appearsthattherewas noadultery, governor (praeses), in the provinces. The unless a married womanwas concerned. The person to be adopted was emancipated [MAN- husband might, if he pleased, take a sum of CIPATIO] by his natural father before the com- money from the adulterer, by way of compenpetent authority, and surrendered to the adop- sation, and detain him till he founq sureties tive fatherby the legal form called injure cessio. for the payment. The husband might also ADUN ATI. AEDILES. prosecute the adulterer mn the action called at different times. In the time of Lysias and toLXEiaf Ypaqor. If the act of adultery was Aristotle, one obolus a day was given; but it proved, the husband could no longer cohabit appears to have been afterwards increased to with his wife, under pain of losing his privi- two oboli. The bounty was restricted to perleges of a citizen (7rtuzia). The adulteress sons whose property was under three minae; was excluded even from those temples which and the examination of those who were enforeign women and slaves were allowed to titled to it belonged to the senate of the Five enter; and if she was seen there, any one Hundred. Pisistratus is said to have been might treat her as he pleased, provided he did the first to introduce a law for the maintenot kill her or mutilate her. nance of those persons who had been muti2. ROMAN. The word adulterium properly lated in war. signifies, in the Roman law, the offence comn- ADVOCA'TUS, seems originally to have initted by a man's having sexual intercourse signified any person, who gave another his aid with another man's wife. Stuprum (called by in any affair or business, as a witness for inthe Greeks c0opd) signifies the like offence stance; or for the purpose of aiding and prowith a widow or virgin. tecting him in taking possession of a piece of In the time of Augustus a law was enacted property. It was also used to express a person (probably about B. c. 17), entitled Lex Julia de who in any way gave his advice and aid to adulteriis coercendis, which seems to have con- another in the management of a cause; but tained special penal provisions against adul- the word did not signily the orator or patronus tery; and it is also not improbable, that by the who made the speech in the time of Cicero. old law or custom, if the adulterer was caught Under the emperors it signified a person who in the fact, he was at the mercy of the injured in any way assisted in the conduct of a cause, husband, and that the husband might punish and was sometimes equivalent to orator. The with death his adulterous wife. advocate's fee was then called Honorarium. By the Julian law, a woman convicted of A'DYTUM. [TEMPLUM.] adultery was mulcted in half of her dowry AEDES. [DoMus; TEMPLUM.] (dos) and the third part of her property (bona), AEDI'LES ('Ayopav6/lot). The name of and banished (relegate) to some miserable these functionaries is said to be derived from island, such as Seriphos, for instance. The their having the care of the temple (aedes) of adulterer was mulcted in half his property, Ceres. The aediles were originally two in and banished in like manner. This law did number; they were elected from the plebs, not inflict the punishmlent of death on either and the institution of the office dates from party; and in those instances under the em- the same time as that of the tribunes of the perors in which death was inflicted, it must plebs, B. C. 494. Their dut4es at first seem be considered as an extraordinarypunishment, to have been merely ministerial; they were and beyond the provisions of the Julian law. the assistants of the tribunes in such matters The Julian law permitted the father (both as the tribunes entrusted to them, among adoptive and natural) to kill the adulterer and which are enumerated the hearing of causes adulteress in certain cases, as to which there of smaller importance. At an early period were several nice distinctions established by after their institution (B. c. 446), we find them the law. If the wife was divorced for adul- appointed the keepers of the senatus-consulta, tery, the husband was entitled to retain part which the consuls had hitherto arbitrarily of the dowry. suppressed or altered. They were also the By a constitution of the Emperor Constan- keepers of the plebiscita. Other functions tine, the offence in the adulterer was made were gradually entrusted to them, and it is capital. not always easy to distinguish their duties ADVERSA'RIA, a note-book, memoran- from some of those which belong to the cenlurm-book, posting-book, in which the Rornans sors. They had the general superintendence entered memoranda of any importance, espe- of buildings, both sacred and private; under cially of mnoney received and expended,which this power they provided for the support and were afterwards transcribed, usually every repair of temples, curiae, &c., and took care month, into a kind of ledger. ( Tabulae justace, that private buildings,which were in a ruinous codex accepti et expensi.) state were repaired by the owners or pulled ADVERSA'RIUS. [ACTOR.] down. The care of the streets and pave. ADU'NATI ('Ad6varoL), were persons sup- meints, with the cleansing and draining of the ported by the Athenian state,who, on account city, belonged to the aediles, anld, of course, of infirmity or bodily defects, were unable to the care of the cloacae. They had the office obtain a*velihood. The sum which they re- of distributing corn among the plebs, but this ceived from the state appears to have varied distribution of corn at Rome must not be con 8 AEDILES. AEDILES. founded with the duty of purchasing or pro- cised by the plebeian aediles were exercised, curing it from foreign parts, which was per- with some few exceptions, by all the aediles formed by the consuls, quaestors, and praetors, indifferently. Within five days after being and sometimes by an extraordinary magistrate, elected, or entering on office, they were reas the praefectus annonae. quired to determine by lot, or by agreement The aediles had to see that the public lands among themselves, what parts of the city were not improperly used, and that the pas- each should take under his superintendence; ture grounds of the state were not trespassed and each aedile alone had the care of looking on; and they had power to punish by fine any after the paving and cleansing of the streets, unlawful act in this respect. They had a and other matters, it may be presumed, of the general superintendence over buying and sel- same local character within his district. The ling, and, as a consequence, the supervision other duties of the office seem to have been of the markets, of things exposed to sale, exercised by them jointly. such as slaves, and of weights and measures; In the superintendence of the public festi from this part of their duty is derived the vals or solemnities, there was a further dis name under which the aediles are mentioned tinction between the two sets of aediles by the Greek writers (cyopav6,uol). It was Many of these festivals, such as those ol their business to see that no new deities or Flora and Ceres, were superintended breligious rites were introduced into the city, either set of aediles indifferently; but thf to look after the observance of religious cere- plebeian games were under the superinten monies, and the celebration of the ancient dence of the plebeian aediles, who had al feasts and festivals. The general superinten- allowance of money for that purpose; ant dence of police comprehended the duty of the fines levied on the pecuarii, and others.. preserving order, regard to decency, and the seem to have been appropriated to these inspection of the baths and houses of enter- among other public purposes. The celebratainment. The aediles had various officers tion of the Ludi Magni or Romani, of the under them, as praecones, scribae, and via- Ludi Scenici, or dramatic representations, tores. and the Ludi Megalesii, belonged specially The AEDILES CURULES, who were also to the curule aediles, and it was on such octwo in number, were originally chosen only casions that.they often incurred a prodigious from the patricians, afterwards alternately expense, with a view of pleasing the people, from the patricians and the plebs, and at last and securing their votes in future elections. indifferently from both. The office of curule This extravagant expenditure of the aediles aediles was instituted B. c. 365, and, accord- arose after the close of the second Punic war, ing to Livy, on tjhe occasion of the plebeian and increased with the opportunities which aediles refusing to consent to celebrate the individuals had of enriching themselves after Ludi Maxirni for the space of four days in- the Roman arms were carried into Greece, stead of three; upon which a senatus-con- Africa, and Spain. Even the prodigality of sultum was passed, by which two aediles the emperors hardly surpassed that of indiwere to be chosen firom the patricians. From vidual curule aediles under the republic; this time four aediles, two plebeian and two such as C. Julius Caesar, the dictator, P. Corcurule, were annually elected. The distinc- nelius Lentulus Spinther, and, above all, M. tive honours of the curule aediles were, the Aemilius Scaurus, whose expenditure was sella curulis, from whence their title is de- not limited to bare show, but comprehended rived, the toga praetexta, precedence in speak- objects of public utility, as the reparation of ing in the senate, and the jus irnaginis. The walls, dock-yards, ports, and aqueducts. curule aediles only had the jus edicendi, or In B. c. 45, Julius Caesar caused two curule the right of promulgating edicta; but the aediles and four plebeian aediles to be electrules comprised in their edicta served for the ed; and thenceforward, at least so long as the guidance of all the aediles. The edicta of office of aedile was of any importance, six the curule aediles were founded on their au- aediles were annually elected. The two new thority as superintendents of the markets, plebeian aediles were called Cereales, and and of buying and selling in general. Ac- their duty was to look after a supply of corn. cordingly, their edicts had mainly, or perhaps Though their office may not have been of any solely, reference to the rules as to buying and great importance after the institution of a selling, and contracts for bargain and sale. praefectus annonae by Augustus, there is no The persons both of the plebeian and curule doubt that it existed for several centuries, and aediles were sacrosancti. at least as late as the time of the emperor It seems that after the appointment of the Gordian. curule aediles, the functions formerly exer- The aediles belonged to the class of the AEDILES. AEGIS. 9 minores magistratus. The plebeian aediles had already been consul before he accepted were originally chosen at the comitia centu- the office of aedile, and his munificent expenriata, but afterwards at the comitia tributa, diture in this nominal office was the close of in which cornitia the curule aediles also the splendour of the aedileship. Augustus were chosen. It appears that until the lex appointed the curule aediles specially to the annalls was passed (s. c. 180) a Roman citi- office of putting out fires, and placed a body zen migift be a candidate for any office after of' 600 slaves at their command; but the praecompleting his twenty-seventh year. This fecti vigilum afterwards performed this duty. law fixed the age at which each office might They retained, under the early emperors, a be enjoyed, and it seems that the age fixed kind of police, for the purpose of repressing for the aedileship was thirty-seven. open licentiousness and disorder. The coloThe aediles existed under the emperors; niae, and the municipia of the later period, but their powers were gradually diminished, had also their aediles, whose numbers and and their functions exercised by new officers functions varied in different places. They created by the emperors. After the battle of seem, however, as to their powers and duties, Actium, Augustus appointed a Praefectus tohave resembled the aediles of Rome. They urbi, who exercised the general police, which were chosen annually. had formerly been one of the duties of the AEDI'TUI, AEDI'TUMI, AEDI'TIMI aediles. Augustus also took from the aediles, (called by the Greeks veaK6pot,;dKopot, and or exercised himself, the office of superin- 6i7r-o6copot), were persons who took care ot tending the religious rites, and the banishing the temples, attended to the cleaning of them, from the city of all foreign ceremonials; he &c. They appear to have lived in the temalso assumed the superintendence of the tem- piles, or near them, and to have acted as clceples, and thus may be said to have destroyed roni to those persons who wished to see the aedileship by depriving it of its old and them. Subsequently among the Greeks, the original function. The last recorded instance menial services connected with this office of the splendours of the aedileship is the ad- were left to slaves, and the persons called ministration of Agrippa, who volunteered to neocori became priestly officers of high rank, take the office, and repaired all the public who had the chief superintendence of ternbuildings and all the roads at his own ex- ples, their treasures, and the sacred rites ob pense, without drawing anything from the served in them. treasury. The aedileship had, however, lost AEGIS (AiyiS) signifies, literally, a goatits true character before this time. Agrippa skin. Tie Aegis as wiorn by Atena (Minerva). J0 AERA. AERAR1UM. According to ancient mythology, tile aegis aera, which began B. c. 323.-4. the aera of worn byJupiter was the hide of the goat Amal- the Seleucidae, which began in the autumn theia, which had suckled him in his infancy. of B. c. 312.-5. the aeras of Antioch, of which Homer always represents it as part of the there were three, but the one in most comarmour of Jupiter, whom on this account he mon use began in November, B. c. 49. distinguishes by the epithet aegis-bearing The Romans reckoned their years from the (alyioXog). He, however, asserts, that it was foundation of the city (ab urbe condita), in the borrowed on different occasions, both by time of Augustus and subsequently; but in Apollo and Minerva. earlier times the years were reckoned by the The aegis was connected with the shield I names of' the consuls. We also find traces of of Jupiter, either serving as a covering over it, an aera from the banishment of the kings; or as a belt by which it was suspended firom and of another from the taking of the city by the right shoulder. Homer accordingly uses the Gauls. The date of the foundation of the word to denote not only the goat-skin, Rome is given differently by different authors. which it properly signified, but also the That which is most commonly followed is shield to which it belonged. the one given by Varro, which corresponds to The aegis was adorned in a style corre- B.C. 753. It must be observed, that 753 A. u. c. spending to the might and majesty of the is the first year before, and 754 A. u. c. the father of the gods. In the middle of it was first year after the Christian aera. To find fixed the appalling Gorgon's head, and its out the year B. c. corresponding to the year border was surrounded with golden tassels A. U. c., subtract the year A. U. c. from 754; (Oeeaavot), each of which was worth a heca- thus, 605 A. u. c.= 149 B. c. To find out the tomb. year A. D., corresponding to the year A. U. c., The aegis is usually seen on the statues of subtract 753 from the year A. u. c.; thus,'767 Minerva, in which it is a sort of scarf falling A. U. c.=14 A. D. obliquely over the right shoulder, so as to AERA'RII, those citizens of Rome who pass round the body under the left arm. The did not enjoy the perfect franchise, i. e. those serpents of the Gorgon's head are transferred who corresponded to the isoteles and atimi at to the border of the skin. (Seethe left-hand Athens. The name is a regular adjective figure in the cut.) The later poets and ar- formed from aes (bronze), and its application tists represent the aegis as a breastplate cov- to this particular class is due to the circumered with metal in the form of scales. (See stance that, as the aerarii were protected by the right-hand figure.) the state without being bound to military serAENEATO'RES, were those who blew vice, they naturally had to pay the aes mnilitare, upon wind instruments in the Roman army; which was thus originally a charge on them. namely, the buccinatores, cornicines, and tubi- The persons who constituted this class were ciabes. They were also employed in the pub- either the inhabitants of other towns which lic games. had a relation of isopolity with Rome (the inAEOLIP'YL2E (i62cov 7rri2.at) were, ac- quilili), or clients and the descendants of cording to the description of Vitruvius, hol- freedmen. The deceinvirs enrolled in the low vessels made of brass, which were used tribes all who were aerarians at that time: in explaining the origin. &c. of the winds. and when the tribes comprised the whole naThese vessels, which had a very small orifice, tion, the degradation of a citizen to the rank were filled with water and placed on the fire, of an aerarian (which was called ae-arium faby which, of course, steam was created. cere; referre aliquem in aerarios; ot in tabulas AERA, a point of time firom which subse- Caeritum referri jubere), might be practised in quent or preceding years may be counted. the case of a patrician as well as of a plebeian. The Greeks had no common aera till a com- Hence, aerarians came to be used as a term paratively late period. of reproach. Respecting the Tribuni Aerarii, The Athenians reckoned their years by the see TRIBUNUS. name of the chief archon of each year, whence AERA'RIUM,the public treasury at Rome. he was called archon epony7nes (ipX6,)v'r76- After the banishment of the kings, the temple vv/uo0); the Lacedaemonians by one of the of Saturn was used as the place for keeping ephors, and the Argives by the chief priestess the public treasure, and it continued to be so of Juno, who held her office for life. till the later times of the empire. Besides The following aeras were adopted in later the public money, the standards of the letimes:-1. the aera of the Trojan war (B.C. gions were deposited in the aerarium, and 1184), which was first made use of by Eratos- also all decrees of the senate were entered.henes.-2. the Olympic aera, which began there In books kept for the purpose. r. c. 778.-3. the Philippic or Alexandrian The aerarium was divided into two parts: A ES. A ES IJXORIIJM. 11 the common treasury, in which were deposited old Italian states possessed a bronze or copthe regular taxes, and which was made use per coinage from the earliest times. of to meet the ordinary expenditure of the The first coinas- was the as [As], which state; and the sacred treasury (actrariun saic- originally was a pound weight; but as iil tUtn, sa'iCtltls), which was never touched cx course of ti ti e te-eig'ht of the as was recept in cases of extreme peril. The twen- dnced not only i 1ome, but in the other Italtieth parr of the value of every slave who was lan states, an( t'his reduction of weight was enfranchised, and somne part of the plunder of not uniform ill tsl::') ditt bren; states, it became. conquered nations, were deposited in the sa- usual i.i l r ba ins to pay the ases accordcred treasury. Augustus established a sep- ing to tl- ii wevcig ht, ain l not accordinlir to the;i arate treasury under the name of acrariuen noiininal valiin.'Ti;c'ru:war saot the o li militare, to provide for the pay and support of heavy coins as (tisuing'uiheui firom the lighter the army; and he imposed several new taxes modem; but it signified any nunber of coppet for that purpose. coins reckoned according to the old style, b%The aerariuim, the public treasury, must be weight. Thler was, therefore, no occasion distinguished fromr thefiscus, the treasury of for the state to suppress the circuilation of the emperors. [FIscus.] the old copper coins, since in a1 argains The charge of the treasury was originally the asses were not reckoned ihy taie, but bY entrusted to the quaestors and their ais".ants, weight. the tribuni aerarii; bitt in B. c. 49, when no Bronze or copper (t'calc69o) was very iittle quaestors were elected, it was transferred to used by the Greeks for money in early times. the aediles, in whose care it appears to have Silver was originally the universal currency, been till n. c. 28, when Augustus. gave it to and copper appears to have been seldom coitthe praetors, or those who had been praetors. ed till after the time of Alexander the Great. Various changes were made by the early em- The copper coin was called Ch/alcols (Xa/.perors, as to the charge of the aerarium, but KOOl). The smallest silver coint at Atheiis it was eventually entrusted to officers, called was the quarter-obol, and the chalcous was praefects, who appear to have held their office the half of' that. or the eighth of an obol. Ia ibr two years. later times, the obol was coinedl of copper ts AERUSCATO'RES, were vagrants who well as silver. obtained their living by fortune-telling and AES CIRCJUMTFORA'NE1UM, monoy begging. They were called by the Greeks borrowed froui the Roman bankers (argeetadayVipat. rii), wvho had shops in porticoes round thel AES (xae6cp), properly signifies a corn- forum. pound of copper and tin, corresponding to AES EQITESTRE, the sumi of money what we call bronze. It is incorrect to trans- given by the Roman state for the purchase of late it brass, which is a combination of cop- the knigsht's horse. This sum amounted to per and zinc, since all the specimens of an- 10,000 asses. cient objects, formed of the material called AES HORDEA'RIULM, or HORDIA'aes, are found upon analysis to contain no RItLT1M, the sumt of umoney paid yearly for zinc. the keep of a knight's horse; in other words, The employment of aes was very general a knight's pay. This suiem, which amounted to among the ancients; money, vases, and uten- 2000 asses for each horse, was charged upon sils of all sorts, being made of it. All the the rich widows and orphans, on the princimost ancient coins in Rome and the old Ital- ple that, in a mnilitirys state, the women allt ian states were made of aes, and hence ino- children ought to conitribute largely for those ney in general was called by this name. For who fought in behalf of them and the coin,the same reason we have aes alienum, mean- moenwealth. ing debt, and aera in the plural, pay to the I AES M1LITA'RE. [AERAIIJT.] soldiers. The Romans had no other coinage AES MANUA'RItUM was the money won except bronze or copper (aes), till B. c. 269, in playing with (lice, manaibts collectunt. Mifive years before the first Punic war, when suils was the throw in the game. All. wvlo silver was first coined; gold was not coined threw certain numbers were obliged to put till sixty-two years after silver. down a piece of money; and whoever threw The first coinage of aes is usually attributed the Venus (the highest throw) won the whole to Servius Tullius, who is said to have stamp- sum, which was called the aes maneuarium. ed the money with the image of cattle (pecus), AES UXO'RIUM, was a tax paid by perwhence it is called pecunia. According to sons who lived as bachelors. It was first some accounts, it was coined from the com- imposed by the censors in B. c. 403. Various mencement of the citv, and we know that the penalties were imposed by Aiugustus upon 12 AGASO. AGER PUBLICUS. those who lived in a state of celibacy, and sometimes applied to a slave who had to peradvantages granted to those who were mar- form'the lowest menial duties. ried and had children. [LEx JuLIA ET PAPIA AGATHOERGI ('AyaOoepyoi). In time POPPAEA.] of war the kings of Sparta had a body-guard AESYMNE'TES (AiaztuvnTng), a person of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan who was sometimes invested with unlimited youths (aTr7re[i), of whom the five eldest repower in the Greek states. His power par- tired every year, and were employed for one took in some degree of the nature both of year under the name of Agathoergi, in missions kingly and tyrannical authority; since he was to foreign states. appointed legally, and did not usurp the gov- AGE'MA ((&y7lna from &yu), the name of a ernment, but at the same time was not bound chosen body of troops in the Macedonian by any laws in his public administration. army, usually consisting of horsemen. The office was not hereditary, nor was it held AGER PU'BLICUS, the public land, was for life; but it only continued for a limited the land belonging to the Roman state. It time, or till some object was accomplished. was a recognised principle among the Italian Thus we read that the inhabitants of Mytilene nations that the territory of a conquered peoappointed Pittacus aesymnetes, in order to ple belonged to the conquerors. Accordingly, prevent the return of Alcaeus and the other the Romans'were constantly acquiring fresh exiles. Dionysius compares it with the dic- territory by the conquest of the surrounding tatorship of Rome. In some states, such as people. The land thus acquired was usually Cyme and Chalcedon, it was the title borne disposed of in the following way. 1. The land by the regular magistrates. which was under cultivation was either disAFFI'NES, AFFI'NITAS, or ADFI'NES, tributed among colonists, who were sent to ADFi'NITAS. Affines are the cognati [COG- occupy it, or it was sold, or it was let out to NATI] of husband and wife, the cognati of the farm. 2. The land which was then out of husband becoming the affines of the wife, and cultivation, and which, owing to war, was by the cognati of the wife the affines of the hus- far the mlqater part, might be occupied by band. The father of a husband is the socer of any of theftoman citizens on the piayment of the husband's wife, and the father of a wife a portion of the yearly produce; a tenth of is the socer of the wife's husband. The term the produce of arable land, and a fifth of the socrus expresses the same affinity with respect produce of the land planted with the vine, the to the husband's and wife's mothers. A son's olive, and other valuable trees. 3. The land wife is nurus, or daughter-in-law to the son's which had previously served as the common parents: a wife's husband is gener, or son in- pasture land of the conquered state, or was law to the wife's parents. suitable for the purpose, continued to be used Thus the oas, avia-pater, mater-of the as pasture land for the use of the Roman citwife bBcame by the marriage respectively the izens, who had, however, to pay a certain socer magnus, prosocrLs, or socrus lagena-socer, sum of money for the cattle which they turnsocrus-of the husband, who becomes with ed upon the land. respect to them severally proeneor and gonmer. The occupation of the public land spoken In like manner the corresponding ancestors of above under the second head was always of the husband respectively assu me the same expressed by the words possessio and possidere, names with respect to the son's witd, who and the occupier of the land was called the becomes with respect to them peronures and possessor. The land continued to be the pronurus. The son and daughter of a husband perty of the state; and accordingly we must or wife born of a prior marriage are called distinguish between the terms possessio, priviginus and priviges, with respect to their which merely indicated the use or enjoyment step-father or step-mother; and with respect of the land, and dlominium, which expressed to such children the step-father and step-mo- ownership, and was applied to private land, ther are severally called vitricus and norerca. of which a man had the absolute ownership. The husbanid's brother becomes levir with re- The right of occupying the public land bespect to the wife, and his sister becomes glos longed only to citizens, and consequently only (the Greek yS(&og). Marriage was unlawful to the patricians originally, as they were the among persons who had become such affines state. The plebeians were only subjects, as above mentioned. and consequently had no right to the property AGALMA (lyea2ia), is a general name for of the state; but it is probable that they were a statue or image to represent a god. permitted to feed their cattle on the public AGA'SO, a groom, whose business it was pasture lands. Even when the plebeians beto take care of the horses. The word is also came a separate estate by the constitution of used for a driver of beasts of burdem. and i.s Servius Tullius, they still obtained no right AGER PUBLICUS. AGONOTHETAE. 13 to share in the possession of the public land, farther enacted that the surplus land was to which continued to be the exclusive privilege be dividea among the plebeians. As this law, of the patricians; but as a compensation, each however,was soon disregarded, it was revived individual plebeian received an assignment of again by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (B. c. 133), a certain quantity of the public land as his own with some alterations and additions. The deproperty. Henceforth the possession of the tails of the other agrarian laws, mentioned in public land was the privilege of the patricians, Roman history, are given under the name of and an assignment of a portion of it the priv- the lex by which they are called. [LEX.] ilege of the plebeians. As the state acquired AGGER (XSCua), from ad and gero, was new lands by conquest, the plebeians ought used in general for a heap or mound of any to have received assignments of part of them; kind. It was more particularly applied:but since the patricians were the governing 1. To a mound, usually composed of earth, body, they generally refused to make any such which was raised round a besieged town, and assignment, and continued to keep the whole which was gradually increased in breadth as part of the ager publicus, whereby the en- and height, till it equalled or overtopped the joymnent of it belonged to them alone. Hence, walls. The agger was sometimes made not we constantly read of the plebeians claiming, only of earth, but of wood, hurdles, &c.; and sometimes enforcing, a division of such whence we read of the agger being set on fire. land. 2. To the earthen wall surrounding a Roman With the extension of the conquests of encampment, composed of the earth dug from Rome, the ager publicus constantly increased, the ditch (fossa), which was usually 9 feet and thus a large portion of Italy fell into the broad and 7 feet deep; but if any attack was hands of the patricians; who frequently with- apprehended, the depth was increased to 12 held from the state the annual payments of a feet and the breadth to 13 feet. Sharp stakes, tenth and a fifth, which they were bound to &c. were usually fixed upon the agger,which pay for the possession of the land, and thus was then called vallum. When both words are deprived the state of a fund for the expenses used, the agger means the mound of earth, of the war. In addition to which they used and the vallum the stakes, &c. which were slaves as cultivators and shepherds, since fixed upon the agger. freemen were liable to be drawn off from field- AGITATO'RES. [CIRcus.] labour to military service, and slave-labour AGMEN, the marching order of the Roman was consequently far cheaper. In this way armny. The form of the army on march difthe number of free labourers diminished, and fered according to circumstances and the nathat of slaves was augmented. ture of the ground. An agmen pilatum was an To remedy this state of things several laws army in close array; an agnmen quadratum was were from time to time proposed and carried, an army arranged in the form of a square,with which were most violently opposed by the the baggage in the middle. patricians. All laws which related to the AGNIA"TI. [COGNATI.] public land, are called by the general title of AGNO'MEN. [NOMEN.] Leges Agrariae, and accordingly all the early AGONA'LIA or AGO'NIA, a Roman festilaws relating to the possession of the public val instituted by Numa Pompilius, in honour land by the patricians, and to the assignment of Janus, and celebrated on the 9th of Januof portions of it to the plebeians, were strictly ary, the 20th of May, and the 10th of Decemagrarian laws; but the first law to which this ber. The morning of these festivals, or, at name is usually applied, was' proposed soon least, the morning of the 10th of December, after the establishment of the republic by'the was considered a dies nefastus. The etymoconsul Sp. Cassius in B. c. 486. Its object logy of this name was differently explained by was to set apart the portion of the public land the ancients; some derived it from Agonius, which the patricians were to possess, to di- a surname of Janus; some from the word vide the rest among the plebeians, to levy the agone, because the attendant, whose duty it payment due for the possession, and to apply was to sacrifice the victim, could not do so till it to paying the army. The first law, how- he had asked the rex sacrificulus, Agone? and ever, which really deprived the patricians of others from eaonia, because the victims were the advantages they had previously enjoyed formerly called by that name. in the occupation of the public land was the AGONO'THETAE (m(yovo0erat), persons agrarian law of C. Licinius Sto!o (B. C. 366), in the Grecian games, who decided disputes, which limited each individual's possession of and adjudged the prizes to the victors. Origipublic land to 500 jugera, and declared that nally, the person who instituted the contest, no individual should have above 100 large and and offered the prize, was the Agonothetes, and 500 smaller cattle on the public pastures: it this continued to be the practice in those 14t AGORANOMI. AGROTERAS THUSIA. games which were instituted by kings or pri- for the Peiraeeus, and they were chosen vate persons. But in the great public games, by lot. such as the Isthmian, Pythian, &c.. the Agono- The principal duty of the Agoranomi was, thetae were either the representatives of dif- as their name imports, to inspect the market, ferent states, as the Anmphictyons at the and to see that all the laws respecting its Pythian games, or were chosen from the regulation were properly observed. They people in whose country the games were had the inspection of all things that were sold celebrated. During the flourishing times of in the market, with the exception of corn, the Grecian republics,the Eleans were the which was subject to the jurisdiction of Agonothetae in the Olympic games, the Corin- special officers, called Sitophylaces (atcrocithians in the Isthimian games, the Amphic- Sakces). tyons in the Pythian games, and the Corin- AGRARIAN LAWS. [AGER PUBLICUS; thians, Argives, and inhabitants of Cleonae in LEx.] the Nernean games. The Agonothetae were AGRAU'LIA (caypavXta), was a festival also called Aesyrnnetae (atlrvYviJrat.), Agonar- celebrated by the Athenians in honour of chae (tyCoviapXat), Agonodicae ((y(ovodiK at), Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops. It was Athlothelae (i8toeratr,), Rhabduchi (/a3idoe- perhaps connected with the solemn oath, NAot), or 1Rhabdonomi (haofove6ot, from the which all Athenians, when thev arrived at staff they carried as an emblem of authority), manhood (E7Ov3ot), were obliged to take in Brabeis (3pa,3eiC), Brabeutae (0ipa,3evrai). the temple of Agraulos, that they would fight A'GORA (atyopi) properly means anassern- for their country, and always observe its bly of any kinld, and is usually employed by laws. Homer to designate the general assembly of AGRIMENSO'RES, or " land surveyors," the people. The Agora seems to have been a college established under the Roman emconsidered an essential part of the constitution perors. Like the jurisconsults, they had of the early Grecian states. It was usually regular schools, and were paid handsome convoked by the king, but occasionally by salaries by the state. Their business was to some distinguished chieftain, as, for example, measure unassigned lands for the state, and( by Achilles before Troy. The king occupied ordinary lands for the proprietors, and to fix tlhe most important seat in these assemblies, and maintain boundaries. Their writings on and near himn sat the nobles, while the people the subject of their art were very numerous; stood or sat in a circle around them. The and we have still scientific treatises on the law people appear to have had no right of speak- of boundaries, such as those by Frontinus and ing or voting in these assemblies, but merely Ilyginus. to have been called together to hear what had AGRIO'NIA ('AyptJvta), a festival which been already agreed upon in the council of was celebrated at Orchomenus, in Boeotia, in the nobles, and to express their feelings as a honour of Bacchus, surnamed Agrionius. A body. The council of the nobles is called human being use(l originally to be sacrificedl ~Boule (/3ov2A) and Thlocus (O6o ocg), and some- at this festival, but this sacrifice seems to have times even Agora. been avoided in later times. One instance, Among the Athenians, the proper name however, occurred in the days of Plutarch. for the assembly of the people was Ecclesia AGRO'NOMI ((iypov6yot), the country-po(kKKcgrlia), and among the Dorians Halia lice, probably in Attica, whose duties corre(t2itz). The term Agora was confined at sponded in most respects to those of the asty Athens to the assemblies of the phylae and nomi in the city, and who appear to have perdemi. formed nearly the same duties as the hylori The name Agora was early transferred from (Vitwpoi). the assembly itself to the place in which the AGRO'TERAS THU'SIA ('AyporEpa9 assembly was held; and thus it came to be OvCia), a festival celebrated every year at used for the market-place, where goods of all Athens in honour of Diana, surnamed Agrodescriptions were bought and sold. The ex- tera (from Typa, the chase). It was solemnpression agora plethousa (c;Top&t,;'rl/Oovea), ized oil the sixth of the month of Bofdromion, "full market," was used to signify the time and consisted in a sacrifice of 500 goats, which from morning to noon, that is, from about continued to be offered in the time of Xenonine to twelve o'clock. phon. Its origin is thus related: —When the AGORA'NOMI (ityopav6l/ot), public func- Persians invaded Attica, the Athenians made tionaries in most of the Grecian states,whose a vow to sacrifice to Artemis (Diana) Agrotera duties corresponded in many respects with as many goats as there should be enemies slain those of the Roman aediles. At Athens their at Marathon. But when the number of enenumber was ten, five for the city, and five mies slain was so great that an equal numhbr ALAUDA.- ALIPTAE. 15 of goats could not be found at once, the Ath- themselves were also called Alaudae, whence enians decreed that 500 should be sacrificed Cicero speaks of the legio Alaudarum and of every year. Alaudae ceterique veteral.i. The legion was A1SUMNE'TES (aievzv/Ivr7~), an individ- called Alauda or " lark," from the form of the ual, who was sometimes invested with unlirn- crests which the soldiers wore on their ited power by the Greek states. His power, helmets. according to Aristotle, partook in some degree ALBUM, a tablet of any material on which of the nature both of kingly and tyrannical the praetor's edicts, and the rules relating to authority, since he was appointed legally. and actions and interdicts, were written. The (lid not usurp the government, but at the same tablet was put in a public place, in order that time was not bound by any laws in his public all the world might have notice of its contents. administration. The 6ffice was not heredita- According to some authorities, the album was ry, nor was it held for life, but it only contin- so called, because it was either a white mateued for a certain time, or until some particu- rial, or a material whitened, and of course the lar object was accomplished. Dionysius com- writing would be a different colour. Accordpares it with the dictatorship of the Romans. ing to other authorities, it was so called be ALABASTER or ALABASTRUM, aves- cause the writing was in white letters. sel or pot used for containing perfumes, or Probably the word album originally meant rather ointments, made of that species of any tablet containing anything of a public namarble which mineralogists call gypsum, and ture. We know that it was, in course of time, which is usually designated by the name of used to signify a list of any public body; thus alabaster. When varieties of colour occur in we find albun judicum, or the body out of which the same stone, and are disposed in bands or judices were to be chosen [JUDEX], and album horizontal strata, it is often called onyx ala- senatoriumr, or list of senators. baster; and when dispersed irregularly, as if A'LEA, gaming, or playing at a game of in clouds, it is distinguished as agate alabas- chance of any kind. Hence aleo, aleator, a ter. The term seems to have been employed gamester, a gambler. Playing with tali, or to denote vessels appropriated to these uses, tesserae, was generally understood, because even when they were not made of the material this was by far the most common game of from which it is supposed they originally re- chance among the Romans. ceived their name. Theocritus -thus speaks Gaming was forbidden by the Roman laws, of golden alabastra. These vessels were of both during the times of the republic and a tapering shape, and very often had a long under the emperors, but was tolerated in the narrow neck, which was sealed; so that when month of December at the Saturnalia, which Mary, the sister of Lazarus, is said by St. was a period of' general relaxation; and old Mark to break the alabaster box of ointment men were allowed to amuse themselves in this for the purpose of anointing our Saviour, it manner at all times. appears probable that she only broke the ex- ALIPTAE (iXeZe7rr atl), among the Greeks, tremity of the neck, which was thus closed. were persons who anointed the bodies of the ALA, ALA'RII. The troops of the allies athletae preparatory to their entering the pain the Roman army were called Alarii, because laestra. The chief object of this anointing they were usually stationed on the two wings was to close the pores of the body, in order (alae), and each of these two divisions of the to prevent much perspiration, and the weakallied troops was called an Ala. The alarii ness consequent thereon. The athleta was consisted both of horse and foot soldiers, and again anointed after the contest, in order to were commanded by praefecti, in the same restore the tone of the strained muscles. He manner as the legions were commanded by then bathed, and had the dust, sweat, and oil tribuni. The cavalry of the allies was called scraped off his body, by means of an instruequites alarii, to distinguish them from the ment similar to the strigil of the Romans, and cavalry of the legions (equites legionarii), and called stlengis (crirney/yig), and afterwards xysthe infantry was called cohortes alariae, to dis- tra (~a9rpa). The aliptae took advantage of tinguish them from the cohortes legiozlariae. the knowledge they necessarily acquired of Under the empire the word Ala was applied the state of the muscles of the athletae, and to a regiment of cavalry, which usually con- their general strength or weakness of body, sisted of 500 men. to advise them as to their exercises and ALAUDA, the name of a legion which mode of life. They were thus a kind of InediCaesar levied in Cisalpine Gaul, and organ- cal trainers. ized at his own expense during his Gallic Among the Romans, the aliptae were slaves wars. He afterwards gave the Roman citizen- who scrubbed and anointed their masters in ship to the soldiers of this legion. The soldiers the baths. They, too, like the Greek aliptae 16 AMIBITUS. AM BITUS. appear to have attended to their masters' con- I assiduitas expressed both the continual presstitution and mode of life. They were also ence of the candidate at Rome and his concalled unctores. They usedin their operations tinual solicitations. The candidate, in going a kind of scraper called strigil, towels (lintea), his rounds or taking his walk, was accom a cruise of oil (guttus), which was usually of panied by a nomenclator, who gave him the horn, a bottle (ampulla), and a small vessel names of such persons as he might meet; the called lenticula. candidate was thus enabled to address them ALLIES of the Romans. [S-ocII.] by their name, an indirect compliment, which ALTARS. [ARA.] could not fail to be generally gratifying to the ALTA'RE. [ARA.] electors. The candidate accompanied his adALU'TA. [CALcEUS.] dress with a shake of the hand (prensatio). ALYTAE ('A26rae), persons whose busi- The term ben.ignitas comprehended generally ness it was to keep order in the public games. any kind of treating, as shows, feasts, &c. They received their orders from an alytarches The ambitus, which was the object of sev((at'vTdpXr f), who was himself under the di- eral penal enactments, taken as a generic rection of the agonothetae, or hellanodicae. term, comprehended the two species,-amnbiAMANUENSIS, or AD MANUM SER- tus and largitiones (bribery)..Liberalitas and VUS, a slave, or freedman, whose office it benignitas are opposed by Cicero, as things was to write letters and other things under allowable, to ambitus and largitio, as things his master's direction. illegal. Money was paid for votes; and in The amanuenses must not be confounded order to insure secrecy and secure the elector, with another sort of slaves, also called ad ma- persons called interpretes were employed to num servi, who were always kept ready to be make the bargain, sequestres to hold the moemployed in any business. ney till it was to be paid, and divisores to disAMARY'NTHIA, or AMARY'SIA ('Aaa- tribute it. The offence of anibitus was a matp:)vOta or'Ayapz ata), a festival of Artemis ter which belonged to the judicia publica, and (Diana) Amarynthia, or Amarysia, celebrated the enactments against it were numerous. as it seems, originally at Amarynthus in Eu- One of the earliest, though not the earliest of boea, with extraordinary splendour, but also all, the Lex Cornelia Baebia (B. c. 181) was solemnized in several places in Attica, such as specially directed against largitiones. The Athmone. Lex Cornelia Fulvia (B. c. 159) punished the AMBARVA'LIA. [ARAVALES FRATRES.] offence with exile. The Lex Acilia CalpurAMBASSADORS. [LEGATUS.] nia (B. C. 67) imposed a fine on the offending A'MBITUS, which literally signifies " a party, with exclusion from the senate and all going about," cannot, perhaps, be more nearly public offices. The Lex Tullia (B. c. 63), expressed than by our word canvassirng. After passed in the consulship of Cicero, in addition the plebs had formed a distinct class at Rome, to the penalty of the Acilian law, inflicted ten and when the whole body of the citizens had years' exsiiium on the offender; and, among become very greatly increased, we frequently other things, forbade a person to exhibit gladiread, in the Roman writers, of the great efforts atorial shows (gladiatores dare) within any which it was necessary for candidates to make two years in which he was a candidate, unin order to secure the votes of the citizens, less he was required to do so, on a fixed day, At Rome, as in every community into which by a testator's will. Two years afterwards, the element of popular election enters, solici- the Lex Aufidia was passed, by which, among tation of votes, and open or secret influence other things, it was provided that, if a candiand bribery, were among the means by which date promised (pronuntiavit) money to a tribe, a candidate secured his election to the offices and did not pay it, he should be unpunished; of state. The following are the principal terms but, if he did pay the money, he should furoccurring in the Roman writers in relation to ther pay to each tribe (annually?) 3000 sesterthe canvassing for the public offices:-A can- ces as long as he lived. This enactment ocdidate was called petitor; and his opponent casioned the witticisms of Cicero, who said with reference to hin conmpetitor. A candidate that Clodinus observed this law by anticipa(candidatus) was so called from his appearing tion; for he promised, but did not pay. The in public places, such as the fora and Campus Lex Licinia (B. c. 58) was specially directed Martius, before his fellow citizenis, in a against the offence of sodalitium, or the wholewhitened toga. On such occasions the can- sale bribery of a tribe by gifts and treating; didate was attended by his friends (deductores), and another lex, passed (B. c. 52), when Porn or followed by the poorer citizens (sectatores), pey was sole consul, had for its object the es who could in no other manner show their tablishment of a speedier course of proceed good will or give their assistance. The word ing on trials for ambitns. All these enact AMENTUM. AMPHICTYONES. 17 ments failed in completely accomplishing twist, in connection with this subject. The their object. That which no law could sup- amentum was called ancle e(ayKr2Ly) in Greek, press, so long as the old popular forms re- and the verb ~vayKvdCZ o was usedin reference tained any of their pristine vigour, was ac- to the fastening of the thong to the spear or complished by the imperial usurpation. Cae- javelin. sar, when dictator, nominated half the candi- In the annexed figure the amentum seems dates for public offices, except the candidates to be attached to the spear at the centre of for the consulship, and notified his pleasure gravity, a little above the middle. to the tribes by a civil circular; the populus chose the other half: and Tiberius transferred the elections from the cornitia to the senate, by which the offence of ambitus, in its proper sense, entirely disappeared. The trials for ambitus were numerous in the time of the republic. The oration of Cicero in defence of L. M.urena, who was charged with ambitus, and that in defence of Cn. Plancius, who was charged with sodalitium, are both extant. AMBRO'SIA (yzB3poaia), the food of the gods, which conferred upon them eternal - youth and immortality, and was brought to Jupiter by pigeons. It was also used by i the gods for anointing their body and hair; whence we read of the ambrosial locks of Jupiter. AMBUBAIAE (probably from the Syriac, abub, aubub, a pipe), Eastern dancing girls,, who frequented chiefly the circus at Rome, and obtained their living by prostitution and lascivious songs and dances. AMBU'RBIUM, a sacrifice which was performed at Rome for the purification of the < ) city. AMICTUS. The verb amicire is commonly opposed to induere, the former being applied to the putting on of the outer garment, the pallium, laena, or toga (iLLUTieov,- ipog); the latter, to the putting on of the inner garment, L the tunic (Xti-'v). In consequence of this distinction, the verbal nouns ameictus and indutus, even without any farther denomination Amentum. of the dress being added, indicate respectively the outer and inner clothing. AMMA (icaua), a Greek measure of length, In Greek amicire is expressed by l/utivvv- equal to forty rgXetgc (cubits), or sixty r'6dec lroat, &/XrkiyeeOat, ~iS2t,'36Zea6at, rept/3dx- (feet); that is, twenty yards 8.1 inches EngXecvOat: and induere by evd(ivetv. Hence lish. It was used in measuring land. came uy7rrEXOvf, -E1irylura, and k7rt362atov, AMPHI'CTYONES ('A/OqKT'SoveF). InMrcpiS3lqea, and 7rep3p'6;atov, an outer gar- stitutions called amphictyonic appear to have ment, a cloak, a shawl; and e'vdvyza, an inner existed in Greece from time immemorial. garment, a tunic, a shirt. They seem to have been originally associaAMENTUM, a leathern thong tied to the tions of neighbouring tribes, formed for the middle of the spear, to assist in throwing it. regulation of mutual intercourse and the proWe are not informed how the amentum added tection of a common temple or sanctuary, at to the effect of throwing the lance; perhaps which the representatives of the different it was by giving it rotation; and hence a members met, both to transact business and greater degree of steadiness and directness in to celebrate religious rites and gamnes. One its flight, as in the case of a ball shot from a of these associations was of much greater imrifle gun. This supposition accounts for the portance than all the rest, and was called by frequent use of the verb torquere, to whirl or way of eminence, the Amphictyonic League o0 B 2 18 AMPHICTYONES. Council ('Auatlcrvovia). It differed from oth- romnemones we have little information: the er similar associations in having two places name of the latter implies that they had a of meeting, the sanctuaries of two divinities; more immediate connexion with the temple. which were the temple of Demeter (Ceres), in We arc equally in the dark respecting the avillage of Anthela, near Thermopylae,where numbers who sat in the council and its mode the deputies met in autumn; and that of of proceeding. It would seem that all the Apollo, at Delphi, where they assembled in deputies had seats in the council, and took spring. Its connexion with the latter place part in its deliberations; but if it be true, as not only contributed toits dignity, but also to appears from Aeschines, that each of the its permanence. tribes had only two votes, it is clear that all Its early history is involved in obscurity. the deputies could not have voted. Most of the ancients suppose it to have been In addition to the ordinary council, there founded by Amphictyon, the son of Deucaiion was an ecclesia (hcK~paia), or general assemand Pyrrha, from whom they imagined that bly, including not only the classes above menit derived its name: but this opinion is desti- tioned, but also those who had joined in the tute of all foundation, and arose from the sacrifices, and were consulting the god. It ancients assigning the establishment of their was convened on extraordinary occasions by institutions to some mythical hero. There the chairman of the council. can be little doubt as to the true etymology of Of the duties of the Amrphictyons nothing the word. It was originally written (trU(CpLi- will give us a clearer view than the oath they ovE~, and consequently signified those that took, which was as follows:-" They would dwelt around some particular locality. Its destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut institution, however, is clearly of remote an- off their streams in war or peace; and if any tiquity. It was originally composed of twelve should (do so, they would march against him, tribes (not cities or states, it must be observed), and destroy his cities; and should any pillage each of which tribes contained various inde- the property of the god, or be privy to or plan pendent cities or states. We learn from Aes- anything against what was in his temple (at chines that, in B. C. 343, eleven of these tribes Delphi), they would take vengeance on him were as follows: The Thessalians, Boeotians with hand and foot, and voice, and all their (not Thebans only), Dorians, Ionians, Per- might." From this oath we see that the main rhaebians, Magnetes, Locrians, Oetaeans or duty of the deputies was the preservation of Oenianians, Phthiots or Achaeans of Phthia, the rights and dignity of the temple of Delphi. Malians, and Phocians; other lists leave us We know, too, that after it was burnt down in doubt whether the remaining tribe were (B. c. 548), they contracted with the Alcmaethe Dolopes or Delphians; but as the Del- onidae for the rebuilding. History, moreophians could hardly be called a distinct tribe, ver, teaches that if the council produced any their nobles appearing to have been Dorians, palpable effects, it was from their interest in it seems probable that the Dolopes were ori- Delphi; and though it kept up a standing reginally members, and afterwards supplanted cord of what ought to have been the internaby the Delphians. All the states belonging tional law of Greece, it sometimes acquiesced to each of these tribes were on a footing of in, and at other times was a party to, the perfect equality. Thus Sparta enjoyedno ad- most iniquitous acts. Of this the case of vantages over Dorium and Cytinium, two Crissa is an instance. This town lay on the small towns in Doris: and Athens, an Ionic Gulf of Corinth, near Delphi, and was much city, was on a par with Eretria in Euboea, frequented by pilgrims from the West. The and Priene in Asia Minor, two other Ionic Crissaeans were charged by the Delphians cities. with undue exactions from these strangers. The ordinary council was called Pylaea The council was against them, as guilty of a (7rvZaia), from its meeting in the neighbour- wrong against the god. The war lasted ten hood of Pylae (Thermopylae), but the same years, till, at the suggestion of Solon, the name was given to the session at Delphi as waters of the Pleistus were turned off, then well as to that at Thermopylae. The coun- poisoned, and turned again into the city. The cil was composed of two classes of represen- besieged drank their fill, and Crissa was soon tatives, one called Pylagorae (IIvXay6paL), razed to the ground; and thus, if it were an and the other Hieromnlemones ('IEpouzlpjtovee). Amphictyonic city, was a solemn oath doubly Athens sent three Pylagorae and one Hie- violated. Its territory-the rich Cirrhaean romnemon; of whom the former were elected plain-was consecrated to the god, and curapparently for each session, and the latter by ses imprecated upon whomsoever should lot probably for a longer period. Respecting till or dwell in it. Thus ended the First the relative duties of the Pylagorae and Hie- Sacred War (B. C. 585), in which the Athe AMPI1ICTYONES. AMPHITHEATRUM. 19 nians were the instruments of Delphian ven- AMPIIIDRO'MIA ('Aulqtdp6,uta or Apotugeance. t.dutzov )uaep), a family festival of the AtheThe second, or Phocian War (B. c. 350), nians, at which the newly-born child was inwas the most important, in which the Am- troduced into the family, and received its phictyons were concerned; and in this the name. The friends and relations of the paThebans availed themselves of the sanction rents were invited to the -festival of the amof the council to take vengeance on their en- phidromia, which was held in the evening, emies, the Phocians. To do this, however, and they generally appeared with presents. it was necessary to call in Philip of Macedon, The house was decorated on the outside with who readily proclaimed himself the champion olive branches when the child was a boy, or of' Apollo, as it opened a pathway to his own with garlands of wool when the child was a ambition. The Phocians were subdued (B. c. girl; and a repast was prepared for the guests. 346), and the council decreed that all their Thle child was carried round the fire by the cities, except Abae, should be razed, and the nurse, and thus, as it were, presented to the inhabitants dispersed in villages not contain- gods of the house and to the family, and at ing more than fifty persons. Their two votes the same time received its name, to which were given to Philip, who thereby gained a the guests were witnesses. The carrying of pretext for interfering with the affairs of the child round the hearth was the principal Greece; and also obtained the recognition part of the solemnity, from which its name of his subjects as Hellenes. was derived. The Third Sacred War arose from the Am- AMPHITHEA'TRUM, an amphitheatre, phissians tilling the devoted Cirrhaean plain. was a place for the exhibition of public shows The Amphictyons called in the assistance of of combatants and wild beasts, entirely surPhilip, who soon reduced the Amphissians to rounded by seats for the spectators; wheresubjection. Their submission was immedi- as, in those for dramatic performances, the ately followed by the battle of' Chaeroneia seats were arranged in a semicircle facing the (B. C. 338), and the extinction of the indepen- stage. An amphitheatre is therefore fredence of Greece. In the following year, a quently described as a double theatre, concongress of the Amphictyonic states was held, sisting of two such semicircles, or halves, in which war was declared as if by united joined together, the spaces allotted to their Greece against Persia, and Philip elected orchestras becoming the inner inclosure, orn commander-in-chief. On this occasion the area, termed the arena. The form, however, Amphictyons assumed the character of na- of the ancient arnphitheatres was not a circle, tional representatives as of old, when they set but invariably an ellipse. a price upon the head of Ephialtes, for his trea- Gladiatorial shows and combats of wild son to Greece at Thermopylae. beasts (venationes) were first exhibited in the It has been sufficiently shown that the Am- forum and the circus; and it appears that the phictyons themselves (lid not observe the ancient custom was still preserved till the oaths they took; and that they did not much time of Julius Caesar. The first building in alleviate the horrors of war, or enforce what the form of an amphitheatre is said to have they had sworn to do, is proved by many in- been erected by M. Scribonmus Curio, one of stances. Thus, for instance, Mycenae was Caesar's partisans; but the account which is destroyed by Argos (B. c. 535), Thespiae and given of this building sounds rather fabulous. Plataea by Thebes, and Thebes herself swept It is said to have consisted of two wooden from the face of the earth by Alexander, with- theatres made to revolve on pivots, in such a out the Amrphictyons raising one word in op- manner that they could, by means of windposition. Indeed, a few years before the Pel- lasses and machinery, be turned round face uponnesian war, the council was a passive to face, so as to form one building. Soon spectator of what Thucydides calls the Sa- after Caesar himself erected a real amphithecred War (ob tepoiT 7r6eOog'), when the Lace- atre in the Campus Martius, made of wood; daemonians made an expedition to Delphi, to which building the name of amphitheatrum and put the temple into the hands of the Del- was for the first time given. phians, the Athenians, after their departure, The first stone amphitheatre was built by restoring it to the Phocians. The council is Statilius Taurus, in the Campus Martius, at rarely mentioned after the time of Philip. the desire of Augustus. This was the only We are told that Augustus wished his new stone amphitheatre at Rome till the time of city, Nicopolis (A. D. 31), to be enrolled among Vespasian. One was commenced by Caligthe members. Pausanias, in the second cen- ula, but was not continued by Claudius. The tury of our era, mentions it as still existing, one erected by Nero in the Campus Martius but deprived of all power and influence. was only a temporary building, made of wood. 20 AMPHITHEATRUM. The amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus was ranges of movable seats, or chairs. This, burnt in the fire of Rome in the time of Nero; as being by far the best situation for distinctly and hence, as a new one was needed, Vespa- viewing the sports in the arena, and also more sian commenced the celebratedAmphitheatrum commodiously accessible than the seats high. Flaviauum in the middle of the city, in the er up, was the place set apart for senators aild valley between the Caelian, the Esquiline, other persons of distinction, such as the amand the Velia, on the spot originally occupied bassadors of foreign parts; and it was here, by the lake or large pond attached to Nero's also, that the emperor himself used to sit, in palace. Vespasian did not live to finish it. an elevated place, called suggestus or cubicuIt was dedicated by Titus in A. D. 80, but was lum, and likewise the person who exhibited not completely finished till the reign of Do- the games on a place elevated like a pulpit or mitian. This immense edifice, which is even tribunal (editoris tribunal). yet comparatively entire, covered about five Above the podium were the gradus, or seats acres of ground, and was capable of contain- of the other spectators, which were divided ing about 87,000 spectators. It is called at into macniana, or stories. The first maenianum, the present day the Colosseum. consisting of fourteen rows of stone or marble The interior of an amphitheatre was divi- seats, was appropriated to the equestrian orded into three parts, the arena, podium, and der. The seats appropriated to the senators gradus. The clear open space in the centre of and equites were covered with cushions, the amphitheatre was called the arena, be- which were first used in the time of Caligula. cause it was covered with sand, or sawdust, Then, after an interval or space, terned a to prevent the gladiators front slipping, and praecinctio, and forming a continued landingto absorb the blood. The size of the arena place from the several staircases in it, suIcwas not always the same in proportion to the ceeded the second maenianum, where were size of the amphitheatre, but its average pro- the seats called popularia, for the third class portion was one third of the shorter diameter of spectators, or the populus. Behind this of the building. was the second praecinctio, bounded by a The arena was surrounded by a wall dis- rather high Wall; above which was the third tinguished by the name of podiumo; although maenianum, where there were only wooden such appellation, perhaps, rather belongs to benches for the pullati, or common people. merely the upper part of it, forming the par- The next and last division, namely, that in apet, or balcony, before the first or lowermost the highest part of the building, consisted of seats, nearest to the arena. The arena, a colonnade, or gallery, where females were therefore, was no more than an open oval allowed to witness the spectacles of the amcourt, surrounded by a wall about eighteen phitheatre, some parts of which were also ocfeet high, measuring from the ground to the cupied by the pullati. Each maenianurn was top of the parapet; a height considered ne- not only divided from the other by the praecessary, in order to render the spectators cinctio, but was intersected at intervals by perfectly secure from the attacks of wild spaces for passages left between the seats, beasts. There were four principal entrances called scalae, or scalaria; and the portion beleading into the arena; two at the ends of tween two such passages was called cuneus, each axis or diameter of it, to which as many because the space gradually widened like a passages led directly from the exterior of wedge, from the podium to the top of the the building; besides secondary ones, inter- building. The entrances to the seats from vening between them, and communicating the outer portices were called vomnitoria. At with the corridors beneath the seats on the the very summit was the narrow platform for podium. the men who had to attend to the velariuim, or The wall or enclosure of the arena is sup- awning, by which the building was covered posed to have been faced with marble, more as a defence against the sun and rain. The or less sumptuous; besides which, there ap- velarium appears usually to have been made pears to have been, in some instances at least, of wood, but more costly materials were somea sort of network affixed to the top of the po- times employed. dium, consisting of railing, or rather open The first of the following cuts represents a trellis-work of metal. As a farther defence, longitudinal section of the Flaviarl amphithelitches, called euripi, sometimes surrounded atre, and the second, which is on a larger the arena. scale, a part of the above section, including The term podium was also applied to the the exterior wall, and the seats included beterrace, or gallery itself, immediately above tween that and the arena. It will serve to the arena, which was no wider than to be ca- convey an idea of the leading form and genpable of containing two, or at the most three eral disposition of the interior. AMPHITHEATRUM. 21 I: l I _- ii u 3 I Longitudinal Section of the Flavian Amphitheatre. ~z~L the circumference of the building, open to the arcades of the exterior. g g, Inner gallery. The situation and arrangement of the stair cases, &c., are not expressed, as they could not be rendered intelligible without plans at various levels of the building. For an account of the gladiatorial contests, and the shows of wild beasts, exhibited in the G V amphitheatre, see GLADIATORES and VENATIO. / 7'cs in vm A'MPHORA ((bopevCn), a vessel used for holding wine, oil, honey, &c. The following cut represents amphorae in - V pr the British Museum. They are of various forms and sizes; in general they are tall and narrow, with a small neck, and a handle on ".V. V vP Elevation of one side of the preceding section. EXPLANATION.., The arena. p, The wall or podium inclosing it. P, The podium itself, on which were chairs, or seats, for the senators, &c. M', The first maenihnum, or slope of benches, for the equestrian order. it", The second maenianum. M"', The third maenianum, elevated considerably above the preceding one, and appropriated to the pullati. w, The colonnade, or gallery, which contained seats for women. z, The narrow gallery round the summit of the interior, for the attendants who worked the velarium. pr, pr, The praecinctiones, or landings, at the top of the first and second maenianum; in the pavement of which were grated apertures, at intervals, to admit light into the Amphorae. vomnitoria beneath them. each side of the neck (whence the name, from v v v v, Vomitoria. |lyji, on both sides, and 0Epo, to carry), and o G G, The three external galleries through terminating at the bottom in a point, which 22 AMPLIATIO. ANACRISIS. was let into a stand or stuck in the ground, AMPYX (J/zrv:, 6zlnrvKrip, Lat.frontale), so that the vessel stood upright: several am- a frontal, a broad band or plate of metal,which phorae have been found in this position in the ladies of rank wore above the forehead as part cellars at Pompeii. Amphorae were com- of the head-dress. The frontalof ahorsewas nionly made of earthenware. Homer mentions called by the same name. The annexed cut amphorae of gold and stone, and the Egypt- exhibits the frontal on the head of Pegasus, ians had them of brass; glass vessels of this in contrast with the corresponding ornament form have been found at Pompeii. as shown on the heads of two females. The most common use of the amphora, both among the Greeks and the Romans, was for " keeping wine. The cork was covered with pitch or gypsum, and (among the Romuans) on the outside the title of the wine was painted, -; the date of the vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in office; or, when the jars were of glass, little tickets (pittoria, tesserae) were suspended from them, indicating these particulars. ~,) Ampyces, Frontlets. AMPULLA (X2K9v0o, 3oOOvctoS),a bottle, usually made among the Romans, either of f. \ \ \l' Az i1-glass or earthenware, rarely of' more valuable X1/y i S ~ 7 \ l l'- materials. The dealer in bottles was called ampullarius. AMULE'TUM (repiacrrov, wepia/uqa, lva,cri7ptov), an amulet. This word in Arabic (hamalet) means that which is suspended. It was probably brought ///.r_ i@;'/ gl____ B Y l by Arabian merchants, together with the articles to which it was applied, when they were imported into Europe from the East. Mode of filling Amphorae from a Wine-Cart. An amuletwas any object-a stone, a plant The Greek amphoreus and the Roman am- an artificial production, or a piece of writing phorawerealsonamesoffixedmeasures. The -which was suspended from the neck, or amphoreus, which was also called metretes tied to any part of the body, for the purpose (ze7rpnr7-), and cadus (Kcdido), was equal to of warding off calamities and securing advanthree Roman urnae =8 gallons, 7.365 pints, tages of any kind. Faith in the virtues of imperial measure. The Roman amphora was amulets was almost universal in the ancient two-thirds of the amphoreus, and was equal world, so that the whole art of medicine conto 2 urnae = 8 congii = to 5 gallons, 7.577 sisted in a very considerable degree of directpints; its solid content was exactly a Roman ions for their application. cubic foot. ANACEIA ('Avdrceta, or'AvdKetov), a fes. AMPLIA'TIO, an adjournment of a trial, tival of the Dioscuri or Anactes ('AvaKErf) as which took place when the judices, after they were called at Athens. These heroes hearing the evidence of the advocates, were however, received the most distinguishedhonunable to come to a satisfactory conclusion. ours in the Dorian and Achaean states, where This they expressed by giving in the tablets, it may be supposed that every town celebrated on which were the letters N.L. (non liquet), a festival in their honour, though not under and the praetor, by pronouncing the word amn- the name of Anaceia. plius, thereupon adjourned the trial to any day ANA'CRISIS (dvadKptvtf), an examination, he chose. The defendant and the cause were was used to signify the pleadings preparatory then said ampliari. to a trial at Athens, the object of which was ANCILE. ANCORA. 23 to determine, generally, if the action would the Roman state would endure so long as this lie. The magistrates were said'vaKcpivetv shield remained in Rome. To secure its presrilv 6ditrv or ro ivT Vttdicovg, and the parties ervation in the city, Numa ordered eleven avatcpivecOat. The process consisted in the other shields, exactly like it, to be made by production of proofs, of which there were five the armourer, Mamurius Veturius, and twelve kinds:-1. the laws; 2. written documents; priests of Mars Gradivus were appointed under 3. testimonies of witnesses present (yaprvpiaL). the denomination of Salii, whose office it was or affidavits of absent witnesses (i/cuaprvpiat); to preserve the twelve ancilia. They were 4. depositions of slaves extorted by the rack; kept in the temple of that divinity, on the 5. the oath of the parties. All these proofs Palatine mount, and were taken from it only were committed to writing, and placed in a once a year, on the calends of March. The box secured by a seal ('iXvog) till they were feast of the god was then observed during produced at the trial. several days; when the Salii carried their If the evidence produced at the anacrisis shields about the city', singing songs in praise was so clear and convincing that there could of Mars, Numa, and Mamurius Veturius, and not remain any doubt, the magistrate could at the same time performing a dance, which decide the question without sending the cause probably in some degree resembled our morris to be tried before the dicasts: this was called dances, and in which they struck the shields diamartyria (dta/aprvpia). The archons were with rods, so as to keep time with their voices, the proper officers for holding the anacrisis; and with the movements of their dance. The they are represented by Athena (Minerva), in preceding cut shows one of these rods, as the E'umenides of Aeschylus, where there is represented on the tomb of a pontifex salius, or a poetical sketch of the process in the law chief of the Salii. courts. A'NCORA (yyKcvpa), an anchor. For an account of the anacrisis or examina- The anchor used by the ancients was for the tion,which each archon underwent previously mostpart made of iron, and its form resembled to entering on office, see ARCHON. that of the modern anchor. The shape of the ANAGNOSTES, slaves, whose duty it two extremities illustrates the unco morsu and was to read or repeat passages from books dente tenaci of Virgil. Indeed, the Greek and during an entertainment, and also at other times. ANATOCISMUS. [FENUS.] ANCHOR. [ANCORA.] ANCI'LE, the sacred shield carried by the Salii, and made of bronze. The original ancile was found, according to tradition, in the palace of Numa; and, as no Ancora. Latin names themselves express the essential property of the anchor being allied to acy/Kc.vof, a7ysa(v, angulus, uncus, &c. The anchor as here represented and as com< @ 1fi> & (@MLI~monly used, was called bidens, dt7rw, jvLtieo2oC or ~/upkaoro/oo, because it had two teeth or flukes. Sometimes it had one only, and then it had the epithet 7repPoarodog. The following expressions were used for the three principal processes in managing the anchor:Ancorarz solvere, eiykvpav XaR2iv, to loose the anchor. Ancoranz jacere, /3(X2Xretv, fi7reLtv, to cast anchor. Ancoram tollere, apetcv, acvatpetAncilia carried bl Salii. o0at, hvducraaOat, to weigh anchor. Hence human hand had brought it there, it was con- atpectv by itself meant to set sail, hiycvpav beeluded that it had been sent from heaven. At ing understood. the saine time, the haruspices declared that The anchor usually lay on the deck, and was 24 ANNULUS. ANQUISITIO. attached to a cable (fusiis), which passed graved. Rings in Greece were mostly worn through a hole in the prow, termed oculus. on the fourth finger (rapdceaof). At Rome, the custom of wearing rings was believed to have been introduced by the Sabines, whowere described in the early legends as wear4 K ing golden rings with precious stones of great beauty. But whenever introduced at Rome, it is certain that they were at first always of iron; that they were destined for the same seals; and that every free Roman had a right to use such a rind:. This iron ring was worn i down to the last p. riod of the republic by such men as loved the, simplicity of the good old times. In the rse of time, however, it - fi/iX - /- tL\\'E3#,- became customa: for all the senators, chief -a'- -TW! R - _W:1 ~ magistrates, and; last for the equites also, Add-~:~ "z, -<' to wear a golden s;al-ring. The right of wearing a gold ring,wi, ch was subsequently called Galley with the Cable to which the Anchor is attached passing the jus annuli auret, or the jus annulorum, rethrough the Oculus in the Prow. mained for several centuries at Rome the In the heroic times of Greece we find large exclusive privilege of senators, magistrates, stones, called ervai (sleepers), used instead and equites, while all other persons continued of anchors. to wear iron ones. ANDABATA. [GLADIATOR.] During the empire the right of granting the ANDROLEPS'IA or ANDROLEPS'ION annulus aureus belonged to the emperors, and (vl'dpo;2e7ia or'ivdpo4ubteov), the right of re- some of them were not very scrupulous in prisals, a custom recognized by the interna- conferring this privilege. The emperors Setiorlal law of the Greeks, that, when a citizen verus and Aurelian conferred the right of of one state had killed a citizen of another, wearing golden rings upon all Roman soland the countrymen of the former would not diers; and Justinian at length allowed all the surrender him to the relatives of the deceased, citizens of the empire, whether ingenui or it should be lawful to seize upon three, and libertini, to wear such rings. not more, of the countrymen of the offender, During the republic, and the early times of and keep them as hostages till satisfaction the empire, the jus annuli seems to have made was afforded, or the homicide given up. a person ingenuus (if he was a libertus), and ANGUSTCLA'VII. [CLAVUs.] to have raised him to the rank of eques, proANNO'NA (from annas, like pomona from vided he had the requisite: equestrian census, pomum). 1. The produce of the year in corn, and it was probably never granted to any one fruit, wine, &c., and hence, 2. Provisions in who did not possess this census. Those who general, especially the corn,which, in the later lost their property, or were found guilty of a years of the republic, was collected in the criminal offence, lost the jus annuli. storehouses of the state, and sold to the poor The signs engraved upon rings were very at a cheap rate in times of scarcity; and which, variou s: they were portraits of ancestors or of under the emperors, was distributed to the friends, subjects connected with mythology; people gratuitously, or given as pay and re- and in many cases a person had engraved wards. 3. The price of provisions. 4. A upon his seal symbolical allusion to the real soldier's allowance of provisions for a certain or mythical history of his family. The part time. It is used also in the plural for yearly of the ring which contained the gem was or monthly distributions of pay in corn, &c. called pala. A'NNULUS (dalcTrbof), a: ring. With the increasing love of luxury and It is probable that the custom of wearing show, the Romans, as well as the Greeks, rings was introduced into Greece from Asia, covered their fingers with rings. Some perwhere it appears to have been almost univer- sons also wore rings of immoderate size, and sal. They were worn not merely as orna- others used different rings for summer and ments, but as articles for use, as the ring al- winter. ways served as a seal. A seal was called ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM.] sphragis (obpayig), and hence this name was ANQUJISI'TIO, signified, in criminal trials given to the ring itself, and also to the gem at Rome, the investigation of the facts of the or stone for a ring in which figures were en- case with reference to the penalty that was ANTAE. ANTEFIXA. 25 to be imposed: accordingly the phrases ANTEAMBULO'NES, slaves who were pecuia capitis, or capitis anquirere are used. accustomed to go before their masters, in Under the emperors the term anquisitio lost order to make way for them through the crowd. its original meaning, and was employed to The term anteambulones was also given to the indicate an accusation in general; in which clients, who were accustomed to walk before sense it also occurs even in the times of the their patroni, when the latter appeared in republic. public. ANTAE (rapaarzddeS), square pillars, ANTECESSO'RES, called also ANTEwhich were commonly joined to the side- CURSO'RES, horse-soldiers who were acwalls of a building, being placed on each side customed to precede an arMty on march, in of the door, so as to assist in forming the por- order to choose a suitable place for the camp, tico. These terms are seldom found except and to make the necessary provisions for the in the plural; because the purpose served by army. They do not appear to have been antae required that they should be erected merely scouts, like the speculatores. corresponding to each other, and supporting ANTEFIXA, terra-cottas, which exhibited the extremities of the same roof. Their posi- various ornamental designs, and were used in tion and form will be best understood from architecture to cover the frieze (zophorus) of the cut, in which AA are the antae. The the entablature. temple in antis was one of the simplest kind. These terra-cottas do not appear to have It had in front antae attached to the walls been used among the Greeks, but were probwhich inclosed the cella; and in the middle, ably Etruscan in their origin, and were thence between the antae, two columns supporting taken for the decoration of Roman buildings. the architrave. The following is a specimen The name antefixa is evidently derived from of the temple in antis, together with a plan of the circumstance that they were fixed before the pronaos. the buildings which they adorned. Cato, the censor, complained that the Romans of his time began to despise ornaments of this description, and to prefer the marble friezes of Athens and Corinth. The rising taste which Cato deplored may account for the superior beauty of the antefixa preserved in the British Museum, which were discovered at Rome. B B Antefixa representing Minerva superintending the constructiho of the Ship Argo. Temple in antis. The two imperfect antefixa that follow; are A. A, the antae; B, B, the cella or va6; o, the among those found at Velletri, and described altar. by Carloni. (Roma, 1785.) C 26 ANTENNA. ANTLIA. the velata antenna' but.with the sail reefed in the one, and in the other expanded and swollen with the wind.: Velata Antenna. ANTEPILA'NI.`[EXERCITUS.] ANTESIGNA'NI appear to have been a Antefixa. body of troops, selected for the defence of the ANTENNA, (Icepaia, Kipas), the yard of a standard (signum), before which they were ship. The ships of the ancients had a single stationed. They were not light troops, as mast in the middle, and a square sail, to raise some have supposed, and they were probably and support which a transverse pole, or yard selected for this duty on occount of their bra(antenna), was extended across the mast, not very and experience in war. far from the top. To the two extremities of ANTI'DOSIS (&vridoalt), in its literal and the yard (cornuea, arKpoKpaa), ropes (funes) general meaning, " an exchange," was, in the were attached, which passed over the top of language of the Attic courts, peculiarly apthe mast, and thus supported the yard: these plied to proceedings under a law which is said ropes were called ceruchi. Sometimes the to have originated with Solon. By this, a yard had two, and at other times four ceruchi, citizen nominated to perform a leiturgia, such as in the annexed cut. as a trierarchy or choregia, or to rank among the property-tax payers, in a class disproportioned to his means, was empowered to call upon any qualified person not so charged to take the office in his stead, or submit to a complete exchange of property, the charge in question of course attaching to the first party, if the exchange were finally effected. For the proceedings the courts were opened at a stated time every year by the magistrates that had official cognizance of the particular subject such as the strategi in cases oftrierarchy and rating to the property-taxes, and the archon in those of choregia. ANTIGRAPHE (&vrwpayp), originally signified the writing put in by the defendant, his "plea" in all causes whlether public or private, in answer to the indictment or bill of -~i:9... //5///lr/the prosecutor. It is, however, also applied to the bill or indictment of the plaintiff or accuser. A'NTLIA (cvr7Xta), any machine for raisAntenna, Yard of a Ship. ing water, a pump. When a storm arose, or when the port was The most important of these machines obtained, or before an engagement, the an- were:-1. The tympanum; a tread-wheel, tenna was lowered to the middle of the wrought by men treading on it. 2. A wheel mast. having wooden boxes or buckets, so arranged From numerous representations of ships on as to form steps for those who trod the wheel. antique coins, intaglios, lamps, and bas-reliefs, 3. The chain pump. 4. The cochlea, or Arwe here select two gems, both of which show chimedes's screw. 5. The ctesibica machina, APATURIA. APHRACTUS. 27 or forcing pump. Criminals were condemned day was the most important; for on that day,to the antlia or tread-mill. children born in that year, in the families of ANTYX (iv7rvS), the rim or border of any the phratriae, or such as were not yet registhing, especially of a shield or chariot. The tered, were taken by their fathers, or in their rim of the large round shield of the ancient absence by their representatives (KmcptoL), beGreeks, was thinner than the part which it fore the assembled members of the phratria. enclosed: but on the other hand, the antyx For every child a sheep or a goat was sacriof a chariot must have been thicker than ficed. The father, or he who supplied his the body to which it gave both form and place, was obliged to establish by oath that strength. the child was the offspring of free-born paIn front of the chariot the antyx was often rents, and citizens of Athens. After the victim raised above the body, into the form of a cur- was sacrificed, the phratores gave their votes, vature, which served the purpose of a hook which they took from the altar of Jupiter to hang the reins upon. Phratrius. When the majority voted against the reception, the cause might be tried before one of the courts of Athens; and if the claims of the child were found unobjectionable, its name, as well as that of the father, was en1 tered into the register of the phratria, and ~,0 those who had wished to effect the exclusion of the child were liable to be punished. APERTA NAVIS. [APHRACTUS.] APEX, a cap worn by the flamines and salii at Rome. The essential part of the apex, to which alone the name properly belonged, was a pointed piece of olive-wood, the base of which was surrounded with a lock of wool. This was worn on the top of the head, and was held there either by fillets only, or, as was more commonly the case, by the aid of a cap which fitted the head, and was also fastened by means of two strings or Antyx of a Chariot. bands. APAGO'GE (cwraysoy), a summary process, allowed in certain cases by the Athenian law. The term denotes not merely the act of apprehending a culprit caught in ipso facto, but also the written information delivered to the magistrate, urging his apprehension. The cases in which the apagog6 was most generally allowed were those of theft, murder, ill-usage of parents, &c. APATU'RIA (&7ra7odprta) was a political festival, which the Athenians had in common with all the Greeks of the Ionian name, with the exception of those of Colophon and Ephesus. It was celebrated in the month of Pyanepsion, and lasted for three days. The name 6cra-rovpca is not derived from ci7rardv1 to deceive, but is composed of i-=&ua/, and irar7pta, which is perfectly consistent with what Xenophon says of the festival, that when it is celebrated the fathers and relations assemble together. According to this derivation, it is the festival at which the phratriae Aplces, Caps worn by the Salii. met to discuss and settle their own affairs. But, as every citizen was a member of a phra- APHRACTUS (6f0paecro7 vats), called tria, the festival extended over the whole ua- also navis aperta, a ship which had no deck, tion, who assembled according to phratriae. but was merely covered with planks in the The festival lasted three days. The third front and hinder part, as is represented in 28 APLUSTRE. APOSTOLEUS. the following cut. The ships which had decks were called cataph/racti (Kar7i6paIcrot), and tectce or stratce. At the time of the Trojan war the Greek ships had no decks, but were only covered over in the prow and stern, which covering Homer calls the cKpta < Aphractus APHRODI'SIA ('Apordiata),werc festivals Aplustre. celebrated in honour of Aphrodit6 (Venus), in APODECTAE (67ro6Kcrat), public officers a great number of townsin Greece, but partic- at Athens, who were introduced by Cleisularly in the island of Cyprus. Her most thenes in the place of the ancient colacretae ancient temple was at Paphos. No bloody (KlceaKp6-at). They were ten in number, sacrifices were allowed to be offered to her, one for each tribe, and their duty was to colbut only pure fire, flowers, and incense. lect all the ordinary taxes, and distribute APLUSTRE (&)2Laarov), an ornament of them among the separate branches of the adwooden planks, which constituted the high- ministration which were entitled to them. est part of the poop (prumnis) of a ship. From APOGRAPHE (hroypaoi), literally " a the representations of two ancient ships an- list, or register;" signified also, 1. An accusanexed, we see the position of the aplustre. tioninpublic matters,moreparticularlywhen It rose immediately behind the gubernator, therevereseveral defendants. Itdifferedbut who held the rudder and guided the ship, and little, if at all, from the ordinary graph. 2. it served in some degree to protect him from A solemn protest or assertion before a magisthe wind and the rain. trate, to the intent that it might be preserved by him till it was required to be given in evidence. 3. A specification of property, said to belong to the state, but actually in the possession of a private person; which specification was made with a view to the confis-We/wG~ qtR X \cation of such property to the state. APOLLINA'RES LUDI. [LuDIAPOLLIAPOPHORE'TA (&7roo6pnra) were presents, which were given to friends at the end of an entertainment to take home with them. Aplustre. These presents appear to have been usually given on festival days, especially during the At the junction of the aplustre with the Saturnalia. stern, on which it was based, we commonly APOSTOLETIS ( 79oro2ooEVo), the name observe an ornament resembling a circular of a public officer at Athens. There were shield; this was called aTrrtudov or dcartdi- ten magistrates of this name and their duty acy. It is seen on here was to see that the ships were properly equiprepresented. ped and provided by those who were bound APOTHEOSIS. APPELLATIO. 29 to discharge the trierarchy. They had the power, in certain cases, of imprisoning the' = trierarchs who neglected to furnish the ships properly. APOTHE'CA (6Tro08Kn), a place in the upper part of the house, in which the Ro- / mans frequently placed the earthen amphorae in which their wines were deposited. This place, which was quite different from the cella vinaria, was above the fumarium; since it was /\ thought that the passage of the smoke through the room tended greatly to increase the flavour of the wine. APOTHEO'SIS (t&roeaoo'tg), the enrol- l \. ment of a mortal among the gods. The mythology of Greece contains numerous instan- i ces of the deification of mortals; but in the republican times of Greece we find few examples of such deification. The inhabitants of Amphipolis, however, offered sacrifices to Brasidas after his death. In the Greek king- APPA'RITOR, the general name for a pubdomns, which arose in the East on the dis- lic servant of the magistrates at Rome, namely memberment of the empire of Alexander, it the AccENsvs, CARNIFEX, COACTOR, INTERappears to have been not uncommon for the PRES, LICTOR, PRAECO, SCRIBA, STATOR, successor to the throne to offer divine honours VIATOR, of whom an account is given in septo the former sovereign. Such an apotheo- arate articles. They were called apparitores sis of Ptolemy, king:of Egypt, is described because they were at hand to execute the by Theocritus in his 17th Idyl. commands of the magistrates (quod iis appareThe term apotheosis, among the Romans, bant). Their service or attendance was called properly signified the elevation of a deceased apparitio. emperor to divine honours. This practice, APPELLA'TIO,appeal. 1. GREEK (Eeatre which was common upon the death of almost or UtvadtKia). Owing to the constitution of all the emperors, appears to have arisen from the Athenian tribunals, each of which was the opinion which was generally entertained generally appropriated to its peculiar subjects among the Romans, that the souls or manes of cognizance, and therefore could not be conof their ancestors became deities; and as it sidered as homogeneous with or subordinate was common for children to worship the to any other, there was little opportunity for manes of their fathers, so it was natural for bringing appeals properly so called. It is to divine honours to be publicly paid to a de- be observed also, that in general a cause was ceased emperor, who was regarded as the finally and irrevocably decided by the verdict parent of his country. This apotheosis of of the dicasts (diKc a7rnorergf). There were an emperor was usually called consecratio; only a few exceptions in which appeals and and the emperor who received the honour of new trials might be resorted to. an apotheosis was usually said in deorum 2. ROMAN. The word appellatio, and the numerum referri, or consecrari, and whenever corresponding verb appellare, are used in the he is spoken of after his death, the title of early Roman writers to express the applicadivus is prefixed to his name. The funeral tion of an individual to a magistrate, and parpile on which the body of the deceased emu- ticularly to a tribune, in order to protect himperor was burnt, was constructed of several self from some wrong inflicted, or threatened stories in the form of chambers rising one to be inflicted. It is distinguished from proabove another, and in the highest an eagle vocatio, which in the early writers is used to was placed, which was let loose as the fire signify an appeal to the populus in a matter began to burn, and which was supposed to affecting life. It would seem that the provocarry the soul of the emperor from earth to catio was an ancient right of the Roman citiheaven. zens. The surviving Horatius,who murdered The following wood-cut is taken from an his sister, appealed from the duumviri to the agate, which is supposed to represent the apo- populus. The decernviri took away the protheosis of Germanicus. In his left hand he vocatio; but it was restored by the Lex Valeholds the cornucopia, and Victory is placing a ria et Horatia, B. c. 449, in the year after the laurel crown upon his head. decemvirate, and it was at the SLn.,p tim, c2 30 AQUAE DUCTUS. ARA. enacted, that in future no magistrate should During the times of the republic, the ccnbe made from whom there should be no ap- sors and aediles had the superintendence of peal. On this Livy remarks, that the plebs the aquaeducts-; but under the emperors par were now protected by the provocatio and the ticular officers were appointed for that purtribunicium auxilium; this latter term has ref- pose, under the title of curatores or praefecti erence to the appellatio properly so called. aquarum. These officers were first created The complete phrase to express the provoca- by Augustus, and were invested with contio is provocare ad populum; and the phrase siderable authority. In the time of Nerva and which expresses the appellatio is appellare Trajan, about seven hundred architects and ad, &c. others were constantly employed, under the AQUAE DUCTUS, signifies an artificial orders of the curatores aquarum, in attending channel or watercourse, by which a supply of to the aquaeducts. The officers who had water is brought from a considerable distance, charge of these works were, 1. The villici, upon an inclined plane raised on arches, and whose duty it was to attend to the aquaeducts carried across valleys and uneven country, and in their course to the city. 2. The castellarii, occasionally under ground,where hills or rocks who had the superintendence of all the casintervene. tella both within and without the city. 3. As nearly all the ancient aquaeducts now The circuitores, so called because they had to remaining are of Roman construction, it has go from post to post, to examine into the state been generally imagined that works of this of the works, and also to keep watch over description were entirely unknown to the the labourers employed upon them. 4. The Greeks. This, however, is an error, since silicarii, or paviours. 5. The tectores, or plassome are mentioned by Pausanias and others, terers. All these officers appear to have been though too briefly to enable us to judge of their included under the general term of aquarii. particular construction. Probably those which AQUAE ET IGNIS lNTERDI'CTIO. have been recorded-such as that built by [E:XSILIUM.] Peisistratus at Athens, that at Megara, and AQUA'RII, slaves who carried water for the celebrated one of Polycrates at Samos- bathing, &c. into the female apartments. The were rather conduits than ranges of building aquarii were also public officers who attended like the Roman ones. Of the latter, few were to the aquaeducts. [AQUAE DcTsUS.] constructed in the times of the republic. It AQUEDUCT. [AQUAE DUCTUS.] was not until about B. C. 311, that any were A'QUILA. [SIGNA MILITARIA.] erected, the inhabitants supplying themselves ARA (,3wu6Sf Ovriptov), an altar. Ara was up to that time with water from the Tiber, or a general term denoting anystructure elevated making use of cisterns or springs. The first above the ground, and used to receive upon aquaeduct was begun by App. Claudius the it offerings made to the gods. Altare, probcensor, and was named after him, the Aqua ably contracted from alta ara, was properly reAppia. Subsequently seven or eight aquae- stricted to the larger, higher, and more expenducts were built, which brought an abundant sive structures. supply of water to Rome. Four specimens of ancient altars are given The specus, or water channel, was formed below; the two in the former wood-cut are either of stone or brick coated with cement, and was arched over at top, in order to exclude the sun, on which account there were f7Af apertures or ventholes at certain distances. The water, however, besides flowing through the specus, passed also through pipes, either of lead or burnt earth (terra-cotta). At the mouth and termination of every aquaeduct there was a large reservoir, called castellum, and there were usually also intermediate castella at certain distances along its course. The castellum at the mouth or opening into the aquaeduct was also called piscina limosa, be- cause the water was collected in it, in order Are, Altars. that it might first deposit its impurities. The square, and those in the latter round, which principal castellum was that in which the is the less common form. aquaeduct terminated, and whence the water At the top of three of these altars we see was conveyed by different branches and pipes the hole intended to receive the fire (raXato various narts of the city. pi-, Etxdpa): the fourth was probably in ARATRUM. 31 tended for the offering of fruits or other gifts, (dentale), which was made double for the purwhich were presented to the gods without pose of receiving them. 2. The handle (stiva). Virgil describes this part as used to turn the plough at the end of r71' \ t'music, accompanied by a kind of recitative t \4 l t1 1 performed by a single actor, or if there were two, the second was not allowed to speak \,, v \ with the first. In the canticum, as violent /t~. t \ 7 \ f gesticulation was required, it appears to have been the custom, from the time of Livius Andronicus, for the actor to confine himself to Canephori. the gesticulation, while another person sang the recitative. sometimes the frankincense were deposited. CAPILLUS. [COMA.] The name, however, was more particularly CA'PITE CENSI. [CAPUT.] applied to two virgins of the first Athenian CA'PITIS DEMINU'TIO. [CAPUT.] families who were appointed to officiate as CAPITO'LIUM. 1. A small temple, supcanephori at the Panathenaea. The pre- posed to have been built by Numa, and dediceding cut represents the two canephori ap- cated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, situated proaching a candelabrum. Each of them on the Esquiline. It was a small and humble elevates one arm to support the basket while structure suited to the simplicity of the age she Mightly raises her tunic with the other. in which it was erected, and was not termed CANVASSING in elections. [AMBITUS.] Capitolium until after the foundation of the CA'NTHARUS (KdvOapog) a kind of drink- one mentioned below, from which it was then ing cup, furnished with handles. It was the distinguished as the capitolium vetus. cup sacred to Bacchus, who is frequently 2. The temple of Jupiter Optimus Maxirepresented on ancient vases holding it in his mus on the Mons Tarpeius, so called from band, a human head being discovered in digging CA'PSA. CAPUT. 65 the foundations; whence the hill also was were of a cylindrical form. There does not called Mons Capitolinus. Tarquinius Pris- appear to have been any difference between cus first vowed, during the Sabine war, to build this temple, and commenced the foundations. It was afterwards continued by Servius Tullius, and finally completed by __ Tarquinius Superbus out of the spoils collected at the capture of Suessa Pometia; but was not dedicated until the year B. C. 507, by M. Horatius. It was burnt down during the civil wars, at the time of Sulla, (B. C. 83,) and rebuilt by him, but dedicated by Lutatius i Catulus, B. C. 69. It was again burnt to the ground by the faction of Vitellius, (A. D. 69,) and rebuilt by Vespasian, upon whose death it was again destroyed by fire, and sumptuously rebuilt, for the third time, by Domitian. The capitolium contained three temples within the same peristyle, or three cells parallel to each other, the partition walls of the capsa and scrinium, except that the latter which were common, and all under the same word was usually applied to those boxes roof. In the centre was the seat of Jupiter which held a considerable number of rolls. Optimus Maximus, called cella Jovis. That The slaves who had the charge of these of Minerva was on the right, and that of book-chests were called capsarii, and also cusJuno upon the left. The representation of todes scriniorum; and the slaves who carried the capitolium in the cut is taken from a in a capsa behind their young masters the medal. books, &c., of the sons of respectable Romans, when they went to school, were called by the same name. CAPSA'RII, the name of three different classes of slaves. [BALNEUM; CAPSA.] CAPUT, the head. The term "head" is often used by the Roman writers as equivalent to "person," or " human being." By an easy transition it was used to signify " life:" thus, capite damnari, plecti, &c., are equivalent to capital punishment. Caput is also used to express a man's status, or civil condition; and the persons who were registered in the tables of the censor are Capitoline 1Temple. spoken of as capita, sometimes with the addi3. Capitolium is sometimes put for the tion of the word civium, a"dd sometimes not. whole Capitoline mount, including both sum- Thus to be registered in the census was the mits of the mountain. Sometimes it is used same thing as caput habere: and a slave and a to designate one only of the summits, and filius familias, in this sense of the word, were that one apparently distinct from the arx, said to have no caput. The sixth class of which obscurity is further increased, because, Servius Tullius comprised the proletarii and on the other hand, arx is sometimes put for the capite censi, of whom the latter, having the whole mount, and at others for one of the little or no property, were barely rated as so summits only. many head of citizens. There were three approaches from the Fo- He who lost or changed his status was rum to the Mons Capitolinus. The first was said to be capite minutus, deminutus, or capitis by a flight of 100 steps, which led directly to minor. the side of the Tarpeian rock. The other Capitis minutio or deminutio was a change two were the clivus Capitolinus and clivus of a person's status or civil condition, and Asyli. one of which entered on the north, and consisted of three kinds. A Roman citizen the other on the south side of the intermon- possessed freedom (libertas), citizenship, (citium. vitas), and family (familias): tne loss of all CAPSA, or SCRI'NIUM, a box for holding three constituted the maxima capitis deminutio. books among the Romans. These boxes This capitis deminutio was sustained by those F 2 66 CARCER. CARDO. who refused to be registered at the census, fer to this alone. In the Tullianum prisoners or neglected the registration, and were thence were generally executed, and this part of the called incensi. The incensus was liable to be prison was also called robur. sold, and so to lose his liberty. Those who CA'RCERES. [CIRcus.] refused to perform military service might CARCHE'SIUM (KcapXralov), a beaker also be sold. or drinking-cup, which was used by the The loss of citizenship and family only, Greeks in very early times. The same term as when a man was interdicted from fire and water, was the media capitis deminutio. [Ex- l KILIUM.] The change of family by adoption, and by the in manum conventio, was the minima cavitis deminutio. A judicium capitale, or poena capitalis, was one which affected a citizen's caput. CAPUT. [FENUs.] CARACALLA, an outer garment used in Gaul, and not unlike the Roman lacerna. It was first introduced at Rome by the emperor Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus, who compelled all the people that came to court to wear it, whence he obtained the surname of Caracalla. This garment, as worn in Gaul, does not appear to have reached lower than the knee, but Caracalla lengthened it so as to reach ~ Carchesium. the ankle. CARCER (kerker, Germ. yopypa, Greek), was used to designate the tops of a ship, that a prison, Gis connected with Gpo and Epy), is, the structure surrounding the mast immethe guttural being interchanged with the as- diately above the yard [ANTENNA], into ~~~~~pirate. ~which the mariners ascended in order to pirate. GREEK. Imprisonment was seldom used manage the sail. This was probably called amongst the Greeks as a legal punishment carchesium on account of its resemblance in for offences; they preferred banishment form to the cup of that name. The ceruchi, the expense of keeping prisoners in conine- or other tackle, may have been fastened to tment. The prisons in different countries its lateral projections, which corresponded to were called by different names: thus there the handles of the cup. was the Ceadas (KEcidaf), at Sparta; and, CARDO, a hinge or pivot. The first figamong the Ionians, the Gorgyra (yopypa,) ure, in the annexed woodcut, is designed to as at Samos. The prison at Athens was in show the general form of a door, as we find former times called Desmoterion (decyuWr7plov), and afterwards, by a sort of euphemism, obrciua. It was chiefly used as a guardhouse, a or place of execution, and was under the charge of the public officers called the Eleven. l 2. ROMAN. A prison was first built at Rome by Ancus Martius, overhanging the forum. This was enlarged by Servius Tullius, who added to it a souterrain, or dungeon, called from him the Tullianum. Sallust describes this as being twelve feet under ground, walled on each side, and arched over with stone work. For a long time this was the only prison at Rome, being, in fact, the " Tower," or state prison of the city, which was sometimes doubly guarded in times of alarm, and was the chief object of attack in many con- Hinge spiracies. There were, however, other prisons besides this, though, as we might expect, it with a pivot at the top and bottom (a, b) in the words of Roman historians generally re- ancient remains of stone, marble, wood, and CARNEIA. CARPENTUM. 67 bronze. The second figure represents a the festival was sometimes designated by the bronze hinge in the Egyptian collection of name Agetoria or Agetoreion ('AtyrY7pta or the British Museum: its pivot (b) is exactly'Ayr7Ipetov), and from each of the Spartan cylindrical. Under these is drawn the thresh- tribes five men (Kapveairat) were chosen as hold of a temple, or other large edifice, with his ministers, whose office lasted four years, the plan of the folding-doors. The pivots move during which period they were not allowed in holes fitted to receive them (b, b), each of to marry. When we read in Herodotus and which is in an angle behind the antepagmen- Thucydides that the Spartans during the tum. celebration of this festival were not allowed The Greeks and Romans also used hinges to take the field against an enemy, we must exactly like those now in common use. Four remember that this restriction was not peRoman hinges of bronze, preserved in the culiar to the Carneia, but common to all the British Museum, are shown in the following great festivals of the Greeks: traces of it are woodcut. found even in Homer. CA'RNIFEX, the public executioner at _ Rome, who executed slaves and foreigners, but not citizens,who were punished in a manner different from slaves. It was also his business to administer the torture. This office ll \ r I was considered so disgraceful, that he was not allowed to reside within the city, but lived without the Porta Metia or Esquilina, near the place destined for the punishment Ail.1/. of slaves, called Sestertium under the emperors. w'gai eCARPENTUM, a cart; also a two-wheeled carriage enclosed, and with an arched or sloping cover overhead. The carpentum was used to convey the Roman matrons in the CARMENTA'LIA, a festival celebrated in public festal processions; and, as this was a honour of Carmenta or Carmentis, who is fa- high distinction, the privilege of riding in a bled to have been the mother of Evander, who carpentum on such occasions was allowed to came from Pallantium in Arcadia, and settled particular females by special grant of the in Latium: he was said to have brought with senate. him a knowledge of the arts, and the Latin alphabetical characters as distinguished from the Etruscan. This festival was celebrated annually on the 11th of January. A temple was erected to the same goddess, at the foot EMi1oRJr. of the Capitoline hill, near the Porta Car- nlx mentalis, afterwards called Scelerata. The name Carmenta is said to have been given to her from her prophetic character, carmens or carmentis being synonymous with vates. The word is, of course, connected with carmen, as prophesies were generally delivered in verse. CARNEIA (Kapvela), a great national festival celebrated by the Spartans in honour of Apollo Carneios. The festival began on the carpentum. seventh day of the month of Carneios==Metageitnion of the Athenians, and lasted for This carriage contained seats for two, and nine days. It was of a warlike character, sometimes for three persons, besides the similar to the Attic Boedromia. During the coachman. It was commonly drawn by a time of its celebration nine tents were pitched pair of mules, but more rarely by oxen or near the city, in each of which nine men horses, and sometimes by four horses like: a lived in the manner of a military camp, obey- quadriga. ing in everything the commands of a herald. Carpenta, or covered carts,were much used The priest conducting the sacrifices at the by the Britons, the Gauls, and other northern Carneia was called Agetes ('Ay7r77 ), whence nations. These, together with the carts of 68 CASTRA. the more common form, including baggage- aries.-Q, the street called Quintana, 50 feet waggons, appear to have been comprehended wide.-V. P via principalis, 100 feet wide. under the term carri, or carra,which is the Cel- The duty of selecting a proper situation for tic name with a Latin termination. The Gauls the camp (castra metari) devolved upon one oi took a great multitude of them on their mili- the tribunes and a number of centurions who tary expeditions, and when they were en- were specially appointed for that purpose, and camped, arranged them in close order, so as to sent in advance whenever the army was about form extensive lines of circumvallation. to encamp; they were called Metatores, from CARRU'CA, a carriage, the name of which their office. The camp was divided into two only occurs under the emperors. It appears parts, the upper and the lower. The upper to have been a species of rheda [RHEDA], had part formed about a third of the whole. In it four wheels, and was used in travelling. was the praetorium (A) or general's tentCARRUTS. [CARPENTUM.] praetor being the old name of the consul. A CARYA'T1DES. Caryae was a city in part of the praetorium was called the Augurale, Arcadia, near the Laconian border, the inhab- as the auguries were there taken by the genitants of which joined the Persians after the eral. On the right and left of the praetoriumr battle of Thermopylae. On the defeat of were theforum and quaestorium; theformera the Persians the allied Greeks destroyed the sort of market-place, the latter appropriated town, slew the men, and led the women into to the quaestor and the camp stores under his captivity; and Praxiteles and other Athenian superintendence. artists employed female figures, representing On the sides of and facing the forum and Caryatidae, or women of Caryae, instead of quaestorium, were stationed select bodies of columns in architecture. This account is horse (K) taken from the extraordinaries,with illustrated by a bas-relief with a Greek in- mounted volunteers, who served out of rescription, mentioning the conquest of the spect to the consul, and were stationed near Caryatae. him. And parallel to these were posted simiT, —-— W-~-~ t~i To Tr P OrrA I o N~ Elar bodies of foot soldiers (L). Before the A,&l Ii TO T P OTrA IO N'ETA quaestorium and the forum were the tents of the twelve tribunes of the two legions (B), and before the select bodies of horse and in~ \IKcE5Tn'. 1T15-TLs Ifantry the tents of the praefecti sociorum were 1KI10EN'TJ probably placed (C). Again, behind the prae-!/ v - ^ v asltorium, the quaestorillm, and the forum, ran a street or via (D), 100 feet broad, from one f! -~ 1 5| 9tXiIfdside of the camp to the other. Along the I upper side of this street was ranged the main I;/yl A i \body of the " extraordinary " horse (M): they were separated into two equal parts by a street fifty feet broad (E). At the back of this body " I'! Z_ a of cavalry was posted a similar body of infantry (N), selected from the allies, and facing the opposite way, i. e. towards the ramparts of Caryatides., the camp. The vacant spaces (O) on each CASSIS. [GALEA.] side of these troops were reserved for foreignCASTELLUM AQUAE. [AQUAE Dvc- ers and occasional auxiliaries. TUS.] The lower part of the camp was divided CASTRA, a camp. The system of encamp- from the upper by a street, called the Via Prinment among the Romans was one of singular cipalis (V P), or Principia, a hundred feet broad. regularity and order, and has been clearly de- Here the tribunal of the general was erected, scribed by Polybius, the friend and companion from which he harangued the soldiers, and of Scipio Africanus, the younger. From his here the tribunes administered justice. Here description the annexed plan has been drawn also the principal standards, the altars of the up. gods, and the images of the emperors were A, praetorium,-B, tents of the tribunes.- placed. The lower part of the camp was C, tents of the praefecti sociorum.-D, street occupied by the two legions and the troops of 100 feet wide.-E, F, G, and H, streets 50 feet the allies according to the arrangement of the wide.-L, select foot and volunteers.-K, se- following cut. lect horse and volunteers.-M, extraordinary Between the ramparts and the tents was horse of the allies.-N, extraordinary foot of left a vacant space of 200 feet on every side, the allies.-O, reseTved for occasional auxili- which was useful for many purposes: thus it CASTRA. 69 served for the reception of lany booty that was pleted the two sides of the camp alongside of taken, and facilitated the ritrance and exit of which they were stationed, and the two Rothe army. man legions the rest. The camp had four gates, one at the top and In describing the Roman camp and its inbottom, and one at each of the sides; the top ternal arrangements, we have confined ouror back-gate, which was the side most away selves to the information given by Polybius, from the enemy,was called the decumazna. The which, of course, applies only to his age, and bottom or the front gate was the praetoria, the to armies constituted like those he witnessed. gates of the sides were the porta principalis When the practice of drawing up the army dcxtra, and the porta principalis sinistra. The according to cohorts, ascribed to Marius or whole camp was surrounded by a trench Caesar [ExERCITus],had superseded the an(fossa), generally nine feet deep and twelve cient division into maniples, and the distincbroad, and a rampart (vallum) made of the tion of triarii, &c. the internal arrangements earth that was thrown up (agger), with stakes of the camp must have been changed accord(valli) fixed at the top of it. The labour of ingly. this work was so divided, that the allies com- A certain number of troops was appointed Trench and Porta Decumana. Ramparts. 200 Left Wing of the Allies. 2d Ronan Legion. Ist Roman Legion. Right wing of the Allies. ~Foot H~~orse l r~i. ~ Horse! otHorse Foot Foot Horse tati.lpe p to' 50 _ _ 50 Foot Horse Has- Prin H t Pro aHo,- Horse Foot tati cipes cipes tati 20X Hc G F'G -- H 200 tot5, Quaeoestoriom A ForouL J D M I N __ J 200 Porta i'raetoria. 70 CATHEDRA. CAUPONA. to keep guard before the gates of the camp, of various forms and sizes; but they usually on the ramparts, and in different parts of the appear to have had backs to them. On the camp; and these guards were changed every cathedra in the annexed cut, is seated a bride, three hours. The guards placed before the who is being fanned by a female slave with a gates of the camp were called stationes. The fan made of peacock's feathers. word excubiac denotes guards either by day or night; vigiliae by night only. The night was divided into four watches, each of three hours' length. Certain persons were appointed every night to visit all the watches, and were hence called circuitores. There was always a watchword given for the night, inscribed on a fourcornered piece of wood, and hence called tes. sera, which was circulated through the army. C ATA'LOGUS (KaTd2Xoyof), the catalogue of those persons in Athens who were liable to regular military service. At Athens, those persons alone who possessed a certain amount of property were allowed to serve in the regular infantry,whilst the lower class, the thetes, had not this privilege. [CENSUS.] Thus the former are called ol E/K KaTea?6yov arpareOV- 1/ ref, and the latter oL ei6 roto Karaa26yov. CATAPHRACTA. [LORICA.] CATAPHRACTl(KardcpaKio L). 1.Heavyarmed cavalry, the horses of which were also covered with defensive armour. Among many of the Eastern nations, who placed their chief dependence upon their cavalry, we find horses protected in this manner; but among the Romnans we do not read of any troops of this description till the later times of the empire, Cathedra. when the discipline of the legions was destroyed, and the chief dependence began to be Women were also accustomed to be carried placed on the cavalry. abroad in these cathedrae instead of in lectiThis species of troops was common among cae, which practice was sometimes adopted the Persians from the earliest times, from by effeminate persons of the other sex. The whom it was adopted by their Macedonian word cathedra was also applied to the chair or conquerors. They were called by the Per- pulpit from which lectures were read. sians clibanarii. CAVAE'DIUM. [DoMus.] 2. Decked vessels, in opposition to Aph- CAVALRY. [EXERCITUS; EQUITES.] racti. [APHRACTUS.] CA'VEA. [THEATRUM.] CATAPULTA. [TORMENTUM.] CAUPO'NA. 1. An inn, where travellers CATARACTA (Karealbmcl'r ), a portcullis, obtained food and lodging; in which sense it so called because it fell with great force and answered to the Greek words r-avdoKerov, a loud noise. It was an additional defence, Karaydytov, and KaTriXVCl. Inns for the suspended by iron rings and ropes, before the accommodation of persons of all classes existgates of a city, in such a manner that, when ed among the Greeks and Romans, although the enemy had come up to the gates, the they were not equal either in size or convenportcullis might be let down so as to shut ience to similar places in modern times. them in, and to enable the besieged to assail An inn was also called taberna and taberna them from above. diversoria, or simply diversorium or deversorium. CATEIA, a missile used in war by the Ger- 2. A shop, where wine and ready-dressed mans, Gauls, and some of the Italian nations, meat were sold, thus corresponding to the supposed to resemble the ACLIS. Greek Kacqr?7Xelov. The person who kept a CATERVA'RII. [GLADIATORES.] caupona was called caupo. In Greek Kdw7Prqof CATHEDRA, a seat or chair, was more signifies in general a retail trader, who sold particularly applied to a soft seat used by goods in small quantities; but the word is women, whereas sella signified a seat common more particularly applied to a person who to both sexes. The cathedrae were, no doubt, sold ready-dressed provisions, and especially CAUTIO. CENSOR. 71 wine in small quantities. In these rairZaeia ety of significations, according to the matter only persons of the very lowest class were to which they refer. Their general signifiaccustomed to eat and drink. cation is that of security given by one person In Rome itself there were, no doubt, inns to another, or security which one person obto accommodate strangers; but these were tains by the advice or assistance of another. probably only frequented by the lower classes, The cautio was most frequently a writing, since all persons in respectable society could which expressed the object of the parties to easily find accommodation in the houses of it; accordingly the word cautio came to sig. their friends. There were, however in all nify both the instrument (chirographum or inparts of the city, numerous houses where strumentum) and the object which it was the wine and ready-dressed provisions were sold. purpose of the instrument to secure. Cicero The houses where persons were allowed to uses the expression cautio chirographi mei. eat and drink were usually called popinae and The phrase cavere aliquid alicui expressed the not cauponae; and the keepers of them, po- fact of one person giving security to another pae. They were principally frequented by as to some particular thing or act. slaves and the lower classes, and were con- The word cautio was also applied to the sequently only furnished with stools to sit release which a debtor obtained from his upon instead of couches. The Thermopolia, creditor on satisfying his demand; in this where the calida or warm wine and water sense cautio is equivalent to a modern receipt; was sold, appear to have been the same as it is the debtor's security against the same the popinae. Many of these popinae were little demand being made a second time. Thus better than the lupanaria or brothels; whence cavere ab aliquo signifies to obtain this kind of Horace calls them immundaspopinas. The ga- security. neae, which are sometimes mentioned in con- Cavere is also applied to express the pronection with thepopinae werebrothels, whence fessional advice and assistance of a lawyer they are often classed with the lustra. Under to his client for his conduct in any legal matthe emperors many attempts were made to ter. regulate the popinae, but apparently with lit- Cavere and its derivatives are also used to tle success. express the provisions of a law, by which All persons who kept inns or houses of any thing is forbidden or ordered, as in the public entertainment of any kind were held phrase, Cautum est lege, &c. It is also used in low estimation among both the Greeks to express the words in a will, by which a and Romans. They appear to have fully de- testator declares his wish that certain things served the bad reputation which they pos- should be done after his death. sessed, for they were accustomed to cheat CE'ADAS or CAE'ADAS (KedEdaf or catetheir customers by false weights and meas- idar), a deep cavern or chasm, like the Barures, and by all the means in their power. athron at Athens, into which the Spartans CAU'SIA (Kavaia), a hat with a broad were accustomed to thrust persons condemned brim, which was made of felt, and worn by to death. the Macedonian kings. Its form is seen in CEILINGS OF HOUSES. [DoMus.] the annexed figures, which are taken from a CE'LERES, were three hundred Roman fictile vase, and from a medal of Alexander I. knights whom Romulus established as a bodyof Macedon. The Romans adopted it from guard. Their number, 300, has reference to the Macedonians. the number of the patrician gentes. They were under the command of the Tribunus Celerumn. See TrnIsuNs. CENOTA'PHIUM, a cenotaph (Ksev6 and:tj'.\i; i ~:'fr&oo), was an empty or honorary tomb,.. /, 0 _ o f \ A/ f mAS \erected as a memorial of a person whose body was buried elsewhere, or not found for 7-'-A:7- A Q A, CENSER. [ACERRA.]'IS I\\7.7am/7 CENSOR (ritc-ni). The office of censor was instituted at Rome in B. C. 443, its functions having previous to that year been per/I 1 —— 8 1, 9 formed by the kings, consuls, or military tribunes with consular power. The ostensible Causia, Hat. reason for instituting the office in B. c. 443 CAU'TIO, CAVE'RE. These words are was, that the consuls were too much occuof frequent occurence, and have a great vari- pied by war and other matters to conduct the 72 CENSOR. census; but this was not the real reason. riod of his office, the vacancy was not filled The office of the military tribunes with con- up, as the death of a censor was regarded as sular power, who supplied the place of the an evil omen; but the survivor was obliged consuls, had been instituted the year before, to resign the censorship, and two new cenand was open to the plebeians as well as the sors were elected. patricians; and since the latter were anxious The censors were elected by the comitia to curtail, as much as possible, the power of the centuries and not of the curiae, and which had been given to the plebeians, they the same comitia centuriata at a second entrusted the discharge of the censorial func- meeting ratified the election. The curiae tions to two new magistrates, two censors, had nothing to d3 with the election, because who were to be exclusively patricians. For the censors hadl no imperium, which no a considerable period this dignity was held assembly but tl:-vt of the curiae could have by patricians only, and the first plebeian cen- given them; th-V censors had only the j/s sor was C. Marcius Rutilus, in r. c. 351. It censendi, of whil!2 all their other rights were now became a rule that one of the censors merely the neces-ary results. Itis not known should always be a plebeian. In later times, whether the censors had any outward diswhen the distinction between patricians and tinctions in their dress, for the purple robes plebeians ceased to be of importance, it even mentioned by Po1ybius were probably worn happened occasionally that both censors were by them only in tlhe earliest times, and afterplebeians, the first instance of which occurred wards we hear simply of the toga praetexla. in B. c. 131, when Q. Caecilius Metellus and Nor is there any ground for supposing that Q. Pompeius Rufus were censors. Censors the censors had lictors as their attendants, continued to be elected down to the end of like the consuls; but their numerous and the republic, until Augustus, under the title extensive functions, which had to be performof Praefectus Morum, undertook himself the ed in the short period of 18 months, required functions of the censors, although occasion- a great number of other attendants, such as ally he transferred some of them to other per- scribes and viatores. sons. Tiberius and Caligula likewise took The principal and original function of the the title of Praefectus Morum; but Claudius censors, from which they received their title, assumed that of censor, and made Vitellius was that of holding the census, at which every his colleague, A.. D. 48. Vespasian, Titus, one had to give in his name, and to declare on and Nerva followed his example, and Domi- oath the amount of his property. [CENSUS.] tian even assumed the title of Censor Per- A second part of their functions consisted in petuus. Trajan and the later emperors only a kind of moral jurisdiction, for they had the took it for the time that they were actually right of censuring and punishing every thing engaged in holding the census. The empe- that was contrary to good conduct or estabror Decius made an attempt to restore the lished customs, while really illegal acts or censorship, and at his command the senate crimes were punished by the ordinary courts elected Valerianus censor; but the example of justice. This moral jurisdiction appears to was not followed, and we afterwards hear no have formed part of the censorial functions more of censors. from the very first, inasmuch as it was their The office of censor lasted at first for a duty to observe, in holding the census, all lustrum, that is, five years; but in B. c. 335 cases in which a man managed his affairs the dictator L. Aemilius Mamercinus carried badly, and thus reduced his property; and a law (lex Aemilia), which limited the period they had consequently to remove him from a of office to eighteen months, so that during higher, and place him in a lower class of citithe remaining three years and a half of each zens. In the course of time this superintendlustrum no censors existed at all, for censors ence of the conduct of Roman citizens excontinued to be elected only every five years. tended so far, that it embraced the whole of The censorship was considered the highest the public and private life of the citizens. dignity in the republic, partly on account of Thus we have instances of their censuring or its connection with religion, and partly on punishing persons for not marrying, for breakaccount of the great importance of its func- ing a promise of marriage, for divorce, for bad tions; hence it was usually the last in the conduct during marriage, for improper educaseries of offices through which Roman states- tion of children, for living in an extravagant men passed, most men having been con- and luxurious manner, and for many other suls before they aspired to the censorship. irregularities in private life. Their influence For the same reason it was not customary was still more powerful in matters connected for any one to hold the office more than once. with the public life of the citizens. Thus we If one of the two censors died during the pe- find them censuring or punishing magistrates CENSOR. CENSUS. 73 who were forgetful of the dignity of their which were under the supreme control of the office or guilty of bribery, as well as persons senate, so that the censors were in fact the who were guilty of improper conduct towards ministers of finance to the senate. Every magistrates, of perjury, and of neglect of their thing which belonged to the state, and from duties both in civil and military life. which it derived revenues, was let out to farm The punishment inflicted by a censor dif- by the censors; among them we may mention fered from that imposed by a court of law, in- the ager publicus, ager vectigalis, mines, tolls, asmuch as a censor could not deprive a person salt-works, &c. They further had the supereither of his life or of his property, but could intendence of all public buildings; and when only affect his status in society: the proper new ones were to be erected, they gave them name for such a punishment is in general nota in contract (locabant) to the lowest bidder, and or nota censoria, and in particular ignominia or afterwards they had to see that the contractor ilnfamia. Such a punishment, moreover, did had fulfilled his obligations, and done his not necessarily last a man's whole life; but if work in the proper way. In like manner they his conduct improved, another censor might gave in contract every thing else that had to restore him to the position from which his be paid out of the state treasury, even down predecessor had removed him. The greatest to the maintenance of the capitoline geese and and severest punishment was the expulsion of the painting of the statues of the gods. The. unworthy members from the senate; and ac- senate always informed them of the sums they cording as the conduct of a senator might be might lay out, and the actual payment was more or less culpable, the censors had even not made by the censors, but by the quaestors the right of degrading him to the condition of or paymasters. an eques or of an aerarius. They had to in- W'hen the business of the censors was over, form the culprit of the cause of his degrada- they celebrated the lustrum or general purifition, and to mark it in the censorial lists; cation [LUSTRUM], and brought the censorial hence the nota censoria. An eques might be lists, and all other documents connected with punished by the censors by being obliged to their ftnctions, into the aerarium,whence they give up his public horse, and this punishment were carried into the temple of the Nymphs, might be accompanied by his being compelled where they were deposited and kept for ever. to serve in the army on foot, or by his being CENSUS, a register or valuation of perexcluded from his tribe (tribu movere). The sons and property. act of removing the person from his tribe was 1. The census at Athens seems to date from originally the same as degrading him to the the constitution of Solon. This legislator rank of an aerarian; but afterwards, when made four classes (rttueara, 7rTR). 1. Penthere existed a difference of rank among the tacosiomedimnni (wrevraicoatopuedtjuvot), or those tribes, a person might either be transferred who received 500 measures, dry or liquid, from from a tribus rustica (which ranked higher) to their lands. 2. Knights (hr7rwe!), who had an a tribus urbana, or he might be excluded from income of 300 measures, and formed the Atheall the tribes, and thus lose all the rights and nian cavalry. 3. Zeugitae ((evyZrat),whose inprivileges connected with them, that is, the come was 150 measures, and whowere so called right of holding a magistracy and of voting in from their being able to keep a team (LeOyof) the assembly. When a person thought that of oxen. 4. Thetes (j7reS), whose property the punishment inflicted by the censors was was under 150 measures. The word thetes undeserved, he might try to justify himself be- properly means a hired labourer, and this class fore the censor (causam agere apud censores); corresponds to that of the capite censi at Rome. and if he did not succeed, he might endeavour In order to settle in what class a man should to gain over one of the censors, for no punish- be entered on the register (drwoypaeo), he rement could be inflicted unless both censors turned a valuation of his property, subject, agreed. Such cases often gave rise to vehe- perhaps, to the check of a counter-valuation ment disputes between the censors. A further (Vir7orielalV). The valuation was made very appeal was not legal, although it was tried in frequently; in some states every year; in some instances, especially by inducing the tri- others, every two or four years. The censors bunes of the people to interfere. who kept the register at Athens, were probaAnother branch of the censorial functions bly at first the naucrari, but afterwards the had reference to the finances. As the censors demarchs performed the office of censor. In were best acquainted with the property of the B. C. 378 a new valuation of property took citizens, and consequently with the amount place, and classes (avCumopiat)were introduceie of taxes they had to pay to the state, and as expressly for the property-tax (EicOopa). The they had to fix the tributum, they were the nature of these classes is involved in consider fittest magistrates to manage the finances, able obscurity. Thus much, however may G 74 CENSUS. be stated, that they consisted of 1200 individ- cipallyland (quiritarian property, dominium),was uals, 120 from each of the ten tribes, who, by alone registered. Whether a man's capital or way of a sort of liturgy, advanced the money debts were taken into account is uncertain. for others liable to the tax, and got it from The portions which persons occupied of the them by the ordinary legal processes. In a ager publicus were not assessed, as they were similar manner classes were subsequently not quiritarian property; but in the times of the formed for the discharge of another and more empire, when the whole system of taxation serious liturgy, the trierarchy; and the stra- was based on different principles, public lands tegi, who nominated the trierarchs, had also seem to have been assessed. Every person to form the symmoriae for the property-taxes. stated the amount of his real property, but the VWhen the constitution essentially depended censors might nevertheless rate him higher, on the distribution of the citizens accordingto if they thought proper; and those who ab. property, it was called by the Greeks a timo- sented themselves for the purpose of avoiding cracy, or aristocracy of property (rt/uocparia, the census, and without appointing anybody WMb2 rtpttu7rov'7oLtre7ia). to act as proxy, were severely punished. The 2. The census at Rome was instituted by soldiers who were absent from Rome had to Servius Tullius, the fifth king of Rome: in make their returns to special commissioners his constitution the political rights and duties appointed by the censors. When the lists of of the citizens were regulated according to the persons and of their property were completed, amount of property they possessed, and ac- the censors proceeded to divide the whole body cordingly the census was a necessary conse- of citizens into senators, equites, &c., as well quence of that constitution. It was further as into classes and centuries, and assigned to necessary to repeat the census from time to every citizen his proper place, his rights as time, as the property of the citizens, of course, well as his duties in the republic, for which fluctuated at different times and under dif- purpose Servius Tullius had divided all Roferent circumstances: hence it was the rule man citizens into six classes and 193 centuries. at Rome that the census should be held every If a person's property had become altered live years. since the last census, or if his conduct re-'l'he census was held by Servius Tullius, quired it, the censors assigned him a different and for some time afterwards, in the Campus position in the social scale from that which he Martius, but subsequently in a public building, held before. Some were thus degraded,while the villa publica, which was erected in the others were raised. The results of these proCampus Martius. Before the business corn- ceedings were theri made known, and we have menced, the auspices were consulted, as on numerous instances in Livy, in which not only all other public occasions, and all the citizens the sum total of Roman citizens are recorded, were summoned by a herald (pracco) to ap- but likewise of all persons, including women pear before the censors at the appointed time: and children (capita). When the whole busion the day of meeting the citizens were called ness of the census was over, one of the cenupon, in the order of their tribes, to make sors was ordered to celebrate the lustrumn their returns. It seems, however, to have [LusTRuM], and before he did so, he delivered been customary to call up first those whose an address to the people, either to the whole names hacua favourable meaning, such as Va- body or to particular individuals, by way of lerius, Salvius, &c. Every one gave his full admonition, advice, and the like. name (nomen, praeiomen, and cogrnomen), the In the Roman municipia, as well as in the tribe to which he belonged, the names of his colonies, the census was held independently father, wife, and children, and a statement of of the one at Rome, but the lists containing his own age. Freedmen had to give the same the returns were sent to Rome, where they account, except that instead 6f their father, were deposited in the archives. When all they had to state the name of their patron. the inhabitants of Italy received the franchise, Widows and children under age, being under the local census appears to have continued, a guardian(tutor),were represented byhim,and although many persons went to the capital entered by the censors in separate lists. The to have their property registered there. In aerarii, caerites, and municipes, residing at Rome, the provinces the census was conducted by were likewise entered in separate lists. When censors who were either elected in the provthese lists were drawn up, every one had to inces themselves, or were sent thither from make on oath a return (profiteri, censere, or Rome. In the time of the empire, the same censeri) of his property. It must be observed, system of conducting the census in the provhowever, that as it was the names of Roman inces was continued, but it was carried out citizens alone that could be included in the with greater strictness and on a more extencensus, so likewise real Roman property, prin- sive scale, for which purpose the number of CENTURIO. CEREALIA. 75 inferior officers and clerks was considerably increased. CENTU'MVIRI were judices, who re. sembled other judices in this respect, that they decided cases under the authority of a magistratus; but they differed from other judices in being a definite body or collegium. This colleaium seems to have been divided into four parts, each of which sometimes sat by itself The origin of the court is unknown. According to an ancient writer, three were chosen out of each tribe, and consequently the whole number out of the 35 tribes would be 105, who, in round- numbers, were called the hundred men. If the centumviri were chosen from the tribes, this seems a strong presumption in favour of the high antiquity of the court. It was the practice to set up a spear in the place where the centumviri were sitting, and accordingly the word hasta, or hasta circumvi- ralis, is sornetiles used as equivalent to the wordsjudicium centumvirale. The praetor presided in this court. the first maniple of the triarii was called priThe jurisdiction of the centumviri was mus pilus, printipilus, primi pili centurio, princlliefly confined to civil matters, but it ap- ceps centurionumn, and was the first in rank pears that crimina sometimes came under among the centurions. The centurion of their cognizance. the second century of the first maniple of the The younger Pliny, who practised in this triar*was called primipilus posterior. In like court, makes frequent allusions to it in his manner the two centurions of the second letters. maniple of the triarii were called prior centuCENTU'RIA. [CENTURIO; COMITIA.] rio and posterior centurio alterils pili, and so on CENTU'RIO, the commander of a centuria to the tenth, who were called prior centurio or company of infantry, varying in number and posterior centurio decimi pili. In the same with the legion. manner we have primus princeps, primus hasThe century was a military division, cor- tatus, &c The primipilus was entrusted responding to the civil one curia; the centu- with the care of the eagle, and had the right rio of the one answered to the curio of the of attending the councils of the general. other. From analogy we are led to conclude The optiones, lrngi or succenturiones, were that the century originally consisted of thirty the lieutenants of the centurions, and their men. In later times the legion was com- deputies during illness or absence; they were posed of thirty maniples, or sixty centuries. elected by the centurions. As its strength varied from about three to The pay of the centurion was double that six thousand, the numbers of a century would of an ordinary soldier. In the time of Polyvary in proportion from about fifty to a hun- bius the latter was about ten denarii, or dred. 7s. ld. per month, besides food and clothing. The duties of the centurion were chiefly Under Domitian we find it increased above confined to the regulation of his own corps, tenfold. and the care of the watch.'Ihe vitis was CEREA'LIA, a festival celebrated at Rome the badge of office with which the centurion in honour of Ceres, whose wanderings in punished his men. The short tunic was an- search of her lost daughter Proserpine were other mark of distinction. The following represented by women, clothed in white, runcut represents a centurio with the vitis in ning about with lighted torches. During its one of his hands. The centurions were usu- continuance, games were celebrated in the ally elected by the military tribunes, subject Circus Maximus, the spectators of which approbably to the confirmation of the consul. peared in white; but on any occasion of pubin every maniple there were two centuries, lic mourning the games and festivals were distinguished by the title of prior and posteri- not celebrated at all, as the matrons could or, because the former ranked above the lat- not appear at them except in white. The ter. The centurion of the first century of day of the Cerealia is doubtful; some think 76 CHALCIOE CIA. UELti;LIDONAIA. it was the ides or 13th of April, others the CHARIOT. [Cvuavs.] 7th of the same month. CHARI'STIA (from xapi~olat, to grant a CERO'MA (Klipuoa), the oil mixed with favour or pardon), a solemn feast among the wax (Icyp6f) with which wrestlers were Romans, to which none but relations and anointed; also the place where they were members of the same family were invited, in anointed, and, in later times, the place where order that any quarrel or disagreement which they wrestled. had arisen amongst them might be made up. CERU'CHI. [ANTENNA.] The day of celebration was the 19th of FebCESTUS. 1. The thongs or bands of ruary. leather, which were tied round the hands of CHEIROTO'NIA (XUeporovta). In the boxers, in -order to render their blows more Athenenian assemblies two modes of voting powerful (/udvrTer, or iu6vrTef rtKTCOi). were practised, the one by pebbles ('gyPi'eThe cestus was used by boxers in the earli- afat), the other by a show of hands (XElporoest times, and is mentioned in the Iliadl; but verv). The latter was employed in the elecin the heroic times it consisted merely of tion of those magistrates who were chosen thongs of leather, and differed from the ces- in the public assemblies, and who were hence tus used in later times in the public games, called Xetporov77rot, in voting upon laws, and which was a most formidable weapon, being in some kinds of trials on matters which confrequently covered with knots and nails, and cerned the people. We frequently find, howloaded with lead and iron. ever, the word 4bnoiyevOac used where the votes were really given by show of hands. The manner of voting by a show of hands was as follows:-The herald said: "Whoever thinks that Meidias is guilty, let him lift up his hand." Then those who thought so stretched forth their hands. Then the herald said again: "Whoever thinks that Meidias is not guilty, let him lift up his hand;" and those who were of this opinion stretched forth their hands. The number of hands was counted each time by the herald; and the president, upon the herald's report, declared on which side the majority Cestus. voted. It is important to understand clearly the 2. A band or tie of any kind, but more par- compounds of this word. A vote condemnticularly the zone or girdle of Venus, on ing an accused person is KaraxetpoT7ovia: which was represented everything that could one acquitting him, airox 7tporovia; ErtXEtawaken love. p-orovelV is to confirm by a majority of votes: CETRA, or CAETRA, a target, i. e. a errtXetpoTovta vrv vo,3v Has a revision of small round shield, made of the hide of a thel aws, which took place at the beginning quadruped. It formed part of the defensive of every year: E7rlXelporovia rT3v &(pXI(cv was armour of the Osci, and of the people of Spain, a vote taken in the first assembly of each Mauritania, and Britain, and seems to have prytany on the conduct of the magistrates; been much the same as the target of the in these cases, those who voted for the conScotch Highlanders. The Romans do not firmation of the law, or for the continuance appear to have used the cetra; but we find in office of the magistrate, were said ErteyLtmention of cetratae cohortes levied in the prov- ppooveIv, those on the other side i0roXetporoinces. Livy compares it to the pelta of the velv: 6LaXetpoTovia is a vote for one of two Greeks and Macedonians, which was also a alternatives: ivtXetpporoveTv, to vote against small light shield. a proposition. The compounds of b7li'edaOaLt CHALCIOE'CI A (XaZectocicta), an annual have similar meanings. festival, with sacrifices, held at Sparta in ho- CHELIDO'NIA (xedt6Svta) a custom obnour of Minerva, surnamed Chalcioecus (XaX- served in the island of Rhodes, in the month KiotKco), i. e. the goddess of the brazen-house. of Boedromion, the time when the swallows Young men marched on the occasion in full returned. During that season, boys, called armour to the temple of the goddess; and XeriLovaiTrai, went from house to house colthe ephors, although not entering the temple, lecting little gifts, ostensibly for the returnbut remaining within its sacred precincts, ing swallows, and singing a song which is were obliged to take part in the sacrifice. still extant. The chelidonia, which have CHIRODOTA. CHLAMYS. 77 been sometimes called a festival, seem to CHIRO'GRAPHUM(xetp6ypalov), meant have been nothing more than a peculiar mode first, as its derivation implies, a handwriting of begging, which, on the occasion of' the re- or autograph. In this its simple sense, XEip turn of the sywallows, was carried on by boys in Greek and manus in Latin are. often subin the manner stated above. Many analogies stituted for it. From this meaning was easily may still be observed in various countries at derived that of a signature to a will or other the various seasons of the year. instrument, especially a note of hand given CHIRAMA'XIUM (XetpayuMtov, from Xeip by a debtor to his creditor. and 6#ua:a), a sort of easy chair, or go-cart, CHITON (Xtrdv). [TUNICA.] used for invalids and children. It differed CHLAENA (Xa~va). [PALLIUM.] from the sella gestatoria, which answers to CHLAMYS (%XaLuig., dim. Xa/uvJdtov), a our sedan-chair, in which the person was scarf, denoted an article of the amictus, or carried by his slaves or servants, since it outer raiment of the Greeks. It was for went upon wheels, though moved by men in- the most part woollen; and it differed from stead of animals. the himation (IL#rltov), or cloak, the usual CHIRODO'TA (XEtptwS76f', from xeltps, amiztus of the male sex, in being smaller, manica), a tunic with sleeves. The tunic of finer, and oblong instead of square, its length the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans was being generally about twice its breadth. originally without sleeves, or they only came The scarf does not appear to have been a little way down the arm. On the other much worn by children. It was generally hand, the Asiatic and Celtic nations wore assumed on reaching adolescence, and was long sleeves sewed to their tunics. Also the worn by the ephebi from about seventeen to Greeks allowed tunics with sleeves to fe- twenty years of age, and hence was called males, although it was considered by the Ro- uXacug eVl,3lKK. It was also worn by the mans indecorous when they were worn by military, especially of high rank, over their men. Cicero mentions it as a great reproach body armour, and by hunters and travellers, to Catiline and his associates, that they wore more particularly on horseback. long tunics with sleeves. The annexed cut The usual mode of wearing the scarf was represents the figure of a woman, whose to pass one of its shorter sides round the sleeves reach to the elbow, and who wears neck, and to fasten it by means of a brooch (fibula), either over the breast (cut, p. 17,), in which case it hung down the back, or over the right shoulder, so as to cover the left arm (cut, p. 79.). In the following cut it is worn again in another way. 9 2 ~ P P ~ ChlamyaAmong the Romans the scarf came more into use under the emperors. Caligula wore one enriched with gold. Severus, when he the capistrum to assist her in blowing the was in the country or on an expedition, wore tibiae pares. a scarf dyed with the coccus. o2 78 CHORUS. CHOENIX (XoZvt), a Greek measure of hymn, and the dancers, who formed the chocapacity, the size of which is differently giv- rus, only allowed their movements to be en; it was probably of different sizes in the guided by the poem or the tune. The poet, several states. Some writers make it equal therefore, was said to " lead off the dance" to three cotylae ( = 1.4866 pints English); (QdpXetv ftoari-g). This old chorus, or the others to four cotylae ( = 1.9821 pints Eng- chorus proper, was always accompanied by the lish); others again make it eight cotylae cithara, the lyre, or the phorminx, which were (= 3.9641 pints English). different kinds of stringed instruments; when CHORA'GUS (Xopny6f), a person who the accompaniment was the flute, it was not had to bear the expenses of the choragia (Xo- a chorus, but an aglai'a (diyZata) or a comus pnyia), one of the regularly recurring state (I/ doi), a much more riotous affair, which burthens (yiCKilCtOt eur-ovpyiat) at Athens. was always rather of the nature of a procesOriginally [see CHORUS] the chorus consisted sion than of a dance, and in which there was of all the inhabitants in the state. With the often no exarchus, but every one joined into improvement of the arts of music and danc- the song or cry of joy at his pleasure. ing, the distinction of spectators and perform- The chorus received its first full developers arose; it became more a matter of art to ment in the Doric states. The Doric deity sing and dance in the chorus; paid perform- was Apollo; consequently we find the Doric ers were employed; and at last the duties of chorus, which was properly accompanied by this branch of worship devolved upon one the lyre, immediately connected with the person, selected by the state to be their rep- worship of Apollo, the inventor of the lyre. resentative, who defrayed all the expenses The most important event in the history which were incurred on the different occa- of Greek choral poetry was the adaptation of sions. This person was the choragus. It the dithyramb, or old Bacchic song, to the was the duty of the managers of a tribe (6h7rt- system of Doric choruses; for it was to this ~e~ikvra-i qbvr ), to which a choragy had that we owe the Attic drama. The dithycome round, to provide a person to perform ramb was originally of the nature of a conmus the duties of it; and the person appointed by -it was sung by a band of revellers to a flute them had to meet the expenses of the chorus accompaniment; and Arion, the celebrated in all plays, tragic or comic and satirical; player on the cithara, was the first to pracand of the lyric choruses of men and boys, tise a regular chorus in the dithyramb, and the pyrrhichistae, cyclian dancers, flute-play- to adapt it to the cithara. The dithyramb ers, &c. He had first to collect his chorus, was danced round a blazing altar by a chorus and then to procure a teacher (Xopo6t6dacKa- of 50 men or boys; hence it was called a cirXoC), whom he paid for instructing the cho- cular chorus (c.tao Xopd). reutae. The chorus were generally main- Tragedy arose from the recitations of the tained, during the period of their instruction leaders of the dithyrambic chorus, and the at the expense of the choragus. The chora- first beginning of it is supposed to have been gus who exhibited the best musical or thea- when the poet, Thespis, as leader of his trical entertainment received as a prize a dithyrambic chorus, either made long epic tripod, which he had the expense of conse- or narrative speeches, or conversed with his crating, and sometimes he had also to build chorus. Aeschylus introduced a dialogue the monument on which it was placed. There between two of the exarchi, who thus became was a whole street at Athens formed by the actors. The tragic chorus subsequently conline of these tripod-temples, and called " The sisted of twelve or fifteen persons, the comic Street of the Tripods." of twenty-four, and the satyric probably of CHORUS (Xop6S), a band of singers and nine or six. dancers, engaged in the public worship of The tragic chorus still mustered around some divinity. This is, however, orily the the thymele or altar of Bacchus in the theatre, secondary meaning of the Greek word. The thereby showing some last traces of its dithyword chorus, which is connected with y(dpoc, rambic origin; and though the lyre was its Xdpa, properly denoted the market-place, general accompaniment, it did not by any where the chorus met. means repudiate the flute, the old accompaniIn the oldest times the chorus consisted of nent of the dithyramb. the whole population of the city, who imet in The expense of the chorus, as is stated the public place to offer up thanksgivings to under CHORAGUs, was defrayed by the chotheir country's god, by singing hymns and ragus, who was assigned to the poet by the performing correspondiig dances. The hymn, archon. In the case of a dramatic chorus, however, was not sung by the chorus, but the poet, if he intended to represent at the some poet or musician sang or played the Lecaea, applied to the king-archon; if at the CIPPUS. CIRCUS. 79 great Dionysia, to the chief archon, who the burying-ground a cippus, on which the "gave him a chorus," if his play was thought extent of the burying-ground was marked, to deserve it. The comic dance was not at towards the road (in fronte), and backwards first thought worthy of a public chorus, but to the fields (in agrum). the chorus in that species of drama was at CIRCENSES LUDI. [CIRcvs.] first performed by amateurs. CIRCITO'RES,orCICUITO'RES. [CASCHOUS or CHOEUS (Xovg or Xoest), TRA.] equal to the Roman congius, and contained CIRCUS. W5then Tarquinius Priscus had six iUarat, or sextarii ( = 5.9471 pints Eng- taken the town of Apiolae from the Latins, lish). It seems that there was also a small- he commemorated his success by an exhibier umeasure of the same name, containing tion of races and pugilistic contests in the two sextarii (= 1.9823 pints English). Murcian valley, between the Palatine and CHRYSE'NDETA, costly dishes used by Aventine hills; around which a number of the Romnans at their entertainments, appa- temporary platforms were erected by the parently made of silver, with golden ornaments. tres and equites, called spectacula,fori, orfoCINCTUS GABI'NUS. [TOGA.] ruli, from their resemblance to the deck of a CI'NGULUM. [ZONA.] ship; each one raising a stage for himself, C[NERA'RIUS. [CALAMISTRUNM.] upon which he stood to view the games. CI'NERES. [FuNus.] This course, with its surrounding scaffoldCI'NIFLO. [CALAMISTRUM.] ings, was termed circus; either because the CIPPUS, a low column, sometimes round, spectators stood round to see the shows, or but more frequently rectangular. Cippi were because the procession and races went round used for various purposes; the decrees of the in a circuit. Previously, however, to the senate were sometimes inscribed upon them; death of Tarquin, a permanent building was and with distances engraved upon them, they constructed for the purpose, with regular also served as mile-stones. They were how- tiers of seats in the form of a theatre. To this the name of Circus Maximus was subsequently given, as a distinction from the Flaminian and other similar buildings, which it surpassed in extent and splendour; and hence it is often spoken of as the Circus, withD M - 1 wout any distinguishing epithet. QV J R X A E. -- Of the Circus Maximus scarcely a vestige.V RIMtTlVAE' ) now remains; but this loss is fortunately sup-,&VIX-ANN-MXVIl II/i plied by the remains of a small circus on the Ml_ lENS'I'DIEXXIV I Via Appia, the ground-plan of which is in a V IRIVS-HELIV: state of considerable preservation: it is repreN! N0Pv_\1mS sented in the annexed cut, and may be taken INAMK DOC hsulv as a model of all others. Around the double lines (A, A) were arranged the seats (gradus, sedilia, subsellia), as in a theatre, termed collectively the cavea; the.~/ "~~~i), A lowest of which were separated from the //I { -K — s ~C.-~ 2 ground by a podium, and the whole divided longitudinally bypraecinctiones, and diagonally into cunoei, with their vomitoria attached to each. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] Towards the ex\l ~.Ut,~ t \J_ tt tremity of the upper branch of the cavea, the general outline is broken by an outwork (B), which was probably the pulvinar, or station for: the emperor, as it is placed in the best situation for seeing both the commencement and'17 ~~~~~~I end of the course, and in the most prominent I part of the circus. In the opposite branch is observed another interruption to the uniform Cius, Sepulchral Monument. line of seats (C), betokening also, from its construction, a place of distinction; which ever, more frequently employed as sepulchral mighthavebeen assignedtothepersonatwhose monuments. expense the games were given (editor spectacuIt was also usual to place at one corner of forum). In the centre of the area was a lo, 80 CIRCUS. wall (D) running lengthways down the course, of the dorsal bone in the human frame, was which, from its resemblance to the position termed spina. K. ""'......o...... EC!.E O F~~TI~zsz. -'............ ~ Ground Plan of the Circus. At each extremity of the spina were placed two horns of the cavea terminate, were placed upon a base (E, E), three wooden cylinders, the stalls for the horses and chariots (H,H), of a conical shape, like cypress trees, which commonly called carceres, but more anciently were called metae-the goals. Their situation the whole line of building at this end of the is distinctly seen in the following cut. circus was termed oppidum: hence in the cirThe most remarkable objects upon the spina cus, of which the plan is given above, we find were two columns (F) supporting seven coni- two towers (I, I), at each end of the carceres. cal balls, which, from their resemblance to Thenumber of carceres is supposed to have been eggs, were called ova, and these are also seen usually twelve, as in this plan. They were in the following cut. Their use was to ena- vaults closed in front by gates of open woodble the spectators to count the number of work (cancelli),which were opened simultanerounds which had been run; and they were ouslyuponthe signal being given. There were seven in number, because seven was the num- five entrances to the circus, one (L) in the centre ber of the circuits made in each race. As of the carceres, called portapornpae, because it each round was run, one of the ova was either was the one through which the Circensian proput up or taken down. An egg was adopted cession entered; the others at M, M, N, and 0. for this purpose, in honour of Castor and Pol- At the entrance of the course, exactly in the lux. At the other extremity of the spina were direction of the line (J, K), were two small two similar columns (G), sustaining seven pedestals (hermuli) on each side of the podium, dolphins, termed delphinae, or delphinarum co- to which was attached a chalked rope (albha lumnae, which do not appear to have been in- linea), for the purpose of making the start tended to be removed, but only placed there fair, precisely as is practised at Rome for the as corresponding ornaments to the ova; and horse-races during Carnival. Thus,when the the figure of the dolphin was selected in doors of the carceres were thrown open, if any honour of Neptune. of the horses rushed out before the others, At the extremity of the circus in which the they were brought up by this rope until the Spina of the Circus, from an ancient bas-relief. CIRCUS. 81 whole were fairly abreast, when -it was statues of the gods formed the most conspiculoosened from one side, and all poured into ous feature in the show, which were paraded the course at once. This was also called calx, upon wooden platforms, called fercula and and creta. The metsae served only to regulate thensae. The former were borne upon the the turnings of the course, the alba linea an- shoulders, as the statues of saints are carswered to the starting and winning post of ried in modern processions; the latter were modern days. drawn along upon wheels. From this description the Circus Maximus I. CuRsus, the races. The carriage usually differed little, except in size and magnificence employed in the circus was drawn by two or of embellishment. The numbers which the four horses (biga, quadriga). [CuRRUS.] Circus Maximus was capable of containing The usual number of chariots which started are computed at 150,000 by Dionysius, 260,000 for each race was four. The drivers (aurigae, by Pliny, and 385,000 by P. Victor, all of agitatores) were also divided into four comlpawhich are probably correct, but have refer- nies, each distinguished by a different colour, ence to different periods of its history. Its to represent the four seasons of the year, and length, in the time of Julius Caesar,was three called afactio: thus factio prasina, the green, stadia, the width one, and the depth of the represented the spring; factio russata, red, the buildings occupied half a stadium. summer; factio veneta, azure, the autumn; When the Circus Maximus was perma- and factio alba or albata, white, the winter. nently formed by Tarquinius Priscus, each Originally there were but two factions, albata of the thirty curia had a particular place as- and russata, and consequently only two charsigned to it; but as no provision was made for iots started at each race. The driver stood in the plebeians in this circus, it is supposed that his car within the reins, which went round his the Circus Flaminius was designed for the back. This enabled him to throw all his games of the commonalty, who in early times weight against the horses, by leaning backchose their tribunes there, on the Flaminian wards; but it greatly enhanced his danger in field. However, in the latter days of the re- case of an upset. To avoid this peril, a sort public, these invidious distinctions were lost, of knife or bill-hook was carried at the waist, and all classes sat promiscuously in the cir- for the purpose of cutting the reins in a case cus. The seats were then marked off at in- of emergency. tervals by a line or groove drawn across them When all was ready, the doors of the car(linea), so that the space included between ceres were flung open, and the chariots were two lines afforded sitting room for a certain formed abreast of the alba linea by men called number of spectators. Under the empire, how- moratores from their duty; the signal for the ever, the senators and equites were separated start was then given by the person who prefrom the common people. The seat of the sided at the games, sometimes by sound of emperor (pulvinar, or cubiculum) was most trumpet, or more usually by letting fall a naplikely in the same situation in the Circus kin; whence the Circensian games are called Maximus as in the one above described. spectacula mappae. The alba linea was then The Circensian games (Ludi Circenses) were cast off, and the race commenced, the extent first instituted by Romulus, according to the of which was seven times round the spina, legends, when he wished to attract the Sabine keeping it always on the left. A course of population to Rome, for the purpose of furnish- seven circuits was termed unus missu;s, and ing his own people with wives, and were cele- twenty-five was the number of races run in brated in honour of the god Consus, or Nep- each day, the last of which was called missus tunus Equestris, from whom they were styled aerarius, because ill early times the expense of Consuales. But after the construction of the it was defrayed by a collection of money (aes) Circus Maximus, they were called indiscrimi- made amongst the people. The victor denately Circenses, Romani, or Maegni. They em- scended from his car at the conclusion of the braced six kinds of games:-I. CUaRsus; II. race, and ascended the spina, where he reLuDvU TROJAE; III. PUGNA EQUESTRIS; ceived his reward (bravium, from the Greek IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM; V. VENATIO; 3pao3ieov), which consisted in a considerable VI. NAUMAC HIA. The two last were not pe- sum of money. culiar to the circus, but were exhibited also The horse-racing followed the same rules as in the amphitheatre, or in buildings appropri- the chariots. ated for them. The enthusiasm of the Romans for thest The games commenced with a grand pro- races exceeded all bounds. Lists of the horses cession (Pompa Circensis), in which all those (libella), with their names and colours, and the who were about to exhibit in the circus as names of the drivers, were handed about, and well as persons of distinction bore a part. The heavy bets made upon each faction; and some 82 CISTA. CIVITAS. times the contests between two parties broke particularly applied to the small boxes which out into open violence and bloody quarrels, were carried in procession in the festivals of until at last the disputes which originated in Ceres and Bacchus. These boxes, which the circus had nearly lost the Emperor Jus- were always kept closed in the public protinian his crown. cessions, contained sacred things connected II. LuDvs TROJAE, a sort of sham-fight, said with the worship of these deities. In the reto have been invented by Aeneas, performed presentations of Dionysiac processions on anby young men of rank on horseback, and often cient vases, women carrying cistae are freexhibited by the emperors. quently introduced. III. PUGNA EQUESTRIS ET PEDESTRIS, a re- The cista was also the name of the ballotpresentation of a battle, upon which occasions box, into which those who voted in the coa camp was formed in the circus. mitia and in the courts of justice cast their IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM. SeeATHLETAE, tabellae. It is represented in the anand the references to the articles there given. nexed cut, and should not be confoundV. [VENATIO.] VI. [NAUMACHIA.] _ - ed with the situla or sitella, into which CI'SIUM, a light open carriage with two sortes or lots were thrown. [SITULA.] wheels, adapted to carry CISTO'PHORUS (IClaTo76pof), a silver two persons rapidly from coin, which is supposed to belong to Rhodes, place to place. and which was in general circulation in Asia Thecisiawerequickly Minor at the time of the conquest of that drawn by mules. Cicero country by the Romans. It took its name mentions the case of a from the device upon it, which was either the messenger who travel- sacred chest (cista) of Bacchus, or more proled 56 miles in 10 hours bably a flower called Ktacr6g. Its value is excisiurn. in such vehicles, which trernely uncertain: some writers suppose it to were kept for hire at, the stations along the have been worth in our money about 7~d. great roads; a proof that the ancients con- CI'THARA. [LYRA.] sidered six Roman miles per hour as an extra- CITIZEN. [CIVITAS.] ordinary speed. CIVIS. [CIVITAS.] CISTA (Kiarn), a small box or chest, in CI'V1TAS, citizenship. which anything might be placed, but more 1. GREEK (ro2trela). Aristotle defines a citizen (7o02irg7) to be one who is a partner in the legislative and judicial power (yft-oXoKp~tetoS Kat apXi). No definition will equally apply to all the different states of Greece, or to any single state at different times; the above seems to comprehend more or less pro-, perly all those whom the common use of language entitled to the name. A state in the heroic ages was the government of a prince; the citizens were his subjects, and derived all their privileges, civil as well as religious, from their nobles and princes. The shadows of a council and assembly! //1 \1 \ s~were already in existence, bult their business was to obey. Upon the whole the notion of citizenship in the heroic age only existed so far as the condition of aliens or of domestic slaves was its negative. The rise of a dominant class gradually overthrew the monarchies of ancient Greece. Of such a class, the chief characteristics were good birth and the hereditary transmission of privileges, the possession of land, and the performance of military service. To these characters the names gamori (yduyopot), knights (ir — \e-s), eupatridae (eVrarpidat), &c. severally correspond. Strictly speaking, these were the only citizens; yet the lower class were quite distinct from bondmen or slaves, It com C1VITAS. 83 monly happened that the nobility occupied the and education, of aristocracy. In all govern. fortified towns, while the demus (dy/ogf) lived ments the endeavour was to draw the social in the country and followed agricultural pur- union as close as possible, and it seems to suits: whenever the latter were gathered have been with this view that Aristotle laid within the walls, and became seamen or down a principle which answered well enough handicraftsmen, the difference of ranks was to the accidental circumstances of the Gre. soon lost, and wealth made the only standard. cian states, that a polis must be of a certain The quarrels of the nobility among themselves, size. and the admixture of population arising from This unity of purpose was nowhere so fully imnmigrations, all tended to raise the lower carried out as in the government of Sparta orders from their political subjection. It must The design of Spartan institutions was evibe remembered, too, that the possession of dently to unite the governing body among domestic slaves, if it placed them in no new themselves against the superior numbers o, relation to the governing body, at any rate the subject population. The division of lands gave them leisure to attend to the higher du- the syssitia, the education of their youth, a' ties of a citizen, and thus served to increase tended to this great object. [HELOTES; PEtheir political efficiency. RIOECI.] During the convulsions which followed the In legal rights all Spartans were equal: heroic ages, naturalization was readily grant- but there were yet several gradations, which, ed to all who desired it; as the value of citi- when once formed, retained their hold on the zenship increased, it was, of course, more aristocratic feelings of the people. First, sparingly bestowed. The ties of hospitality there was the dignity of the Heraclid famidescended from the prince to the state, and lies; and, connected with this, a certain prethe friendly relations of the Homeric heroes eminence of the Hyllean tribe. Another diswere exchanged for the erposvitnlof a laterpe- tinction was that between the Homoioi (6y/otriod. In political intercourse, the importance or) and Hypo7neiones (i7rct/eioveg), which, in of these last soon began to be felt, and the later times, appears to have been considera, Proxenus at Athens, in after times, obtained ble. The latter term probably comprehended rights only inferior to actual citizenship. those citizens who, from degeneracy of man[HosPITIUI.] The isopolite relation existed, ners or other causes, had undergone some however, on a much more extended scale. kind of civil degradation. To these the HoSometimes particular privileges were grant- nmoioi were opposed, although it is Rot cered: as c7rajeuia, the right of intermarriage; tain in what the precise difference consisted. YI77errlS tC, the right of acquiring landed prop- All the Spartan citizens were included in erty: 6re.tua, immunity from taxation, es- the three tribes, Hylleans, Dymanes, or Dyjecially &t."rea a2egrottciov, from the tax im- manatae, and Pamphilians, each of which posed onresident aliens. All these privileges was divided into ten obes or phratries. The wvere included under the general term ia-orc- citizens of Sparta, as of most oligarchical etLa, or iao'-rot~rcea, and the class who oh- states, were land-owners, although this does tained them were called ia07eo2eet. They not seem to have been looked upon as an eshore the same burthens with the citizens, sential of citizenship. and could plead in the courts or transact 2. RO:,IAN. Civitas means the whole body business with the people, without the inter- of cires, or members, of any given state, and vention of a r'poe,-r7'] or patron. Ithe word is frequently used by the Roman Respecting the division of the Athenian writers to express the rights of a Roman citicitizens into tribes, phratriae and demes, see zen, as distinguished from those of other perthe articles TRIBUs and DEMITs. sons not Roman citizens, as in the phrases If we would picture to ourselves the true dare civitatem, donare civitate, usurpare civitanotion which the Greeks embodied in the tem. word polis (7r,6Lf), we must lay aside all mo- Some members of a political community dern ideas respecting the nature and object of (cites) may have more political rights than a state. WVith us practically, if not in theory, others; and this was the case at Rome under the essential object of a state hardly embrlaces the republic, in which we find a distinction more than the protection of life and property. made between two great classes of Roman The Greeks, on the other hand, had the most citizens, one that had, and another that had vivid conception of the state as a whole, every not, a share in the soverei6n power (optirne part of which was to co-operate to some great jure, non optimo jure cives). That which pe. end to which all other duties were considered culiarly distinguished the higher class, or the as subordinate. Thus the aim of democracy optimn jure cies, was the right to vote in a was said to be liberty; wealth, of oligarchy; tribe (jus siffragioxum). and the capacity al 84 CIVITAS. CLAVUS. enjoying magistracy (jus honorum). The in- under the name of Jus Latii or Latinitas. ferior class, or the non oetimo jure cives, did This Latinitas gave a man the right of acnot possess the above rights, which the Ro- quiring the Roman citizenship by having ex. mans called jus publicum, but they only had ercised a magistratus in his own civitas; a the jus privatum, which comprehended the privilege which belonged to the foederatae cijus connubii and jus commercii, and those who vitates of Italy before they'obtained the Rohad not these had no citizenship. man civitas. Under the empire we find the free persons CLARIGA'TIO. [FETIALES.] who were within the political limits of the CLASSES. [CAPUT; COMIrIA.] Roman state divided into three great classes. CLA'SSICUM. [CoRNU.] The same division probably existed in an CLAVIS (Kc26ei, dim. ICLetdiov), a key. early period of the Roman state, and certainly The key was used in very early times, and existed in the time of Cicero. These classes was probably introduced into Greece from were, cives, Latini, and peregrini. Civis is he Egypt; although Eustathius states, that in who possesses the complete rights of a Ro- early times all fastenings were made by man citizen. Peregrinus was incapable of chains, and that keys were comparatively of exercising the rights of commercium and con- a much later invention, which invention he nubium, which were the characteristic rights attributes to the Laconianls. We have no of a Roman citizen; but he had a capacity evidence respecting the materials of which for making all kinds of contracts which were the Greeks made their keys, but among the allowable by the jus gentium. The Latinus Romans the larger and coarser sort were was in an intermediate state; he had not the made of iron. Those discovered at Pompeii connubium, and consequently he had not the and elsewhere are mostly of bronze. The patria potestas nor rights of agnatio; but he annexed woodcut represents a key found at had the commercium or the right of acquiring Pompeii, the size of which indicates that it quiritarian ownership, and he had also a ca- was used as a door key. pacity for all acts incident to quiritarian ownership, as the power of making a will in Roman form, and of becoming heres under a will. The rights of a Roman citizen were acquired in several ways, but most commonly by a person being born of parents who were, 4~,L_ Roman citizens. A slave might obtain the civitas by manumission (vindicta), by the census, and by a CLAVUS LATUS, CLAVUS ANGUS. testamentuin, if there was no legal impedi- TUS. The claves, as an article of dress, ment; but it depended on circumstances seems to have been a purple band worn upon whether he became a civis Romanus, a Lati- the tunic and toga, and was of two fashions, nus, or in the number of the peregrini dediticii. one broad and the other narrow, denominated [MANUMISSIO.] respectively clavus latus and clavus angustus. The civitas could he conferred on a foreign- The former was a single broad band of purer by a lex, as in the case of Archias, who ple, extending perpendicularly from the neck was a civis of Heraclea, a civitas which had down to the centre of the tunic; the latter a foedus with Rome, and who claimed the probably consisted of two narrow purple slips, civitas Romana under the provisions of a lex running parallel to each from the top to the of Silvanus and Carbo, B. c. 89. By the pro- bottom of the tunic, one from each shoulder. visions of this lex, the person who chose to The latus clavus was a distinctive badge of take the benefit of it was required, within the senatorian order; and hence it is used to sixty days after the passing of the lex, to signify the senatorial dignity, and laticlavius, signify to the praetor his wish and consent to the person who enjoys it. accept the civitas (profiteri). This lex was The angustus clavus was the decoration of intended to give the civitas, under certain the equestrian order; but the right of wearlimitations, to foreigners who were citizens ing the latus clavus was also given to the of federate states (foederatis civitatibus ad- children of equestrians, at least in the time scripti). [FOEDERATE CIVITATES.] Thus of Augustus, as a prelude to entering the the great mass of the Italians obtained the senate-house. This, however,was a matter of civitas, and the privileges of the former civi- personal indulgence, and was granted only to tates foederatae were extended to the provin- persons of very ancient family and correspond. ces, first to part of Gaul, and then to Sicily, ing wealth, and then by special favour of the CLERUCIII. CLIENS. 85 emperor. In such cases the latus clavus the condition of mere allies, or separate wholly was assumed with the toga virilis, and worn from the mother country..until the age arrived at which the young It was to Pericles that Athens was chiefly equestrian was admissible into the senate, indebted for the extension and permanence of when it was relinquished and the angustus her colonial settlements. His principal object clavus resumed, if a disinclination on his was to provide for the redundancies of popupart, or any other circumstances, prevented lation, and raise the poorer citizens to a forhim from entering the senate, as was the tune becoming the dignity of Athenian citicase with Ovid. But it seems that the zens. It was of this class of persons the,atus clavus could be again resumed if the settlers were chiefly composed; the state prosame individual subsequently wished to be- vided them with arms, and defrayed the ex come a senator, and hence a fickle character penses of their journey. is designated as one who is always changing The cleruchiae were lost by the battle of his clavus. Aegospotami, but partially restored on the reThe latus clavus is said to have been intro- vival of Athenian power. duced at Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and to CLETE'RES or CLE'TORES (K27'rpe-~, have been adopted by him after his conquest?iCr-opef), summoners, were at Athens not of the Etruscans; nor does it appear to have official persons, but merely witnesses to the been confined to any particular class during prosecutor that he had served the defendant the earlier periods, but to have been worn by with a notice of the action brought against all ranks promiscuously. It was laid aside in him, and the day upon which it would be republic mourning. quisite for him to appear before the proper CLEPSYDRA. [HoRoLOGIUM.] magistrate. CLERU'CHI (tKcpOiXOt), the name of CLIBANA'RII. [CATAPHRACTI.] Athenian citizens who occupied conquered CLIENS is said to contain the same elelands: their possession was called cleruchia ment as the verb cluere, to "hear" or "obey," f(cK;povXia). The Athenian Cleruchi differed and may be accordingly compared with the from the iro7olOt or. ordinary colonists. The German word h6riger, " a dependent," from only object of the earlier colonies was to re- h6ren, " to hear." lieve surplus population, or to provide a home In the earliest times of the Roman state we for those whom internal quarrels had exiled find a class of persons called clientes,who must from their country. Most usually they origi- not be confounded with the plebeians, from nated in private enterprize, and became inde- whom they were distinct. The clients were pendent of, and lost their interest in, the pa- not slaves: they had property of their own rent state. On the other hand, it was essen- and freedom, and appear to have had votes in tial to the very notion of a cleruchia that it the comitia centuriata, but they did not posshould be a public enterprize, and should sess the full rights of Roman citizens; and the always retain a connection more or less inti- peculiarity of their condition consisted in mate with Athens herself. every client being in a state of dependence The connection with the parent state sub- upon or subjection to some patrician, who was sisted in all degrees. Sometimes, as in the called his patronus, and to whom he owed cercase of Lesbos, the holders of land did not re- tain rights and duties. The patronus, on the side upon their estates, but let them to the other hand, likewise incurred certain obligaoriginal inhabitants, while themselves re- tions towards his client. This relationship mained at Athens. The condition of these between patronus and cliens was expressed cleruchi did not differ from that of Athenian by the word clientela,which also expressed the citizens who had estates in Attica. All their whole body of a man's clients. political rights they not only retained, but ex- The relative rights and duties of the patrons ercised asAthenians. Another case waswhere and the clients were, according to Dionysius, the cleruchi resided on their estates, and either as follow:with or without the old inhabitants, formed a The patron was the legal adviser of the new community. These still retained the cliens; he was the client's guardian and prorights of Athenian citizens, which distance tector, as he was the guardian and protector only precluded them from exercising: they of his own children; he maintained the cliused the Athenian courts; and if they or their ent's suit when he was wronged, and defended children wished to return to Athens, naturally him when another complained of being wrongand of course they regained the exercise of ed by him: in a word, the patron was the their former privileges. guardian of the client's interests, both private Sometimes, however, the connection might and public. The client contributed to the gradually dissolve, and the cleruchi sink into marriage portion of the patron's daughter, if It 86 CLIPEUS. CLITELLAE. the patron was poor; and to his ransom, or been first used by Proetus and Acrisius of Arthat of his children, if they were taken prison- gos, and therefore is called clipeas Argolicus, ers; he paid the costs and damages of a suit and likened to the sun. But the clipeus is which the patron lost, and of any penalty in often represented in Roman sculpture of an which he was condemned; he bore a part of oblong oval, which makes the distinction bethe patron's expenses incurred by his dis- tween the common buckler and that of Argos. charging public duties, or filling the honour- The outer rim was termed cvi-vI by the able places in the state. Neither party could Greeks; and in the centre was a projection accuse the other, or bear testimony against called 6yfuoa6 or umbo, which served as a the other, or give his vote against the other. sort of weap:on by itself, or caused the rnisThis relationship between patron and client siles of the enemy to glance off from the subsisted for many generations, and resembled shield. in all respects the relationship by blood. In the l,-mneric times, the Greeks merely The relation of a master to his liberated used a lea:' -r strap (re7ay6v) to support the slave (libertus) was eipressed by the word pa- shield, but -:ubsequently a handle (6xavov or tronus, and the libertus was the cliens of his oXdvll), thoi use and form of which are exhibpatronus. Distinguished Romans were also ited in the unnexed cut. the protectors of states and cities,which were in a certain relation of subjection or dependence to Rome. In the time of Cicero we also find patronus in the sense of adviser, advocate, or defender, opposed to cliens in the sense of the person defended or the consultor-a use of the word which must be referred to the original character of the patronus. CLIENTE'LA. [CLIENTS.] CLI'PEUS (taczir), the large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans, which was originally of the circular form, and is said to have'T I 0 ~~~~I.~ ei~~~ ok 1 ~Clipeus, Shield. JI J llll 011When the census was instituted by Servius Tullius at Rome, the first class only used the clipeus-, and the second were armed with the a )\8^ j~sczStum [ScuTvUM; but after the Roman soldiery received pay, the clipeus was discontinued altogether for the scutum. CLITE'LLAE, a pair of panniers,and therefore only used in the plural number. In Italy they were commonly used with mules or asses; but in other countries they were also applied to horses, of which an instance is given in the annexed woodcut from the colClireus, Shield. umn of Trajan. COACTOR. COENA. 87 the revenues for them, and those who collected the money from the purchasers of things sold at a public auction. Horace informs us that his father was a coactor of this kind. ~,/~,;.~ ~ SMoreover, the servants of the money-changers /D1*iR,~ / 1 were so called, from collecting their debts for them. The " coactores agminis" were of march. / j CO'CH LEAR (KoXrtfiptov),a kind ofspoon, which appears to have terminated with a point at one end, and at the other was broad and Ihollow like our spoons. The pointed end was used for drawing snails (cochleae) out of their shells, and eating them, whence it derived its name; and the broader part for eating eggs, &c. Clitellae. Cochlear was also the name given to a small measure like our spoonful. CLOA'CA, a sewer, a drain. Rome was CODEX, identicalwith caudex,as Claudius intersected by numerous sewers, some of and Clodius, claustrum and clostrum, cauda and. which were of an immense size: the most coda, originally signified the trunk or stem of celebrated of them was the cloaca maxima, a tree. The name codex was especially apthe construction of which is ascribed to Tar- plied to wooden tablets bound together and quinius Priscus. It was formed by three lined with a coat of wax, for the purpose of tiers of arches, one within the other, the in- writing upoii them, and when, at a later age, nermost of which is a semicircular vault of parchment or paper, or other materials were 14 feet in diameter. The manner of its con- substituted for wood, and put together in the struction is shown in the annexed cut. shape of a book, the iiamne of codex was still given to them. In the time of Cicero, we find it also applied to the tablet on which a bill was written. At a still later period, during the time of the emperors, the word was used to express any collection of laws or con-, stitutions of the emperors, whether made by private individuals or by public authority, as the Codex Gregorianus, Codex Thleodosianus, and Codex JustinianEus. ~:,: k COE'MPTIO. [MATaRIMoNIUM.] COENA. As the Roman meals are not [T~: ~>L-~___________ -' always clearly distinguished, it will be convenient to treat of all under the most important one; and we shall confine ourselves to Cloaca. the description of the ordinary life of the mid die ranks of society in the Augustan age, noUnder the republic, the administration of ticing incidentally the most remarkable devithe sewers was entrusted to the censors; but ations. under the empire, particular officers were ap- The meal with which the Roman somepointed for that purpose, called cloacarum cu- times began. the day was the jentaculum, ratores, who employed condemned criminals which was chiefly taken by children, or sick in cleansing and repairing them. persons, or the luxurious.. An irregular meal CLOCK. [HoROLOGIUM.] (if we may so express it) was not likely to COA VESTIS, the Coan! robe, was a have any very regular time; two epigrams of transparent dress, chiefly worn by women of Martial, however, seem to fix the hour at loose reputation. It has been supposed to about three or four o'clock in the morning. have been made of silk, because in Cos silk Bread formed the substantial part of this was spun and woven at a very early period. early breakfast, to which cheese, or dried COACTOR, the name of collectors of va- fruit, as dates and raisins, were sometimes rious sorts, e. g. the servants of the publicani, added. or farmers of the public taxes, who collected Next followed the prandirwn or luncheon, 88 COENA. with persons of simple habits a frugal meal, trusted were four, the butler (promus), the usually taken about twelve or one o'clock. cook (archimagirus), the arranger of the dishThe coena, or principal meal of the day, es (structor), and the carver (carptor or scissor). corresponding to our " dinner," was usually Carving was taught as an art, and performed taken about three o'clock in the time of Cice- to the sound of music, with appropriate gesro and Augustus, though we read of some ticulations. persons not dining till near sunset. A Ro- " -minimo sane discrimine refert, man dinner at the house of a wealthy man Qou vultu lepores, et quo gallina secetur." usually consisted of three courses. The first In the supper of Petronius, a large round was called promnulsis, antecoena or gustatio, tray (ferculum, repositorium) is brought in,with and was made up of all sorts of stimulants to the signs of the zodiac figured all round it, the appetite. Eggs also were so indispensa- upon each of which the artiste (structor) had ble to the first course that they almost gave placed some appropriate viand, a goose on a name to it (ab ovo usque ad mala). The fru- Aquatius, a pair of scales with tarts (scriblitae) gality of Martial only allowed of lettuce and and cheesecakes (placentae) in each scale on Sicenian olives; indeed he himself tells us Libra, &c. In the middle was placed a hive that the promulsis was a refinement of mo- supported bydelicate herbage. Presently four dern luxury. It would far exceed our limits slaves come forward dancing to the sound of to mention all the dishes which formed the music, and take away the upper part of the second course of a Roman dinner. Of birds, dish; beneath appear all kinds of dressed the Guinea hen (Afra avis), the pheasant (pha- meats; a hare with wings, to imitate Pegasiana, so called from Phasis, a river of Col- sus, in the middle; and four figures of Marchis), and the thrush, were most in repute; syas at the corners, pouring hot sauce (garumn the liver of a capon steeped in milk, and bec- piperatum) over the fish, that were swimming caficos (ficedulae) dressed with pepper, were in the Euripus below. So entirely had the held a delicacy. The peacock, according to Romans lost all shame of luxury, since the Macrobius, was first introduced by Horten- days when Cincius, in supporting the Fansius the orator, at an inaugural supper, and nian law, charged his own age with the enoracquired such repute among the Roman gour- mity of introducing the porcus Trojanus, a sort mands as to be commonly sold for fifty dena- of pudding stuffed with the flesh of other anirii. Other birds are mentioned, as the duck mals. (anas), especially its head and breast; the The third course was the bellaria or dessert, woodcock (attagen), the turtle, and flamingo to which Horace alludes when he says of Ti(phoenicopterus), the tongue of which, Martial gellius ob ovo usque ad mala citaret; it consisted tells us, especially commended itself to the of fruits (which the Romans usually ate undelicate palate. Of fish the variety was per- cooked), such as almonds (amygdalae), dried haps still greater: the charr (scarus), the tur- grapes (uvae passae), dates (palmnulae, laryotae, bot (rhombus), the sturgeon (acipenser), the dactyli); of sweetmeats and confections,called mullet (mullus), were highly prized, and dress- edulia mellita, dulciaria, such as cheesecakes ed in the most various fashions. Of solid (cupediae, crustula, liba, placentae, artologani), meat, pork seems to have been the favourite almond cakes (coptae), tarts (scriblitae),whence dish, especially sucking-pig. Boar's flesh the maker of them was called pistor dulciarius, and venison were also in high repute, espe- placentarius, libarius, &c. cially the former, described by Juvenal as We will now suppose the table spread and animal propter convivia natum. Condiments the guests assembled, each with his mappa or were added to most of these dishes: such napkin, and in his dinner dress, called coenawere the muria, a kind of pickle made from toria or cubitoria, usually of a bright colour, and the tunny fish; the garum sociorum, made variegated with flowers. First they took off from the intestines of the mackerel (scomber), their shoes, for fear of soiling the couch,which so called because brought from abroad; alec, was often inlaid with ivory or tortoiseshell, a sort of brine; faex, the sediment of wine, and covered with cloth of gold. Next they lay &c. Several kinds of fungi are mentioned, down to eat, the head resting on the left elbow trufles (boleti), mushrooms (tuberes), which and supported by cushions. There were usueither made dishes by themselves, or formed ally, but not always, three on the same couch, the garniture for larger dishes. the middle place being esteemed the most It must not be supposed that the artistes of honourable. Around the tables stood the ser. imperial Rome were at all behind ourselves vants (ministri) clothed in a tunic, and girt in the preparations and arrangements of the with napkins; some removed the dishes and table. In a large household, the functiona- wiped the tables with a rough cloth, others ries to whom this important duty was en- gave the guests water for their hands,'or COLLEG1UM. COLONIA. 89 cooled the room with fans. Here stood an body was called a corporatio. Associations of eastern youth behind his master'scouch,ready individuals, who were entitled to have a cor to answer the noise of the fingers,while others pus, could hold property in common. Such a bore a large platter of different kinds of meat body, which was sometimes also called a uni. to the guests. versitas, was a legal unity. That which was Dinner was set out in a room called coenatio due to the body, was not due to the individuor diaeta (which two words perhaps conveyed als of it; and that which the body owed, was to a Roman ear nearly the same distinction not the debt of the individuals. The common as our dining-room and parlour). The coena- property of the body was liable to be seized tio, in rich men's houses, was fitted up with and sold for the debts of the body. great magnificence. Suetonius mentions a It does not appear how collegia were formsupper-room in the golden palace of Nero, ed,except that some were specially established constructed like a theatre,with shifting scenes by legal authority. Other collegia were proto change with every course. In the midst bably formed by voluntary associations of inof the coenatio were set three couches (tricli- dividuals under the provisions of some general nia), answering in shape to the square, as the legal authority, such as those of the publilong semicircular couches (sigmata) did to the cani. oval tables. An account of the disposition of Some of these corporate bodies resembled the couches, and of the place which each our companies or guilds; such were thefabr;. guest occupied, is given in the article TRI- rum, pistorum, &c. callegia. Others were of a CLINIU M. religious character; such as the pontificum, For an account of Greek meals, see the ar- augurum, fratrum arvalium collegia. Others tide DEIPNON. were bodies concerned about government and COENA'CIJLUM. [DoMus.] administration; as tribunorum plebis, quaestoCOENA'TIO. [COENA.] rum, decurionum collegia. COFFIN. [FuNvs.] According to the definition of a collegium, COGNA'TI, COGNA'TIO. The cognatio the consuls being only two in number were was the relationship of blood, which existed not a collegium, though each was called colbetween those who were sprung from a corm- lega with respect to the other, and their union mon pair; and all persons so related were in office was called collegium. called cognati. When a new member was taken into a colThe foundation of cognatio is a legal mar- legium, he was said co-optari, and the old riage. The term cognatus (with some excep- members were said with respect to him, retions) comprehends agnatus; an agnatus may cipere in collegium. The mode of filling up vabe a cognatus, but a cognatus is only an agnatus cancies would vary in different collegia. The when his relationship by blood is traced statement of their rules belongs to the several through males. heads of AUGUR, PONTIFEX, &C. Those who were of the same blood by both COLO'NIA, a colony, contains the same parents were sometimes called germani; con- element as the verb colere, " to cultivate," and sanguinei were those whohad a common father as the word colonus,which probably originally only; and uterini those who had a common signified a " tiller of the earth." mother only. 1. GREEK. The usual Greek words for a CO'GNITOR. [AcTIo.] colony are 6crotcia and IcXZlpovxla. The latCOGNO'MEN. [NOMEN.] ter word, which signified a division of conCOHORS. [ExERCITUS.] quered lands among Athenian citizens, and COLLE'GIUM. The persons who formed which corresponds in some respects to the a collegium were called collegae or sodales. Roman colonia, is explained in the article The word collegium properly expressed the CLERUCHI. notion of several persons being united in any The earlier Greek colonies, called cirotciat, office for any common purpose; it afterwards were usually composed of mere bands of adcame to signify a body of persons, and the venturers, who left their native country, with union which bound them together. The col- their families and property, to seek a.new legium was the Eratpia of the Greeks. home for themselves. Some of the colonies, The legal notion of a collegium was as fol- which arose in consequence of foreign invalows:-A collegium or corpus, as it was also sion or civil wars, were undertaken without called, must consist of three persons at least. any formal consent from the rest of the comPersons who legally formed such an associa- munity; but usually a colony was sent out tion were said corpus habere, which is equiva- with the approbation of the mother country, ent toourphraseofbeingincorporated; and in and under the management of a leader (oiktlater timesthey were said tobe corporati, andthe arig) appointed by it. But whatever may AI 2 90 COLONIA. lhave been the origin of the colony, it was the other colonies were wont to pay to the always considered in a political point of view mother country. The Corcyreans, who had independent of the mother country, called become very powerful by sea, took oftence at by the Greeks metropolis (ZlUrYp67rolut), the the Corinthians receiving Epidamnus under " mother-city," and entirely emancipated from their protection, and the result was a war beits control. At the same time, though a col- tween Corcyra and Corinth.'The Corcyreony was in no political subjection to its parent ans sent ambassadors to Athens to ask a — state, it was united to it by the ties of filial sistance; and in reply to the objection that affection; and, according to the generally re- they were a colony of Corinth, they said ceived opinions of the Greeks, its duties to the " that every colony, as long as it is treated parent state corresponded to those of a daugh- kindly, respects the mother country: but ter to her mother. Hence, in all matters of when it is injured, is alienated from it; for common interest, the colony gave precedence. colonists are not sent out as subjects, but to the mother state; and the founder of the that they may have equal rights with those colony (oitcerrg), who might he considered that remain at home." as the representative of the parent state, was It is true that ambitious states, such as usually worshipped, after his death, as a hero. Athens, sometimes claimed dominion over Also, when the colony became in its turn a other states on the ground of relationship; parent, it usually sought a leaderfor the colony but, as a general rule, colonies may be rewhich it intended to found from the original garded as independent states, attached to mother country; and the same feeling of re- their metropolis by ties of sympathy and spect was manifested by embassies which common descent, but no farther. The case were sent to honour the principal festivals of of Potidaea, to which the Corinthians sent the parent state, and also by bestowing places annually the chief magistrates (d/yitovpyoi), of honour and other marks of respect upon appears to have been an exception to the genthe ambassadors and other members of the eral rule. parent state, when they visited the colony at 2. ROMAN. A kind of colonization seems festivals and on similar occasions. The col- to have existed among the oldest Italian naonists also worshipped in theirnew settlement tions, who, on certain occasions, sent out the same deities as they had been accustomed their superfluous male population, with arms to honour in their native country: the sacred in their hands, to seek for a new home. But fire,whichwasconstantlykeptburningon their these were apparently mere bands of advenpublic hearth, was taken from the Prytaneium turers, and such colonies rather resembled of the parent city; and sometimes the priests the old Greek colonies, than those by which also were brought from the mother state. In Rome extended her dominion and her name. the same spirit, it was considered a violation Colonies were established by the Romans of sacred ties for a mother country and a colony as far back as the annals or traditions of the to rhake war upon one another. city extend, and the practice was continued, The preceding account of the relations be- without intermission, during the republic and tween the Greek colonies and the mother under the empire. Colonies were intended country is supported by the history which to keep in check a conquered people, and Thucydides gives us of the quarrel between also to repress hostile incursions; and their Corcyra and Corinth. Corcyra was a colony chief object was originally the extension and of Corinth, and Epidamnus a colony of Cor- preservation of the Roman dominion in Italy. cyra; but the leader (octogKrij) of the colony Cicero calls the old Italian colonies the proof Epidamnus was a Corinthian who was in- pugnacula imperii. Another object was to in vited from the metropolis Corinth. In course crease the population. Sometimes the immeof time, in consequence of civil dissensions, diate object of a colony was to carry off a and attacks from the neighbouring barbarians, number of turbulent and discontented perthe Epidamnnians apply for aid to Corcyra, sons. Colonies were also established for the but their request is rejected. They next ap- purpose of providing for veteran soldiers, a ply to the Corinthians, who took Epidamnus practice which was begun by Sulla, and conunder their protection, thinking, says Thucy- tinued under the emperors: these coloniae dides, that the colony was no less theirs than were called militares. the Corcyreans': and also induced to do so The old Roman colonies were in the nature through hatred of the Corcyreans, because of garrisons planted in conquered towns, and they neglected them though they were colo- the colonists had a portion of the conquered nists; for they did not give to the Corinthi- territory (usually a third part) assigned to ans the customary honours and deference in them. The inhabitants retained the rest of the public solemnities and sacrifices, which their lands, and lived together with the new COLONIA. 91 settlers, who alone composed the proper col- give those in power an opportunity of pro only. The conquered people must at first viding places for many of their friends. nave been quite a distinct class from, and in- The colonies founded by the Romans were ferior to the colonists. divided into two great classes of colonies of No colonia was established without a lex, Roman citizens and Latin colonies; names plebiscitum, or senatusconsultum; a fact which had no reference to the persons who which shows that a Roman colony was never formed the colonies, but merely indicated a mere body of adventurers, but had a regular their political rights with respect to Rome as organization by the parent state. When a members of the colony. The members of a law was passed for founding a colony, persons Roman colony (colombia civium Romanorum) were appointed to superintend its formation preserved all the rights of Roman citizens. (coloniam deducere). These persons varied in The members of a Latin colony (colonia Latina) number, but three was a common number ceased to have the full rights of Roman citi(triumviri ad -colones deducendos). We also zens. Probably some of the old Latin colo. read of duumviri, quinqueviri, vigintiviri for the nies were established by the Romans in consame purpose. The law fixed the quantity junction with other Latin states. After the of land that was to be distributed, and how conquest of Latium, the Romans established much was to be assigned to each person. colonies, called Latin colonies, in various No Roman could be sent out as a colonist parts of Italy. Roman citizens, who chose to without his free consent, and when the colo- join such colonies, gave up their civic rights, ny was not an inviting one, it was difficult to for the more solid advantage of a grant fill up the number of volunteers. of land, and became LATINI. [CIVITAS.] The colonia proceeded to its place of des- Such colonies were subject to and part tination in the form of an army (sub vexillo), of the Roman state; but they (lid not poswhich is indicated on the coins ot some colo- sess the Roman franchise, and had no poniae. An'urbs, if one did not already exist, litical bond among themselves. The lex Juwas a necessary part of a new colony, and lia, passed B. c. 90, gave the Roman franchise its limits were marked out by a plough, which to the members of the Latin colonies and the is also indicated on ancient coins. The co- Socii; and such Latin colonies and states of Ionia had also a territory, which, whether the Socii were then called municipia, and bemarked out by the plough or not, was at came complete members of the Roman state. least marked out by metes and bounds. Thus Thus there was then really no difference bethe urbs and territory of the colonia respect- tween these municipia and the Roman coloively corresponded to the urbs Roma and its niae, except in their historical origin: the territory. Religious ceremonies always ac- members of both were Roman citizens, and companied the foundation of the colony, and the Roman law prevailed in both. the anniversary was afterwards observed. It In the colonies, as at Rome, the popular is stated that a colony could not be sent out assembly had originally the sovereign power; to the same place to which a colony had they chose the magistrates, and could even already been sent in due form (auspicato de- make laws. When the popular assemblies ducta). This merely means, that so long as became a mere form in Rome, and the electhe colony maintained its existence, there tions were transferred by Tiberius to the could be no new colony in the same place; a senate, the same thing happened in the colodoctrine that would hardly need proof, for a nies, whose senates then possessed whatever new colony implied a new assignment of power had once belonged to the community. lands; but new settlers (novi adscripti) might The common name of this senate was ordo be sent to occupy colonial lands not already decurionum; in later times, simply ordo and assigned. Indeed it was not unusual for a curia; the members of it were decuriones or colony to receive additions, and a colony curiales. Thus, in the later ages, curia is opmight be re-established, if it seemed necessa- posed to senatus, the former being the senate ry, from any cause. of a colony, and the latter the senate of The commissioners appointed to conduct Rome. But the terms senatus and senator the colony had apparently a profitable office, were also applied to the senate and members and the establishment of a new settlement of the senate of a colony. After the decline gave employment to numerous functionaries, of the popular assemblies, the senate had the among whom Cicero enumerates-apparitores, whole internal administration of a city, conscribae, librarii,praecones, architecti. The foun- jointly with the magistratus; but only a dedation of a colony might then, in many cases, curio could be a magistratus, and the choice not only be a mere party measure, carried for was made by the decuriones. the purpose of gaining popularity, but it would The highest magistratus of a colonia were 92 COLUMBARIUM_ CC O.L.TAM;.t the duumviri or quattuorviri, so called, as the formed to receive the ashes of the lower orders members might vary, whose functions may be or dependents of great families; and in the compared with those of the consulate at Rome plural, the niches in which the cinerary urns before the establishment of the praetorship. (ollae) were deposited. The name duumviri seems to have been the COLUMNA (Ki~ov, Car70o), a pillar or most common. Their principal duties were column. the administration of justice, and accordingly The use of the trunks of trees placed upwe find on inscriptions " Duumviri J. D." (juri right for supporting buildings, unquestionably dicundo), "Quattuorviri J. D." The name led to the adoption of similar supports wrought consul also occurs in inscriptions to denote in stone. As the tree required to be based this chief magistracy; and even dictator and upon a flat square stone, and to have a stone praetor occur under the empire and under the or tile of similar form fixed on its summit to republic. The office of the duumviri lasted preserve it from decay, so the column was a year. made with a square base, and was covered In some Italian towns there was a praefectus with an abacus. [ABACUS.] Hence the princijuri dicundo; he was in the place of, and not pal parts of which every column consists are co-existent with, the duumviri. The duum- three, the base (basis), the shaft (scapus), and viri were, as we have seen, originally chosen the capital (capitulum). by the people; but the praefectus was ap- In the Doric, which is the oldest style of pointed annually in Rome, and sent to the Greek architecture, we must consider all the town called a praefectura, which might be columns in the same row as having one comeither a municipium or a colonia, for it was mon base, whereas in the Ionian and Corinonly in the matter of the praefectus that a thian each column has a separate base, called town called a praefectura differed from other spira. The capitals of these two latter orders Italian towns. Arpinum is called both a mu- show, on comparison with the Doric, a much nicipium and a praefectura; and Cicero, a na- richer style of ornament; and the *character tive of this place, obtained the highest honours of lightness and elegance is further obtained that Rome could confer. in them by their inore slender shaft, its height The censor, curator, or quinquennalis, all being much greater in proportion to its thickwhich names denote the same functionary, ness. Of all these circumstances some idea was also a municipal magistrate, and corre- may be formed by the inspection of the three sponded to the censor at Rome, and in some accompanying specimens of pillars. The first cases, perhaps, to the quaestor also. Censors on the left hand is Doric, the second Ionic, are mentioned in Livy as magistrates of the and the third Corinthian. twelve Latin colonies. The quinquennales were sometimes duumviri, sometimes quattuorviri; but they are always carefully distinguished from the duumviri and quattuorviri J. D.; and their functions were those of censors. They held their office for one year, and during the four intermediate years the functions were not exercised. The office of censor or quinquennalis was higher in rank than that of the duumviri J. D., and it could only be filled by those who had discharged the other offices of the municipality. COLOSSUS (Koooaot6), is used both by the Greeks and Romaiis to signify a statue larger than life; but as such statues were very common, the word was more frequently applied to designate figures of gigantic dimensions. Such figures were first executed in Egypt, and were afterwards made by the Greeks and Romans. Among the colossal statues of Greece, the most celebrated was the bronze colossus at Rhodes, dedicated to the sun, the height of which was about 90 feet. COLUMBA'RIUM, a dovecot or pigeonhouse, also signified a sepulchral chamber In all the orders the shaft tapers from the COMA. COMITIA. 93 iottom towards the top. The shaft was, til the time of the emperors, and probably however, made with a slight swelling in the much in the same style as those of Greece; middle, which was called the entasis. It was, but at the Augustan period a variety of differmoreover, almost universally channelled or ent head-dresses came into fashion. fluted. Both Greeks and Romans had some pecuRows of columns were generally employed liar customs connected with the growth of in the interior and exterior of buildings; but their hair. The Spartans combed and dressed single columns were also erected to com- their heads with especial care when about to memorate persons or events. Among these, encounter any great danger. The sailors of some of the most remarkable were the colum- both nations shaved off their hair after an nae rostratae, called by that name because escape from shipwreck, or other heavy calamthree ship-beaks proceeded from each side of ity, and dedicated it to the gods. In the earlier them, and designed to record successful en- ages, the Greeks of' both sexes cut their hair gagements at sea. The most important and close in mourning; but subsequently this celebrated of those which yet remain, is one practice was confined to the women, the men erected in honour of the consul C. Duillius, leaving theirs long and neglected, as was the on occasion of his victory over the Cartha- custom amongst the Romans. ginian fleet, B. c. 261. In childhood, that is, up to the age of puberty, the hair of the males was suffered to grow long amongst both nations, when it was clipped and dedicated to some river or deity..~, At Athens this ceremony was performed on -L: W l the third day of the, festival Apaturia, which is therefore termed Kcovpertf. In both countries the slaves were shaved as ( e, 1 X~~ a marlk of servitude. The vestal virgins also cut their hair short -ff~.4':~ upon taking their vows; which rite still remains in the papal church, in which all females have their hair cut close upon taking'j \/I ~tihe veil. COMISSA'TIO (derived from K(i)yo0), the name of a drinking entertainment, which took place after the coena, from which, however, it must be distinguished. The comissatio was frequently prolonged to a late hour at night,whence the verb comissari means " to revel," and the substantive comissator a " reveller," or " debauchee." COMI'TIA, the public assemblies of the Roman people (from com-eo for coeo), at which all the most important business of the state was transacted, such as the election of magistrates, the passing of laws, the declaration of __I_____ I; E.. war, the making of peace, and, in some cases, the trial of persons charged with public crimes. Columna Rostrata. Columna Trajana. There were three kinds of comitia, acccording Columns were also employed to commemo- to the three different divisions of the Roman rate the dead. The column on the right hand people. in the last woodcut exhibits that which the 1. The COMITIA CURJITA, or assembly of senate erected to the honour of the Emperor the curiae, the institution of which is assigned Trajan. Similar columns were erected to the to Romulus. memory of many of the Roman emperors. II. The COMITIA CENTURIATA, or assembly COMA (s6/orj). the hair of the head. of the centuries, in which the people gave In very early times the Romans wore their their votes according to the classification inhair long, and hence the Romans of the Au- stituted by Servius Tullius. gustan age designated their ancestors intonsi, III. The COMITIA TRIBUTA, or assembly of and capillati. But this fashion did not last the people according to their division into the after the year B. c. 300. The women, too, localtribes. The first two required the authodressed their hair with simplicity, at least un- rity of the senate, and could not be held with 94 COMITIA. out taking the auspices; the comitia tributa did the curiae, whose duty it was to summon the not require these sanctions. curiae when the meetings actually took place, I. COMITIA CURIATA. This primitive as- just as the classes in the comitia centuriata sembly of the Romans originated at a time were summoned by a trumpeter (cornicen or when there was no second order of the state. classicus). Hence, when the comitia curiata It was a meeting of the populus, or original were held for the inauguration of a flamen, for burgesses, assembled in their tribes of houses, the making of a will, &c., they were called and no member of the ptebs could vote at such specially the comitia calata, or " the summoned a meeting. The ancient populus of Rome con- assembly." sisted of two tribes-the Ramnes or Ramnenses 11. The COMITIA CENTURIATA, or, as they and the Titienses or Tities, called after the two were sometimes called, the comitia majora, patronymic heroes of the state Romus, Remus, were a result of the constitution generally ator Romulus, and Titus Tatius; to which was tributed to Servius Tullius, the sixth king of subsequently added a third tribe, the Luceres Rome. The object of this legislator seems to or Lucerenses. The Ramnes are supposed to have-been to unite in one body the populus or have been the Romans proper, the Tities, Sa patricians-the old burgesses of the three bines, and the Luceres, Latins or of a Tyrrhe- tribes, and the plebs, or the commonalty who nian stock. had grown up by their side; and to give the The three original tribes of the populus or chief weight in the state to wealth and numpatres were divided into thirty curiae, and each bers, rather than to birth and family pretenof these into ten gentes or houses; and this sions. With a view to this he formed a plan number of the gentes also'corresponded to the by virtue of which the people would vote on number of councillors who represented them all important questions according to their in the senate, which consisted of 300 mem- equipments when on military service, and acbers. cording to the position which they occupied The comitia curiata were thus the assembly in the great phalanx or army of the city: in of the original patricians, in which they voted other words, according to their property; for by curiae. This assembly was chiefly held it was this which enabled them to equip themfor confirming some ordinance of the senate: selves according to the prescribed method. In no matter could be brought before them ex- many of the Greek states the heavy armed solcept by the authority of the senate; and with diers were identical with the citizens possessregard to elections and laws, they had merely ing the full franchise; and instances occur in the power of confirming or rejecting what the Greek history when the privileged classes senate had already decreed. After the estab- have lost their prerogatives, from putting the lishment of the comitia centuriata, the two arms of a full citizen into the hands of the comprincipal reasons for summoning the comitia monalty; so that the principle which regucuriata were, either the passing of a lex curiata lated the votes in the state by the arrangede imperio, or the elections of priests. The lex ment of the army of the state, was not pecuriata de imperio was necessary in order to culiar to the constitution of' Servius. This' confer upon the dictator, consuls, and other arrangement considered the whole state as magistrates, imperium or military command; forming a regular army, with its cavalry, without this they had only a potestas or civil heavy-armed infantry, reserve, carpenters, authority, and were not allowed to meddle musicians, and baggage-train. The cavalry with military affairs. Thecomitia curiatawere included, first, the six equestrian centuries, also held for the purpose of carrying into effect or the sex suffragia, which consisted excluthe form of adoption called adrogatio, for the sively of patricians, who had the requisite confirmation of wills, and for the ceremony amount of property; to which were added called detestatio sacrorum. They were held in twelve centuries of plebeian knights, selected that part of the forum which was called comi- from the richest members of the commonalty. tium, and where the tribunal (suggestum) stood. The foot-soldiers were organized in the followThe patrician magistrates properly held the ing five classes:-1. Those whose property comnitia curiata; or, if the question to be pro- was at least 100,000 asses or pounds' weight posed had relation to sacred rights, the ponti- of copper. They were equipped in a complete fices presided. As the popular element in the suit of bronze armour. In order to give their Roman state increased in power and import- wealth and importance its proper political inance, and the plebeians came to be placed on fluence, they were reckoned as forming 80 a footing of political equality with the patrici- centuries; namely, 40 of young men (juniores) ans, the meetings of the comitia curiata were from 17 to 45, and 40 of older men (seniores) little more than a matter of form; their suffra- of 45 years and upwards. 2. Those whose ges were represented by the thirty lictors of property was above 75,000 and under 100,000 COMITIA. 95 asses, and who were equip;ed with the wooden up out of all the three heavy-armed classes; scutum instead of the bronze clipeus, but had the second and third classes furnished 20 cenno coat of mail. They made up 20 centuries, turies apiece, i. e. twice the number of their 10 of juniores and 10 of seniores. 3. Those junior votes, and 10 from each class stood whose property was above 50,000 asses and among the triarii, the rest being hastati with below 75,000, and who had neither coat of shields; the fourth class supplied 10 centuries, mail nor greaves. They consisted of the same the number of its junior votes,who formed the number of centuries as the second class, simi- hastati without shields; the fifth class furlarly divided into juniores and seniores. 4. nished 30 centuries, twice the number of its Those whose property was above 25,000 asses junior votes, who formed the thirty centuries and below 50,000, and who were armed with of rorarii. To these were added 10 turmae of the pike and javelin only. This class also cavalry, or 300 men. This was the division contained 20 centuries. 5. Those whose pro- and arrangement of the army as a legion. But perty was between 12,500 and 25,000 asses, when it was necessary to vote in the camp, and who were armed with slings and darts. they would of course revert to the principles They formed 30 centuries. The first four which regulated the division of the classes for classes composed the phalanx: the fifth class, the purpose of voting at home, and would rethe light-armed infantry. Those citizens unite the double contingents. In this way,we whose property fell short of the qualification have 85 centuries of junior votes, or 90 with for the fifth class were reckoned as supernu- the five unclassed centuries. Of these, the meraries. Of these there were two centuries first class with the fabri formed 41 centuries, of the accensi and velati, whose property ex- leaving 49 for the other centuries; but with ceeded 1500 asses; one century of the prole- the first class the 10 turmae of the cavalry tarii,whose property was under 1500 asses and would also be reckoned. as 10 centuries, and above 375; and one century of the capite-censi, the first class would have 51, thus exceeding whose property fell short of 375 asses. All the other moiety by 2. these centuries were classed according to The comitia centuriata were held in the their property: but besides these, there were campus Mifartius without the city, where they three centuries which were classed according met as the exercitus urbanus or army of the to their occupation; the fabri or carpenters, city; and, in reference to their military orattached to the centuries of the first class; ganization, they were summoned by the sound the cornicines or horn-blowers, and the tubicines of the horn, and not by the voice of the licor liticines, the trumpeters,who were reckoned tors, as was the case with the comitia curiata. with the fourth class. Thus there would be On the connection of this division into cen. in all 195 centuries, 18 of cavalry, 140 of turies with the registration of persons and heavy infantry, 30 of light infantry, 4 of re- property, see CENsoRs and CENSUS. The serve and camp-followers, and 3 of smiths and general causes of assembling the comitia cenmusicians. In voting it was intended to give turiata were, to create magistrates, to pass the first class and the knights a preponderance laws, and to decide capital causes when the over the rest of the centuries, and this was offence had reference to the whole nation, effected as we have just mentioned; for the and not merely to the rights of a particular first class, with the knights and the fabri, order. They were summoned by the king, amounted to 99 centuries, and the last four or by the magistrates in the republic who classes, with the supernumeraries and musi- represented some of his functions, that is by cians, to96 centuries,who were thus outvoted the dictator, consuls, praetors, and, in the by the others, even though they themselves case of creating magistrates, by the interrex were unanimous. Even if we suppose that also. The praetors could only hold the cothe fabri were expected to vote rather with mitia in the absence of the consuls, or, if the lower classes than with the first class to these were present, only with their permiswhich they were assigned, the first class,with sion. The consuls held the comitia for the the knights, would still have a majority of one appointment of their successors, of the praecentury. The same principle was observed tors, and of the censors. It was necessary when the army was serving in the field. As that seventeen days' notice should be given the centuries of seniores consisted of persons before the comitia were held. This interval 1oeyond the military age, the juniores alone was called a trinundinum, or "the space of are to be taken into the account here. The three market-days" (tres nundinlae,' three first class sent its 40 centuries of juilores, of ninth-days"), because the country people which 30 foirmed the principes and 10 were came to Porne to buy and sell every ninth, or posted among tie triarii, who probably owed rather every eighth day, according to our thcr name to the fact that they were made mode of reckoning, and spent the interval of 96 COMITIA. seven days in the country. The first step in *the passing or rejection of a law, each voter holding the comitia was to take the auspices. received two tabellae: one inscribed U. R., The presiding officer, accompanied by one of i. e. uti rogas, "I vote for the law;" the other the augurs (augure adhibito), pitched a tent inscribed A., i. e. antique, "1 am for the old (tabernaculunt cepit) without the city, for the law." The tabellae were thrown into the cispurpose of observing the auspices. If the tae, or ballot-boxes [CISTA]; and when the tent was not pitched in due form, all the pro- voting was finished, the rogatores collected ceedings of the comitia were utterly vitiated, the tabellae, and handed them over to other and a magistrate elected at them was com- officers, called diribitores, who divided the pelled to abdicate his office. The comitia votes, while a third class of officers, termed might also be broken off by a tempest; by custodes, checked them off by points (puncta) the intercession of a tribune; if the standard, marked on a tablet. Hence puncture is used which was set up in the janiculum, was taken metaphorically to signify "a vote." The rodown; or if any one was seized with the gatores, diribitores, and custodes were generally epilepsy, which was from this circumstance friends of the candidates, who voluntarily called the morbus comitialis. undertook these duties-.' But Augustus selectThe first step taken at the comitia centuriata ed 900 of the equestrian order to perform was forthe magistrate who held themn to repeat these offices. the words of a form of prayer after the augur. The acceptance of a law by the centuriata Then, in the case of an election,-the candi- comitia did not acquire full force till after it dates' names were read, or, in the case of a law had been sactioned by the comitia curiata [but or a trial, the proceedings or bills were read see LEX PUBLILIA], except in the case of a by a herald, and different speakers were heard capital offence against the whole nation, on the subject. The question was put to when they decided alone. them with the interrogation, Velitis, jubeatis, III. The COMITIA TRIBLTA were not esQuirites? Hence the bill was called rogatio, tablished till B. c. 491, when the plebs had and the people were said jubere legem. The acquired some considerable influence in the form of commencing the poll was: -" Si state. They were an assembly of the peovobis videtur, discedite, Quirites;" or " Ite in ple according to the local tribes, into which suffragium, bene jurantibus diis, et quae pa- the plebs was originally divided: for the plebs tres censuerunt, vos jubete." The order in or commonalty took its rise from the formawhich the centuries voted was decided by tion of a domain or territory, and the tribes lot; and that which gave its vote first was of the commonalty were necessarily local, called the centuriapraerogativa. The rest were that is, they had regions corresponding to called jure'vocatae. In ancient times the peo- each of them; therefore, when the territory ple were polled, as at our elections, by word diminished the number of these tribes diminof mouth. But at a later period the ballot ished also. Now, according to Fabius, there was introduced by a set of special enactments were originally 30 tribes of plebeians, that (the leges tabellariae), having reference to the is, as many plebeian tribes as there were different objects in voting. These laws were, patrician curiae. These 30 tribes consisted 1. The Gabinian law, introduced by Gabin- of 4 urban and 26 rustic tribes. But at the ius, the tribune, in B. C. 139. 2. The Cas- admission of the Crustumine tribe, when App. sian law, B. C. 137. 3. The Papirian law in- Claudius with his numerous train of clients troduced by C. Papirius Carbo, the tribune, migrated to Rome, there were only 20 of in B. C. 131. 4. The Caelian law, B. c. 107. these tribes. So that probably the cession of a In voting, the centuries were summoned in third of the territory to Porsena also diminished order into a boarded enclosure (septum or the number of tribes by one-third. [TRIBus.] ovile), into which they entered by a narrow Such being the nature of the plebeian tribes, passage (pons) slightly raised from the ground. no qualification of birth or property was reThere was probably a different enclosure for quisite to enable a citizen to vote in the comitia each century, for the Roman authors gener- tributa; whoever belonged to a given region, ally speak of them in the plural. The tabellae and was in consequence registered in the corwith which they had to ballot were given to responding tribe, had a vote at these comitia. the citizens at the entrance of the pons by They were summoned by the tribuni plebis, certain officers, called rogatores, because they who were also the presiding magistrates, if used, before the ballot was introduced, to ask the purpose for which they were called was (rogare) each century for its vote, and here the election of tribunes or aediles; but conintimidation was often practised. If the busi- suls or praetors might preside at the comitia ness of the day were an election, the tabellae tributa, if they were called for the election of had the initials of the candidates. If it were other inferior magistrates, such as the quaes COMITIA. 97 tor, proconsul, or propraetor, who were also ing may be taken as a probable view of the elected at these comitia. The place of meet- change which was effected. ing was not fixed. It might be the campus The five classes instituted by Servius TulMartius, as in the case of the comitia centu- lius continued to exist, and were divided into riata, the forum, or the circus Flamininus. centuries of seniores and juniores; but the Their judicial functions were confined to classes were in the closest connection with cases of lighter importance. They could not the thirty-five tribes, while formerly the tribes decide in those which related to capital of- existed entirely independent of the census. fences. In their legislative capacity they In this amalgamation of the classes and the passed plebiscita, or "decrees of the plebs," tribes the centuries formed subdivisions of which were originally binding only on them- both; they were parts of the tribes as well selves. At last, however, the plebiscita were as of the classes. There were perhaps 350 placed on the same footing with the leges, by centuries in the thirty-five tribes, and the the Lex Hortensia (B. c. 288), and from this senators and equites voted in the first class time they could pass whatever legislative of each tribe, as seniores and juniores. The enactments they pleased, without or against centuries of fabri and cornicines are no longthe authority of the senate. The influence er mentioned, and the capite censi voted in of the comitia tributa, however, was more di- the fifth class of the fourth city tribe. Each rected towards the internal affairs of the state century in a tribe had one suffragium, and and the rights of the people, while the comitia each tribe contained ten centuries, two (senicenturiata exercised their power more in re- ores and juniores) of each of the five classes. lation to the foreign and external relations The equites were comprised in the first class, of the state, although towards the end of the and voted with it, and were, perhaps, called republic this distinction gradually vanished. the centuries of the first class. The mode of The comitia centuriata were, as we have voting remained, on the whole, the same as seen, in reality an aristocratic, or, as the in the former comitia centuriata. The equites Greeks would say, a timocratic assembly, voted with the senators, but the former ususince the equites and the first class, by the ally among the juniores, and the latter among great number of their centuries, exercised the seniores. The following particulars, howsuch an influence, that the votes of the other ever, are to be observed. We read of apraeclasses scarcely came into consideration. rogativa in these assemblies, and this might Now as patricians and plebeians had gradu- be understood either as a tribus praerogaally become united into one body of Roman tiva, or a centuria praerogativa. But as we citizens with almost equal powers, the neces- know that the votes were given according sity must sooner or later have become mani- to centuries, and according to tribes only fest that a change should be introduced into in cases when there was no difference of the constitution of the comitia of the centu- opinion among the centuries of the same ries in favour of the democratic principle, tribe, we are led to conclude that the praerowhich in all other parts of the government gativa was a century taken by lot from all was gaining the upper hand. The object of the seventy centuries of the first class, two this change was perhaps to form the two co- of which were contained in each of the thirmitia, centuriata and tributa, into one great ty-five tribes, and that all the centuries of the'national assembly. But this did not take first class gave their votes first, that is, after place. A change, however, was introduced the praerogativa. From the plural form praein favour of the democratic principle; but rogativae, it is moreover inferred that it conthe exact nature of this change it is almost sisted of two centuries, and that the two cenimpossible to determine. The time at which turies of the first class contained in the same it was introduced is likewise uncertain; but tribe voted together. The century of the it is clear that it did not take place till after first class drawn by lot to be the praerogativa the time when the number of the thirty-five was usually designated by the name of the tribes was completed, that is, after the year tribe to which it belonged, e. g. Galeria juniB. c. 241, perhaps in the censorship of C. orum, that is, the juniores of the first class in Flaminius (B. c. 220), who is said by Poly- the tribus Galeria. C. Gracchus wished to bius to have made the constitution more de- make the mode of appointing the centuria mocratical. With respect to the nature of praerogativa more democratical, and proposed the alteration, so much is certain, that it con- that it should be drawn from all the five classsisted in an amalgamation of the centuries es indiscriminately; but this proposal was and the tribes; but we are not told in what not accepted. When the praerogativa had way this amalgamation was made. In the voted, the result was announced (renuntiare), absence of all positive testimony, the follow. and the other centuries then deliberated wheI 98 COMITIA. CONGIARIUM. ther they should vote the same way or not. ception of the consuls, and as in addition to After this was done, all the centuries of the this, he recommended to the people those first class voted simultaneously, and not one candidates whom he wished to be elected: after another, as the space of one day would and who would have opposed his wish? Unotherwise not have been sufficient. Next der Augustus the comitia still sanctioned voted in the same manner all the centuries new laws and elected magistrates, but their of the second, then those of the third class, whole proceedings were a mere farce, for and so on, until all the centuries of all the they could not venture to elect any other perclasses had voted. The simultaneous voting sons than those recommended by the empeof all the centuries of one class is sometimes ror. Tiberius deprived the people even of for this very reason expressed by prima, or this delusive power, and conferred the power secunda classis vocatur. When all the centu- of election upon the senate. When the elecries of one class had voted, the result was tions were made by the senate the result was announced. It seems to have happened some- announced to the people assembled as comitimes that all the centuries of one tribe voted tia centuriata or tributa. Legislation was the same way, and in such cases it was con- taken away from the comitia entirely, and venient to count the votes according to tribes was completely in the hands of the senate instead of according to centuries. and the emperor. From this time the comitia The comitia tributa in the latter days of the may be said to have ceased to exist, as all republic acquired supremeimportance, though the sovereign power formerly possessed by the comitia centuriata, with their altered and the people was conferred upon the'emperor more democratical constitution, still contin- by the lex regia. [LEx REGIA.] The peoued to exist, and preserved a great part of pie only assembled in the campus Martius for their former power along with the comitia of the purpose of receiving information as to the tribes. During this time the latter ap- who had been elected or appointed as its mapear to have been chiefly attended by the gistrates, until at last even this announcepopulace, which was guided by the tribunes, ment (renuntiatio) appears to have ceased. and the wealthier and more respectable citi- COMMEA'TUS, a furlough, or leave of abzens had little influence in them. When the sence from the army for a certain time. libertini and all the Italians were incorporated COMMENTA'RIUS or COMMENTA'RIin the old thirty-five tribes, and when the po- UM, a book of memoirs or memorandum-book, litical corruption had reached its height, no whence the expression Caesaris Commentarii. trace of the sedate and moderate character It is also used for a lawyer's brief, the notes was left by which the comitia tributa had of a speech, &c. been distinguished in former times. Violence COMME'RCIUM. [CIVITAS (ROMAN).] and bribery became the order of the day, and COMPITA'LIA, also called LUDI COMthe needy multitude lent willing ears to any PITALI'CII, a festival celebrated once a year instigations coming from wealthy bribers and in honour of the lares compitales, to whom tribunes who were mere demagogues. Sulla sacrifices were offered at the places where two for a time did away with these odious pro- or more ways met. In the time of Augustus, ceedings; since, according to some, he abol- the ludi compitalicii had gone out of fashion, ished the comitia tributa altogether, or, ac- but were restored by him. cording to others, deprived them of the right The compitalia belonged to the feriae conof electing the sacerdotes, and of all their ceptivae, that is, festivals which were celebrated legislative and judicial powers. But the con- on days appointed annually by the magistrates stitution, such as it had existed before Sulla, or priests. The exact day on which this feswas restored soon after his death by Pompey tival was celebrated appears to have varied, and others, with the exception of the juris- though it was always in the winter, generally dictio, which was for ever taken from the at the beginning of January. people by the legislation of Sulla. The peo- CONFARREA'TIO. [MATRIMONIUM.] ple suffered another loss in the dictatorship CONGIA'RIUM (scil. vas, from congius), a of J. Caesar, who decided upon peace and vessel containing a congius. [CoNGIUS.] war himself in connection with the senate. In the early times of the Roman republic He had also the whole of the legislation in the congius was the usual measure of oil or his hands, through his influence with the wine which was, on certain occasions, dismagistrates and the tribunes. The people tributed among the people; and thus congiae thus retained nothing but the election of rium became a name for liberal donations to magistrates; but even this power was much the people, in general, whether consisting of limited, as Caesar had the right to appoint oil, wine, corn money, or other things, while half of the magistrates himself, with the ex- donations made to the soldiers were called CONSUL. 99 donativa, though they were sometimes also consules in B. c. 449, and the latter title retermed congiaria. Congiarium was, moreover, mained in use until the latest periods of the occasionally used simply to designate a pre- Roman empire. The consuls were at first sent or pension given by a person of high rank, elected from the patricians exclusively. Their or a prince, to his friends. office was suspended in B. c. 451, and its funcCO'NGIUS, a Roman liquid measure,which tions were performed by ten high commissioncontained six sextarii, or the eighth part of the ers (decemviri), appointed to frame a code of amphora (=5.9471 pints Eng.). It was equal laws. On the re-establishment of the consulto the larger chous of the Greeks. ship. in B. c. 449, the tribunes proposed that CONNU'BIUM. [MATRIMONIUM.] one of the consuls should be chosen from the CONQUISITO'RES, persons employed to plebeians, but this was strenuously resisted by go about the country and impress soldiers, the patricians, and a compromise effected by when there was a difficulty in completing a suspending the consular office, and creating levy. Sometimes commissioners were ap- in its stead military tribunes (tribuni nmilitum) pointed by a decree of the senate for the pur- with consular power, who might be elected pose of making a conquisitio. indifferently both from the patricians and pleCONSANGUI'NEI. [COGNATI.] beians. They were first appointed ill B. c. 444. CONSECRA'TIO. [APOTHEOSIS.] The plebeians, however, were not satisfied CONSI'LIUM. [CONVENTUS.] with this concession, and still endeavoured to CONSUA'LIA, a festival,with games, cele- attain the higher dignity of the consulship. brated by the Romans, according to Ovid and At length after a serious and long-protracted others, in honour of Consus, the godof secret struggle between the two orders, it was deliberations, or, according to Livy, of Nep- enacted by the Licinian law, in B. c. 367, that tunus Equestris. Some writers, however, say henceforth the consulship should be divided that Neptunus Equestris and Consus were between the patricians ard plebeians, and that only different names for one and the same de- one of the consuls should always be a pleity. It was solemnized every year in the cir- beian. Accordingly, in B. c. 366, L. Sextius cus, by the symbolical ceremony of uncovering was elected the first plebeian consul. This an altar dedicated to the god, which was bu- law, however, was not always observed, and tied in the earth. For Romulus, who was it still frequently happened that both consuls considered as the founder of the festival, was were patricians, until, in later times, when the said to have discovered an altar in the earth difference between the two orders had entirely on that spot. The solemnity took place on ceased, and the plebeians were on a footing of the21stof August withhorse and chariot races, perfect equality with the patricians, the conand libations were poured into the flames suls were elected from both orders indiscrimiwhich consumed the sacrifices. During these nately. festive games horses and mules were not al- During the later periods of the republic it lowed to do any work, and were adorned with was customary for persons to pass through garlands of flowers. It was at their first cele- several subordinate magistracies before they bration that, according to the ancient legend, were elected consuls, though this rule was the Sabine maidens were carried off. departed from in many particular cases. The CONSUL (i7rarof), the title of the two age at which a person was eligible to the conchief officers or magistrates of the Roman re- sulship was fixed in B. c. 180, by the lex anpublic. The word is probably composed of nalis [LEx ANNALIS] at 43. The election of con and sul, which contains the same root as the consuls always took place in the comitia the verb salio, so that consules signifies " those of the centuries, sometime before the expirawho come together," just as praesul means tion. of the official year of the actual consuls, " one who goes before," and exsul, " one who and the election was conducted either by the goes out." The consulship is said to have actual consuls themselves, or by an interrex been instituted upon the expulsion ofthekings or a dictator, and the persons elected, until in B. C. 509, when the kingly power was trans- they entered upon their office, were called conferred to two magistrates, whose office lasted sules designati. While they were designati, only for one year, that it might not degenerate they were in reality no more than private perinto tyranny by being vested longer in the sons, but still they might exercise considersame persons; and for the same reason two able influence upon public affairs, for in the were appointed instead of one king, as neither senate they were asked for their opinion first. could undertake anything unless it was sanc- If they had been guilty of any illegal act, tioned and approved by his colleague. Their either before or during their election, such as.original title was praetores, or commanders of bribery (ambitus) they were liable to prosecuthe armies, but this was changed into that of tion, and the election might be declared void. 100 CON SUL. The time at which-the old consuls laid down I lowed by the lictors; and the one was called their office and the consules designati entered Iduring that month consul major, and the other upon theirs, differed at different times. The consul minor. Other distinctions of the confirst consuls are said to have entered upon suls were the curule chair (sella curulis), and their office in October, then we find mention of the toga with the purple hern (toga praetexta). the 1st of August, of the ides of December, the The ivory sceptre (scipio or sceptrum.) and pur1 st of July, and very frequently of the ides of pie toga were not distinctions of the consuls March, until, in B. C. 153, it became an estab- in general, but only when they celebrated lished rule for the consuls to enter-upon their a triumph. Under the empire a consul was duties on the 1st of January; and this custom sometimes distinguished by the senate with remained down to the end of the republic. a sceptre bearing an eagle on the top, but his On that day the senators, equites, and citizens regular ensigns consisted of the toga picta, of all classes conducted in a procession (de- the trabea, and the fasces, both within and ductio or processus consularis) the new magis- without the city. trates from their residence to the capitol, The consuls were the highest ordinary where, if the auspices were favourable, the magistrates at Rome. Their power was at consuls offered up sacrifices, and were in- first quite equal to that of the kings, except augurated. Thence the procession went to that it was limited to one year, and that the the curia, where the senate assembled, and office of high priest, which had been vested where the consuls returned thanks for their in the king, was at the very beginning deelection. There they might also speak on any tached from the consulship, and given to the subject that was of importance to the republic, rex sacrorum or rex sacrificulus. The auspicia such as peace and war, the distribution of pro- majora, however, continued to belong to the vinces, the general condition of the state, the consuls. This regal power of the consuls, feriae Latinae, and the like. During the first however, was gradually curtailed by various five days of their office they had to convoke a laws, especially by the institution of the tricontio, and publicly to take a solemn oath, by bunes of the plebs, whose province it was to whichin the earliest times, they pledged them- protect the plebeians against the unjust or selves not to allow any one to assume regal oppressive commands of the patrician magispowerat Rome,but afterwards only tomaintain trates. Nay, in the course of time, whole the laws of the republic (in leges jurare). On branches of the consular power were detached the expiration of their office they had to take from it; the reason for which was, that, as another oath, stating that they had faithfully the patricians were compelled to allow the obeyed the laws, and not done anything against plebeians a share in the highest magistracy, the constitution. The new consuls on enter- they stripped it of as much of its original ing upon their office usually invited their power as they could, and reserved these defriends to a banquet. When a consul died tached portions for themselves. In thismanduring his year of office, his colleague imme- ner the censorship was detached from the diately convoked the comitia to elect a new consulship in B. c. 443, and the praetorship one. A consul thus elected to fill a vacancy in B. c. 367. But notwithstanding all this, was called consul suffectus, but his powers the consuls remained the highest magistrates, were not equal to those of an ordinary consul, and all other magistrates, except the tribunes for he could not preside at the elections of of the plebs, were obliged to obey their comother magistrates, not even in the case of the mands, and show them great outward redeath of his colleague. In the latter case, as spect. well as when the consuls were prevented by The functions of the consuls during the illness or other circumstances, the comitia time of the republic may be conveniently dewere held by an interrex or a dictator. scribed under the following heads:-1. They The outward distinctions of the consiuls were in all civil matters the heads of the state, were, with few exceptions, the same as those being invested with the imperium, which emawhich had formerly belonged to the kings. nated from the sovereign people, and which The principal distinction indicative of their they held during the time of their office. In imperium were the twelve lictors with the this capacity they had the right of convoking fasces, who, however, preceded the consuls both the senate and the assembly of the peovnly when they were out of the city. This pie; they presided in each (in the comitia of,utward sign of their power was taken by the curies as well as in those of the centuries), Mhe consuls in turn every month, and while and they took care that the resolutions of the me consul was preceded by the twelve lictors senate and people were carried into effect. vith their fasces, the other was during the They might also convoke contiones, whenever,ame month preceded by an accensus, and fol- they thought it necessary. In the senate CON SUL. 101 they conducted the discussions, and put the appears from early times to have been this questions to the vote, thus exercising the difference: that patricians charged with capgreatest influence upon all matters which were ital offences were tried by the curies, while brought before the senate either by themselves the plebeians came under the jurisdiction of or by others. When a decree was passed by the consuls, whose power, however, was in the senate, the consuls were usually commis- this case rather limited, partly by the intersioned to see that it was carried into effect; cession of the tribunes of the people, and though there are also instances of the consuls partly by the right of appeal (provocatio) from opposing a decree of the senate. the sentence of the consuls. The consuls 2. The supreme command of the armies might, further, summon any citizen before belonged to the consuls alone by virtue of their tribunal, and, in case of disobedience, their imperium. Accordingly, when a war seize him (prendere), and fine him to a certain was decreed, they were ordered by a senatus amount. After the institution of the praetorconsulturn to levy the troops, whose number ship, the consuls no longer possessed any was determined by the senate, and they ap- regular ordinary jurisdiction; and whenever pointed most of the other military officers. they exercised it, it was an exception to the While at the head of their armies they had general custom, and only by a special comfull power of life and death over their soldiers, mand of the senate. who, on their enrolment, had to take an oath 4. Previous to the institution of the cen(sacramentum) to be faithful and obedient to sorship the consuls had to perform all the the commands of the consuls. When the functions which afterwards belonged to the consuls had entered upon their office, the censors: they were accordingly the highest senate assigned them their provinces, that is, officers of finance, held the census, drew up their spheres of action, and the consuls either the lists of the senators, equites, &c. After settled between themselves which province the establishment of the censorship they still each was to have, or, which was more com- retained the general superintendence of the mon, they drew lots. Usually one consul re- public economy, inasmuch as they had the mained at Rome, while'the other went out keys of the aerarium, and as the quaestors or at the head of the army; sometimes both paymasters were dependent on them. But left the city, and carried on war in different still in the management of the finances the quarters; and sometimes, when the danger consuls were at all times under the control was very pressing, both consuls commanded of the senate. the armies against one and the same enemy. 5. In all relations with foreign states the If it was deemed advisable, the imperium of consuls were the representatives of the Roone or both consuls was prolonged for the man republic. Hence they might conclude particular province in which they were en- peace or treaties with foreign nations, which gaged, in which case thev had the title of had, however, to be sanctioned by the senate proconsuls [PRocoNSUL]. and their succes- and people at Rome; and unless this sancsors either remained at Rome or were en- tion was obtained a treaty was void. They gaged in other quarters. During the latter received foreign ambassadors, and introduced period of the republic the consuls remained them into the senate, and in. short all negotiat Rome during the time of their office, and ations with foreign princes or nations passed on its expiration they had a foreign province through their hands. (in the real sense of the word) assigned to 6. In matters connected with their own offithem, where they undertook either the peace- cial functions, the consuls, like allother mnagisful administration, or carried on war against trates, had the power of issuing proclamations internal or external enemies. While in their or orders (edicta), which might be binding provinces, the consuls and proconsuls had either for the occasion only, or remain in force the power of life and death over the provin- permanently. cials, for they were looked upon in their prov- Although the consular power had been grainces as the chief military commanders; and dually diminished, it was in cases of immithe provincials, being peregrini, did not enjoy nent danger restored to its original and full the privileges of Roman citizens. extent, by a decree of the senate calling upon 3. The supreme jurisdiction was part of the consuls videant ne quid res publica detrimenti the consular imperium, and as such vested capiat. In such cases the consuls received in the consuls so long as there were no prae- sovereign power, but they were responsible for tors. In civil cases they administered justice the manner in which they had exercised it. to the patricians as well as plebeians, either it has already been observed, that to avoid themselves as judices, or appointing others as collision and confusion, the two consuls did judices and arbitri. In criminal cases there not possess the same power at the same time, 2 102 CONSULARIS. CONVENTUS. but that each had the imperium every other joyed the insignia of consular dignity,without month. The one who possessed it, as the con- having filled the office of consul. Thus we sul major, exercised all the rights of the office, find commanders of armies and governors though he always consulted his colleague. In of provinces called Consulares under the the earliest times it was customary for the empire. elder of the two consuls to take the imperium CONTUBERNA'LES (uiqKlvot), signifirst, afterwards the one who had had the fled originally men who served in the same greater number of votes at the election, and army and lived in the same tent. Tile word had therefore been proclaimed (renuntiare) first. is derived from taberna (afterwards tabernacuIn the time of Augustus it was enacted that lum), which was the original name for a mnilithe consul who had most children should take taty tent, as it was made of boards (tabulae). precedence of the other; and some distinction Each tent was occupied by ten soldiers (conof rank continued to be observed down to the tubernales); with a subordinate officer at their latest times of the empire. Towards the end head, who was called decanus, and in later. of the republic the consulship lost its power times caput contubernii. and importance. The first severe blow it re- Young Romans of illustrious families used ceived was from Julius Caesar, the dictator, to accompany a distinguished general on his for he received the consulship in addition to expeditions, or to his province, for the purpose his dictatorship, or he arbitrarily ordered of gaining under his superintendence a practiothers to be elected, who were mere nominal cal training in the art of war, or in the adofficers, and were allowed to do nothing with- ministration of public affairs, and were, like out his sanction. He himself was elected con- soldiers living in the same tent, called his sul at first for five, then for ten years, and at contubernales. last for life. Under Augustus the consulship In a still wider sense, the name contuberwas a mere shadow of what it had been: the nales was applied to persons connected by ties consuls no longer held their office for a whole of intimate friendship, and living under the year, but usually for a few months only; and same roof; and hence, when a free man and a hence it happened that sometimes one year slave, or two slaves, who were not allowed to saw six, twelve, or even twenty-five consuls. contract a legal marriage, lived together as Those who were elected the first in the year husband and wife, they were called contuberranked highter than the rest, and their names nales: and their connection, as well as their alone were used to mark the year, according place of residence, contubernium. to the ancient custom of the Romans of mark- CONTUBE'RNIUM. [CONTUBERNALES.] ing the date of an event by the names of the CONVENI'RE IN MANUM. [MATRIconsuls of the year in which the event occur- MONIUM.] red. During the last period of the empire it CONVENTUS, was the name applied to became the practice to have titular or hono- the whole body of Roman citizens who were rary consuls, who were elected by the senate either permanently or for a time settled in a and confirmed by the emperor. Constantine province. In order to facilitate the adminisappointed two consuls, one for Rome and tration of justice, a province was divided into another for Constantinople, who held their a number of districts or circuits, each of which office for a whole year, and whose functions was called conventus, forum, orjurisdictio. Rowere only those of chief justices. All the other man citizens living in a province were entirely consuls were designated as honorarii or consu- under the jurisdiction of the proconsul; and lares. But though the consulship had thus at certain times of the year, fixed by the probecome almost an empty title, it was still re- consul, they assembled in the chief town of the garded as the highest dignity in the empire, district, and this meeting bore the name of and as the object of the greatest ambition. It conventus (rcivodo'). Hence the expressions was connected with very great expenses, -conventus agere, peragere, convocare, dimittere. partly on account of the public games which At this conventus litigant parties applied to a consul had to provide, and partly on account the proconsul, who selected a number of of the large donations he had to make to the judges from the conventus to try their causes. people. The last consul at Rome was Deci- The proconsul himself presided at the trials, mus Theodorus Paulinus, A. D. 536, and at and pronounced the sentence according to the Constantinople, Flavius Basilius, junior, A. D. views of the judges, who were his assessors 541. (consilium or consiliarii). These conventus apCONSULA'RIS, signified under the repub- pear to have been generally held after the prolic, a person who had held the office of con- consul had settled the military affairs of the sul, but under the empire, it was the title of province; at least, when Caesar was proconmany magistrates and public officers,who en- sul of Gaul, he made it a regular practice to CORONA. 103 hold the conventus after his armies had retired siege. It was made of grass, or weeds and to their winter quarters. wild flowers, thence called corona graminea, CONVI'VIUM. [SYMPosIUM.] and graminea obsidionalis, gathered from the CORNU, a wind instrument, anciently spot on which the beleagured army had been made of horn, but afterwards of brass. Like enclosed. the tuba,-it differed from the tibia in being a II. CORONA CIVICA, the second in honour larger and more powerful instrument, and and importance, was presented to the soldier from the tuba itself, in being curved nearly in who had preserved the life of a Roman citizen the shape of a C, with a cross-piece to steady in battle. It was made of the leaves of the oak. the instrument for the convenience of the per- The soldier who had acquired this crown former. It had no stopples or plugs to adjust had a plice reserverl next to the senate at all the scale to any particular mode; the entire the public spectacles; and they, as well as series of notes was produced without keys or the rest of the company, rose up upon his enholes, by the modification of the breath and trance. He was freed from all public burthens, of the lips at the mouth-piece. The classicum, as were also his father, and his paternal grandwhich originally meant a signal, rather than father; and the person who owed his life to the musical instrument which gave the signal, him was bound, ever after, to cherish his prewas usually sounded with the cornu. server as a parent, and afford him all such offices as were due from a son to his father. t7 _ Cornua. CORO'NA (carE-avof), a crown, that is, a circular ornament of metal, leaves, or flowers, worn by the ancients round the head or neck, and used as a festive as well as funereal decoration, and as a reward of talent, military —,' or naval prowess, and civil worth.,' Its first introduction as an honorary reward is attributable to the athletic games, in some m of which it was bestowed as a prize upon the i /t": victor. It was the only reward contended for i by the Spartans in their gymnic contests, and was worn by them when going to battle. )', The Romans refined upon the practice of [:/ J: the Greeks, and invented a great variety of crowns formed of different materials, each with a separate appellation, and appropriated to a particular purpose. I. CORONA OBSIDIONALiS. Amongst the honorary crowns bestowed by the Romans for - military achievements, the most difficult of attainment, and the one which conferred the highest honour, was the corona obsidionalis, presented by a beleaguered army after its liberation, to the general who broke up the Corona Civica. 104 CORONA. III. CORONA NAVALIS or ROSTRATA, called VII. CORONA OVALIS, was given to a com. also CLAssIcA. It is difficult to determine mander who obtained only an ovation. It was whether these were two distinct crowns, or made of myrtle. only two denominations for the same one. It VIII. CORONA OLEAGINA, was made of the seems probable that the navalis corona, besides olive leaf, and conferred upon the soldiers as being a generic term, was inferior in dignity well as their commanders. to the latter, and given to the sailor who first The Greeks in general made but little use boarded an enemy's ship; whereas the rostrata of crowns as rewards of valour in the earlier was given to a commander who destroyed the periods of their history, except as prizes whole fleet, or gained any very signal victory, in the athletic contests; but previous to the At all events, they were both made of gold; time of Alexander, crowns of gold were proand one at least (rostrata) decorated with the fusely distributed, amongst the Athenians at beaks of ships like the rostra in the forum. least, for every trifling feat, whether civil, The Athenians likewise bestowed golden naval, or military, which, though lavished crowns for naval services; sometimes upon without much discrimination as far as regards the person who got his trireme first equipped, the character of the receiving parties, were and at others upon the captain who had his still subjected to certain legal restrictions in vessel in the best order. respect of the time, place, and mode in which IV. CORONA MURALIs,was presented by the they were conferred. They could not be pregeneral to the first man who scaled the wall sented but in the public assemblies, and with of a besieged city. It was made of gold, and the consent, that is by suffrage, of the people, decorated with turrets. or by the senators in their council, or by the V. CORONA CASTRENSIS or VALLARIS, was &ulo6r7at to members of their own 6tLof. Acpresented to the first soldier who surmounted cording to the statement of Aeschines, the'te vallum, and forced an entrance into the people could not lawfully present crowns in enemy's camp. This crown was made of gold, any place except in their assembly, nor the and ornamented with the palisades (valli) used senators except in the senate-house; nor, acin forming an entrenchment. cording to the same authority, in the theatre, VI. CORONA TRIUMPHALIS. There were which is, however, denied by Demosthenes; three sorts of triumphal crowns: the first was nor at the public games, and if any crier there made of laurel or bay leaves, and was worn proclaimed the crowns he was subject to atiround the head of the commander during his mia. Neither could any person holding an triumph; the second was of gold, which, be- office receive a crown whilst he was brei0ving too large and massive to be worn, was vo', that is, before he had passed his accounts. held over the head of the general during his The second class of crowns were embletriumph by a public officer. This crown, as matical and not honorary, and the adoption of well as the former one, was presented to the them was not regulated by law, but custom. victorious general by his army. The third Of these there were also several kinds. kind, likewise of gold and of great value, was I. CORONA SACERDOTALIS, was worn by the sent as a present from the provinces to the priests (sacerdotes), with the exception of the commander. [AURUM CORONARIUM.] pontifex maximus and his minister (camitlus), as well as the bystanders, when officiating at the sacrifice. It does not appear to have been confined to any one material. II. CORONA FUNEBRIS and SEPULCHRALIS. The Greeks first set the example of crowning the dead with chaplets of leaves and flowers, which was imitated by the Romans. Garlands of flowers were also placed upon the bier, or scattered from the windows under which the procession.passed, or entwined about the cinerary urn, or as a decoration to the tomb. In Greece these crowns were commonly made of parsley. III. CORONA CONVIVIALIS. The use of chaplets at festive entertainments sprung like. wise from Greece. They were of various shrubs and flowers, such as roses (which were the choicest), violets, myrtle, ivy, philyra, and Corona Trhimphalis. even parsley. CORVUS. COTHURNES. 105 IV. CORONANIUPTIALLS. Thebridalwreath of the assailant. Another part of the machine was also of Greek origin, among whom it was was a breastwork, let down from the ladder, made of flowers plucked by the bride herself, and serving as a bridge, on which to board the and not bought, which was of ill omen. enemy's vessel. By means of these cranes Amongst the Romans it was made of verbena, the Carthaginian ships were either broken or also gathered by the bride herself, and worn closely locked with the Roman, and Duilius under the flamreurm, with which the bride was gained a complete victory. always enveloped. The bridegroom also wore CORY'TOS or CORY'TUS (yopvr6og, K(oa chaplet. pvrTO), a bow-case. This was worn suspendThe doors of his house were likewise de- ed by a belt over the right shoulder, and it corated with garlands, and also the bridal frequently held the arrows as well as the couch. bow; whence it is often confounded with the V. CORONA NATALITIA, the chaplet sus- pharetra or quiver. pended over the door of the vestibule, both in COSME'TAE, a class of slaves among the houses of Athens and Rome, in which a the Romans, whose duty it was to dress and child was born. At Athens, when the infant adorn ladies. was male, the crown was made of olive; when COSMI (tcoqaoi), the supreme magistrates female, of wool. At Rome it was of laurel, in Crete, were ten in number, and were chosen, ivy, or parsley. not from the body of the people, but from cerCORTI'NA, the name of the table or hollow tain yEvy or houses, which were probably of slab, supported by a tripod, upon which the more pure Doric or Achaian descent than priestess at Delphi sat to deliver her respon- their neighbours. The first of them in rank ses; and hence the word is used for the ora- was called protocosmus, and gave his name to cle itself. The Romans made tables of marble the year. They commanded in war, and or bronze after the pattern of the Delphian also conducted the business of the state with tripod, which they used as we do our side- the representatives and ambassadors of other boards, for the purpose of displaying their plate cities. Their period of office was a year; at an entertainment. These were termed cor- but any of them during that time might retinae Delphicae, or Delphicae simply. sign, and was also liable to deposition by his CORYMBUS (s6pvyu/oo) was a particular colleagues. In some cases, too, they might mode of wearing the hair amongst the Greek be indicted for neglect of their duties. On women; when worn in the same style by the the whole, we may conclude that they formed men it was called crobylus (cpW/3viog). It the executive and chief power in most of the consisted in the hair being drawn up all round cities of Crete. the head from the front and back, and fastened COTHU'RNUS (K6iopvor), a boot. Its vn av'voM tbe tWp- essential distinction was its height; it rose CORVUS, a sort of crane, used by C. Du- above the mi'ble uf t Xe3Wg,so so tu uxxld. ilius against the Carthaginian fleet in the bat- the calf, and sometimes it reached as high as tle fought off Mylae, in Sicily (B. c. 260). The Romans, we are told, being unused to the sea, saw that their only chance of victory was by bringing a sea fight to resemble one on land. For this purpose they invented a machine, of which Polybius has left a minute description. In the fore part of the ship a round pole was fixed perpendicularly, twentyfobur feet in height and about nine inches in diameter; at the top of this was a pivot, upon which a ladder was set, thirty-six feet in length and four in breadth. The ladder was guarded by cross-beams, fastened to the upright pole by a ring of wood, which turned with the pivot above. Along the ladder a rope was passed, one end of which took hold of the corvus by means of a ring. The corvus itself was a strong piece of iron, with a spike at the end, which was raised or lowered by drawing in or letting out the rope. When an enemy's ship drew near, the machine was turned outwards, by means of the pivot, in the directionothuru. 106 COTYLA. CROTALUM. the knees. It was worn principally by horse- half of the sextarius or car7iyt, and contained men, by hunters, and by men of rank and au- 6 cyathi, =.4955 of a pint English. thority. COUCHES. [LECTUS.] Respecting their The sole of the cothurnus was commonly use for reclining on at meals, see ACCUBATIO of the ordinary thickness; but it was some- and TRICLINIUM. times made much thicker than usual, proba- COVI'NUS (Celtic, kowain), a kind of car, bly by the insertion of slices of cork. The the spokes of which were armed with long object was, to add to the apparent stature of sickles, and which was used as a scythe-chathe wearer; and this was done in the case of riot chiefly by the ancient Belgians and Britthe actors in Athenian tragedy, who had the ons. The Romans designated, by the name soles made unusually thick as one of the of covinus, a kind of travelling carriage, methods adopted in order to magnify their which seems to have been covered on all whole appearance. Hence tragedy in general sides with the exception of the front. It had was called cothurnus. no seat for a driver, but was conducted by As the cothurnus was commonly worn in the traveller himself, who sat inside. The hunting, it is represented as part of the cos- covinarii (this word occurs only in Tacitume of Diana. The preceding cut shows tus) seem to have constituted a regular and two cothurni, both taken from statues of distinct part of a British army. Compare Diana. ESSEDUM. COTTABUS (K6rraoSof), a social game CRATER (spa7rp, Ionic Kpnr7p, from Kewhich was introduced from Sicily into Greece, pcivvvut, I mix), a vessel in which the wine where it became one of the favourite amuse- according to the custom of the ancients, who ments of young people after their repasts. very seldom drank it pure, was mixed with The simplest way in which it originally was water, and from which the cups were filled. played was this:-One of the company threw Craters were among the first things on the out of a goblet a certain quantity of wine, at embellishment of which the ancient artists a certain distance, into a metal basin. While exercised their skill; and the number of crahe was doing this, he either thought of or ters dedicated in temples seems everywhere pronounced the name of his mistress; and if to have been very great. all the wine fell in the basin, and with a full CRE'PIDA (cpwrif), a slipper. Slippers sound, it was a good sign for the lover. This were worn with the pallium, not with the simple amusement soon assumed a variety toga, and were properly characteristic of the of different characters, and became in some Greeks, though adopted from them by the instances, a regular contest, with prizes for Romans. the victor. One of the most celebrated modes CRISTA. [GALEA.] in which it was carried on is called dt' 65v/36- CRITES (KptrTf) a judge, was the name frwv. A basin was filled with water, with applied by the Greeks to any person who did small empty cups (iiO3aQa) swimming upon not judge of a thing like a dlKaarjf, accordit. Into these the young men, one after an- ing to positive laws, but according to his own other, threw the remnant of the wine from sense of justice and equity. But at Athens a their goblets, and he who had the good for- number of Kcpcai were chosen by ballot from tune to drown most of the bowls obtained the a number of selected candidates at every celprize, consisting either of simple cakes, sweet- ebration of the Dionysia, and were called ol meats, or sesame-cakes. Cptrai, car' Eoylv. Their office was to judge COTY'TTIA (corrirta) a festival which of the merit of the different choruses and drawas originally celebrated by the Edonians of matic poems, and to award the prizes to the Thrace, in honour of a goddess called Cotys victors. Their number was five for comedy or Cottyto. It was held at night. The wor- and the same number for tragedy, one being ship of Cotys, together with the festival of taken from every tribe. Cotyttia, was adopted by several Greek states, CRO'BYLUS. [CoRYMBUS.] chiefly those which were induced by their CROCO'TA (sc. vestis, Cpoc&o7TV sc. tcacommercial interest to maintain friendly rela- -i7ov, or cpoKCor6f sc. Xt1r7v),. was a kind of tions with Thrace. The festivals of this god- gala-dress, chiefly worn by women on solemn dess were notorious among the ancients for occasions, and in Greece especially, at the the dissolute manner and the debaucheries festival of the Dionysia. Its name was dewith which they were celebrated. rived from crocus, one of the favourite colours CO'TYLA (tcor75r2), a measure of capacity of the Greek ladies. among the Romans and Greeks: by the for- CRO'T ALUM (tKp6ra2ov), a kind of cymmer it was also called hemina; by the latter, bal. It appears to have been a split reed or rovfXiov and huiva or Ilpt.uva. It was the cane, which clattered when shaken with the CULINA. CURATOR. 107 hand. Women who played on the crotalum CULTER ('iXaLtpa, Ko-rif, or alayig), a were termed crotalistriae. The annexed cut knife with only one edge, which formed a represents one of these crotalistriae perform- straight line. The blade was pointed, and ing. its back curved. It was used for a variety of purposes, but chiefly for killing animals either in the slaughter house, or in hunting, or at the altars of the gods. The priest who conducted a sacrifice never killed the victim himself; but one of his ministri, appointed for that purpose who was called either by the general name minister, or the more specific popa or cultrarius. The annexed woodcut represents the tombstone of a cultrarius, with two cultri upon it. / K1Q'rI.VRTI.Q.L M, AENO LALNI Female playing on the Crotala. CVI-TRA.1'. OSSA CROWNS. [CORONA.] MIC. srrA SVNT CUBICULA'RII, slaves who had the care of the sleeping and dwelling-rooms. Faithful slaves were always selected for this office, as they had, to a certain extent, the care of their master's person. It was the duty of the cubicularii to introduce visiters to their master. CUBI'CULUM usually means a sleeping and dwelling room in a Roman house [Do- i Mus], but it is also applied to the pavilion or tent in which the Roman emperors were accustomed to witness the public games. It appears to have been so called, because the Tombstone ofa Cultrarius. emperors were accustomed to recline in the cubicula, instead of sitting, as was anciently CULTRA'RIUS. [CULTER.] the practice, in a sella curulis. CU'NEUS was the name applied to a body CU'BITUS (7rriXvf), a Greek and Roman of foot soldiers, drawn up in the form of a measure of length, originally the length of the wedge, for the purpose of breaking through human arm from the elbow to the wrist, or to an enemy's line. The common soldiers called the knuckle of the middle finger. It was it a caputporcinum, or pig's head. equal to a foot and a half, which gives 1 foot The name cuneus was also applied to the 5.4744 inches Eng. for the Roman, and 1 foot compartments of seats in circular or semi6.2016 inches for the Greek cubit. circular theatres, which were so arranged as CUCULLUS, a cowl. As the cowl was to converge to the centre of the theatre, and intended to be used in the open air, and to be diverge towards the external walls of the drawn over the head to protect it from the building, with passages between each cominjuries of the weather, instead of a hat or partment. cap, it was attached only to garments of the CUNI'CULUS (wvr6vo/og), a mine or pascoarsest kind. The cucullus was elo used sage underground was so called from its reby persons in the higher circles oFsociety, semblance to the burrowing of a rabbit. when they wished to go abroad without being CURA'TOR. Till a Roman youth attained known. the age of puberty, which was generally fixed CU'LEUS, or CU'LLEUS, a Roman mea- at fourteen years of age, he was incapable of sure, which was used for estimating the pro- any legal act, and was under the authority of duce of vineyards. It was the largest liquid a tutor or guardian; but with the attainment measure used by the Romans, containing 20 of the age of puberty, he became capable of amphorae, or 118 gallons, 7.546 pints. performing every legal act, and was freed from CULIYNA'. flDoius.] the control of his tutor, As, however, a per 108 CURRUS. son of that tender age was liable to be imposed (a) The nave (-r2jtv,, modiolus). (b) The upon, the lex Plaetoria enacted that every spokes (KvI7Uat, literally, the legs, radii.) (c) person between the time of puberty and The felly (rrvs). (d) The tire (ktriacrpov twenty-five years of age should be under the canthus). 4. The pole (&5vpz6r, temo). protection of a curator. The date of this lex All the parts above mentioned are seen in is not known, though it is certain that the law the ancient chariot annexed. existed when Plautus wrote (about B. c. 200), who speaks of it as the lex quina vicemaria. This law established a distinction of age, which was of great practical importance, by forming the citizens into two classes, those above and those below twenty-five years of o age (minores viginti quinque annis). A person under the last-mentioned age was sometimes simply called minor. The object of the lex was to protect persons under twenty-five years of age against all fraud (dolus). A person who wasted his property (prodigus), and a person of unsound mind (furiosus, demens), were also placed under the care of a curator. CURATO'RES were public officers of various kinds under the Roman empire, such a as the curatores'annonae, the curatores ludorum, &c. CU'RIA. [CuzIo.] CU'RIAE. [COMITIA CURIATA.] CURIA'TA COMI'TIA. [COMITIA.] CU'RIO. Each of the thirty curiae at Rome [CoMITIA CURIATA] had a president called Curio, who performed the sacred rites, a participation in which served as a bond of union curms. amongst the members. The Curiones themselves, forming a college of thirty priests,were The Greeks and Romans appear never to presided over by the Curio Maximus. More- have used more than one pole and one yoke, over, each of these corporations had its com- and the currus thus constructed was common hall, called curia, in which the citizens monly drawn by two horses, which were atmet for religious and other purposes. But be- tached to it by their necks, and therefore called sides the halls of the old corporations, there di~vyer n'rrol, avV(Jpig, gemini jugzales, equi biwere also other curiae at Rome, used for a juges, &c. If a third horse was added, as was variety of purposes; the most important of not unfrequently the case, it was fastened by which was the curia in which the senate traces. The horse so attached was called generally met; sometimes simply called curia, 7rapvopoC, 7rapdaetpog, aeepao6pof, in Latin, sometimes distinguished by the epithet Hos- funalis, and is opposed to the ~vy-rac or Oytol, tilia, as it was said to have been built by Tul- the yoke-horses. The Latin name for a chariot lus Hostilius. and pair was biga. When a third horse was CURSUS. [CIRCUs, p. 79.] added, it was called triga; and by the same CURU'LIS SELLA. [SELLA.] analogy a chariot and four was called quadriCURRUS (iiSpa), a chariot, a car. These ga; in Greek, Terpaopia or riOpt*riror. terms appear to have denoted those two- The horses were commonly harnessed in a wheeled vehicles for the carriage of persons, quadriga after the manner already representwhich were open overhead, thus differing from ed, the two strongest horses being placed the carpentum, and closed in front, in which under the yoke, and the two others fastened they differed from the cisium. The most es- on each side by means of ropes. This is sential articles in the construction of the cur- clearly seen in the two quadrigae in the nest rus were, 1. The rim (cvrvr:) [ANTYx]. 2. The cut, especially in the one on the right hand. axle (iewv, axis). 3. The wheels KVKiLa, rpo- It represents a chariot overthrown in passing 9o[, rotae), which revolved upon the axle, and the goal at the circus. The charioteer havwere prevented from coming off by the inser- ing fallen backwards, the pole and yoke are tion of pins (geflolot) into the extremities of thrown upwards into the air; the two tracethe axles. The parts of the wheel were: horses have fallen on their knees, and the CYATHUS. CIMBALUM. 109 two yoke-horses are prancing on their hind de~pot. One of the two was of course the legs. driver. He was called irvioxog, because he The currus was adapted to carry two per- held the reins, and his companion 7rapat/i3dr-ri sons, and on this account was called in Greek from going by his side or near him. Quadrigae. In the Homeric ages, chariots were com- CYCLAS (KvIcdS6C), a circular robe worn monly employed on the field of battle. The by women. to the bottom of which a border men of rank all took their chariots with them, was affixed, inlaid with gold. It appears to and in an engagement placed themselves in have been usually made of some thin matefront. rial. CUSTO'DES. [CoMITIA.] CYMBA (KtciP3) is derived from KUzg3or, CY'ATHUS (K6a~o~), a Greek and Roman a hollow, and is employed to signify any liquid measure, containing one-twelfth of the small kind of boat used on lakes, rivers, &c. sextarius, or.0825 of a pint English. The It appears to have been much the same as the form of the cyathus used at banquets was acatium and scapha. that of a small ladle, by means of which the CY'MBALUM (Kc/,u3a)ov), a musical in-' wine was conveyed into the drinking-cups strument, in the shape of two half globes,' from the large vessel (crater) in which it was which were held one in each hand by the mixed. Two of these cyathi are represented performer, and played by being struck against' in the following woodcut. each other. The word is derived from Kcvsugor, a hollow. Cyathl. Woman playing with Cymbal. t10 DAREICUS. DECEMVIRI. The cymbal was a very ancient instrument, DAY. [DIES.] being used in the worship of Cybele, Bacchus, DEBTOR. [NEXUM.] Juno, and all the earlier deities of the Grecian DECE'MPEDA, a pole ten feet long, used and Roman mythology. It probably came by the agrimensores [AGRINTENSOREs] in meafrom the East. For sistrum, which some suring land. Thus we find that the agrihave referred'to the class of cymbala, see Sis- mensores were sometimes called decenmpedaTRUM. tores. DECE'MVIRI, orthe' "ten-inen," the name of various magistrates and functionaries at Rome, of whom the most important were:D. 1. DECEMVIRI LEGIBUS SCRIBEND1S, ten commissioners, who were appointed to draw DAE'DALA (Aaida3La), the name of two up a code of laws. They were entrusted'festivals, celebrated in Boeotia in honour of with supreme power in the state, and all the Juno, and called respectively the Great and other magistrates were suspended. They the Less Daedala. The latter were cele- entered upon their office at the beginning of ~brated by the Plataeans alone; in the cele- the year B. c. 451; and they discharged their bration of the former, which took place only. duties with diligence, and dispensed justice every sixtieth year, the Plataeans were joined with impartiality. Each administered the by the other Boeotians. government day by day in succession as duDAGGERS. [PUGIO; SICA.] ring an interregnum; and the fasces were DANACE (davdceic), properly the name of only carried before the one who presided for a foreign coin, was also the name given to the the day. They drew up a body of laws, disobolos, which was placed in the mouth of tributed into ten sections; which, after being the dead to pay the ferryman in Hades. approved of by the senate and the comitia, DANCING. [SALTATIO.]. were engraven on tables of metal. and set up DAPHNEPHO'RIA (Aaovw06pta), a fes- in the comnitium. On the expiration of their tival celebrated every ninth year at Thebes year of office, all parties were so well satisin honour of Apollo, surnamed Ismenius or fled with the manner in which they had disGalaxius. Its name was derived from the charged their duties, that it was resolved to laurel branches (dtinval) which were carried continue the same formn of government for by those who took part in its celebration. another year; more especially as some of the DARElCUS (dapeltuc), a gold coin of Per- deceinvirs said that their work was not finsia, stamped on one side with the figure of ished. Ten new decemvirs were accordingly an archer crowned and kneeling upon one elected, of whom App. Claudius alone beknee, and on the other with a sort of quad- longed to the formerbody. These magistrates rata incusa or deep cleft. It is supposed framed several new laws, which were apto have derived its name from the first Da- proved of by the centuries, and engraven on reius, king of Persia. It is equal to. about two additional tables. They acted, however, 11. Is. 10ld. 1.76 farthings. in a most tyrannical manner. Each was attended by twelve lictors, who carried not the rods only, but the axes, the emblem of sovereignty. They made common cause with the patrician party, and committed all kinds of | \\ \ I outrages upon the persons and property of the plebeians and their families. When their year of office expired they refused to resign or to appoint successors. At length, the unjust decision of App. Claudius, in the case of Virginia, which led her father to kill her with his own hands to save her from prostitution, occasioned an insurrection of the peo. pie. The decemvirs were in consequence obliged to resign their office, B. C. 449; after which the usual magistracies were re-established. The ten tables of the former, and the two tables of the latter decemvis, form together the laws of the Twelve Tables, which were Dareicus. the groundwork of the Roman laws. This, DECUMAE. DEIPNON. 111 the first attempt to make a code, remained I A similar system existed in Greece also. also the only attempt for near one thousand Peisistratus, for instance, imposed a tax of a years, until the legislation of Justinian. tenth on the lands of the Athenians, which 2. DECEMVIRI SAcaIS FACTUNDIS, some- the Peisistratidae lowered toa twentieth. At times called simply DECEMVIR1 SACRORUM, the time of the Persian war the confederate were the members of an ecclesiastical colle- Greeks made a vow, by which all the states giurn, and were elected for life. Their chief who had surrendered themselves to the enemy duty was to take care of the Sibylline books, were subjected to the payment of tithes for and to inspect them on all important occasions the use of the god at Delphi. by command of the senate. The tithes of the public lands belonging to Under the kings the care of the Sibylline Athens were farmed out as at Rome to conbooks was conammitted to two men (duurmviri) tractors, called delcarc7vat: the term 6tcKaryofhigh rank. On the expulsion of the kings, 2,6yoL was applied to the collectors; but the the care of these books was entrusted to the callings were, as we might suppose, often noblest of the patricians, who were exempted united in the same person. The title rElcarevfrom all military and civil duties. Their numn- rai is applied to both. A 6EK(7Tr, or tenth of her was increased about the year 367 B. c. to a different kind, was the arbitrary exaction ten, of whom five were chosen from the pa- imposed by the Athenians (B. c. 410) on the tricians and five from the plebeians. Subse- cargoes of all ships sailing into or out of the quently their number was still further in- Pontus. They lost it by the battle of Aegoscreased to fifteen (quindecemviri), probably by potami (B. c. 405); but it was re-established Sulla. by Thrasybulus about B. c. 391. The tithe It was also the duty of the decemviri to was let out to farm. celebrate the games of Apollo, and the secular DECU'RIA. [EXERCITUS.] games. DECURIO'NES. [COLONIA; EXERCIDECIMA'TIO, the selection, by lot, of TUS.] every tenth man for punishment, when any DECUSSIS. [As, p. 45a.] number of soldiers in the Roman army had DEDITI'CII, were those who had taken up been guilty of any crime. The remainder arms against the Roman people, and being usually had barley allowed to them instead of conquered,had surrendered themselves. Such wheat. This punishment appears not to have people did not individually lose their freedom, been inflicted in the early times of the republic. but as a community lost all political existence, DECRE'TUM seems to.mean that which and of course had no other relation to Rome is determined in a particular case after exam- than that of subjects. ination or consideration. It is sometimes ap- DEDUCTO'RES. [AMBITUS.] plied to a determination of the consuls, and DEIPNON (0e67rvov), the principal meal sometimes to a determination of the senate. of the Greeks, dinner. The present article is A decretum of the senate would seem to differ designed to give a sketch of Grecian meals from a senatus-consultum, in the way above in- and customs connected with them. dicated: it was limited to the special occa- Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and sion and circumstances, and this would be Odyssey-ariston (dpt7rov), deipnon (6eiirvov), true whether the decretum was of a judicial dorpon (6doprov). The word ariston uniformly or a legislative character. But this distine- means the early, as dorpon does the late meal; tion in the use of the two words, as applied but deipnon, on the other hand, is used for to an act of the senate, was, perhaps, not al- either, apparently without any reference to ways observed. time. DE'CUMAE (sc. partes) formed a portion In the Homeric age it appears to have been of the vectigalia of the Romans, and were paid usual to sit during meal-times. Beef, mutton, by subjects whose territory, either by con- and goat's flesh were the ordinary meats, quest or deditio, had become the property of usally eaten roasted. Cheese, flour, and occathe state (ager publicus). They consisted, as sionally fruits, also formed part of the Homeric the name denotes, of a tithe or tenth of the meals. Bread, brought on in baskets, and produce of the soil, levied upon the cultivators salt (6i2f, to which Homer gives the epithet (aratores) or occupiers (possessores) -of the OElof), are mentioned. lands, which, from being subject to this pay- The Greeks of a later age usually partook ment, were called agri decumani. The tax of of three meals, called acratisma (acKpuert/;ua), a tenth was, however, generally paid by corn ariston, and deipnon. The last, which corlands: plantations and vineyards, as requir- responds to the dorpon of the Homeric poems, ing no seed and less labour, paid a fifth of the was the evening meal or dinner; the ariston produce. was the luncheon; and the acratisma, which 112 DEIPNON. answers to the ariston of Homer,was the early Dorians of Crete always sat; but the other meal or breakfast. Greeks reclined. The Greek women and The acratisma was taken immediately after children, however, like the Roman, continued rising in the morning. It usually consisted to sit at their meals. [ACcuBATIO.] It was of bread, dipped in unmixed wine (diKparog), usual for only two persons to recline on each whence it derived its name. couch. After the guests had placed themNext followed the ariston or luncheon; but selves on the couches, the slaves brought in the time at which it was taken is uncertain. water to wash their hands. The dinner was It is frequently mentioned in Xenophon's Ana- then served up; whence we read of raif'pabasis, and appears to have been taken at dif- r-egaf EifipeLtv, by which expression we are ferent times, as would naturally be the case to understand not merely the dishes, but the with soldiers in active service. We may con- tables themselves. which were small enough elude from many circumstances that this meal to be used with ease. was taken about the middle of the day, and In eating, the Greeks had no knives oi that it answered to the Romanprandiumn. The forks, but made use of their fingers only, exariston was usually a simple meal, but of cept in eating soups or other liquids, which course varied according to the habits of indi- they partook of by means of a spoon, called viduals.'vCivarl, lm)arpov, or vs5arpog. The principal meal was the deipnon. It was It would exceed the limits of this work to usually taken rather late in the day, frequently give an account of the different dishes which not before sunset. were introduced at a Greek dinner, though The Athenians were a social people, and their number is far below those which were were very fond of dining in company. Enter- usually partaken of at a Roman entertaintainments were usually given, both in the ment. The most common food among the heroic ages and later times, when sacrifices Greeks was the adua, a kind of frumenty or were offered to the gods, either on public or soft cake, which was prepared in different private occasions; and also on the anniver- ways. Wheaten or barley bread was the sary of the birthdays of members of the family, second most usual species of food; it was or of illustrious persons,whether living or dead. sometimes made at home, but more usually When young men wished to dine together bought at the market of the dpro7rr- iat or they frequently contributed each a certain dip7oTroDl&6. The vegetables ordinarily eatsum of money, called symbole (av/t3oXui), or en were mallows (fa?4xgq), lettuces (OpitaS), brought their own provisions with them. cabbages, (bdr(tavot), beans (Kiauot), lentils When the first plan was adopted, they were (lacai/), &c. Pork was the most favourite said &Tr6 avf,3o(Sdv 6Eli-veav, and one indivi- animal food, as was the case among the Rodual was usually entrusted with the money mans. It is a curious fact, which Plato has to procure the provisions, and make all the remarked, that we never read in Homer of necessary preparations. This kind of enter- the heroes partaking of fish. In later times,tainment, in which each guest contributed to however, fish was one of the most favourite the expense, is mentioned in Homer under the articles of food of the Greeks. name of'pavog. An entertainment in which A dinner given by an opulent Athenian each person brought his own provisions with usually consisted of two courses, called rehim, or at least contributed something to the spectively 7rpT-rat rpciremat and 6Emerpat rpigeneral stock, was called a de&trvov &irro a7rv- are;at. The first course embraced the whole pidog, because the provisions were brought in of what we consider the dinner, namely, fish, baskets. poultry, Ineat, &c.; the second, which corThe most usual kind of entertainments, responds to our dessert and the Roman bellahowever, were those in which a person invi- ria, consisted of different kinds of fruit, sweetted his friends to his own house. It was ex- meats, confections, &c. pected that they should come dressed with W'hen the first course was finished, the tamore than ordinary care, and also have bathed bles were taken away, and water was given shortly before. As soon as the guests arrived to the guests for the purpose of washing their at the house of their host, their shoes or san- hands. Crowns made of garlands of flowers dais were taken off by the slaves, and their were also then given to them, as well as va. feet washed. After their feet had been wash- rious kinds of perfumes. Wine was not drunk ed, the guests reclined on the couches. It till the first course was finished; but as soon has already been remarked that Homer never as the guests had washed their hands, unmixdescribes persons as reclining, but always as ed wine was introduced in a large goblet, of sitting at their meals; but at what time the which each drank a little, after pouring out change was introduced is uncertain. The a small quantity as a libation. This libation DELPHINIA. DEMUS. 113 was said to be made to the " good spirit" DELUBRUM. [TEMPLUM.] (iyaeoof 6alyovog), and was usually accom- DEMARCHI (6cpuapXot), officers,who were panied with the singing of the paean and the the head-boroughs or chief magistrates of the playing of flutes. After this libation mixed demi in Attica, and are said to have been first wine was brought in, and with their first cup appointed by Clisthenes. Their duties were the guests drank to Atbe' 1orpor. With various and important. Thus, they convened the libations, the deipnon closed; and at the meetings of the demus, and took the votes introduction of the dessert (d6eTrpat rpaT7r- upon all questions under consideration; the) iat) the ir6rog, avtsr6atov, or iceuof comr made and kept a register of the landed es menced, of which an account is given under tates in their districts, levied the monies due SYMPOSIUM. to the demus for rent, &c. They succeeded DE'LIA (XftLa), the name of festivals and to the functions which had been discharged games celebrated in the island of Delos, to by the naucrari of the old constitution. which the Cyclades and the neighbouring DEMENSUM, an allowance of corn, given Ionians on the coasts belonged. The Delia to Roman slaves monthly or daily. It usuhad existed from very early times, and were ally consisted of four or five modii of corn a celebrated every fifth year. That the Athe- month. nians took part in these solemnities at a very DEMINU'T10 CA'PITIS. [CAPUT.] early period, is evident from the Deliastae DEMIURGI (e#zstovpyoi), magistrates, (afterwards called Oeopoi) mentioned in the whose title is expressive of their doing the laws of Solon; the sacred vessel (6eOpi'), service of the people, existed in several of moreover, which they sent to Delos every the Peloponnesian states. Aimong the Eleans year, was said to be the same which Theseus and Mantineans they seem to have been the had sent after his return from Crete. chief executive magistracy. We. also read In the course of time the celebration of this of demiurgi in the Achaian league, who proancient panegyris in Delos had ceased, and bably ranked next to the strategi, and put it was not revived until B. c. 426, when the questions to the vote in the general assembly Athenians, after having purified the island in of the confederates. Officers named epidemithe winter of that year, restored the ancient urgi, or upper demiurgi, were sent by the Cosolemnities, and added horse-races, which rinthians to manage the government of their had never before taken place at the Delia. colony at Potidaea. After this restoration, Athens, being at the DEMO'SII (6duc6atol), public slaves at head of the Ionian confederacy, took the most Athens, who were purchased by the state. prominent part in the celebration of the Delia: The public slaves, most frequently mentioned, and though the islanders, in common with formed the city guard; it was their duty to Athens, provided the choruses and victims, preserve order in the public assembly, and to the leader (&pXteeikpo'), who conducted the remove any person whom the prytanies might whole solemnity, was an Athenian, and the order. They are generally called bowmen Athenians had the superintendence of the (roS6Tat); or from the native country of the common sanctuary. majority, Scythians (icdeate); and also SpeuFrom these solemnities, belonging to the sinians, from the name of the person who first great Delian panegyris, we must distinguish established the force. They originally lived the lesser Delia, which were mentioned above, in tents in the market-place, and afterwards and which were celebrated every year, proba- upon the Areopagus. Their officers had the bly on the 6th of Thargelion. The Athenians name of toxarchs (rb6apXot). Their number on this occasion sent the sacred vessel (0ew- was at first 300, purchased soon after the batp/~), which the priest of Apollo adorned with tle of Salamis, but was afterwards increased laurel branches, to Delos. The embassy was to 1200. called Oewpia; and those who sailed to the DEMUS (c/,uog), originally indicated a disisland, Oe(opoi; and before they set sail a so- trict or tract of land; and in this meaning of lemn sacrifice was offered in the Delion, at a country district, inhabited and under cultiMarathon, in order to obtain a happy voyage. vation, it is contrasted with i-r6?otz. During the absence of the vessel the city of When Clisthenes, at Athens, broke up the Athens was purified, and no criminal was four tribes of the old constitution, he substiallowed to be executed. tuted in their place ten local tribes (pv2a' DELPHI'NIA (JEXmiqvea), a festival of the roirucKa), each of which he subdivided into same expiatory character as the Apollonia, ten demi or country parishes, possessing each which was celebrated in various towns of its principal town; and in some one of these Greece in honour of Apollo, surnamed Del- demi were enrolled all the Athenian citizens phinius. resident in Attica, with the exception, perK 2 114 DENARIUS. DIAETETAE. haps, of those who were natives of Athens the other Roman coins of silver will be of the itself. These subdivisions corresponded in following value:some degree to the naucrariae (vavKpapiat) of Pence. Farth. the old tribes, and were originally one hun- Teruncius........53125 dred in number. Sembella....... 1.0625 These demi formed independent corpora- Libella.... 2.125 tions, and had each their several magistrates, Sestertius.2.5 landed and other property, with a common Quinarius orVictoriatus. 4 1 treasury. They had likewise their respec- Denarius.. 8 2 tive convocations or "parish meetings," con- Some denarii were called serrati, because vened by the demarchi, in which was transact- their edges were notched like a saw, which ed the public business of the demus, such as appears to have been done to prove that they the leasing of its estates, the elections of offi- were solid silver, and not plated; and others cers, the revision of the registers or lists of bigati and quadrigati, because on their reverse &Coz6rat, and the admission of new members. were represented chariots drawn by two and Independent of these bonds of union, each de- four horses respectively. mus seems to have had its peculiar temples DESIGNA'TOR. [FuNuS.] and religious worship. There were likewise DESkrLTOR, a rider in the Roman games, judges, called d&tcaarat Kard &ftuovf, who de- who generally rode two horses at the same cided cases where the matter in dispute was time, sitting on them without a saddle, and of less value than ten drachmae. vaulting upon either of them at his pleasure. Admission into a demus was necessary, be- The annexed woodcut shows three figures of fore any individual could enter upon his full desultores. rights and privileges as an Attic citizen. The register of enrolment was called Xptylapi~tc6v ypa/uyaTreov. DENA'RIUS, the principal silver coin among the Romans, was so called because it was originally equal to ten asses; but on the reduction of the weight of the as [As], it was made equal to sixteen asses, except in mili- N tary pay, in which it was still reckoned as equal to ten asses. The denarius was first coined five years before the first Punic war, B.c. 269. [ARGENTUM.] Desultores DIADE'MA, originaliy a white fillet, used Denarius. to encircle the head. It is represented on the head of Dionysus [see cut, p..], and was, The average value of the denarii coined at in an ornamented form, assumed by kings as the end of the commonwealth is about 8id., an emblem of sovereignty. and those under the empire about 7Jd. DIAETETAE (6&atr7orat), or arbitrators, If the denarius be reckoned,,in value 8id., at Athens, were of two kinds: the one public DICE. 115 and appointed by lot (KaXpcroi), the other DICE' (6icn), signifies generally any pro. private, and chosen (alperoi) by the parties ceedings at law by one party directly or mediwho referred to them the decision of a disputed ately against others. The object of all such point, instead of trying it before a court of actions is to protect the body politic, or one justice; the judgments of both, according to or more of its individual members, from injury Aristotle, being founded on equity rather than and aggression; a distinction which has in law. The number of public arbitrators seems most countries suggested the division of all to have been 40, four for each tribe. Their causes into two great classes, the public and jurisdiction was confined to civil cases. the private, and assigned to each its peculiar DICASTES (&drao'ri), the name of a form and treatment. At Athens the first of judge, or rather juryman, at Athens. The these was implied by the terns public diKat, conditions of his eligibility were, that he or ]y7w)vef, or still more peculiarly by ypaeai; should be a free citizen, in the enjoyment of causes of the other class were termed private his full franchise (E'rt7'tUia), and not less than Siteat, or aywSve-, or simply &iKat in its limited thirty years of age, and of persons so quali- sense. fled six thousand were selected by lot for the In a dicg7, only the person whose rights were service of every year. Their appointment alleged to be affected, or the legal protector took place every year under the conduct of (K6)ptof) of such person, if a minor or otherthe nine archons and their official scribe; each wise incapable of appearing suo jure, was perof these ten personages drew by lot the names mitted to institute an action as plaintiff'; in of six hundred persons of the tribe assigned to public causes, with the exception of some few him; the whole number so selected was again in which the person injured or his family were divided by lot into ten sections of 500 each, peculiarly bound and interested to act, any together with a supernumerary one, consist- free citizen, and. sometimes, when the state ing of a thousand persons, from among whom was directly attacked, almost any alien, was the occasional deficiencies in the sections of empowered to do so. The court fees, called 500 might be supplied. To each of the ten prytaneia, were paid in private but not in pub. sections one of the ten first letters of the al- lic causes, and a public prosecutor that comphabet was appropriated as a distinguishing promised the action with the defendant was mark, and a small tablet (7rtvdstov), inscribed in most cases punished by a fine of a thousand with the letter of the section and the name of drachmae and a modified disfranchisement, the individual, was delivered as a certificate while there was no legal impediment at any of his appointment to each dicast. period of a private lawsuit to the reconciliaBefore proceeding to the exercise of his tion of the litigant parties. functions, the dicast was obliged to swear the The proceedings in the (5~Kc were comofficial oath. This oath being taken, and the menced by a summons (rp6gsicxctq) to the divisions made as above mentioned, it remain- defendant to appear on a certain day before ed to assign the courts to the several sections the proper magistrate (EigayGoyerv), and there of dicasts in which they were to sit. This answer the charges preferred against him. was not, like the first, an appointment in- This summons was often served by the plaintended to last during the year, but took place tiff in person, accompanied by one or two witunder the conduct of the thesmothetae, de nesses (KcXoyriper),whose names were endorsed novo, every time that it was necessary to im- upon the declaration (2,75tf or ey;k7Kua). Bepanel a number of dicasts. As soon as the tween the service of the summons and apallotment had taken place, each dicast re- pearance of the parties before the magistrate, ceived a staff, on which was painted the letter it is very probable that the law prescribed the and the colour of the court awarded him, intervention of a period of five days. If both which might serve both as a ticket to procure parties appeared, the proceedings commenced admittance, and also to distinguish him from by the plaintiff putting in his declaration, and any loiterer that might endeavour clandes- at the same time depositing his share of the tinely to obtain a sitting after business hadhbe- court fees (7rpv-avEra), which were trifling in gun. While in court, and probably from the amount, but the non-payment of which was a hand of the presiding magistrate (/y~yev &dKa- fatal objection to the further progress of a a7OTpiov), he received the token or ticket that cause. When these were paid, it became the entitled him to receive his fee (sLKaTcaT6v). duty of the magistrate, if no manifest obljecThis payment is said to have been first ijisti- tion appeared on the face of the declaration, tuted by Pericles, al was originally a single to cause it to be written out on a tablet, and obolus; it was increased by Clean to thrice exposed for the -inspection of the public on the that amount about the 88th Olympiad. wall or other place that ser-ved as the cause DICE, game of. [TEssERA.] list of his court. 116 DICE. DICTATOR. The magistrate then appointed a day for the the documentary and other evidence, the difurther proceedings of the anacrisis [ANACRI- casts proceeded to give their judgment by sis]. If the plaintiff failed to appear at the ballot. anacrisis, the suit, of course, fell to the When the principal point at issue was deground; if the defendant made default, judg-. cided in favour of the plaintiff, there followed ment passed against him. An affidavit might in many cases a farther discussion as to the at this, as well as at other periods of the ac- fine or punishment to be inflicted on the detion, be made in behalf of a person unable to fendant (-raOeev?i arorfaat). All actions attend upon the given day, and this would, if were divided into two classes,-aydve (rLtiallowed, have the effect of postponing further,prl-o7, suits not to be assessed, in which the proc:eedings (nr/cjyoaia); it might, however, fine, or other penalty, was determined by the be combated by a counter-affidavit, to the laws; and cydveg rtLgroi, suits to be assessed, effect that the alleged reason was unfounded in which the penalty had to be fixed by the or otherwise insufficient (avOwvroeoaiea); and judges. If the suit was an dy(tv rt/oLr6T, a question would arise upon this point, the the plaintiff generally mentioned in the pleaddecision of'which, when adverse to the de- ings the punishment which he considered the fendant,would render him liable to the penalty defendant deserved (riu/yua); and the defendof contumacy. The plaintiff was in this case ant was allowed to make a counter-assesssaid Ep7),tyv Eelve; the defendant, elpsiqrv 06- ment (1vTwrtrTCiaeat or i7roretydcrOat), and to.Zelv, 6invu being the word omitted in both argue before the judges why the assessment phrases. The anacrisis began with the affi- of the plaintiff ought to be changed or mitidavit of the plaintiff (,rpowuyoeia), then fol- gated. In certain causes which were deterlowed the answer of the defendant (avr7- mined by the laws, any of the judges was 1uoaia, or -vrLypa~7b), then the parties pro- allowed to propose an additional assessment duced their respective witnesses, and reduced (rpo'ri-u1ua); the amount of which, howevtheir evidence to writing, and put in originals, er, appears to have been usually fixed by the or authenticated copies, of all the records, laws. Thus, in certain cases of theft, the deeds, and contracts that might be useful in additional penalty was fixed at five days' and establishing their case, as well as memoranda nights' imprisonment. of offers and requisitions then made by either Upon judgment being given in a private side (7rpoKi/,aert.). The whole of the docu- suit, the Athenian law left its execution very ments were then, if the cause took a straight- much in the hands of the successful party, forward course (e6OvtCKia), enclosed on the who was empowered to seize the movables last day of the anacrisis in a casket (EXivoy), of his antagonist as a pledge for the payment which was sealed, and entrusted to the cus- of the money, or institute an action of ejecttody of the presiding magistrate, till it was ment (EfoVd/) against the refractory debtor. produced and opened at the trial. During the The judgment of a court of dicasts was in interval no alteration in its contents was per- general decisive (airt av'rore?7X); but upon mitted, and accordingly evidence, that had i certain occasions, as, for instance, when a been discovered after the anacrisis was not gross case of perjury or conspiracy could be producible at the trial. In some causes, the proved by the unsuccessful party to have optrial before the dicasts was by law appointed erated to his disadvantage, the cause, upon to come on within a given time; in such as the conviction of such conspirators or witnesswere not provided for by snch regulations,we es, might be commenced de novo. may suppose that it would principally depend DICTA'TOR. The name and office of upon the leisure of the magistrate.'Upon the dictator are confessedly of Latin origin: thus court being assembled, the magistrate called we read of a dictator at Tusculum in early, on the cause, and the plaintiff opened his case. at Lanuvium in very late times. At the commencement of his speech, the Among the Romans, a dictator was generproper officer (o E~' Vdop) filled the clepsydra ally appointed in circumstances of extraordiwith water. As long as the water flowed nary danger, whether from foreign enemies from this vessel the orator was permitted to or domestic sedition. Instances occur very speak; if, however, evidence was to be read frequently in the early books of Livy, from by the officer of the court, or a law recited, whom we learn that a dictator was sometimes the water was stopped till the speaker recom- created for the following purposes also:-1. menced. The quantity of water, or, in other For fixing the " clavus ailnalis" on the temwords, the length of the speeches, was differ- ple of Jupiter, in times 1 pestilence or civil ent in different causes. After the speeches discord. 2. For holding the comitia, or elecof the advocates, which were in general two tions, in the absence of the consuls. 3. Foi on each side, and the incidental reading of appointing holydays (feriarum constituenda-rum DICTATOR. DIES. 117 causa) on the appearance (of prodigies, and for investiture with the imperium. In later officiating at the ludi Romrll.i, if the praetor times, however, and after the passing of the could not attend; also for hiolding trials, and Maenian law, the conferring of the imperium on one occasion, for filling up vacancies in was a mere form. Thenceforward it was the senate. only necessary that the consul should consent According to the oldest authorities, the to proclaim the person nominated by the sedictatorship was instituted at Rome in B. C. nate. 501, ten years after the expulsion of the Tar- The authority of a dictator is said to have quinii, and the first dictator was said to have been supreme in everything; but there were been T. Lartius, one of the consuls of the some limitations tohis power. 1. The period year. Another account states, that the con- of office was only six months, and at the end suls of the year in which the first dictator of that time a dictator might be brought to was appointed were of the Tarquinian party, trial for any acts of tyranny committed by him and therefore distrusted. while in power. Many, however, resigned This tradition naturally suggests the infer- their authority before the expiration of the ence, that the dictator was on this first occa- six months, after completing the business for sion appointed to direct and supersede the which they were appointed. 2. A dictator consuls, not only with a view to foreign wars, could not draw on the treasury beyond the but also for the purpose of summarily punish- credit granted him by the senate, nor go out ing any member of the state, whether belong- of Italy, nor even ride on horseback without ing to the commonalty or the governing pa- the permission of the people; a regulation tricians, who should be detected in plotting apparently capricious, but perhaps intended for the restoration of the exiled king. The to show whence his authority came. The powers with which a dictator was invested, usurped powers of the dictators Sulla and will show how far his authority was adequate Julius Caesar are, of course, not to be comfor such an object. pared with the genuine dictatorship. After In the first place, he was formerly called the death of the latter, the office was abolishmagister populi, or master of the patricians or ed for ever by a law of Antony, the consul. burghers; and though created for six months The title, indeed, was offered to Augustus, only, his power within the city was as su- but he resolutely refused it in consequence preme and absolute as that of the consuls of the odium attached to it from the conduct without. In token of this, the fasces and se- of Sulla when dictator; in fact, even during cures (the latter, instruments of capital pun- the later ages of the republic, and for one ishment) were carried before him, even in the hundred and twenty years previous to Sulla's city. Again no appeal against the dictator dictatorship, the office itself had been in was at first allowed either to the commons abeyance, though the consuls were frequently or the burghers, although the latter had, even invested, in time of danger, with something under the kings, enjoyed the privilege of ap- like a dictatorial power, by a senatusconsulpealing from them to the great council of the tum, empowering them to take measures for patricians (provocare ad populumn); a privilege securing the state against harm (at darent opewhich the Valerian laws had secured to the ram ne quid respublica detrimenti caperet). plebeians likewise. This right, however, was Together with the master of the burghers, subsequently obtained by the patricians, and or the dictator, there was always a magister perhaps eventually by the plebeians. equitum, or master of the knights, chosen by the Moreover, no one was eligible for the dic- dictator, though sometimes apparently by the tatorship unless he had previously been con- senate or the people. sul or praetor. The first plebeian dictator DIES (yikEpa), a day. The name dies was was C. Martius Rutilus, nominated by the applied, like our word day, to the time during plebeian consul, M. Popillius Laenas, B. c. which, according to the notions of the ancients, 356. the sun performed his course around the earth, With respect to the mode of election, the and this time they called the civil day (dies common practice was, for the senate to select civilis, in Greek vvXtaepov, because it inan individual, who was nominated (dictus) in cluded both night and day). The natural day the dead of the night by one of the consuls, (dies naturalis), or the time from the rising to and then received the imnperium or sovereign the setting of the sun,was likewise designated authority from the assemnbly of the curies. by the name dies. The civil day began with This ratification was in early times iildispens- the Greeks at the setting of the sun, and with able to the validity of the election, just as it the Romans at midnight. bad been necessary for the kings, even after At the time of the Homeric poems the natutheir election by the curies, to apply to them ral day was divided into three parts. The first, 118 DIES. DIONYSIA. called 5f', began with sunrise, and compre- All the days of the year were, according to hended the whole space of time during which different points of view, divided by the Romans light seemed to be increasing, i. e. till mid-day. into different classes. For the purpose of the The second part was called pegaov Zpuap or administration of justice all days were divided mid-day, during which the sun was thought into diesfasti and dies nefasti. to stand still. The third part bore the name DIES FASTI were the days on which the of de~i27 or deierov s~/ap, which derived its praetor was allowed to administer justice in name from the increased warmth of the at- the public courts; they derived their name mosphere. Among the Athenians the first and from fari (fari ria verba; do, dice, addico). On last of the divisions made at the time of Homer some of the dies fasti comitia could be held, were afterwards subdivided into two parts. but not on all. The regular dies fasti were The earlier part of the morning was termed marked in the Roman calendar by the letter F, 7rp(otor rpc -rn'S/zeLpag: the latter, rwr 0oor7s and their number in the course of the year r7z eayopie, or 7repiT7rZOovcav eiyopdv. The was 38. Besides these there were certain uiecov 7//uap of Homer was afterwards express- days called dies intercisi, on which the praetor ed by/ueary,3oia, ptagov -i7?fpa-, or uecry7 7yu/pa, might hold his courts, but not at all hours, so and comprehended, as before, the middle of that sometimes one half of such a day was the day, when the sun seemed neither to rise fastus,while the other half was nefastus. Their nor to decline. The two parts of the after- number was 65 in the year. noon were called 6dei~s 7rproiy or 7rpeata, and DIES NEFASTI were days on which neither DeL'2A 64d5h or 64/ia. This division continued courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to to be observed down to the latest period of be held, and which were dedicated to other Grecian history, though another more accu- purposes. The term dies nefasti, which origirate division was introduced at an early period; nally had nothing to do with religion, but simfor Anaximander, or, according to others, his ply indicated days on which no courts were to disciple Anaximenes, is said to have made be held, was in subsequent times applied to the Greeks acquainted with the use of the religious days in general, as dies nefasti were Babylonian chronometer or sun-dial (called mostly dedicated to the worship of the gods. ro6d2og or dpoX2uytov), by means of which the In a religious point of view all days of the natural day was divided into twelve equal year were either dies festi, or dies profesti, or spaces of time. dies intercisi. According to the definition given The division of the day most generally ob- by Macrobius, diesfesti were dedicated to the served by the Romans, was that into tempus gods, and spent with sacrifices, repasts, games, antemeridianum and pomeridianum, the meridies and other solemnities; dies profesti belonged itself being only considered as a point at which to men for the administration of their private the one ended and the other commenced. But and public affairs. Dies intercisi were comas it was of importance that this moment mon between gods and men, that is, partly deshould be known, an especial officer [ACCEN- voted to the worship of the gods, partly to the sus] was appointed, who proclaimed the time transaction of ordinary business. of mid-day. The division of the day into Dies profesti were either dies fasti, or dies twelve equal spaces, which were shorter in comitiales, that is, days on which comitia were winter than in summer, was adopted at the held, or dies comperendini, that is, days to time when artificial means of measuring time which any action was allowed to be transwere introduced among the Romans from ferred; or dies stati, that is, days set apart for Greece. This was about the year B.c. 291, causes between Roman citizens and foreignwhen L. Papirius Cursor, after the war with ers; or dies proeliales, that is, all days on which Pyrrhus in southern Italy, brought to Rome religion did not forbid the commencement of a an instrument called solarium horologium, or war. simply solarium. But as the solarium had DIFFAREA'TIO. [DIVORTIUM.] been made for a,different meridian, it showed DIMACHAE (ltucXat),Macedonian horsethe time at Rome very incorrectly. Scipio soldiers, who also fought on foot when occaNasica, therefore, erected in B. c. 159, a pub- sion required, like our dragoons. lic clepsydra, which indicated the hours of DIMINW'TIO CA'PITIS. [CAPUT.] the night as well as of the day. Even after DINNERS, Greek [DEIPNON], Roman the erection of this clepsydra it was custom- [COENA.] ary for one of the subordinate officers of the DIONY'SIA (Atovureta), festivals celebratpraetor to proclaim the third, sixth, and ninth ed in various parts of Greece in honour of hours; which shows that the day was, like Dionysus(Bacchus), and characterized by exthe night divided into four parts, each consist- travagant merriment and enthusiastic joy. ing of three hours. Drunkenness, and the boisterous music of DIONYSIA. 119 flutes, cymbals, and drums, were likewise and the tragedy which arose out of it were common to all Bacchic festivals. In the pro- called rpaytlo6 Xop6S, and rpay)dgia) was cessions called Oiacrot (from Oeia~'), with sacrificed, and a chorus standing around the which they were celebrated, women also took altar sang. the dithyrambic ode to the god. part in the disguise of Bacchae, Lenae, Thy- As the dithyramb was the element out of ades, Naiades, Nymphs, &c., adorned with which, by the introduction of an actor tragegarlands of ivy, and bearing the thyrsus in dy arose [CHORUS], it is natural that, in the their hands, so that the whole train represent- scenic contests of this festival, tragedy should ed a population inspired and actuated by the have preceded comedy. The poet who wished powerful presence of the god. The choruses his play to bebrought outat the Lenaea applied sung on the occasion were called dithyrambs, to the second archon, who had the superinand were hymns addressed to the god in the tendence of this festival, and who gave him the freest metres and with the boldest imagery, in chorus if the piece was thought to deserve it. which his exploits and achievements were The third festival, the Anthesteria, was celextolled. [CHORUS.] The phallus,the sym- ebrated on the 11th, 12th, and 13th days of bol of the fertility of nature, was also carried the month of Anthesterion. The second arin these processions. The indulgence in chon likewise superintended the celebration drinking was considered by the Greeks as a of the Anthesteria, and distributed the prizes duty of gratitude which they owed to the giver among the victors in the various games which of the vine; hence in some places it was were carried onduring the season. The first thoughtacrime to remain sober attheDionysia. day was called rtOotLyia: the second, X6e.: The Attic festivals of Bacchus were four and the third, Xvrpot. The first day derived in number: the Rural or Lesser Dionysia its name from the opening of the casks to (Atoveata car' &ypos6, or yttcpdc), the Lenaea taste the wine of the preceding year; the se(Arva.a), the Anthestcria ('AvOeorjpta), and cond from Xogf, the cup, and seems to have the City or Great Dionysia (Atovaca etv eacrec, been the day devoted to drinking. The third (rilcKa or /eydia). The season of the year day had its name from VirpoC, a pot, as on sacred to Bacchus was during the months this day persons offered pots with flowers, nearest to the shortest day; and the Attic fes- seeds, or cooked vegetables, as a sacrifice to tivals were accordingly celebrated in Poseide- Bacchus and Hermes (Mercury) Chthonius. on,Gamelion, Anthesterion, and Elaphebolion. It is uncertain whether dramas were perThe Rural or Lesser Dionysia, a vintage fes- formed at the Anthesteria; but it is supposed tival, were celebrated in the various demes of that comedies were represented, and that traAttica in the month of Poseideon, and were gedies which were to be brought out at the under the superintendence of the several local great Dionysia were perhaps rehearsed at the magistrates, the demarchs. This was doubt- Anthesteria. The mysteries connected with less the most ancient of all, and was held with the celebration of the Anthesteria were held the highest degree of merriment and freedom; at night. even slaves enjoyed full freedom during its The fourth festival, the City or Great Diocelebration, and their boisterous shouts on the nysia, was celebrated about the 12th of the occasion were almost intolerable. It is here month of Elaphebolion; but we do not know that we have to seek for the origin of comedy, whether they lasted more than one day or in the jests and the scurrilors abuse which not. The order in which the solemnities the peasants vented upon the bystanders from took place was as follows:-the great public a waggon in which they rode about. The procession, the chorus of boys, the comus Dionysia in the Peiraeeus, as well as those of [CHoRUS], comedy, and, lastly, tragedy. Of the other demes of Attica, belonged to the the dramas which were performed at the lesser Dionysia. great Dionysia, the tragedies at least were The second festival, the Lenaea (from?,7v6t, generally new pieces; repetitions do not, howthe wine-press, from which also the month ever, seem to have been excluded from any of Gamelion was called by the Ionians Lenae- Dionysiac festival. The first archon had the on), was celebrated in the month of Game- superintendence, and gave the chorus to the lion; the place of its celebration was the an- dramatic poet who wished to bring out his cient temple of Bacchus Limnaeus (from piece at this festival. The prize awarded to!Viiuv, as the district was originally a swamp). the dramatist for the best play consisted of a'this temple was called the Lenaeon. The crown, and his name was proclaimed in the Lenaea were celebrated with a procession theatre of Bacchus. As the great Dionysia and scenic contests in tragedy and comedy. were celebrated at the beginning of spring, The procession probably went to the Lerae- when the navigation was re-opened, Athens on, where a goat (rpdiyoc, hence the chorus was not only visited by numbers of country 120 DIONYSIA. DISCUS. people, but also by strangers from other parts of Bacchus, the Liberalia (from Liber, or Liof Greece, and the various amusements and ber Pater, a name of Bacchus), continued to exhibitions on this occasion were not unlike be celebrated at Rome every year on the 16th those of a modern fair. of March. Priests and aged priestesses, The worship of Dionysus, whom the Ro- adorned with garlands of ivy, carried through mans called Bacchus, or rather the Bacchic the city wine, honey, cakes, and sweetmeats, mysteries and orgies (Bacchanalia), are said together with an altar with a handle (ansata to have been introduced from southern Italy ara), in the middle of which there was a small into Etruria, and from thence to Rome, where fire-pan (foculus), in which from time to time for a time they were carried on in secret, and, sacrifices were burnt. On this day Roman during the latter period of their existence, at youths who had attained their sixteenth year night. The initiated, according to Livy, not received the toga virilis. only indulged in feasting and drinking at their DIO'TA, a ves-el having two ears (6Sra) or meetings, but when their minds were heated handles, used for holding wine. It appears with wine they practised the coarsest excess- to have been muclh the same as the amphora. es and the most unnatural vices. The time [AMPHORA.] of initiation lasted ten days; on the tenth, DIPLO'MA, a writ or public document, the person who was to be initiated took a so- which conferred upon a person any right or lemn meal, underwent a purification by wa- privilege. During the republic, it was grantter, and was led into, the sanctuary (Baccha- ed by the consuls and senate; and under the nal). At first only women were initiated, and empire, by the emperor and the magistrates the orgies were celebrated every year during whom he authorized to do so. It consisted three days. But Pacula Annia, a Campanian of two leaves, whence it derived its name. matron, pretending to act under the direct DIPTYCHA (di7'r-vXa), two writing tabinfluence of Bacchus, changed the whole lets, which could be folded together. They method of celebration: she admitted men to were commonly made of wood and covered the initiation, and transferred the solemniza- over with wax. tion, which had hitherto taken place during DIRIBITO'RES, officers in the comitia, the daytime, to the night. Instead of three whose duty it was to divide the votes (tabeldays in the year, she ordered that the Bac- lae), when taken out of the cistae, or ballotchanalia should be held during five days in boxes, so as to determine which had the maevery month. It was from that time that jority. They handed them over to the custhese orgies were carried on with frightful todes, who checked them off by points marked licentiousness and excesses of every kind. on a tablet. The evil at length became so alarming, that, DISCUS (iaKof), a circular plate of stone in B. C. 186, the consuls, by the command of or metal, made for throwing to a distance as the senate, instituted an investigation into the nature and object of these new rites. The result was that numerous persons were arrested, and some put to death; and that a decree of the senate was issued, commanding that no Bacchanalia should be held either in Rome or Italy; that if any one should think such ceremonies necessary, or if he could not neglect them without scruples or making atonements, he should apply to the praetor urbanus, who might then consult the senate. If the permission should be granted to him in an assembly of the senate, consisting of not less than one hundred members, he might solemnize the Bacchic sacra; but no more than five persons were to be present at the celebration; there should be no common fund and no master of the sacra or priest. A brazen table containing this important document was discovered near Bari, in southern Italy, in the year 1640, and is at present in the imperial Museum of Vienna. While the Bacchanalia were thus suppressed, another more simple and innocent festival Throwing the Discus. DIVINATIO. 121 an exercise of strength and dexterity. It was purpose, and by which they were thought to one of the principal gymnastic exercises of indicate the success or the failure of the unthe ancients, being included in the Pentathlum. dertaking. For this kind of divination no diThe preceding woodcut represents a player vine inspiration was thought necessary, but with the discus, and is copied from an ancient merely experience and a certain knowledge statue by Myron. acquired by routine; and although in some DISPENSA'TOR. [CALCULATOR.] cases priests were appointed for the purpose DITHYRAMBUS. [CHORUS.] Of observing and explaining signs [AUGUR; D1VERSO'RIUM. [CAUPONA.] HARUSPEX], yet on any sudden emergency, DIVINA'TIO (,uavrTc1K), a power in man especially in private affairs, any one who met which foresees future things by means of with something extraordinary, might act as those signs which the gods throw in his way. his own interpreter. The principal signs by Among the Greeks the manteis (,uvretc), which the gods were thought to declare their or seers, who announced the future, were will, were things connected with the offering supposed to be under the direct influence of of sacrifices, the flight and voice of birds, all the gods, chiefly that of Apollo. In many kinds of natural phenomena, ordinary as well families of seers the inspired knowledge of as extraordinary, and dreams. the future was considered to be hereditary, The interpretation of signs of the first class and to be transmitted from father to son. To (iepoauavreia or iepoCarKoria, haruspicium or ars these families belonged the Iamids, who from haruspicina) was, according to Aeschylus; the Olympia spread over a considerable part of invention of Prometheus. It seems to have Greece; the Branchidae, near Miletus; the been most cultivated by the Etruscans, among Eumolpids, at Athens and Eleusis; the Tel- whom it was raised into a complete science, liads, the Acarnanian seers, and others. Along and from whom it passed to the Romans. Sawith the seers we may also mention the Ba- crifices were either offered for the special purcides and the Sibyllae. Both existed from a pose of consulting the gods, or in the ordinary very remote time, and were distinct from the way; but in both cases the signs were obmanteis so far as they pretended to derive served, and when they were propitious, the their knowledge of the future from sacred sacrifice was said Kca2ltepelv. The principal books (Xptloyoi) which they consulted, and points that were generally observed were, 1. which were in some places, as at Athens and The manner in which the victim approached Rome, kept by the government or some espe- the altar. 2. The nature of the intestines cial officers, in the acropolis and in the most with respect to their colour and smoothness; revered sanctuary. The Bacides are said to the liver and bile were of particular importance. have been descended from one or more pro- 3. The nature of the flame which consumed phetic nymphs of the name of Bacis. The th4 sacrifice. Especial care was also taken Sibyllae were prophetic women, probably during a sacrifice, that no inauspicious or of Asiatic origin, whose peculiar custom frivolous words were uttered by any of the seems to have been to wander with their sa- bystanders: hence the admonitions of the cred books from place to place. The Sibylla, priests, e bge7-erE and eioghyzUa, or GItydre, whose books gained so great an importance atw7rdrre, favete linguis, and others; for imat Rome, is reported to have been the Ery- proper expressions were not only thought to thraean: the books which she was said to pollute and profane the sacred act, but to be have sold to one of the Tarquins were care- unlucky omens. fully concealed from the public, and only ac- The art of interpreting signs of the second cessible to the duumvirs. class was called oi ovlar7i', augurium, or ausBesides these more respectable prophets picium. It was, like the former, common to and prophetesses, there were numbers of di- Greeks aind Romans, but never attained the viners of an inferior order (Xpnaruo2L6yot), who same degree of importance in Greece as it did made it their business to explain all sorts of in Rome. [AusPiciuM.] The Greeks, when signs, and to tell fortunes. They were, how- observing the flight of birds, turned their face ever, more particularly popular with the lower toward the north, and then a bird appearing orders, who are everywhere most ready to be- to the right (east), especially an eagle, a heron, lieve what is most marvellous and least en- or a falcon, was a favourable sign; while titled to credit. birds appearing to the left (west) were conNo public undertaking of any consequence sidered as unlucky signs. was ever entered upon by the Greeks and Ro- Of greater importance than the appearance mans without consulting the will of the gods, of animals, at least to the Greeks, were the by observing the signs which they sent, espe- phenomena in the heavens, particularly during cially those in the sacrifices offered for the any public transaction. Among the unlucky L 122 DIVORTIUM. DOCIMASIA. phenomena in the heavens (dtoaueita, signa, marriage. If, upon this, both parties were or portenta) were thunder and lightning, an satisfied, the divorce was final and complete: eclipse of the sun or moon, earthquakes, rain if otherwise, an action c&ro~eiecho, or &7roof blood, stones, milk, &c. Any one of these 7rgEoewS, would be instituted, as the case signs was sufficient at Athens to break up the might be, by the party opposed to the separaassembly of the people. In common life, tion. A separation, however, whether it orithings apparently of no importance, when oc- ginated from the husband or the wife, was curring at a critical moment, were thought by considered to reflect discredit on the latter. the ancients to be signs sent by the gods, from 2. ROMAN. Divorce always existed in the which conclusions might be drawn respecting Roman polity. As one essential part of a marthe future. Among these common occurrences riage was the consent and conjugal affection we may mention sneezing, twinkling of the of the parties, it was considered that this afeyes, tinkling of the ears, &c. fection was necessary to its continuance, and The art of interpreting dreams (ovetpotro- accordingly either party might declare his or aia),which had probably been introduced into her intention to dissolve the connection. No Europe from Asia, where it is still a universal judicial decree, and no interference of any practice, seems in the Homeric age to have public authority, was requisite to dissolve a been held in high esteem, for dreams were marriage. The first instance of divorce at said to be sent by Jupiter. In subsequent times, Rome is said to have occurred about B. c. 234, that class of diviners who occupied them- when Sp. Carvilius Ruga put away his wife, selves with the interpretation of dreams, on the ground of barrenness; it is added that seems to have been very numerous and popu- his conduct was generally condemned. lar; but they never enjoyed any protection Towards the latter part of the republic, and from the state, and were chiefly resorted to under the empire, divorces became very comrn by private individuals. The subject of oracles mno. Pompey divorced his wife Mucia for is treated in a separate article. [ORACULUM.] alleged adultery; and Cicero divorced his The word divinatio was used in a particular wife Terentia, after living with her thirty manner by the Romans as a law-term. If in years, and married a young woman. If a any case two or more accusers came forward husband divorced his wife, the wife's dowry, against one and the same individual, it was, as a general rule, was restored; and the same as the phrase ran, decided by divination, who was the case when the divorce took place by should be the chief or real accuser, whom the mutual consent. others then joined as subscriptores; i. e. by put- Corresponding to the forms of marriage by ting their names to the charge brought against confarreatio and coemtio, there were the forms the offender. This transaction, by which one of divorce by diffarreatio and remancipatio. In of several accusers was selected to conduct course of time, less ceremony was used; but the accusation, was called divinatio, as the still some distinct notice or declaration ot question here was not about facts, but about intention was necessary to constitute a disomething which was to be done, and which vorce. could not be found out by witnesses or written The term repudium, it is said, properly apdocuments; so that the judices had, as it were, plies to a marriage only contracted, and divorto divine the course which they had to take. tiuum to an actual marriage; but sometimes 1Hence the oratio of Cicero, in which he tries divortium and repudium appear to be used into show that he, and not Q. Caecilius Niger, differently. The phrases to express a divorce ought to conduct the accusation against Ver- are, nuncium remittere, divortium facere; and res, is called Divinatio in Caeciliura. the form of words might be as follows —Tuas DIVI'SOR. [AMBITus.] res tibi habeto, tuas res tibi agito. The phrases DI VO'RTIUM (i7r62netmtf, ('tvi7rZrptgtf), di- used to express the renunciation of a marriage vorce. 1. GREEK. The laws of Athens per- contract were, renuinctiare repudium., repudium mitted either the husband or the wife to call for remittere, dicere, and repudiare; and the form and effect a divorce. If it originated with the of words might be, Conditione tua non utor. wife, she was said to leave her husband's house DOCIMA'SIA (docetyaaia). When any citi(UroXei~retrv); if otherwise, to be dismissed zen of Athens was either appointed by lot, or from it (7ro7rw7rea6at). After divorce, the chosen by suffrage, to hold a public office, he wife resorted to her male relations,withwhom was obliged, before entering on his duties, to she would have remained if she had never submit to a docimasia, or scrutiny into his prequitted her maiden state; and it then became vious life and conduct, in which any person their duty to receive or recover from her late could object to him as unfit. The docimasia, husband all the property that she had brought however, was not confined to persons apto him in acknowledged dowry upon their pointed to public offices; for we read of the DOMUS. 123 denouncement of a scrutiny against orators tended by a dog. Hence the phrase e3.2a,Se3 who spoke in the assembly while leading pro- aOat r7jv Kcva, corresponding to the Latin fligate lives, or after having committed flagi- Cave cane7n. tious crimes. From the Ovpopelov we pass into the peri DO'LIUM, a cylindrical vessel, somewhat style or court (7reptarUi2tov, a?2ij) of the anresembling our tubs or casks, into which new dronitis, whichi was a space open to the sky wine was put to let it ferment. in the centre (i7ratOpov), and surrounded on D)OMI'NIUM signifies quiritarian owner- all four sides by porticoes (aroai), of which ship, or property in a thing; and dominus, or one, probably that nearest the entrance, was dominus legitiemus, is the owner. The dominus called 7rpoeo6ov. These porticoes were used has the power of dealing with a thing as he for exercise, and sometimes for dining in. pleases, and differs from the bare possessor, Here was cornmonlvy the altar on which sacriwho has only the right of possession, and has fices were offered to the household gods. In not the absolute ownership of the thing. building the porticoes the object sought was DOMUS (OLcKO), a house. 1. GREEK. A to obtain as nuch sun in winter, and asmuch Greek house was always divided into two dis- shade and air in summer, as possible. tinct portions, the Andronitis, or men's apart- Round the peristyle were arranged the ments (vwdpdvi~rmt), and the Gynaeconitis, or chambers used by the men, such as banquetwomen's apartments (yvvatKcvirtg). In the ing rooms (ocKOt, dvdpcSve),which wvere large earliest times, as in the houses referred to by enough to contain several sets of couches Homer, and in some houses at a later period, (rpiKstvot, eirricZtvot, TpaIcovrciK2avot), and the women's apartments were in the upper at the same time to allow abundant room for story (v7rep,5ov), but usually at a later time attendants, musicians, and performers ot the gyrnaeconitis was on the same story with games; parlours or sitting rooms (kdsdpat), the anldronitis, and behind it. and smaller chambers and sleeping rooms The front of the house towards the street (oydairta, Co vg, s ootr i'u, oltaa); picture-galwas not large, as the apartments extended leries and libraries, and sometimes storerather in the direction of its depth thani of its rooms; and in the arrangement of these apartwidth. In towns the houses were often built ments attention was paid to their aspect. side by side, with party-walls between. The The peristyle of the andronitis was conexterior wall was plain, being composed gene- nected with that of the gynaeconitis by a door rally of stone, brick, and timber, and often called krav2og, yuaeavkoC, or,ureaa2utoc, covered with stucco. which was in the middle of the portico of the There was no open space between the street peristyle opposite to the entrance. By means and the house-door, like the Roman vestibulum. of this door all communication between the The,rp6ovpa, which is sometimes mentioned, andronitis and gynaeconitis could be shut off. seems to be merely the space in front of the Accordingly Xenophon calls it OSpa ia;3avtohouse. JIn front of the house was generally r6f. Its name I$aav3xof is evidently derived an altar of Apollo Agyieus, or a rude obelisk from pyvoy, and means the door between the emblematical of the god. Sometimes there two avuai or peristyles. was a laurel tree in the same position, and This door gave admittance to the peristyle sometimes a head of the god Mercury. of the gynaeconitis, which differed from that A few steps (iva,3a6uoi) ledup to the house- of the andronitis in having porticoes round door, which generally bore some inscription, only three of its sides. On the fourth side for the sake of a good omen, or as a charm. were placed two antae [ANTAE], at a consiThe door sometimes opened outwards; but derable distance from each other. A third of this seems to have been an exception to the the distance between these antae was set off general rule, as is proved by the expressions inwards, thus forming a chamber or vestibule, used for opening, mvdodval, and shutting it, which was called r'poCrdf, -rapacrfi, 7rpdE7rtaroaaaeat and rpeZsKdaaOat. The han- dpogof. On the right and left of this 7rpoar7f dies were called i'rta7raar7pe. were two bedchambers, the OdeLaayof and The house-door was called aZetof or av- &zyutOd;tay/of, of which the former was the 2eta Ompa, because it led to the aity6. It gave principal bedchamber of the house, and here admittance to a narrow passage (Ovpaperov, also seem to have been kept the vases, and 7rv;udv, OvpSv), on one side of which, in a other valuable articles of ornament. Beyond large house, were the stables, on the other these rooms were large apartments (iar7Cveg) the porter's lodge. The duty of the porter used for working in wool. Round the (Ovpopp6f) was to admit visiters and to pre- peristyle were the eating-rooms, bed-chamvent anything improper from being carried bers, store-rooms, and other apartments in into or out of the house. The porter was at- common use. 124 DOMUS. Besides the ai5eto' ONspa and the yugoavof In the interior of the house the place o, Oatpa, there was a third door (Ic7ralia ftjpa) doors was sometimes supplied by curtains leading to the garden. (7rapaerda/eyaT), which were either plain, The following is a conjectural plan of the or dyed, or embroidered. ground-floor of a Greek house of the larger The principal ope!ings for the admission size. of light and air were in the roofs of the periKl styles; but it is incorrect to suppose that the houses had no windows (Ovpide~), or at least XI. n. i I. dlnone overlooking the street. They were not at all uncommon. - T a- p G. iArtificial warmth was procured partly by _,'.- - --—: means of fire-places. It is supposed that 4]: I j / chimneys were altogether unknown, and that the smoke escaped through an opening in the roof (Ka'vod6/ci), but it is not easy to understand how this could be the case when it. * e{ ]e i ~ ~ there was an upper story. Little portable stoves (~oxdpat, Eo'aapideC) or chafingdishes (cvOpd(lota) were frequently used. The houses of the wealthy in the country, at least in Attica, were much larger and more 0.a. Ic. 0magnificent than those in the towns. The ~ca _ L_ 1latter seem to have been generally small and plain, especially in earlier- times, when F i~ ]LF o.O. the Greeks preferred expending the resources *o A of art and wealth on their temples and public buildings; but the private houses became s. 0. more magnificent as the public buildings be_0. 1.. * * @gan to be neglected. The decorations of the interior were very plain at the period to which our description 0. refers. The floors were of stone. At a late period coloured stones were used. Mosaics are first mentioned under the kings of Pergamus. The walls, up to the 4th century B. c., Ground Plan of a Greek House. seemed to have been only whited. The first a, House-door, aVUertof OSpa: Ovp, passage, instance of painting them is that of AlcibiOupcpeZov or OvpOv: A, peristyle, or aiNl of ades. This innovation met with considerathe andronitis; o, the halls and chambers of ble opposition. We have also mention of the andronitis; zu,,uravof or.ueaavXof Oipa; painted ceilings at the same period. At a F, peristyle of the gynaeconitis; y, chambers later period this mode of decoration became of the gynaeconitis; *ar, 7rpoCarf or 7rapaarcif; general. 0, Odayog and 6ylot0dayAaof; I, rooms for 2. ROMAN. The houses of the Romans working in wool (iar6vtE); K, garden-door, were poor and mean for many centuries after icyrraia Oi5pa. the foundation of the city. Till the war with There was usually, though not always, an Pyrrhus the houses were covered only with upper story (i7repoov, dO7per), which seldom thatch or shingles, and were usually built of extended over the whole space occupied,y woodorunbakedbricks. ltwasnottillthelater the lower story. The principal use of tibe times of the republic, when wealth had been upper story was for the lodging of the slaves acquired by conquests in the East, that houses The access to the upper floor seems to have of any splendour began to be built; but it been sometimes by stairs on the outside of then became the fashion not only to build the house, leading up from the street. Guests houses of an immense size, but also to adorn were also lodged in the upper story. But in them with columns, paintings, statues, and some large houses there were rooms set apart costly works of art. for their reception (revjver') on the ground- Some idea may be formed of the size and floor. magnificence of the houses of the Roman noThe roofs were generally flat, and it was bles during the later times of the republic by customary to walk about upon them. the price which they fetched. The consul DOMUS. 125 Messala bought the house of Auttonius for impluvium, which was frequently ornament, 3700 sestertia (nearly 33,0001.), and Cicero ed with statues, columns, and other works the house of Crassus, on the Palatine, for of art. The word impluvium, however, is 3500 sestertia (nearly 31,0001.) The house also employed to denote the aperture in the of Publius Clodius, whom Milo killed, cost roof. 14,800 sestertia (about 131,0001.); and the The atrium was the most important room Tusculan villa of Scaurus was fitted up with in the house, and among the wealthy was such magnificence, that when it was burnt usually fitted up with much splendour and by his slaves, he lost 100,000 sestertia, up- magnificence. Originally it was the only sitwards of 885,0001. ting-room in the house; but in the houses of Houses were originally only one story high; the wealthy it was distinct from the private but as the value of ground increased in the apartments, and was used as a reception-room, city they were built several stories in height, where the patron received his clients, an& and the highest floors were usually inhabited the great and noble the numerous visiteit by the poor. Till the time of Nero, the streets who were accustomed to call every morning in Rome were narrow and irregular, and bore to pay their respects or solicit favours. But traces of the haste and confusion with which though the atrium was not used by the the city was built after it had been burnt by wealthy as a sitting-room for the family, it the Gauls; but after the great fire in the time still continued to be employed for many purof that emperor, by which two-thirds of Rome poses which it had originally served. Thus was burnt to the ground, the city was built the nuptial couch was placed in the atrium with great regularity. The streets were made opposite the door, and also the instruments straight and broad; the height of the houses and materials for spinning and weaving,which was restricted, and a certain part of each was were formerly carried on by the women of required to be built of Gabian or Alban stone, the family in this room. Here. also the imawhich was proof against fire. ages of their ancestors were placed, and the The principal parts of a Roman house were focus or fire-place, which possessed aSlacred the, 1. Vestibuluin, 2. Ostium, 3. Atrium, or character; being dedicated to the Lares of Cavrum Aedium, 4. Alae, 5. Tablinum, 6. Fau- -each family. ces, 7. Peristqlium. The parts ofa house which 4. ALAE, wings, were small apartments or were considered of less importance, and of recesses on the left and right sides of the which the arrangement differed in different atrium. houses, were the, 1. Cubicula, 2. Triclinia, 5. TABLINUM was in all probability a re3. Oeci, 4. Exedrae, 5. Pinacotheca, 6. Biblio- cess or room at the farther end of the atrium theca, 7. Balineum, 8. Culina, 9. Coenacula, opposite the door leading into the hall, and 10. Diaeta,. 11. )Solaria. We shall speak of was regarded as part of the atrium. It coneach in order. tained the family records and archives. 1. VESTIBULUM did not properly form part With the tablinum the Roman house apof the house, but was a vacant space before pears to have originally ceased; and the the door, forming a court, which was sur- sleeping-rooms were probably arranged on rounded on three sides by the house, and was each side of the atrium. But when the atriopen on the fourth to the street. um and its surrounding rooms were used for 2. OSTIUM, which is also called janua and the reception of clients and other public visfores, was the entrance to the house. The iters, it became necessary to increase the size street-door admitted into a hall, to which the of the house; and the following rooms were name of ostium was also given, and in which accordingly added:there was frequently a small room (cella) for 6. FAucEs appear to have been passages, the porter (janitor or ostiarius), and also for a which passed from the atrium to the peristydog, which was usually kept in the hall to lium or interior of the house. guard the house. Another door (janua inte- 7. PERISTVLITUM was in its general form rior) opposite the street-door led into the like the atrium, but it was one-third greater atrium. in breadth, measured transversely, than in 3. ATRIUM or CAVuMR AEDIUTM, also written length. It was a court open to the sky in the Cavaedium, are probably only different names middle; the open part, which was surrounded of the same room. by columns, was larger than the impluvium The Atrium or Cavum Aedium was a large in the atrium, and was frequently decorated apartment roofed over with the exception of with flowers and shrubs. an opening in the centre, called compluvium, The arrangement of the rooms, which are towards which the roof sloped so as to throw next to be noticed, varied according to the the rain-water into a cistern in the floor, termed taste and circumstances of the owner. It is l 2 126 DOMUS. therefore impossible to assign to them any, The preceding account of the different regular place in the house. rooms, and especially of the arrangement of 1. CUBICULA, bed-chambers, appear to have the atrium, tablinum, peristyle, &c., is best been usually small. There were separate illustrated by the houses which have been discubicula for the day and night; the latter interred at Pompeii. The ground-plan of one were also called dormitoria. is accordingly subjoined. 2. TRICLINIA are treated of in a separate article. [TRICLINIUM.] 3. OECI, from the Greek olicot, were spacious halls or saloons borrowed from the Greeks, and were frequently used as triclinia. They were to have the same proportions's triclinia, but were to be more spacious on 4i~ount of having columns,, which triclinia had not. 4. EXEDRAE were rooms for conversation and the other purposes of society. 5. PXACOTHECA, a picture-gallery. 6, 7.-BIBLIOTHECA and BALINEUM are treated- of in separate articles. 8.'OULINA, the kitchen. The food was 5._ originally cooked in the atrium; but the protress of refinement afterwards led to the use of another part of the house for this purpose. 9. QOENACULA, properly signified rooms to dine ii; but after it became the fashion to dine i'the upper part of the house, the whole of the rooms above the ground-floor were called. _ = coenacula. 10. DIAETA, an apartment used for dining in, and for the other purposes of life. It appears to have been smaller than the triclinium. 1 Diacta is also the name given by Pliny to rooms containing three or four bed-chambers (cubicula). Pleasure-houses or summer-houses are also called diaetae. 11. SOLARIA, properly places for basking in Ground Plan of a Roman House. the sun, were terraces on the tops of houses. Like most of the other houses at Pompeii, The cut annexed represents the atrium of a it had no vestibulum according to the meanhouse at Pompeii. In the centre is the implu- ing given above. 1. The ostium or entrancevium, and the passage at the further end, is hall, which is six feet wide and nearly thirty the ostium or entrance hall. long. Near the street-door there is a figure of a large fierce dog worked in mosaic on the pavement, and beneath it is written Cave Cax~ nem. The two large rooms on each side of /I ffice, and which was intended to apply to all it is not quite certain when this propertycases to which it was applicable, during the tax was introduced; but it seems to have rear of his office: hence it was sometimes colme first into general use abou.t n. c. 428. It called also annmmua lcx. Until it became the could never be raised without a decree of tlhe practice for magistratus to adopt the edicta people, who also assigned the amount reof their predecessors, the edicta could not quired; and the strategi, or generals, superiorform a body of permanent binding rules; but tended its collection, and presided in the when this practice became common,the edicta courts where disputes connected with, or (edictumn tralatitium) soon constituted a large arising from, the levying of the tax were setbody of law, which was practically of as much tied. The usual expressions for paying this importance as any other part of the law. property-tax are: ele,.oetv Xpytara, eLgofEICOSTE' (eioK06or), a tax or duty of one. peyv eiC r7v r6T2Erom', El.' -'i ae otrpiav T-g twentieth (five per cent.) upon all commodi-:d2.r opa, tof, opdgf EifpEpe'lt, and those who ties exported or imported by sea in the states paid it were called ei er rCOpovrer. of the allies subject to Athens. This tax was The census of Solon was at first the staldfirst imposed u. c. 413; in the place of the dii- ard according to which the eisphora was raised,;ect tribute which had up to this time been until in B. c. 3,7 a new census was instituted, paid by the subject allies; and the change in which the people, for the purpose of fixing was made with the hope of raising a greater the rates of the property-tax, were dividedl revenue. This tax, like all others, was farm- into a number of svmmoriae (avtyeopiat) or ed, and the farmers of it were called t'Kitoro- classes, similar to those which were aftero67yot. wards made for the trierarchy. Each of the EIREN or IREN (eaipfv or ip1jv), the name ten tribes or phylae, appointed 120 of its given to the Spartan youth when he attained wealthier citizens; and the whole number of the age of twenty. At the age of eighteen he persons included in the synmmoriae was thus emerged from childhood, and was called jI.e2- 1200, who were considered as the representa-?e.ipqv. When he had attained his twentieth tives of the whole republic. This body of year, he began to exercise a direct influence 1200 was divided into four'classes, each conover his juniors, and was entrusted with the sisting of 300. The first class, or the richest, command of troops in battle. The word ap- were the leaders of the symmoriae (ijYEx6ve, pears to have originally signified acommander. tZrz,Uop.rv), and are often called the three The ip9vef mentioned in Herodotus, in con- hundred. They probably conducted the pronection with the battle of Plataeae, were cer- ceedings of the symmoriae, and they, or,which tainly not youths, but commanders. is more likely, the demarchs, had to value the EISANGE'LIA (eifayyeia), signifies, in taxable property. Other officers were apits primrarv and'most general sense, a denin- uointed to make out the lists of the rates, aind 132 ELEUSINIA. were called tlrtypaokr~e, dlaypaolecZ or 1K02o- j Eleusinia are descriptions of a period. when yepZ. When the wants of the state were the inhabitants of Attica were becoming acpressing, the 300 leaders advanced the money quainted with the benefits of agriculture and to the others, who paid it back to the 300 at of a regularly constituted form of society. the regular time. The first class probably In the reign of Erechtheus a war is said to consisted of persons who possessed property have broken out between the Athenians and from 12 talents upwards: the second class, Eleusirnians; and when the latter were deof persons who possessed property from 6 feated, they acknowledged the supremacy of talents and upwards, but under 12: the third Athens in everything except the mysteries, class, of persons who possessed property from which they wished to conduct and regulate 2 talents upwards, but under 6: the fourth for themselves. Thus the superintendence class, of persons who possessed property from remained with the descendants of Eumolpus 25 minae upwards, but under 2 talents. The [EUMOLPIDAE], the daughters of the Eleurate of taxation was higher or lower accord- sinian king Celeus, and a third class of priests, ing to the wants of the republic at the time; the Ceryces, who seem likewise to have been we have accounts of rates of a 12th, a 50th, connected with thefamilyofEumolpus,though a 100th, and a 500th part of the taxable pro- they themselves traced their origin to Mercu ry perty. and Aglauros. If any one thought that his property was At the time when the local governments of taxed higher than that of another man on the several townships of Attica were concenwhom juster claims could be made, he had trated at Athens, the capital became also the the right to call upon this person to take the centre of religion, and several deities who had office in his stead, or to submit to a complete hitherto only enjoyed a local worship, were exchange of property. [A-TIDOSIS.] NO now raised to the rank of national gods. This Athenian, on the other hand, if belonging to seems also to have been the case with the the tax-paying classes, could be exempt from Eleusinian goddess,for in the reign of Theseus the eisphora, not even the descendants of HIar- we find mention of a temple at A thens, called mlodius and Aristogeiton. Eleusinion, probably the new and national ELEVEN, The. [HENDECA.] sanctuary of Ceres. Her priests and priestELEUS1'NIA (fEevuivla), a festival and esses now became naturally attached to the mysteries, originally celebrated only at Eieu- national temple of the capital, though her sis in Attica, in honour of Ceres and Pro- original place of worship at Eleusis, with serpina. The Eleusinian mysteries, or the which so many sacred associations were conmysteries, as they were sometimes called, nected, still retained its importance and its were the holiest and most venerable of all special share in the celebration of the national that were celebrated in Greece. Various tra- solemnities. ditions were current among the Greeks, re- We must distinguish between the greater specting the author of these mysteries; for, Eleusinia, which were celebrated at Athens while some considered Eumolpus or Musaeus and Eleusis, and the lesser, which were held to be their founder, others stated that they at Agrae on the Ilissus. The lesser Eleusihad been introduced from Egypt by Erech- nia were only a preparation (wrpotcciOapetf or theus, who at a time of scarcity provided 7rpocyvevart) for the real mysteries. They his country with corn firom Egypt, and im- were lleld every year in the month of Anthesported from the same quarter the sacred rites terion, and, according to some accounts, in and mysteries of Eleusis. A third tradition honour of Proserpina alone. Those who attributed the institution to Ceres herself, were initiated in them bore the name of Myswho, when wandering about in search of her tae (tLvGrat), and had to wait at least another daughter, Proserpina, was believed to have year before they could be admitted to the come to Attica, in the reign of Erechtheus, to great mysteries. The principal rites of this have supplied its inhabitants with corn, and first stage of initiation consisted in the sacrito have instituted the mysteries at Eleusis. fice of a sow, which the mystae seem to This last opinion seems to have been the most have first washed in the Cantharus, and in common among the ancients, and in subse- the purification by a priest, who bore the quent times a stone was shown near the well name of Hydranos ('TYdpav6f), The mystae Callichoros at Eleusis, on which the goddess, had also to take an oath of secrecy, which overwhelmed with grief.and fatigue, was be- was administered to them by the M.ystageogus lieved to have rested on her arrival in Attica. (Utvar zyy6f, also called lepoCivrT77f or Trpo. All the accounts and allusions in ancient rT7Vi-i), and they received some kind of pre. writers seem to warrant the conclusion, that paratory instruction,which enabled them after, the legends concerning the introduction of the wards to understand the mysteries which ELEUSINIA. 1 33 were revealed to them in the great Eleu- missed by the words Kc6y:, Juifras, in order to sinia. make room for other mystae. The great mysteries were celebrated every On the seventh day the initiated returned year in the month of Boedromion, during to Athens amid various kinds of raillery and nine days, from the 15th to the 23d, both at jests, especially at the bridge over the CephiAthens and Eleusis. The initiated were sus, where they sat down to rest, and poured called E'r67rat or gevpot. On the first day, forth their ridicule on those who passed by. those who had been initiated in the lesser Hence the words yecvpiretv and yteovpt/zu6g. Eleusinia, assembled at Athens. On the se- These aicy/ultara seem, like the procession cond day the mystae went in solemn proces- with torches to Eleusis, to have been dramasion to the sea-coast, where they underwent tical and symbolical representations of the a piufication. Of the third day scarcely any- jests by which, according to the ancient lething is known with certainty; we are only gend, Iambe or Baubo had dispelled the grief told that it was a day of fasting, and that in of the goddess and made her smile. We may the evening a frugal meal was taken, which here observe, that probably the whole history consisted of cakes made of sesame and honey. of Ceres and Proserpina was in some way On the fourth day the Kcd2taOog Kc0o6of seems or otherSymbolically represented at the Eleuto have taken place. This was a procession sinia. The eighth day, called Epidauria ('Ertwith a basket containing pomegranates and daeptra), was a kind of additional day for poppy-seeds; it was carried on a waggon those who by some accident had come too drawn by oxen, and women followed with late, or had been prevented from being initismall mystic cases in their hands. On the ated on the sixth day. It was said to have fifth day, which appears to have been called been added to the original number of days, the torch day (a -'tv oa/2Ledciodv /Mipa), the when Aesculapius, coming over from Epidaumystae, led by the dadovyog, went in the rus to beinitiated,arrivedtoo late, and the Atheevening with torches to the temple of Ce- nians, not to disappoint the god, added an res at Eleusis, where they seem to have eighth day. The ninth and last day bore the remained during the following night. This name of 7r7aj3yoXoai from a peculiar kind of rite was probably a symbolical representa- vessel called 7rXngoyor, which is described tion of Ceres wandering about in search of as a small kind of c67'V2?o~. Two of these Proserpina. The sixth day, called Iacchos, vessels were on this day filled with water or was the most solemn of all. The statue of wine, and the contents of the one thrown to Iacchos, son of Ceres, adorned with a gar- the east, and those of the other to the west, land of myrtle and bearing a torch in his hand, while those who performed this rite uttered was carried along the sacred road amidst joy- some mystical words. ous shouts and songs, from the Ceramicus The Eleusinian mysteries long survived to Eleusis. This solemn procession was ac- the independence of Greece. Attempts to companied by great numbers of followers and suppress them were made by the emperor spectators. During the night from the sixth Valentinian, but he met with strong opposito the seventh day the mystae remained at tion, and they seem to have continued down Eleusis, and were initiated into the last mys- to the time of the elder Theodosius. Reteries (Uirorireia). Those who were neither specting the secret doctrines which were re-'Er67rr7(t nor icr9rat were sent away by a vealed in them to the initiated, nothing cerherald. The mystae now repeated the oath tain is known. The general belief of the of secrecy which had been administered to ancients was, that they opened to man a comthem at the lesser Eleusinia. underwent a forting prospect of a future state. But this new purification, and then they were led by feature does not seem to have been originally the mystagogus in the darkness of night into connected with these mysteries, and was prothe lighted interior of the sanctuary (ptora- bably added to them at the period which folyoyia), and were allowed to see (avroibia) lowed the opening of a regular intercourse what none except the epoptae ever beheld. between Greece and Egypt, when some of the The awful and horrible manner in which the speculative doctrines of the latter country, initiation is described by later, especially and of the East, may have been introduced Christian writers, seems partly to proceed into the mysteries, and hallowed by the names from their ignorance of its real character, of the venerable bards of the mythical age. partly from their horror of and aversion to This supposition would also account, in some these pagan rites. The more ancient writers measure, for the legend of their introduction always abstained from entering upon any de- from Egypt. In modern times many attempts 4cription of the subject. Each individual, have been made to discover the nature of the after his initiation, is said to have been dis- mysteries revealed to the initiated, but the.1 134 EMBLEMA. EMISSARIUM. results have been as various and as fanciful laid ornament. The art of inlaying was emas might be expected. The most sober and ployed in producing beautiful works of two probable view is that, according to which, descriptions, viz:-1st, Those which resem" they were the remains of a worship which bled our marquetry, boule, and Florentine preceded the rise of the Hellenic mythology mosaics; and 2dly, those in which crusts and its attendant rites, grounded on a view (crustae), exquisitely wrought in bas-relief and of nature, less fanciful, more earnest, and bet- of precious materials, were fastened upon the ter fitted to awaken both philosophical thought surface of vessels or other pieces of furniture. and religious feeling." To the latter class of productions belonged ELEUTHE'RIA (.revtprta), the feast of the cups and plates which Verres obtained liberty, a festival which the Greeks, after the by violence from the Sicilians and from which battle of Plataeae (479 B. C.), instituted in ho- he removed the emblems for the purpose of nour of'Jupiter Eleutherius (the deliverer). It having them set in gold instead of silver. was intended not merely to be a token of their EME,'RITI, the name given to those Rogratitude to the god to whom they believed man soldiers who had served out their time, themselves to be indebted for their victory and had exemption (vacatio) from military serover the barbarians, but also as a bond of vice. The usual time of service was twenty union arnong themselves; for, in an assembly years for the legionary soldiers, and sixteen of all the Greeks, Aristides carried a decree for the praetorians. At the end of their period that delegates ('rpi/3ov;ot Icai OErpoi) from of service they received a bounty or reward all the Greek states should assemble every (emeritun), either in lands or money, or in year at Plataeae for the celebration of the both. Eleutheria. The town itself was at the same EMISSA'RIUM, an artificial channel f'ormtime declared sacred and inviolable, as long as ed to carry off any stagnant body of water, its citizens offered the annual sacrifices which like the sluices in modern use. Some works were then instituted on behalf of Greece. of this kind are among the most remarkable Every fifth year these solemnities were celebrated with contests, in which the victors were rewarded with chaplets. EMANCIPA'TlO, was an act by which the patria potestas was dissolved in the life-, r time of the parent, and it was so called be-'\ - - _ - / / cause it was in the form of a sale (mancipatio). - N 3/ I By the laws of the Twelve Tables it was i- K'. i- X''!//? necessary that a son should be sold three i times in order to be released from the paternal power, or to be sui?uris. In the case of daughters and grandchildren, one sale was sufficient. The father transferred the son by the form of a sale to another person, who " manumitted him, upon which he returned \ into the power of the father. This was repeated, and with the like result. After a third sale, the paternal power was extinguish- I/ t, ed, but the son was re-sold to the parent, I who then manumittedt him, and so acquired / "'/' " the rights of a patron over his emancipated son, which would otherwise have belonged /l!l to the purchaser who gave him his final man-i iili i umission. I 1\19 wig! ii EMBAS (EaLc), a shoe worn by men, I which is frequently mentioned by Aristophanes and other Greek writers. This appears to have been the most common kind of shoe { - worn at Athens. Pollux says it was invented I \, by the Thracians, and that it was like the |,4. low cothurnus. The uL,83C was also worn by the Boeotianls, and probably in other parts of Greece. EMBLE'MA (y,3A77ya. w,.T7ratCla),) an in- Emiesarium. EPANG ELIA. EPHEBUS. 135 efforts of Roman ingenuity. That through punishment, it was of course desirable that which the waters of the lake Fucinus dis- such individuals, like real atimi, should be excharged themselves into the Liris, is repre- cluded from the exercise of the rights of citisente(l in the preceding woodcut. zens. WVhenever, therefore, such a person EMPO'RIIJM (7r CE77rroiltov), a place for ventured to speak in the assembly, any Athewholesale trade in commodities carried by sea. nian citizen had the right to come forward in The name is sometimes applied to a sea-port the assembly itself, and demand of him to estown, but it properly signifies only a particular tablish his right to speak by a trial or examiplace inr such a town. The word is derived nation of his conduct (do0Kta6oia 70o t3iov), from [u ropo~, which signifies in Horner a and this demand, denouncement, or threat, person who sails as a passenger in a ship was called epangelia or epangelia docimasias belonging to another person; but in later (Eraeyyeina dolctyuaiag). The impeached inwriters it signifies the merchant or wholesale dividual was then compelled to desist from dealer, and differs from dc7r7a2of, the retail speaking, and to submit to a scrutiny into his dealer. conduct, and, if he was convicted, a formal The emporium at Athens was under the in- declaration of atimia iollowed. spection of certain officers, who were elected EPHE'BUS (b7y3oo), the name of Atheannually (E7rtruereai rov efropiov). nian youths after they had attained the age ENDEIXIS (Ev6rtztF). properly denotes a of 18. The state of ephebeia (ry0letcia) lasted prosecution instituted against such persons as for two years, till the youths had attained the were alleged to have exercised rights or held age of 20, when they became imen, and were offices while labouring under a peculiar dis- admitted to share all the rights and duties of qualification. The.same form of action was citizens, for which the law did not prescribe a available against the chairman of the proedri more advanced age. (ElrmrdiT7g), who wrongly refused to take the Before a youth was enrolled among the votes of the people in the assembly; against ephebi, he had to undergo a docimasia (dolrmalefactors, especially murderers; traitors, /acia), the object of which was partly to asambassadors accused of malversation, and per- certain whether he was the son of Athenian sons who furnished supplies to the enemy du- citizens, or adopted by a citizen, and partly ring war. The first step taken by the prose- whether his body was sufficiently developed cutor was to lay his information in writing, and strong to undertake the duties which also called endeixis, before the proper magis- now devolved upon him. After the docimasia traqe, who then arrested, or held to bail, the the young men received in the assembly a person criminated, and took the usual steps shield and a lance; but those whose fathers for bringing him to trial. Therq is great ot- had fallen in the defence of their country rescurity with respect to the punishment which ceived a complete suit of armour in the thea followed condemnation. The accuser, if tre. It seems to have been oil this occasion unsuccessful, was responsible for bringing that the ephebi took an oath in the temple a malicious charge (inevrdobv ivdeieiCr vi7rev- of Diana Aglauros, by which they pledged Ovvo~). themselves rever to disgrace their arms or to E'NDROMIS (EvSpol~f), a thick coarse desert their comrades; to fight to the last in blanket, manufactured in Gaul, and called the defence of their country, its altars and " endromlis," because those who had been ex- hearths; to leave their country not in a worse ercising in the stadium (ev dp6,ua) threw it but in a better state than they found it; to over them to obviate the effects of sudden obey the magistrates and the laws; to resist exposure when they were heated. Notwith- all attempts to subvert the institutions of Atstanding its coarse and shaggy appearance, tica; and finally, to respect the religion of it was worn on other occasions as a protec- their forefathers. This solemnity took place tion from the cold by rich and fashionable towards the close of the year, and the festive persons at Rome. season bore the name of ephebia('07ri3ta). The ENSIGNS, MILITARY. [SIGNA MILI- external distinction of the ephebi consisted in TARIA.] the chlamys arid the petasus. ENS[S. [GLADTUS.] During the two years of the ephebeia.which EPA'NGELI A (Errayye-ia). If a citizen may be considered as a kind of apprenticeship of Athens had incurred atimia, the privilege of in arms, and in which the young men prepared taking part or speaking in the public assem- themselves for the higher duties of full citibly was forfeited. But as it sometimes might zens. they were generally sent into the country, happen that a person, though not formally de- under the larne of peripoli (repi7roX2ot), to keep dared atimus, had committed such crimes as watch in the towns and fortresses, on the would, on accusation, draw upon him this coast and frontier, and to perform other duties 136 EPHORI. EPIBATAE. which might be necessary for the protection In later times the power of the ephors was of Attica. greatly increased; and this increase appears EPHEGE'SIS (E7y7yustc), denotes the me- to have been principally owing to the fact, thod of proceeding against such criminals as that they put themselves in connection with were liable to be summarily arrested by a pri- the assembly of the people, convened its meetvate citizen [APAGOGE] when the prosecutor ings, laid measures before it, and were constiwas unwilling to expose himself to personal tuted its agents and representatives. When risk in apprehending the offender. Under this connection arose is matter of conjecture. these circumstances he made an application The power which such a connection gave to the proper magistrate, and conducted him would, more than anything else, enable them and his officers to the spot where the capture to encroach on the royal authority, and make was to be effected. themselves virtually supreme in the state. E'PHETAE (poerat), the name of certain Accordingly, we find that they transacted busijudges at Athens,who tried cases of homicide. ness with foreign ambassadors; dismissed They were fifty-one in number, selected from them from the state; decided upon the governnoble families, and more than fifty years of ment of dependent cities; subscribed in the age. They formed a tribunal of great antiquity, presence of other persons to treaties of peace; and were in existence before the legislation of and in time of war sent out troops when they Solon, but, as the state became more and more thought necessary. In all these capacities the democratical, their duties became unimportant ephors acted as the representatives of the naand almost antiquated. tion, and the agents of the public assembly, EPHORI (NEopot). Magistrates called being in fact the executive of the state. In Ephori or overseers were common to many course of time the kings became completely Dorian constitutions in times of remote anti- under their control. For example, they fined quity; but the ephori of Sparta are the most Agesilaus on the vague charge of trying to celebrated of them all. The origin of the make himself popular, and interfered even Spartan ephori is quite uncertain, but their with the domestic arrangements of other office in the historical times was a kind of kings. In the field the kings were followed counterpoise to the kings and council, and in by two ephors, who belonged to the council that respect peculiar to Sparta alone of the of war; the three who remained at home reDorian states. Their number, five, appears ceived the booty in charge, and paid it into the to have been always the same, and was pro- treasury, which was under the superintend bably connected with the five divisions of the ence of the whole College of Five. But the town of Sparta, namely, the four cdtat, Lim- ephors had still another prerogative, based on nae, Mesoa, Pitana, Cynosura, and the I62,tr a religious foundation, which enabled them to or city properly so called, around which the effect a temporary deposition of the kings. IKtuat lay. They were elected from and by Once in eight years, as we are told, they chose the people, without any qualification of age or a calm and cloudless night to observe the property, and without undergoing any scru- heavens, and if there was any appearance of tiny; so that the people enjoyed through them a falling meteor, it was believed to be a sign a participation in the highest magistracy of that the gods were displeased with the kings, the state. They entered upon office at the who were accordingly suspended from their autumnal solstice, and the first in rank of the functions until an oracle allowed of their refive gave his name to the year, which was storation. The outward symbols of supreme called after him in all civil transactions. authority also were assumed by the ephors; They possessed judicial authority in civil and they alone kept their seats while the kings suits, and also a general superintendence over passed; whereas it was not considered below the morals anddomestic economy of the nation, the dignity of the kings to rise in honour of which in the hands of able men would soon the ephors. prove an instrument of unlimited power. When Agis and Cleomenes undertook to Their jurisdiction and power were still far- restore the old constitution, it was necessary ther increased by the privilege of instituting for them to overthrow the ephoralty, and acscrutinies (evrvvat) into the conduct of all the cordingly Cleomenes murdered the ephors magistrates. Even the kings themselves could for the time being, and abolished the office be brought before their tribunal (as Cleomenes (B. C. 225); it was, however restored under was for bribery). In extreme cases the ephors the Romans. were also competent to lay an accusation EPI'BATAE (7t,36ratr), were soldiers or against the kings as well as the other magis- marines appointed to defend the vessels in trates, and bring them to a capital trial before the Athenian navy, and were entirely distinct the great court of justice. from the rowers, and also from the land sol 'EPITROPUS. EQUITES. 137 diers, such as hoplitae, peltasts, and cavalry. she remained in the house of her late husIt appears that the ordinary number of epi- band. batae on board a trireme was ten. EPULO'NES, who were originally three The epibatae were usually taken from in number (triumviri epulones), were first crethe thetes, or fourth class of Athenian citi- ated in B. c. 196, to attend to the Epulunr zens. Joviz, and the banquets given in honour of The term is sometimes also applied by the the other gods; which duty had originally Roman writers to the marines, but they are belonged to the pontifices. Their number more usually called classiarii milites. Tke was afterwards increased to seven, and they latter term, however, is also applied to the were called septemviri epulones or septemviri rowers or sailors as well as the marines. epulonum. EPI'DOSEIS (Errd66aoetg), voluntary cor- The epulones formed a collegium, and were tributions, either in money, arms, or ships, one of the four great religious corporations which were made by the Athenian citizens at Rome; the other three were those of the in order to meet the extraordinary demands Pontifices, Augures, and Quindecemviri. of the state. When the expenses of the state E'PUILUM JOVIS. [EPULONES.] were greater than its revenue, it was usual EQUI'RIA, horse-races, which are said to for the prytanes to summon an assembly of have been instituted by Romulus in honour the people, and after explaining the necessi- of Mars, and were celebrated in the Campus ties of the state, to call upon the citizens to Martius. There were two festivals of this contribute according to their means. Those name; of which one was celebrated A. D. Ill. who were willing to contribute then rose and Cal. Mart., and the other prid. Id. Mart.. mentioned what they would give; while those E'QUITES, horsemen. Romulus is said who were unwilling to give anything remain- to have formed three centuries of equites; ed silent, or retired privately from the as- and these were the same as the 300 celeres, sembly. whom he kept about his person in peace and EPI'STATES (in'rtrary7). 1. The chair- war. A century was taken from each of the man of the senate and assembly of the peo- three tribes, the Ramnes, Titienases, and Luple, respecting whose duties see BOULE and ceres. Tarquinius Priscus added three more, ECCLESIA. 2. The name of the directors of under the title of Ramnes, Titienses, and Luthe public works. ('EtrruTarai T'(Sv drLo- ceres posteriores. These were the six patrioinv Ipymov.) cian centuries of equites, often referred to EPISTOLEUS (r7artrocErS), the officer under the name of the sex sreagia. To these second in rank in the Spartan fleet, who suc- Servius Tullius added twelve additional cenceeded to the command if anything happened turies, for admission into which, property and to thenavarchus (vaSapXo') or admiral. When not birth was the qualification. These twelve the Chians and the other allies of Sparta on centuries might therefore contain plebeians, the Asiatic coast sent to Sparta to request but they do not appear to have been restricted that Lysander might be again appointed to to plebeians, since we have no reason for bethe command of the navy, he was sent with lieving that the six old centuries contained the title of epistoleus, because the laws of the whole body of patricians. A property Sparta did not permit the same person to qualification was apparently also necessary hold the office of navarchus twice. by the Servian constitution for admission into EPI'TROPUS (Eirirpowro), the name at the six centuries. We may therefore supAthens of a guardian of orphan children. Of pose that those patricians who were included such guardians there were at Athens three in the six old centuries were allowed by the kinds: first, those appointed in the will of Servian constitution to continue in them, if the deceased father; secondly, the next of they possessed the requisite property; and kin, whom the law designated as tutores le- that all other persons in the state, whether gitimi in default of such appointment, and patricians or plebeians, who possessed the who required the authorization of the archon requisite property, were admitted into the to enable them to act; and lastly, such per- twelve new centuries. We are not told the sons as the archon selected if there were no atmount of property necessary to entitle a pernext of kin living to undertake the office. son to a place among the equites, but it was The duties of the guardian comprehended probably the same as in the latter times of the education, maintenance, and protection the republic, that is, four times that of the of the ward, the assertion of his rights, and first class. [CoMITIA, p 94.1 the safe custody and profitable disposition of Property, however was not the only qualihis inheritance during his minority, besides fication; for in the ancient times of the remaking a proper provision for the widow if public no one was admitted among the eques2 138 EQUITES. trian centuries unless his character was un- vided they had not dissipated their property. blemished. and his father and grandfather But in course of time, as population and had been born freemen. wealth increased, the number of' persons who Each of the equites received a horse from possessed an equestrian fortune also increas. the state (equusts publicus), or money to pur- ed greatly; and as the ancestors of these perchase one, as well as a sum of money for its sons had not been enrolled in the 18 centuries, annual support; the expense of' its support they could not receive horses from the state, was defrayed by the orphans and unmarried and were therefore allowed the privilege of females; since, in a military state, it could serving with their own horses among the canot be esteemed unjust, that the women and valry, instead of the infantry, as they would the children were to contribute largely for otherwise have been obliged to have done. those who fought in behalf of them and of The inspection of the equites who received the commonwealth. The purchase-money horses frorn the state belonged to the censors, for a knight's horse was called aes equestre, who had the power of depriving an eques of and its annual provision aes hordearium. The his horse, and reducing him to the condition former amounted, according to Livy, to 10,000 of an aerarian, and also of giving the vacant asses, and the latter to 2000. horse to the most distinguished of the equites All the equites of whom we have been who had previously served at their own exspeaking, received a horse from the state, pense. For these purposes they made during and were included in the 18 equestrian cen- their censorship a public inspection, in the turies of the Servian constitution; but in forum, of all the knights who possessed pubcourse of time, we read of another class of lic horses (equitatum recognoscere). The tribes equites in Roman history who did not receive were taken in order, and each knight was a horse from the state, and who were not in- summoned by name. Every one, as his name cluded in the 18 centuries. This latter class was called, walked past the censors, leading is first mentioned by Livy, in his account of his horse. the siege of Veii, B. C. 403. He says that If the censors had no fault to find either with during the siege, when the Romans had at the character of the knight or the equipments one time suffered great disasters, all those of his horse, they ordered him to pass on (tracitizens who had an equestrian fortune, and duc equum); but if on the contrary they conno horse allotted to them, volunteered to sidered him unworthy of his rank, they struck serve with their own horses; and he adds, him out of the list of knights, and deprived that from this time equites first began to serve him of his horse, or ordered him to sell it,with with their own horses. The state paid them, the intention no doubt that the person thus as a kind of compensation for serving with degraded should refund to the state the money their own horses. The foot soldiers had re- which had been advanced to him for its pur ceived pay a few years before; and two years chase. afterwards, B. c. 401, the pay of the equites This review of the equites by the censors was made three-fold that of the infantry. must not be confounded with the Equitum From the year B. C. 403, there were there- Transvectio, which was a solemn procession fore two classes of Roman knights: one who of the body every year on the Ides of Quintilis received horses from the state, and are there- (July). The procession started from the temfore frequently called equites equo publico, and ple of Mars outside the city, and passed through sometimes Flexumines or Trossuli, and another the city over the forum, and by the temple of the class, who served, when they were required, Dioscuri. On this occasion the equites were with their own horses, but were not classed always crowned with olive chaplets, and wore among the 18 centuries. As they served on their state dress, the trabea, with all the horseback they were called equites; and when honourable distinctions they had gained in spoken of in opposition to cavalry, which did battle. According to Livy, this annual pronot consist of Roman citizens, they were also cession was first established by the censors called equites Romani; but they had no legal Q. Fabius and P. Decius, B. c. 304; but acclaim to the name of equites, since in ancient cording to Dionysius it was instituted after tinies this title was strictly confined to those the defeat of the Latins near the lake Regillus, who received horses fromn the state. of which an account was brought to Rome by The reason of this distinction of two classes the Dioscuri. arose from the fact, that the number of equites It Inay be asked how long did the knight rein the 18 centuries was fixed from the time of tain his public horse, and a vote in the equesServius Tullius. As vacancies occurred in trian century to which he belonged? On this them, the descendants of those who were ori- subject we have no positive information; but ginally enrolled succeeded to their places, pro- as those equites, who served with their own EQUITES. 139 horses, were only obliged to serve for ten tain from the state the farming of the taxes, years (stipendia) under the age of 46, we may but because the state was not accustomed to presume that the same rule extended to those let them to any one who did not possess a conwho served with the public horses, provided siderable fortune. Thus the publicani are they wished to give up the service. For it is frequently spoken of by Cicero as identical certain that in the ancient times of the repub- with the equestrian order. The consulship of lic a knight might retain his horse as long as Cicero, and the active part which the knights he pleased, even after he had entered the then took in suppressing the conspiracy of senate, provided he continued able to dis- Catiline, tended still further to increase the charge the duties of a knight. Thus the two power and influence of the equestrian order; censors, M. Livius Salinator and C. Claudius and " from that time," says Pliny, " it became Nero, in B. C. 204, were also equites, and L. a third body (corpus) in the state, and, to the Scipio Asiaticus, who was deprived of his title of Senatus Populusque Romanus, there behorse by the censors in B. c. 185, had himself gan to be added Et Equestris Ordo." been censor in B. c. 191. But during the later In B. c. 63. a distinction was conferred upon times of the republic the knights were obliged them, which tended to separate them still to give up their horses on entering the senate, further from the plebs. By the Lex Roscia and consequently ceased to belong to the Othonis, passed in that year, the first fourteen equestrian centuries. It thus naturally came seats in the theatre behind the orchestra were to pass, that the greater number of the equites given to the equites. They also possessed the equo publico, after the exclusion of senators right of wearing the Clavus Angustus [CLAfrom the equestrian centuries, were young vus], and subsequently obtained the privilege nen. of wearing a gold ring, which was originally The equestrian centuries, of which we have confined to the equites equo publico. hitherto been treating, were only regarded as The number of equites increased greatly a division of the army: they did not form a under the early emperors, and all persons distinct class or ordo in the constitution. The were admitted into the order, provided they community, in a political point of view, was possessed the requisite property, without any divided only into patricians and plebeians; inquiry into their character, or into the free and the equestrian centuries were composed birth of their father and grandfather. The of both. But in the year B. c. 123, a new class, order in consequence gradually began to lose called the Ordo Equestris, was formed in the all the consideration which it had acquired state by the Lex Sempronia, which was in- during the later times of the republic. troduced by C. Gracchus. By this law, or Augustus formed a select class of equites, one passed a few years afterwards, every per- consisting of those equites who possessed the son who was to be chosen judex was required property of a senator, and the old requirement to be above 30 and under 60 years of age, to of free birth up to the grandfather. He perhave either an equus publicus, or to be quali- mitted this class to wear the latus clayvus; and fled by his fortune to possess one, and not to and also allowed the tribunes of the plebs to be a senator. The number of judices, who be chosen from them, as well as the senators, were required yearly, was chosen from this and gave them the option, at the termination class by the praetor urbanus. of their office, to remain in the senate or reAs the name of equites had been originally turn to the equestrian order. This class of extended from those who possessed the public knights was distinguished by the special title horses to those who served with their own illustres (sometimes insignes and splendidi) equihorses, it now came to be applied to all those tes Romani. persons who were qualified by their fortune The formation of this distinct class tended to act as judices, in which sense the word is to lower the others still more in public estiusually used by Cicero. mation. In the ninth year of the reign of TiAfter the reform of Sulla, which entirely berius, an attempt was made to improve the deprived the equestrian order of the right of order by requiring the old qualifications of being chosen as judices, and the passing of free birth up to the grandfather, and by strictly the Lex Aurelia (B. c. 70), which ordained forbidding any one to wear the gold ring unthat the judices should be chosen froin the less he possessed this qualification. This senators, equiles, and tribuni aerarii, the influ- regulation, however, was of little avail, as ence of the order, says Pliny, was still main- the emperors frequently admitted freedmen tained by the Ipnblicani, or farmers of the pub- into the equestrian order. When private perlic taxes. We find that the publicani were sons were no longer appointed judices, the almost always called equites, not because any necessity for a distinct class in the communiparticular rank was necessary in order to ob. ty, like the equestrian order, ceased entirely; 140 EQUITES. ESSEDA. and the gold ring came at length to be worn tur-mae or Sevir turmarum equitum Romanoruln. by all free citizens. Even slaves, after their From the time that the equites bestowed the manumission, were allowed to wear it by title of principes juventutis upon Caius and special permission from the emperor, which Lucius Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus, appears to have been usually granted provided it became the custom to confer this title, as the patronus consented. well as that of sevir, upon the probable suc. Having thus traced the history of the eques- cessor to the throne, when he first entered trian order to its final extinction as a distinct into public life, and was presented with an class in the community, we must now return equus publicus. to the equites equo publico, who formed the The practice of filling all the higher offices 18 equestrian centuries. This class still ex- in the state from these equites appears to isted during the latter years of the republic, have continued as long as Rome was the cenbut had entirely ceased to serve as horse-sol- tre of the government and the residence of diers in the army. The cavalry of the Ro- the emperor. After the time of Diocletian, Inan legions no longer consisted, as in the time the equites became only a city guard, under of Polybius, of Roman equites, but their place the command of the praefectus vigilum; but was supplied by the cavalry of the allied they still retained, in the time of Valentinistates. It is evident that Caesar in his Gal- anus and Valens, A. D. 364, the second rank lic wars possessed no Roman cavalry. When in the city, and were not subject to corporal he went to an interview with Ariovistus, and punishment. Respecting the Magister Equiwas obliged to take cavalry with him, we are turn, see DICTATOR. told that he did not dare to trust his safety EQUULEUS or ECULEUS, an instruto the Gallic cavalry, and therefore mounted ment of torture, which is supposed to have his legionary soldiers upon their horses. The been so called because it was in the form of Roman equites are, however, frequently men- a horse. tioned in the Gallic and civil wars, but never E'RANI (epavot), were clubs or societies, as common soldiers; they were officers at- established for charitable, convivial, commertached to the staff of the general, or corn- cial, or political purposes. manded the cavalry of the allies, or sometimes Unions of this kind were called by the genthe legions. eral name of &ratpiat, and were often conAfter the year B. c. 50, there were no cen verted to mischievous ends, such as bribery, sors in the state, and it would therefore fol- overawing the public assembly, or influencing low that for some years no review of the body courts of justice. In the days of the Roman took place, and that the vacancies were not empire friendly societies, under the name of filled up. When Augustus, however, took erani, were frequent among the Greek cities, upon himself, in B. c. 29, the praefectura mo- but were looked on with suspicion by the rum, he frequently reviewed the troops of emperors, as leading to political combinations. equites, and restored the long neglected cus- The gilds, or fraternities for mutual aid, among tom of the solemn procession (transvectio). the ancient Saxons, resembled the erani of From this time these equites formed an hon- the Greeks. ourable corps, from which all the higher ERGA'STULUM, a private prison attachofficers in the army and the chief magistrates ed to most Roman farms, where the slaves in the state were chosen. Admission into were made to work in chains. The slaves this body was equivalent to an introduction confined in an ergastulum were also employed into public life, and was therefore esteemed to cultivate the fields in chains. Slaves who a great privilege. If a young man was not had displeased their masters were punrished admitted into this body, he was excluded by imprisonment in the ergastulum; and in from all civil offices of any importance, ex- the same place all slaves, who could not be cept in municipal towns; and also from all depended upon or were barbarous in their rank in the army, with the exception of cen- habits, were regularly kept. turion. ERI'CIUS, a military engine full of sharp All those equites, who were not employed spikes, which was placed by the gate of the in actual service, were obliged to reside at camp to prevent the approach of the enemy. Rome, where they were allowed to fill the ESSEDA'RII. [ESSEDUM.] lower magistracies, which entitled a person E'SSEDA, or E'SSEDUM (from the Celto admission into the senate. They were di- tic Ess, a carriage), the name of a chariot vided into six turmae, each of which was used, especially in war, by the Britons, the commanded by an officer, who is frequently Gauls, and the Germans. It was built very mentioned in inscriptions as Sevir equitum strongly, was open before instead of behind, Rom. turmae I. Ii., &c., or commonly Sevir like the Greek war-chariot, and had a wide EUMOLPIDAE. EUTHYNE. 141 pole, so that the owner was able, whenever EVOCA'TI, soldiers in the Roman army, he pleased, to run along the. pole, and even who had served out their time and obtained to raise himself upon the y oke, and then to their discharge (missio), but had voluntarily retreat with the greatest si;eed into the body enlisted again at the invitation of the consul of the car, which he drove with extraordinary or other commander. There appears always swiftness and skill. It appears also that these to have been a considerable number of evocati cars were purposely mafde as noisy as possi- in every army of importance; and when the ble, probably by the creaking and clanging of general was a favourite among the soldiers, the wheels; and that this was done in order the number of veterans who joined his standto strike dismay into the enemy. The war- ard would of course be increased. The evoriors who drove these chariots were called cati were doubtless released, like thevexillari, essedarii. Having been captured, they were from the common military duties of fortifying sometimes exhibited in the gladiatorial shows the camp, making roads, &c., and held a higher at Rome, and seem to have been great favour- rank in the army than the common legionary ites with the people. soldiers. They are sometimes spoken of in The essedurn was adopted for purposes of conjunction with the equites Romani, and convenience and luxury among the Romans. sometimes classed with the centurions. They As used by the Romans, the essedummayhave appear to have been frequently promoted to differed from the cisiurn in this; that the ci- the rank of centurions. sium was drawn by one horse (see cut, p. 82), EUPA'TRIDAE (eViraerpiSat), descended the essedum always by a pair. from noble ancestors, is the name by which EUMO'LPIDAE (E'vuouri6daL), the most in early times the nobility of Attica was dedistinguished andvenerable among the priestly signated. In the division of the inhabitants families in Attica. They were devoted to of Attica into three classes, which is ascribed the service of Ceres at Athens and Eleusis, to Theseus, the Eupatridae were the first and were said to be the descendants of the class, and thus formed a compact order of Thracian bard Eumolpus, who, according to nobles, united by their interests, rights and some legends, had introduced the Eleusinian privileges. They were in the exclusive posmysteries into Attica. The high priest of the session of all the civil and religious offices in Eleusinian goddess (iepoOvw7q or uvaTrayi- the state, ordered the affairs of religion, and y/6), who conducted the celebration of her interpreted the laws human and divine. The inysteries and the initiation of the mystae, king was thus only the first among his equals, was always a member of the family of the and only distinguished from them by the duEumolpidae, as Eumolpus himself was be- ration of his office. By the legislation of Solieved to have been the first hierophant. The lon, the political power and influence of the hierophant was attended by four epimeletae Eupatridae as an order was broken, and pro(E7rueXY7rrai), one of whom likewise belonged perty instead of birth was made the standard to the family of the Eumolpidae. The Eu- of political rights. But as Solon, like all anmolpidae had on certain occasions to offer up cient legislators, abstained from abolishing any prayers for the welfare of the state. They of the religious institutions, those families of had likewise judicial power in cases where the Eupatridae, in which certain priestlyoffireligion was violated. The law according to ces and functions were hereditary, retained which they pronounced their sentence, and these distinctions down to a very late period of which they had exclusive possession, was of Grecian history. not written, but handed down by tradition; EURI'PUS. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] and the Eumolpidae alone had the right to EUTHY'NE (e4vivr7). All public officers interpret it, whence they are sometimes called at Athens were accountable for their conduct Exegetae (tiyy7rrai). In cases for which the and the manner in which they acquitted themlaw had made no provisions, they acted ac- selves of their official duties. The judges in cording to their own discretion. In some the popular courts seem to have been the only cases, when a person was convicted of gross authorities who were not responsible, for they violation of the public institutions of his were themselves the representatives of the country, the people, besides sending the of- people, and would therefore, in theory, have fender into exile, added a clause in their ver- been responsible to themselves. This account, diet that a curse should be pronounced upon which officers had to give after the time of him by the Eulnolpidae. But the Eumolpi- their office was over, was called eOVOvnr, and dae could pronounce such a curse only at the the officers subject to it, virevOvvot, and after command of the people, and might afterwards they had gone through the euthyne, they bebe compelled by the people to revoke it, and came avevOvvot. Every public officer had to purify the personwhom they hadcursedbefore. render his account within thirty days after the 142 EXERCITUS. expiration of his office, and at the time when ably, according to the greater or less increase he submitted to the euthyne any citizen had in the number of the enomotia. the right to come forward and impeach him. To each mora of heavy-armed infantry there The officers before whom the accounts were belonged a body of cavalry bearing the same given were at Athens ten in number, called name, consisting at the most of 100 men, and eivOvvot or 2Loyta-rai, in other places 5eiraarai commanded by the hipparmostes (i'7rraploaor avvgyopot. rijg). The cavalry is said, by Plutarch, to EXAUCTORA'TIO. [Missio.] have been divided in the time of Lycurgus EXAUGURA'TIO, the act of changing a into oulami (oviuayoi) of fifty men each; but sacred thing into a profane one, or of taking this portion of the Lacedaemonian army was away from it the sacred character which it unimportant, and served only to cover the had received by inauguratio, consecratio, or wings of the infantry. The three hundred dedicatio. Such an act was performed by the knights forming the king's body guard must augurs, and never without consulting the not be confounded with the cavalry. They pleasure of the gods, by augurium. were the choicest of the Spartan youths, and EXCU'BIAE. [CASTRA.] fought either on horseback or on foot, as ocEXCUBITO'RES, which properly means casion required. watchmen or sentinels of any kind, was the Solon divided the Athenian people into four name more particularly given to the soldiers classes, of which the first two comprehended of the cohort who guarded the palace of the those persons whose estates were respectively Roman emperor. equivalent to the value of 500 and 300 of the EXE'RCITUS, army. I. GREEK. The Attic measures called medimni. These were organization of the Lacedaemonian army was not obliged to serve in the infantry, nor on more perfect than that of any other in Greece. board ship, except in some command; but It was based upon a graduated system of sub- they were bound to keep a horse for the pubordination, which gave to alnost every indi- lic, and to serve in the cavalry at their own vidual a degree of authority, rendering the expense. The third class, whose estates were whole military force a community of corn- equivalent to 150 such measures, were obliged manders, so that the signal given by the king to serve in the heavy-armed foot, providing ran in an instant through the whole army. their own arms; and the people of the fourth The foundation of this system is attributed to class, if unable to provide themselves with Lycurgus, who is said to have formed the La- complete armour, served either among the cedaemnonian forces into six divisions, called light-armed troops or in the navy. The minismorae (y6pat). Each mora was commanded by ters of religion, and persons who danced in apolemarchus (iro24kapXoS),under whom were the festival of Bacchus, were exempt from four lochagi (2oXayot), eight pentecosteres (7rev- serving in the armies; the same privilege was r7KoarTpef), and sixteen enomotarchi (EvYoo- also accorded to those who farmed the rerdipat~); consequently, two enomotiae (evgopo- venues of the state. There is no doubt that, riat) formed a pentecostys (TrevrTiKoarC?)), two among the Athenians, the divisions of the of these a lochus (?6Xog), and four lochi made army differed from those which, as above a mora. The regular complement of the eno- stated, had been appointed by the Spartan motia appears to have been twenty-four men, legislator; but the nature of the divisions is besides its captain. The lochus, then, con- unknown, and it can only be surmised that sisted ordinarily of 100 and the mnora of 400 they were such as are hinted at in the Cyromen. The front row of the enomotia appears paedeia. In that work, Xenophon,who, being to have usually consisted of three men, and an Athenian, may be supposed to have in view the ordinary depth of the line, of eight men. the military institutions of his own country, The number of men in each enornotia was, speaking of the advantages attending the subhowever, not unfrequently increased. Thus divisions of large bodies of men, with respect at the battle of Mantinea another file was to the power of reforming those bodies when added; so that the front row consisted of four they happen to be dispersed, states that the men, and each enomotia consequently con- taxis (r7i-&t) consists of 100 men, and the lotained thirty-two men. At the battle of Leuc- chus (6OXof) of twenty-four men (exclusive of tra, on the contrary, the usual number of files their officer); and in another passage he menwas retained, but the depth of its ranks was tions the decas (decdei), or section of ten, and increased from eight to twelve men; so that the pempas (7re/iTrig), or section of five men. each enomotia contained thirty-six men. In The taxis seems to have been the principal the time of Xenophon the mora appears tohave element in the division of troops in the Atheconsisted usually of 600 men. The numbers nian army, and to have corresponded to the seem, however, to have fluctuated consider- Peloponnesian lochus. The infantry was comrn EXERCITUS. 143 manded by ten strategi [STRATEGI] and ten would have subjected them to the reproach taxiarchs, and the cavalry by two hipparchs of effeminacy. and ten phylarchs. These officers were In the early times of the Greek republics chosen annually, and they appear to have ap- the soldier served at his own expense in that pointed the subordinate officers of each taxis class of troops which his fortune permitted or lochus. him to join. The mountainous character of Attica and Pericles first introduced the practice at the Peloponnesus is the reason that cavalry Athens ot giving pay to a class of the soldiers was never numerous in those countries. Pre- out of the public revenue; and this was subviously to the Persian invasion of Greece, the sequently adoptedbythe other states of Greece. number of horse-soldiers belonging to the The amount of the pay varied according to Athenians was but ninety-six, each of the circumstances from two oboli to a drachmna. forty-eight naucrariae (vavcpapiat), into which The commanders of the lochi received double, the state was divided, furnishing two persons; and the strategi four times the pay of a pribut soon afterwards the body was augmented vate foot-soldier. to twelve hundred heavy-armed horsemen, The strength of a Grecian army consisted and there was besides an equal number of chiefly in its foot-soldiers; and of these there archers, who fought on horseback. The were at first but two classes: —the Hoplitae horses belonging to the former class were (07rr!rat), who wore heavy armour, carried covered with bronze or other metal, and they large shields, and in action, used swords and were ornamented with bells and embroidered long spears; and the Psili (btukoi), who were clothing. Before being allowed to serve, both light-armed, having frequently only helmets men and horses were subject to an examina- and small bucklers, with neither cuirasses tion before the hipparchs, and punishments nor greaves, and who were employed chiefly were decreed against persons who should as skirmishers in discharging arrows, darts, enter without the requisite qualifications. or stones. An intermediate class of troops, Every free citizen of the Greek states was called Peltastae (7eXraorai), or targeteers, enrolled for military service from the age of was formed at Athens, by Iphicrates, after 18 or 20, to 58 or 60 years. The young men, the Peloponnesian war: they were armed previously to joining the ranks, were instruct- nearly in the same manner as the Hoptitae, ed in the military duties by the tactici (racrt- but their cuirasses were of linen instead of KOi), or public teachers, who were maintained bronze or iron; their spears were short, and by the state for the purpose; and no town in they carried small round bucklers, called pelGreece was without its gymnasium, or school. tae (irX-eart). These troops, uniting in some At Athens the ephebi [EPHEBI] guarded the measure the stability of the phalanx with the city and the frontier from the age of 18 till 20. agility of the light-armed men, were found to At 20 years of age the Athenian recruit could be highly efficient; and from the time of their be sent on foreign expeditions; but, among adoption, they were extensively employed in the Spartans, this was seldom done till the the Greek armies. soldier was 30 years old. Scarlet, or crimson, appears to have been An attention to military duties, when the the general colour of the Greek uniform, at troops were encamped, was strictly enforced least in the days of Xenophon. in all the Greek armies; but a considerable The edest existing works which treat exdifference prevailed in those of the two prin- pressly of the constitution and tactics of the cipal states with respect to the recreations of Grecian armies are the treatises of Aelian and the soldiers. The men of Athens were al- Arrian; which were written in the time of lowed to witness theatrical performances, and. Hadrian, when the art of war had changed its to have in the camp companies of singers and character, and when many details relating to dancers. In the Lacedaemonian army, on the ancient military organizations were forthle contrary, all these were forbidden;,he gotten. Yet the systems of these tacticians, constant practice of temperance, and the ob- speaking generally, appear to belong to the servance of a rigid discipline being prescribed age of Philip or Alexander; and, conseto the Spartan youth, in order that they might quently, they may be considered as having excel in war (which among them was consid- succeeded those which hav, been indicated ered as the proper occupation of freemen); above. and manly exercises alone were permitted in Aelian makes the lowest subdivision of the the intervals of duty. Yet, while encamped, army to consist of a lochus, decas, or enomnotia, the young men were encouraged to use per- which he says were then supposed to have fumes, and to wear costly armour, though the been respectively files of 16,12, or 8 men, and adorning of their persons, when at home, he recommends the latter. The numbers in 144 EXERCITUS. the superior divisions proceeded in a geome- from Tarentum in Italy,was double the former. trical progression by.doubles, and the princi- Each of the succeeding divisions was double pal bodies were formed and denominated as that which preceded it; and one, consisting follow:-Four lochi constituted a tetrarchia of 2048 men, was called telos (rjaoC): finally, (= 64 men), and two of these, a taxis (=128 the epitagma ('7rirayua) was equal to two tele men). The latter doubled, was called a syn- (r7e~), and contained 4096 men. tagma (aiv7rayea) or xenagia (:evayia) (=256 In making or receiving an attack, when men), to which division it appears that five each man occupied about three feet in depth, supernumeraries were attached; these were and the Macedonian spear, or sarissa, which the crier, the ensign, the trumpeter, a ser was about 18 or 20 feet long, was held in a vant, and an officer, called uragus (ovpayot'), horizontal position, the point of that which who brought up the rear. Four of the last- was in the hands of a front-rank man might mentioned divisions formed a chiliarchia (XtiL- project about 14 {;,et from the line; the point apXia) ( = 1024 men), which doubled became of that which wt.:; in the hands of a seconda telos (,Xogs), and quadrupled, formed the rank man might roject about 11 feet, and so body which was denominated a phalanx (i6- on. Therefore,:'the sixteen ranks, which 2eay:). This corps would, therefore, appear was the ordinarjy 1epth of the phalanx, those to have consisted of 4096 men; but, in fact, in rear of the fiif!l could not, evidently, condivisions of very different strengths were, at tribute by their Ijei s to the annoyance of the different times, designated by that name, and enemy: they consequently kept their pikes in before the time of Philip of Macedon, phalanx an inclined position, resting on the shoulders was a general expression for any large body of the men in their front; and thus they were of troops in the Grecian armies. That prince, enabled to arrest the enemy's missiles, which, however, united under this name 6000 of his after flying over the front ranks, might othermost efficient heavy-armed men, whom he wise fall on those in the rear. The ranks becalled his companions; he subjected them yond the fifth pressing with all their force to judicious regulations, and improved their against the men who were in their front,while arms and discipline; and, from that time, the they prevented them from falling back, in name of his country was constantly applied creased the effect of the charge, or the resist to bodies of troops which were similarly or- ance opposed to that of the enemy. ganized. In action it was one duty of the officers to The numerical strength of the phalanx was prevent the whole body of men from inclining probably the greatest in the days of Philip towards the right hand; to this there was and Alexander; and, if the tactics of Aelian always a great tendency, because every solmay be considered applicable to the age of dier endeavoured to press that way, in order those monarchs, it would appear that the that he might be covered as much as possible corps, when complete, consisted of about by the shield of his companion; and thus dan16,000 heavy-armed men. It was divided into ger was incurred of having the army outflanked four parts, each consisting of 4000 men, who towards its left by that of the enemy. Previwere drawn up in files generally 16 men deep. ously to an action some particular word or The whole front, properly speaking, consisted sentence (avvOn7,a) was given out by the comof two grand divisions; but each of these manders to the soldiers, who were enabled, was divided into two sections, and the two on demanding it, to distinguish each other from middle sections of the whole constituted the the enemy. centre or 6uOa2,65. The others were desig- It may be said that, from the disposition of nated Kipara, or wings; and in these the the troop~ in the Greek armies, the success of best troops seem to have been placed. The an action depended in general on a single evolutions were performed upon the enomoty, effort; since there was no second line of or single file, whether it were required to ex- troops to support the first, in the event of any tend or deepen the line: and there was an disaster. The dense order of the phalanx was interval between every two sections for the only proper for a combat on a perfectly level convenience of manoeuvring. plain; and, even then, the victory depended The Greek cavalry, according to Aelian,was rather on the prowess of the soldier than on divided into bodies, of which the smallest was the skill of the commander, who was comcalled ili (iX77): it is said to have consisted of monly distinguished from the men only by 64 men, though the term was used in earlier fighting at their head. But, when the field of times for a party of horse of any number. A battle was commanded by heights, and intertroop, called epilarchia (e7rtLapxia), contained sected by streams or defiles, the unwieldy mass two ilae, 128 men; and a division, subse- became incapable of acting, while it wasoverquently called tarantinarchia (i-apavr-vapxta), whelmed by the enemy's missiles. EXERCITUS. 145 2. ROMAN. The organization of the Roman emption were age, infirmity, and having served army in early times was based upon the con-, the appointed time. The magistrates and stitution of Servius Tullius,which is explained priests were also exempted, in general, from in the article COMITIA CENTURIATA. It is serving in the wars; and the same privilege only necessary to observe here, that it appears was sometimes granted by the senate or the plainly, from a variety of circumstances, that people to individuals who had rendered serthe tactics of the Roman infantry in early vices to the state. In sudden emergencies, or times were not those of the legion at a later when any particular danger was apprehended, period, and that the phalanx, which was the as in the case of a war in Italy or against the battle-array of the Greeks, was also the form Gauls, both of which were called tumultus, no in which the Roman armies were originally exemption could be pleaded, but all were drawn up obliged to be enrolled. Persons who were In the time of Polybius, which was that of rated by the censors below the value of 400 Fabius and Scipio, every legion was com- drachmae, according to Polybius, were allowmanded by six military tribunes. The consuls, ed to serve only in the navy; and these men after they entered upon their office, appointed formed what was called the legio classica. a day on which all those who were of the In the first ages of the republic each consul military age were required to attend. When had usually the command of two Roman lethe day for enrolling the troops arrived, the gions, and two legions of allies; and the latter people assembled at the Capitol; and the con- were raised in the states of Italy nearly in the suls, with the assistance of the military tri- same manner as the others were raised in bunes, proceeded to hold the levy (delectus), Rome. The infantry of an allied legion was unless prevented by the tribunes of the plebs. usually equal in number to that of a Roman The military tribunes, having been divided legion, but the cavalry attached to the former into four bodies (which division corresponded was twice as numerous as that which belonged to the general distribution of the army into to the latter. The regulation of the two allied four legions, two for each consul), drew out legions was superintended by twelve officers the tribes by lot, one by one; then, calling up called prefects (praefecti), who were selected that tribe upon which the lot first fell, they for this purpose by the consuls. In the line chose (legerunt, whence the name legio) from of battle the two Roman legions formed the it four young men nearly equal in age and centre, and those of the allies were placed, stature. From these the tribunes of the first one on the right and the other on the left legion chose one; those of the second chose flank: the cavalry was posted at the two exa second, and so on: after this four other men tremities of the line; that of the allies on each were selected, and now the tribunes of the wing being on the outward flank of the lesecond legion made the first choice; then gionaryhorsemen, on which account they had those of the other legions in order, and, last of the name of Alarii. [ALARI1.] A body of the all, the tribunes of the first legion made their best soldiers, both infantry and cavalry, conchoice. In like manner, from the next four sisting either of volunteers or of veterans semen, the tribunes, beginning with those of lected from the allies, guarded the consul in the third legion, and ending with those of the the camp, or served about his person in the second, made their choice. Observing the field; and these were called extraordinarii. same method of rotation to the end, it follow- The number of men in a Roman legion vaed that all the legions were nearly alike with ried much at different times. When Camillus respect to the ages and stature of the men. raised ten legions for the war against the Polybius observes that, anciently, the cavalry Gauls, each consisted of 4200 foot-soldiers, troops were chosen after the infantry, and that and 300 horse-soldiers, but previously to the 200 horse were allowed to every 4000 foot; but battle of Cannae the senate decreed that the he adds that it was then the custom to select army should consist of eight legions, and that the cavalry first, and to assign 300 of these to the strength of each should be 5000 foot-soleach legion. Every citizen was obliged to diers. In the time of Polybius (B. c. 150) the serve in the army, when required, between the legion contained 4200 men, except in cases of ages of 17 and 46 years. Each foot-soldier great emergency, when it was augmented to was obliged to serve during twenty campaigns, 5000 men. and each horseman during ten. And, except Besides being designated by numbers, prima when a legal cause of exemption (vacatio) ex-.legio, decima legio, &c., the legions bore partiisted, the service was compulsory; persons cular names. Thus we read of the martia lewho refused to enlist could be punished by gio, the alauda, &c. [ALAUDA.] fine or imprisonment; and in some cases they After the selection of the men who were to might be sold as slaves. The grounds of ex- ~ornpose the legion, the military oath was ad-. N 146 EXERCITUS. ministered (sacramentum): on this occasion each manipulus containing 62 soldiers, a cenone person was appointed to pronounce the turion, and a vexillarius: the hastati were the words of the oath (qui reliquis verba sacramenti youngest of the soldiers. The second line or praeiret), and the rest of the legionaries, ad- principes consisted in like manner of 15 manivancing one by one, swore to perform what pulli; these were men of mature age,.and from the first had pronounced (in verba ejus jura- their name it would appear that anciently they bant). The form of the oath differed at differ- were placed in the front line. This combined ent times: during the republic it contained an force of 30 manipuli was comprehended under engagement to be faithful to the Roman senate the general appellation of antepilani. The and people, arnd to execute all the orders that third line or triarii was also drawn up in 15 di. should be given by the commanders. Under visions, but each of these was triple, contain. the emperors, fidelity to the sovereign was in- ing 3 manipuli, 3 vexilla, and 186 men. The troduced into the oath; and after the estab- triarii were so called because they formed the lishment of Christianity, the engagement was third line;- they were. the veteran soldiers: made in the name of the Trinity, and the each of them carried two pila, or strong javemajesty of the emperor. Livy says that this lins, whence they were sometimes called pimilitary oath was first legally exacted in the lani; and the hastati and principes, who stood time of the second Punic war, B. C. 216, and before them, antepilani, as already remarked. that previously to that time each decuria of In the third line the veterans or triarii proper cavalry and centuria of foot had only been ac- formed the front ranks; immediately behind customed to swear, voluntarily among'them- them stood the rorarii, inferior in age and reselves, that they would act like good soldiers. nown; while the accensi, less trustworthy than The Roman armies were, as has been ob- either, were posted in- the extreme rear. served above, originally drawn up in the form The battle array is represented in the cut of the phalanx. In course of time the pon- below. derous mass of the phalanx was resolved into If the hastatl and principes were successsmall battalions marshalled in open order, ivelyrepulsed, they retired through the openwhich were termed nmanipuli, and which varied ings left between the maniples of the triarii, in numbers at different periods, according to who then closed up their ranks so as to leave the varying constitution of the legion. The no space between their maniples, and preoriginal meaning of the word manipulus which sented a continuous front and solid column to is derived from manus, was a handful or wisp the enemy: the heavy-armed veterans in the of hay, and this, according to Roman tradition, foremost ranks with their long pila now bore affixed to the end of a pole, formed the primi- the brunt of the onset, while the rorarii and tive military standard in the days of Romulus; accensi behind gave weight and consistency hence it was applied to a detachment of sol- to the mass, an arrangement bearing evidence diers serving under the same ensign. The to a lingering predilecqion for the principle of earliest account of the division of the legion the phalanx, and*'representing, just as we into manipuli is given by Livy in his descrip- might expect at that period, the Roman tactics tion of the battle fought near Vesuvius in B.c. in their transition state. 337. On this occasion the front line or hastati, In the time of Polybius, when the legion so called from the hasta, or long spear, which contained 4200 men, it was divided into 1200 each man carried, consisted of 15 manipuli, hastati, 1200 principes, 600 triarii, the remainr m., 165 ManiLII] —-l-~~ If l; izi I II LIIHastati. l ~~~~ r,1 I I I 1~~~~~~~~ r,I ~ D15 Maniliizlzzi~~ liu I Ipuli of Principes Rorara.ii L,-1 I-rop-e- I 1 15 triple [ —-—!R[. I...o of TriariL Exercitus, Battle Array. GLADIATORES.. 167 tensity according to the popularity of the can- who fought on some occasions appears almost didates for whom they were given. These'incredible. AfterTrajan'striumphovertheDamanifestations of esteem were noted by per- cians, there were more than 10,000 exhibited. sons in an adjoining building, who could judge Gladiators consisted either of captives, of the shouting, but could not tell in whose slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of freefavour it was given. The person whom these born citizens who fought voluntarily. Freejudges thought to be most applauded was de- men, who became gladiators for hire were dared the successful candidate. The office called auctorati, and their hire auctoramentum lasted for life. or gladiatorium. Even under the republic, freeThe functions of the councillors were partly born citizens fought as gladiators, but they apdeliberative, partly judicial, and partly execu- pear to have belonged only to the lower orders. tive. In the discharge of the first, they pre- Under the empire, however, both knights and pared measures and passed preliminary de- senators fought in the arena, and even women. crees,which were to be laid before the popular Gladiators were kept in schools (ludi),wherm assembly, so that the important privilege of they were trained by persons called lanistae. initiating all changes in the government or The whole body of gladiators under one lalaws was vested in them. As a criminal court, nista was frequently called familia. They they could punish with death and civil degra- sometimes were the property of the lanistae, dation (rtpjeia). They also appear to have ex- who let them out to persons who wished to ercised, like the Areopagus at Athens, a gen- exhibit a show of gladiators; but at other eral superintendence and inspection over the times they belonged to citizens,who kept them lives and manners of the citizens, and probably for the purpose of exhibition, and engaged lawere allowed a kind of patriarchal authority, nistae to instruct them. Thus we read of the to enforce the observance of ancient usage ludus Aemilius at Rome, and of Caesar's luand discipline. It is not, however, easy to de- dus at Capua. The gladiators fought in these fine with exactness the original extent of their ludi with wooden swords, called rudes. Great functions; especially as respects the last-men- attention was paid to their diet, in order to intioned duty, since the ephors not only en- crease the strength of their bodies. croached upon the prerogatives of the king Gladiators were sometimes exhibited at the and council, but also possessed, in very early funeral pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but times, a censorial power, and were not likely more frequently in the amphitheatre. [AMto permit any diminution of its extent. PHITHEATRUM.] The person who was to exGIRDLE. [ZONA.] hibit a show of gladiators, published some GLADIATO'RES (/uovoydXot) were men days before the exhibition, bills (libelli) conwho fought with swords in the amphitheatre taining the number and frequently the names and other places, for the amusement of the of those who were to fight. When the day Roman people. They e said to have been came, they were led along the arena in profirst exhibited by the 9Etrgias, and to have cession, and matched by pairs; and their had their origin from th c'stom of killing swords were examined by the editor to see if slaves and captives at the funeral pyres of the they were sufficiently sharp. At first there deceased. [BUSTUM; FUNUS.]- A show of was a kind of sham battle, calledpraelusio, in gladiators was called munus, and the person which they fought with wooden swords, or who exhibited (edebat) it, editor, munerator, or the like, and afterwards at the sound of the dominus, who was honoured during the day of trumpet the real battle began. When a glaexhibition, if a privateperson, with the official diator was wounded, the people called out signs of a magistrate. habet or hoc habet; and the one who was vanGladiators were first exhibited at Rome in quished lowered his arms in token of submis. B. C. 264, in the Forum Boarium, by Marcus sion. His fate, however, depended upon the and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral of their people,who pressed down their thumbs if they father. They were at first confined to public wished him to be saved, but turned them up funerals, but afterwards fought at the funerals if they wished him to be killed, and ordered of most persons of consequence, and even at him to receive the sword (ferrum recipere), those of women. Combats of gladiators were which gladiators usually did with the greatest also exhibited at entertainments,auld especially firmness. If the life of a vanquished gladiator It public festivals by the aediles and other was spared, he obtained his discharge for that magistrates, who sometimes exhibited im- day, which was called missio; and hence in an imense numbers, with the view of pleasing exhibition of gladiators sine missione, the lives the people. Under the empire the passion of of the conquered were never spaced. This the Romlans for this amusement rose to its kind of exhibition, however was forbidden by greatest height, and the number of gladiators Augustus. 168 GLADIATORES. GLADIUS. Palms were usually given to the victorious and wore nothing on his head. If he missed gladiators. Old gladiators, and sometimes his aim in throwing the net, he betook himthose who had only fought for a short time, self to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his were discharged from the service by the editor net for.a second cast, while his adversary folat the request of the people, who presented lowed him round the arena in order to kill him each of them with a rudis or wooden sword; before he could make a second attempt. His whence *those who were discharged were adversary was usually a secutor or a mirmillo. called Rudiarii. In the preceding woodcut a combat is repreGladiators were divided into different sented between a retiarius and a mirmillo; classes, according to their arms and different the former has thrown his net over the head mode of fighting, or other circumstances. of the latter, anlt is proceeding to attack him Tile names of the most important of these with the fuscinat. The lanista stands behind classes is given in alphabetical order;- the retiarius. Andabatae wore helmets without any aper- Samnites weret so called, because they were ture for the eyes, so that they were obliged to armed in the s nme way as that people, and fight blindfold, and thus excited the mirth of were particularly distinguished by the oblong the spectators. scutum. Catervarii was the name given to gladiators Secutores are supposed by some writers to when they did not fight in pairs, but when be so called because the secutor in his comseveral fought together. bat with the retiarius pursued the latter when Essedarii fought from chariots, like the he failed in securing him by his net. Other Gauls and Britons. [ESSEDA.] writers think that they were the same as the Hoplomachi appear to have been those who supposititii, who were gladiators substituted fought in a complete suit of armour. in the place of those who were wearied or Meridiani were those who fought in the mid- were killed. dle of the day, after combats with wild beasts Thraces or Threces were armed, like the had taken place in the morning. These gla- Thracians, with a round shield or buckler, and diators were very slightly armed. a short sword or dagger (sica). They were Mirmiilones are said to have been so called usually matched, as already stated, with the from their having the image of a fish (mormyr, mirmillones. The following woodcut repreuopyvpoC) on their helmets. Their arms were sents a combat between two Thracians. A like those of the Gauls, whence we find that lanista stands behind each. they were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the Retiarii or Thra-:: cians. Provocatores fought with the Samlnites, but we do not know anything respecting them except their name. Retiarii carried only a three-pointed lance, J il ( called tridens or fuscina [FUSCINA], and a net their adversaries, and they then attacked them. _i with the fuscina while they were entangled. The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic, Thracians. GLADIUS (~~~oq, poet. ciop, odiayavov), a \ sword or glaive, by the Latin poets called ensis. The ancient sword had generally a straight two-edged blade, rather broad, and nearly of equal width fromn'hilt to point. The Greeks and Romans wore them on the left I\/a \8 \ > t \side [cut, p. 38], so as to draw them out of the sheath (vagina, tcoXe6g) by passing the right hand in front of the body to take hold of the hilt with the thumb next to the blade. The A Mirmillo and a Retiarius. early Greeks used a very short swoId. Iphi GUBERNACULUM. GYMNASIUM. 169 crates, who made various improvements in, the form of the ancient rudder, as well as for armour about 400 B. c., doubled its length. the mode of using it. It was like an oar with The Roman sword was larger, heavier, and a very broad blade, and was commonly placed more formidable than the Greek. on each side of the stern, not at its extremity. GLANDES. [FUNDA.] The annexed woodcut presents examples of GOLD. [AURURM.] its appearance as it is frequently exhibited on GRAMMATEUS (ypaypluar7E9), a clerk or coins, gems, and other works of art. scribe. Among the great number scricribes The usual position of the rudder at the employed by the magistrates and government side of the stern is seen in the woodcut at of Athens, there were three of a higher rank, p. 25. who were real state-officers. One of them was The gubernaculum was managed by the appointed by lot, by the senate, to serve the gubernator (cvfEepvr7rg); who is also called time of the administration of each prytany, the rector as distinguished from the magister, though he always belonged to a different pry- and by the Greek poets olaKcoar7p6o and tany from that which was in power. He was, olalcov6[oof, because he turns and directs the therefore, called ypajuareivg Karr 7rrpviavetav. helm. His province was to keep the public records, GUSTA'TIO. [COENA.] and the decrees of the people which were GUTTUS. [BALNEUM, p. 49.] made during the time of his office, and to de- GYMNA'SIUM (UMyvvcdatov). The whole liver to the thesnrothetae the decrees of the education of a Greek youth was divided into senate. three parts-grammar, music, and gymnastics The second grammateus was elected by the (ypczuIara,,eovalt, yvyvaarT-c), to which senate, by XeLporovia, and was entrusted with Aristotle adds a fourth, the art of drawing or the custody of the laws. His usual name was painting. Gymnastics, however,were thought ypeajuarerV rTig 3ovuS~. by the ancients a matter of such importance, A third grammateus was called ypayyatrev that this part of education alone occupied as r7if tr6eoCst, or ypayyarevf rvs 3ovXZw cai much time and attention as all the others put roo d6jleor. He was appointed by the people, together; and while the latter necessarily by Xttporovia, and the principal part of his ceased at a certain period of life, gymnastics office was to read any laws or documents continued to be cultivated by persons of all which were required to be read in the assem- ages, though those of an advanced age nably or in the senate. turally took lighter and less fatiguing exerGRAPHE' (ypaeoi). [DICE'.] cises than boys and youths. The ancients, GREAVES. [OCREA.] and more especially the Greeks, seem to have GUBERNA'CULUM (7rrdiZtov), a rudder. been throroughly convinced that the mind Before the invention of the rudder,which Pliny could not possibly be in a healthy state, unascribes to Tiphys, the pilot of the ship Argo, less the body was likewise in perfect health, vessels were both propelled and guided by oars and no means were thought, either by philo — alone. This circumstance may account for sophers or physicians, to be more conducive to preserve or restore bodily health than wellregulated exercise. The word gymnastics is derived from yvgv6f (naked), because the persons who performed their exercises in public or private gymnasia were either entirely naked or merely covered by the short chiton. Gymnastic exercises among the Greeks seem to have been as old as the Greek nation itself; but they were, as might be supposed, of a rude and mostly of a warlike character. They were generally held in the open g / / air, and in plains near a river, which afforded an. opportunity for swimming and bathing. It was about the time of Solon that the Greek towns began to build their regular gymnasia. as places of exercise for the young, with baths, and other conveniences for philosophers and all persons who sought intellectual amusements. There was probably no Greek town of any importance which did not possess its Gubernaculum, Rudder. gymnasium. Athens possessed three great p 170 GYMNASIUM. GYMNOPAEDIA. gymnasia, the Lyceum (Ai'sElOv), Cynosar- commenced their exercises, as well as the ges (Kvv6aapyre), and the Acadmnia ('AKa- regulation of their diet, was the duty of the (t/luia); to which, in later times, several aliptae. [ALIPTAE.].smaller ones were added. Among all the different tribes of the Greeks Respecting the superintendence and admin- the exercises which' were carried on in a iAtration of the gymnasia at Athens, we know Greek gymnasium were either mere games, that Solon in his legislation thought them or the more important exercises which the worthy of great attention; and the transgres- gymnasia had in common with the public:ion of some of his laws relating to the gym- contests in the great festivals. nasia was punished with death. His laws Among the former we may mention, 1. iiention a magistrate, called the gymnasiarch The game at ball (pa0tptertK~), which was (yvljvaaiapXof or yv1,vaoatcpXrif), who was in universal favourwith the Greeks. [PILA.] entrusted with the whole management of the Every gymnasium contained one large room gymnasia, and with everything connected for the purpose of playing at ball in it (Caattherewith. His office was one of the regular ptrCTrptov). 2. HIai~etv Ci'KvoTivda, d tE?liturgies like the choregia and trierarchy, and Kvrivd.a, or dLai ypao/uug, was a game in was attended with considerable expense. He which one boy, holding one end of a rope, 1had to maintain and pay the persons who tried to pull the boy who held its other end, vere preparing themselves for the games and across a' line marked between them on the contests in the public festivals, to provide ground. 3. The top (3f9iryS, up3rtf, a 6outliem with oil, and perhaps with the wrest- flog, cTrp63tXrog), which was as common an l.rs' dust. It also devolved upon him to amusement with Greek boys as it is with adorn the gymnasium, or the place where the ours. 4. The 7revd2TZOoS, which was a game:agones took place. The gymnasiarch was a with five stones, which were thrown up from ical magistrate, and invested with a kind of the upper part of the hand and caught in the jtrisdiction over all those who frequented or palm. 5. lZca'rpda, which was a game in were connected with the gymnasia. Another which a rope was drawn through the upper i-art of his duties was to conduct the solemn part of a tree or a post. Two boys, one on games at certain great festivals, especially each side of the post, turning their backs toithe torch-race (Xa~7rranrlyopia), for which he wards one another, took hold of the ends of selected the most distinguished among the the rope and tried topull each other up. This ephebi of the gymnasia. The number of gym- sport was also one of the amusements at the i:asiarchs was ten, one from every tribe. Attic Dionysia. An office of very great importance, in an The more important games, such as runedlucational point of view, was that of the ning (p6ypoo), throwing of the diacKo and the Sophronistae (CudpoviCerat). Their province uKwv, jumping and leaping (2Lata, with and was to inspire the youths with a love of cw- without h&ripeg), wrestling (7rdc7), boxing 6oo avj, and to protect this virtue against all (w'vymn), the pancratium (7raycpcp(tov), 7rividijurious influences. In early times their ra-So,?2rajtad]qopla, dancing (poXlatg), number at Athens was ten, one from every &c., are described in separate articles. tribe, with a salary of one drachma per day. A gymnasium was not a Roman institution.'their duty not only required them to be pre- The regular training of boys in the Greek sent at all the gamnes of the ephebi, but to gymnastics was foreign to Roman manners, watch and correct their conduct wherever and even held in contempt. Towards the they might meet them, both within and with- end of the republic, mawny wealthy Romans out the gymnasium. who had acquired a taste for Greek manners, The instructions in the gymnasia were used to attach to their villas small places for given by the Gymnastae (y/tjva-rai) and the bodily exercise, sometimes called gymnasia, Paedotribae (iratdorpt/3ai); at a later period sometimes palaestrae, and to adorn them hypopaedotribaewere added. Thepaedotribes with beautiful works of art. The emperor was required to possess a knowledge of all Nero:was the first who built a public gymnathe various exercises which were performed siuitat Rome. in the gymnasia; the gymnastes was the GYMNOPAE'DIA (yv/jvoratdia), the fespractical teacher, and was expected to know tival of "naked youths," was celebrated at the physiological effects and influences on the Sparta every year in'honour of Apollo Pyconstitution of the youths, and therefore as- thaeus, Diana, and Latona. The statues of signed to each of them those exercises which these deities stood in a part of the agora called he thought most suitable. Xop6f, and it was around these statyes that,'The anointing of the bodies of the youths at the gymnopaedia, Spartan youths performand strewing them with dust, before they ed their choruses and dances in honour of HALTERES. HARUSPICES. 171 Apollo. The festival lasted for several, per- HA RMAMAXA (&plzuiaf:a), a carriage for haps for ten, days, and on the last day men persons, covered overhead and inclosed with also performed choruses and dances in the curtains. It was in general large, often drawn theatre; and during these gymnastic exhi- by four horses, and attired with splendid ornabitions they sang the songs of Thaletas and ments. It occupied among the Persians the Alcman, and the paeans of Dionysodotus. same place which the carpentum did among The leader of the chorus (irpoCridr7Y or Xo- the Romans, being used, especially upon state powro6gf) wore a kind of chaplet -in corn- occasions, for the conveyance of women and memoration of the victory of the Spartans at children, of eunuchs, and of' the sons of the Thyrea. This event seems to have been king with their tutors. closely connected with the gymnopaedia, for HARMOSTAE (ipjoa7rai, from &pu6;(, those Spartans who had fallen on that occa- to fit or join together), the name of the gosion were always praised in songs at this fes- vernors whom the Lacedaemnonians, after the tival. The boys in their dances performed Peloponnesian war, sent into their subject such rhythmical movements as resembled the or conquered towns, partly to keep them in exercises of the palaestra and the pancration, submission, and partly to abolish the demoand also imitated the wild gestures of the cratical form of government, and establish in worship of Bacchus. The whole season of its stead one similar to their own. Although the gymnopaedia, during which Sparta was in many cases they were ostensibly sent for visited by great numbers of strangers, was the purpose of abolishing the tyrannical goone of great merriment and rejoicings, and vernment of a town, and to restore the people old bachelors alone seem to have been ex- to freedom, yet they themselves acted like cluded from the festivities. The introduc- kings or tyrants. tion of the gymnopaedia is generally assigned HARPASTUM. [PILA.] to the year 665 B. c. HARU'SPICES, or ARU'SPICES (iepooa67rot), soothsayers or diviners, who interpreted the will of the gods. They originally came to Romne from Etruria, whence harusH. pices were often sent for by the Romnans on important occasions. The artoftheharuspices HAIR. [COIA.] resembled in many respects that of the auHALTE'RES (ir,7ipe ), were certain gurs; but they never acquired that political masses of stone or metal, which were used in importance which the latter possessed, and the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and were regarded rather as means of ascertainRomans. Persons who practised leaping fre-ilg the will of the gods than as possessing quently performed their exercises with halteres any religious authority. They did not in fact in both hands; but they were also frequently form any part of the ecclesiastical polity of used merely to exercise the body in sorhewhat the Ronan state during the republic; they the same manner as our dumb-bells. are never called sacerdotes, they did not form a collegium, and had no magister at their head. The art of the haruspices, which was called haruspicina, consisted in explaining and interpreting the will of the gods from the appearance of the entrails (exta) of animals offered in sacrifice, whence they are sometimes called extispices, and their art extispicium; and also from lightning, earthquakes, and all extraordinary phenomena in nature, to which the \' general name of portenta was given. Their art is said to have been invented by the Etruscan Tages, and was contained in certain books called libri haruspicini, fulgurales, and tonitruales. \ -\\\ ~ - /This art was considered by the Romans so important at one time, that the senate decreed that a certain number of young Etruscans, belonging to the principal families in the state, should always be instructed in it. In later Halteres. times, however, their art fell into disrepute 172 HASTA. HELOTES. among well-educated Romans: and Cicero!falarica or phalarica was the spear of the Sa. relates a saying of Cato, that he wondered guntines, and was impelled by the aid of that one haruspex did not laugh when he saw twisted ropes: it was large and ponderous, another. i having a head of iron a cubit in length, and a The name of haruspex is sometimes applied ball of lead at its other end; it sometimes carto any kind of soothsayer or prophet. ried flaming pitch and tow. The matara and HASTA (fyXof), a spear. The spear is de- tragula were chiefly used in Gaul and Spain; fined by Homer, 66pv XiXusKpte, " a pole fitted the tragula was probably barbed, as it required with bronze." The bronze, for which iron to be cut out of the wound. The (1clis and was afterwards substituted,was indispensable cateia were much smaller missiles. to form the point (aei/?u, icumcKs, Homer; A spear was erected at auctions [AUCTIO], Xd6YXn, Xenophon; acies, cuspis, spiculum) of and when tenders were received for public the spear. Each of these two essential parts offices (locationes). It served both to announce, is often put for the whole, so that a spear is by a conventional signl conspicuous at a discalled d6pv and dop'r-tov, aiXum, and 67y,7s. tance, that a sale was going on, and to show Even the more especial term gteJia, meaning that it was conducted under the authority of an ash-tree, is used in the same manner, be- thepublicfunctionaries. Henceanauctionwas cause the pole of the spear was often the called hasta, and an auction-room hastarium. stem of a young ash, stript of its bark and It was also the practice to set up a spear in polished. the court of the CENTUMVIRI. The bottom of the spear was often inclosed HIASTA'TI. [ExERCITUS, p. 146.] in a pointed cap of bronze, called by the Ionic HELLANO'DICAE ('E2Zavodirat), the writers cavpmrri7p, and opieaxof, and in Attic judges in the Olympic games, of whom an or common Greek arvspa~. By forcingthisinto account is given under OLYMPIA. The same the ground the spear was fixed erect, name was also given to the judges or courttInder the general terms hasta and 7yXoC inartial in the Lacedaemonian army, and were included various kinds of missiles, of they were probably first called by this name which the principal were as follow:- when Sparta was at the head of the Greek Lancea (XvyXr]), the lance, a comparatively confederacy. slender spear commonly used by the Greeks. HELLENOTA'MIAE (E.2AvoTaozcdat), or Pilum (borac6), the javelin, much thicker treasurers of the Greeks, were magistrates and stronger than the Grecian lance. Its shaft appointed by the Athenians to receive the was partly square, and 5~ feet long. The contributions ofthe allied states. They were head, nine inches long, was of iron. It was first appointed B. c. 477, when Athens, in conused either to throw or to thrust with; it was sequence of the conduct of Pausanias, had peculiar to the Romans, and gave the name of obtained the command of the allied states. pilani to the division of the army by which it The money paid by the different states, which was adopted. was originally fixed at 460 talents, was deVeru or Verutum, a spit, used by the light posited in Delos, which was the place of infantry of the Roman army. It was adopted meeting for the discussion of all common inby them from the Samnites and the Volsci. terests; and there can be no doubt that the Its shaft was 3~ feet long, its point five hellenotamniae not only received, but were inches. also the guardians of, these monies. The ofBesides the terms jaculum and spiculum fice was retained after the treasury was trans(aK(;av, itc6KvTtO), which probably denoted ferred to Athens on the proposal of the Sadarts, we find the names of various other mians, but was of course abolished on the spears, which were characteristic ofparticu!ar conquest of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. nations. Thus, the gaesum was the spear p'- HELMET. [GALEA.] culiar to the Gauls, and the sarissa the spcar HELO'TES (eiowTetC), a class of bondsmen peculiar to the Macedonians. This was uscl peculiar to Sparta. They were Achaeans, both to throw and as a pike. It exceeded ill who had resisted the Dorian invaders to the length all other missiles. The Thracian rom- last, and had been reduced to slavery as the phea, which had a very long point, like the punishment of their obstinacy. blade of a sword, was probably not unlike the The Helots were regarded as the property sarissa. of the state, which, while it gave their serThe iron head of the German spear, called vices to individuals, reserved to itself the framea, was short and narrow, but very sharp. power of emancipating them. They were The Germans used it with great etfect, either attached to the land, and could not be sold as a lance or a pike; they gave to each youth away from it. They cultivated the land, and a framea and a shield on coming of age. The paid to their masters as rent a fixed measure HENDECA. HERMAE. 173 of corn, the exact amount of which had been condemned to death he was immediately given fixed at a very early period, the raising of that into the custody of the Eleven, who were amount being forbidden under heavy impre- then bound to carry the sentence into execucations. Besides being engaged in the cul- tion according to the laws. The most comtivation of the land, the Helots attended on mon mode of execution was by hemlock juice their masters at the public meal, and many (K6vetov), which was drunk after sunset. of them were no doubt employed by the state The Eleven had under them jailors, execuin public works. tioners, and torturers. When torture was In war the Helots served as light-armed inflicted in causes affecting the state, it was troops (bmt2oi), a certain number of them at- either done in the immediate presence of the tending every heavy-armed Spartan to the Eleven, or by their servant (6 ilu/tot). field; at the battle of Plataeae there were The Eleven usually had only to carry into seven Helots to each Spartan. These at- execution the sentence passed in the courts tendants were probably called un7ri7rape- of law and the public assemblies; but in some (i. e. cu5/iTavrre ), and one of them in partic- cases they possessed jurisdiction. This was ular, the Oepd,-wv, or servant. The Hielots the case inthose summary proceedings called only served as hoplites in particular emer- apogoge, ephegesis and endeixis, in which the gencies; and on such occasions they were penalty was fixed by law, and might be ingenerally emancipated. The first instance flicted by the court on the confession or conof this kind was in the expedition of Brasidas, viction of the accused, without appealing to B. c. 424. any of the jury courts. The treatment to which the Helots were HEPHAESTEIA. [LAMPADEPHORIA.] subjected was marked by the most wanton HERAEA ('Hpaea), the name of festivals cruelty; and they were regarded by the Spar- celebrated in honour of Hera (Juno) in all the tans with the greatest suspicion. Occasion- towns of Greece where the worship of this dially the ephors selected young Spartans for vinity was introduced. The original seat of the secret service (Kpverrrea) of wandering her worship was Argos; whence her festivals over the country, in order to kill the Helots. in other places were, more or less, imitations The Helots might be emancipated, but of those which were celebrated atArgos. Her there were several steps between them and service was performed by the most distinthe free citizens; and it is doubtful whether guished priestesses of the place; one of them they were ever admitted to all the privileges was the high-priestess, and the Argives countof citizenship. The following classes ofeman- ed their years by the date of her office. The cipated Helots are enumerated:- aserai, Heraea of Argos were celebrated every fifth ciSte'oro7o, EpK7t7pEf, meea-otovaeo7aL, and year. One of the great solemnities which veodaytea6lef. Of these the 0oerai were pro- took place on the occasion, was a magnificent bablyreleeased from all service; the Epvwcrpef procession to the great temple of Juno, bewere those employed in war; the deTroa'tov- tween Argos and Mycenae. A vast number av-rat served on board the fleet; and the veo- of young men assembled at Argos, and marchdamSmdetc were those who had been possessed ed in armour to the temple of the goddess. of freedom for some time. Besides these, They were preceded by one hundred oxen there were the I60doveEf or 66aKCef, who were (etca-r6/,ds3q, whence the festival is also called domestic slaves, brought up with the young EKar6,uf3ata). The high-priestess accompaSpartans, and then emancipated. Upon being nied this procession, riding in a chariot, drawn emancipated they received permissionto dwell by two white oxen. The 100 oxen were sawhere they wished. crificed, and their flesh distributed among all HE'NDECA (oi ivmetca), the Eleven, were the citizens; after which games and contests magistrates at Athens of considerable impor- took place. tance. They were annually chosen by lot, Of the Heraea celebrated in other counone from each of the ten tribes, and a secre- tries, those of Samos, which island derived tary (ypaeuares-M ), who must properly be re- the worship of Juno from Argos, were pergarded as their servant (v,'drgp7eg), though haps the most brilliant of all the festivals of he formed one of their number. this divinity. The Heraea of Elis, which The principal duty of the Eleven was the were celebrated in the fourth year of every care and management of the public prison Olympiad, were also conducted with consid(deeo7,uw-rptov), which was entirely under their erable splendour. jurisdiction. The prison, however, was sel. HERMAE ('EpyaZ), square blocks of stone, dom used by the Athenians as a mere place surmounted by the head of a divinity. They of confinement, serving generally for punish- were probably so called because the first statues ments and executions. When a person was of this kind were those of Hermes or Mercury. r') 174 HISTRIO. Houses in Athens had one of these statues class of persons, who made acting on the placed at the door, and the great superstition stage their profession, was unknown to the attached to them is shown by the alarm and Greeks during the period of their great dramaindignation which were felt at Athens in con- tists. The earliest and greatest dramatic sequence of the mutilation of the whole num- poets, Thespis, Sophocles, and probably Aesber in a single night, just before the sailing chylus also acted in their own plays, and in of the Sicilian expedition. all probability as protagonistae. It was not As the square part of the statue represent- thought degrading in Greece to perform on the ed Hermes (Mercury), his name is often com- stage. At a later period persons began to depounded with that of the deity whose bust it vote themselves exclusively to the profession supports. Thus, the Hermathena which Attica ofactors, and distinguishedindividuals received sent from Athens to Cicero bore the bust of even as early as the time of Demosthenes exAthena or Minerva; the Hermeraclae, those orbitant sums for their performances. of Heracles (Hercules.) 2. ROMAN. The word histrio, by which the HERMAEA ("Ep/uata), festivals of Her- Roman actor was called, is said to have been mes (Mercury) celebrated in various parts formed from the Etruscan hister, which signi of Greece. As Mercury was the tutelary flied a ludio or dancer. In the year 364 B. c. deity of the gymnasia and palaestrae, the Rome was visited by a plague, and as no huboys at Athens celebrated the Hermaea in the man means could stop it, the Romans are said gymnasia. to have tried to avert the anger of the gods by HIEROMNE'MONES (lepopvi/uoveS), the scenic plays (ludi scenici), which, until then, more honourable of the two classes of repre- had been unknown to them; and as there sentatives who composed the Amphictyonic were no persons at Rome prepared for such council. An account of them is given under performances, the Romans sent to Etruria for AMPHICTYONES. We also read of hieromne- them. The first histriones, who were thus mnones in Grecian states, distinct from the introduced from Etruria, were dancers, and Amphictyonic representatives of this name. performed their movements to the accompaniThus the priests of Neptune, at Megara, were ment of a flute. Roman youths afterwards called hieromnemones, and at Byzantium, not only imitated these dancers, but also rewhich was a colony of Megara, the chief ma- cited rude and jocose verses, adapted to the gistrate in the state appears to have been movements of the dance and the melody of the called by this name. flute. This kind of amusement, which was HIERONI'CAE. [ATHLETAE.] the basis of the Roman drama, remained unHILA'RIA (2tdpta), a Roman festival, cel- altered until the time of Livius Andronicus, ebrated on the 25th of March, in honour of who introduced a slave upon the stage for the Cybele the mother of the gods. purpose of singing or reciting the recitative, HV'STRIO(IT-oKptr7-,),anactor. 1GREEX. while he himself performed the appropriate It is shown in the articles CHORUS and DIo- dance and gesticulation. A further step in NYSLA that the Greek drama originated in the the development of the drama, which is likechorus which at the festivals of Bacchus wise ascribed to Livius, was, that the dancer danced around his altar, and that at first one and reciter carried on a dialogue, and acted a person detached himself from the chorus, story with the accompaniment of the flute and, with mimic gesticulation, related his The name histrio, which originally signified a story either to the chorus or in conversation dancer, was now applied to the actors in the with it. If the story thus acted required drama. The atellanae were played by free more than one person, they were all repre- born Romans, while the regular drama was sented in succession by the same actor, and left to the histriones, who formed a distinct there was never more than one person on the class of persons. The histriones were not citi stage at a time. This custom was retained zens; they were not contained in the tribes, by Thespis and Phrynichus. Aeschylus in- nor allowed to be enlisted as soldiers in the troduced a second and a third actor; and the Roman legions; and if any citizen entered the number of three actors was but seldom ex- profession of an histrio, he, on this account, ceeded in any Greek drama. The three reg- was excluded from his tribe. The histriones ular actors were distinguished by the techni- were therefore always either freedmen, strancal names of irp(wJayovtarnsr, devrepaycovta- gers, or slaves, and many passages of Roman Ai-i, and rpLt'ayovevtUa7, which indicated the writers show that they were generally held in more or less prominent part which an actor great contempt. Towards the close of the rehad to perform inr the drama. public it was only such men as Cicero, who, The female characters of a play were al- by their Greek education, raised themselves ways performed by young men. A distinct above the prejudices of their countrymen, and HOROLOGIUM. ] 75 valued the person no less than the talents of Another kind of horolo,,ium was the clepsyan Aesopus and a Roscius. But notwithstand- dra (KXcei(rpa). It derived its name fron ing this low estimation in which actors were CKXEretLtv and damp, as in its original and siragenerallyheld,distinguishedindividualsamong ple form it consisted of a vessel with several them attracted immense crowds to the thea- little openings (rpv7rw/Uara) at the bottom, tres, and were exorbitantly paid. Roscius through which the water contained in it es. alone received every day that he performed caped, as it were, by stealth. This instrione thousand denarii, and Aesopus left his son ment seems at first to have been used only for a fortune of:200,000 sesterces, which he had the purpose of measuring the time during acquired solely by his profession. which persons were allowed to speak in the The pay of the actors was called ucar, which courts of justice at Athens. It was a hollowv word was perhaps confined originally to the globe, probably somewhat flat at the top part. payment made to those who took part in the where it had a short neck (aZ61-), like that religious services celebrated in groves. of a bottle, through which the water was HONO'RES, the high offices of the state poured into it. This opening might be closed to which qualified individuals were called by by a lid or stopper (arDua), to prevent the the votes of the Roman citizens. The words water running out at the bottom. As the time "magistratus " and " honores " are sometimes for speaking in the Athenian courts was thus coupled together. The capacity for enjoying measured by water, the orators frequently use the honores was one of the distinguished the termn d(op instead of the time allowed to marks of citizenship.' [CIVITS.] them. An especial officer (O E'' vdcp) was Honor was distinguished fron munus. The appointed in the courts for the purpose otf latter was an office connected with the ad- watching the clepsydra, and stopping it when ministration of the state, and was attended any documents were read,whereby the speaker with cost (sumptus) but not with rank (digni- was interrupted. The time, Rnld consequently tas). Honor was properly said deferri, dari; the quantity of water allowed to a speaker, demunus was said imponi. A person who held pended upon the importance of the case. a magistratus might be said to discharge mu- The clepsydra used in the courts of justice hera, but only as incident to the office, for the of- was, properly speaking, no horologium; but fice itself was the honor. ~ Such munera as these smaller ones, made of glass, and of the same were public games andother things of the kind. simple structure, were undoubtedly used very HOPLI'TAE. [ExERCITUS, p. 143.] early in families for the purposes of ordinary HORA. [DIES.] - life, and for dividing the day into twelve equal HOROLO'GIUM (dCpoS6ytov), the name of parts. In these glass clepsydrae the division the various instruments by means of which the into twelve parts must have been visible, either ancients measured the time oftheday andnight. on the glass globe itself, or in the basin into The earliest and simplest horologia of which which the water flowed. mention is made,were called polos (7r6'So~) and The first horologium with which the Rognomon (yv6L.)v). Both divided the day into mans became acquainted was a sun-dial (solatwelve equal parts, and were a kind of sun- rium, or horologium sciothericum), and was said dial. The gnzomon, which was also called stoi- to have been brought to Rome by Papirius. cheion (7rot-oxEov), was the more simple of the Cursor twelve years before the war with two, and probably the more ancient. It con- Pyrrhus. But as sun-dials were useless when sistedofa staffor pillar standing perpendicular, the sky was cloudy, P. Scipio Nasica, in his in a place exposed to the sun (acKtdUOpov), so censorship, 159 B. c., established a public clepthat the length of its shadow might be easily as- sydra, which indicated the hours both of day certained. The shadow of the gnomon was and night. This clepsydra was in aftertimes measured byfeet,which were probably marked generally called solarium. After the time of on the place where the shadow fell. In later Scipio Nasica several horologia, chiefly solatimes the name gnomon was applied to any ria, seem to have been erected in various pubkind of sun-dial,especially to its finger which lic places at Rome. threw the shadow, and thus pointed to thehour. Clepsydrae were used by the Romansin their The polos or heliotropion (ia2torpO6rtov), on camps, chiefly for the purpose of measuring the other hand, seems to have been a more accurately the four vigiliae into which the perfect kind of sun-dial; but it appears, never- night was divided. theless not to have been much used. It con- The custom of using clepsydrae as a check sisted of a basin (AeKcavif), in the middle of upon the speakers in the courts of justice at which the perpendicular staff or finger (yvod- Rome, was introduced by a law of Cn. Ponsuov) was erected, and in it the twelve parts peius, in his third consulship. Before that of the day were marked by lines. time the speakers had been under no restric 176 HOSPITIUIM. tions, but spoke as long as they deemed proper. patron in his own city. This lie at first did At Rome, as at Athens, the time allowed to merely as a private individual, but the state to the speakers, depended upon the importance which he offered this kind service would naof the case. turally soon recognize and reward him for it. HOSPI'TIUM (Sevia, 7rpo:evia), hospital- When two states established public hospitality, was in Greece, as well as at Rome, of a ity, and no individuals came forward to act as twofold nature, either private or public, in so the representatives of their state, it was nefar as it was either established between indi- cessary that in each state persons should be v7iduals, or between two states. (Hospitium appointed to show hospitality to, and watch privaturm, and hospitium publicumrn, Sevia and over the interests of, all persons who came 7poS:evia.) from the state connected by hospitality. The In ancient Greece the stranger, as such persons who were appointed to this office as (ivot and hostis), was looked upon as an the recognized agents of the state for which enemy; but whenever he appeared among they acted were called proxeni (rp6 evot), but another tribe or nation without any sign of those who undertook it voluntarily etheloproxhostile intentions, he was considered not only eni (e;kro'm-p6Sevot.) as one who required aid, but as a suppliant, and The office of proxenus, which bears great Jupiter was the protecting deity of strangers resemblance to that of a modern consul or and suppliants (Ze/i ~ei-vtoo). On his arrival, minister-resident, was in some cases hereditherefore, the stranger was kindly received, tary in a particular family. When a state apand provided with every thing necessary to pointed a proxenus, it either sent out one of make him comfortable. It seems to have been its own citizens to reside in the other state, or customary for the host, on the departure of it selected one of the citizens of this state, the stranger, to break a die (oCTp'cya;oo) in and conferred upon him the honour of proxtwo, one half of which he himself retained, enus. The former was, in early times, the while the other half was given to the stranger; custom of Sparta, where the kings had the and when at any future time they or their de- right of selecting from among the Spartan scendants met, they had a means of recogniz- citizens those whom they wished to send out ing each other, and the hospitable connection as proxeni to other states. But in subsequent was renewed. Hospitality thus not only ex- times this custom seems to have been given isted between the persons who had originally up, for we find that at Athens the family of formed it, but was transferred as an inheri- Callias were the proxeni of Sparta, and at lance from father to son. Argos, the Argive Alciphron. What has been said hitherto, only refers to The principal duties of a proxenus were to hospitium privatum; but of far greater import- receive those persons, especially ambassadors, ance was the hospitium publicum (7rpoSEvia, who came from the state which he representsometimes simply F:via) or public hospitality, ed; to procure for them admission to the asNwhich existed between two states, or between sembly, and seats in the theatre; to act as the an individual or a family on the one hand, and patron of the strangers, and to mediate bea whole state on the other. Of the latter kind tween the two states if any disputes arose. of public hospitality many instances are re- If a stranger died in the state, the proxenus corded, such as that between the Pisistratids of his country had to take care of the property and Sparta, in which the people of Athens had of the deceased. no share. The hospitiumn publicum among The hospitality of the Romans was, as in the Greeks arose undoubtedly from the hos- Greece, either hospitium privatum or publipitium privatum, and it may have originated cum. Private hospitality with the Romans, in two ways. When the Greek tribes were however, seems to have been more accurately governed by chieftains or kings, the private and legally defined than in Greece. The hospitality existing between the ruling fami- character of a hospes, i. e. a person connected lies of two tribes may have produced similar with a Roman by ties of hospitality, was relations between their subjects, which, after deemed even more sacred, and to have greater the abolition of the kingly power, continued claims upon the host, than that of a person to exist between the new republics as a kind connected by blood or affinity. The relation of political inheritance of former times. Or a of a hospes to his Roman friend was next in person belonging to one state might have either importance to that of a cliens. The obligaextensive connections with the citizens of an- tions which the connection of hospitality with other state, or entertain great partiality for the a foreigner imposed upon a Roman, were to other state itself, and thus offer to receive all receive in his house his hospes when travelthose who came from that state either on pri- ling; and to protect, and, in case of nteed, to vate or public business, and to act as their represent him as his patron in the courts of HYACIN THIA. JAN UA. 177 justice. Private hospitality thus gave to the thus together. This Amyclaean Apollo, howhospes the claims upon his host which the ever, with whom Hyacinthus was assimilated client had on his patron, but without any de- in later times, must not be confounded with gree of the dependence implied in the clien- Apollo, the national divinity of the Dorians. tela. Private hospitality was established be- The festival was called after the youthful hero tween individuals by mutual presents, or by Hyacinthus, who evidently derived his name the mediation of a third person, and hallowed from the flower hyacinth (the emblem of death by religion; for Jupiter hospitalis was thought among the ancient Greeks), and whom Apollo to watch over the jus hospitii, as Zevg svtog accidentally struck (lead with a quoit. TheHy. did with the Greeks, and the violation of it acinthia lasted for three days, and began on was as great a crime and impiety at Rome as the longest day of the Spartan month Hecain Greece. When hospitality was formned, the tombeus, at the time when tender flowers, optwo friends used to divide between themselves pressed by the heat of the sun, drooped their a tessera hospitalis, by which, afterwards, they languid heads. On the first and last day of themselves or their descendants-for the con- the Hyacinthia, sacrifices were offered to the nection was hereditary as in Greece-might dead, and the death of Hyacinthus was larecognize one another. Hospitality, when mented. During these two days nobody wore thus once established, could not be dissolved any garlands at the repasts, nor took bread, except by a formal declaration (renuntiatio), but only cakes and similar things, and when and in this case the tessera hospitalis was the solemn repasts were over, everybody went broken to pieces. home in the greatest quiet and order. The Public hospitality seems likewise to have second day, however, was wholly spent in existed at a very early period among the na- public rejoicings and amusements, such as tions of Italy; but the first direct mention of horse-races, dances, processions, &c. The public hospitality being established between great importance attached to this festival by Rorne and another city, is after the Gauls had the Amyclaeans and Lacedaemonians is seen departed from Rome, when it was decreed from the fact, that the Amyclaeans, even when that Caere should be rewarded for its good they had taken the field against an enemy, services by the establishment of public hospi- always returned home on the approach of the tality between the two cities. The public hos- season of the Hyacinthia, that they might not pitality after the war with the Gauls gave to be obliged to neglect its celebration; and that the Caerites the right of isopolity with Rome, in a treaty with Sparta, B. c. 421, the Athenithat is, the civitas without the suffragium and ans, in order to show their good-will towards the honores. [COLONIA.] In the later times Sparta, promised every year to attend the of the republic we no longer find public hos- celebration of this festival. pitality established between Rome and a fo- HYDRIAPHO'RIA (sdptaoopia), was the reign state; but a relation which amounted carrying of a vessel with water (Hipia), which to the same thing was introduced in its stead, service the married alien (ir7t0ooo) women that is, towns were raised to the rank of mu- had to perform to the married part of the fenicipia, and thus obtained the civitas without male citizens of Athens, when they walked to the suffragium and the honores; and when a the temple of Minerva in the great procession town was desirous of forming a similar rela- at the Panathenaea. tion with Rome, it entered into clientela to some distinguished Roman, who then acted as patron of the client-town. But the custom of granting the honour of hospes publicus to I a distinguished foreigner by a decree of the senate, seems to have existed down to the end JA'CULUM. [HAsTA.] of the republic. His privileges were the same JANUA (0,Spa), a door. Besides being apas those of a municeps, that is, he had the plicable to the doors of apartments in the incivitas but not the suffragium or the honores. terior of a house, which were properly called Public hospitality was, like the hospitium pri- ostia, this term more especially denoted the vatum, hereditary in the family of the person first entrance into the house, i. e., the front to whoq*i it had been granted. or street door, which was also called anticum, HOftR. [DIEs.] and in Greek OSpa avdXetof, avwieia, a vdtof, HOUSES. [DoMus.] or avCAia. The houses of the Romans comHYACI'NTHIA (v cvOeta), a great national monly had a back-door, called posticum, postifestival, celebrated every year at Amyclae by ca, orposticula, and in Greek 7rapdOvpa, dim. the Ainyclaeans and Spartans, probably in 7rapaolptov. hotnour of the Amnyclaean Apollo and Hyacin- The door-way, when complete, consisted M78 IMAGO. IMPUBES. of four indispensable parts; the threshold, or ders. They were preserved with great care sill (limen,,3gn5, o'6al); the lintel (jgrumen- in cases in the atria of houses, and were only turn, limeTn superum); and the two jambs (post- brought out on solemn occasions, as, for ines, crra6poi). stance, on occasion of the funeral of a memThe door itself was called foris or valva, ber of the family. Hence the word imagines and in Greek acavi, KtUctadg', or 60iperpov. is frequently used as equivalent to nobility of These words are commonly found in the plu- birth, and homo multarum imaginum signifies a ral, because the door-way of every building, person of great nobility, many of whose anof the least importance contained two doors cestors had held the higher offices of the folding together. When foris is used in the state. Nobiles, therefore, were men who had singular, it denotes one of the folding doors such images in their family, and ignobiles those only. who had not. [NovI HOMINES.] The fastenings of the door (claustra, obices) IMPERA'TOR. [IMPERIUM.] commanonly consisted in a bolt (pessulus; udiv- IMPE'RIUM, was under the republic a da2Xoc, KaMroxeMs, KXie[pOv), placed at the power, without which no military operation base of each foris, so as to admit of being could be- carried on as in the name and on pushed into a socket made in the sill to re- the behalf of the state. It was not incident ceive it. to any office, and was always specially conBy night, the front door of the house was ferred by a lex curiata,. that is, a lex passed farther secured by mneans of wooden and some- in the comitia curiata. Consequently, not times an iron bar (sera, repagula,,ox2o6') placed even a consul could act as commander of arn across it, and inserted into sockets on each army, unless- he were empowered by a lex side of the door-way. Hence it was neces- curiata. It could not be held or exercised sary to remove the bar (rVov LaOXXOV 7Cpdue- within the city in the republican period; but petv) in order to open the door (reserare.) it was sometimes conferred specially upon It was considered improper to enter a house an individual for the day of his triumph withwithout giving notice to its inmates. This in the city, and at least, in some cases, by a notice the Spartans gave by shouting; the plebiscitum. Athenians and all other nations by using the As opposed to potestas, imperium is the powknocker, or more commonly by rapping with er which was conferred by the state upon an the knuckles or with a' stick (KpoOetv, K6nr- individual who was appointed to conmmand retv). In the houses of the rich a porter an army. The phrases consularis potestas and (janitor, custos, OvpopS6) was always in at- consulare imperium might both be properly tendance to open the door. He was com- used; but the expression tribunitia potestas monly a eunuch or a slave, and was chained only could be used, as the tribuni never reto his post. To assist him in guarding the ceived the imperium. entrance, a dog was universally kept near it, In respect of his imperiurm he who received being also attached by a chain to the wall; it was styled imperator. After a victory it and in reference to this practice, the warning was usual for the soldiers to salute their comcave canem, eriVaP ob 7 v Kc6vva, was sometimes mander as imperator, but this salutation neiwritten near the door. The appropriate name ther gave nor confirmed the title, since the for the portion of the house immediately be- title as a matter of course was given with hind the door (Ovpdv), denotes that it was a the imperium. Under the republic the title kind of' apartment; it corresponded to the came properly after the name; thus Cicero, hall or lobby of our houses. Immediately ad- when he was proconsul in Cilicia, could propjoining it, and close to the front door, there erly style himself M. Tullius Cicero Ihnpera. was in many houses a small room for the tor, for the term merely expressed that he porter. had the imnperium. The emperors Tiberius IDUS. [CALENDARIUM.] and Claudius refused to assume the praenoIGNOMI'NIA. [CENSOR; INFAMIA.] men of imperator, but the use of it as a praeIGNO'BILES. [NovI HOMINES.] nomen became established among their sucIMA'GO, a representation or likeness, an cessors. image or figure of a person. Among the Ro- The term imperium was applied in the remans those persons who had filled any of the publican period to express the sovereigntv of higher or curule magistracies of the state, the Roman state. Thus Gaul is said l. Cicehad the right of making images of themselves ro to have come under the imperium inld ditio (jus imaginum), which privilege was permitted of the populus Romanus. to ino one else. These images were made of IMPLU'VIUM. [DoMus, p. 125.] wax, and painted, and were likenesses of the IMPRISONMENT. [CARCER.] persons they represented, down to the shoul- IMPU'BES. An infans was incapable of INFANS. INTERCESSIO. 179 doing any legal act. An impubes, who had doing legal acts: —l. The first period was passed the limits of infantia, could do any from birth to the end of the seventh year, dulegal act with the auctoritas of his tutor. ring which time persons were called Infantes, With the attainment of pubertas, a person or Qtifari non possiset. 2. The secondperiod obtained the full power over his property, and wxas from the end of seven years to the end of the tutela ceased: he could also dispose of fourteen or twelve years, according as the perhis property by will; and he could contract son was a male or femnale, during which permarriage. Pubertas, in the case of a male, sons were defined as those Qui fari possunt. was attained with the completion of the four- The persons included in these first two classes teenth, and in a female, with the completion were Impuberes. 3. The third period was from of the twelfth year. the end of the twelfth or fourteenth to the end Upon attaining the age of puberty a Ro- of the twenty-fifth year, during which period man youth assumed the toga virilis, but until persons wereAdolescentes,Adulti. The persons that time he wore the toga praetexta, the included in these three classes were minores broad purple hem of which (praetexta) at once xxv annis or annorum, and were often, for distinguished him from other persons. The brevity's sake, called minores only [CCRAtoga virilis was assumed at the Liberalia in TOR]; and the persons included in the third the month of March, and though no age ap- a.nd fourth class were Puberes. 4. The fourth pears to have been positively fixed for the period was from the age of twenty-five, during ceremony, it probably took place as a general which persons were l;lajores. rule on the feast which next followed the INFE'RtAE. [FuNus, p. 164.] completion of the fourteenth year; though it I'NFULA, a flock of white and red wool, is certain that the completion of the four- which was slightly twisted, drawn into the ~eenth year was not always the time observed. form of a wreath or fillet, and used by the RoStill, so long as a male wore the praetexta, mans for ornament on festive and solemn ocfe was impubes, and when he assumed the casions. In sacrificing it was tied with a white toga virilis, he was pubes. band [VITTA] to the head of the victim and INAUGURA'TIO, was in general the cere- also of the priest. mony by which the augurs obtained, or en- INGE'NUI, were those free men who weie deavoured to obtain, the sanction of the gods born free. Consequently, freedmen (libertini) to something which had been decreed by were not ingenui, though the sons of libertini man; in particular, however, it was the cere- were ingenui; nor could a libertinus by adopmony by which things or persons were con- tion become ingenuus. The words ingenuus secrated to the gods, whence the terms dedi- and libertinus are often opposed to one another; catio and consecratio were sometimes used as and the title of freeman (liber), which would synonymous with inauguratio. Not only comprehend libertinus, is sometimes limited by were priests inaugurated, but also the higher the addition of ingenuus (liber et ingenuus.) magistrates, who for this purpose were surn- Under the empire a person not ingenuus moned by the augurs to appear on the capi- by birth, could be made ingenuus by the emtol, on the third day after their election. This peror. inauguratio conferred no priestly dignity upon INK. [ATRAMENTUM.] the magistrates, but was merely a method of INN. [CAUPONA.] obtaining the sanction of' the gods to their INQUILI'NUS. [ExsILIUM, p. 149.] election, and gave them the right to take aus- I'NSTiTA (,rneptr65dtov), a flounce; a fillet. picia; and on important emergencies it was The Romlan matrons sometimes wore a broad their duty to make use of this privilege. fillet with ample folds, sewed to the bottom of I'NDUTUS. [AmICTUS.] the tunic and reaching to the instep. The use INFA'MIA, was a consequence of condem- of it indicated a superior regard to decency nation for certain crimes, and( also a direct and propriety of manners. consequence of certain acts, such as adultery, I'NSULA was, properly, a house not joined prostitution, appearing on the public stage as to the neighbouring houses by a common wall. an actor, &c. A person who became infainis An insula, however, generally contained sevlost the suffragium and honores, and was de- eral separate houses, or at least separate apartgradedtothe condition of an aerariai. [nfalia ments or shops, which were let to different should be distinguished from the Nota Cen- families; and hence the word domnis under soria, the consequence of which was only ig- the emperors seems to be applied to the house nomninia. [CENSOR.] where a family lived, whether it were an inINFANS, INFA'NTIA. In the Roman law sula or not, andl insula to any hired lodgings. there were several distinctions of age which INTERCE'SSIO was the interference of a were made with reference to the capacity for magistratus to whom an appeal [APPEILA.TTrIX 180 INTERDICTUM. INTERREX. was made. The object of the intercessio was appropriately expressed by the word princtto put a stop to proceedings, on the ground of paliter. informality or other sufficient cause. Any INTEREST OF MONEY. [FENUS.] magistratus might intercedere, who was of iNTERPRES, an interpreter. This class equal rank with or of rank superior to the of persons became very numerous and necesinagistratus from or against whom the appel- sary to the Romans as their empire extended. latio was. Cases occur in which one of the In large mercantile towns the interpreters, praetors interposed (intercessit) against the pro- who formed a kind of agent through whom ceedings of his colleague. The intercessio is business was done, were sometimes very nuMost frequently spoken of with reference to merous. the tribunes,who originally had not jurisdictio, All Roman praetors, proconsuls, and quaesbut used the intercessio for the purpose of tors who were entrusted with the administrapreventing wrong which was offered to a per- tion of a province, had to carry on all their son in their presence. The intercessio of the official proceedings in the Latin language, and tribunes of the plebs was auxilium, and it as they could not be expected to be acquaintmight be exercised either in jure or in judicio. ed with the language of the provincials, they The tribune qui intercessit could prevent a ju- had always among their servants [APPARI dlicium from being instituted. The tribunes TORES] one or more interpreters, who were could only use the intercessio to prevent exe- generally Romans, but in most cases uncution of a judicial sentence. A single tribune doubtedly freedmen. These interpreters had could effect this, and against the opinion of not only to officiate at the conventus [CoN]his colleagues. VENTUS], but also explained to the Roman INTERCI'SI DIES. [DIEs.] governor everything which the provincials INTERDICTUM. " In certain cases (cer- mnight wish to be laid before him. lis ex causis) the praetor or proconsul, in the INTERREGNUM. [INTERREX.] first instance (principaliter), exercises his au- INTERREX. This office is said to have thority for the termination of disputes. This been instituted on the death of Romulus,wlien he chiefly does when the dispute is about the senate wished to share the sovereign plossession or quasi-possession; and the ex- power among themselves, instead of electing ercise of his authority consists in ordering a king. For this purpose, according to Livy, something to be done, or forbidding something the senate, which then consisted of one hunto be done. The formulae and the terms dred members, was divided into ten decuries; vwhich he uses on such occasions, are called and from each of these decuries one senator either interdicta or decreta. They are called was nominated. These together formed a dlecreta when he orders something to be done, board of ten, with the title of Interreges, each as when he orders something to be produced of whom enjoyed in succession the regal (exhiberi) or to be restored: they are called power and its badges for five days; and if no interdicta when he forbids something to be king was appointed at the expiration of fifty done, as when he orders that force shall not days, the rotation began anew. The period lie used against a person who is in possession during which they exercised their power was rightfully (sine vitid), or that nothing shall be called ail Interregnum. These ten interreges d(one on a piece of sacred ground. Accord- were the Decem Primi, or ten leading senators, ingly all interdicta are either restitutoria, or of whom the first was chief of the whole exhibitoria, or prohibitoria." senate. This passage, which is taken from Gaius, The interreges agreed among themselves the Roman jurist, contains the essential dis- who should be proposed as king, and if the tinctionbetween an actioandaninterdictum. In senate approved of their choice, they sumthe case of an actio, the praetor pronounces moned the assembly of the curiae, and proposed uo order or decree, but he gives a judex,whose the person whom they had previously agreed business it is to investigate the matter in dis- upon; the power of the curiae was confided pute, and to pronounce a sentence consistently to accepting or rejecting him. with the formula, which is his authority for Interreges were appointed under the repubacting. In the case of an actio, therefore, the lic for holding the conmitia for the election of praetor neither orders nor forbids a thing to be the consuls, when the consuls, through civil done, but he says, Judicium dabo. In the case commotions or other causes, had been unable of an interdict, the praetor makes an order to do so in their year of office. t Each held the that something shall be done or shall not be office for only five days, as under the kings. done, and his words are accordingly words of The comitia were hardly ever held by the first command; Restituas, Exibeas, Vinm fieri veto. interrex; more usually by the second or third;'" is izmediemte interposition of the praetor is but in one instance we read of an eleventh, ISTI1MIA. JUDEX. 181 and in another of a fourteenth interrex. The and embraced all the varieties of athletic perinterreges under the republic, at least from formances, such as wrestling, the pancratium, B. C. 482, were elected by the senate from the together with horse and chariot racing. Muwhole body, and were not confined to the sical and poetical contests were likewise cardecem primi or ten chief senators, as under ried on, and in the latter women were also the kings. Plebeians, however, were not ad- allowed to take part. missible to this office; and consequently, The prize of a victor in the Isthmian games when plebeians were admitted into the senate, consisted at first of a garland of pine-leaves, the patrician senators met without the ple- and afterwards of a wreath of ivy. Simple beian members to elect an interrex. For this as such a reward was, a victor in these games reason, as well as on account of the influ- gained the greatest distinction and honour ence which the interrex exerted in the elec- among his countrymen; and a victory not tion of the magistrates, we find that the tri- only rendered the individual who obtained it bunes of the plebs were strongly opposed to a subject of admiration, but shed lustre over the appointment of an interrex. The interrex his family, and the whole town or community had jurisdictio. to which he belonged. Hence Solon estabInterreges continued to be appointed occa- lished by a law, that every Athenian who sionally till the time of the second Punic war, gained the victory at the Isthmian games but after that time we read of no interrex, till should receive from the public treasury a rethe senate, by command of Sulla, created an ward of one hundred drachmae. His victory interrex to hold the comitia for his election was generally celebrated in lofty odes, called as dictator, B. c. 82. In B. c. 55 another in- Epinikia, or triumphal odes, of which we still terrex was appointed, to hold the comitia in possess some beautiful specimens among the which Pompey and Crassus were elected poems of Pindar. consuls; and we also read of interreges in JUDEX, JLTDI'CIUM. A Roman magisB. c. 53 and 52, in the latter of which years tratus generally did not investigate the facts an interrex held the comitia in which Pompey in dispute in such matters as were brought was appointed sole consul. before him: he appointed a judex for that I'STHMIA ("Ia0Mta), the Isthmian games, purpose, and gave him instructions. [ACTIO.] one of the four great national festivals of the Accordingly, the whole of civil procedure was Greeks. This festival derived its name from expressed by the two phrases Jus and Judicithe Corinthian isthmus, where it was held. vm, of which the former comprehended all Subsequent to the age of Theseus the isthmia that took place before the magistratus (in were celebrated in honour of Neptune; and jure), and the latter all that took place before this innovation is ascribed to Theseus him- the judex (in judicio). self. The celebration of the Isthmia was In many cases a single judex was appointconducted by the Corinthians, but Theseus ed: in others, several were appointed, and had reserved for his Athenians some honour- they seem to have been sometimes called reable distinctions: those Athenians who at- cuperatores, as opposed to the single judex. tended the Isthmia sailed across the Saronic Under certain circumstances the judex was gulf in a sacred vessel (OErpi~), and an hono- called arbiter: thus judex and arbiter are rary place (rrpoedpia), as large as the sail of named together in the Twelve Tables. their vessel, was assigned to them during the A judex when appointed was bound to discelebration of the games. In times of war charge the functions of the office, unless he between the two states a sacred truce was had somevalidexcuse (excusatio). Therewere concluded, and the Athenians were invited certain seasons of the year when legal busito attend at the solemnities. These games ness was done at Rome, and at these times were celebrated regularly every other year, the services of the judices were required. in the first and third years of each Olympiad. These legal terms were regulated according After the fall of Corinth, in 146 B. c., the Si- to the seasons, so that there were periods of cyonians were honoured with the privilege vacation. of conducting the Isthmian games; but when When the judex was appointed, the prothe town of Corinth was rebuilt by Julius ceedings in jure or before the praeto.r were Caesar, the right of conducting the solemni- terminated. The parties appeared before the ties was restored to the Corinthians. iudex on the third day (comperendinatio), unThe season of the Isthmian solemnities less the praetor had deferred the judicium for was, like that of all the great national festi- some sufficient reason. The judex was genvals, distinguished by general rejoicings and erally aided by advisers (jurisconsulti) learned feasting. The contests and games of the in the law, who were said in consilio adesse; Jsthmia were the same as those at Olympia, but the judex alone was empowered to give Q 182 JUDEX. judgment. Thematterwas firstbrieflystated were thence called Editiiii. Both the accu to the judex (causae conjectio, collectio) and the sator and the reus had the privilege of re. advocates of each party supported his cause jecting or challenging (rejicere) such judices in a speech. Witnesses were produced on as they did not like. In many cases a lex both sides, and examined orally: the witness- was passed for the purpose of regulating the es on one side were also cross-examined by mode of procedure. the other. The judices voted by ballot, at least generAfter all the evidence was given and the ally, and a majority determined the acquittal advocates had finished, the judex gave sen- or condemnation of theaccused. Eachjudex tence: if there were several Judices, a major- was provided with three tablets (tabulae), on itv decided. If the matter was one of diffi- one of which was marked A. Absolvo; on a culty, the hearing might be adjourned as often second C, Condemno; and on a third N. L., as was necessary (ampliatio); and if the judex Non liquet. The judices voted by placing one could not come to a satisfactory conclusion, of these tablets in the urns, which were then he might declare this upon oath, and so re- examined for the purpose of ascertaining the lease himself from the difficulty. This was votes. It was the duty of the magistratus to done by the form of words non liquere (N. L.). pronounce the sentence of the judices; in the The sentence was pronounced orally, and was case of condemnnation, to adjudge the legal sometimes first written on a tablet. If the penalty; of acquittal, to declare him acquitdefendant did not make his appearance after ted; and of doubt, to declare that the matter being duly summoned, judgment might be must be farther investigated (amplius cognogiven against him. scendunm). According to Cicero, all judicia had for A judiciuns popili, properly so called, was their object, either the settlement of disputes one in which the case was tried in the comitia between individuals (controversiae), or the pun- curiata, but afterwards in the comitia centuishment of crimes (maleficia). This refers to riata and tributa. The accuser had to be a a division of judicia, which appears in the magistratus, who commenced it by declaring jurists, into judicia publica and judicia privata. ii a contio that he would on a certain day acThe former, the judicia publica, succeeded to cuse a certain person, whom he named, ot the judicia populi of the early republican pe- some offence, which he also specified. This riod: the latter were so called because in was expressed by the phrase diem dicere. If them the populus acted as judices. Origi- the offender held any high office, it was necesnally the kings presided in all criminal cases, sary to wait till his time of service had exand the consuls succeeded to their authority. pired, before proceedings could be thus coniBut after the passing of the Lex Valeria menced against him. The accused was re(B. c. 507), which gave an appeal to the pop- quired to give security for his appearance on. ulus (that is, the comnitia curiata) from the the day of trial; the security was called lades magistratus, the consul could not sit in judg- in a causa capitalis, and praedes when the ment on the caput of a Roman citizen, but penalty for the alleged offence was pecuniary. such cases were tried in the comitia, or per- If such security was not given, the accused sons were appointed to preside at such in- was kept in confinement. If nothing prevented quiries, who were accordingly called Quaesi- the inquiry from taking place at the time fixed tores or Quaestoresparricidii or rerum capitalium. for it, the trial proceded, and the accuser had In course of time, as such cases became of to prove his case by evidence. The investimore frequent occurrence, such quaestiones gation of the facts was called anquisitio with were made perpetual, that is, particular ma- reference to the proposed penalty: accordgistrates were appointed for the purpose. It ingly, the phrases pecunia, capite or capitis anwas eventually determined, that while the quircre, are used. When the investigation praetorurbanus and peregrinus should continue was concluded, the magistratus promulgated to exercise their usual jurisdictions, the other a rogatio, which comprehended the charge praetors should preside at public trials. In and the punishment or fine. It was a rule of such trials any person might be an accuser law that a fine should not be imposed together (accusator). The praetor generally presided with another punishment in the same rogatio. as quaesitor, assisted by a judex quaestionlis, The rogatio was made public during three and a body of judices called his consilium. nundinae, like any other lex, and proposed at The judices were generally chosen by lot out the comitia for adoption or rejection. The of those who were qualified to act; but in accused sometimes withdrew into exile before some cases the accuser and the accused (rees) the votes were taken; or he might make his had the privilege of choosing (edere) a certain defence. number of judices out of a large number, who The offences,which were the c.hief subjec. JUDEX. JUGUM. 183 of judicia populi and publica were majestas, the Ducenarii, who had a lower pecuniary adulteria and stupra, parricidium, falsum, vis qualification, and only decided in smaller matpublica and privata, peculatus, repetundae, ters. Caligula added a fifth decuria, in order ambitus. to diminish the labours of the judices. With the passing of special enactments for JUDGES, Greek [DICASTES], Roman [Juthe punishment of particular offences, was DEX.] introduced the practice of forming a body of JU'GERUM, a Roman measure of surface, judices for the trial of such offences as the 240 feet in length and 120 in breadth, containenactments were directed against. The Album ing therefore 28,800 square feet. It was the Judicum was the body out of which judices double of' the Actus Quadratus, and from this were to be chosen. It is not known what was circumstance, according to some writers, it the number of the body so constituted, but it derived its name. [AcTus.] The uncial dihas been conjectured that the number was vision [As] was applied to the jugerum, its 350, and that ten were chosen from each tribe, smallest part being the scrupulum of 10 feet and thus the origin of the phrase Decuriae Ju- square,=100 square feet. Thus the jugerum dicum is explained. It is easy to conceive that contained 288 scrupula. The jugerumn was the judicia populi, properly so called, would the common measure of land among the Robe less frequent, as special leges were framed mans. Two jugera formed an heredium, a hunfor particular offences, the circumstances of dred heredia a centuria, and four centuriae a sal which could be betterinvestigated by a smaller tus. These divisions were derived from the body of judices than by the assembled people. original assignment of landed property in The Lex Servilia (B. c. 104) enacted that the which two jugera were given to each citizen judices should not be under thirty nor above as heritable property. sixty years of age, that the accuser and ac- JUGUM (Cvy6g, uvydv). signified in general cused should severally propose one hundred that which joined two things together, such as judices, and that each might reject fifty fron the transverse beam which united the upright the list of the other, so that one hundred posts of a loom, the cross-bar of a lyre, a scalewould remain for the trial. Up to B. C. 122, beam, &c., but it denoted more especially the the judices were always senators, but in this yoke by which ploughs and carriages were year the Sempronia Lex of C. Gracchus took drawn. The following woodcut shows two the judicia from the senators and gave them to examples of the yoke: the upper one is prothe equites. This state of things lasted nearly vided with two collars, the lower one with fifty years, till Sulla (B.c. 80) restored the ju- excavations cut in the yoke, in order to give dicia to the senate, and excluded the equites more ease and freedom to the animals. The from the album judicum. A Lex Aurelia (B.c. latter figure shows the method of tying the 70) enacted that the judices should be chosen yoke to the pole (temo, /vL6f) by mneans of a from the three classes —of senators, equites, leathern strap. and tribuni aerarii; and accordingly the judicia were then said to be divided between the senate and.the equites. The tribuni aerarii were taken from the rest of the citizens, and were, or ought to have been, persons of some property. Thus the three decuriae of judices were formed; and it was either in consequence of the Lex Aurelia or some other lex, that, instead of one urn for all the tablets, the decuriae had severally their balloting urn, so that the votes of the three classeswere known. It is not known if the Lex Aurelia determined the number of judices in any given case. The Lex Pompeia de Vi, and De Ambitu (is. c. 52) determined that eighty judices were to be selected by lot, out of whom the accuser and the accused might reject thirty. In the case of Clodius, in the matter of the Bona Dea, there were fifty-six judices. It is conjectured that the number fixed for a given case, by the Lex Aurelia, was seventy judices. Augustus added to the existing three decu-:iae judicum a fourth decuria, called that of Jugulm, Yoke. 184 LACERNA. LAMPADEPHORIA. The word jugum is often used to signify sla- head. The Lacerna appears to have been very, or the condition in which men are cor- commonly used in the army. In the time of pelled, against their will, like oxen or horses, Cicero it was not usually worn in the city, to labour for others. Hence, to express sym- but it soon afterwards became quite common bolically the subjugation of conquered nations, at Rome. the Romans made their captives pass under a The lacerna was sometimes thrown over yoke (sub jugum mittere), which, however, was the head for the purpose of concealment; but not made like the yoke used in drawing car- a cucullus or cowl was generally used for that riages or ploughs, but consisted of a spear purpose, which appears To have been fresupported transversely by two others placed quently attached to.he lacerna, and to have upright. formed a part of the dress. JURIS'DICTIO, signifies generally the au- LACI'NIAE, the angular extremities of thority of the magistrate " qui jus dicit," and the toga, one of which was brought round is mostly applied to the authority of the prae- over the left shoulder. It was generally tucktor in civil cases, such as the giving of the ed into the girdle, but sometimes was allowed formula in an actio and the appointment of a to hang down loose. judex. [AcTIo.] LACO'NICUM. [BALNEUM, p. 49.] JUS. Thelaw peculiar to the Roman state LACU'NAR. [DoMUS, p. 127.] is sometimes called Jus Civile Romanorum, but LAENA (X2alva), a woollen cloak, the more frequently Jus Civile only. The Jus cloth of which was twice the ordinary thickQuiritium is equivalent to the Jus Civile Ro- ness, shaggy upon both sides, and worn over manorurn. The jus civile of the Romans is di- the pallium or the toga for the sake of warmth. visible into two parts, jus civile in the narrower In later times the laena seems, to a certain sense, and jus pontificium, or the law of reli- extent, to have been worn as a substitute for gion. This opposition is sometimes expressed the toga. by the words Jus and Fas. The law of re- LAMPADEPHO'RIA (2asiira lynopoa), ligion, or the Jes Poltificium, was under the torch-bearing, LAMPADEDROMIA (?am/raclmdpocontrol of the pontifices, who in fact originally euia), torch-race, and often simply LAMPAS (Xaehad the control of the whole mass of the law; Ir(c), was a game common throughout Greece. and it was only after the separation of the jus At Athens we know of five celebrations of civile inits widersenseinto the twopartsofthe this game: one to Prometheus at the Projus civile, in its narrower sense, and the jus metheia, a second to Minerva at the Panapontificium, that each part had its proper and thenaea, a third to Vulcan at the Hephaespeculiar limits. Still, even after the separa- teia, a fourth to Pan, and a fifth to the Thration, there was a mutual relation between cian Diana or Bendis. The three former these two branches of law; for instance, an are of unknown antiquity; the fourth was inadrogatio was not valid by the jus civile unless troduced soon after the battle of Marathon; it was valid by the jus pontificium. Again, the last in the time of Socrates. jus pontificium, in its wider sense, as the law The race was usually run on foot, horses of religion, had its subdivisions, as into jus being first used in the timeof Socrates; someaugurum, pontificium, &c. times also at night. The preparation for it JUS CIVI'LE. [Jus.] was a principal branch of the Gymnasiarchia, JUS LA'TI1. [CIVITAS; LATINITAS.] SO much so indeed in later times, that LamJUS PONTIFI'CIUM. [Jus.] padarchia (2aiuTradapXia), seems to have been JUS QUIRI'TIUM. [Jus.] pretty much equivalent to the Gymnasiarchia. JUSTI'TIUM. [FuNUS, p. 164.] The gymnasiarch had to provide the lampas, which was a candlestick with a kind of shield K. SEE C. set at the bottom of the socket, so as to shelter the flame of the candle; as is seen in the following woodcut, L. taken from a coin. He had also to pro- /K LA'BARUM. [SIGNA MILITARIA.] vide for thetraining LACERNA (javeidac,tavrlU7?),a cloak worn of the runners, which by the Romans over the toga. It differed was of no slight confrom the paenula in being an open garment sequence, for the race like the Greek pallium, and fastened on the was evidently a se- - right shoulder by means of a buckle (fibula), vere one, with other whereas the paenula was what is called a expenses, which on mvestimentum clausum with an opening for the the whole were very Lampas. LATINI Th S. LECTICA. 185 heavy, so that Isaeus classes this office with I cives and peregrini. Before the passing of the choregia and trierarchia, and reckons that the Lex Julia de Civitate (B. c. 90) the above it had cost him 12 minae. expressions denoted a certain nationality, and LAMPAS. [LAMPADEPHORIA.] as part of it a certain legal status with referLAMPS. [LUCERNA.] ence to Rome; but after the passing of that LA'NCEA. [HASTA.] lex, these expressions denoted only a certain LANISTA. [GLADIATORES.] status, and had no reference to any national LANX, a large dish, made of silver or some distinction. About the year B. c. 89, a Lex other metal, and sometimes embossed, used Pompeia gave the jus Latii to all the Transat splendid entertainments to hold meat or padani, and consequently the privilege of obfruit; and consequently at sacrifices and fu- taining the Roman civitas by having filled a neral banquets. magistratus in their own cities. To denote LA'QUEAR. [DoMus, p. 127.] the status of these Transpadani, the word LARENTA'LIA, sometimes written LA- Latinitas was used, which since the passing RENTINA'LA and LAURENTA'LIA, a of the Lex Julia had lost its proper significaRoman festival in honour of Acca Larentia, tion; and this was the origin of that Latinithe wife of Faustulus and the nurse of Rom- tas which thenceforth existed to the time of ulus and Remus. It was celebrated in De- Justinian. This new Latinitas or jus Latii cember, on the 10th before the calends of Jan- was given to whole towns and countries; as, uary. for instance, by Vespasian to the whole of LARGI'TIO. [AMBITUS.] Spain. LATERNA or LANTERNA (Lbrv6f, Puv- It is not certain wherein this new Latinitas XvovXog, in later Greek, hav6o), a lantern. differed from that Latinitas which was the Two bronze lanterns, constructed with nicety characteristic of the Latini before the passing and skill, have been found in the ruins of of the Lex Julia. It is, however, clear that Herculaneum and Pompeii. One of them is all the old Latini had not the same right with represented in the annexed woodcut. Its respect to Rome; and that they could acquire the civitas on easier terms than those by which the new Latinitas was acquired. LATRU'NCULI (-recoi, V)~Oo), draughts. The invention of a game resembling draughts was attributed by the Greeks to Palamedes; and it is mentioned by Homer. There were two sets of men, one set being black, the other white or red. Being intended to represent a miniature combat between two armies, they were called soldiers (milites), foes (hostes), a___ A___~ L and marauders (latrones, dim. latrunculi); also calculi, because stones were often employed for the purpose. The Romans often had twelve lines on the draught-board, whence the game so plaved was called duodecimscripta. LAUDA'TIO. [FUNUS, P. 162.] LAURENTA'LIA. [LARENTALIA.] LAWS. [LEx.] LECTI'CA (KAivE,,utvidtov, or oopeiov), was a kind of couch or litter, in which perLsnterna sons, in a lying position, were carried from one place to another. They were used for form is cylindrical. Within is a bronze lamp carrying the dead [FUNUS] as well as the attached to the centre of the base, and pro- living. The Greek lectica consisted of a bed vided with an extinguisher shown on the or mattress, and a pillow to support the head, right hand of the lantern. The plates are of placed upon a kind of bedstead or couch. It translucent horn. A front view of one of the had a roof, consisting of the skin of an ox, two upright pillars is shown on the left hand. extendine over the couch and resting on four LATICLA'VII. [CLAVUS.] posts. The sides of this lectica were covered LATI'NAE FE'RIAE. [FERIAE.] wsith curtains. In the republican period it LATI'NITAS, LA'TIUM, JUS LA'TII. appears to have been chiefly used by women, All these expressions are used to signify a and by men only when they were in ill health. certain status intermediate between that of When this kind of lectica was introduced Q 2 186 LECTISTERNIUM. LECTUS. among the Romans, it was chiefly used in exhibits a couch employed on one of these travelling, and very seldom in Rome itself. occasions. It has a cushion covered by a But towards the end of the republic, and un- cloth hanging in ample folds down each side. der the empire, it was commonly used in the This beautiful pulvinar is wrought altogether city, and was fitted up in the most splendid in white marble, and is somewhat more than manner. Instead of curtains,it was frequently two feet in height. closed on the sides with windows made of LECTUS (2XXoS, Kctiv27, e.v~), a bed. The transparent stone (lapis specularis), and was complete bed (enivy) of a wealthy Greek in provided with a pillow and bed. When stand- later times generally consisted of the following, it rested on four feet, generally made of ing parts: —k2il, ETriTOvot, rv2eeov or Ktv~~awood. Persons were carried in a lectica by Xov, 7rpocrKeod2retov, and acrpwc-ara. slaves (lecticarii), by means of poles (asseres) The Ic2tivl is, properly speaking, merely the attached to it, but not fixed, so that they might bedstead, and seems to have consisted only of easily be taken off when necessary. The posts fitted into one another and resting upon number of lecticarii employed in carrying one four feet. At the head part alone there was a lectica varied according to its size, and the board (SvK2tvrppo V. or ErSiutvrpov) to supdisplay of wealth which a person might wish port the pillow and prevent its falling out. to make. The ordinary number was probably Sometimes, however, the bottom part of a two; but it varied from two to eight, and the bedstead was likewise protected by a board, lectica is called hexaphoron or octophoron, ac- so that in this case a Greek bedstead resemcording as it was carried by six or eight bled what we call a French bedstead. persons. The following woodcut represents The bedstead was pro ided with girths a lectica. It is taken from the tombstone of (rtvot, Ti-T-ovo, Kcetpia) on which the bed or M. Antonius Antius. mattress (1vga2Xov, rveeiov, Kcotvdg, or 7a277) rested. The cover or ticking of a mattress was made of linen or woollen cloth, or of leather, and the usual material with which it was filled was either wool or dried weeds. l At the head part of the bed, and supported by the E'ritcZtvrpov, lay a round pillow (-rpofKE-.rle-tov) to support the head. The bed-covers (arp6p/,ra) were generally made of cloth, which was very thick and Lectica. woolly, either on one or on both sides. The beds of the Romans (lecti cubiculares) LECTISTE'RNIITM. Sacrifices being of in the earlier periods of the republic were prothe nature of feasts, the Greeks and Romans, bably of the same description as those used in on occasion of extraordinary solemnities, Greece; but towards the end of the republic placed images of the gods reclining on couch- and during the empire, the richness and mages, with tables and viands before them, as if nificence of the beds of the wealthy Romans they were really partaking of the things of- far surpassed everything we find described in fered in sacrifice. This ceremony was called Greece. The bedstead was generally rather a lectisternium. The woodcut here introduced high, so that persons entered the bed (scandere, ascendere) by means of steps placed beside it (scamnum). It was sometimes made of metal, and sometimes of costly kinds of wood, or veneered with tortoise shell or ivory; its feet ( fulchra) were frequently of silver or gold. The bed or mattress (culcita and torus) rested upon girths or strings (restes,fasciae, institae, orfunes), which connected the two horizontal sideposts of the bed. In beds destined for two persons, the two sides are distinguished by different names; the side at which persons entered was open, and bore the name sponda; the other side, which was protected by a board, was called pluteus. The two sides of such a bed are also distinguished by the names torus exterior and torus interior, or sponda exteCouchb. rior and sponda interior; and from these ex LEGATUS. 187 pressions it is not improbable that such lecti soon as the report of the landing of foreign had two beds or mattresses, one for each per- ambassadors on the coast of Italy was brought son. Mattresses were in the earlier times to Rome, especially if they were persons of filled with dry herbs or straw, and such beds great distinction, or if they.came from an ally continued to be used by the poor. But in of the Roman. people, some one of the inferior subsequent times wool, and, at a still later magistrates, or a legatus of a consul. was deperiod, feathers, were used by the wealthy spatched by the senate to receive, and conduct for the beds as well as the pillows. The cloth them to the city at the expense of the repubor ticking (operimentum or involucrum) with lic. When they were introduced into the which the beds or mattresses were covered, senate by the praetor or consul, they first exwas called toral, torale, linteum, or segestre. plained what they had to communicate, and The blankets or counterpanes (vestes stragulae, then the praetor invited the senators to put stragula, peristromata, peripetasmata) were in their questions to the ambassadors. The the houses of wealthy Romans of the most whole transaction was carried on by interprecostly description, and generally of a purple ters, and in the Latin language. [INTERcolour, and embroidered with beautiful figures PRES.] After the ambassadors had thus been in gold. Covers of this sort were called peri- examined, they were requested to leave the petasmata Attalica, because they were said to assembly of the senate, who now began to dishave been first used at the court of Attalus. cuss the subject brought before theIn. The The pillows were likewise covered with mag- result was communicated to the ambassadors nificent casings. by the praetor. In some cases ambassadors The lectus genialis or adversus was the bridal not only received rich presents on their debed, which stood in the atrium, opposite the parture, but were at the command of the janua, whence it derived the epithet adversus. senate conducted by a magistrate, and at the It was generally high, with steps by its side, public expense, to the frontier of Italy, and and in later times beautifully adorned. even farther. By the Lex Gabinia it was deRespecting the lectus funebris see FUNUs, creed, that from the 1st of February to the 1st p. 161. An account of the disposition of the of March, the senate should every day give couches used at entertainments is given under audience to foreign ambassadors. There was TRICLINIUM. a place on the right-hand side of the senateLEGA'TIO LI'BERA. [LEGATUs, p. 188.] house, called Graecostasis, in which foreign LEGA'TUS, from lego, a person commis- ambassadors waited. sioned or deputed to do certain things. They All ambassadors, whencesoever they came, may be divided into three classes:-1. Legati were considered by the Romnans throughout or ambassadors sent to Rome by foreign na- the whole period of their existence as sacred tions; 2. Legati or ambassadors sent from and inviolable. Rome to foreign nations and into the provin- 2. Legati to foreign nations in the name of ces; 3. Legati who accompanied the Roman the Roman republic were always sent by the generals into the field, or the proconsuls and senate; and to be appointed to such a mission praetors into the provinces. was considered a great honour, which was 1. Foreign legati at Rome, from whatever conferred only on men of high rank or emincountry they came, had to go to the temple of ence: for a Roman ambassador had the Saturn, and deposit their names with the powers of a magistrate and the venerable quaestors. Previous to their admission into character of a priest. If a Roman during the the city, foreign ambassadors seem to have performance of his mission as ambassador died been obliged to give notice from what nation or was killed, his memory was honored by the they came and for what purpose; for several republic with a public sepulchre and a statue instances are mentioned, in which amnbassa- in the Rostra. The expenses during the jourdors were prohibited from entering the city, ney of an ambassador were, of course, paid by especially in case of a war between Rome and the republic; and when he travelled through the state from which they came. In such a province, the provincials had to supply him cases the ambassadors were either not heard with everything he wanted. at all, and obliged to quit Italy, or an audience 3. The third class of legati, to whom the was given to them by the senate (senatus lega- name of ambassadors cannot be applied, were tis datur) outside the city, in the temple of persons who accompanied the Roman generals Bellona. This was evidently a sign of mis- on their expeditions, and in later times the trust, but the ambassadors were nevertheless governors of provinces also. They are mentreated as public guests, and some public villa tioned at a very early period as serving along outside the city was sometimes assigned for with the tribunes, under the consuls. They their reception. In other cases, however, as were nominated (legabantur) by the consul or 188 LEGAT US. LEITURGIA. the dictator under whom. they served, but the a public legatus or ambassador, without -havsanction of the senate was an essential point, ing any of his duties to perform. At the time without which no one could be legally con- of Cicero the privilege of legatio libera was sidered a legatus.. The persons appointed to abused to a very great extent. Cicero, therethis office were usually men of great military fore, in his consulship (B. C. 63) endeavoured talents, and it was their duty to advise and to put an end to it, but, owing to the oppoassist their superior in all his undertakings, sition of a tribune, he only succeeded in limand to act in his stead both in civil and mili- iting the time of its duration to one year. tary affairs. The legati were thus always Julius Caesar afterwards extended the time men in whom the consul placed great confi- during which a senator might avail himself dence, and were frequently his friends or re- of the legatio libera to five years. lations; but they had no power independent LE'GIO. [EXERCITUS.] of the command of their general. Their num- LEITU'RGIA (retTovpyia, from XETrov, ber varied according to the greatness or im- Ion. Zi7Tov, i. e. 67ya60tov, or, according to portance of the war, or the extent of the pro- others, IrpvraveZov), a liturgy, is the name of vince: three is the smallest number that we certain personal services which at Athens, know of, but Pompey, when in Asia, had fif- every citizen, who possessed a certain amount teen legati. Whenever the consuls were ab- of property, had to perform towards the state. sent from the army, or when a proconsul left These personal services, which in all cases his province, the legati or one of them took his were connected with considerable expenses, place, and then had the insignia as well as the were at first a natural consequence of the power of his superior. He was in this case greater political privileges enjoyed by the called legatus pro praetore, and hence we wealthy, who, in return, had also to perform sometimes read that a man governed a pro- heavier duties towards the republic; but when vince as legatus without any mention being the Athenian democracy was at its height, made of the proconsul whose vicegerent he the original character of these liturgies bewas. During the latter period of the repub- came changed, for, as every citizen now enlic, it sometimes happened that a consul car- joyed the same rights and privileges as the ried on a war, or a proconsul governed his wealthiest, they were simply a tax upon proprovince, through his legati, while he himself perty connected with personal labour and remained at Rome, or conducted some other exertion. more urgent affairs. All liturgies may be divided into two classes, When the provinces were divided at the 1. ordinary or encyclic liturgies (EYKyICdV2tO time of the empire [PRovINCIA], those of the etrovrpyia), and 2. extraordinary liturgies. Roman people were governed by men who The former were called encyclic because they had been either consuls or praetors, and the recurred every year at certain festive seaformer were always accompanied by three sons, and comprised the Choregia, Gymnasiarlegati, the latter by one. The provinces of chia, Lampadarchia, Architheoria, and Hestiasis. the emperor, who was himself the proconsul, Every Athenian who possessed three talents were governed by persons whom the emperor and above, was subject to them, and they himself appointed, and who had been consuls were undertaken in turns by the members of or praetors, or were at least senators. These every tribe, who possessed the property qualvicegerents of the emperor were called legati ification just mentioned, unless some one augusti pro praetore, legati praetorii, legati con- volunteered to undertake a liturgy for ansulares, or simply legati, and they, like the other person. But the law did not allow any governors of the provinces of the Roman peo- one to be compelled to undertake more than pie, had one or three legati as their assistants. one liturgy at a time, and he who had in one During the latter period of the republic it year performed a liturgy, was free for the had become customary for senators to obtain next, so that legally a person had to perform from the senate the permission to travel a liturgy only every other year. Those whose through or stay in any province at the ex- turn it was to undertake any of the ordinary pense of the provincials, merely for the pur- liturgies, were always appointed by their own pose of managing and conducting their own tribe. personal affairs. There was no restraint as The persons who were exempt from all to the length of time the senators were allow- kinds of liturgies were the nine archons, heired to avail themselves of this privilege, which esses, and orphans until after the commencewas a heavy burden upon the provincials. ment of the second year of their coming of This mode of sojourning in a province was age. Sometimes the exemption from liturcalled legatio libera, because those who availed gies (zireriea), was granted to persons for themselves of it enjoyed all the privileges of especial merits towards the republic. LEX. 189 The only kind of extraordlinary liturgy to mony of adrogation being effected only in which the name is properi-; applied, is the these comitia. [ADOPTIO.] trierarchia (rptqpapXiea); irl:ile earlier times, Those leges, properly so called, with which however, the service in the arlmies was in re- we are acquainted, were passed in the comiality no more than an ext aordinary liturgy. tia centuriata, and were proposed (rogabantur) [See EISPHORA and TI!:RIRARCHIA.] In later by a magistratus of senatorial rank, after the times, during and after the Peloponnesian senate had approved of them by a decretum. war, when the expenses of a liturgy were Such a lex was also designated by the name found too heavy for one person, we find that Populi Scitum. in many instances two persons combined to The word rogatio (from the verb rogo) prodefray its expenses. Such was the case with perly means any measure proposed to the the choragia and the trierarchy. legislative body, and therefore is equally apLEMURA'LIA or LEMU'RIA, a festival plicable to a proposed lex and a proposed plefor the souls of the departed, which was cel- biscitum. It corresponds to our word bill, as ebrated at Rome every year in the month of opposed to act. When the measure was passMay. It was said to have been instituted by ed, it became a lex or plebiscitum; though Romulus to appease the spirit of Remus, rogations, after they had become laws, were whom he had slain, and to have been called sometimes, though improperly, called rogatioriginally Remuria. It was celebrated at ones. A rogatio began with the wotds velitis, night and in silence, and during three alter- jubeatis, &c., and ended with the words ita nate days, that is, on the ninth, eleventh, and vos Quirites rogo. The corresponding expresthirteenth of May. During this season the sion of assent to the rogatio on the part of temples of the gods were closed, and it was the sovereign assembly was uti rogas. The thought unlucky for women to marry at this phrases for proposing a law are rogare legem, time and during the whole month of May, legem ferre, and rogationem promulgare; the and those who ventured to marry were be- phrase rogationem accipere applies to the enactlieved to die soon after, whence the proverb, ing body. The terms relating to legislation mense Maio malae nlbent. Those who cel- are thus explained by Ulpian the jurist-" A ebrated the Lemuralia walked barefooted, lex is said either rogari orferri; it is said abwashed their hands three times, and threw rogari, when it is repealed; it is said derogari black beans nine times behind their backs, when a part is repealed; it is said subrogari, believing by this ceremony to secure them- when some addition is made to it; and it is selves against the Lemures. As regards the said abrogari, when some part of it is changed." solemnities oin each of the three days, we A privilegium is an enactment that had for only know that on the second there were its object a single person, which is indicated games in the circus in honour of Mars, and by the form of the word (privilegium) privae that on the third day the images of the thirty res, being the same as singulae res. The word Argei, made of rushes, were thrown from the privilegium did not convey any notion of the Pons Sublicius into the Tiber by the Vestal character of the legislative measures; it might virgins. [ARGEI.] On the same day there be beneficial to the party to whom it referred, was a festival of the merchants, probably be- or it might not. Under the empire, the word cause on this day the temple of Mercury had is used in the sense of a special grant probeen dedicated in the year 495 B. c. ceeding from the imperial favour. LENAEA. [DIONvSIA.] The title of a lex was generally derived LEX. Of Roman leges, viewed with re- from the gentile name of the inagistratus who ference to the mode of enactment, there were proposed it, as the Lex Hortensia from the dicproperly two kinds, Leges Curiatae and Leges tator Hortensius. Sometimes the lex took its Centuriatae. Plebiscita are improperly called name from the two consuls or other magisleges, though they were laws, and in the trates, as the Acilia Calpurnia, Aelia, or Aelia course of title had the same effect as leges. Sentia, Papia or Papia Poppaea, and others. [PLEBIscIrruM.] It seems to have been the fashion to omit the Originally the leges curiatae were the only word et between the two names, though inleges, and they were passed by the populus stances occur in which it was used. A lex in the cornitia curiata. After the establish- was also designated, with reference to its obment of the comnitia centiuriata, the comitia ject, as the Lex Cincia de Donis et Muneribus, curiata fell almost into disuse; but so long Lex Furia Testamentaria, Lex Julia Municipalis,'as the republic lasted, and even under Au- and many others. Leges which related to a gustus, a shadow of the old constitution was common object, were often designated by a preserved in the formal conferring of the im- collective name, as LegesAgrariae, Judiciariae, periumr by a lex curiata only, and in the cere- and others. A lex sometimes took its name 190 LEX AGRARIA. LEX CAECILIA. from the chief contents of its first chapter, as relation to the ager publicus. [AGER PUBLILex Julia de. Maritandis Ordinibus. Sometimes cvs.] The most important of these are mena lex comprised very various provisions, re- tioned under the names of their proposers. lating to matters essentially different, and in [APPUrLEIA; CASSIA; CORNELIA; PrLAMINIA; that case it was called Lex Saturna. FLAVIA; JULIA; LICINIA; SEMPRONIA; SERThe number of leges was greatly increased VILIA; THORIA.] in the later part of the republican period, and A'MBITUS. [AMBITUS.] Julius Caesar is said to have contemplated a ANNA'LIS or VI'LLIA, proposed by L.Vilrevision of the whole body. Under him and lius Tapulus in B. c. 179, fixed the age at Augustus numerous enactments were passed, which a Roman citizen might become a canwhich are known under the general name of didate for the higher magistracies. It appears Juliae Leges. It is often stated that no leges, that until this law was passed, any office properly so called, or plebiscita, were passed might be enjoyed by a citizen after completing after the time of Augustus; but this is a mis- his twenty-seventh year. The Lex Anialis take. Though the voting might be a mere fixed 31 as the age for the quaestorship, 37 for form, still the form was kept. Besides, vari- for the aedileship, 40 for the praetorship, and ous leges are mentioned as having been passed 43 for the consulship. under the empire, such as the Lex Junia A'NTIA. [SUMTUARIAE LEGES.] under Tiberius, the Lex Visellia, the Lex ANTO'NIAE, the name of various enactM1amilia under Caligula, and a Lex Claudia ments proposed or passed by the influence of on the tutela of women. It does not appear M. Antonius, after the death of the dictator when the ancient forms of legislation were J. Caesar. laid aside. APPULE'IA AGRA'RIA, proposed by the A particular enactment is always referred tribune L. Appuleius Saturninus, B. c. 101. to by its name. The following is a list of the APPULE'IA FRUMENTA'RIA, proposed principal leges, properly so called; but the about the same time by the same tribune. list includes also various plebiscita and privi- APPULE'IA MAJESTA'TIS. [MAJEslegia:- TAS.] ACI'LIA. [REPETUNDAE.] ATE'RNIA TARPE'IA, B. C. 441. This ACI'LIA CALPU'RNIAor CALPU'RNIA. lex empowered all magistrates to fine persons [AMBITUS.] who resisted their authority; but it fixed the AEBU'TIA, of uncertain date, which with highest fine at two sheep and thirty cows, or two Juiiae Leges put an end to the Leges two cows and thirty sheep, for the authorities Actiones, except in certain cases. vary in this. This or another lex of the same name, pro- A'TIA DE SACERDO'TIIS (B. c. 63), prohihited the proposer of a lex, which created posed by the tribune T. Atins Labienus, reany office or power (curatio ac potestas), from pealed the Lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis. having such office or power, and even ex- ATI'NIA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscicluded his collegae, cognati, and affines.'tum which gave the rank of senator to a triAE'LIA. This lex and a Fufia Lex passed bune. This measure probably originated with about the end of the sixth century of the city, C. Atinius, who was tribune B. C. 130. gave to all the magistrates the obnunciatio, or AUFI'DIA. [AMBITUS.] power of preventing or dissolving the comitia, AURE'LIA (B. C. 70), enacted that the judiby observing the omens and declaring them to ces should be chosen from the senators, equites, be unfavourable. and tribuni aerarii. [JUDEX, p. 183.] AE'LIA SEN'TIA, passed in the time of BAE'BIA (B. c. 192 or 180), enacted that Allgustus (about A. D. 3). This lex contained four praetors and six praetors should be chovarious provisions as to the manumission of sen alternately; but the law was not obslaves. served. AEMI'LIA. A lex passed in the dictator- CAECI'LIA DE CENSO'RIBUS or ship of Mamercus Aemilius (B.. 433), by CENSO'RLA (B.c. 54), proposed by Metellus which the censors were elected for a year and Scipio, repealed a Cloclia Lex (B. C. 58),which a half, instead of a whole lustrum. After this had prescribed certain regular forms of prolex they had accordingly only a year and a ceeding for the censors in exercising their half allowed them for holding the census and functions as inspectors of mores, and had reletting out the public works to farm. quired the concurrence of both censors to inAEMI'LIA BAE'BIA. [CORNELIA BAE- flict the nota censoria. When a senator had BTA.] been already convicted before an ordinary AEMI'LIA. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] court, the lex permitted the censors to remove AGRA'RIAE, the name of laws which had him from the senate in a summary way. LEX CINCIA. LEX CORNELIA. 191 CAECI'LIA DE VECTIGA'LIBUS (B. C. was so far restricted in Trajan's time, that 62), released lands and harbours in Italy from the fee could not be paid till the work was the payment of taxes and dues (portoria). done. The only vectigal remaining after the passing CLO'DIAE, the name of various plebiscita, of this lex was the Vicesima. proposed by Clodius, when tribune, B. c. 59. CAECI'LIA DI'DIA (B. c. 98) forbade the CLODIA DE AusPICIIS prevented the magis proposing of a Lex Satura, on the ground that tratus from dissolving the comitia tributa, by the people might be compelled either to vote declaring that the auspices were unfavourable for something which they did not approve, or This lex therefore repealed the Aelia and Fu to reject something which they did approve, if fla. It also enacted that a lex might be passed it was proposed to them in this manner. This on the dies fasti. [AELIA LEX.] - lex was not always operative. CLODIA DE CENSORIBUS. [CAECILIA.] CAE'LIA. [TABELLARIAE LEGES.] CLODIA DE CIVIBUS ROMANIS INTEREMPCALPU'RNIA DE A'MBITU. [AmBI- TIS, to the effect that " qui civem Romanum TUS.] indemnatum interemrnisset, ei aqua et igni inCALPU'RNIA DE REPETUNDIS. [RE- terdiceretur." It was in consequence of this PETUNDAE.] lex that the interdict was pronounced against CANULE'IA (B. c. 445) established con- Cicero, who considers the whole proceeding nubium between the patres and plebs, which as a privilegium. had been taken away by the law of the Twelve CLODIA FRUMENTARIA, by which the corn, Tables. which had formerly been sold to the poor citi. CA'SSIA (B. c. 104), proposed by the tri- zens at a low rate was given. bune L. Cassius Longinus, did not allow a CLODIA DE SODALITATIBUS or DE COLLEperson to remain a senator who had been con- GIIs restored the Sodalitia, which had been victed in a judicium populi, or whose imperi- abolished by a senatus-consultum of the year um had been abrogated by the populus. B. c. 80, and permitted the formation of new CA'SSIA empowered the dictator Caesar Sodalitia. to add to the number of the patricii, to prevent There were other so-called Leges Clodiae, their extinction. which were however privilegia. CASS'IA AGRA'RIA, proposed by the CORNE'LIAE. Various leges passed in consul Sp. Cassius, B. c. 486. This is said to the dictatorship of Sulla, and by his influence, have been the first agrarian law. It enacted are so called. that of the land taken from the Hernicans, AGRARIA, by which many of the inhabitants half should be given to the Latins, and half to of Etruria and Latium were deprived of the the plebs, and likewise that part of the public complete civitas, and retained only the comland possessed by the patricians should be dis- mercium, and a large part of their lands tributed among the plebeians. This law met were made public, and given to military cowith the most violent opposition,- and appears lonists. not to have been carried. Cassius was ac- DE FASIs, against those who forged testacused of aiming at the sovereignty, and was ments or other deeds, and against those who put to death. [AGER PUBLICUS.] adulterated or counterfeited the public coin, CA'SSIA TABELLA'RIA. [LEGES TA- whence Cicero calls it testamentaria and numBELLARIAE.] maria. CA'SSIA TERE'NTIA FRUMENTA'- JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX, p. 183.] RIA (B.C. 73) for the distribution of corn MAJESTATIS. [MAJESTAS.] among the poor citizens and the purchasing DE PROSCRIPTIONE ET PROSCRIPTIS. of it. [PROSCRIPTIO.] CI'NCIA DE DONIS ET MUNE'RIBUS, DE PARRICIDIO. [PARRICIDA.] a plebiscitum passed in the time of the tribune DE SACERDOTIIS. [SACERDOS.] M. Cincius Alimnentus (B. c. 204). It forbade Ds SICARIIS ET VErNEFICIS, contained proa person to take anything for his pains in visions as to death or fire caused by dolus mapleading a cause. In the time of Augustus, los, and against persons going about armed the Lex Cincia was confirmed by a senatus- with the intention of killing or thieving. The consultum, and a penalty of four times the law not only provided for cases of poisoning,'"um received was imposed on the advocate. but contained provisions against those who' The law was so far modified in the time of mrade, sold, bought, possessed, or gave poison Claufdins, that an advocate was allowed to for the purpose of poisoning; also against a receive ten sestertia; if he took any sum be- Inagistratus or senator who conspired in order yond that, he was liable to be prosecuted for that a person might be condemned in a juldirepetutndac. It appears that this permission cizempublicvm, &c. 192 LEX FRUMENTARIA. LEX JULIA. UNCIARIA appears to have been a lex which TERENTIA; CLODIA; LIVIA; OCTAVIA; SEMlowered the rate of interest, and to have been PRONIA.] passed about the same time with the Leges FU'FIA DE RELIGIO'NE, B. C. 61, was Sumptuariae of Sulla. a privilegium which related to the trial of There were also Leges Corneliae, which Clodius. were proposed by the tribune C. Cornelius FU'RIA or FU'SIA CANI'NIA limited about B. C. 67, and limited the edictal power the number of slaves to be manumitted by by compelling the praetors Jus dicere ex edictis testament. suis perpetuis. FU'(RIA or FU'SIA TESTAMENTA'Another lex of the Same tribune enacted RIA, enacted that a testator should not give that no one legibus solveretur, unless such a more than three-fourths of his property in lemeasure was agreed on in a meeting of the gacies, thus secu: ing one-fourth to the heres. senate at which two hundred members were GABI'NIA TA i3ELLA'RIA. [LEGES TApresent, and afterwards approved by the peo- BELLARIAE.] ple; and it enacted that no tribune should put There were va ious Gabiniae Leges, some his veto on such a senatus-consultum. of which were pri ilegia, as that for conferring There was also a Lex Cornelia concerning extraordinary pow er on Cn. Pompeius for conthe wills of those Roman citizens who died in ducting the war a/gainst the pirates. captivity (apeid hostes). A Gabinia Lex, B. c. 58, forbade all loans of CORNE'LIA BAE'BIA DE AMBITU, money at Rome to legationes from foreign proposed by the consuls P. Cornelius Cethe- parts. The object of the lex was to prevent gus and M. Baebius Tamphilus, B. c. 181. money being borrowed for the purpose of briThis law is sometimes, but erroneously, at- bing the senators at Rome. tributed to the consuls of the preceding year, GE'LLIA CORNE'LIA, B. c. 72, which L. Aemilius and Cn. Baebius. [AMBITUS.] gave to Cn. Pompeius the extraordinary DI'DIA. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] power of conferring the Roman civitas on DOMI'TIA DE SACERDO'TIIS. [SA- Spaniards in Spain, with the advice of his CERDOS.] consilium. DUI'LIA (a. c. 449), a plebiscitum proposed GENU'CIA, B. C. 341, forbade altogether by the tribune Duilius, which enacted that'the taking of interest for the use of money. whoever left the people without tribunes, or HIERO'NICA was not a lex properly so created a magistrate from whom there was called. Before the Roman conquest of Sicily, no appeal (provocatio), should be scourged and the payment of the tenths of wine, oil, and beheaded. other produce had been fixed by Hiero; and DUFLIA MAE'NIA, proposed by the tri- the Roman quaestors, in letting these tenths bunes Duilius andMaenius (a. c. 357), restored to farm, followed the practice which they the old uncial rate of interest (unciariumnfe- found established. nus), which had been fixed by the Twelve Ta- HORA'TIAE ET VALE'RIAE. [LEGES bles. [FENUS.] The same tribunes carried a VALERIAE.] measure which was intended, in future, to pre- HORTE'NSIA DE PLEBISCI'TIS. [LEvent such unconstitutional proceedings as the GES PUBLILIAE; PLEBISCITUM.] enactment of a lex by the soldiers out of Rome, Another Lex Hortensia enacted that the on the proposal of the consul. nundinae, which had hitherto been feriae, FA'BIA DE PLA'GIO. [PLAGIUM.] should be dies fasti. This was done for the FALCI'DIA. [LEX VOCONIA.] purpose of accommodating the inhabitants of FA'NNIA. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] the country. FLAMI'NIA was an Agraria Lex for the ICI'LIA, B. c. 456, by which the Aventinus distribution of lands in Picenum, proposed by was assigned to the plebs. This was the first the tribune C. Flaininius, in B. c. 228 according instance of the ager publicus being assigned to to Cicero, or in B. c. 232 according to Polybius. the plebs. The latter date is the more probable. Another Lex Icilia, proposed by the tribune FLA'VIA AGRA'RIA, B. c. 60, for the dis- Sp. Icilius, B. c. 470, had for its object to pretribution of lands among Pompey's soldiers, vent all interruption to the tribunes while actproposed by the tribune L. Flavius, who cornm- ing in the discharge of their duties. In some iritted the consul Caecilius Metellus to prison cases the penalty was death. for opposing it. JIT'LIAE. Most of the Juliae Leges were FRUMEN'rA'RIAE,various leges wereso passed in the time of C. Julius Caesar and called which had for their object the distribu- Augustus. tion of grain among the people, either at a low D)E ADULTERIIS. [ADULTERIUM.] price or gratuitously. [ArrPULEIA; CAssIA AGRARIA, B. c. 59, in the consulship of Cae LEX JULIA. LEX JUNIA. 193 sar, for distributing the ager publicus in Car"- was passed as a kind of amendment and suppania among 20,000 poor citizens, who had plement to the former lex, and hence arose each three children or more. the title of Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea, by DE AlMBITU. [AMBITUS.] which this lex is often quoted. The lex is DE BoNIs CEDENDIS. This lex provided often variously quoted, according as reference that a debtor might escape all personal mo- is made to its various provisions; sometimes lestation from his creditors by giving up his it is called Lex Julia, sometimes Pappia Popproperty to them for the purpose of sale and paea, sometimes Lex Julia et Papia, sometimes distribution. It is doubtful if this lex was Lex de Maritandis Ordinibus, from the chapter passed in the time of Julius Caesar or of Au- which treated of the marriages of the senagustus, though probably of the former. tors, sometimes Lex Caducaria, Decimaria, &c. DE CIVITATE was passed in the consulship from the various chapters. Of L. Julius Caesar and P. Rutilius Lupus, The Lex Julia forbade the marriage of a B. C. 90. [CIvITAS; FOEDERATAE CIVI- senator or senator's children with a libertina, TATES.] with a woman whose father or mother had DE FENORE, or rather De Pecuniis Mutuis followed an ars ludicra, and with a prostior Creditis (B. c. 47), passed in the time of tute; and also the marriage of a libertinus Julius Caesar. The object of it was to make with a senator's daughter. an arrangement between debtors and credit- In order to promote marriage, various penors, for the satisfaction of the latter. The alties were imposed on those who lived in a possessiones and res were to be estimated at state of celibacy (caelibatus) after a certain the value which they had before the civil age, and various privileges were given to war, and to be surrendered to the creditors those who had three or more children. at that value; whatever had been paid for in- A candidate for the public offices who had terest was to be deducted from the principal. several children was preferred to one who had The result was, that the creditor lost about fewer. After the passing of this lex, it beone-fourth of his debt; but he escaped the came usual for the senate, and afterwards the loss usually consequent on civil disturbance, emperor (princeps), to give occasionally, as a which would have been caused by novae ta- privilege to certain persons who had not chilbulae. dren, the same advantage that the lex secured JUDICIARIAE. [JUDEX.] to those who had children. This was called D)E LIBERIS LEGATIONIBUS. [LEGATUS.] the Jus Liberorum, and sometimes the Jus DE MAJESTATE. [MAJESTAS.] trium Liberorum. MUNICIPALIS, commonly called the Table DE PROVINCIIS. [PROVINCIAE.] of Heraclea. In the year 1732 there were REPETUNDARUM. [REPETUNDAE.] found near the Gulf of Tarentum and in the SUMTUARIAE. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] neighbourhood of the city of ancient Herac- THEATRALIS, which permitted Roman equilea, large fragments of a bronze table, which tes, in case they or their parents had ever had contained on one side a Roman lex, and on a census equestris, to sit in the fourteen rows the other a Greek inscription. The whole is (quatuordecim ordines) fixed by the Lex Roscia now in the Museo Borbonico at Naples. The Theatralis, B. c. 69. lex contains various provisions as to the police DE VI PUBLICA AND PRIVATA. [VIS.] of the city of Rome, and as to the constitu- VICESIMARIA. [VICESIMA.] tion of communities of Roman citizens (muni- JU'NIA DE PEREGRI'NIS, proposed cipia, coloniae, praefecturae, fora, conciliabula B. c. 126, by M. Junius Pennus, a tribune, civium Romanorum). It was accordingly a banished peregrini from the city. lex of that kind which is called Satura, and A lex of C. Fannius, consul B. c, 122, conwas probably passed in B. c. 44. tained the same provisions respecting the JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA. Augustus ap- Latini and ltalici; and a lex of C. Papius, pears to have caused a lex to be enacted about perhaps B. C. 65, contained the same respectB. C. 18, which is cited as the Lex Julia de ing all persons who were not domiciled in Maritantdis Ordinibus, and is referred to in the Italy. Carmen Seculare of Horace, which was writ- JU'NIA LICI'NIA. [LIcINIA JUNIA.] ten in the year B. C. 17. The object of this JU'N1A NORBA'NA, of uncertain date, lex was to regulate marriages, as to which it but probably about A. D. 17, enacted that when contained numerous provisions; but it ap- a Roman citizen had manumitted a slave with- pears not to have come into operation till the out the requisite formalities, the manumission year B. C. 13. In the year A. D. 9, and in the should not in all cases be ineffectual, but the consulship of M. Papius Mutilus and Q. Pop- manumitted person should have the status ol paeus Secundus (consules suffecti), another lex a Latinus. R 194 LEX LIVIA. LEX PAPIA. JU'NIA REPETUNDA'RUM. [REPE- to have been the mover of a law for adulterTUNDAE.] ating silver by mixing with it an eighth part LAETO'RIA, the false name of the Lex of brass. Drusus was assassinated, and the Plaetoria. [CURATOR.] senate declared that all his laws were passed Sometimes the lex proposed by Volero for contra auspicia, and were therefore not leges. electing plebeian magistrates at the comitia LUTA'TIA DE VI. [Vis.] tributa is cited as a Lex Laetoria. MAE'NIA LEX, is only mentioned by LICl'NIA DE SODALI'TIIS. [AMBI- Cicero who says that M. Curius compelled TrTS.] the patres ante auctoresfieri in the case of the LICI'NIA JU'NIA, or, as it is sometimes election of a plebeian consul, "which," adds called, Junia et Licinia, passed in the consul- Cicero, " was a great thing to accomplish, as ship of L. Licinius Murena and Junius Sila- the Lex Maenia was not yet passed." The Ilms, B. C. 62, enforced the Caecilia Didia, in lex therefore required the patres to give their connection with which it is sometimes men- consent at least to the election of a magistioned. tratus, or in other words, to confer or agree LICI'NIA MU'CIA DE CIVIBUS RE- to confer the imperium on the person whom G(UNDIS passed in the consulship of L. Li- the comitia should elect. It was probably cinius Crassus and Q. Mucius Scaevola, B. c. proposed by the tribune Maenius B. c. 287. 95, enacted a strict examination as to the MAJESTA'TIS. [MAJESTAS.] title to citizenship, and deprived of the exer- MANI'LIA, proposed by the tribune C. cise of civic rights all those who could not Manilius, B. c. 66, was a privilegium by which make out a good title to them. This mea- was conferred on Pompey the command in sure partly led to the Marsic war. the war against Mithridates. The lex was LIGI'NIA SUMTUA'RIA. [LEGES SUM- supported by Cicero when praetor. TUARIAE.] MA'NLIA, also called LICI'NIA, B. c. 196, L!C'NIAE, proposed by C. Licinius, who created the triumviri epulones. was tribune of the people from B. c. 376 to MA'NLIA DE VICE'SIMA, B. C. 357, im-:367, and who brought the contest between posed the tax of five per cent. (vicesima) on patricians and plebeians to a happy termina- the value of manumitted slaves. tion. He was supported in his exertions by MA'RCIA, probably about the year B. C. his colleague L. Sextius. The laws which 352, adversusfeneratores. he proposed were:-l. That in future no MA'RCIA, an agrarian law proposed by the more consular tribunes should be appointed, tribune L. Marcius Philippus, B. c. 104. but that consuls should be elected as in for- MA'RIA, proposed by Marius when tribune nuer times, one of whom should always be a B. c. 119, for narrowing the pontes at elec plebeian. 2. That no one should possess tions. nore than 500 jugera of the public land, nor ME'MMIA or RE'MMIA. [CALUMNIA.J keep upon it more than 100 head of large, or MINU'CIA, B. c. 216, created the triumviri 500 of small cattle. 3. A law regulating the mensarii. affairs between debtor and creditor, which OCTA'VIA, one of the numerous leges fruordained that the interest already paid for mentariae which repealed a Sempronia Fruborrowed money should be deducted from the mentaria. It is mentioned by Cicero as a capital, and that the remainder of the latter more reasonable measure than the Semproshould be paid back in three yearly instal- nia, which was too profuse. mnents. 4. That the Sibylline books should OGU'LNIA, proposed by the tribunes B.. be entrusted to a college of ten men (decem- 300, increased the number of pontifices to viri), half of whom should be plebeians, in or- eight, and that of the augurs to nine; it also der that no falsifications might be introduced enacted that four of the pontifices and five ot in favour of the patricians. These rogations the augurs should be taken from the plebes. were passed after a most vehement opposition O'PPIA. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] on the part of the patricians, and L. Sextius O'RCHIA. [LEGES SUMTUARIAE.] was the first plebeian who, in accordance OVI'N1A, of uncertain date, was a pleblswith the first of them, obtained the consul- citum which gave the censors certain powers ship for the year B. c. 366. in regulating the lists of the senators (ordo LI'VIAE, various enactments proposed by senatorius): the main object seems to have the tribune M. Livius Drusus, B. C. 91, for been to exclude all improper persons from establishing colonies in Italy and Sicily, dis- the senate, and to prevent their admission, it tributing corn among the poor citizens at a in other respects qualified. low rate, and admitting the foederatae civi- PA'PIA DE PEREGRI'NIS. [LEx JUNIA tates to the Roman civitas. He is also said DE PEREGRINIS.] LEX POMPEIA. LEX PUBLILIA. 195 PA'PIA POPPAEA. [LEX JULIA ET PA- Jus Latii or Latinitas to all the towns of the PIA POPPAEA.] TI ranspadani, and probably the civitas to the PAPI'RIA, or JULIA PAPI'RIA DE Cispadani. MULCTA'RUM AESTIMATIONE (B. c. DE AMBIrU. [AMBITUS.] 430), fixed a money value according to which JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX, P. 181.] fines were paid, which formerly were paid in DE JURE MAGISTRATUUM, forbade a person sheep and cattle. Some writers make this to be acandidate for public offices (petitito ho valuation part of the Aternian law [ATERNIA norum) who was riot at Rome; but J. Caesal TARPEIA], but in this they appear to have was excepted. This was doubtless the old been mistaken. law, but it had apparently become obsolete. PAPI'RIA, by which the as was made se- DE PARRICIDIIS. [PARRICIDIUM.] muncialis, one of the various enactments TRIBUNITIA (B. C. 70), restored the old triwhich tampered with the coinage. bunitia potestas, which Sulla had nearly dePAPI'RIA, B. c. 332, proposed by the prae- stroved. [TRIBUNI.] tor Papirius, gave the Acerrani the civitas DE VI, was a privilegium, and only referred without the suffragiurn. It was properly a to the case of Milo. privilegiurn, but is useful as illustrating the PO'RCIAE DE CA'PITE CIVIUM, or history of the extension of the civitas Ro- DE PROVOCATIO'NE, enacted that no mana. Roman citizen should be scourged or put to PAPI'RIA, of uncertain date, enacted that death. no aedes should be declared consecratae with- PO'RCIA DE PROVI'NCIIS, about c.c. out a plebiscituni. 198, the enactments of which are doubtful. PAPI'RIA PLAU'TIA, a plebiscitum of PUBLI'LIA. In the consulship of L. Pithe year B. C. 89, proposed by the tribunes C. narius and P. Furius, a. c. 472, the tribune Papirius Carbo and M. Plautius Silvanus, in Publilius Volero proposed, in the assembly of the consulship of Cn. Pompeius Strabo and the tribes, that the tribunes should in future L. Porcius Cato, is called by Cicero a lex of be appointed in the comitia of She tribes (ut Silvanus and Carbo. [See CIVITAS; FOE- plebeii magistratus tributis comnitis fierent), inDERATAE CIVITATES.] stead of by the centuries, as had formerly been PAPI'RIA POETE'LIA. [LEx POETE- the case; since the clients of the patricians LIA.] were so numerous in the centuries, that the PAPI'RIA TABELLA'RIA. [LsEGEs TA- plebeians could not elect whom they wished. BELLARIAE.] This measure was violently opposed by the PEDUCAEA, B. c. 113, a plebiscitum, patricians, who prevented the tribes from:comseems to have been merely a privilegium, and ing to any resolution respecting it throughout not a general law against incestum. this year; but in the following year, B. c. 471, PETRE'IA, de decimatione militum, in case Publilius was re-elected tribune, and together of mutiny. with him C. Laetorius, a man of still greater PETRO'NIA, probably passed in the time resolution than Publilius. Fresh measures of Augustus, and subsequently amended by were added to the former proposition: the various senatus-consulta, forbade a master to aediles were to be chosen by the tribes, as deliver up his slave to fight with wild beasts. well as the tribunes, and the tribes were to be PINA'RIA, related to the giving of a judex competent to deliberate and determine on all within a limited time. matters affecting the whole nation, and not PLAETO'RIA. [CURATOR.] such only as might concern the plebes. This PLAU'TIA or PLO'TIA DE VI. [VIs.] proposition, though still more violently resistPLAU'TIA or PLO'TIA JUDICIA'RIA, ed by the patricians than the one of the preenacted that fifteen persons should be annu- vious year, was carried. Some said that the ally taken from each tribe to be placed in the number of the tribunes was now for the first Album Judicum. time raised to five, having been only two prePOETE'LIA, B. c. 358, a plebiscitum, was viously. the first lex against ambitus. PUBLI'LIAE, proposed by the dictator Q. POETE'LIA PAP1RIA, B. c. 326, made Publilius Philo, B.c. 339. Accordingto Livy, an important change in the liabilities of the there were three Publiliae Leges. 1. The Nexi. first is said to have enacted, that plebiscita POMPEIAE. There were various leges should bind all Quirites, which is to the same so called. purport as the Lex Hortensia of B. c. 286. It I)E CIVITATE, proposed by Cn. Pompeius is probable, however, that the object of this Strabo, the father of Cn. Pompeius Magnus, law was to render the approval of the senate probably in his consulship, B. c. 89, gave the a sufficient confirmation of a plebiscitum, and 196 LEX REGIA. LEX SACRATA. to make the confirmation of the curiae unne- I Regia Lex conferred upon an emperor, was of cessary. 2. The second law enacted, ut legin a very different nature from that which in quae comitiis centuriatis Jfrrerentur ante initunm former times it had conferred upon the kings. suffragium patres auctores fierent. By patres It now embraced all the rights and powers Livy here means the curiae; and accordingly which the populus Romanus had formerly posthis law made the confirmation of the curiae sessed, so that the emperor became what fora mere formality in reference to all laws sub- merly the populus had been, that is, the sovemitted to the comitia centuriata, since every reign power in the state. A fragment of such law proposed by the senate to the centuries a lex regia, conferring the imperium upon was to be considered to have the sanction of Vespasian, engraved upon a brazen table, is the curiae also. 3. The third law enacted that still extant in the Lateran at Rome. one of the two censors should necessarily be RE'MNIA. [CALUMNIA.] a plebeian. It is probable that there was also REPETUNDA'RUM. [REPETvNDAE.] a fourth law, which applied the Licinian law RHO'DIA. The Rhodians had a maritime to the praetorship as well as to the censor- code which was highly esteemed. Some of its ship, and which provided that in each alter- provisions were adopted by the Romans, and nate year the praetor should be a plebeian. have thus been incorporated in the maritime PU'PIA, mentioned by Cicero, seems to law of European states. It was not, however, have enacted that the senate could not meet a lex in.the proper sense of the term. on comitiales dies. RO'SCIA THEATRNALIS, proposed by QUI'NTIA, was a lex proposed by T. the tribune L. Roscius Otho, B.c. 67, which Quintius Crispinus, consul B. c. 9, for the pre- gave the equites a special place at the public servation of the aquaeductus. spectacles in fourteen rows or seats (in quatzRE'GIA. A Lex Regia during the kingly ordecim gradibus sire ordinibels) next to the period of Roman history might have a twofold place of the senators, which was in the ormeaning. In the first place, it was a law chestra. This lex also assigned a certain which had been passed by the comitia under place to spendthrifts. The phrase sedere in the presidency of the king, and was thus dis- quatuordecim ordinibus is equivalent to having tinguished from a Lex Tribunicia, which was the proper census equestris which was repassed by the comitia under the presidency quired by the lex. There are numerous alluof the tribunus celerum. In later times all sions to this lex, which is sometimes simply laws, the origin of which was attributed to called the Lex of Otho, or referred to by his the time of the kings, were called Leges Re- name. It is supposed by some writers to have giae, though it by no means follows that they been enacted in the consulship of Cicero, were all passed under the presidency of the B. c. 63. kings, and much less, that they were enacted RU'BRIA. The province of Gallia Cisalby the kings without the sanction of the cu- pina ceased to be a provincia, and became a ries. Some of these laws were preserved and part of Italia, about the year B. c. 43. When followed at a very late period of Roman his- this change took place, it was necessary to tory. A collection of thern was made, though provide for the administration of justice, as at what time is uncertain, by Papisius or Pa- the usual modes of provincial administration pirius, and this compilation was called the would cease with the determination of the Jus Civile Papirianumn or Papisianum. provincial form of government. This was The second meaning of Lex Regia during effected by a lex, a large part of which, on a the kingly period was undoubtedly the same bronze tablet, is preserved in the Museum at as that of the Lex Curiata de Imperio. [IMP.E- Parma. The name of this lex is not known, RIUM. This indeed is not mentioned by any but it is supposed by some to be the Lex Ruancient writer, but must be inferred from, the bria. Lexa Regia which we meet with under the (mr- RTTPI'LIAE LEGES (B. C. 131), were the pire, for the name could scarcely have been regulations established by P. Rupilius, and invented then; it must have come down from ten legati, for the administration of the proearly times, when its meaning was similar, vince of Sicily, after the close of the first serthough not nearly so extensive. During the vile war. They were made in pursuance of a empire the curies continued to hold their consultum of the senate. Cicero speaks of meetings, though they were only a shadow of these regulations as a decretum of Rupilius, former times; and after the election of a new which he says they call Lex Rupilia; but it emperor, they conferred upon him the impe- was not a lex proper. The powers given to rium in the ancient form by a Lex Curiata de the commissioners by the Lex Julia MuniciImperio, which was now usually called Lea palls were of a similar kind. Regia. The imperium, however, which this SACRA'TAE. Leges were properly so LEX SEMPRONIA. LEX SULPICIA. 197 called which had for their object to make a teen. Previously a fixed sum was deducted thing or person sacer. from the pay for all clothes and arms issued A lex sacrata militaris is also mentioned by to the soldiers. Livy. NE QUIS JUDICIO CIRCUMVENIRETUR, proSA'TURA. [LEx, p. 190.] posed by C. Gracchus, B. c. 123, punished all SCANTI'NIA, proposed by a tribune; the who conspired to obtain the condemnation of date and contents are not known, but its ob- a person in a judicium publicum. One of the ject was to suppress unnatural crimes. It ex- provisions of the Lex Cornelia de Sicariis was isted in the time of Cicero. to the same effect. SCRIBO'NIA. The date and whole im- DEPrROVINCIISCONSULARIBus,proposedby port of this lex are not known; but it enacted C. Gracchus, B. C. 123, enacted that the senate that a right to servitutes should not be acquired should fix each year, before the comitia for by usucapion. electing the consuls were held, the two proS EMPRONIAE, the name of various laws vinces which were to be allotted to the two proposed by Tiberius and Caius Sempronius new consuls. Gracchus. There was also a Sempronian law concernAGRARIA. In B. c. 133 the tribune Tib. ing the province of Asia, which probably did Gracchus revived the Agrarian law of Licinius not form part of the Lex de Provinciis Con[LEGEs LICINIAE]: he proposed that no one sularibus: it enacted that the taxes of this should possess more than 500 jugera of the province should be let out to farm by the cenpublic land, and that the surplus land should sors at Rome. This law was afterwards rebe divided among the poor citizens, who were pealed by J. Caesar. not to have the power of alienating it: he also SEMPRO'NIA DE FE'NERE, B. c. 193,proposed as a compensation to the possessors was a plebiscitum proposed by a tribune deprived of the land, on which they had fre- M. Sempronius, which enacted that the law quently made improvements, that the former (jus) about money lent (pecunia credita) should possessors should have the full ownership of be the same for the Socii and Latini (Socii ac 500 jugera, and each of their sons, if they had nomen Latinum) as for Roman citizens. The any, half that quantity: finally, that three com- object of the lex was to prevent Romnans from missioners (triumviri) should be appointed lending money in the name of the Socii who every year to carry the law into effect. This were not bound by the fenebres leges. The law naturally mnet with the greatest opposi- lex could obviously only apply within the jution, but it was eventually passed in the year risdiction of Rome. in which it was proposed, and Tib. Gracchils, SERVI'LIA AGRA'RIA, proposed by the C. Gracchus, and Appius Claudius were the tribune P. S. Rullus in the consulship of Cicethree commissioners appointed under it. It ro, B. c. 63, was a very extensive agrarian rowas, however, never carried fully into effect, gatio. It was successfully opposed by Cicero; in consequence of the murder of Tib. Grac- but it was in substance carried by J. Caesar, chus. Owing to the difficulties which were B. c. 59 [LEx JULIA AGRARIA], and is the lex experienced in carrying his brother's agrarian called by Cicero Lex Campana, from the publaw into effect, it was again brought forward lic land called ager campanus being assigned by C. Gracchus, n. c. 123. under this lex. DE CAPITE CIVIUM ROMANORUM, proposed SERVI'LIA GLAU'CIA DE CIVITA'by C. Gracchus B.C. 123 enacted that the TE. [REPETUNDAE.] people only should decide respecting the ca- SERVI'LIA GLAU'CIA DE REPETUNput or civil condition of a citizen. This law DIS. [REPETUNDAE.] continued in force till the latest times of the SERVI'LIA JUDICIA'RIA, B. c. 106. [Jurepublic. DEx p. 191.] It is assumed by some writers FRUMENTARIA, proposed by C. Gracchus that a lex of the tribune Servius Glaucia rea. c. 123, enacted that corn should be sold by pealed the Servilia Judiciaria two years after the state to the people once a month at five- its enactment. sixths of an as for each mnodius: Livy says SILVA'NI ET CARBO'NIS. [LEx PAsermissis et triens, that is 6 oz. and 4 oz.-10 oz., PIRIA PLAUTIA.] because there was no coin to represent the SULPI'CIAE, proposed by the tribune P. dextans. [As.] Sulpicius Rufus, a supporter of Marius, B. c. JUDICIARIA. [JuDEx, p. 181.] 88, enacted the recall of the exiles, the distriMILITARIS, prop)osed by C. Gracchus B. c. bution of the new citizens and the libertini 123, enacted that the soldiers should receive amlong the thirty-five tribes, that the comntnand their clothing gratis, and that no one should in the Mithridatic war should be taken from be enrolled as a soldier under the age of seven- Sulla and given to Marius, and that a senator R 2 198 LEX SUMTUARIA. should not contract debt to the amount of that not only those who gave entertainments more than 2000 denarii. The last enactment which exceeded in expense what the law had may have been intended to expel persons from prescribed, but also all who were present at the senate who should get in debt. All these such entertainments, should be liable to the leges were repealed by Sulla. penalties of the law. We are not, however, S ULPI'CIA SEMPRO'NIA, B. c. 304. No told in what these consisted. name is given to this lex by Livy, but it was LICINIA, agreed in its chief provisions with probably proposed by the consuls. It prevent- the Lex Fannia, and was brought forward, ed the dedicatio of a templum or altar with- we are told, that there might be the authority out the consent of the senate or a majority of of a new law upon the subject, inasmuch as the tribunes. the Lex Fannia was beginning to be neglectSUMTUA'RIAE, the name of various laws ed. It allowed 200 asses to be spent on enpassed to prevent inordinate expense (sumtus) tertainments upon marriage days, and on other in banquets, dress, &c. In the states of an- days the same as the Lex Fannia; also, that tiquity it was considered the duty of govern- on ordinary days there should not be served ment to put a check upon extravagance in up more than three pounds of fresh, and one the private expenses of persons, and among pound of salt meat. It was probably passed the Romans in particular we find traces of in B. c. 103. this in the laws attributed to the kings, and CORNELIA, a law of the dictator Sulla, B. c. in the Twelve Tables. The censors, to whom 81, was enacted on account of the neglect of was entrusted the disciplina or cura morun, the Fannian and Licinian laws. Like these, punished by the nota censoria all persons guilty it regulated the expenses of entertainments..of what was then regarded as a luxurious Extravagance in funerals, which had been mode of living; a great many instances of forbidden even in the Twelve Tables, was this kind are recorded. But as the love of also restrained by a law of Sulla. luxury greatly increased with the foreign con- AEMILIA, proposed by the consul Aemilius quests of the republic and the growing wealth Lepidus, B. c. 78, did not limit the expenses of the nation, various leges sumtuariae were of entertainments, but the kind and quantity passed at different times with the object of of food that was to be used. restraining it. These, however, as may be ANTIA, of uncertain date, proposed by Ansupposed, rarely accomplished their object, tius Resto, besides limiting the expenses of and in the latter times of the republic they entertainments, enacted that no actual magiswere virtually repealed. The following list trate, or magistrate elect, should dine abroad of them is arranged in chronological order:- anywhere except at the houses of certain perOPPIA, proposed by the tribune Ca Oppius sons. This law however was little observed; in B. c. 215, enacted that no woman should and we are told that Antius never dined out have above half an ounce of gold, nor wear afterwards, that he might not see his own law a dress of different colours, nor ride in a car- violated. riage in the city or in any town, or within a JULIA, proposed by the dictator C. Julius mile of it, unless on account of public sacri- Caesar. enforced the former sumptuary laws fices. This law was repealed twenty years respecting entertainments, which had fallen afterwards, whence we frequently find the into disuse. He stationed officers in the proLex Orchia mentioned as the first lex sumtu- vision market to seize upon all eatables for aria. bidden by the law, and sometimes sent lictors ORCHIA, proposed by the tribune C. Or- and soldiers to banquets to take every thing chius in B. c. 181, limited the number of which was not allowed by the law. guests to be present at entertainments. JULIA, a lex of Augustus, allowed 200 sesFANNIA, proposed by the consul C. Fan- terces to be expended upon festivals on dies nius, B. c. 61, limited the sums which were profesti, 300 on those of the calends, ides, to be spent on entertainments, and enacted nones, and some other festive days, and 1000 that not more than 100 asses should be spent upon marriage feasts. There was also an on certain festivals named in the lex, whence edict of Augustus or Tiberius. by which as it is called centussis by Lucilius; that on ten much as from 300 to 2000 sesterces were alother days in each month not more than 30 lowed to be expended upon entertainments, asses, and that on all other days not more the increase being made with the hope of sethan 10 asses, should be expended; also that curing thereby the observance of the law. no other fowl but one hen should be served Tiberius attempted to check extravagance up, and that not fattened for the purpose. in banquets; and a senatus-consultum was DIDIA, passed B. C. 143, extended the Lex passed in his reign for the purpose of restrainFannia to the whole of Italy, and enacted ing luxury, which forbade gold vases to be LEX TRIBUNITIA. LEX VATINIA. 199 employed, except for sacred purposes, and of the kings under the presidency of the trialso prohibited the use of silk garments to bunus celerum, and was so called to distinmen. This sumptuary law, however, was but guish it from one passed under the presidency little observed. Some regulations on the sub- of the king. [LEx RECGI.] 2. Any law project were also made by Nero and the succeed- posed by a tribune of the plebs. 3. The law ing emperors, but they appear to have been proposed by Pompey in B. c. 70, restoring to of little or no avail in checking the increasing the tribunes of the plebs the power of which love of luxury ill dress and food. they had been deprived by Sulla. TABELLA'RIAE, the laws by which the TU'LLIA DE A'MBITU. [AMBITUS.] ballot was introduced in voting in the comitia. TU'LLIA DE LEGATIO'NE LI'BE tIA. As to the ancient mode of voting at Rome, [LEGATUS, P. 188.] see SUFFRAGIUMI. VALE'RIAE, proposed by the consul P. GABINIA, proposed bythe tribune Gabinius, Valerius Publicola, B. c. 508, enacted: 1. That B. C. 139, introduced the ballot in the elec- whoever attempted to obtain possession of tion of magistrates; whence Cicero calls the royal power should be devoted to the gods, tabella vindex tacitae libertatis. together with his substance. 2. That whoCASSIA, proposed by the tribune L. Cassius ever was condemned by the sentence of a Longinus, B. C. 137, introduced the ballot in magistrate to be put to death, to be scourged, the judicium populi, or cases tried in the comi- or to be fined, should possess the right of aptia by the whole body of the people, with the peal (provocatio) to the people. The pattriexception of cases of perduellio. cians possessed previously the right of appeal PAPIRIA, proposed by the tribune C. Papi- from the sentence of a magistrate to their rius Carbo, B. c. 131, introduced the ballot in own council, the curiae, and therefore this the enactment and repeal of laws. law of Valerius probably related only to the CAELIA, proposed by C. Caelius Caldus, plebeians, to whom it gave the right of appeal a. c. 107, introduced the ballot in cases of to the plebeian tribes, and not to the centuperduellio, which had been excepted in the ries. Hence the laws proposed by the ValeCassian law. rian family respecting the right of appeal are There was also a law brought forward by always spoken of as one of the chief safeMarius, B. c. 119, which was intended to se- guards of the liberty of the plebs. The right cure freedom and order in voting. of appeal did not extend beyond a mile from TARPE'IA ATE'RNIA. [ATERNIA TAR- the city, where unlimited imperium began, to PEtIA. which the patricians were just as much subTERENTI'LIA, proposed by the tribune ject as the plebeians. C. Terentilius, B. c. 462, but not carried, was VALE'RIAE ET HORA'TIAE,threelaws a rogatio which had for its object an amend- proposed by the consuls L. Valerius and M. ment of the constitution, though in form it Horatius, B. c. 449, in the year after the deonly attempted a limitation of the imperium cemvirate, enacted: 1. That a plebiscitutn consulare. This rogatio probably led to the should be binding on the whole people, resubsequent legislation of the decemviri. specting the meaning of which expression, THO'RIA, passed B. c. 121, concerned the see PLEBISCITUM. 2.- That whoever should public land in Italy as far as the rivers Ru- procure the election of a magistrate without bicon and Macra, or all Italy except Cisalpine appeal should be out-lawed, and might he Gaul, the public land in the province of Africa, killed by any one with impunity. 3. Renewthe public land in the territory of Corinth, ed the penalty threatened against any one who and probably other public land besides. It should harm the tribunes and the aediles, to relieved a great part of the public land of the whom were now added the judices and deland-tax (vectigal). Some considerable frag- cemviri. There is considerable doubt as to ments of this lex have come down to us, en- who are meant by the judices and decemviri. graved on the back part of the same bronze VALE'RIA, proposed by the consul M. Vatablet which contained the Servilia Lex Ju- lerius, B. c. 300, re-enacted for the third time diciaria, and on Repetundae. the celebrated law of his famliy respecting TREBO'NIA, a plebiscitum proposed by appeal (provocatio) from the decision of a InaL. Trebonius, B. c. 448, which enacted that gistrate. The law specified no fixed penalty if the ten tribunes were not chosen before the for its violation, leaving, the judges to detercomitia were dissolved, those who were elect- mine what the punishment should be. ed should not fill up the number (co-op.tare), VA'RIA. [MAJEsTAs.] but that the comitia should be continued till VATI'NIA DE PROVI'NCIIS, was the the ten were elected. enactment by which Julius Caesar obtained TRIBUNI'TIA.. Alawpassedinthetimes the province of Gallia Cisalpina with Illyri 200 LIBER. cum for five years, to which the senate added Gallia Transalpina. This plebiscitum wa, proposed by the tribune Vatinjus. A Trebonia Lex subsequently prolonged Caesar's imperiumn for five years. VATI'NIA. [REPETUNDAE.] - VATI'NIA DE COLONIS, under which the Latina Colonia [LATINITAS] of Novum- Comum in Gallia Cisalpina was planted' - B. C. 59. DE VI. [VIs.] -.VIA'RIA. A viaria lex which Cicero says the tribune C. Curio talked of; but nothing Libri, Books. more seems to be known of it. Some modern writers speak of leges viariae, but there do Next to the papyrus, parchment (membrana) not appear to be any leges properly so called. was the most common material for writing The provisions as to roads in many of the upon. It is said to have been invented by Agrarian laws were parts of such leges, and Eumenes II. king of Pergamus, in consehad no special reference to roads. quence of the prohibition of the export of paVI'LLIA ANNA'LIS. [LEx ANNALIS.) pyrus from Egypt by Ptolemy Epiphanes. VOCO'NIA, enacted on the proposal of Q. It is probable; however, that Eumenes inVoconius Saxa, a tribunus plebis, B. C. 169. troduced only some improvement in the manOne provision of the lex was, that no per- ufacture of parchment, as Herodotus menson who should be rated in the census at tions writing on skins as common in his time, 100,000 sesterces (centum millia aeris) after and says that the Ionians had been accus. the census of that year, should make any fe- tomed to give the name of skins (dsftopat) male (virginem neve mulierem) his heres. The to books. lex allowed no exceptions, even in favour of The ancients wrote usually on only one an only daughter. It only applied to testa- side of the paper or parchment. The back ments, and therefore a daughter or other fe- of the paper, instead of being written upon, male could inherit ab intestato to any amount. was usually stained with saffron colour or The vestal virgins could make women their the cedrus, which produced a yellow colour. heredes in all cases, which was the only ex- As paper and parchment were dear, it was ception to the provisions of the lex Another frequently the custom to erase or wash out provision of the lex forbade a person, who was writing of little importance, and to write upon included in the census to give morein amount, the paper or parchment again, which was in the form of a legacy to any person, than then called Palimpsestus (rraZtMtirlarof). the heres or heredes should take. This pro- The paper or parchment was joined together vision secured something to the heres as to form one sheet, and when the work redes, but -still the provision was ineffectual, was finished, it was rolled on a staff, whence and the object of the lex was only accom- it was called a volumen; and hence we have plished by the Lex Falcidia, B. c. 44, which the expression evolvere librum. When an auenacted that a testator should not give more thor divided a work into several books, it was than three fourths in legacies, thus securing usual to include only one book in a volume a fourth to the heres. or roll, so that there was generally the same LIBER (Osgtiov) a book. The most corn- number of volumes as of books. mon material on which books were written In the papyri rolls found at Herculaneby the Greeks and Romans, was the thin um, the stick on which the papyrus is rolled coats or rind (liber, whence the Latin name does not project from the papyrus, but is confor a book) of the Egyptian papyrus. This cealed by it. Usually, however, there were plant was called by the Egyptians Byblos balls or bosses, ornamented or painted, called (NilRoiSo), whence the Greeks derived their umbilici or cornua, which were fastened at name for a book (t3X13iov). The papyrus- each end of the stick and projected from the tree grows in swamps to the height of ten papyrus. The ends of the roll were carefully feet and more, and paper (charta) was pre- cut, polished with pumice-stone and coloured pared from the thin coats or pellicles which black; they were called the geminaefrontes. surround the plant. The form and general To protect the roll from injury it was freappearance of the papyri rolls will be under- quently put in a parchment case, which was stood from the following woodcut taken from stained with a purple colour or with the yelpainptings found at Pompeii. low of the Lutenm. LIBRA. LICTOR. 201 The title of the book (titulus, index) was ancial division, which has been noticed written on a small strip of papyrus or parch- i!,peaking of the coin As, was also applied ment with a light red colour (coccum or minium.) to the weight. The following table shows LIBERA'LIA. [D)oNVSIA, p. 120.] the divisions of the pound, with their value in LI'BERI. [[NGENUT; LIBERTUS.] ounces and grains, avoirdupois weight. LIBERTUS, LIBERTI'NU S. Freemen Unciae. Oz. Ors. (liberi) were either Ingenui [INGENUI] or Lib- As or Libra..... ncia 60. 45 ertini. Libertini were those persons who had Deunx... 1 0 64 54 been released from legal servitude. A manu- Dextans or Decuncis. 10 9- 38. 55 mitted slave was Libertus (that is, liberatus) Dodrans.9 81 42.57 with reference to his master: with reference Bes or Bes.. 8 7. 76. 75 to the class to which he belonged after man- Septunx... 6. 80. 88 umission, he was Libertinus. Respecting the Semis or Semissis. 6 5j 84. 95 mode in which a slave was manumitted, and Quincunx... 5 4j 89.05 his status after manumission, see MANUMISSIO. Triens.. 4 3 93. 14 At Athens, a liberated slave was called uadrans or Teruncius 3 2 921 Quadrans or Teruncius 3 21 97. 21 eirec2~Oepog. When manumitted he did not Sextas....... 2 101. 29 obtain the citizenship, but was regarded as a Sescuncia or Sescunx. I l1 103.624 metoicus [METOICUS], and, as such, he had to Uncia 1 0 105 36 pay not only the metoicion (ecTro0iKtov), but a triobolon in addition to it. His former mas- or 433.666 ter became his patron (TrpoarTrygS), to whom The divisions of the ounce are given under hie owed certain duties. UNCIA. Where the word pondo, or its abbreLIBITINA'RII. [FuNvs, p. 161.] viations P. or POND., occur with a simple numLIBRA, dim. LIBELLA (ara-e6u), a bal- ber, the weight understood is the libra. ance, a pair of scales.'The principal parts The name libra was also given to a measure of this instrument were: 1. The beam (jugumr). of horn, divided into twelve equal parts (un2. The two scales, called in Greek rcdZavra, ciae) by lines marked on it, and used for and in Latin lances. The beam was made measuring oil. without a tongue, being held by a ring or LIBRA'RII, the name of slaves, who were other appendage (ligula, 15Ibua), fixed in the employed by their masters in writing or copycentre. The annexed woodcut represents ing, sometimes called antiquarii. They must Mercury and Apollo engaged in exploring the be distinguished from the Scribae publici, who fates of Achilles and Memnon, by weighing were freemen [ScRIBAE], and also from the the attendant genius of the one against that booksellers [BIBsIoPoLA], to both of whom of the other. this name was also applied. LIBRARIES. [BIBLIOTHECA.] _____-_ LI'BRIPENS. [MANCIPIUM.] LIBURNA, LIBU'RNICA, a light vessel, which derived its name from the Liburni..'" _; \ The ships of this people were of great assistance to Augustus at the battle of Actium; and experience having shown their efficiency, vessels of a similar kind were built and called by / the name of the people. LICTOR, a public officer, who attended on f m a~~~: t'z a Ithe chief Roman magistrates. The number _'\f" z which waited on the different magistrates is stated in the article FASCES. The office of lictor is said to have been derived by Romulus from the Etruscans. The lictors went before the magistrates one by one in a line; he who went last or next to the magistrate was called proximus lictor, to whom \ t/ey/t' / the magistrate gave his commands; and as this lictor was always the principal one, we also find him called primuts lictor. Libra, Pair of Seales. The lictors had to inflict punishment on LIBRA or AS, a pound, the unit of weight those who were condemned, especially in the among the Romans and Italians. case of Roman citizens; for foreigners and 202 LITUUS. LORICA. slaves were punished by the Carnifex; and ence to divination (templum), into regions (rethey also probably had to assist in somne cases giones). It is very frequently exhibited upon in the execution of a decree or judgment in a works of art. The figure in the middle of the civil suit. The lictors likewise commanded preceding illustrations is from an ancient persons to pay proper respect to a magistrate specimen of Etruscan sculpture, representing passing by, which consisted in dismounting an augur; the two others are Roman denarii. from horseback, uncovering the head, stand- 2. A sort of trumpet slightly curved at the exing out of the way, &c. tremity. It differed both from the tuba and The lictors were originally chosen from the the cornu, the former being straight, while the plebs, but afterwards appear to have been latter was bent round into a spiral shape. generally freedmen, probably of the magis- Its tones are usually characterized as harsh trate on whom they attended. and shrill. Lictors were properly only granted to those magistrates who had the Ihperiurn. Consequently, the tribunes of the plebs never had lictors, nor several of the other magistrates. Sometimes, however, lictors were granted to persons as a mark of respect or for the sake of protection. Thus by a law of the Triumvirs every vestal virgin was accompanied by a lictor, whenever she went out, and the honour of one or two lictors was usually granted to the wives and other female members of the Lituus, Trumpet Ihnperial family. LIXAE. [CALONES.] There were also thirty lictors called Lictores LODIX, a small shaggy blanket. It was Curiati, whose duty it was to summon the also used as a carpet. curiae to the comitia curiata; and when these LOGISTAE. [EUTHYNE.] meetings became littlQ more than a form, LOOKING-GLASS. [SPECULUM.] their suffrages were represented by the thirty LOOM. [TELA.] lictors. LORI'CA (0dpae), a cuirass. The cuirass LIMEN. [JANUA.] was worn by the heavy-armed infantry both LINTER, a light boat frequently formed of among the Greeks and Romans. The solthe trunk of a tree, and drawing little water. diers commonly wore cuirasses made of flexLITHOSTRO'TA. [DoMus, p. 127.] ible bands of steel, or cuirasses of chain mail; LITRA (2iirpa), a Sicilian silver coin equal but those of generals and officers usually conin value to the Aeginetan obol. sisted of two yiaXa, the breast-piece and LITURGIES. [LEITOURGIA.] back-piece, made of bronze, iron, &c., which LI'TUUS probably an Etruscan word sig- were joined by means of buckles (7rep6vat). nifying crooked. 1. The crooked staff borne The epithets i7uerr6or6C and ~o;U6SOr6f are by the augurs, with which they divided the expanse of heaven, when viewed with referLorica. Lonca. Lituus, Augur's Staff. trlrWTrrdrt. olts6or~6. LUCERNA. 203 applied to a cuirass; the former on account Among the Asiatic nations the cuirass was of its resemblance to the scales of fish (eLrri- frequently made of cotton, and among the CLtv), the latter to the scales of serpents (po- Sarmatians and other, northern nations o0 iaowv.) horn. Lorica as worn by a Roman Emperor. Lorlca as worn by a Greek Warrior. LOTS. [SORTES.] nozzles or holes for the wicks. The followLUCAR. [HISTRO.] ing is an example of a dimyxos lucerna, upon LU'CERES. [TRIBUS.] which there is a winged boy with a goose. LUCERNA (X;Xvoc) an oil lamp. The Greeks and Romans originally used candles; but in later times candles were chiefly confined to the houses of the lower classes. [CANDELA.] A great number of ancient lamps has come down to us; the greater part of which are, made of terra cotta, but also a considerable number of bronze. Most of the lamps are of an oval form, and flat uponl the top, on which there are frequently figures in relief. In the lamps there are one or more round holes, according to the number of wicks (ellychnia) burnt in it; and as these holes were called from an obvious analogy, vKpe orLucera, mp. lineat, literally nostrils or nozzles, the lamp The next woodcut represents one of th.. was also called Monomyxos, Dimyxos, Tri- most beautiful bronze lamps which has yet myxos, or Polymyxos, according as it contain- been found. Upon it is the figure of a stalnd ed one, two, three, or a greater number of ing Silenus. 204.LUDI. person, in which case they may be considered as ludi privati. All ludi were divided by the Romans into two classes, ludi circenses and ludi scenici, accordingly as they were held in the circus or in the theatre; in the latter case they were mostly theatrical representations with their various modifications; in the former they consisted of all or of a part of the games enumerated inthe articles CIRCUs and GLADIATORES. Another division of the ludi into stati, imnperativi, and votivi, is analogous to the division of the feriae. [FERTIAE.] The superintendence of the games, and the solemnities connected with them, was in most,,,vm /cases entrusted to the aediles. [AEDILES.] If the lawful rites were not observed in the celebration of the ludi, it depended upon the decision of the pontiffs whether they were to be held again (instaurari) or not. An alphaLucerna, Lamp. betical list of the principal ludi is subjoined. LuaI APOLLINARES were instituted at Rome The lamps sometimes hung in chains from during the second Punic war, after the battle the ceiling of the room, but they generally of Cannae (212 B. c.), at the command of an stood upon a stand. [CANDELABRUM.] oracle contained in the books of the ancient LUCTA, LUCTA'TIO (*r6i;7, -rdacalraa, seer Marcius, in order to obtain the aid of,raRatro4Ovr]y, or htra-,3AZTrtKi), wrestling. Apollo. They were held every year under The Greeks ascribed the invention of wrest- the superintendence of the praetor urbanus, ling to mythical personages, and Mercury, the and ten men sacrificed to Apollo, according god of all gymnastic exercises, also presided to Greek rites, a bull with gilt horns and two over wrestling. In the Homeric age wrest- white goats also with gilt horns, and to Laling was much practised: during this period tona a heifer with gilt horns. The games wrestlers contended naked, and only the loins themselves were held in the Circus Maximus, were covered with the p)erizoina (7repi;ulua), the spectators were adorned with chaplets, and this custom probably remained through- and each citizen gave a contribution towards out Greece until 01. 15, from which time the defraying the expenses. In B. c. 208, it was perizoma was no longer used, and wrestlers ordained that they should always be celebrated fought entirely naked. In the Homeric age on the 6th of July. the custom of anointing the body for the pur- LUDI AUGUSTALES. [AUGUSTALES.] pose of wrestling does not appear to have LUDI CAPITOLINIwere instituted B.c. 387, been known, but in the time of Solon it was after the departure of the Gauls from Rome, quite general, and was said to have been as a token of gratitude towards Jupiter Capiadopted by the Cretans and Lacedaemonians tolinus, who had saved the capitol in the hour at a very early period. After the body was of danger. The superintendence of the games anointed, it was strewed over with sand or was entrusted to a college of priests called dust, in order to enable the wrestlers to take Capitolini. a firm hold of each other. If one combatant bUDI CIRCENSES, ROMANI or MAGNI,were threw the other down three times, the victory celebrated every year during several days, was decided. Wrestling was practised in all from the fourth to the twelfth of September, the great games of the Greeks. The most in honour of the three great divinities, Jurenowned wrestler was Milon, of Croton. piter, Juno, and Minerva, or, according to [PANCRATIUM.] others, in honour of Jupiter, Consus, and LUDI, the common name for the whole Neptunus Equestris. They were superinvariety of games and contests which were tended by the curule aediles. For further held at Rome on various occasions, but chiefly particulars see CIRcus. at the festivals of the gods; and as the ludi LuDI COMPITALICII. [COMPITALIA.] at certain festivals formed the principal part LurD FLORALES. [FLORALIA,] of the solemnities, these festivals themselves LUDI FUNEBRES were games celebrated at are called ludi. Sometimes ludi were also the funeral pyre of illustrious persons. Such ald in honour of a magistrate or a deceased games are mentioned in the very early legends LUDI. LUPERCALIIA. 205 of the history of Greece and Rome, and they Ceres, Vulcan, Mars, Diana, Vesta, Hercules, continued with various modifications until the Latona, the Parcae, and to Dis and Proserpiintroduction of Christianity. It was at such na. The solemnities began at the second a ludus funebris, in B c. 264, that gladiatorial hour of the night, and the emperor opened fights were exhibited at Rome,for the first them by the river side with the sacrifice ot time, which henceforwards were the most three lambs to the Parcae upon three altars essential part in all funeral games. [GLA- erected for the purpose, and which were DIATOR ES.] sprinkled with the blood of the victims. The LUDI LIBERALES. [DIoNYSIA.] lambs themselves were burnt. A temporary LUDI MEGALENSES. [MEGALESIA.] scene like that of a theatre was erected in the LuDI PLEBEII were instituted probably in Tarentum, and illuminated with lights and commemoration of the reconciliation between fires. the patricians and plebeians after the first se- In this scene festive hymns were sung by a cession to the mons sacer, or, according to chorus, and various other ceremonies, together others, to the Aventine. They were held on with theatrical performances, took place. Duthe 16th, 17th, and 18th of November, and ring the morning of the first day the people were conducted by the plebeian aediles. went to the capitol to offer solemn sacrifices LVDI SAECULARES. During the time of the to Jupiter; thence they returned to the Tarepublic these games were called ludi Taren- rentum, to sing choruses in honour of Apollo tini, Terentini, or Taurii, and it was not till and Diana. On the second day the noblest the time of Augustus that they bore the name matrons, at an hour fixed by an oracle, assemof ludi saeculares. bled on the Capitol, offered supplications, sang The names Tarenti or Taurii are perhaps hymns to the gods, and also visited the altar nothing but different forms of the same word, of Juno. The emperor and the quindecimviri and of the same root as Tarquinius. There offered sacrifices which had been vowed bewere various accounts respecting the origin fore, to all the great divinities. On the third of the games, yet all agree in stating that they day, Greek and Latin choruses were sung in were celebrated for the purpose of averting the sanctuary of Apollo by three times nine from the state some great calamity by which boys and maidens of great beauty whose pait had been afflicted, and that they were held rents were still alive. The object of these in honour of Dis and Proserpina. From the hymns was to implore the protection of the time of the consul Valerius Poplicola down gods for all cities, towns, and officers of the to that of Augustus, the Tarentine games empire. One of these hymns was the carmen were held only three times, and again only saeculare by Horace, which was especially on certain emergencies, and not at any fixed composed for the occasion and adapted to the period, so that we must conclude that their circumstances of the time. During the whole celebration was in no way connected with of the three days and nights, games of every certain cycles of time (saecula). Not long description were carried on in all the circuses after Augustus had assumed the supreme and theatres, and sacrifices were offered in power in the republic, the quindecimviri an- all the temples. nounced that according to their books ludi The first celebration of the ludi saeculares saeculares ought to be held, and at the same in the reign of Augustus took place in the time tried to prove from history that in former summer of B. c. 17. times they had not only been celebrated re- LUDI TARENTINI or TAURII. [LUDI SAEpeatedly, but almost regularly once in every CULARES.] century. LUDUJS. [GLADIATORES, p. 167.] The festival, however, which was now held, LUDUS TROJAE. [CIRcus, p. 82.] was in reality very different from the ancient LUPERCA'LIA, one of the most ancient Tarentine games; for Dis and Proserpina, to Roman festivals, which was celebrated every whom formerly the festival belonged exclu- year, in honour of Lupercus, the god of fertilsively, were now the last in the list of the di- ity. It was originally a shepherd-festival, and vinities in honour of whom the ludi saecula- hence its introduction at Rome was connected res were celebrated. The festival took place wjith the names of Romulus and Remus, the in summer, and lasted for three days and kings of shepherds. It was held every year, three nights. On the first day the games on the 15th of February, in the Lupercal, commenced in that part of the Campus Mar- where Romulus and Remus were said to have tius, which had belonged to the last Tarquin, been nurtured by the she-wolf; the place confrom whom it derived its name Tarentum, tained an altar and a grove sacred to the god and sacrifices were offered to' Jupiter, Juno, Lupercus. Here the Luperci assembled on Neptune, Minerva, Venus, Apollo, Mercury, the day of the Lupercalia, and sacrificed to S 206 LUPUS. LUSTRATIO. the god goats and young dogs. Two youths by the besieged in repelling the attacks of the of noble birth were then led to the Luperci, besiegers, and especially in seizing the batter and one of the latter touched their foreheads ing-ram and diverting its blows. with a sword dipped in the blood of the vic- LUSTRA'TIO (ciOaupotS), was originally tims; other Luperci immediately after wiped a purification by ablution in water. But the off the bloody spots with wool dipped in milk. lustrations, of which we possess direct knowHereupon the two youths were obliged to ledge, are always connected with sacrifices break out into a shout of laughter. This and other religious rites, and consisted in the ceremony was probably a symbolical purifi- sprinkling of water by means of a branch of cation of the shepherds. After the sacrifice laurel or olive, and at Rome sometimes by was over, the Luperci partook of a meal, at means of the aspergillum, and in the burning which they were plentifully supplied with of certain materials, the smoke of which was wine. They then cut the skins of the goats thought to have a purifying effect. Whenever which they had sacrificed, into pieces: with sacrifices were offered, it seems to have been some of which they covered parts of their customary to carry thein around the person body in imitation of the god Lupercus, who or thing to be purified. Lustrations were was represented half naked and half covered made in ancient Greece, and probably at with goat skin. The other pieces of the skins Rome also, by private individuals when they they cut in the shape of thongs, and holding had polluted themselves by any criminal acthem in their hands they ran with them tion. Whole cities and states also sometimes through the streets of the city, touching or underwent purifications to expiate the crime striking with them all persons whom they or crimes committed by a member of the commet in their way, and especially women, who munity. The most celebrated purification of even used to come forward voluntarily for the this kind was that of Athens, performed by purpose, since they believed that this cere- Epimenides of Crete, after the Cylonian masmony rendered them fruitful, and procured sacre. Purification also took place when a them an easy delivery in childbearing. This sacred spot had been unhallowed by profane act of running about with thongs of goatskin use, as by burying dead bodies in it, as was was a symbolic purification of the land, and the case with the island of Delos. that of touching persons a purification of men. The Romans performed lustrations on many for the words by which this act is designated occasions, on which the Greeks did not think are februare and lustrare. The goatskin itself of them; and the object of most Roman luswas called februum, the festive day dies feb- trations was not to atone for the commission ruata, the month in which it occurred Februa- of crime, but to obtain the blessing of the gods Tius, and the god himself Februus. upon the persons or things which were lusThe festival of the Lupercalia, though it trated. Thus fields were purified after the necessarily lost its original import at the time business of sowing was over, and before the when the Romans were no longer a nation of sickle was put to the corn. [ARVALES FRAshepherds, was yet always observed in com- TRES.] Sheep were purified every year at medmoration of the founders of the city. M. the festival of the Palilia. All Roman armies Antonius, in his consulship, was one of the before they took the field were lustrated, and Luperci, and not only ran with them half as the solemnity was probably always connaked and covered with pieces of goatskin nected with a review of the troops, the word through the city, but even addressed the lustratio is also used in the sense of the modpeople in the forum in this rude attire. ern review. The establishment of a new colLUPERCI, the priests of the god Lupercus. onv was always preceded by a lustratio with They formed a college, the members of which solemn sacrifices. The city of Rome itself, were originally youths of patrician families, as well as other towns within its dominion, and which was said to have been instituted always underwent a lustratio, after they had by Romulus and Remus. The college was been visited by some great calamity, such as divided into two classes, the one called Fabii civil bloodshed, awful prodigies, and the like. or Fabiani, and the other Quinctilii or Quincti- A regular and general lustratio of the whole liani. The office was not for life, but how long Roman people took place after the completion it lasted is not known. Julius Caesar added of every lustrum, when the censor had finished to the two classes of the college a third with his census and before he laid down his office. the name of Jmulii or Juliani, and made Anto- This lustratio (also called lustrum) was connius their high-priest. He also assigned to ducted by one of the censors, and held with them certain revenues (vectigalia) which were sacrifices called Smuovetaurilia, because the afterwards withdrawn from them. sacrifices consisted of a pig (or ram), a sheep, LUPUS FE'RREUS, the iron wolf used and an ox. It took place in the Campus Mar LYRA. 207 tius, where the people assembled for the pur- respects like a modern guitar. In the cithara pose. The sacrifices were carried three times the strings were drawn across the bottom, around the assembled multitude. whereas in the lyra of ancient times they LUSTRUM (fromtnluo, Gr. Xoio) is properly were free on both sides. The lyre is also speaking a lustration or purification, and in called Xgavf or xeL26v7, and in Latin testudo, particular the purification of the whole Roman because it was made of a tortoise-shell. people performed by one of the censors in the The lyre had originally three or four strings, Campus Martius, after the business of the but after the timre of Terpander of Antissa census was over. [CENsus; LUSTRATIO.] (about B. c. 650), who is said to have added As this purification took place only once in three more, it was generally made with seven. five years, the word lustrum was also used to The ancients, however, made use of a variety designate the time between two lustra. The of lyres; and about the time of Sappho and first lustrum was performed in B. c..566, by Anacreon several stringed instruments, such king Servius, after he had completed his cen- as magadis, barbiton, and others, were used in sus, and it is said to have taken place subse- Greece, and especially in Lesbos. They had quently every five years, after the census was been introduced from Asia Minor, and their over. The census might be held without the number of strings far exceeded that of the lustrum, and indeed two cases of this kind are lyre, for we know that some had even twenty recorded which happened in B. c. 459 and 214. strings, so that they must have more resemIn these cases the lustrum was not performed bled a modern harp than a lyre. on account of some great calamities which But the lyra and cithara had in most cases had befallen the republic. no more than seven strings. The lyre had a The time when the lustrum took place has great and full-sounding bottom, which conbeen very ingeniously defined by Niebuhr. tinued as befogl to be made generally of torSix ancient Romulian years of 304 days each toise-shell, from which the horns rose as from were, with the difference of one day, equal to the head of a stag. A transverse piece of five solar years of 365 days each, or the six wood connecting the two horns at or near ancient years made 1824 days, while the five their top-ends served to fasten the strings, solar years contained 1825 days. The lustrum, or the great year of the ancient Romans, was thus a cycle, at the end of which, the beginning of the ancient year nearly coincided with that of the solar year. As the coincidence, however, was not perfect, a month of 24 days was intercalated in every eleventh lustrum. Now it is highly probable that the recurrence of such a cycle or great year was, from the earliest times, solemnized with sacrifices and purifications, and that Servius Tullius did not introduce them, but merely connected them with his census, and thus set the example for subsequent ages. Many writers of the latter period of the republic and during the empire, use the word lustrum for any space of five years, and without any regard to the census, while others even apply it in the sense of the Greek pentaeteris or an Olympiad, which contained only four years. LYRA (2vpa, Lat. fides), a lyre, one of the most ancient musical instruments of the stringed kind. The Greeks attributed the invention of the lyre to Mercury, who is said to have formed the instrument of a tortoiseshell, over which he placed gut-strings. The name 2udpa, however, does not occur in the Homeric poems, and the ancient lyre, called Lyra in Homer phorminix (06pyty:) and citharis and was called L6yov, and in Latin transtil(IctOapte), seems rather to have resembled lum. The horns were called rrwxetL or cornua. the cithara of later times, which was in some These instruments were often adorned in the 208 MAGISTRATUS. most costly manner with gold and ivory. The nifies both the person and the office, as we see lyre was considered as a more manly instru- in the phrase se magistratu abdicare. ment than the cithara, which, on account of The auspicia maxima belonged to the conits smaller sounding bottom, excluded full- suls, praetors, and censors, and the minora sounding and deep tones, and was more cal- auspicia to the other magistratus; accordculated for the middle tones. The lyre when ingly, the consuls, praetors, and censors were played stood in an upright position between called Majores, and they were elected at the the knees, while the cithara stood upon the comitia centuriata; the other magistratus knees of the player. Both instruments were were called Minores. The former had the held with the left hand and played with the imperium, the latter had not. The magistraright. It has generally been supposed that tus were also divided into curules and those the strings of these instruments were always who were not curules: the magistratus cutouched with a little staff called plectrum rules were the dictator, consuls, praetors, cen(72rK7rpov), but among the paintings discov- sors, and the curule aediles, who were so ered at Herculaneum we find several instan- called, because they had the jus sellae curulis. ces where the persons play the lyre with their The magistrates were chosen only from the fingers. The lyre was at all times only played patricians ill the early republic, but in course as an accompaniment to songs. of time the plebeians shared these honours, The Latin name fides, which was used for with the exception of that of the Interrex: a lyre as well as a cithara, is probably the the plebeian magistratus, properly so called, same as the Greek atiddef,which signifies gut- were the plebeian aediles and the tribuni string. plebis. The lyre (cithara or phormin'x) was at first MAJESTAS pretty nearly corresponds to used in the recitations of epic poetry, though treason in English law; but all the offences it was probably not played during the recita- included under majestas comprehend more tion itself, but only as a prelude before the than the English treason. One of the offences minstrel commenced his story, and in the in- included in majestas was the effecting, aiding tervals or pauses between the several parts. in, or planning the death of a magistratus poThe lyre has given its name to a species of puli Romani, or of one who had imperium or poetry called lyric; this kind of poetry was potestas. Though the phrase crimen majestaoriginally never recited or sung without the tis was used, the complete expression was accompaniment of the lyre, and sometimes crimen laesae, imminutae, diminutae, minutae, also of an appropriate dance. majestatis. The word majestas, consistently with its relation to mag(nus), signifies the magnitude or greatness of a thing. Accordingly, the M. phrases majestas populi Romani, imperii majestas, signify the whole of that which constiMAGADIS. [LYRA.] tuted the Roman state; in other words, the MAGISTER,which contains the same root sovereign power of the Roman state. The as mag-is and mag-nus, was applied at Rome expression minuere majestatem consequently to persons possessing various kinds of offices, signifies any act by which this majestas is and especially to the leading person in a col- impaired. In the republican period the term legium or corporation [COLLEGIUM]; thus the majestas laesa or minuta was most commonly magister societatis was the president of the applied to cases of a general betraying or surcorporation of equites, who farmed the taxes rendering his army to the enemy, exciting at Rome. c sedition, and generally by his bad conduct in MAGISTRATUS was a person quijuri di- administration impairing the majestas of the cundo praeest. The King was originally the state. sole Magistratus; he had all the Potestas. The old punishment of majestas was perOn the expulsion of the Kings, two Consuls petual interdiction from fire and water. I.n were annually appointed, and they were Ma- the later imperial period, persons of low congistratus. In course of time other Magistratus dition were thrown to wild beasts, or burnt were appointed; namely, dictators, censors, alive; persons of better condition were simply praetors, aediles, tribunes of the plebs, and put to death. the Decemnviri litibus judicandis. The go- In the early times of the republic, every act vernors of provinces with the title of Proprae- of a citizen which was injurious to the state tor or Proconsul were also Magistratus. or its peace was called perduellio, and the ofThe word Magistratus contains the same fender (perduellis) was tried before the popuelement as mag(ister) and mag(nus); and it sig- lus (populi judicio), and, if convicted, put to MALLEUS. MANCIPIUM. 209 death. Perduellis originally signified hostis; and thus the old offence of perduellio was equivalent to making war on the Roman state. The trial for perdue]lio (perduellonis judicium) existed to the later times of the republic; but the name seems to have almost fallen into disuse, and various leges were passed for the purpose of determining more accurately what should be majestas. These were a lex Apu-. / leia, probably passed in the fifth consulship of Marius, the exact contents of which are unknown, a lex Varia B. C. 91, a lex Cornelia passed by L. Cornelius Sulla, and the lex Julia, which continued under the empire to be the fundamental enactment on this subject. This lex Julia is by some attributed to C. Julius Caesar, and assigned to the year B. c. 48. Under the empire the term majestas was Mafleus, Hammer. applied to the person of the reigning Caesar, and we find the phrases majestas Augusta, im- upon the anvil for making all ordinary uten peratoria, and regia. It was, however, no- sils, the smith wrought with this instrument thing new to apply the term to the emperor, figures which were either small and fine, some considered in some of his various capacities, of their parts being beaten as thin as paper, for it was applied to the magistratus under the and being in very high relief, as in the bronzes republic, as to the consul and praetor. Horace of Siris, or of colossal proportions, being comeven addresses Augustus in the terms majes- posed of separate plates riveted together. tas, but this can hardly be viewed otherwise MALUS. [NAvis.] than as a personal compliment, and not as said MANCEPS has the same relation to Manwith reference to any of the offices which he cipium that Auspex has to Auspicium. It is held. properly qui manu cepit. But the word has MALLE'OLUS, a hammer, the transverse several special significations. Mancipes were head of which was formed for holding pitch they who bid at the public lettings of the cenand tow, which, having been set on fire, was sors for the purpose of farming any part of the projected slowly, so that it might not be ex- public property. Sometinles the chief of the tinguished during its flight, upon houses and publicani generally are meant by this term, as other buildings in order to set them on fire: it they were no doubt the bidders and gave the was therefore commonly used in sieges to- security, and then they shared the undertakgether with torches and falaricae. ing with others or underlet it. The mancipes MA'LLEUS, dim. MALLE'OLUS (/ae- would accordingly have distinctive names aca7tp, oaonpa, dim. aovpiov), a hammer, a mal- cording to the kind of revenue which they let. In the hands of the farmer the mallet of took on lease, as Jecumani, Portitores, Pecuarii. wood served to break down the clods (occare) MANICIPA'TIO. [MANCIPIUM.] and to pulverize them. The butcher used it MANC1'PIUM, MANCIPA'TIO. These in slaying cattle, by striking the head, and we words are used to indicate the formal transfer often read of it as used by the smith upon the of the ownership of a thing, and are derived anvil. When several men were employed at from the fact that the person who received the the same anvil it was a matter of necessity thing took hold of it (mancipatio dicitur quia that they should strike in time, and Virgil, manu res capitur). It was not a simple corpo.accordingly, says of the Cyclopes, " inter se real apprehension, but one which was accombrachia tollunt in numerum." (Georg. iv. 174; panied with certain forms described by Gaius Aen. viii. 452.) The scene which he describes the jurist:-" Mancipatio is efflcted in the is represented in the annexed woodcut, taken presence of not less than five witnesses, who from an ancient bas-relief, in which Vulcan, must be Roman citizens and of the age of puBrontes, and Steropes, are seen forging the berty (puberes), and also in the presence of metal, while the third Cyclops, Pyracmon, another person of the same status, who holds blows the bellows. Beside the anvil is seen a pair of brazen scales, and hence is called the vessel of water in which the hot iron or Libripens. The purchaser (qui mancipio accibronze was immersed. pit), taking hold of the thing, says: I affirm But besides the employment of the hammer that this slave (homo) is mine Ex Jure Quiris2 210 MANUMISSIO. MATRALIA. tium, and he is purchased by me with this itself, which is properly the res vindicata, is piece of money (aes) and brazen scales. He used for festuca by Horace. then strikes the scales with the piece of In the case of the census the slave was money, and gives it to.the seller as a symbol registered by the censors as a citizen with his of the price (quasi pretii loco)." This mode of master's consent. The third mode of'manutransfer applied to all free persons or slaves, mission was, when a master gave liberty to a animals or lands, all of which persons and slave by his will (testamentum). things were called Res Mancipi; other things The act of manumission established the rewere called Nec Mancipi. Lands (praedia) lation of patronus and libertus between the might be thus transferred, though the parties manumissor and the manumitted. When to the mancipatio were not on the lands; but manumitted by a citizen, the libertus took the all other things, which were objects of man- praenomen and the gentile name of the manucipatio, were only transferable in the pre- missor, and became in a sense a member of sence of the parties, because corporeal appre- the gens of his patron. To these two names hension was a necessary part of the ceremony. he added some other name as a cognomen, The party who transferred the ownership of a either some name by which he was previously thing pursuant to these forms was said man- known, or some name assumed on the occacipio dare; he who thus acquired the owner- sion: thus we find the names M.Tullius Tiro, ship was said mancipio accipere. The verb man- P. Terentius Afer, and other like names. The cipare is sometimes used as equivalent to man- relation between a patronus and libertus is cipio dare. stated under PATRONUS. Mancipium may be used as equivalent to Before the year B. c. 311, the libertini had complete ownership, and may thus be opposed not the suffragium, but in that year the cento usus and tofructus. Sometimes the word sor Appius Claudius gave the libertihi a place mancipium signifies a slave, as being one of in the tribes, and from this time the libertini the res mancipi. had the suffragium after they were duly adMANDA'TUM, often signifies a command mitted on the censors' roll. In the year B. C. from a superior to an inferior. Under the em- 304, they were placed in the tribus urbanae, pire the mandata principum were the com- and not allowed to perform military service. mands and instructions given to governors of In the censorship of Tiberius Gracchus, B. C. provinces and others. 169, they were placed in one of the tribus ur-.MANI'PULUS. [EXERCITUS, p. 146.] banae, determined by lot. Subsequently, by MANU'BIAE. [SPOLIA.] a law of Aemilius Scaurus, about B. c. 116, MANUMI'SSIO was the *form by which they were restored to the four city tribes, and slaves were released from slavery. There this remained their condition to the end of the were three modes by which this was effected, republic, though various attempts were made namely,Vindicta, Census, and Testamentum. to give them a better suffrage. Of these the manumissio by vindicta is pro- A tax was levied on manumission by a lex bably the oldest, and perhaps was once the Manlia, B. c. 357: it consisted of the twenonly mode of manumission. It is mentioned tieth part of the value of the slave, hence by Livy as in use at an early period; and, in- called Vicesima. deed, he states that some persons refer the MANUS FERREA. [HARtPAGO.] origin of the vindicta to the event which he MARRIAGE. [MATRIMONIUM.] relates, and derive its name from Vindicius; MARSU'PIUM (yapav7rtov, /3aZMvrtov), the latter part, at least, of the supposition is a purse. The purse used of no value. by the ancients was comThe ceremony of the manumissio by the monly a small leathern vindicta was as follows:-The master brought bag, and was often closed his slave before the magistratus, and stated by being drawn together the grounds (causa) of the intended manumis- at the mouth. Mercury sion. The lictor of the magistratus laid a rod is commonly represented (festuca) on the head of the slave, accom- holding one in his hand, panied with certain formal words, in which of which the annexed lie declared that he was a free man ex jure woodcut from an intaglio quiritium, that is, vindicavit in libertatem. The in the Stosch collection master in the meantime held the slave, and Marsupium, Purse. at Berlin presents an exafter he had pronounced the words hunc homi- ample. nem liberum volo, he turned him round and let MATERFAMI'LIAS. [MATRIMONIUM, him go (emisit emanu),whence the general name p. 212.] of the act of manamission. The word vindicta MATRA'LIA, a festival celebrated at Rome MATRIMONIUM. 211 every year on the 11th of June, in honour of the plete validity of a marriage contract. It was goddess Mater Matuta, whose temple stood made by the natural or legal guardian (o KiCVin the Forum Boarium. It was celebrated ptot) of the bride elect, and attended by the only by Roman matrons, and the sacrifices relatives of both parties as witnesses. The offered to the goddess consisted of cakes wife's dowry was settled at the betrothal. baked in pots of earthenware. Slaves were On the day before the gamos, or marriage, not allowed to take part in the solemnities, or or sometimes on the day itself, certain sacrito enter the temple of the goddess. One slave, fices or offerings (rporketa -ydauov or 7'pohowever, was admitted by the matrons, but yci/ueta) were made to the gods who presided only to be exposed to a humiliating treatment, over marriage. Another ceremony of almost for one of the matrons gave her a blow on the general observance on the wedding day, was cheek, and then sent her away from the tem- the bathing of both the bride and bridegroom pie. The matrons on this occasion took with in water fetched from some particular fountthem the children of their sisters, but not ain, whence, as some think, the custom of their own, held them in their arms, and prayed placing the figure of a Xovrpooqpog or " water for their welfare. carrier " over the tombs of those who died MATRONA'LIA, a festival celebrated on unmarried. After these preliminaries, the the Kalends of March in honour of Juno Lu- bride was generally conducted from her cina. Hence Horace says, "Martiis caelebs father's to the house of the bridegroom at quid agam Kalendis." nightfall, in a chariot (kb' aiftS) drawn by a MATRIMO'NIUM, NU'PTIAE, (ydayo), pair of mules or oxen, and furnished with a marriage. 1. GREEK. The ancient Greek kind of couch (IKctvif) as a seat. On either legislators considered the relation of marriage side of her sat the bridegroom and one of his as a matter not merely of private, but also of most intimate friends or relations, who from public or general interest. This was particu- his office was called the paranymph (nrapilary the case at Sparta, where proceedings vvbutoS or vvu07vrif); but as he rode in the might be taken against those who married too carriage (6oX,a) with the bride and bridelate or unsuitably, as well as against those groom, he was sometimes called the 7rc-poXof. who did not marry at all. The nuptial procession was probably accornBut independent of public considerations, panied, according to circumstances, by a numthere were also private or personal reasons, ber of persons, some of whom carried the nuppeculiar to the ancients, which made marriage tial torches. Both bride and bridegroom (the an obligation. One of these was the duty in- former veiled) were decked out in their best cumbent upon every individual to provide for attire, with chaplets on their heads, and the a continuance of representatives to succeed doors of their houses were hung with festoons himself as ministers of the Divinity; and an. of ivy and bay. As the bridal procession other was the desire felt by almost every one, moved along, the hymenaean song was sung not merely to perpetuate his own name, but to the accompaniment of Lydian flutes, even to leave some one who might make the cus- in olden times, as beautifully described by tomarv offerings at his grave. We are told Homer, and the married pair received the that with this view childless persons some- greetings and congratulations of those who times adopted children. met them. After entering the bridegroom's The choice of a wife among the ancients house, into which the bride was probably conwas but rarely grounded upon affection, and ducted by his mother, bearing a lighted torch, scarcely ever could have been the result of it was customary to shower sweetmeats upon previous acquaintance or familiarity. In many them (Kar7aXiaua Ta), as emblems of plenty cases a father chose for his son a bride whom and prosperity. the latter had never seen, or compelled him After this came the nuptial feast, to which to marry for the sake of checking his extra- the name gamos was particularly applied; it vagances. was generally given in the house of the brideBy the Athenian laws a citizen was not groom or his parents; and besides being a allowed to marry with a foreign woman, nor festive meeting, served other and more importconversely, under very severe penalties, but ant purposes. There was no public rite, proximity by blood (ayxtareea), or consan- whether civil or religious, connected with the guinity (avyylveta), was not, with some few celebration of marriage amongst the ancient exceptions, a bar to marriage in any part of Greeks, and therefore no public record of its Greece; direct lineal descent was. solemnization. This deficiency then was At Athens the most important preliminary supplied by the marriage feast, for the guests to marriage was the betrothal (Eyy77aotm), were of course competent to prove the fact of which was in fact indispensable to the com- a marriage having taken place. To this feast, 212 MATRIMONIUM. contrary to the usual practice amongst the Dorians, however, and especially at Sparta, Greeks, women were invited as well as men; women enjoyed much more estimation than but they seem to have sat at a separate table, in the rest of Greece. with the bride still veiled amongst them. At 2. ROMAN. A legal Roman marriage was the conclusion of this feast, she was conduct- called justae nuptiae, justum mnatrimonium, as ed by her husband into the bridal chamber; being conformable to jus (civile) or to law. A and a law of Solon required that on entering legal marriage was either Cum conventione uxit they should eat a quince together, as if to oris in manum viri, or it was without this conindicate that their conversation ought to be ventio. But both forms of marriage agreed in sweet and agreeable. The song called the this: there must be connubium between the Epithalamium was then sung before the doors parties, and consent. The legal consequences of the bridal chamber. as to the power of the father over his children The day after the marriage, the first of the were the same in both. bride's residence in her new abode, was called Connubium is merely a term which comprethe epaulia (Eirai2t4a); on which their friends hends all the conditions of a legal marriage. sent the customary presents to the newly Generally it may be stated, that there was married couple. On another day, the apaulia only connubium between Roman citizens; the (aiwraa tar), perhaps the second after marriage, cases in which it at any time existed between the bridegroom left his house, to lodge apart parties not both Roman citizens,were excepfrom his wife at his father's-in-law. Some of tions to the general rule. Originally, or at the presents made to the bride by her husband least at one period of the republic, there was and friends were called anacalypteria (avaica- no connubium between the patricians and the X2v'r7ipLa), as being given on the occasion of plebeians; but this was altered by the Lex the bride first appearing unveiled: they were Canuleia (B. c. 445), which allowed connubiprobably given on the epaulia, or day after the um between persons of those two classes. marriage. Another ceremony observed after There were various degrees of consanguinmarriage was the sacrifice which the husband ity and affinity, within which there was no offered up on the occasion of his bride being connubium. registered amongst his own phratores. An illegal union of a male and female, The above account refers to Athenian cus- though affecting to be, was not a marriage: toms. At Sparta the betrothal of the bride by the man had no legal wife, and the children her father or guardian (Kiptof) was requisite had no legal father: consequently they were as a preliminary of marriage, as well as at not in the power of their reputed father. Athens. Another custom peculiar to the The marriage Cum conventione differed from Spartans, and a relic of ancient times, was that Sine conventione,in the relationship which the seizure of the bride by her intended hus- it effected between the husband and the wife; band, but of course with the sanction of her the marriage cum conventione was a necessary parents or guardians. She was not, however, condition to make a woman a materfamilias. immediately domiciled in her husband's house, By the marriage cum conventione, the wife but cohabited with him for some time clandes- passed into the familia of her husband, and tinely, till he brought her, and frequently her was to him in the relation of a daughter, or, mother also, to his home; as it was expressed, in manum convenit. In The Greeks, generally speaking, enter- the marriage sine conventione, the wife's retained little regard for the female character. lation to her own familia remained as before, They considered women, in fact, as decidedly and she was merely uxor. " Uxor," says Ciceinferior to men, qualified to discharge only the ro, " is a genus of which there are two spesubordinate functions in life, and rather ne- cies; one is materfamilias, quae in manum concessary as helpmates than agreeable as com- venit; the other is uxor only." Accordingly, panions. To these notions female education a materfamilias is a wife who is in Manu, and for the most part corresponded, and in fact in the familia of her husband. A wife not in confirmed them; it did not supply the elegant manu was not a member of her husband's faaccomplishment and refinement of manners milia, and therefore the term could not apply which permanently engage the affections to her. Matrona was properly a wife not in when other attractions have passed away. manu, and equivalent to uxor; and she was Aristotle states, that the relation of man to called matrona before she had any children. woman is that of the governor to the subject; But these words are not always used in these and Plato, that a woman's virtue may be sum- their original and proper meanings. med up in a few words, for she has only to It does not appear that any forms were remanage the house well, keeping what there quisite in the marriage sine conventione; and is in it, and obeying her husband. Among the apparently the evidence of such marriage was MATRIMONIUM. 213 cohabitation matrimonii causa. The matri- the marriage union. [ADULTERIUM; DIVORmonii causa might be proved by various kinds TIUM.] of evidence. 3. The relation of husband and wife with In the case of a marriage cum conventione, respect to property. [Dos.] there were three forms: 1. Usus, 2. Farreum, When marriage was dissolved, the parties and 3. Coemptio. to it might marry again; but opinion con1. Marriage was effected by usus, ifa woman sidered it more decent for a woman not to lived with a man for a whole year as his wife; marry again. A woman was required by and this was by analogy to usucaption of usage (mos) to wait a year before she conmovables generally, in which usus for one tracted a second marriage, on the pain of year gave ownership. The law of the Twelve infamia. Tables provided that if a woman did not wish It remains to describe the customs and to come into the manus of her husband in rites which were observed by the Romans this manner, she should absent herself from at marriages. After the parties had agreed him annually for three nights (trinoctium) and to marry and the persons in whose potestas so break the usus of the year. they were had consented, a meeting of 2. Farreum was a form of marriage, in which friends was sometimes held at the house of certain words were used in the presence of the maiden for the purpose of settling the ten witnesses, and were accompanied by a marriage-contract, which was written on certain religious ceremony, in which panis tablets, and signed by both parties. The farreus was employed; and hence this form woman after she had promised to become of marriage was also called confarreatio. It the wife of a man was called sponsa, pacta, appears that certain priestly offices such as dicta, or sperata. It appears that, at least that of Flamen Dialis, could only be held by during the imperial period, the man put a those who were born of parents who had been ring on the finger of his betrothed, as a pledge married by this ceremony (confarreatiparentes). of his fidelity. This ring was probably, like 3. Coemptio was effected by mancipatio, all rings at this time, worn on the left hand, and consequently the wife was in manrcipio. and on the finger nearest to the smallest. [MANcIPima.] A woman who was cohabit- The last point to be fixed was the day on ing with a man as uxor, might come into his which the marriage was to take place. manus by this ceremony, in which case the The Romans believed that certain days coemptio was said to be matrimonii causa, were unfortunate for the performance of the and she who was formerly uxor became apud marriage rites, either on account of the relimaritumfiliae loco. gious character of those days themselves, Sponsalia were not an unusual preliminary or on account of the days by which they of marriage, but they were not necessary. were followed, as the woman had to perform The sponsalia were an agreement to marry, certain religious rites on the day after her made in such form as to give each party a wedding, which could not take place on a right of action in case of non-performance, dies ater. Days not suitable for entering and the offending party was condemned in upon matrimony were the calends, nones, and such damages as to the judex seemed just. ides of every month, all dies atri, the whole The woman who was promised in marriage. months of May and February, and a great was accordingly called sponsa, which is equi- numbor of festivals. valent to promissa; the man who was en- On the wedding-day, which in the early gaged tomarry was called sponsus. The spon- times was never fixed upon without consultsalia were of course not binding, if the par- ing the auspices, Lhe bride was dressed in a ties consented to waive the contract. Some- long white robe wirh a purple fringe, oradorned titnes a present was made by the future hus- with ribands. This dress was called tunica band to the future wife by way of earnest recta, and was bound round the waist with a (arrha, arrha sponsalitia), or, as it was called, girdle (corona, cingulum, or zona), which the propter nuptias donatio. husband had to untie in the evening. The The consequences of marriage were- bridal veil, called flammeum, was of a bright 1. The power of the father over the chil- yellow colour, and her shoes likewise. Her dren of the marriage, which was a completely hair was divided on this occasion with tne new relation, an effect indeed of marriage, point of a spear. but one which had no influence over the re- The bride was conducted to the house of lation of the husband and wife. [PATRIA Po- her husband in the evening. She was taken TidSTAS.] with apparent violence from the arms of her 2. The liabilities of either of the parties to mother, or of the person who had to give her the punishments affixed to the violation of away. On her way she was accompanied 214 MATRIMONIUM. by three boys dressed in the praetexta, and husband (pranubae), to the lectus genialis in whose fathers and mothers were still alive the atrium, which was on this occasion mag(patrimi et matrirri). One of them carried nificently adorned and strewed with flowers. before her a torch of white thorn (spina), or, On the following day the husband sometimes according to others, of pine wood; the two gave another entertainment to his friends, others walked by her side, supporting her by which was called repotia, and the woman, the arm. The bride herself carried a distaff who on this day undertook the management and a spindle, with wool. A boy called of the house of her husband, had to perform carnillus carried in a covered vase (cumera, certain religious rites; on which account, as ciunerum, or camillum) the so-called utensils was observed above, it was necessary to select of the bride and playthings for children (cre- a day for the marriage which was not followed pundia). Besides these persons who officiated by a dies ater. These rites probably consisted on the occasion, the procession was attended of sacrifices to the Dii Penates. by a numerous train of friends, both of the The position of a Roman woman after bride and the bridegroom. marriage was very different from that of a When the procession arrived at the house Greek woman. The Roman presided over the of the bridegroom, the door of which was whole household; she educated her children, adorned with garlands and flowers, the bride watched over and preserved the honour of the was carried across the threshold by pronubi, house, and as the materfamilias she shared i e. men who had been married to only one the honours and respect shown to her huswoman, that she might not knock against it band. Far from being confined like the Greek with her foot, which would have been an evil women to a distinct apartment, the Roman omen. Before she entered the house, she matron, at least during the better centuries,wound wool around the door-posts of her new of the republic, occupied the most important residence, and anointed them with lard (adeps part of the house, the atrium. s8uilhs) or wolfs fat (adeps lupinzs). The MASKS. rPERSONA.] husband received her with fire and water, MAUSOLE'UM. [FuNus, p. 163.] which the woman had to touch. This was MASTS OF SHIPS. [ANTENNA; NAeither a symbolic purification, or a symbolic vis.] expression of welcome, as the interdicere MEALS, Greek, [DEIPNON]; Roman, aqua et igni was the formula for banishment. [CoENA.] The bride saluted her husband with the MEASURES of length,[PEs; JUGERUM]; words: ubi tu Caius, ego Caia. After she of capacity, [METRETES; MEDIMNUS; Mohad entered the house with distaff and spin- DIUS; SEXTARITS.] die, she was placed upon a sheep-skin, and MEDIMNUS (uMt duvof), the principal dry here the keys of the house were delivered measure of the Greeks. It was used espeinto her hands. A repast (coena nuptialis) cially for measuring corn. The Attic medimgiven by the husband to the whole train of nus was equal to six Roman modii. relatives and friends who accompanied the The medimnus contained 11 galls. 7.1456 bride, generally concluded the solemnity of pints, Eng. It was divided into the following the day. Many ancient writers mention a parts:very popular song, Talasius or Talassio, which Gals. Pts. was sung at weddings; but whether it was 6 V7ol0 each 1 7.8576 sung during the repast or during the proces- 12 g/zicICa,,...*,, 7.9288 sion is not quite clear, though we may infer 48 XoivtZcKe,.,, 1.9822 from the story respecting the origin of the 96 crat,,,,.9911 song, that it was sung whilst the procession 192 KorTatL,,,,.4955 was advancing towards the house of the hus- of which the XoivtS, arqrC, and Klorl7q, and band. their further subdivisions, were common to It may easily be imagined that a solemnity the dry and fluid measures, but the Xoivt: was like that of marriage did not take place among of different sizes. [METRETES; CHOENIX; the merry and humorous Italians without a XESTES; COTYLA.] variety of jests and railleries, and Ovid men- MEGALE'SIA, MEGALE'NSIA, or MEtions obscene songs which were sung before GALENSES LUDI, a festival with games, the door of the bridal apartment by girls, after celebrated at Rome in the month of April and the company had left. These songs were in honour of the great mother of the gods probably the old Fescennina [FESCENNINTA], (Cybel6, jueyciX7 0e'f, whence the festival deand are frequently called Epithalamia. At rived its name). The statue of the goddess the end of the repast the bride was conducted was brought to Rome from Pessinus in B. c. by matrons who had not had more than one 203, and the day of its arrival was solemnized 'MENSA. METOICI. 215 with a magnificent procession, lectisternia, upon it, and then to bring it thus furnished and games, and great numbers of people car- to the place where the guests were reclining ried presents to the goddess on the Capitol. On many occasions, indeed, each guest either The regular celebration of the Megalesia, had a small table to himself, or the company however, did not begin till twelve years later was divided into parties of two or three, with (S. c. 191), when the temple, which had been a separate table for each party, as is distinctly vowed and ordered to be built in B. C. 203,was represented in the cut under SYMPOSIUM. completed and dedicated by M. Junius Brutus. Hence we have such phrases as mensam apThe festival lasted for six days, beginning on ponere or opponere, and mensam auferre or rethe 4th of April. The season of this festival, movere. like that of the whole month in which it took The two principal courses of a deipnon and place, was full of general rejoicings and feast- coena, or a Greek and Roman dinner, were ing. It was customary for the wealthy Ro- called respectively rrpWry rpia7reta, devrscpa mans on this occasion to invite one another rpdireja, and mensa prima, mensa secunda. mutually to their repasts. [COENA; DEIPNON.] The games which were held at the Mega- MEN SA'RII, MEN SULA'RIT, or NU MUlesia were purely scenic, and not circenses. LA'RII, a kind of public bankers at Rome They were at first held on the Palatine, in who were appointed by the state; they were front of the temple of the goddess, but after- distinct from the argentarii, who were comwards also in the theatres. The day which mon bankers, and did business on their own was especially set apart for the performance account. [ARGENTARII.] The mensarii had of scenic plays was the third of the festival. their tables or banks (mensae) like ordinary Slaves were not permitted to be present at the bankers, in the forum, and in the name of the games, and the magistrates appeared dressed aerarium they offered ready money to debtors in a purple toga and praetexta, whence the who could give security to the state for it. proverb,purpura Megalensis. The games were Such an expediency was devised by the state under the superintendence of the curule only in times of great distress. The first time aediles, and we know that four of the extant that mensarii (quinqueviri mensarii) were applays of Terence were performed at the Me- pointed was in B. C. 352, at the time when galesia. the plebeians were so deeply involved in debt, MEMBRA'NA. [LnER.] that they were obliged to borrow money from MENSA (rp6rreTa), a table. The simplest new creditors in order to pay the old ones, kind of table was a round one with three legs, and thus ruined themselves completely. On called in Greek rp~7rovf. It is shown in the this occasion they were also authorized to ordrinking scene painted on the wall of a wine dain that cattle or land should be received as shop at Pompeii, and is represented in the payment at a fair valuation. With the exannexed woodcut. Tables, however, must ception of this first time, they appear during the time of the republic to have always been triumviri mensarii. One class of mensarii, however, (perhaps an inferior order), the mensularii or numularii, seem to have been permanently employed by the state, and these must be meant when we read, that not only the aerarium but also private individuals, deposited in their hands surns of money which they had to dispose of. MENSIS. [CALENDARIUM.] MERENDA, [COENA.] METAE. [CIRCUS, P. 80.] METALLUM. [VECTIGALIA.] 5Iel.s, Table. METOICI (/yrotKOL), the name by which, u:sually have had four legs, as the etymology at Athens and in other Greek states, the resioft rp(t, ea, the commnnion word for table, indi- dent aliens were designated. They must be cates. For the houses of the opulent, tables distinguished from such strangers as made were made of the most valuable and beautiful only a transitory stay in a place, for it was a kinds of wood, especially of maple, or of the characteristic of a metoicus, that he resided citrus of Africa, which was a species of cy- permanently in the city. No city of Greece press or joniper. perhaps had such a number of resident aliens As the table was not large, it was usual to as Athens, since none afforded to strangers Ia a thell dishes and the various kinds of meat so many facilities for carrying on mercantile 216 METOICI. MIMUS. business or a more agreeable mode of living. all the rights of citizens, except those of a In the census instituted by Demetrius Pha- political nature. Their condition was termed lareus (B. C. 309), the number of resident aliens iorq-reta, and lcourotvreia. at Athens was 10,000, in which number wo- METRE'TES (puer7pt7rg), the principal men and children were probably not included. Greek liquid measure. The Attic metretes The jealousy with which the citizens of the was equal in capacity to the amphora, conancient Greek republics kept their body clear taining 8 galls. 7.365 pints, English. [AsMof intruders, is also manifested in their regu- PrORA.] It was divided into lations concerning aliens. However long they Galls. Pts. might have resided in Athens, they were al- ]IKEppaiuLa, each 5 7.577 ways regarded as strangers, whence they are 12 Xof,,,, 5.9471 sometimes called ~Svot, and to remind them 48 XOLVIKeIC,,,, 1.4867 of their position, they had on some occasions 72 arat "',,.9911 to perform certain degrading services for the 144 KoTiat,,,,.4955 Athenian citizens [HYVDRIAPHORIA]. These [See CHous; CIOENIX; XESTES; COTYLA.] services were, however, in all probability not METRO'POL S. [COLONIA, P. 100.] intended to hurt the feelings of the aliens, but MILIA'RE, i iLLIA'RIUM, or MILLE were simply acts symbolical of their relation PASSUUM (MiiXtov), the Roman mile, conto the citizens. sisted of 1000 paces (passus) of 5 feet each, Aliens were not allowed to acquire landed and was therefore = 5000 feet. Taking the property in the state they had chosen for their Roman foot at 11.6496 English inches [PEs], residence, and were consequently obliged to the Roman mile would be 1618 English yards, live in hired houses or apartments. As they or 142 yards less than the English statute did not constitute a part of the state, and were mile. The most common term for the mile yet in constant intercourse and commerce is mille passuum, or only the initials M. P.; with its members, every alien was obliged to sometimes the word passuum is omitted. The select a citizen for his patron (irpoardi-7g), Roman mile contained 8 Greek stadia. who was not only the mediator between them The mile-stones along the Roman roads and the state, through whom alone they could were called milliaria. They were also called transact any legal business, whether private lapides; thus we have ad tertium lapidem (or or public, but was at the same time answer- without the word lapidem) for 3 miles from able (Eyyvir7Sg) to the state for the conduct Rome. Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the of his client. On the other hand, however, Forum, where the principal roads terminated, the state allowed the aliens to carry on all which was called milliarium aureum; but the kinds of industry and commerce under the miles were not reckoned from it, but from the protection of the law; in fact, at Athens nearly gates of the city. Such central marks appear all business was in the hands of aliens, who to have been common in the principal cities on this account lived for the most part in the of the Roman empire. The "London stone" Peiraeeus. in Cannon-street is supposed to have marked Each family of aliens, whether they availed the centre of the Roman roads in Britain. themselves of the privilege of carrying on any MIMUS (4Z/uog), the name by which, in mercantile business or not, had to pay an Greece and at Rome, a species of the drama annual tax (ye7roiKtov or fevutcd) of twelve was designated, though the Roman mimus drachmae, or if the head of the family was a differed essentially from the Greek. widow, of only six drachmnae. If aliens did The Greek mimus seems to have originated not pay this tax, or if they assumed the right among the Greeks of Sicily and southern of citizens, and probably also in case they. re- Italy, and to have consisted originally of exfused to select a patron, they not only forfeit- temporary representations or imitations of ed the protection, of the state, but were sold ridiculous occurrences of common life at ceras slaves. Extraordinary taxes and liturgies tain festivals. At a later period these rude (eiSl~opai and eLt-ovpyiat) devolved upon representations acquired a more artistic form, aliens no less than upon citizens. The aliens which was brought to a high degree of perwere also obliged, like citizens, to serve in the fection by Sophron of Syracuse (about B. c. regular armies and in the fleet, both abroad 420). He wrote his pieces in the popular and at home, for the defence of the city. dialect of the Dorians and a kind of rhythmical Those aliens who were exempt from the bur- prose. thens peculiar to their class were called iso- Among the Romans the word mimus was teles (iaoTeuErz). They had not to pay the pe- applied to a species of dramatic plays as well Lrocxtov(dri2eta,urOllCKiov), were not obliged as to the persons who acted in them. It is to choose a 7rpoarrdr7q, and in fact enjoyed certain that the Romans did not derive their IISSIO. MONETA. -217 mlmus from the Greeks in southern Italy, release the soldiers from the military oath (sabut that it was of native growth. The Greek cramentum) which they had taken on entering mimes were written in prose, and the name the service. The act was called exauctoratio. iutuo was never applied to an actor, but if During the time of the republic and the earlier used of a person it signified one who made part of the empire, the word exauctorare simgrimaces. The Roman mimes were imita- ply signified to release from the military oath, tions of foolish and mostly indecent occur- without implying that this was done cum igrences, and scarcely-differed from comedy nominia; but during the latter period of the except in consisting more of gestures and empire, it is almost exclusively applied to solmimicry than of spoken dialogue. At Rome diers dismissed cum ignominia. such mimes seem originally to have been ex- MISSIO. [GLADIATORES, p. 167.] hibited at funerals, where one or more per- MITRA, (zpirpa). 1. An eastern headsons (mimi) represented in a burlesque man- dress, sometimes spoken of as characteristic ner the life of the deceased. If there were several mimi, one of them, or their leader, was called archimimus. These coarse and indecent performances had greater charms for the Romans than the regular drama. They were performed on the stage as farces after tragedies, and during the empire they gradually supplanted the place of the Atellanae. It was peculiar to the actors in these mimes, to wear neither masks, the cothurnus, nor the soccus,whence they are sometimes called planioedes. MINA. [TALENTUM.] MINES. [VECTIGALIA.] MINOR. [CURATOR; INFANS.] MINT. [MONETA.] MIRMILLO'NES. [GLADIATORES MI'SSIO, the technical term used by thel l Romans to express the dismissal of soldiers from service in the army. There were three kinds of missio:-1. Missio honesta, which was given to soldiers who had served the legitimate number of years; 2..lissio causaria, which was granted to soldiers who could no longer bear the fatigue of military service on account of ill health and 3. Missio ignominiosa, by which a man was excluded from the of the Phrygians. It was also the name of service in the army for crime or other bad a head-band or head-dress worn by Greek conduct. women, which was made of close materials. As regards the missio honesta, it was granted It must be distinguished from the Kelcpoqlaaof, by the law to every soldier who had attained or reticulum, made of net. [RETICULUM.] 2. the age of 46, or who had taken part in 20 A belt. [ZONA.] campaigns, and to every horseman who had MO'DIUS, the principal dry measure of the served in ten campaigns. The legitimate Romans, was equal to one-third of the amtime of service was called legitima stipendia. phora, and therefore contained one gall. 7.8576 The missio ignominiosa or cum ignominia was pints English. It was divided into inflicted as a punishment not only upon indi- Pint2. viduals, but upon whole divisions and even 2 semimodii, or semodii, each = 7.9288 whole legions of an army, and it might be ap- 16 sextarii,,.9911 plied to the highest officers no less than to 32 heminae.... 4955 common soldiers. In dismissing soldiers for 64 quartarii..2477 bad conduct, it was generally expressed that 128 acetabula..1238 they were sent away cum ignominia, but some- 192 cyathi..0825 times the ignominia was not expressly men- 768 lingulae.,*.0206 tioned, though it was understood as a matter The modius was one-sixth of the medimof course. nus. In all cases of missio it was necessary to MONE'TA, the mint, or the place where T 2 I8 MONILE. MYSTERIA. money was coined. The mint of Rome was MONTHS. [CALENDARIUM.] a building on the Capitoline, and attached to MONUMENTUM. [FvNUS, p. 159.] the temple of Juno Moneta, as the aerarium MOSAICS. [DoMvs, p. 127.] was to the temple of Saturn. The officers MOURNING for the dead. [FuNus.] who had the superintendence of the mint MULSUM. [VINtTM.] were the TriumviriMonetales,who were perhaps MUNERA'TOR. [GLADIATORES.] first appointed about B.c.269. Under the repub- MU'NICEPS, MU NICIPIUM. [CoLo. ]ic, the coining of money was not a privilege NIA; FOEDERATAE CIVITATES.] which belonged exclusively to the state. The MUNUS. [HoNoREs.] coins struck in the time of the republic mostly MUNUS. [GLADIATORES.] bear the names of private individuals; and it MURA'LIS CORONA. [CORONA.] would seem that every Roman citizen had the MU'SCULUS was a kind of vinea, one of right of having his own gold and silver coined the smaller military machines, by which the in the public mint, and under the superin- besiegers of a town were protected. tenderme of its officers. Still no one till the MUSE'UM (yovaeoov), the name of an intime of the empire had the right of putting his stitution founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, own image upon a coin: Julius Caesar was about B. C. 280, for the promotion of learning the first to whom this privilege was granted. and the support of learned men. The museum MONEY. [AEs; ARGENTUM; AURUM.] formed part of the palace, and contained cloisMONI'LE (opyog), a necklace. Necklaces ters or porticoes (7repi~rarof), a public theatre were worn by both sexes among the most or lecture-room (E~:6pa), and a large hall polished of those nations which the Greeks (otlKow gya), where the learned men dined called barbarous, especially the Indians, the together. The museum was supported by a Egyptians, and the Persians. Greek and Ro- common fund, supplied apparently from the man females adopted them more particularly as public treasury; and the whole institution abridalornament. Theywere ofvariousforms, was under the superintendence of a priest, as may be seen by the following specimens:- who was appointed by the king, and after Egypt became a province of the Roman emnpire, by the Caesar. Botanical and zoological -7~\>~~~~~~ \t f/ gardens appear to have been attached to the museum. MYSTE'RIA. The names by which mysteries or mystic festivals were designated in Greece, are yvar-pta, -erTrai, or Opyla. The name opyta (fromn fopya) originally signified only sacrifices accompanied by certain ceremonies, but it was'afterwards applied espe~Sa> > >' cially to the ceremonies observed in the wor-,O!t0) 0: 1 ( 0jex6.. ~i.~%%c2~,jic;g o.? ) suship of Bacchus, and at a still later period to mysteries in general. Te2ers' signifies, in general, a religious festival, but more particularly a lustraticoi or ceremony performed in order to avert some calamity, either public or private. Mvar'ptov signifies, properly speaking, the secret part of the worship, but it was also used in the same sense as Treder4, and for mystic worship in general. Mysteries in general may be defined as sacrifices and ceremonies which took place'at night or in secret within some sanctuary, 02o40 L which the uninitiated were'not allowed to 0;;l'-~o O ~ ~} t ~o t?'"enter. What was essential to them, were objects of worship, sacred utensils, and traditions with their interpretation, which were withheld from all persons not initiated. The most celebrated mysteries in Greece were those of Samothrace and Eleusis,which are described in separate articles. [CADEiMonilia, Necklaces. RIA; ELEUSINIA.] NAUCRARIA. NAVIS. 219 N. the word vasKpapog therefore cannot be derived from vai), ship, but must come from NAE'NIA. [FUNvs, p. 161.] vaio, and vadvpapoo is thus only another form NAMES. [NOMEN.] for vadlc2ZqpoC in the sense of a householder, NATA'TIO, NATATO'RIUM. [BALNE- as vaiiZov was used for the rent of a house. CM, p. 49.] Solon in his legislation retained the old inNAVA'LIA, docks at Rome where ships stitution of the naucraries, and charged each were built, laid up, and refitted. They were of them with the equipment of one trireme attached to the emporium outside of the Porta and with the mounting of two horsemen. All Trigemina, and were connected with the Ti- military affairs, as far as regards the defrayber. The emporium and navalia were first ing of expenses, probably continued as before included within the walls of the city by to be regulated according to naucraries. CliAurelian. sthenes, in his change of the Solonian conThe docks (vcdotlcot or vespta) in the Pei- stitution, retained the division into naucraries raeeus atAthens cost 1000 talents, and having for military and financial purposes; but he been destroyed in the anarchy by the contrac- increased their number to fifty, making five tors for three talents, were again restored and for each of his ten tribes; so that now the finally completed by Lycurgus. They were number of their. ships was increased from under the superintendence of regular officers, forty-eight to fifty, and that of horsemen from called Lrtuery-erai rTo veoptos. ninety-six to one hundred. The statement of NAVA'LIS CORO'NA. [CORONA.] Herodotus, that the Athenians in their war NAVARCHUS (vaviapxoS), the name by against Aegina had only fifty ships of their which the Greeks designated both the captain own, is thus perfectly in accordance with the of a single ship, and the admiral of a fleet. fifty naucraries of Clistllenes. The funcThe office itself was called vavapxia. The tions of the former vaeKpeapot, or the heads of admiral of the Athenian fleet was always one their respective naucraries, were now transof the ten generals (a-rparryot) elected every ferred to the demarchs. [DEMARCHI.] The year, and he had either the whole or the obligation of each naucrary to equip a ship of chief command of the fleet. The chief offi- war for the service of the republic may be recers who served under him were the trierarchs garded as the first form of trierarchy. As and the pentecontarchs, each of whom cornm- the system of trierarchy became developed manded one vessel; the inferior officers in and established, this obligation of the naucrathe vessels were the Icv3EypvYira or helmsmen, ries appears to have gradually ceased, and to the KeXev.raai or commanders of the rowers, have fallen into disuse. [TRIERARCHIA.] and the rpWopirat, who must have been ern- NAV1S, NAVI'GIUM (vasC, 7r2LoZov), a ployed at the prow of the vessels. ship. Other Greek states who kept a navy had The numerous fleet with which the Greeks likewise their navwchs. The chief admiral sailed to the coast of Asia Minor in the Trojan of the Spartan fleet was called navarchus, and war, must on the whole be regarded as suffithe secondincommandepistoleus (E&rtarot eOs.) cient evidence of the extent to which navigaThe same person was not allowed to hold the tion was carried on in those times, however office of navarchus two successive years at much of the detail in the Homeric description Sparta. [EPISTOLEUS.] may have arisen from the poet's own imagiNAUCRA'RIA (vavwpapia), the name of a nation. In the Homeric catalogue it is stated division of the inhabitants of Attica. The that each of the fifty Boeotian ships carried four ancient phylae were each divided into 120 warriors, and a ship which carried so three phratries, and each of these twelve many cannot have been of small dimensions. phratries into four naucraries, of which there What Homer states of the Boeotian vessels were thus forty-eight. What the naucraries applies more or less to the ships of other were previous to the legislation of Solon is Greeks. These boats were provided with a not stated anywhere, but it is not improbable mast (Iar6C), which was fastened by two that they were political divisions similar to ropes (7rp6rovol) to the two ends of the ship, the demes in the constitution of Clisthenes, so that when the rope connecting it with the and:were made perhaps at the time of the in- prow broke, the mast would fall towards the stituti[ of the nine archons, for the purpose stern, where it might kill the helmsman. of regulating the liturgies, taxes, or financial The mast could be erected or taken down as and military affairs in general. At any rate, necessity required. They also had sails (lahowever, the naucraries before the time of ria), but only a half-deck. Each vessel, howSolon can have had no connection with the ever, appears to have had only one sail,which navy, for the Athenians then had no navy; was used in favourable winds; and the prin 220 NAVIS. cipal means of propelling the vessel lay in the ture, as ship-builders are praised as artists. rowers,who sat upon benches(KyZf6ef). The A representation of two boats is given on oars were fastened to the side of the ship with p. 26, which appear to bear great resemblance leathern thongs, in which they were turned to the one described above. as a key in its hole. The ships in Homer are The Corinthians were the first who brought mostly called black (Mgeatvat), probably be- the art of ship-building nearest to the point at cause they were painted or covered with a which we find it in the time of Thucydides, black substance, such as pitch, to protect the and they were the first who introduced ships wood against the influence of the water and with three ranks of rowers (rptp etf, triremes). the air; sometimes other colours, such as About B. c. 700, Ameinocles, the Corinthian, uiZrof, minium (a red colour), were used to to whom this invention is ascribed, made the adorn the sides of the ships near the prow, Saimians acquainted with it; but it must have whence Homer occasionally calls ships tXZ- been preceded by that of the biremes (ttojpetg), roTrwipvot, i.e. red-cheeked; they were also that is, ships with two ranks of rowers, which painte(l occasionally with a purple colour Pliny attributes to the Erythraeans. These (0otvuKowrdp7.ot). WVhen the Greeks had land- innovations, however, do not seem to have ed on the coast of Troy, the ships were drawn been generally adopted for a long time; for on land, and fastened at the poop with a rope we read that about the time of Cyrus (B. c. to large stones, which served as anchors [AN- 550), the Phocaeans introduced ships with CORA]. The Greeks then surrounded the long and sharp keels, called 7rrevitc6vropot. fleet with a fortification, to secure it against These belonged to the class of long ships of the attacks of the enemy. The custom of war (verF luacKpai), and had fifty rowers, drawing the ships upon the shore, when they twenty-five on each side of the ship, who sat were not used, was followed in later times in one row. It is further stated, that before also. Homer describes in a passage in the this time vessels called o —poyyiat, with Odyssey the building of a boat. Ulysses large round or rather flat bottoms, had been first cuts down with his axe twenty trees, and used exclusively by all the Ionians in Asia. prepares the wood for his purpose by cutting At this period most Greeks seem to have it smooth and giving it the proper shape. He adopted the long ships with only one rank of then bores the holes for nails and hooks, and rowers on each side; their name varied acfits the planks together and fastens them with cordingly as they had fifty, or thirty (rptanails. He rounds the bottom of the ship like KO6vrOpof), or even a smaller number ot that of a broad transport vessel, and raises the rowers. bulwark (blcput), fitting it upon the numerous The first Greek people who acquired a navy ribs of the ship. IHe afterwards covers the of importance were the Corinthians, Samians, whole of the outside with planks, which are and Phocaeans. About the time of Cyrus and laid across the ribs from the keel upwards to Canibyses the Corinthian triremes were genthe bulwark; next the mast is made, and the erally adopted by the Sicilian tyrants and by sail-yard attached to it, and lastly the rudder. the Corcyraeans, who soon acquired the most When the ship is thus far completel, he powerful navies among the Greeks. In other raises the bulwark still higher by wicker- parts of Greece, and even at Athens and in work, which goes all around the vessel, as a Aegina, the most common vessels about this protection against the waves. This raised tirme were long ships with only one rank of bulwark of wicker-work and the like was used rowers. Athens, although the foundation of in later times also. For ballast Ulysses its maritime power had been laid by Solon throws into the ship /i77, which, according to NAUVCRARIA], (lid not obtain a fleet of any the Scholiast, consisted of wood, stones,:nd importance until the time of Themistocles, sand. Calypso then brings him materia s to who persuaded them to build 200 triremes make a sail of, and he fastens the vrehpat. pr for the purpose of carrying on the war against ropes which run from the top of the mast to Aegina. But even then ships were not pro. the two ends of the yard, and also the Scptol, vided with complete decks (caraa7rpd/uar-a) with which the sail is drawn up or let down. covering the whole of the vessel. A complete The mr6deC mentioned in this passage were deck appears to have been an invention of bndoubtedly, as in later times, the ropes at- later times. At the same time when Thetached to the two lower corners of the square- mistocles induced the Athenians to build a sail. The ship of which the building is thus fleet of 200 sail, he also carried a decree, that described was a small boat, a axedia as Ho- every year twenty new triremes should be mer calls it; but it had, like all the Homeric built from the produce of the mines of Lauships, a round or flat bottom. Greater ships rium. After the time of Themistocles as aust have been of a more complicated struc- many as twenty triremes must have been built NAVIS. 221 every year both in times of war and of peace, either for soldiers (aTpartl6rtleg or 6r2rtlaas the average number of tirirernes which was yLyoi) or for horses (1rMr'yoi, i7rrayWyol). always ready was from 300 to 400. Such an Ships of the latter class were more heavy and annual addition was the more necessary, as awkward, and were therefore not used in batthe vessels were of a light structure, and did tie except in cases of necessity. The ordinot last long. Thle whole superintendence of nary size of a war galley may be inferred from the building of new triremes was in the hands the fact that the average number of men enof the senate of the Five Hundred, but the gaged in it, including the crew and marines, actual'business was entrusted to a committee was 200, to whom on some occasions as many called the rpLtpo7rooi, one of whom acted as as thirty epibatae were added. [EPIBATAE.] their treasurer, and had in his keeping the Vessels with more than three ranks of rowmoney set apart for the purpose. Under the ers were not constructed in Greece till about Macedonian supremacy the Rhodians became the year B. c. 400, when Dionysius I., tyrant the most important maritime power in Greece, of Syracuse, who bestowed great care upon The navy of Sparta was never of great im- his navy, built the first quadriremes (rErplpete), portance. and quinqueremes (7rev7rpetl). In the reign of Navigation remained for the most part what Dionysius I1. hexeres (~jpeLtp) are also menit had been before: the Greeks seldom ven- tioned. After the time of Alexander the Great tured out into the open sea, and it was gene- the use of vessels with four, five, and more rally considered necessary to remain in sight ranks of rowers became very-general, and it of the coast or of some island, which also is well known that the first Punic war was served as guides in the daytime: in the night, chiefly carried on with quinqueremes. Ships the position and the rising and setting of the with twelve, thirty, or even forty ranks of different stars, also answered the same pur- rowers, such as were built by Alexander and pose. In winter, navigation generally ceased the Ptolemies, appear to have been mere cualtogether. In cases where it would have riosities, and did not come into common use. been necessary to coast around a consider- The Athenians at first did not adopt vessels able extent of country, which was connected larger than triremes, probably because they with the main land by a narrow neck, the thought that with rapidity and skill they could ships were sometimes drawn across the neck do more than with large and unwieldy ships. of land from one sea to the other, by machines In B. c. 356 they continued to use nothing but called O6XKoi. This was done most frequently triremes; but in B. c. 330 they had already a across the isthmus of Corinth. number of quadriremes. The first quinquereThe various kinds of ships used by the mesatAthensarementionedinanancientdocuGreeks mav be divided, according to the num- ment belonging to the year B. c. 325. After ber of ranks of rowers employed in them, B. c. 330 the Athenians appear to have graduinto Moneres, Biremes, Triremes, Quadriremes, ally ceased building triremes, and to have conQuinqueremes, &c., up to the enormous ship structed quadriremes instead. with forty ranks of rowers, built by Ptolemy Every vessel at Athens, as in modern times, Philopator. But all these appear to have been had a name given to it, which was generally constructed on the same principle, and it is of the feminine gender. The Romans somemore convenient to divide them into ships of times gave to' their ships masculine names. iwar and ships of burden (oprtc(i, eopr7qyoi, The Greek names were either taken from obKd6e6g, 7r2oia, a, poyyikaet, naves onerariae, ancient heroines, such as Nausicaa, or they naves actuariae). Ships of the latter kind were were abstract words, such as Forethought, not calculated for quick movement or rapid Safety, Guidance, &c. In many cases the sailing, but to carrythe greatdst possible quan- name of the builder was also added. tityof oods. Hencetheirstructurewas bulky, The Romans had nothing but a very insigtheir bottom round, and although they were nificant fleet of triremes up to the time of the not without rowers, yet sails were the chief first Punic war. They seem first to have means by which they were propelled. built a small fleet in B. c. 311, in the course The most common ships of war, after they of the second Samnite war, when duumviri had once been generally introduced, were the navales were first appointed. It was probably Trivmes and they are frequently designated connected with the establishment of a colony only by the name viEe, while the others are in the Pontian islands. In B. c. 260, when called by the name indicating their peculiar they saw that without a navy they could not character. Trireines, however, were again carry on the war against Carthage with any divided into two classes: the one consisting advantage, the senate ordained that a large of real men-of-war, which were quick sailing fleet should be built. Triremes would now vessels (raxeiat), and the other of transports have been of no avail against the high-bulT2 222 NAVIS. warked vessels (quinqueremes) of the Car fore part of the ship, was generally ornamentthaginians. But the Romanswouldhavebeen ed on both sides with figures, which were unable to build others, had not fortunately a either painted upon the sides or laid in. It Carthaginian quinquereme been wrecked on seems to have been very common to reprethe coast of Bruttium, and fallen into their sent an eye on each side of the prow. Upon hands. This wreck the Romans took as their the prow or fore-deck there was always some model, and after it built 120, or according to emblem (erapair/unov, insigne,figura), by which others 130 ships. From this time forward the ship was distinguished from others. Just they continued to keep up a powerful navy. below the prow, and projecting a little above Towards the end of the republic they also the keel, was the rostrum (1//3o0lo~, zP3oXov), increased the size of their ships, and built or beak, which consisted of a beam, to which war-vessels with from six to ten ordines of were attached sharp and pointed irons, or the rowers. The construction of their ships, how- head of a ram, and the like. It was used for ever, scarcely differed from that of Greek ves- the purpose of attacking another vessel and sels; the only great difference was, that the of breaking its sides. These beaks were at Roman galleys were provided with a greater first always above the water, and visble; aftervariety of destructive engines of war than wards they were atttached lower, so that those of the Greeks. They even erected tur- they were invisible, and thus became still res and tabulata upon the decks of their great more dangerous to other ships. The upper men-of-war (naves turritae), and fought upon part of the prow was frequently made in the them as if they were standing upon the walls form of a swan's or goose's neck, and hence of a fortress. called cheniscus (Xlvtwtc6f), and to the extreme The following is a list of the principal parts part of the prow, whatever it might be, the of ancient vessels:- general name of acrostolion (,c1pooar6ctov), was 1. The prow (srp6pa or uEzTc7rov, prroa), or given. The command in the prow of a vessel was exercised by an officer called 7rpopi'rf, who seems to have been next in rank to the steersman, and to have had the care of the gear, and the command over the rowers. 2. The stern or poop (7rp/Yav?, puppis) was generally higher than the other parts of the deck, and in it the helmsman had his elevated seat. It is seen in the representations of ancient vessels to be rounder than the prow, though its extremity is likewise sharp. The stern was, like the prow, adorned in various ways, but especially with the image of the tutelary deity of the vessel (tutela). It freli; f ilaT lY HF~t,_ quently terminates with an ornament of wood000 io. en planks, called aphlaston (I~haorov) and aplustre, and sometimes it had a cheniscus. (See the cut, p. 223.) At the end of the stern was frequently erected a staff or pole, to which a streamer or ribands were attached (fascia or taenia). In some representations a kind of roof is formed over the head of the steersman. 3. The bulwark of the vessel (rpr/5y), or rather the uppermost edge of it. In small boats the pegs (atcaicuoi, scalmi), between which the oars move, and to which they are fastened by a thong (rpo7'rcoi-p), were upon the rpadonfi. In all other vessels the oars passed through holes in the side of the vessel (600a2~uoi, r-pa.erea, or 7pvir/~uare). 4. The middle part of the deck in most ships of war appears to have been raised above the bulwark, or at least to a level with Rostra, Beaks of Ships. its upper edge, and thus enabled the soldiers NAI VIS. 223 to occupy a position from which they could nian trireme had on an average 170 rowers. see far around, and hurl their darts against the In a Roman quinquereme, during the first Puenemy. Such an elevated deck appears in the nic war, the average number of rowers was annexed cut, representing a IMfoneris. In this 300: in later times we even find as many as instancetheflagisstandinguponthehind-deck. 400. The lower part of the holes through which the oars passed, appears to have been covered with leather (eaiKcoua), which also } - extended a little way outside the hole. 2. The rudder. [GUBERNACULUM.] 3. Ladders (KlctuaKcidef, scalae). Each trireme had two wooden ladders. 4. Poles or punt poles (covroi, conti). Three of these belonged to every trireme, which were of different lengths. 5. -Parastatae (7rapaerrerat), or supports for the masts They seem to have been a kind of props placed at the foot of the mast. 6. The mast (jcrd, malus), and yards (Krepatat, antennae). A trireme had two masts, the smaller one of which was usually near,_. _ Mner ithe prow. The smaller or foremast was called ia-rbg ai&drtlog, the larger or mainmast Moneris. iT aro uiyaf. The mast-head was called car5. One of the most interesting, as well as chesiumz. [CARCHEsIUnm.] Respecting the important parts in the arrangements of the mode in which the yard was affixed to tlhe biremes, triremes, &c., is the position of the mast, see ANTENNA. ranks of rowers, from which the ships themselves derive their names. Various opinions have been entertained by those who have 1. Hypozomata (grroX6cara),were thick and written upon this subject. Thus much is broad ropes which ran in a horizontal direc certain, that the different ranks of rowers, tion around the ship from the stern to the who sat along the sides of a vessel, were prow, and were intended to keep the whole placed one above the other. In ordinary ves- fabric together. They ran round the vessel sels, from the moneris up to the quinquere- in several circles, and at certain distances mis, each oar was managed by one man. from one another. The Latin name for vSrr6The rowers sat upon little benches attached'ojcua is tormentun. Sometimes they were to the ribs of the vessel, and called i6X2uta, taken on board when a vessel sailed, and not and in Latin fori and transtra. The lowest put on till it was thought necessary. The row of rowers was called Oa'Xagog, the rowers act of putting them on was called mvrozovmvsthemselves 6a;aLc-rat or Oaudetuloo. The up- vat or dtaowvvvval, or'i3crat. A trireme repermost ordo of rowers was called OpdvoG, quired four v9rroj3,/ar \//S-S7 \ the people assembled in the city, the rex sacrorum announced (edicebat) to them the suc| _\ %..~:Add)~ cession of the festivals for the month. This >a\\'L///1 } part of his functions, however, must have ceased after the time of Cn. Flavius. He lived in a domus publica on the via sacra, near the regia and the house of the vestal virgins. -s I RHEDA or REDA, a travelling carriage with four wheels. Like the CovINus and the ESSEDUM it was of Gallic origin, and may Reticulum perhaps contain the same root as the German 274 ROMPHEA. ROSTRA. reiten and our ride. It was the common car- RORA'RII, a class of light-armed Roman riage used by the Romans for travelling, and soldiers, appear to have been originally slingwas frequently made large enough not only ers, and were taken from the fifth class of to contain many persons, but also baggage the Servian census. In later times the name and utensils of various kinds. The word was applied to the light-armed hastati, and Epirhedium, which was formed by the Ro- since this latter name supplanted that of romans from the Greek preposition Erri and the rarii, who, according to the later constitution Gallic rheda, is explained by the Scholiast on of the army, no longer existed in it in their Juvenal, as: " Ornamentum rhedarum aut original capacity, the rorarii are not mentionplaustrum." ed in later times. RHYTON (bv7r6v), a drinking-horn, (Kc- ROSTRA, or The Beaks, was the name paS). Its original form was probably the horn applied to the stage (suggestus) in the Forum, of the ox, but one end of it was afterwards from which the orators addressed the people. ornamented with the heads of various animals This stage was originally called templum, beand birds. cause it was consecrated by the augurs, but obtained its name of Rostra at the conclusion of the great Latin war, when it was adorned with the beaks (rostra) of the ships of the Antiates. The Greeks also mutilated galleys in the same way for the purpose of trophies: this was called by them ciKpwe7-p1i6ev. [AcROTERIUM.] The rostra lay between the Comitium or \it la i f p~lace of meeting for the curies, and the Forum or place of meeting for the tribes, so that the speaker might turn either to the one or the other; but down to the time of C. Gracchus, even the tribunes in speaking used to front ilhyta., Drinking-Horns. the Comitium; he first turned his back to it The Rhyton had a small opening at the bot- and spoke with his face towards the forum. tom, which the person who drank put into The rostra was a circular building, raised on his mouth, and allowed the wine to run in: arches, with a stand or platform on the top, hence it derived its name. bordered by a parapet; the access to it being RICA. [FLAMEN.] by two flights of steps, one on each side. It RICI'NIUM, an article of female dress, fronted towards the cornitium, and the rostra appears to have been a kind of mantle, with were affixed to the front of it, just under the a sort of cowl attached to it, in order to cover arches. Its form has been in all the main the head. The navortium, mavorte, or mayors points preserved in the ambones, or circular of later times was thought to be only another pulpits of the most ancient churches, which name for what had formerly been called rici- also had two flights of steps leading up to nium. them, one on the east side, by which the RINGS. [ANNULUS.] preacher ascended, and another on the west ROADS. [VIAE.] side, for his descent. The speaker was thus ROBIGA'LIA, a public festival in honour enabled to walk to and fro, while addressing of the god Robigus, to preserve the fields his audience. from mildew, is said to have been instituted The suggestus or rostra was transferred by by Numa, and was celebrated April 25th. Julius Caesar to a corner of the Forum, but The sacrifices offered on this occasion con- the spot where the ancient rostra had stood, sisted of the entrails of a dog and a sheep, still continued to be called Rostra Vetera, accompanied with frankincense and wine: a while the other was called Rostra Nova or prayer was presented by a flamen in the grove Rostra Julia. Both the rostra contained statof the ancient deity, whom Ovid and Colu- ues of illustrious men. The following cut mella make a goddess. A god Robigus or a contains representations of the rostra from goddess Robigo is a mere invention from the Roman coins, but they give little idea of their name of this festival, for the Romans paid no form. The one on the left hand is from a divine honours to evil deities. denarius of the Lollia gens, and is supposed ROGA'TIO. [Lsx, p. 189.] to represent the old rostra; and the one on ROGATO'RES. [COMITIA, p. 96.] the right is from a denarius of the Sulpicia ROGUS; [FuNUs, p. 162.] gens, and supposed to represent the new rosROMPHEA. [HAsTA.] tra. SACERDOS. 275 It also occurs that one and the same person AP \held two or three priestly offices at a time. Thus we find the three dignities of pontifex a maximus, augur, and decemvir sacrorum united in one individual. Bodily defects incapacitated a person at Rome, as among all ancient nations, from holding any priestly office. All priests were originally patricians, but from the year B. C. 367 the plebeians also began to take part in the sacerdotia [PLEBES]; aos~~t,~ and those priestly offices which down to the latest times remained in the hands of the ROSTRUM. [NAvIs, p. 222.] patricians alone, such as that of the rex saROTA [CURRUS.] crorum, the flamines, salii and others, had no ROWERS. [NAvIs, p. 223.] influence upon the affairs of the state. RUDDER. [GUBERNACULUM.I As regards the appointment of priests, the RUDIA'RII. [GLADIATORES.] ancients unanimously state, that at first they RUDIS. [GLADIATORES.] were appointed by the kings, but after the sacerdotia were once instituted, each college of priests —for nearly all priests constituted certain corporations called collegia-had the S. right of filling up, by co6ptatio, the vacancies which occurred. [PONTIFEX.] Other priests, SACELLUM is a diminutive of sacer, and on the contrary, such as the vestal virgins, signifies a small place consecrated to a god, and the flamines, were appointed (capiebantur) containing an altar, and sometimes also a by the pontifex maximus, a rule which apstatue of the god to whom it was dedicated, pears to have been observed down to the but it was without a roof. It was therefore latest times; others again, such as the duuma sacred inclosure surrounded by a fence or viri sacrorum, were elected by the people, or wall, and thus answered to the Greek 7repi- by the curiae, as the curiones. But in what-.8oxor. ever manner they were appointed, all priests SACERDOS, SACERDO'TIUM. As all after their appointment required to be inauthe different kinds of priests are treated of gurated by the pontiffs and the augurs, or by separately in this work, it is only necessary the latter alone. Those priests who formed here to make some general remarks. colleges had originally, as we have already In comparison with the civil magistrates, observed, the right of co6ptatio; but in the all priests at Rome were regarded as homines course of time they were deprived of this privati: though all of them as priests, were right, or at least the co6ptatio was reduced sacerdotes publici, in as far as their office to a mere form, by several leges, called leges (sacerdotium) was connected with any worship de sacerdotiis, such as the Lex Domitia, Correcognized by the state. The appellation of nelia, and Julia; their nature is described in sacerdos publicus was however given princi- the article PONTIFEX, and what is there said pally to the chief pontiff and the flamen dialis, in regard to the appointment of pontiffs apwho were at the same timne the only priests plies equally to all the other colleges. who were members of the senate by virtue of All priests had some external distinction, as their office. All priestly offices or sacerdotia the apex, tutulus, or galerus, the toga praewere held forlife, without responsibility to any texta, as well as honorary seats in theatres, civil magistrate. A priest was generally al- circuses, and amphitheatres. Most of the lowed to hold any other civil or military office priestly colleges possessed landed property, besides his priestly dignity; some priests how- and some priests had also a regular annual ever formed an exception, for the duumviri, salary (stipendium), which was paid to them the rex sacrorum, and the flamen dialis were from the public treasury. This is expressly not allowed to hold any state office, and were stated in regard to the vestal virgins, the aualsoexempt from service in the armies. Their gurs, and the curiones, and may therefore be priestly character was, generally speaking, supposed to have been the case with other inseparable from their person, as long as they priests also. The pontifex maximus, the rex lived: hence the augurs and fratres arvales sacrorum, and the vestal virgins had moreretained their character even when sent into over a domus publica as their place of resiexile, or when they were taken prisoners. dence. 276 SACRIFICIUM. SACRA. This word, in its widest sense, sons sacrificing their own children, or of perexpresses what we call divine worship. In sons devoting themselves to the gods of the ancient times, the state, as well as all its lower world. subdivisions, had their own peculiar forms of That the Romans also believed human sacworship, whence at Rome, we find sacra of rifices to be pleasing to the gods, might be the whole Roman people, of the curies, gentes, inferred from the story of Curtius and from families, and even of private individuals. All the self-sacrifice of the Decii. The symbolic these sacra, however, were divided into two sacrifice of human figures made of rushes at great classes, the public and private sacra the Lemuralia [LEMURALIA] also shows that (sacra publica et privata), that is, they were in the early history of Italy human sacrifices performed either on behalf of the whole na- were not uncommon. For another proof of tion, and at the expense of the state, or on be- this practice, see VER SACRUM. half of individuals, fatArlies, or gentes, which A second class of bloody sacrifices were had also to defray their expenses. This divi- those of animals of various kinds, according sion is ascribed to Numa. All sacra, publica to the niature and character of the divinity. as well as privata, were superintended and The sacrifices of animals were the most comregulated by the pontiffs. mon among the Greeks and Romans. The SACRAMENTUM,themilitaryoathwhich victim was called lepezov, and in Latin hostia was administered in the following manner: or victima. In the early times it appears to each tribunus militum assembled his legion, have been the general custom to burn the and picked out one of the men, to whom he put whole victim (6boKavrerv) upon the altars of the oath, that he would obey the commands the gods, and the same was in some cases of his generals, and execute them punctually. also observed in later times. But as early as The other men then came forward, one after the time of Homer it was the almost general another, and repeated the same oath, saying practice to burn only the legs (lZqpoi, Ir/pia, that they would do like the first. j/npa) enclosed in fat, and certain parts of the SACRA'RIUM, was any place in which sa- intestines, while the remaining parts of the cred things were deposited and kept, whether victim were consumed by men at a festive this place was a part of a temple or of a pri- meal. The gods delighted chiefly in the vate house. smoke arising from the burning victims, and SACRIFICES. [SACRIFICIUM.] the greater the number of victims, the more SACRIFI'CIUM (iepeZov), asacrifice. Sac- pleasing was the sacrifice. Hence it was not rifices or offerings formed the chief part of the uncommon to offer a sacrifice of one hundred worship of the ancients. They were partly bulls (/ca-6p1t7) at once, though it must not signs of gratitude, partly a means of propitia- be supposed that a hecatomb always signifies ting the gods, and partly also intended to in- a sacrifice of a hundred bulls, for the name duce the deity to bestow some favour upon was used in a general way to designate any the sacrificer, or upon those on whose behalf great sacrifice. Such great sacrifices were the sacrifice was offered. Sacrifices in a not less pleasing to men than to the gods, for wider sense would also embrace the DONARIA; in regard to the former they were in reality a in a narrower sense sacrificia were things donation of meat. Hence at Athens the paroffered to the gods, which merely afforded tiality for such sacrifices rose to the highest momentary gratification, and which were degree. The animals which were sacrificed burnt upon their altars, or were believed to were mostly of the domestic kind, as bulls, be consumed by the gods. All sacrifices may cows, sheep, rams, lambs, goats, pigs, dogs, be divided into bloody sacrifices and unbloody and horses; and each god had his'favourite sacrifices. animals which he liked best as sacrifices. Bloody sacrifices. In the early times of The head of the victim, before it was killed, Greece we find mention of human sacrifices, was in most cases strewed with roasted barley but with a few exceptions these had ceased meal (oibX6Xvra or o6boXtrat) mixed with in the historical ages. Owing to the in- salt (mola salsa). The persons who offered fluence of civilization, in many cases animals the sacrifice wore generally garlands round were substituted for hurnan beings; in others, their heads, and sometimes also carried them a few drops of human blood were thought in their hands, and before they touched anynufficient to propitiate the gods. The cus- thing belonging to the sacrifice they washed tom or sacrificing human life to the gods arose their hands in water. The victim itself was from the belief that the nobler the sacrifice likewise adorned with garlands, and its horns and the dearer to its possessor, the more were sometimes gilt. Before the animalwas pleasing it would be to the gods. Hence the killed, a bunch of hair was cut from its forefrequent instances in Grecian story of per- head, and thrown into the fire as primitiae SACRIFICIUM. SAGUM. 277 (Karp7dpo:eatl). In the heroic ages the princes, accompanied bloody sacrifices, but it was also as the high priests of their people, killed the burned as an offering for itself. victim; in later times this was done by the A third class of unbloody sacrifices consisted priests themselves. When the sacrifice was of fruit and cakes. The former were mostly to be offered to the Olympic gods, the head offered to the gods as primitiae or tithes of of the animal was drawn heavenward; when the harvest, and as a signof gratitude. They to the gods of the lower world, to heroes, or were sometimes offered in their natural state, to the dead, it was drawn downwards. While sometimes also adorned or prepared in various the flesh was burning upon the altar, wine ways. Cakes were peculiar to the worship and incense were thrown upon it, and prayers of certain deities, as to that of Apollo. They and music accompanied the solemnity. were either simple cakes of flour, sometimes The most common animal sacrifices at also of wax, or they were made in the shape Rome were the suovetaurilia, or solitaurilia, of some animal, and were then offered as consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox. They symbolical sacrifices in the place of real aniwere performed in all cases of a lustration, mals, either because they could not easily be and the victims were carried around the thing procured, or were too expensive for the sacrito be lustrated, whether it was a city, a peo- ficer. ple, or a piece of land. [LUSTRATIO.] The SACRILE'GIUM, the crime of stealing Greek trittya (7rptrT.a), which likewise con- things consecrated to the gods, or things desisted of an ox, a sheep, and a pig, was the posited in a consecrated place. A lex Julia same sacrifice as the Roman suovetaurilia. appears to have placed the crime of sacrileThe customs observed before and during the gium on an equality with peculatus. [PEcusacrifice of an animal were on the whole the LATUS.] same as those observed in Greece. But the SAE'CULUM was, according to the calvictim was in most cases not killed by the culation of the Etruscans, which was adopted priests who conducted the sacrifice, but by a by the Romans, a space of time containing person called popa, who struck the animal 110 lunar years. The return of each saecuwith a hammer before the knife was used. lum at Rome was announced by the pontiffs, The better parts of the intestines (exta) were who also made the necessary intercalations strewed with barley meal, wine, and incense, in such a manner, that at the commencement and were burnt upon the altar. Those parts of a new saeculum the beginning of the ten of the animal which were burnt were called months' year, of the twelve months' year, and prosecta, prosiciae, or ablegmina. When a sac- of the solar year coincided. But in these arrifice was offered to gods of rivers, or of the rangements the greatest caprice and irregusea, these parts were not burnt, but thrown larity appear to have prevailed at Rome, as into the water. Respecting the use which may be seen from the unequal intervals at the ancients made of sacrifices to learn the which the ludi saeculares were celebrated. will of the gods, see HARUSPEX and DIvI- [LUDI SAECULARES.] This also accounts NATIO. for the various ways ill which a saeculum Unbloody Sacrifices. Among these we may was defined by the ancients; some believed first mention the libations (libationes, XoLga~i that it contained thirty, and others that it or airovdai). Bloody sacrifices were usually contained a hundred years: the latter opinion accompanied by libations, as wine was poured appears to have been the most common in upon them. The wine was usually poured later times, so that saeculum answered to out in three separate streams. Libations al- our century. ways accompanied a sacrifice which was of- SAGITTA'RII. [ARcus.] fered in concluding a treaty with a foreign SA'GMINA, were the same as the sverbenae, nation, and that here they formed a promi- namely, herbs torn up by their roots from nent part of the solemnity, is clear from the within the inclosure of the Capitoline, which fact that the treaty itself was called arrovdai. were always carried by the Fetiales or amBut libations were also made independent of bassadors, when they went to a foreign peoany other sacrifice, as in solemn prayers, and ple to demand restitution for wrongs conlmiton many other occasions of public and private ted against the Romans, or to make a treaty. life, as before drinking at meals, and the like. [FETIALES.] They served to mark the saLibations usually consisted of unmixed wine cred character of the ambassadors, and an(yvawrovJor, merum), but sometimes also of swered the same purpose as the Greek Kcp'vmilk, honey, and other fluids, either pure or cetla. diluted with water. The libations offered to SAGUM, the cloak worn by the Roman the Furies were always without wine. In- soldiers and inferior officers, in contradistinccense was likewise an offering which usually tion to the paludamentum of the general and Aa 278 SALII. SALTATIO. superior officers. [PALUDAMENTUM.] It is hill, whence these priests were sometimes used in opposition to the toga or garb of peace, called Salii Palatini, to distinguish them from and we accordingly find, that when there was the other Salii mentioned below. The disa war in Italy, all citizens put on the sagum tinguishing dress of the Salii was an embroideven in the city, with the exception of those ered tunic bound with a brazen belt, the traof consular rank (saga sumere, ad saga ire, in bea, and the apex, also worn by the Flamines. sagis esse). [APEX.] Each had a sword by his side, and The sagum was open in the front, and usu- in his right hand a spear or staff. ally fastened across the shoulders by a clasp: The festival of Mars was celebrated by the it resembled in form the paludamentum (see Salii on the 1st of March and for several succut, p. 238). The cloak worn by the general cessive days; on which occasion they were and superior officers is sometimes called sa- accustomed to go through the city in their gum, but the diminutive sagulum is more corn- official dress, carrying the ancilia in their monly used in such cases. left hands or suspended from their shoulders, The cloak worn by the northern nations of and at the same time singing and dancing, Europe is also called sagum: see cut, p. 54, whence comes their name. The songs or where three Sarmatians are represented with hymns which they sang on this occasion were saga. The German sagum is mentioned by called Asamenta, Assamerta or Axamenta, and Tacitus. were chiefly in praise of Mamurius Veturius, SAILS. [NAVIS, p. 223.] generally said to be the armourer, who made SALAMI'NIA (oaZaultvia). The Athe- eleven ancilia like the one that was sent from nians from very early times kept for public heaven [ANCILE], though some modern wripurposes two sacred or state vessels, the one ters suppose it to be merely another name of of which was called Paralos (7rdipaeoC), and Mars. The praises of the gods were also the other Salaminia (aaAa/ivia). The latter celebrated in the songs of the Salii. In later was also called Delia (drj2ia) or Theoris (eow- times, these songs were scarcely understood pi-), because it was used to convey the theori even by the priests themselves. (Oecpoi) to Delos, on which occasion the ship At the conclusion of the festival the Salii was adorned with garlands by the priest of were accustomed to partake of a splendid enApollo. Both these vessels were quick-sail- tertainment in the temple of Mars, which ing triremes, and were used for a variety of was proverbial for its excellence. The memstate-purposes: they conveyed theories, de- bers of the collegium were elected by coopspatches, &c. from Athens, carried treasures tation. We read of the dignities of praesul, from subject countries to Athens, fetched vates, and magister in the collegium. state-criminals from foreign parts to Athens, Tullus Hostilius established another colleand the like. In battles they were frequently giurn of Salii, in fulfilment of a vow which used as the ships in which the admirals sailed. he made in a war with the Sabilnes. These These vessels and their crew were always Salii were also twelve in number, chosen kept in readiness to act, in case of any neces- from the patricians, and appear to have been sity arising; and the crew, although they dedicated to the service of Quirinus. They could not for the greater part of the year be were called the Salii Collini, Agonales or in actual service, received their regular pay Agonenses. It is supposed that the oldest of four oboli per day all the year rouud. The and most illustrious college, the Palatine Sanames of the two ships seem to point to a lii, were chosen originally from the oldest very early period of the history of Attica, tribe, the Ramnes, and the one instituted by when there was no navigation except between Tullus Hostilius, or the Quirinalian, from the Attica and Salamis, for which the Salaminia Tities alone: a third college for the Luceres was used, and around the coast of Attica, for was never established. which purpose the Paralos was destined. In SALT-WORKS. [VECTIGALIA.] later times the names were retained, although SALI'NUM, a salt-cellar. All Romans the ships were then principally destined to who were raised above poverty had one of silserve the purposes of religion, whence they ver, which descended from father to son, and are frequently called the sacred ships. was accompanied by a silver plate, which was SA'LII, priests of Mars Gradivus, said to used together with the salt-cellar in the dohave been instituted by Numa. They were mestic sacrifices. [PATERA.] These two artwelve in number, chosen from the patricians tides of silver were alone compatible with the even in the latest times, and formed an ec- simplicity of Roman mannersin the early times clesiastical corporation. They had the care of the republic. of the twelve Ancilia [ANcILE], which were SALTA'TIO (6PXaetf, 6pX(ya'rn), danckept in the temple of Mars on the Palatine ing. The dancing of the Greeks as well a's SALTATIO. 279 of the Romans had very little in common entertain a company. It was also performed with the exercise which goes by that name in at Athens at the greater and lesser Panathemodern times. It may be divided into two kinds, gymnastic and mimetic; that is, it was intended either to represent bodily activity, or to express by gestures, movements, and attitudes, certain ideas or feelings, and also single events or a series of events, as in the modern ballet. All these movements, how- l __ ever, were accompanied by music but the terms 6pqatCr arid saltatio were used in so much wider a sense than our word dancing, Corybantian Dance. that they were applied to designate gestures, naea by ephebi, who were called Pyrrhichists even when the body did not move at all. (trvbtXtcrai) and were trained at the expense We find dancing prevalent among the ofthechoragus. In the mountainous parts of Greeks from the earliest times. It was origi- Thessaly and Macedon dances are performed nally closely connected with religion. In all at the present day by men armed with musthe public festivals, which were so numerous kets and swords. among the Greeks, dancing formed a very The following cut represents three Pyrrhiprominent part. We find from the earliest chists, two of whom with shield and sword times that the worship of Apollo was connect- are engaged in the dance, while the third is ed with a religious dance, called Hyporchema standing with a sword. Above them is a fe('icr6pX7u/a). All the religious dances, with male balancing herself on the head of one, ana thwe~fxception o~ft the Bacchic and the Coryban- apparently in the act of performing a somerset; tian, were very simple, and consisted of gentle she no doubt is taking part in the dance, and movements of the body, with various turnings performing a very artistic kind of tumbling and windings around the altar; such a dance (Kviar —); for the Greek performances of was the Geranus (ygpavog), which Theseus is this kind surpass any thing we can imagine in said to have performed at Delos on his return modern times. Her danger is increased by from Crete. The Dionysiac or Bacchic, and the person below, who holds a sword pointing the Corybantian, were of a very different na- towards her. A female spectator sitting looks ture. In the former, the life and adventures on astonished at the exhibition. of the god were represented by mimetic dancing [DIONYSIA]. The Corybantian was of a very wild character: it was chiefly danced in Phrygia and in Crete; the dancers were armed, struck their swords against their shields, and displayed the most extravagant fury; it was 7 - accompanied chiefly by the flute. Respecting the dances in the theatre, see CHORUS. Dancing was applied to gymnastic purposes and to training for war, especially in the Doric S A states, and was believed to have contributed //'. very much to the success of the Dorians in war, as it enabled them to perform their evolutions simultaneously and in order. There were various dances in early times, which served as a preparation for war; hence / - Homer calls the Hoplites 7rpvte~f, a wardance having been called 7rp;tCl, by the Cre- / tans. Of such dances the most celebrated was the Pyrrhic (/ i-rvj /ipXy), of which the -rpv9Xtf was probably only another name. Ithic Dan was danced to the sound of the flute, and its Pyrr ce time was very quick and light, as is shown by The Pyrrhic dance was introduced in the the name of the Pyrrhic foot ("), which must public games at Rome by Julius Caesar, when be connected with this dance. In the non- it was danced by the children of the leading Doric states it was probably not practised as a men in Asia and Bithynia. training for war, but only as a mimetic dance: There were other dances, besides the Pyrthus we read of its being danced by women to rhic, in which the performers had arms, but 280 SALTATIO. SANDALIUM. these seem to have been entirely mimetic, and ful for any freeman to dance. The mimnetic not practised with any view to training for war. dances of the Romans, which were carried to Such was the Carpaea (Kaporaia) peculiar to such perfection under the empire, are dethe Aenianians and Magnetes, and described scribed under PANTOMIMUS. The dancers on by Xenophon in the Anabasis. Such dances the tight-rope (funambuli) under the empire were frequently performed at banquets for the were as skilful as they are in the present day. entertainment of the guests: where also the SALUTATO'RES, the name given in the tumblers (Kv/3tarjper) were often introduced, later times of the republic, and under the emwho in the course of their dance flung them- pire, to a class of men who obtained their selves on their head and alighted again upon living by visiting the houses of the wealthy' their feet. These tumblers were also accus- early in the morning, to pay their respects to tomed to make their somersets over knives them (salutare), and to accompany them when and swords, which was called Kv3tardv eir they went abroad. This arose from the visits Iuaxatpag. We learn from Tacitus that the which the clients were accustomed to pay to German youths also used to dance among their patrons, and degenerated in later times swords and spears pointed at them. into the above mentioned practice: such persons seem to have obtained a good living 0). ^ H o among the great number of wealthy and vain persons at Rome, who were gratified by this attention. [SPORTULA.] SAMBUCA (caau/Kq7), a harp, was of oriental origin. The performances of sam\ rcistriae (aauJ3vtKtarptat) were only known to the early REiomans as luxuries brought ovei from Asia. Tumbler. Other kinds of dances were frequently performed at entertainments, in Rome as well as in Greece, by courtezans, many of which were of a very indecent and lascivious nature. Among the dances performed without arms one of the most important was the Hormos n (mpop0), which was danced at Sparta by youths and maidens together: the youth danced first some movements suited to his age, and of a military nature: the maiden followed in measured steps and with feminine gestures. Another common dance at Sparta was the bibasis Sambuca was also the name of a military (flipamrf), in which the dancer sprang rapidly engine, used to scale the walls and towers of from the ground and struck the feet behind. besieged cities. It was called by this name Dancing was common among the Romans on account of its general resemblance to the in ancient times, in connection with religious form of the harp. festivals and rites,because the ancients thought SAMNITES. [GLADIATORES, p. 168.] that no part of the body should be free from SANDA'LIUM (cavda'Xtov or acivdaXov) the influence of religion. The dances of the a kind of shoe worn only by women. The Salii, which were performed by men of patri- sandalium must be distinguished from the cian families, are described elsewhere. [AN- hypodema (i7rod6yla), which was a simple sole CILE.] Danlcing, however, was not performed bound under the foot, whereas the sandalium by any Roman citizens except in connection was a sole with a piece of leather covering with religion, and it was considered disgrace- the toes, so that it formed the transition from SATURNALIA. SCEPTRUM. 281 the hypodema to real shoes. The piece of cestors the most rigid were wont to counteleather over the toes was called 5vy6f or nance card-playing on Christmas-eve; the (vy6v. whole population threw off the toga, wore SANDAPILA. [FUNus, p. 162.] a loose gown, called synthesis, and walked SARCO'PHAGUS. [FuNus, p. 162.] about with the pileus on their heads, which SARISSA. [HAsTA.] reminds us of the dominos, the peaked caps, SARRA'CUM, a kind of common cart or and other disguises worn by masques and waggon, which was used by the country-peo- mummers; the cerei were probably employed ple of Italy for conveying the produce of their as the moccoli now are on the last night of the fields, trees, and the like, from one place to Carnival; and lastly, one of the amusements another. in private society was the election of a mock SA'TURA, the root of which is sat, lit- king, which at once calls to recollection the erally means a mixture of all sorts of things. characteristic ceremony of Twelfth-night. The name was accordingly applied by the During the republic, although the whole Romans in many ways, but always to things month of December was considered as dediconsisting of various parts or ingredients, cated to Saturn, only one day, the xiv. Kal. e. g. lanx satura, an offering consisting of va- Jan. was set apart for the sacred rites of the rious fruits, such as were offered at harvest divinity. When the month was lengthened festivals and to Ceres; lex per saturam lata, a by the addition of two days upon the adoplaw which contained several distinct regula- tion of the Julian Calendar, the Saturnalia tions at once; and to a species of poetry, after- fell on the xvi. Kal. Jan., which gave rise to wards called Satira. confusion and mistakes among the more ignoSATURNA'LIA, the festival of Saturnus, rant portion of the people. To obviate this to whom the inhabitants of Latium attributed inconvenience, and allay all religious scruples, tile introduction of agriculture and the arts of Augustus enacted that three whole days, the civilized life. Falling towards the end of 17th, 18th, and 19th of December, should in December, at the season when the agricultural all time coming be hallowed, thus embracing labours of the year were fully completed, it both the old and new style. was celebrated in ancient times by the rustic Under the empire the merry-making lasted population as a sort of joyous harvest-home, for seven days, and three different festivals and in every age was viewed by all classes of were celebrated during this period. First the community as a period of absolute relaxa- came the Saturnalia proper, commencing on tion and unrestrained merriment. During xvi. Kal. Jan., followed by the Opalia, anits continuance no public business could be ciently coincident with the Saturnalia, on transacted, the law courts were closed, the xiv. Kal. Jan.; these two together lasted for schools kept holiday, to commence a war five days, and the sixth and seventh were ocwas impious, to punish a malefactor involved cupied with the Sigillaria, so called from pollution. Special indulgences were granted little earthenware figures (sigilla, oscilla) exto the slaves of each domestic establishment; posed for sale at this season, and given as they were relieved from all ordinary toils, toys to children. were permitted to wear the pileus, the badge SCALES. [LIBRA.] of freedom, were granted full freedom of SCENA. [THEATRUM.] speech, and partook of a banquet attired in SCEPTRUM (aKi 7rTpov), which originally the clothes of their masters, and were waited denoted a simple staff or walking-stick, was upon by them at table. emblematic of station and authority. In anAll ranks devoted themselves to feasting cient authors the sceptre is represented as and mirth, presents were interchanged among belonging more especially to kings, princes, friends, cerei or wax tapers being the common and leaders of tribes: but it is also borne by offering of the more humble to their superiors, judges, by heralds, and by priests and seers. and crowds thronged the streets, shouting, Io The sceptre descended from father to son, Saturnalia (this was termed clamare Saturn- and might be committed to any one in order alia), while sacrifices were offered with un- to express the transfer of authority. Those covered head, from a conviction that no ill- who bore the sceptre swore by it, solemnly omened sight would interrupt the rites of taking it in the right hand and raising it tosuch a happy day. Many of the peculiar wards heaven. customs of this festival exhibit a remarkable The following cut, representing Aeneas folresemblance to the sports of our own Christ- lowed by Ascanius and carrying off his father mas and of the Italian Carnival. Thus on Anchises, who holds the sceptre in his right the Saturnalia public gambling was allowed hand, shows its form as worn by kings. The by the aediles, Just as in the days of our an- ivory sceptre of the kings of Rome, which AA2 282 SCRIBAE. SCUTUM. descended to the consuls, was surmounted by gratitude for his making public the various an eagle. forms of actions, which had previously been the exclusive property of the patricians [AcTIO]; but the returning officer refused to acquiesce in his election till he had given up his books and left his profession. SCRI'NIUM. [CAPsA.] SCRIPTA DUO'DECIM. [LATRUNCULI.] 1?a/ TV t /J%/9X\\.SCRIPTU'RA, that part of the revenue of the Roman republic which was derived from letting out, as pasture land, those portions of the ager publicus which were not taken into cultivation. The names for such parts of the ager publicus were, pascua pubhica, saltus, or silvae. They were let by the censors to the publicani, like all other vectigalia; and the Ipersons who sent their cattle to graze on such public pastures had to pay a certain tax or duty to the publicani, which of course varied according to the number and quality of the cattle which they kept upon them. The publicani had to keep the list of persons who' sent their cattle upon the public pastures, to"'_ eptrum. gether with the number and quality of the Sceptrum. cattle. From this registering (scribere) the SCHOENUS (6, 4, aXoZvoC), an Egyptian duty itself was called scriptura, the public and Persian measure, the length of which is pasture land, ager scripturarius, and the publistated by Herodotus at 60 stadia, or 2 para- cani, or their agents who raised the tax, scripsangs. It Was used especially for measuring turarii. The Lex Thoria (B. c. 111) did away land. with the scriptura in Italy, where the public SCO'RPIO. [TORMENTUM.] pastures were very numerous and extensive, SCRIBAE, public notaries or clerks, in especially inApulia, and the lands themselves the pay of the Roman state. They were were now sold or distributed. In the provchiefly employed in making up the public ac- inces, where the public pastures were also counts, copying out -laws, and recording the let out in the same manner, the practice conproceedings of the different functionaries of tinued until the time of the empire; but the state. The phrase scriptum facere was afterwards the scriptura is no longer menused to denote their occupation. Being very tioned. numerous, they were divided into companies SCRU'PULUM, or more properly ScRIPUor classes (decuriae), and were assigned by lot LUM or SCRIPLUM (ypcija), the smallest deto different magistrates, whence they were nomination of weight among the Romans. It named Quaestorii, Aedilicii, or Praetorii, from was the 24th part of the UNCIA, or the 288th the officers of state to whom they were at- of the LIBRA, and therefore- 18.06 grains tached. The appointment to the office of a English, which is about the average weight " scriba" seems to have been either made on of the scrupular aurei still in existence. [Authe nomination of a magistrate, or purchased. RUM.] Horace, for instance, bought for himself a As a square measure, it was the smallest "patent place as clerk in the treasury" (scrip- division of the jugerum, which contained 288 tumrn quaestorium comparavit). In Cicero's time, scrupula. [JUGERUM.] indeed, it seems that any one might become SCUTUM (Ovpe6c), the Roman shield, a scriba or public clerk, by purchase, and worn by the heavy-armed infantry, instead of consequently, as freedmen and their sons being round, like the Greek CLIPEUS, was were eligible, and constituted a great portion adapted to the form of the human body, by of the public clerks at Rome, the office was being made either oval or of the shape of a not highly esteemed, though frequently held door (Oipa), which it also resembled in being by ingenui or freeborn citizens. Very few made of wood or wicker-work, and from which instances are recorded of the scribae being consequently its Greek name was derived. raised to the higher dignities of the state. Its form is shown in the following cut. PoCn. Flavius, the scribe of Appius Claudius, lybius says that the dimensions of the scutum was raised to the office of curule aedile in were 4 feet by 2j. SELLA. 283 (*-.. chair of any description. 1. SELLA CURULIS, the chair of state. Curulis is derived by the ancient writers from currus, but it more probably contains the same root as curia. The sella curulis is said to have been used at 7< i\K ) Rome from a very remote period as an emblem of kingly power, having been imported, along with various other insignia of royalty, j (K02,At8(Xi;&\. t~from Etruria. Under the republic the right of sitting upon this chair belonged to the consuls, praetors, curule aediles, and censors; to the flamen dialis; to the dictator, and to those whom he deputed to act under himself as the magister equitum, since he might be said to comprehend all magistracies within himself. After the downfall of the constitution, it was assigned to the emperors also, or to their statues in their absence; to the augustales, and, perhaps, to the praefectus urbi. It was displayed upon all great public occasions, especially in the circus and theatre; Scuta, Shieldn. and it was the seat of the praetor when he SCY'TALE (aKmvrda) is the name applied administered justice. In the provinces it was to a secret mode of writing, by which the assumed by inferior magistrates, when they Spartan ephorscommunicatedwith their kings exercised proconsular or propraetorian auand generals when abroad. When a king or thority. We find it occasionally exhibited general left Sparta, the ephors gave to him a on the medals of foreign monarchs likewise, staff of a definite length and thickness, and for it was the practice of the Romans to preretained for themselves another of precisely sent a curule chair, an ivory sceptre, a toga the same size. When they had any cominu- praetexta, and such like ornaments, as tokens nications to make to him, they cut the mate- of respect and confidence to those rulers rial upon which they intended to write into whose friendship they desired to cultivate. the shape of a narrow riband, wound it round The sella curulis appears from the first to their staff, and then wrote upon it the mes- have been ornamented with ivory; and at a sage which they had to send to nim. When later period it was overlaid with gold. In the strip of writing material was taken from shape it was extremely plain, closely resemthe staff, nothing but single letters appeared, blingacommon folding camp-stool with crookand in this state the strip was sent to the ed legs. The form of the sella curulis, as it general, who after having wound it round is commonly represented upon the denarii of his staff, was able to read the communication. the Roman families, is given in p. 151. In SE'CTIO, the sale of a man's property by the following cut are represented two pair of the state (publice). This was done in consequence of a condemnatio, and for the purpose of repayment to the state of such sums of i money as the condemned person had improp-'.,W erly appropriated; or in consequence of a proscriptio. Sometimes the things sold were called sectio. Those who bought the property were called sectores. The property was sold sub hasta. SECTOR. [SECTIO.] SECU'RIS (ad'ivn, 7rXEKcv), an axe or r hatchet. The axe was either made with a single edge, or with a blade or head on each side of the haft, the latter kind being denominated bipennis. The axe wasused as a weap-,n1 of war chiefly by the Asiatic nations. It ivas a part of the Roman fasces. [FASCES.] SECUTO'RES. [GLADIATORES, p. 168.] SELLA, the general term for a seat or Selae Curuee. 281 SELLA. SENATUS. bronze legs, belonging to a sella curulis, and seen represented in ancient frescoes, many likewise a sella curulis itself. displaying great taste. 2. BISELLIUM. Thewordisfoundinnoclas- The first of the following cuts represents a sical author except Varro, according to whom bronze chair from the museum of Naples; it means a seat large enough to contain two the second two chairs, of which the one on persons. Two bronze bissellia were discov- the right hand is in the Vatican, and the other ered at Pompeii, and thus all uncertainty is taken from a painting at Pompeii. with regard to the form of the seat has been removed. One of these is here represented. -. —-- -e Bronze Chair. Bisellium. 3. SELLA GESTATORIA, Or FERTORIA, a se- dan used both in town and country, and by Sellae, Chairs. men as well as by women. It is expressly distinguished from the LECTICA, a portable SEMIS, SEMISSIS. [As.] bed or sofa, in which the person carried lay SEMU'NCIA. [UNCIA.] in a recumbent position, while the sella was SEMUNCIA'RIUM FENUS. [FENUS.] a portable chair, in which the occupant sat SENATE, Athenian [BOULE], Spartan upright. It differed from the cathedra also, [GEROUSIA], Roman [SENATUS]. but in what the difference consisted, it is not SENA'TUS. In all the republics of an. easy to determine. [CATHEDRA.] It ap- tiquity the government was divided between pears not to have been introduced until long a senate and a popular assembly; and in after the lectica was common, since we cases where a king stood at the head of afscarcely, if ever, find any allusion to it until fairs, as at Sparta and in early Rome, the the period of the empire. The sella was king had little more than the executive. A sometimes entirely open, but more frequently senate in the early times was always regardshut in. It was made sormetimes of plain ed as an assembly of elders, which is in fact leather, and sometimes ornamented with the meaning of the Roman senatus, as of the bone, ivory, silver, or gold, according to the Spartan (yepovcia), and its members were fortune of the proprietor. It was furnished elected from among the nobles of the nation. with a pillow to support the head and neck The number of senators in the ancient re(cervical): the motion was so easy that one publics always bore a distinct relation to the mnight study without inconvenience, while at number of tribes of which the nation was the same time it afforded a healthful ex- composed. [BOULE; GEROUSIA.] Hence in ercise. the earliest times, when Rome consisted of 4. Chairs for ordinary domestic purposes only one tribe, its senate consisted of one have been discovered in excavations, or are hundred members (senatores or patres; com SENATUS. 285 pare PATRIcn), and whenl the Sabine tribe among the decem primi was the princeps senor the Titles became unif(',t with the Latin atus, who was appointed by the king, and tribe or the Ramnes, the number of sena- was at the same time custos urbis. [PRAEtors was increased to twoa hundred. This FECTUS URBI.] Respecting the age at which number was again augme!nted to three hun- a person might be elected into the senate dred by Tarquinius Prlscus, when the third during the kingly period, we know no more tribe or the Luceres became incorporated with than what is indicated by the name senator the Roman state. The new senators added itself, that is, that they were persons of adby Tarquinius Priscus were distinguished fron vanced age. those belonging to the two older tribes by the Soon after the establishment of the repubappellation patres rrdinorum gentium, as pre- lic, though at what time is uncertain, the viously those who represented the'Tities had right of appointing senators passed from the been distinguished, by the same name. from gentes into the hands of the consuls, consular those who represented the Ramnes. Under tribunes, and subsequently of the censors. At Tarquinius Superbus the number of senators the same time, the right which the magisis said to have become very much diminish- trates possessed of electing senators was by ed, as he is reported to have put many to no means an arbitrary power, for the senators death and sent others in exile. This account were usually taken from among those whorn however appears to be greatly exaggerated, the people had previously invested with a ap(l it is probable that several vacancies in magistracy, so that in reality the people the senate arose from many of the senators themselves always nominated the candidates accompanying the tyrant into his exile. The for the senate, which on this account revacancies which had thus arisen were filled mained, as before, a representative assembly. up immediately after the establishment of After the institution of the censorship, the the republic, when several noble plebeians of censors alone had the right of introducing equestrian rank were made senators. These new members into the senate from among new senators were distinguished from the the ex-magistrates, and of excluding such as old ones by the name of Conscripti; and they deemed unworthy. [CENSOR.] The hence the customary mode of addressing the exclusion was affected by simply passing over whole senate henceforth always was: Patres their names, and not entering them on the Conscripti, that is, Patres et Conscripti. lists of senators, whence such men were callThe number of 300 senators appears to ed Praeteriti Senatores. On one extraordinary have remained unaltered for several centuries. occasion the eldest among the ex-censors T'he first permanent increase to their number was invested with dictatorial power for the was made by Sulla, and the senate seems purpose of filling up vacancies in the senate. henceforth to have consisted of between five As all curule magistrates, and also the and six hundred. Julius Caesar augmented quaestors, had by virtue of their office a seat the number to 900, and raised to this dignity in the senate, even if they had not been electeven common soldiers, freedmen, and pere- ed senators, we must distinguish between grini. Augustus cleared the senate of the two classes of senators, viz., real senators, or unworthy members, who were contemptu- such as had been regularly raised to their pusly called by the people Orcini senatores, dignity by the magistrates or the censors, and reduced its number to 600. and such as had, by virtue of the office which In the time of the kings the senate was they held or had held, a right to take their probably elected by the gentes, each gens ap- seat in the senate and to speak (sententiam pointing one member as its representative; dicere, jus sententiae), but not to vote. To this and as there were 300 gentes, there were ordo senatorius also belonged the pontifex consequently 300 senators. The whole sen- maximus and the flamen dialis. Though ate was divided into decuries, each of which these senators had no right to vote, they corresponded to a curia. When the, senate might, when the real senators had voted, step consisted of only one hundred members, there over or join the one or the other party, whence were accordingly only ten decuries of sena- they were called Senatores Pedarii, an appeltors; and ten senators, one being taken from lation which had in former times been applied each decury, formed the Decem Primi, who to those juniores who were not consulars. represented the ten curies. Whenl subse. When at length all the state offices had bequently the representatives of the two other come equally accessible to the plebeians and tribes were admitted into the senate, the the patricians, and when the majority of offices Ramnes with their decem primi retained for were held by the former, their number in the a timhe their superiority over the two other senate naturally increased in proportion. The tribes and gave their votes first. The first senate had gradually become an assembly rep 286 SENATUS. resenting the people, as formerly it had repre- sufficiently large to convey to Rome the pro. sented the populus, and down to the last cen- duce of their estates abroad. It is clear, how. tury of the republic the senatorial dignity was ever, that this law was frequently violated. only regarded as one conferred by the people. Regular meetings of the senate (senatus leBut notwithstanding this apparently popular gitimus) took place during the republic, and character of tne senate, it was never a popu- probably during the kingly period also, on the lar or a democratic assembly, for now its mem- calends, nones, and ides of every month: exbers belonged to the nobiles, who were as traordinary meetings (senatus indictus) might aristocratic as the patricians. [NovI HoMI- be convoked on any other day, with the exNEs.] The office of princeps senatus, which ception of those which were atri, and those had become independent of that of praetor ur- on which comitia were held. The right of banus, was now given by the censors, and at convoking the senate during the kingly period first always to the eldest among the ex-cen- belonged to the king or to his vicegerent, the'sors, but afterwards to any other senator custos urbis. This right was during the rewhom they thought most worthy; and unless public transferred-to the curule magistrates, there was any charge to be made against him, and at last to the tribunes also., If a senator he was re-elected at the next lustrum. This did not appear on a day of meeting, he was distinction, however, great as it was, afforded liable to a fine, for which a pledge was taken neither power nor advantages, and did not (pignoris captio) until it was paid. Towards even confer the privilege of presiding at the the end of the republic it was decreed, that meetings of the senate, which only belonged during the whole month of February the sento those magistrates who had the right of con- ate should give audience to foreign ambassavoking the senate. dors on all days on which the senate could During the republican period no senatorial lawfully meet, and that no other matters census existed, although senators naturally should be discussed until these affairs were always belonged to the wealthiest classes. settled. The institution of a census for senators be- The places where the meetings of the senlongs to the time of the empire. Augustus ate were held (curiae, senacula) were alwavs first fixed it at 400,000 sesterces, afterwards inauguratedbythe augurs. [TEMPLUM.] The increased it to double this sum, and at last most ancient place was the Curia Hostilia, in even to 1,200,000 sesterces. Those senators which alone originally a senatus-consultum whose property did not amount to this sum re- could be made. Afterwards, however, several ceived grants from the emperor to make it up. temples were used for this purpose, such as As regards the age at which a person might the temple of Concordia, a place near the tembecome a senator, we have no express state- ple of Bellona [LEGATUS], and one near the ment for the time of the republic, although it porta Capena. Under the emperors the senappears to have been fixed by some custom or ate also met in other places: under Caesar, law, as the aetas senatoria is frequently men- the Curia Julia, a building of immense splentioned, especially during the latter period of dour, was commenced; but subsequently the republic. But we may by induction dis- meetings of the senate were frequently held cover the probable age. We know that, ac- in the house of a consul. cording to the lex annalis of the tribune Vil- The subjects laid before the senate belonged lius, the age fixed for the quaestorship was 31. partly to the internal affairs of the state, partly Now as it might happen that a quaestor was to legislation, and partly to finance; and no made a senator immediately after the expira- measure could be brought before the populus tion of his office, we may presume that the without having previously been discussed and earliest age at which a man could become a prepared by the senate. The senate was thus senator was 32. Augustus at last fixed the the medium through which all affairs of the senatorial age at 25, which appears to have whole government had to pass: it considered remained unaltered throughout the time of the and discussed whatever measures the king empire. thought proper to introduce, and had, on the No senator was allowed to carry on any other hand, a perfect control over the assemmercantile business. About the.commence-. bly of the populus, which could only accept ment of the second Punic war, some senators or reject what the senate brought before it. appear to have violated this law or custom, When a king died, the royal dignity, until a and in order to prevent its recurrence a law successor was elected, was transferred to the was passed, with the vehement opposition of Decein Primi, each of whom in rotation held the senate, that none of its members should this dignity for five days. be permitted to possess a ship of more than Under the republic, the senate had at first 300 amphorae in tonnage, as this was thought the right of proposing to the comitia the can SENATUS. 287 didates for magistracies, but this right was especial commissions to investigate them; but subsequently lost: the comitia centuriata be- such a commission, if the case in question was came quite free in regard to elections, and a capital offence committed by a citizen, rewere no longer dependent upon the proposal quired the sanction of the people. When the of the senate. The curies only still possessed republic was in danger, the senate might conthe right of sanctioning the election; but in fer unlimited power upon the magistrates by the year B. c. 299 they were compelled to sanc- the formula, Videant consules, ne quid respublica tion any election of magistrates which the co- detrimenti capiat, which was equivalent to a mitia might make, before it took place, and declaration of martial law within the city. this soon after became law by the Lex Mae- This general care for the internal and externia. When at last the curies no longer as- nal welfare of the republic included, as before, sembled for this empty show of power, the the right of disposing of the finances requisite senate stepped into their place, and henceforth for these purposes. Hence all the revenue in elections, and soon after in matters of leg- and expenditure of the republic were under islation, the senate had previously to sanction the direct administration of the senate, and the whatever the comitia might decide. After the censors and quaestors were only its ministers Lex Hortensia a decree of the comitia tributa or agents. [CENSOR; QUAESTOR.] All the became law, even without the sanction of the expenses necessary for the maintenance of senate. The original state of things had thus the armies required the sanction of the senate, gradually become reversed, and the senate had before anything could be done, and it might lost very important branches of its power, even prevent the triumph of a returning genwhich had all been gained by the comitia trib- eral, by refusing to assign the money necesuta. In its relation to the comitia centuriata, sary for it. There are, however, instances of however, the ancient rules were still in force, a general triumphing without the consent of as laws, declarations of war, conclusions of the senate. peace, treaties, &c. were brought before them. How many members were required to be and decided by them on the proposal of the present in order to constitute a legal assemsenate. bly, is uncertain, though it appears that there The powers of the senate, after both orders existed some regulations on this point, and were placed upon a perfect equality, may be there is -one instance on record, in which at thus briefly summed up. The senate contin- least one hundred senators were required to ued to have the supreme superintendence in be present. The presiding magistrate opened all matters of religion; it determined upon the the business with the words Quod bonum, manner in which a war was to be conducted, faustum, felix fortunatumque sit populo Romano what legions were to be placed at the disposal Quiritibus, and then laid before the assembly of a commander, and whether new ones were (referre, relatio) what he had to propose. Toto be levied; it decreed into what provinces wards the end of the republic the order in the consuls and praetors were to be sent which the question was put to the senators [PROVINCIA], and whose imperium was to be appears to have depended upon the discretion prolonged. The commissioners who were of the presiding consul, who called upon each generally sent out to settle the administration member by pronouncing his name; but he of a newly-conquered country, were always usually began with the princeps senatus, or appointed by the senate. All embassies for if consules designatiwere present, with them. the conclusion of peace or treaties with foreign The consul generally observed all the year states were sent out by the senate, and such round the same order in which he had cornambassadors were generally senators them- menced on the first of January. A senator selves, and ten in number. The senate alone when called upon to speak might do so at full carried on the negotiations with foreign am- length, and even introduce subjects not dibassadors, and received the complaints of sub- rectly connected with the point at issue. It ject or allied nations, who always regarded depended upon the president which of the the senate as their common protector. By opinions expressed he would put to the vote, virtue of this office of protector it also settled and which he would pass over. The majority all disputes which might arise among the mu- of votes always decided a question. The nicipia and colonies of Italy, and punished all majority was ascertained either by numeratio heavy crimes committed in Italy, which might or discessio; that is, the president either countendanger the publicpeace and security. Even ed the votes, or the members who voted on in Rome itself, the judices to whom the praetor the same side separated from those who voted referred important cases, both public and pri- otherwise. The latter mode seems to have vate, were taken from among the senators, and been the usual one. What the senate dein extraordinary cases the senate appointed termined was callhd senatusconsulhum, be 288 SENATUS. cause the consul, who introduced the busi- became prepared for the despotic government ness, was said senatum consulere. In the of the emperors, when it was altogether the enacting part of a lex the populus were said creature and obedient instrument of the prinjubere, and in a plebiscitum scire; in a sena- ceps. The emperor himself was generally tusconsultum the senate was said censere also princeps senatus, and had the power of Certain forms were observed in drawing convoking both ordinary and extraordinary up a senatusconsultum. of which there is meetings, although the consuls, praetors and an example in Cicero: "S. C. Auctoritates tribunes continued to have the same right. Pridie. Kal. Octob. in Aede Apollinis, scri- The ordinary meetings, according to a regubendo adfuerunt L. Domitius Cn. Filius Ahen- lation of Augustus, were held twice in every obarbus, &c. Quod M. Marcellus Consul month. V. F. (verbafecit) de prov. Cons. D. E. R. I. C. In the reign of Tiberius the election of (de ea re ita censuerunt Uti, (4c.)" The names magistrates was transferred from the people of the persons who were witnesses to the to the senate, vh ich, however, was enjoined drawing up of the senatusconsultum were to take especia! notice of those candidates called the auctoritates, and these auctoritates who were reconmiended to it by the emperor. were cited as evidence of the fact of the per- At the demise of an emperor the senate had sons named in them having been present at the right of appointing his successor, in case the drawing up of the S. C. There can be no one had been nominated by the emperor no doubt that certain persons were required himself; but the senate very rarely had an to be present scribendo, but others might as- opportunity of exercising this right, as it was sist if they chose, and a person in this way usurped by the soldiers. The aerarium at might testify his regard for another on behalf first still continued nominally to be under the of whom or with reference to whom the S. C. control of the senate, but the emperors gradwas made. Besides the phrase scribendo ually took it under their own exclusive manadesse, there are esse ad scribendum and poni agernent, and the senate retained nothing but ad scribendum. When a S. C. was made on the administration of the funds of the city the motion of a person, it was said to be made (arca publica), which were distinct both from in sententiamn ejus. If the S. C. was carried, the aerarium and from the fiscus. Augustus it was written on tablets and placed in the ordained that no accusations should any longer Aerarium. be brought before the comitia, and instead of Senatusconsulta were, properly speaking, them he raised the senate to a high court of laws, for it is clear that the senate had legis- justice, upon which he conferred the right of lative power even in the republican period; taking cognisance of capital offences commitbut it is difficult to determine how far their ted by senators, of crimes against the state,legislative power extended. A decretum of and the person of the emperors, and of crimes the senate was a rule made by the senate as committed by the provincial magistrates in to some matter which was strictly within its the administration of their provinces. Recompetence, and thus differed from a senatus- specting the provinces of the senate, see consultum, which was a law; but these wtords PROVINCIA. Under the empire, senatusconare often used indiscriminately and with little sulta began to take the place of leges, propprecision. Many of the senatusconsulta of erly so called, and as the senate was, with the republican period were only determina- the exception of the emperor, the only legistions of the senate, which became leges by lating body, such senatusconsulta are frebeing carried in the comitia. One instance quently designated by the name of the conof this kind occurred on the occasion of the suls in whose year of office they were passed. trial of Clodius for violating the mysteries The distinctions and privileges enjoyed by of the Bona Dea. A rogatio on the subject senators were: 1. The tunica with a broad of the trial was proposed to the comitia ex purple stripe (latus clavus) in front, which senatusconsulto, which is also spoken of as was woven in it, and not, as is commonly bethe auctoritas of the senate. lieved, sewed upon it. 2. A kind of short A senate was not allowed to be held before boot, with the letter C. on the front of the sunrise or to be prolonged after sunset: on foot. This C. is generally supposed to mean extraordinary emergencies, however, this reg- centum, and to refer to the original number of ulation was set aside. 100 (centum) senators. 3. The right of sitting in During the latter part of the republic the the orchestra in the theatres and amphitheasenate was degraded in various ways by tres. This distinction was first procured for Sulla, Caesar, and others, and on many oc- the senators by Scipio Africanus Major, 194 casions it was only an instrument in the B. c. 4. On a certain day in the year a sachands of the men in power. In this way it rifice was offered to Jupiter in the capitol, SERRA. SERVUS. 289 and on this occasion the senators alone had the frame. On each side of the last-mentiona feast in the capitol; the right was called ed figure is represented a hand-saw adapted the jus publice epulandi. 5. The jus liberae to be used by a single person. legationis. [LEGATUS, P. 188.] SENIO'RES. [COMITIA, p. 95.] SEPTEMVIRI EPULO'NES. [EPULONES.] SEPTIMO'NTIUM, a Roman festival which was held in the month of December. It was celebrated by the montani, or the inhabitants of the seven ancient hills or rather districts of Rome, who offered on this day sacrifices to the gods in their respective districts. These sacra were, like the Paganalia, not sacra publica, but privata. They were believed to have been instituted to commemorate the enclosure of the seven hills of Rome within the walls of the city, and must certainly be referred to a time when the Cap-,itoline, Quirinal, and Viminal were not yet incorporated with Rome. SEPTUM. [CoMITIA, p. 96.] SEPTUNX. [As.] SERTA. [CORONA.] SEPULCHRES. [FuNus.] SERVUS (Jof32og), a slave. 1. GREmK. SEPULCRIJM. [FUrNus.] Slavery existed almost throughout the whole S ERA. [JANUA.] of Greece; and Aristotle says that a complete SE'RIC UM (aq/pcK6v), silk, also called household is that, which consists of slaves hombycinum. Raw silk was brought from the and freemen, and he defines a slave to be a interior of Asia, and manufactured in Cos, as living working-tool and possession. None of early as the fourth century B. c. From this the Greek philosophers ever seem to have island it appears that the Roman ladies ob- objected to slavery as a thing morally wrong; tained their most splendid garments [CoA Plato in his perfect state only desires that no VESTIS], which were remarkably thin, some- Greeks should be made slaves by Greeks, times of a fine purple dye, and variegated and Aristotle defends the justice of the instiwith transverse stripes of gold. Silk was tution on the ground of a diversity of race, supposed to come from the country of the and divides mankind into the free and those Seres in Asia, whence a silk garment is usu- who are slaves by nature: under the latter ally called Serica vestis. Under the empire description he appears to have regarded all the rage for such garments was constantly barbarians in the Greek sense of the word, on the increase. Even men aspired to be and therefore considers their slavery justifiadorned with silk, and hence the senate, early able. in the reign- of Tiberius, enacted ne vestis Se- In the most ancient times there are said to rica virosfoedaret. have been no slaves in Greece, but we find The eggs of the silkworm were first brought them in the Homeric poems, though by no into Europe in the age of Justinian, A. D. 530, means so generally as in later times. They in the hollow stem of a plant from " Serin- are usually prisoners taken in war, who serve da," which was probably Khotan in Little their conquerors: but we also read as well Bucharia, by some monks, who had learnt of the purchase and sale of slaves. They the method of hatching and rearing them. were, however, at that time mostly confined SERRA, dim. SE'RRULA (7rpiov) a saw. to the houses of the wealthy. It was made of iron. The form of the larger There were two kinds of slavery among saw used for cutting timber is seen in the the Greeks. One species arose when the inannexed woodcut, which is taken from a min- habitants of a country were subdued by an iature in the celebrated Dioscorides written invading tribe and reduced to the condition at the beginning of the sixth century. It is of serfs or bondsmen. They lived upon and of the kind called the frame-saw, because cultivated the land which their masters had fixed in a rectangular frame. It was held by appropriated to themselves, and paid them a a workman at each end. The woodcut also certain rent. They also attended their masshows the blade of the saw detached from its ters in war. They could not be sold out of frame, with a ring at each end for fixing it in the country or separated from their families, B 290 SERVUS. and could acquire property. Such were the rowers on board the ships were usually slaves, Helots of Sparta [HELOTES], and the Penes- who either belonged to the state or to private tae of Thessaly [PENESTAE]. The other spe- persons, who let them out to the state on paycies of' slavery consisted of domestic slaves ment of a certain sum. It appears that a conacquired by purchase, who were entirely the siderable number of persons kept large gangs property of their masters, and could be dis- of slaves merely for the purpose of' letting posed of like any other goods and chattels: out, and found this a protitable mode of inthese were the dov3Xot properly so called, and vesting their capital. Great numbers were were the kind of slaves that existed at Athens required for the mines, and in most cases the and Corinth. In commercial cities slaves mine-lessees would be obliged to hire some, were very numerous, as they performed the as they would not have sufficient capital to work of' the artisans and manufacturers of purchase as many as they wanted. Inodern towns. In poorer republics, which The rights of possession with regard to had little or ino capital, and which subsisted slaves differed in no respect from any other wholly by agriculture, they would be few: property; they could be given or taken as thus in Phocis and Locris there are said to pledges. The condition, however, of Greek have been originally no domestic slaves. The slaves was upon the whole better than that majority of slaves was purchased; few coin- of' Roman ones, with the exception perhaps paratively were born in the family of the mas- of Sparta, where, according to Plutarch, it is ter, partly because the number of female the best place in the world to be a freeslaves was very small inl comparison with man, and the worst to be a slave. At the male, and partly because the cohabitation Athens especially the slaves seem to have of slaves was discouraged, as it was con- been allowed a degree of liberty and insideted cheaper to purchase than to rear dulgence, which was never granted to them slaves. at Rome. It was a recognized rule of Greek national The life and person of a slave at Athens law that the persons of those who were taken were also protected by the law: a person prisoners in war became the property of the who struck or maltreated a slave was liable conqueror, but it was the practice for Greeks to an action; a slave too could not be put to to give liberty to those of their own nation death without legal sentence. He could even on payment of a ransom. Consequently al- take shelter from the cruelty of his master most all slaves in Greece, with the exception in the temple of Theseus, and there claim of the serfs above-mentioned, were barbarians. the privilege of being sold by him. The per-'rhe chief supply seems to have come from son of a slave was, of course, not considered the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, which had so sacred as that of a freemen: his offences aibundant opportunities of obtaining them from were punished with corporal chastisement, their own neighbourhood and the interior of which was the last mode of punishment inAsia. A considerable number of slaves also flicted on a freeman; he was not believed came from Thrace, where the parents fre- upon his oath, but his evidence in courts of quently sold their children. justice was always taken with torture. At Athens, as well as in other states, there Notwithstanding the generally mild treatwas a regular slave-market, called the ciKcog, ment of slaves in Greece, their insurrection because the slaves stood round in a circle. was not unfrequent: but these insurrections They were also sometimes sold by auction, in Attica were usually confined to the mining and were then placed on a stone.'Ithe slaves, who were treated with more severity same was also the practice in Rome, whence than the others. the phrase homo de lapide emtus. [AUCTIo.] Slaves were sometimes' manumitted at At Athens the number of slaves was far Athens, though not so frequently as at Rome. greater than the free population. Even the Those who were manumitted (direae 0etpot) poorest citizen had a slave for the care of did not become citizens, as they might at his household, and in every moderate es- Rome, but passed into the condition of mettablishment many were employed for all oici. They were obliged to honour their forpossible occupations, as bakers, cooks, tai- mer master as their patron (77pOTriT)r), and lors, &c. to fulfil certain duties towards him, the negSlaves either worked on their masters' ac- lect of which rendered them liable to the count or their own (in the latter case they dim 4Eroo-ariOov, by which they might again paid their masters a certain sum a day); or be sold into slavery. they were let out by their master on hire, Respecting the public slaves at Athens, either for the mines or any other kind of la- see DEMosII. bour, or as hired servants for wages. The It appears that there was a tax upon slaves SERVUS. 291 at Athens, which was probably three oboli a the number of domestic slaves greatly inyear for each slave. creased, and in every family of' importance 2. ROMAN. The Romans viewed liberty as there were separate slaves to attend to all tlie the natural state, and slavery as a condition necessities of domestic life. It was considwhich was contrary to the natural state. The ered a reproach to a man not to keep a conmutual relation of slave and master among siderablenumber of slaves. The first question the Romans was expressed by the terms Ser- asked respecting a person's fortune was Quot vus and Dominus; and the power and interest pascitservos,'How mnanyslaves does he keep?" which the dominus had over and in the slave'Fen slaves seem to have been the lowest was expressed by Dominium. number which a person could keep in the age Slaves existed at Rome in the earliest times of Augustus, with a proper regard to respectaof which we have any record; but they do bility in society. The immense number of not appear to have been numerous under prisoners taken in the constant wars of the rethe kings and in the earliest ages of the re- public, and the increase of wealth and luxury, ptublic. The different trades and the mechan- augmented the number of slaves to a prodiicai arts were chiefly carried on by the clients gious extent. A freedman under Augustus, of the patricians, and the small farms in the who had lost much property in the civil country were cultivated for the most part by wars, left at his death as many as 4,116. Two the labours of the proprieter and of his own hundred was no uncommon number for one family. But as the territories of the Roman person to keep. The mechanical arts, which state were extended, the patricians obtained were formerly in the hands of the clients, were possession of large estates out of the ager now entirely exercised by slaves:' a natural publicus, since it was the practice of the Ro- growth of things, for where slaves perform mans to deprive a conquered people of part certain duties or practise certain arts, such,of their land. These estates probably re- duties or arts will be thought degrading to a quired a larger number of hands for their cul- freeman. It must not be forgotten, that the tivation than could readily be obtained among games of the amphitheatre required an imthe free population, and since the freemen mense number of slaves trained for the purwere constantly liable to be called away from pose. [GLADIATORES.] Like the slaves in their work to serve in the armies, the lands Sicily, the gladiators in Italy rose in B. c. 73 began to be cultivated almost entirely by slave against their oppressors, and under the able labour. Through war and commerce slaves generalship of Spartacus, defeated a Roman could easily be obtained, and at a cheap rate, consular army, and'were not subdued till and.their number soon became so great, that B. c. 71, when 60,000 of them are said to have the poorer class of freemen was thrown al- fallen in battle. most entirely out of employment. This state A slave could not contract a marriage. His of things was one of the chief arguments used cohabitation with a woman was contubernium; by Licinius and the Gracchi for limiting the and no legal relation between him and his quantity of public land which a person might children was recognized. possess. In Sicily, which supplied Rome A slave could have no property. He was with so great a quantity of corn, the number not incapable of acquiring property, but his of agricultural slaves was immen.se: the op- acquisitions belonged to his master. pressions to which they were exposed drove Slaves were not only employed in the usual them twice to open rebellion, and their num- domestic offices and in the labours of the field, bers enabled them to defy for a time the Ro- but also as factors or agents for their masters man power. The first of these servile wars in the management of business, and as mebegan in B. c. 134 and ended in B. c. 132, and chanics, artisans, and in every branch of inthe second coinmmenced in B. C. 102, and last- dustry. It may easily be conceived that, under ed almost four years. these circumstances, especially as they were Long, however, after it had become the cus- often entrusted with property to a large tom to employ large gangs of slaves in the cul- amount, there must have arisen a practice of tivation of the land, the number of those who allowing the slave to consider part of his gains served as personal attendants still continued as his own; this was his Peculiurn, a term also to be small. Persons in good circumstances applicable to such acquisitions of a filiusfamilseem usually to have had one only to wait ias as his father allowed him to consider as upon them, who was generally called by the his own. [PATRIA POTESTAS.] According to name of his master with the word por (that is, strict law, the peculium was the property of the.puer) affixed to it, as Caipor, Lucipor, JMarcipor, master, but according to usage, it was consid. Publipor, Quintipor, &c. But during the lat- ered to be the property of the slave. Someter times of the republic and under the empire times it was agreed between master and slave, 292 SERVUS. that the slave should purchase his freedom forth in a scroll (titulus) hanging around his with his peculium when it amounted to a cer- neck, which was a warranty to the purchaser: tain sum. the vender was bound to announce fairly alA runaway slave (fugitivus) could not law- his defects, and if he gave a false account had fully be received or harboured. The master to take him back within six months from the was entitled to pursue him wherever he time of his sale, or make up to the purchaser pleased; and it was the duty of a4l authorities what the latter had lost through obtaining an to give him aid in recovering the slave. It inferior kind of slave to what had been warwas the object of various laws to check the ranted. The chief points which the vender running away of slaves in every way, and ac- had to warrant, was the health of the slave, cordingly a runaway slave could not legally especially freedom frorn epilepsy, and that he be an object of sale. A class of persons called had not a tendency to thievery, running away, Fugitivarii made it their business to recover or committing suicide. Slaves sold without runaway slaves. any warranty wore at the time of sale a cap A person was a slave either jure gentium or (pileus) upon their head. Slaves newly imiure civili. Under the republic, the chief sup- ported were generally preferred for common ply of slaves arose from prisoners taken in work: those who had served long were conwar, who were sold by the quaestors with a sidered artful (veteratores'); and the pertness crown on their heads (sub coronavenire, vendere), and impudence of those born in their master's and usually on the spot where they were house, called vernae, were proverbial. taken, as the care of a large number of cap- The value of slaves depended of course upon tives was inconvenient. Consequently slave- their qualifications; but under the empire the dealers usually accompanied an army, and fre- increase of luxuryand the corruption of morals quently after a great battle had been gained led purchasers to pay immense sums for beaumany thousands were sold at once, when the tiful slaves, or such as ministered to the caslave-dealers obtained them for a merenothing. price or whim of the purchaser. Eunuchs The slave trade was also carried on to a great always fetched a very high price, and Martial extent, and after the fall of Corinth and Car- speaks of beautiful boys who sold for as much thage, Delos was the chief mart for this traffic. as 100,000 or 200,000 sesterces each (8851. 8s.4d. When the Cilician pirates had possession of and 17701. 16s. 8d.). Slaves who possessed the Mediterranean as many as 10,000 slaves a knowledge of any art which might bring are said to have been imported and sold there in profit to their owners, also sold for a large in oneday. A large numbercame fron Thrace sum. Thus literary men and doctors freand the countries in the north of Europe, quently fetched a high price, and also slaves but the chief supply was from Africa, and fitted for the stage. more especially Asia, whence we frequently Slaves were divided into many various read of Phrygians, Lycians, Cappadocians, classes: the first division was into public or &c. as slaves. The trade of slave-dealers private. The former belonged to the state (mangones) was considered disreputable; but and public bodies, and their condition was it was very lucrative, and great fortunes were preferable to that of the common slaves. frequently realised from it. They were less liable to be sold, and under Slaves were usually sold by auction at less control than ordinary slaves: they also Rome. They were placed either on a raised possessed the privilege of the testamenti stone (hence de lapide emtus), or a raised plat- factio to the amount of one half of their form (catasta), so that every one might see and property, which shows that they were re. handle them, even if they did not wish to pur- garded in a different light from other slaves. chase them. Purchasers usually took care Public slaves were employed to take care of to have them stripped naked, for slave-dealers the public buildings, and to attend upon had recourse to as many tricks to conce. l magistrates and priests. personal defects as the horse-jockeys of mBil'- A body of slaves belonging to one person ern times: sometimes purchasers called in the was called familia, but two were not considadvice of medical men. Newly imported ered sufficient to constitute a familia. Prislaves had their feet whitened with chalk, and vate slaves were divided into urban (familia those that came from the East had their ears urbane) and rustic (familia rustica); but the bored, which we know was a sign of slavery name of urban was given to those slaves who among many eastern nations. The slave- served in the villa or country residence as market, like all other markets, was under the well as in the town house; so that the words jurisdiction of the aediles, who made many urban and rustic rather characterized the regulations by edicts respecting the sale of nature of their occupations than the place slavee. The character of the slave was set where they served. Slaves were also ar SERVUS. 293 ranged in certain classes, which held a higher I granted them either monthly (menstruum), or or a lower rank according to the nature of daily (diarium). Their chief food was the their occupation. These classes are, ordi- corn, calledfar, of which either four or five narii. vulgares, and mediastini. modii were granted them a month, or one Ordinarii seems to have been those slaves Roman pound (libra) a day. They also obwho had the superintendence of certain parts tained an allowance of salt and oil: Cato alof the housekeeping. They were always lowed his slaves a sextarius of oil a month chosen from those who had the confidence of and a modius of salt a year. They also got a their master, and they generally had certain small quantity of wine, with an additional atslaves under them. To this class the actores, lowance on the Saturnalia and Compitalia, procuratores, and dispensatores belong, who and sometimes fruit, but seldom vegetables. occur in the familia rustica as well as the Butcher's meat seems to have been hardly familia urbana, but in the former are almost ever given them. the same as the villici. They were stewerds Under the republic they were not allowed or bailiffs. To the same class also belong to serve in the army, though after the battle the slaves who had the charge of the different of Cannae, when the state was in imminent stores, and who correspond to our house- danger, 8000 slaves were purchased by the keepers and butlers: they are called cellarii, state for the army, and subsequently manupromi, condi, procuratores peni, &c. mitted on account of their bravery. Vulgares included the great body of slaves The offences of slaves were punished with ih a house who had to attend to any particu- severity, and frequently with the utmost barlar duty in the house, and to minister to the barity. One of the mildest punishments was domestic wants of their master. As there the removal from the familia urbana to the were distinct slaves or a distinct slave for rustica, where they were obliged to work in almost every department of household econ- chains or fetters. They were frequently omy, as bakers (pistores), cooks (coqui), con- beaten with sticks or scourged with the whip. fectioners (dulciarii), picklers (salmentarii), Runaway slaves (fugitivi) and thieves (fures) &c. it is unnecessary to mention these more were branded on the forehead with a mark particularly. This class also included the (stigma), whence they are said to be notati or porters (ostiarii), the bed-chamber slaves (cu- inscripti. Slaves were also punished by being bicularii), the litter-bearers (lecticarii), and all hung up by their hands with weights suspersonal attendants of any kind. pended to their feet, or by being set to work Mllediastini, the name given to slaves used in the Ergastulum or Pistrinum. [ERGASTfor any common purpose, and was chiefly ap- ULUM.] The carrying of the furca was a plied to certain slaves belonging to the familia very common modeofpunishment. [FuRcA.] rustica. The toilet of the Roman ladies was a dreadThe treatment of slaves of course varied ful ordeal to the female slaves, who were greatly, according to the disposition of their often barbarously punished by their mistresses masters, but they were upon the whole, as has for the slightest mistake in the arrangement been already remarked, treated with greater of the hair or a part of the dress. severity and cruelty than among the Atheni- Masters might work their slaves as many ans. Originally the master could use the hours in the day as they pleased, but they slave as he pleased: under the republic the usually allowed them holidays on the public law does not seem to have protected the per- festivals. At the festival of Saturnus in parson or life of the slave at all, but the cruelty ticular, special indulgences were granted to of masters was to some extent restrained all slaves, of which an account is given under under the empire by various enactments. In SATURNALIA. early times, when the number of slaves was There was no distinctive dress for slaves. small, they were treated with more indul- It was once proposed in the senate to give gence, and miore like members of the family: slaves a distinctive costume, but it was rethey joined their masters in offering up jected, since it was considered dangerous to prayers and thanksgivings to the gods, and show them their number. Male slaves were partook of their meals in common with their not allowed to wear the toga or bulla, nor masters, though not at the same table with females the stola, but otherwise they were them, but upon benches (subsellia) placed at dressed nearly in the same way as poor peothe foot of the lectus. But with the increase ple, in clothes of a dark colour (pullati) and of numbers and of luxury among masters, slippers (crepidae). the ancient simplicity of manners was chang- rhe rights of burial, however, were not ed: a certain quantity of food was allowed denied to slaves, for, as the Romans regarded them (dimcnsum or dem ensum), which was slavery as an institution of society, death was B B2 294 SESTERTIUS. SEXTARIUS. considered to put an end to the distinction M sestertium (for sestertiorum)= M nummi-=M betweenislaves and freemen. Slaves were nummum (for nummorum)= M sestertii nummi sometimes even buried with their masters, =M sestertium nummum= sestertium. These and we find funeral inscriptions addressed to forms are used with the numeral adjectives bethe Dii Manes of slaves (Dis Manibus). low 1000; sometimes millia is used instead of SESCUNX. [As.] sestertia: sometimes both words are omitted: SESTE'RTIUS, a Roman. coin, which sometimes nummum or sestertium is added. properly belonged to the silver coinage, in For example, 600,000 sestertii=sescenta sesterwhich it was one-fourth of the denarius, and tia —sescenta millia=sescenta-sescenta sestertherefore equal to 24 asses. Hence the tia nummum. name, which is an abbreviation of semis tertius For sums of a thousand sestertia (i. e. a mil(sc. nummus), the Roman mode of expressing lion sestertii) and upwards, the numeral ad24. The word nummus is often found ex- verbs in ies (decies, undecies, vicies, *.c.) are pressed with sestertius, and often it stands used, with which the words centena millia (a alone, meaning sestertius. hundred thousand) must be understood. With Hence the symbol H S or I I S, which is these adverbs the neuter singular sestertium is used to designate the sestertius. It stands joined in the case required by the construceither for L L S (Libra Libra et Semis), or for tion. Thus, decies sestertium= decies centena I I S, the two l's merely forming the numeral millia sestertium= ten times a hundred thousand two (sc. asses or librae), and the whole being sestertii = 1,000,000 sestertii- 1000 sestertia in either case equivalent to dupondius et semis. millies H S=millies centena millia sestertium — When the as was reduced to half an ounce, a thousand times one hundred thousand sesand the number of asses in the denarius was tertii- 100,000,000 sestertii= 100,000 sestertia. made sixteen instead of ten [As, DENARIUS], When the numbers are written in cypher, the sestertius was still I of the denarius, and it is often difficult to know whether sestertii therefore contained no longer 24, but 4 asses. or sestertia are meant. A distinction is someThe old reckoning of 10 asses to the denarius times made by a line placed over the numeral was kept, however, in paying the troops. when sestertia are intended, or in other words, After this change the sestertius was coined when the numeral is an adverb in ies. Thus in brass as well as, in silver; the metal used HS. M. C.=1100 sestertii, but for it was that called aurichalcum, which was HS. M. C.=HS millies centies much finer than the common aes, of which HS. M. C.HS m ses centies the asses were made. 110,000 sestertia = The sum of 1000 sestertii was called sester- 110,000,000 sestertii. tium. This was also denoted by the symbol Sesterce is sometimes used as an English H S, the obvious explanation of which is word. If so, it ought to be used only as the "II S (24 millia)." The sestertium was al- translation of sestertius, never of sestertium. ways a sum of money, never a coin; the coin SEVIR. [EuTEsp. 140.] used in the payment of large sums was the SEX SUFFRA'GIA. ] EQUITES p. 137.] denarius. SEXTANS. [As.] According to the value we have assigned SEXTA'RIUS, a Roman dry and liquid to the DENARIUS, UP to the time of Augustus, measure. It was one-sixth of the congius, we have and hence its name. It was divided, in the ~t s. d.fart/. same manner as the As, into parts named unthe sestertius =0 0 2'5 cia, sextans, quadrans, triens, quinclun, semissis, the sestertium= 8 17 1 -4c. The uncia, or twelfth part of the sextaafter the reign of Augustus rius, was the CYATHUS; its sextans was therethe sestertius =00 1 3'5 fore two cyathi, its quadrans three, its triens thesestertium=7 16 3 four, its quincunx five, &c. The sestertius was the denomination of Sextarii. Galls. Pints. money almost always used in reckoning con- Culeus, containing 960 118 7 546 siderable amounts. There are a very fewex- Amphora " 48 5 7577 amples of the use of the denarius for this pur- Urna " 24 2 7788 Pose. The mode of reckoning was as fol- Congius " 59471 Sextarius 1 9911 Sestertius = sestertius nummus = nummus. Hemin " 4955 Sums below 1000 sestertii were expressed by Quartarius',,'2477 the numeral adjectives joined with either of Acetabulum",, 1238 these forms. Cyathus " - ",, -0825 The sum of 1000 sestertii= mille sestertii= Ligula 1 "' 0206 T - SIBYLLINI. SIGNA. 295 The preceding table exhibits the principal can prophecies of the nymph Bygoe, and those Roman liquid measures, with their contents of Albuna or Albunea of Tibur. Those of the in the English imperial measure. The dry Marcii, which had not been placed there at measures, which are'nearly the same, are the time of the battle of Cannae, were written given under MoDIus. in Latin. SHIELDS. [CLIPEUS; PARMA; PELTA; SICA, dim. SICILA, whence the English SCUTUM.] sickle, a curved dagger, adapted by its form to SHIPS. [NAVIS.] be concealed under the clothes, and therefore SHOES. [CALcEvs.] carried by robbers and murderers. Sica may SIBYLLI'NT LIBRI. These books are be translated a scimitar, to distinguish it from said to have been obtained in the reign of Tar- PUGIO, which denoted a dagger of the comquinius Priscus, or accordingto other accounts mon kind. Sicarius, though properly meaning in that of Tarquinius Superbus, when a Sibyl one who murdered with the sica, was applied (2ip/3vDZ.a), or prophetic woman, presented to murderers in general. Hence the forms de herself before the king, and offered nine books sicariis and inter sicarios were used in the crimfor sale. Upon the king refusing to purchase inal courts in reference to murder. Thus juthem, she went and burnt three, and then re- dicium inter sicarios, " a trial for murder;" deturned and demanded the same price for the fendere inter sicarios, "to defend against a remaining six as she had done for the nine. charge of murder." The king again refused to purchase them, SIGILLA'RIA. [SATURNALIA.] whereupon she burnt three more, and demand- SIGNA MILITA'RIA (mavleua, -guaciat), ed the same sum for the remaining three as military ensigns or standards. The most anshe had done at first for the nine: the king's cient standard employed by the Romans is curiosity now became excited, so that he pdr- said to have been a handful of straw fixed to chased the books, and then the Sibyl van- the top of a spear or pole. Htence the comished. These books were probably written in pany of soldiers belonging to it was called Greek, as the later ones undoubtedly were. Manipulus. The bundle of hay or fern was They were kept in a stone chest under ground soon succeeded by the figures of animals, viz. in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, under the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, the custody of certain officers, at first only and the boar. These appear to have correstwo in number, but afterwards increased suc- ponded to the five divisions of the Roman arcessively to ten and fifteen, of whom an ac- my as shown on p. 146. The eagle (aquila) count is given under DECEMYIRI. The pub- was carried by the aquiliferin the midst of the lic were not allowed to inspect the books, and hastati, and we may suppose the wolf to have they were only consulted by the officers, who been carried among the principes, and so on. had the charge of them, at the special com- In the second consulship of Marius, B. C. 104. mand of the senate. They were not consult- the four quadrupeds were entirely laid aside ed, as the Greek oracles were, for the purpose as standards, the eagle being alone retained. of getting light concerning future events; but It was made of silver or bronze, and with exto learn what worship was required by the panded wings, but was probably of a small gods, when they had manifested their wrath size, since a standard-bearer (signifer) under by national calamities or prodigies. Acccor- Julius Caesar is said in circumstances of dandingly we find that the instruction they give ger to have wrenched the eagle from its staff, is in the same spirit; prescribing what honour and concealed it in the folds of his girdle. was to be paid to the deities already recog- Under the later emperors the eagle was carnized, or what new ones were to be imported ried, as it had been for many centuries, with from abroad. the legion, a legion being on that account When the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was sometimes called aquila, and at the same time burnt in B. C. 82, the Sibylline books perished each cohort had for its own ensign the serpent in the fire; and in order to restore them, am- or dragon (draco, dcpdsiwv), which was woven bassadors were sent to various towns in Italy, Qn a square piece of cloth, elevated on a gilt Greece, and Asia Minor, to make fresh col- staff, to which a cross-bar was adapted for the lections, which on the rebuilding of the ter- purpose, and carried by the draconarius. ple were deposited in the same place that the Another figure used in the standards was a former had occupied. ball (pila), supposed to have been emblematic The Sibylline books were also called Fata of the dominion of Rome over the world: and Sibyllina, and Libri Fatales. Along with the for the same reason a bronze figure of Victory Sibylline books were preserved, under the was sometimes fixed at the top of the staff. guard of the same officers, the books of the (See the woodcut.) Under the eagle or other two prophetic brothers, the Marcii, the Etrus- emblem was often placed a head of the reign 2g96 SIGNA SIPARITUM. ing emperor, which was to the army the ob- vexillum, was a square piece of cloth expandject of idolatrous adoration. ed upon a cross in the manner already inThe minor divisions of a cohort, called dicated, and perhaps surmounted by some centuries, had also each an ensign, inscribed figure. with the number both of the cohort and of The first cut represents Trajan giving a the century. By this provision every soldier king to the Parthians: seven standards are was enabled with the greatest ease to take held by the soldiers. The second, containing his place. five standards, represents the performance of The standard of the cavalry, properly called the sacrifice called suovetaurilia. i i j _ H 1 \ 1 \ 1 HH1 1 111 II t i1 1ll Signa Militaria, Military Standards. The imperial standard from the time of of the cohort were denominated vexilla, their Constantine was called labarum; on it a fig- bearers being vexillarii. ure or emblem of Christ was woven in gold In time of peace the standards were kept upon purple cloth, and this was substituted inthe AERARIUM, under the care of the QuAEsfor the head of the emperor. TOR. Since the movements of a body of troops SILICE'RNIUM. [FuNus, p. 163.] and of every portion of it were regulated by SILK. [SERPICUM.] the standards, all the evolutions, acts, anl SILVER. [ARGENTu M.] incidents of the Roman army were expressed SIPA'RIUM, a piece of tapestry stretched by phrases derived from this circumstance. on a frame, which rose before the stage of Thus signa inferre meant to advance, referre the theatre, and consequently answered the to retreat, and convertere to face about; efferre, purpose of the drop-scene with us, although, or castris vellere, to march out of the camp; contrary to our practice, it was depressed ad signa convenire, to re-assemble. Notwith- when the play began, so as to go below the standing some obscurity in the use of terms, level of the stage (aulaea premuntur), and was, it appears that, whilst the standard of the le- raised again when the performance was congion was properly called aquila, those of the cluded (tolluntur). It appears that human cohorts were in a special sense of the term figures were represented upon it, whose feet called signa, their bearers being sigeiferi, and seemed to rest upon the stage when this that those of the manipuli or smaller divisions screen was drawn up. These figures were SITULA. SOCCUS. 2'7 sometimes those of Britons woven in the can- to the vessel from which lots were drawn. vass, and raising their arms in the attitude of The diminutive sitella, however, was more lifting up a purple curtain, so as to be intro- commonly used in this signification. It apduced in the same manner as Atlantes, Per- pears that the vessel was filled with water sae, and Caryatides. [CARYATIDES.] (as among the Greeks, whence the word In a more general sense, siparium denoted 6dpia), and that the lots (sortes) were made of any piece of cloth or canvass stretched upon wood; and as, though increasing in size bea frame. low, it had a narrow neck, only one lot could SISTRUM (oelarpov), a mystical instru- come to the top of the water at the same merit of music, used by the ancient Egyptians time, when it was shaken. The vessel used in their ceremonies, and especially in the for drawing lots was also called urna or orca worship of Isis. It was held in the right hand as well as Situla or Sitella. (see cut), and shaken, from which circum- It is important to understand the difference stance it derived its name. in meaning, between Sitella and Cista, in their use in the comitia and courts of justice, since thev have been frequently confounded. _ LJall these leashes were fastened at their other end to the same wooden rod. At least one set of leashes was necessary to decussate the warp, even in the plainest and simplest weaving. The number of sets was increased according to the complexity of the pattern, which was called bilix or triliZ, dip/tTof,'rpiUtrof, or IroUztl70gof, according as the number was two, three, or more. The process of annexing the leashes to the warp was called ordiri telam, also licia telae addere, or adnectere. It occupied two women at the same time, one of whom took in regular succession each separate thread of the warp, and handed it over to the other; the other, as she received each thread, passed it through the loop in proper order. Supposing the warp to have been thus adjusted, and the pen or the shuttle to have been carried through it, it was then decussated by drawing forwards the proper rod, so as to carry one set of the threads of the warp across Tela, Loom. the rest, after which the woof was shot back We observe underneath the jugum a roller, again, and by the continual repetition of this which is turned by a handle, and on which process the warp and woof were interlaced. the web is wound as the work advances. In the second cut we observe two staves, The threads of the warp, besides being sepa- which are occasionally used to fix the rods in rated by a transverse rod or plank, are divi- such a position as is most convenient to assist ded into thirty or forty parcels, to each of the weaver in drawing her woof across her which a stone is suspended for the purpose of warp. After the woof had been conveyed by keeping the warp in a perpendicular position, the shuttle through the warp, it was driven and allowing the necessary play to the strokes sometimes downwards, as is represented in TELONES. TELOS. 313 the first wood-cut, but more commonly up- in advance, 7rpoCara7a3oX, and one or more wards, as in the second. Two different in- afterwards, called zrpofKardf3izLa. Upon struments were used in this part of the process. any default of payment, the farmer became The simplest, and probably the most ancient, atimus, if a citizen, and he was liable to be imwas in the form of a large wooden sword (spa- prisoned at the discretion of the court, upon tha, c7rcid6). This instrument is represented an information laid against him. If the debt in the second cut. was not paid by the expiration of the ninth The spatha was, however, in a great de- prytaneia, it was doubled; and if not then gree superseded by the comb (pecten, KepKif), paid, his property became forfeited to the state, the teeth of which were inserted between the and proceedings to confiscation might be taken threads of the warp, and thus made by a forci- forthwith. Upon this subject, see the speech ble impulse to drive the threads of the woof of Demosthenes against Timocrates. close together. TE'LOS (7E-Xo-), a tax. The taxes imThe lyre, the favourite musical instrument posed by the Athenians, and collected at home, of the Greeks, was only known to the Romans were either ordinary or extraordinary. The as a foreign invention. Hence they appear to former constituted a regular or permanent, have described its parts by a comparison with source of income; the latter were only raised the loom, with which they were familiar. The in time of war or other emergency. The or-. terms jugum and stamina were transferred by dinary taxes were laid mostly upon property, an obvious resemblance from the latter to the and upon citizens indirectly, in the shape of former object; and, although they adoptedinto toll or customs; though the resident aliens their own language the Greek word plectrum, paid a poll-tax (called /tEoiKOZv), for the liberty they used the Latinpecten to denote the same of residing at Athens under protection of the thing; not because the instrument used in state. There was a duty of two per cent striking the lyre was at all like a conlb in shape (7revr7K/oarr), levied upon all exports and imand appearance, but because it was held in the ports. An excise was paid on all sales in the right hand, and inserted between the stamina market (called Ctrtovia), though we know not of the lyre, as the comb was between the what the amount was. Slave owners paid a. stamina of the loom. duty of three obols for every slave they kept: TELO'NES (reMLtvj'), a farmer of the and slaves who had been emancipated paid public taxes at Athens. The taxes were let the same. This was a very productive tax beby auction to the highest bidder. Companies fore the fortification of Decelea by the Laceoften took them in the name of one person, daemonians. The justice fees (7rpvravela, who was called LpX6vSr or're62vapX2f7, and 7rapdcrraatS, &c.) were a lucrative tax in time was their representative to the state. Sure- of peace. ties were required of the farmer for the pay- The extraordinary taxes were the property mnent of his dues. The office was frequently tax, and the compulsory services called liturundertaken by resident aliens, citizens not gies (2t7rovpyiat). Some of these last were liking it, on account of the vexatious proceed- regular, and recurred annually; the most im. ings to which it often led. The farmer was portant, the trierarchia, was a war-service, and armed with considerable powers: he carried performed as occasion required. As these serwith him his books, searched for contraband vices were all performed, wholly or partly, at or uncustomed goods, watched the harbour, the expense of the individual, they may be remarkets, and other places, to prevent smug- garded as a species of tax. [EISPHORA; LEIgling, or unlawful and clandestine sales; TOURGIA; TRIERARCHIA.] brought a phasis (qdatc) or other legal process The tribute (06por) paid by the allied states against those whom he suspected of defraud- to the Athenians formed, in the flourishing peing the revenue; or even seized their persons riod of the republic, a regular and most imporon some occasions, and took them before the tant source of revenue. In Olymp. 91.2., the magistrate. To enable him to perform these Athenians substituted for the tribute a duty duties, he was exempted from military ser- of five per cent (eiKoar7) on all commodities vice. Collectors (tKcoyerC) were sometimes exported or imported by the subject states, employed by the farmers; but frequently the thinking to raise by this means a larger income farmer and the collector were the same per- than by direct taxation. This was terminason. ted by the issue of the Peloponnesian war, The taxes were let by the commissioners though the tribute was afterwards revived, on (7roi17Trat), acting under the authority of the more equitable principles, under the name of senate. The payments were made by the a vara:&t. farmer on stated prytaneias in the senate- Other sources of revenue were derived byt house, There was usually one payment made the Athenians from their mines aund public DD 314 TEMPLUM. lands, fines, and confiscations. The public a locus liberatus et effatus by the augttrs, that demesne lands, whether pasture or arable, is, a templum or afanum; the consecration houses or other buildings, were usually let by was completed by the pontiffs, and not until auction to private persons. The conditions of inauguration and consecration had taken the lease were engraven on stone. The rent place, could sacra be performed or meetings was payable by prytaneias. of the senate be held in it. It was necessary These various sources ofrevenue produced, then for a temple to be sanctioned by the according to Aristophanes, an annual income gods, whose will was ascertained by the auof two thousand talents in the most flourish- gurs, and to be consecrated or dedicated by ing period of Athenian empire. the will of man (pontiffs). Where the sancTe2eIv signifies " to settle, complete, or tion of the gods had not been obtained, and perfect," and hence " to settle an account," where the mere act of man had consecrated and generally " to pay." Thus TiVto comes a place to the gods, such a place was only a to mean any payment in the nature of a tax sacrum sacrarium, or sacellum. The ceremony -or duty. The words are connected with zahlen performed by the augurs was essential to a in German, and the old sense of tale in English, temple, as the consecration by the pontiffs and the modern word toll. Though rO-oS took place also in other sanctuaries which may signify any payment in the nature of a were not templa, but mere sacra or aedes tax or duty, it is more commonly used of the sacrae. Thus the sanctuary of Vesta was ordinary taxes, as customs, &c.'laorCi'eta not a templum, but an aedes sacra, and the signifies the right of being taxed on the same various curiae (Hostilia, Pompeia, Julia) refooting, and having other privileges, the same quired to be made templa by the augurs beas the citizens; a right sometimes granted to fore senatusconsulta could be made in them. resident aliens.'AiteeEta signifies an exemp- It is impossible to determine with certainty in tion from taxes, or other duties and services; what respects a templum differed from a an honour very rarely granted by the Atheni- delubrum. ans. As to the farming of the taxes, see TE- Temples appear to have existed in Greece LONES. from the earliest times. They were separated TEMPLE. [TEMPLUM.] from the profane land around them (r6&roe TENI PLUM is the same word as the Greek i3iSnXog or ra 3/i3y2La), because every one Temenos (riuevog, from riuvwO, to cut off); was allowed to walk in the latter. This sepfor templumnt was any place which was circum- aration was in early times indicated by very scribed and separated by the augurs from the simple means, such as a string or a rope. rest of the land by a certain solemn formula. Subsequently, however, they were surround The technical terms for this act of the au- ed by-more efficient fences, or even by a wall gurs are liberare and effari, and hence a tem- (epKcof, 7repi/3o.of). The whole space enplum itself is a locus liberatus et efatus. A place closed in sucha Xreptdoogwas called r'}uevo-, thus set apart and hallowed by the augurs or sometimes lepov; and contained, besides was always intended to serve religious pur- the temple itself, other sacred buildings, and poses, but chiefly for taking the auguries. sacred ground planted with groves, &c. The place in the heavens within which the Within the precincts of the sacred enclosure observations were to be made was likewise no dead were generally allowed to be buried, called templum, as it was marked out and though there were some exceptions to this separated from the rest by the staff of the rule, and we have instances of persons being augur. When the augur haddefined the tem- buried in or at least near certain temples. plum within which he intended to make his The religious laws of the island of Delos did observations, he fixed his teht in it (tabernacu- not allow any corpses to be'buried within the lum capere), and this tent was likewise called whole extent of the island, and when this templum, or more accurately, tenmplum minus. law had been violated, a part of the island The place chosen for a templum was gene- was first purified by Pisistratus, and subserally an eminence, and in the city it was the quently the whole island by the Athenian arx, where the fixing of a tent does not ap- people. pear to have been necessary, because here a The temple itself was called va6~ or venr, place called auguraculum was once for all con- and at its entrance - fonts (8repl5PavrpLa) secrated for this purpose. were generally placed, that those who enBesides this meaning of the word templum tered the sanctuary to pray or to offer sacri in the language of the augurs, it also had that fices might first purify themselves. The act of a temple in the common acceptation. In of consecration, by which a temple was dedthis case, too, however, the sacred precinct icated to a god, was called l'6pvatr. The within which a temple was built, was always character of the early Greek temples was T'EMPLUSI. TERMIN ALIA. 315 dark and mysterious, for they had no win- Respecting the persons entrusted with the dows, and they received light only through superintendence, keeping, cleaning, &c. see the door, which was very large, or from AEDITI. lamps burning in them. Architecture in the In the earliest times there appear to have construction of magnificent temples, how- been very few temples at Rome, and in ever, made great progress even at an earlier many spots the worship of a certain divinity time than either painting or statuary, and had been established from time immemorial, long before the Persian wars we hear of tem- while we hear of the building of a temple for ples of extraordinary grandeur and beauty. the same divinity at a comparatively late All temples were built either in an oblong period. Thus the foundation of a temple to or round form, and were mostly adorned with the old Italian divinity Saturnus, on the columns. Those of an oblong form had col- Capitoline, did not take place till B. c. 498. umns either in the front alone (pros.tylus), in In the same manner, Quirinus and Mars had the fore and back fronts (amphiprostylus), or temples built to them at a late period. Juon all the four sides (peripterus). Respect- piter also had no temple till the time of Aning the original use of these porticoes see cus Martius, and the one then built was cerPORTIcus. The friezes and metopes were tainly very insignificant. We may therefore adorned with various sculptures, and no ex- suppose that the places of worship among the pense was spared in embellishing the abodes earliest Romans were in most cases simple of the gods. The light, which was formerly altars or sacella. The Roman temples of let in at the door, was now frequently let in later times were constructed in the Greek from above through an opening in the middle. style. Most of the great temples consisted of three As regards the property of temples, it is parts: 1. th.e rp6vaof or irp6doyof, the ves- stated that in early times lands were assigntibule; 2. the cella (va6f, a(c6cr); and 3. the ed to each temple, but these lands were pro0rztaO66dou oo. The cella was the most im- bably intended for the maintenance of the portant part, as it was, properly speaking, the priests alone. [SACERDOS.] temple or the habitation of the deity whose The supreme superintendence of the temstatue it contained. In one and the same pies of Rome, and of all things connected cella there were sometimes the statues of with them, belonged to the college of pontwo or more divinities, as in the Erechtheum tiffs. Those persons who had the immediat Athens the statues of Neptune, Vulcan, ate care of the temples were the AEDITUI. and Butas. The statues always faced the TEPIDA'RIUM. [BALNEUM, p. 47.] entrance, which was in the centre of the TERMINA'LIA, a festival in honour of prostylus. The place where the statue the god Terminus, who presided over bounstood was called &5o~, and was surrounded by daries. His statue was merely a stone or post a balustrade or railings. Some temples also stuck in the ground to distinguish between had more than one cella, in which case the properties. On the festival the two owners one was generally behind the other, as in the of adjacent property crowned the statue temple of Minerva Polias at Athens. In tem- with garlands, and raised a rude altar, on ples where oracles were given, or where the which they offered up some corn, honeyworship was connected with mysteries, the combs, and wine, and sacrificed a lamb or a cella was called &dvrov, guyapov, or lvcia- sucking pig. They concluded with singing ropov, and to it only the priests and the the praises of the god. The public festival initiated had access. The o7rta66douoS was in honour of this god was celebrated at the a building which was sometimes attached to sixth mile-stone on the road towards Laurenthe back front of a temple, and served as a tum, doubtless because this was originally place in which the treasures of the temple the extent of the Roman territory in that diwere kept, and thus supplied the place of 0gr- tection. avpoi, which were attached to some temples. The festival of the terminaliawas celebrated Independently of the immense treasures on the 23rd of February, on the day before contained in many of the Greek temples, the Regifugium. The Terminalia was celewhich were either utensils or ornaments, and brated on the last day of the old Roman year, of the tithes of spoils, &c., the property of whence some derive its name. We know temples, from which they derived a regular that February was the last month of the Roincome, consisted of lands (re/jvy), either man year, and that when the intercalary fields, pastures, or forests. These lands month Mercedonius was added, the last five were generally let out to farm, unless they days of February were added to the intercalwere, by some curse which lay on them, pre. ary month, making the 23d of February the vented from being taken into cultivation, last day of the year. 316 TESTUDO. TETRARCHES. TERU'NCIUS. [As.] the soldiers when they advanced to the walls TESSERA (c;flof), a square or cube; a or gates of a town for the purpose of attackdie; a token. ing them. The dice used in games of chance were Sometimes the shields were disposed in tesserae, small squares or cubes, and were such a way as to make the testudo slope. commonly made of ivory, bone, or wood. The soldiers in the first line stood upright, They were numbered on all the six sides, those in the second stooped a little, and each like the dice still in use; and in this respect line successively was a little lower than the as well as in their form they differed from the preceding down to the last, where the soltali. [TALUS.] Whilst four tall were used diers rested on one knee. Such a disposition in playing, only three tesserae were anciently of the shields was called fastigata testudo, on employed. account of their sloping like the roof of a Objects of the same materials with dice, building. The advantages of this plan were and either formed like them, or of an oblong obvious: the stones and missiles thrown upon shape, were used as tokens for different pur- the shields rolled off them like water from a poses. The tessera hospitalis was the token roof; besides which, other soldiers frequently of mutual hospitality, and is spoken of under advanced upon them to attack the enemy HOSPITIUM. This token was probably in many upon the walls. The Romans were accuscases of earthenware, having the head of Ju- toEned to form this kind of testudo, as an expiter Hospitalis stamped upon it. Tesserae ercise, in the games of the circus. frumentariae and nummariae were tokens given at certain times by the Roman magistrates to the poor, in exchange for which they received a fixed amount of corn or money. From the application of this term to tokens of various kinds, it was transferred to the word used as a token among soldiers. This -- wag the tessera militaris, the cbvOelya of the Greeks. Before joining battle it was given out and passed through the ranks, as a method by which the soldiers might be able to distinguish friends from foes. TESTU'DO (X,-x~ev), a tortoise, was the name given to several other objects. 1. To the Lyra, because it was sometimes ( made of a tortoise-shell. 2. To an arched or vaulted roof. --- 3. To a military machine moving upon wheels and, roofed over, used in besieging cities, under which the soldiers worked in / Undermining the walls or otherwise destroying them. It was usually covered with raw / hides, or other materials which could not easily be set on fire. The battering-ram [ARIES] was frequently placed under a testudo of this kind, which was then called Testudo Arietaria. Testudo. 4. The name of testudo was also applied to the covering made by a close body of sl- TETRARCHES or TETRARCHA (rediers who placed their shields over their headis -rpdpX). This word was originally used, to secure themselves against the darts of the according to its etymological meaning, to sig.. enemy. The shieldsfitted so closely together nify the governor of the fourth part of a counas to present one unbroken surface without try (rerpapXia or rTerpadapXia). We have any interstices between them, and were also an example in the ancient division of Thesso firm that men could walk upon them, and saly into four tetrarchies, which was revived even horses and chariots be driven over them. by Philip. Each of the three Gallic tribes A testudo was formed (testudinemfacere) either which settled in Galatia was divided into in battle to ward off the arrows and other four tetrarchies, each ruled by a tetrach. missiles of the enemy, or, which was more Some of the-,tribes of Syria were ruled by frequently the case, to form a protection to tetrarchs, and several of the princes of the THEATRUM. 317 house of Herod ruled in Palestine with this new Athenian theatre was built on a very title. large scale, and appears to have been conIn the later period of the republic and under structed with great skill in regard to its the empire, the Romans seem to have used acoustic and perspective arrangements. Subthe title (as also those of eth'narch and phylarch) sequently theatres were erected in all parts to designate those tributary princes who were of Greece and Asia Minor, although Athens not of sufficient importance to be called was the centre of the Greek drama, and the kings. only place which produced great masterworks THARGE'LIA (Oapyi7Xea), a festival cel- in this department of literature. All the theaebrated at Athens on the 6thand 7th of Thar- tres however which were constructed in gelion, in honour of Apollo and Diana. Greece were probably built after the model The real festival, or the Thargelia in a of that of Athens, and with slight deviations narrower sense of the word, appears to have and modifications they all resembled one antaken place onthe 7th;' and on the preceding other in the main points, as is seen in the day, the city of Athens, or rather its inhab- numerous ruins of theatres in various parts itants, were purified. Tile manner in which of Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily. The Atthis purification was effected is very extraor- tic theatre was, like all the Greek theatres, dinary, and is certainly a remnant of very an- placed in such a manner that the place for cient rites, for two persons were put to death the spectators formed the upper or northon that day, and the one died on behalf of the western, and the stage with all that belonged men, and the other on behalf of the women to it the south-eastern part, and between of Athens. The name by which these vic- these two parts lay the orchestra. The antims were designated was pharmaci (Oap/,a- nexed plan has been made from the remains KOi). It appears probable, however, that this of Greek theatres still extant, and from a caresacrifice did not take place annually, but ful examination of the passages in ancient only in case of a heavy calamity having be- writers which describe the whole or parts of fallen the city, such as the plague, a famine, a theatre. &c. The victims appear to have been crimi- 1. The place for the spectators was in a nals sentenced to death. narrower sense of the word called theatrum. The second day of the thargelia was solem- The seats for the spectators, which were in nized with a procession and an agon, which most cases cut out of the rock, consisted of consisted of a cyclic chorus, performed by men rows of benches rising one above another; at the expense of a choragus. The prize of the rows themselves (a) formed parts (nearly the victor in this agon was a tripod, which three-fourths) of concentric circles, and were he had to dedicate in the temple of Apollo at intervals divided into compartments by one which had been built by Pisistratus. On or more broad passages (b) running between this day it was customary for persons who them, and parallel with the benches. These were adopted into a family to be solemnly passages were called dtar,6zara, or Kar7aq/tai, registered and received into the genos and Lat.praecinctiones, and when the concourse of the phratria of the adoptive parents. This people was very great in a theatre, many persolemnity was the same as that of registering sons might stand in them. Across the rows one's own children at the Apaturia. of benches ran stairs, by which persons might THEA'TRUM (Oearpov), a theatre. The ascend from the lowest to the highest. But Athenians before the time of Aeschylus had these stairs ran in straight lines only from one only a wooden scaffolding on which their praecinctio to another; and the stairs in the dramas were performed. Such a wooden next series of rows were just between the two theatre was only erected for the time of the stairs of the lower series of benches. By this Dionysiac festivals, and was afterwards pull- course of the stairs the seats were divided into ed down. The first drama that Aeschylus a number of compartments, resembling cones brought upon the stage was performed upon from which the tops are cut off; hence, they such a wooden scaffold, and it is recorded as were termed KepKcid6', and in Latin cunei. a singular and ominous coincidence that on The whole of the place for the spectators that occasion (500 B. c.) the scaffolding broke (Oe-irpov) was sometimes designated by the down. To prevent the recurrence of such name Coa2Xov, Latin cavea, it being in most an accident, the building of a stone theatre cases a real excavation of the rock. Above was forthwith commenced on the south-east- the highest row of benches there rose a covern descent of the Acropolis, in the Lenaea; ered portico (c), which of course far exceeded for it should be observed, that throughout in height the opposite buildings by which the Greece theatres were always built upon emi- stage was surrounded, and appears to have nences, or on the sloping side of a khill. The also contributed to increase the acoustic DD2 318 THEATRUM. C e 0 ~.e ~~ Plan of Greek Theatre. effect. The entrances to the seats of the the projecting wings of the stage and the spectators were partly underground, and led seats of the spectators, through which the to the lowest rows of benches, while the chorus entered the orchestra. The chorus upper rows must have been accessible from generally arranged itself in the space between above. the thymele and the stage. The thymele 2. The orchestra (6pXiafrpa) was a circular itself was of a square form, and was used for level space extending in front of the specta- various purposes, according to the nature of tors, and somewhat below the lowest row of the different plays, such as a funeral monubenches. But it was not a complete circle, ment, an altar, &c. It was made of boards, one segment of it being appropriated to the and surrounded on all sides with steps. It stage. The orchestra was the place for the thus stood upon a raised platform, which was chorus, where it performed its evolutions and sometimes occupied by the leader of the chodances, for which purpose it was covered with rus, the flute-player, and the rhabdophori. boards. As the chorus was the element out The orchestra, as well as the theatrurn, lay of which the drama arose, so the orchestra under the open sky; a roof is nowhere menwas originally the most important part of a tioned. theatre: it formed the centre around which all 3. The stage. Steps led from each side of the other parts of the building were grouped. the orchestra to the stage, and by them the In the centre of the circle of the orchestra chorus probably ascended the stage whenever was the thymele (60vup;), that is, the altar of it took a real part in the action itself. The Bacchus (d), which was of course nearer to back side of the stage was closed by a wall the stage than to the seats of the spectators, called the scena (CKlwvi), from which on each the distance from which was precisely the side a wing projected which was called the length of a radius of the circle. In a wider parascenium (rcapaKvLov). The whole depth sense the orchestra also comprised the broad of the stage was not very great, as it only passages (ircpooct, e) on each side, between comprised a segment of the circle of the or THErATRUM. 319 chestra. The whole space from the scena appears to have always represented a woody to the orchestra was termed the proscenium district with hills and grottos; in comedy the (7rpoUKivtlov), and was what we would call scena represented, at least in later times, the the real stage. That part of it which was fronts of private dwellings or the habitations nearest to the orchestra, and where the actors of slaves. The art of scene-painting must stood when they spoke, was the logeium (ao- have been applied long before the time of yeZov), also called ocribas (oKpi,3af), in Latin Sophocles, although Aristotle ascribes its inpulpitum, which was of course raised above troduction to him. the orchestra and probably on a level with The whole of the cavea in the Attic theathe thymele. The scena was, as we have tre must have contained about 50,000 spectaalready stated, the wall which closed the tors. The places for generals, the archons, stage (proscenium and logeium) from behind. priests, foreign ambassadors, and other disIt represented a suitable background, or the tinguished persons, were in the lowest rows locality in which the action was going on. of benches, and nearest to the orchestra, and Before the play began it was covered with a they appear to have been sometimes covered curtain (7raparwra-euae, 7rpooKivtor, aevalat), with a sort of canopy. The rows of benches Latin aulaea or siparium. When the play above these were occupied by the senate of began this curtain was let down, and was 500, those next in succession by the ephebi, rolled up on a roller underneath the stage. and the rest by the people of Athens. But it The proscenium and logeium were never would seem that they did not sit indiscrimiconcealed from the spectators. As regards nately, but that the better places were let at the scenery represented on the scena, it was a higher price than the others, and that no different for tragedy, comedy. and the satyric one had a right to take a place for which he drama, and for each of these kinds of poetry had not paid. The usual fee for a place was the scenery must have been capable of va- two obols, which was subsequtently given to rious modifications, according to the charac- the poorer classes by a law of Pericles. [THEter of each individual play; at least that this ORICA.] Women were allowed to be present was the case with the various tragedies, is during the performance of tragedies, but not evident from the scenes described in the tra- of comedies. gedies still extant. In the latter however The Romans must have become acquainted the back-ground (scena) in most cases repre- with the theatres of the Italian Greeks at an sented the front of a palace with a door in early period, whence they erected their own the centre (i) which was called the royal door. theatres in similar positions upon the sides This palace generally consisted of two stories, of hills. This is still clear from the ruins of and upon its fiat roof there appears to have very ancient theatres at Tusculum and Faebeen some elevated place from which persons sulae. The Romans themselves, however, might observe what was going on at a dis- did not possess a regular stone theatre until tance. The palace presented on each side a a very late period; and although dramatic projecting wing, each of which had its sepa- representations were very popular in earlier rate entrance. These wings generally repre- times, it appears that a wooden stage was sented the habitations of guests and visitors. erected when necessary, and was afterwards All the three doors must have been visible pulled down again, and the plays of Plautus to the spectators. The protagonistes always and Terence were performed on such tempoentered the stage through the middle or royal rary scaffoldings. In the mean while, many door, the deuteragonistes and tritagonistes of the neighbouring towns of Rome had their through those on the right and left wings. In stone theatres, as the introduction of Greek tragedies like the Prometheus, the Persians, customs and manners was less strongly opPhiloctetes, Oedipus in Colonus, and others, posed in them than in the city of Rome itself. the back-ground did not represent a palace. Wooden theatres, adorned with the most proThere are other pieces again in which the fuse magnificence, were erected at Rome scena must have been changed in the course even during the last period of the republic. of the performance, as in the Eumenides of In B. c. 55 Cn. Pompey built the first stone Aeschylus and the Ajax of Sophocles. The theatre at Rofne, near the Campus Martius. dramas of Euripides required a great variety It was of great beauty, and is said to have of scenery; and if in addition to this we re- been built after the model of that of Mytilene; collect that several pieces were played in one it contained 40,000 spectators. day, it is manifest that the mechanical parts The construction of a Roman theatre reof stage performance, at least in the days of sembled, on the whole, that of a GreeK one. Euripides, must have been brought to great The principal differences are, that the seats perfection. The scena in the satyric drama of the spectators, which rose in the form of 320 THENSAE. THEORICA. an amphitheatre around the orchestra, did regulated the places in the theatre to be ocnot form mnore than a semicircle; and that cupied by the different classes of Roman citthe whole of the orchestra likewise formed izens: it enacted that fourteen ordines of only a semicircle, the diameter of which form- benches were to be assigned as seats to the ed the front line of the stage. The Roman equites. Hence these quatuordecim ordines orchestra contained no thymele, and was not are sometimes mentioned without any further destined for a chorus, but contained the seats addition, as the honorary seats of the equifor senators and other distinguished persons, tes. They were undoubtedly close behind such as foreign ambassadors, which are called the seats of the senators and magistrates, and primus subselliorum ordo. In B. c. 68 the tri- thus consisted of the rows of benches immebune L. Roscius Otho carried a law which diately behind the orchestra. Plan of Roman Theatre. THENSAE or TENSAE, highly orna- the driver took the reins in his left hand, it mented sacred vehicles, which, in the solemn was necessary to recommence the procespomp of the Circensian games, conveyed the sion, and for one of the attendant boys to let statues of certain deities with all their deco- go the thong, or to stumble, was profanarations to the pulvinaria, and after the sports tion. were over bore them back to their shrines. The only gods distinctly named as carried We are ignorant of their precise form. We in tensae are Jupiter and Minerva, though know that they were drawn by horses, and others appear to have had the same honour escorted (deducere) by the chief senators in paid them. robes of state, who, along with pueri patri- THEOPHA'NIA (Geogdvta), a festivl celmi [PATRIMI], laid hold of the bridles and ebrated at Delphi, on the occasion of hich traces, or perhaps assisted todrag the carriage the Delphians filled the huge silver crater by means of thongs.attached for the purpose which had been presented to the Delphic god (and hence the proposed derivation from tendo). by Croesus. So sacred was this duty considered, that Au- THEO'RIA. [THEORI.] gustus, when labouring under sickness, deem- THEO'RICA (OWptKd). Under this name ed it necessary to accompany the tensae in a at Athens were comprised the moneys expendlitter. If one of the horses knocked up, or ed on festivals, sacrifices, and public enter THEORICA. THEORI. 321 tainments of various kinds; and also moneys is calculated that from 25 to 30 talents were distributed among the people in the shape of spent upon them annually. largesses from the state. So large an expenditure of the public funds There were, according to Xenophon, more upon shows and amusements absorbed the festivals at Athens than in all the rest of resources, which were demanded for services Greece. At the most important of the public of a more important nature. By the ancient festivals, such as the Dionysia, Panathenaea, law, the whole surplus of the annual revenue Eleusinia, Thargella, and some others, there which remained after the expense of the civil were not only sacrifices, but processions, administration (ra 7repiovra Xpnyara r7o theatrical exhibitions, gymnastic contests, 6dOtKocEof) was to be carried to the military and games, celebrated with great splendour fund, and applied to the defence of the comand at a great expense. A portion of the ex- monwealth. Since the timeofPericles various pense was defrayed by the individuals upon demagogues had sprung up, who induced the whomn the burden of the liturgies devolved; people to divert all that could be spared from but a considerable, and perhaps the larger, the other branches of civil expenditure into part was defrayed by the public treasury. the theoric fund,which at length swallowed up Demosthenes complains, that more money the whole surplus, and the supplies needed was spent on a single.Panathenaic or Diony- for the purpose of war or defence were left to siac festival than on any military expedition. depend upon the extraordinary contributions, The religious embassies to Delos and other or property-tax (elrfQopai). An attempt was places, and especially those to the Olympian, made by the demagogue Eubulus to perpetuNemean, Isthmian, and Pythian games, drew ate this system. He passed a law, which largely upon the public exchequer, though a made it a capital offence to propose that the part of the cost fell upon the wealthier citi- theoric fund should be applied to military zens who conducted them. service. The law of Eubulus was a source The largesses distributed among the people of great embarrassment to Demosthenes, in had their origin at an early period, and in a the prosecutions of his schemes for the nameasure apparently harmless, though from a tional defence; and he seems at last, but not small beginning they afterwards rose to a before B. c. 339, to have succeeded in repealheight most injurious to the commonwealth. ing it. The Attic drama used to be performed in a In the earlier times there was no person, or wooden theatre, and the entrance was free to board of persons, expressly appointed to manall citizens who chose to go. It was found, age the theoric fund. The money thus ap. however, that the crushing to get in led to propriated was disbursed by the Hellenomuch confusion and even danger. On one tamiae. After the anarchy, the largess sysoccasion, about B. c. 500, the wooden scaffold- temhaving been restored by Agyrrhius, aboard ing of the theatre fell down, and caused great of managers was appointed. They were alarm. It was then determined that the en- elected by show of hands at the period of trance should no longer be gratuitous. The the great Dionysia, one from each tribe. fee for a place was fixed at two obols, which THEO'RI (eocipoi), persons sent on special was paid to the lessee of the theatre, (called missions (Oeuopiat) to perform some religious 0earpWvrC, 0earpo7r6?tSYf, or (pxtr'cKTrov,) duty, as to consult an oracle, or to offer a who undertook to keep it in repair, and con- sacrifice, on behalf of the state. There were stantly ready for use, on condition of being in some of the Dorian states, as the Aegineallowed to receive the profits. This payment tans, Troezenians, Messenia-, and Mantinecontinued to be exacted after the stone thea- ans, official priests called..ori, whose duty tre was built. Pericles, to relieve the poorer it was to consult oracles, interpret the reclasses, passed a law which enabled them to sponses, &c., as among the Spartans there receive the price of admission from the state; were men called Pythii, chosen by the kings after which all those citizens who were too to consult the oracle at Delphi. At Athens poor to pay for their places applied for the there were no official persons called Theori, money in the public assembly, which was but the name was given to those citizens who then frequently held in the theatre. In pro- were appointed from time to time to conduct cess of time this donation was extended to religious embassies to various places; or other entertainments besides theatrical ones; which the most important were those thac the sum of two oboli being given to each citi- were senit to the Olympian, Pythian, Nezen who attended; if the festival lasted two mean, and Isthmian games, those that went days, four oboli; and if three, six oboli; but to consult the god at Delphi, and those that not beyond. Hence all theoric largesses re- led the solemn procession to Delos, where ceived the name of diobelia (dLoie~aia). It the Athenians established a quadriennial fes 322 TIIESMOPHORIA. THRONUS. tival, in revival of the ancient Ionian one, of food than cakes made of sesame and honey. which Homer speaks.'T'he expense of these On this day no meetings either of the senate embassies was defrayed partly by the state or the people were held. It was probably in and partly by wealthy citizens, to whom the the afternoon of this day that the women held management of them was entrusted, called a procession at Athens, in which they walked Architheori (6pXLO'eopot), chiefs of the en- barefooted behind a waggon, upon which bassy. This was a sort of liturgy, and fre- baskets with mystical symbols were conveyed quently a very costly one; as the chief con- to the thesmophorion. The third day, called ductor represented the state, and was ex- tKataLyeveta, from the circumstance that pected to appear with a suitable degree of Ceres was invoked under this name, was splendour; for instance, to wear a golden a day of merriment and raillery among the crown, to drive into the city with a handsome women themselves, in commemoration of chariot, retinue, &c. Iambe, who was said to have made the godThe Salaminian, or Delian, ship was also dess smile during her grief. called Oewop. valg', and was principally used THESMO'THETAE. [ARCHON.] for conveying embassies to Delos, though, THETES. [CENSUS, p. 73.] like the Paralus, it was employed on other THOLOS (06ooSg, also called aca~tt), a expeditions besides. name given to any round building which terTHERMAE. [BALNEUM.] minated at the top in a point, whatever might THESEIA (0yverea), a festival celebrated be the purpose for which it was used. At by the Athenians in honour of their national Athens the name was in particular applied hero Theseus, whom they believed to have to the new round prytaneum near the senbeen the author of their democratical form of ate-house, which should not be confounded government. In consequence of this belief with the old prytaneum at the foot of the donations of bread and meat were given to the acropolis. It was therefore the place in poor people at the Theseia, which was thus which the prytanes took their common meals for them a feast at which they felt no want, and offered their sacrifices. It was adorned and might fancy themselves equal to the with some small silver statues, and near it wealthiest citizens. The day on which this stood the ten statues of the Attic Eponymi. festival was held was the eighth of every THORAX. [LORICA.] month (6yd6at), but more especially the THRACES. [GLADIATORES.] eighth of Pyanepsion, whence the festival THRAN1'TAE. [NAVIS, p. 219.] was sometimes called 6y7666lov. It is proba- THRONUS (Op6vog), a throne, is a Greek ble that the festival of the Theseia was not word, for which the proper Latin term is instituted till B. C. 469, when Cimon brought Solium. This did not differ from a chair the remains of Theseus from Scyrus to (iKaO6pa) [CATnmEDRA; SELLA] except in Athens. being higher, larger, and in all respects more THESMOPHO'RIA (0ealyuo6pta), a great magnificent. On account of its elevation it festival and mysteries, celebrated in honour was always necessarily accompanied bya footof Ceres in various parts of Greece, and stool (subsellium, v7rowr6(dov, Op6v.ov). The only by women, though some ceremonies accompanying cut shows two gilded thrones were also performed by maidens. It was in- with cushions and drapery, intended to be the tended to commemorate the introduction of thrones of Mars and Venus, which is exthe laws and regulations of civilized life, pressed by the helmet on the one and the which was universally ascribed to Ceres. dove on the other. The Attic thesmophoria probably lasted only three days, and began onil the 11th of Pyanepsion, which day was called lIvodoc or rci0o- i (do, because the solemnities were opened by the women with a procession from Athens to Eleusis. In this procession they carried on their heads sacred laws (v6y/tuotL fi3ot or 0aeuoi), the introduction of which was ascribed to Ceres (Oeqaoy0poc), and other li ga symbols of civilized life. The women spent the night at Eleusis in celebrating the mys- teries of the goddess. The second day, called vCareia, was a day of mourning, during which the women sat on the ground around the statue of Ceres, and took no other Throni, Thrones. THYRSUS. TIARA. 323 Tile following woo(d-cut fiborn a fictile vase in the Museo Borbonico at N aples, representts Juno seated on a splendid throne, which is elevated on a basement. She holds in her left hand a sceptre, and in her right the apple, which Mercury is about to convey to Paris with a view to the celebrated contest for a // beauty on Mount Ida. Mercury is distinguish- "i;/ ed by his talaria, his caduceus, andr his petasus thrown behind his back, and hanging by a " / string. On the right side of the throne is // I the representation of a tigress or panther. TIA'RA or TIA'RAS (i-tdpa or rt pa Aft. cvp/3aai), a hat with a large high crown. This wvas the head-dress which characterized the north-western Asiatics, and more espe- -cially the Armenian rthians, and Persians, as rlistinguished from the Greeks and Romans, r II Dwhose hats fitted the head, or had only a low crown. The king of Persia wore an erect tiara, whilst those of his subjects were soft b'-~"~ o o Dv__ _t 0. 1,l v D,, ~ ^and flexible, falling on one side. The Persian name for this regal head-dress was cidaris. Thronuo., Throne. TH-Y'MELE. [THEATRnUM, p. 318.] THYRSUS (Wthpaog), a pole carried by Bacchus, and by Satyrs, Maenades, and others who engaged in Bacchic festivities and rites. [DONYSIA.] It was sometimes terminated by the apple of the pine, or fir-cone, that tree (rre c1r7) being dedicated to Bacchus in consequence of the use of the turpentine which flowed from it, and also of its cones, in making wine. The monuments of ancient art, however, most commonly exhibit, instead of the pine-apple, a bunch of vine or ivy leaves, with grapes or berries, arranged into the form of a cone. The annexed cut shows the head of a thyrsus composed of the leaves and berries of the ivy, and surrounded by acanthusleaves. The fabulous history of Bacchus relates that he converted the thyvrsi carried by himself ald his followers into dangerous weapons, by concealing an iron point in the head of the leaves. Hence his thyrsus is called "a spear enveloped in vine-leaves," and its point was thought to incite to-madness. Tiara, Persian Head.dreas. 324 TIBIA. TIRO. TI'BIA (avt'6C), a pipe, the commonest kind of music appropriate to each: tibiis panmusical instrument of the Greeks and Ro- bus, i. e. with pipes in the same mode; tib. immans. It was very frequently a hollow cane, paribus, pipes in different modes; tib. duabus perforated with holes in the proper places. dextris, two pipes of low pitch; tib. par. dexIn other instances it was made of some kind tris et sinistris, pipes in the same mode, and of of wood, especially box, and was bored with both low and high pitch. a gimblet. The use of the pipe among the Greeks and When a single pipe was used by itself, the Romans was threefold, viz. at sacrifices performer upon it, as well as the instrument, (tibiae sacrificae), entertainments (ludicrae), was called monaulos. Among the varieties of and funerals. The pipe was not confined anthe single pipe the most remarkable were the ciently, as it is with us, to the male sex, but bagpipe, the performer on which was called avalrpi6der, or female tibicines, were very utricularius or 4KacuSaZX; and the av'o'd 7raud- common. ytof or'7r2ayiav?2oC, which, as its name im- TIME'MA (r#iunua). [DICE'.] plies, had a mouth-pipe inserted into it at T1NTINNA'BU LUM (d)6Uv), a bell. right angles. Pan was the reputed inventor Bells were of various forms among the Greeks of this kind of tibia as well as of the fistula or and Romans, as among us. Various specisyrinx [SYRINX]. mens of them are given in the annexed cut. But among the Greeks and Romans it was much more usual to play on two pipes at the same time. Hence a performance on this instrument (tibicinium), even when executed by a single person, was called caners or cantare tibiis. This act is exhibited in very numerous works of ancient art, and often in such a way as to make it manifest that the two pipes were perfectly distinct, and not connected, as some have supposed, by a common mouth-piece. The mouth-pieces of the two pipes often passed through a capistrum. (See cut, p. 77.) Three ditferent kinds of pipes were originally used to produce music in the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian modes. It appears, also, that to produce the Phrygian mode the pipe had only two holes above, and that it terminated in a horn bending upwards. It thus approached to the nature of a trumpet, and produced slow, grave, and solemn tunes. The Lydian mode was much quicker, and more varied and animating. Horace mentions "Lydian pipes" as a proper accompaniment, when he is celebrating the praise of ancient heroes. The Lydians themselves used this instrument in leading their troops to battle; and the pipes employed for the purpose are distinguished by Herodotus as "male and female," i. e. probably base and treble, corresponding to the ordinary sexual Tintinnabula, Bells difference in the human voice. The corres- TIROCI'NIUM. [TIRo.] ponding Latin terms are tibia dextra and sin- TIRO, the name given by the Romans to istra; the respective instruments are sup- a newly enlisted soldier, as opposed to vetera. posed to have been so called, because the nus, onewhohad had experience in war. The former was more properly held in the right mode of levying troops is described under Exhand and the latter in the left. The " tibia ERCITUs. The age at which the liability to dextra" was used to lead or commence a piece military service commenced was 17. From of music, and the "sinistra" followed it is as their first enrolment the Roman soldiers. when an accompaniment. The comedies of Terence not actually serving against all enemy, wyer having been accompanied by the pipe, the perpetually occupied in military exercise,. following notices are prefixed to explain the They were exercised every day, the tironea TOGA. 3p25 twice, in the morning and afternoon, and the the Romans, who were thence called togant veterani once. or gens togata. It was originally worn only The state of a tiro was called tirocinium; in Rome itself, and the use of it was forbidand a soldier who had attained skill in his den alike to exiles and to foreigners. Graduprofession was then said tirocinium ponere, or ally, however, it went out of common use, deponere. and was supplanted by the pallium and lacerIn civil life the terms tire and tirocinium na, or else it was worn in public under the were applied to the assumption of the toga lacerna. [LACERNA.] But it was still used virilis,which was called tirociniumfori [TOGA], by the upper classes, who regarded it as an and to the first appearance of an orator at the honourable distinction, in the courts of jusrostra, tirocinium eloquentiae. tice, by clients when they received the SPORTI'TII SODA'LES, a sodalitas or college TULA, and in the theatre or at the games, at of priests at Rome, who represented the sec- least when the emperor was present. ond tribe of the Romans, or the Tities, that The exact form of the toga, and the manis, the Sabines, who, after their union with ner of wearing it, are matters which are much the Ramnes or Latins, continued to perform disputed, and about which indeed it seems their own ancient Sabine sacra. To super- almost impossible, with our present infornlaintend and preserve these, T. Tatius is said tion, to arrive at certainty. to have instituted the Titii sodales. During The sinus of the toga, to which frequent the time of the republic the Titii sodales are reference is made, was a portion of the garno longer mentioned, as the sacra of the three ment, which hung down in front of the body, tribes became gradually united into one cornm- like a sling. (See the preceding cut.) mon religion. Under the empire we again One mode of wearing the toga was the meet with a college of priests bearing the cinctus Gabinus. It consisted in forming a name of Sodales Titii or Titienses, or Sacer- part of the toga itself into a girdle, by drawdotes Titiales Flaviales; but they had no- ing its outer edge round the body and tying thing to do with the sacra of the ancient tribe it in a knot, in front, and at the same time of the Tities, but were priests instituted to covering the head with another portion of the conduct the worship of an emperor, like the garment. It was worn by persons offering Augustales. sacrifices, by the consul when he declared TITIES or TITIENSES. [PATRICII.] war, and by devoted persons, as in the case TOGA (i-rjEvvo~), a gown, the name of the of Decius. Its origin was Etruscan, as its principal outer garment worn by the Romans, name implies. Persons wearing this dress seems to have been received by them from the were said to be procincti (or incincti) cinctu (or Etruscans. ritu) Gabino. The toga was the peculiar distinction of The colour of the toga worn by men (toga virilis) was generally white, that is, the natural colour of white wool. Hence it was called pura or vestimentum purum, in opposition to the praetexta mentioned below. A brighter white was given to the toga of candidates for 1t,\\tjr Ioffices (candidati from their toga candida) by rubbing it with chalk. There is an illusion to this custom in the phrase cretata ambitio. White togas are often mentioned as worn at festivals, which does not imply that they were not worn commonly, but that new or fresh-cleaned togas were first put on at festivals. The toga was kept white and clean by the fuller. When this was neglected, the'such garments sordidati. This dress (with disarranged hair and other marks of disorder about the person) was worn by accused persons, as in the case of Cicero. The toga pulla, which was of the natural colour of black wool, was worn in private mourning, and sometimes also by artificers and others of the lower orders. The toga picta, which was orToga. namented with Phrygian embroidery, was Er 326 TOGA. TORMENTUM. worn by generals in triumphs [TRIUMPHUS], appears to [lave been first assumed by Julius and under the emperors by the consuls, and Caesar. by the praetors when they celebrated the The material of which the toga was corngames. It was also called Capitolina. The monly made was wool. It was sometimes toga palmata was a kind of toga picta. The thick and sometimes thin. The former was togapraetexta had a broad purple border. It the toga densa, pinguis, or hirta. A new toga, was'worn with the BULLA, by children of with the nap neither worn off nor cut close, both sexes. It was also worn by magistrates, was called pexa, to which is opposed the trita both those of Rome, and those of the colo- or rasa, which was used as a summer dress. nies and municipia; by the sacerdotes, and The toga was originally worn by both sexes; by persons engaged in sacred rites or paying but when the stola came to be worn by mavows. Among those who possessed the jus trons, the toga was only worn by the meretogae praetextae habendae, the following may trices, and by women who had been divorced be more particularly mentioned: the dictator, on account of adultery. [STOLA.] Before the the consuls, the praetors (who laid aside the use of the togabecame almost restricted to the praetexta when about to condemn a Roman u pper classes, their toga was only distinguished ~citizen to death), the augurs (who, however, from that of the lower classes by being fuller are supposed. by some to have worn the tra- and more expensive. In war it was laid aside, bea), the decemviri sacris faciundis, the and replaced by the PALUDAMa:NTUM and SAaediles, the triulnviri epulones, the senators GUM. Hence togatusis opposed to miles. The on festival days, the magistri collegii, and toga was, however, sometimes used by solthe magistri vicorum when celebrating gaInes. diers, but not in battle, nor as their ordinary In the case of the tribuni plebis, censors, and dress; but rather as a cloak or blanket. It quaestors, there is some doubt upon the sub- was chiefly worn in Rome, and hence togatus ject. is opposed to rusticus. The toga was often The toga praetexta is said to have been used as a covering in sleeping; and lastly, as derived from the Etruscans, and to have been a shroud for the corpse. first adopted, with the latus clavus [CLAVUS TOMBS. [FUNus.] LATUS], by Tullus Hostilius as the royal TONSOR. [BARBA.] robe, whence its use by the magistrates in TO'RCULAR, TO'RCULUM. [VINUM, the republic. The toga praetexta and the p. 409, b. bulla aurea were first given to boys in the TORMENTUM (di0erprta 6pyava), a milicase of the son of Tarquinius Priscus, who, tary engine, so called from* the twisting (tot'at the age of fourteen, in the Sabine war, quendo) of hairs, thongs, and vegetable fibres. slew an enemy with his own hand. Respect- The principal military engines were the baing the leaving off of the toga praetexta, and lista and catapulta. The balista (rnevpof362Oog) the assumption of the toga virilis, see IaMPUBES was used to shoot stones; the catapulta (Keaand CLAVUS LATvs. The occasion was cel- rarZi-r7yg, tcarearerilc7) to project darts, esebrated with great rejoicings by the friends pecially the falarica [HIAST.]], and a kind of of the youth, who attended him in a solemn missile, 4~ feet long, called trifax. Whilst in procession to the Forum and Capitol. This besieging a city the ram [ARIES] was emassumption of the toga virilis was called tiro- ployed in destroying the lower part of the cinium. fori, as being the young man's intro- wall, the balista was used to overthrow the duction to public life. Girls wore the prae- battlements (propugnacula, iraeZ4e-g), and the texta till their marriage. catapult to shoot any of the besieged who apThe trabea was a toga ornamented with pur- peared between them. The forms of these ple horizontal stripes. There were three kinds machines being adapted to the objects whicht of trabea; one wholly of purl)le, which was sa- they were intended to throw, the catapult was cred to the gods, another of purple and white, long, the halista nearly square. Instances areand' another of purple and saffron, which recorded in which the balista threw stones to belonged to augurs. The purple and white the distance of a quarter of a mile. Some. trabea was a royal robe, and is assigned to the balistae threw stones weighing three hullLatin and early Roman kings, especially to dred weight. Romulus. It was worn by the consuls in pub- Of the scorpio or onager, which was also, lic solemnities, such as opening the temple of a species of tormentum, we know next to Janus. The equites wore it at the transvectis, nothing. and in other public solemnities. Hence the The torture-or question (quaestio),as applied trabea is mentioned as the badge of the eques- to criminals or witnesses, was called tormentrian order. Lastly, the toga worn by the turnm by the Romans, and 3eiaavogs by the Roman emperors was wholly of purple. It Greeks,. The executioner was called tortor, TRIBULUS. TRIBUNUS. 327 arld among the instruments employed for the I ing before them caltrops, which necessarily purpose were the wheel and the eculeus. lay with one of their four sharp points turned Among both the Greeks and Romans, no upward, or by burying the caltrop with one freemen were put to the torture, but only point at the surface of the ground. The folslaves, whose evidence was for that reason lowing wood-cut is taken from a bronze caloften considered of more value than that of trop figured by Caylus. freemen. TORQUES or TORQUIS (arperrr6r), an ornament of gold, twisted spirally and bent into a circular form, which was worn round the neck by men of distinction among the Persians, the Gauls, and other Asiatic and northern nations. It was by taking a collar from a Gallic warrior that T. Manlius obtained the coanomen of Torquutus. Torques, whether in the form of collars or bracelets, no doubt formed a considerable part of the wealth of those who wore them. Hence they were an important portion of the spoil, when any Celtic or Oriental army was conquered, and they were among the rewards of valour bestowed after an engagement upon those who had most distinguished themselves. Tribulus, Caltrop. TRIBU'NAL, a raised platform, on which the praetor and judices sat in the Basilica. [BAsILIcA.] There was a tribunal in the camp, which was generally formed of turf, but sometimes, in a stationary camp, of stone, from which the general addressed the soldiers, and where the consul and tribunes of the soldiers administered justice. When the general addressed the army from the tribunal, the standards were planted in front of it, and the army placed round it in order. The address itself was called Allocutio. TRIBU'NUS, a tribune. This word seems originally to have indicated an officer connected with a tribe (tribus), or who representTorques. edS a tribe for certain purposes; and this is TORTURE. [TORMENTUM.] indeed the character of the officers who were TOWERS. [TURRIS.W designated by it in the earliest times of Rome, TRA'BEA. [TOGA.] and may be traced also in the later officers TRA'GULA. [HASTA.] of this name. TRANSTRA. [NAvIs, p. 223.1 1. TRIBUNES OF THE THREE ANCIENT TRANSVE'CTIO EQUITUM. [EQUI- TRIBES. At the time when all the Roman TES, p. 137.] citizens were contained in the three tribes of TRIALS, Greek [DIcE'I; Roman [ACTI; the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, each of JUDEX.] them was headed by a tribune, arid these TRIA'RII. IEXERcITUS, P. 1.42.] three tribunes represented their respective TRIBES. [TRIsus.] tribes in all civil, religious, and military afTRI'BULUS (rpi3oXof), a caltrop, also fairs; that is to say, they were in the city the called mnurex. When a place was beset with magistrates of the tribes, and performed the troops, the one party endeavoured to impede sacra on their behalf, and in times of war they the cavalry of the other party, either by throw. were their military commanders. The tribu 328 TRIBUNUS. nus celerum was the commader of the celeres, the convoking the meetings of their tribes, and of king's body-guard, and not the tribune of the maintaining the privileges granted to them by tribe of the Ramnes, as ig supposed by some king Servius, and subsequently by the Valemodern writers. In what manner the tribunus rian laws. But this protection was very incelerum was appointed, is uncertain, but it is adequate against the insatiable ambition and probable that he was elected by the tribes; usurpations of the patricians. When the for we find that when the imperium was to plebeians, impoverished by long wars, and be conferred upon the king, the comitia were cruelly oppressed by the patricians, at last held under the presidency of the tribunus ce- seceded in B. C. 494 to the Mons Sacer, the lerum; and in the absence of the king, to patricians were obliged to grant to the plebeiwhom this officer was next in rank, he con- ans the right of appointing tribunes (tribuni voked the cornitia: it was in an assembly of plebis) with more efficient powers to protect this kind that Brutus proposed to deprive Tar- their own order than those which were posquinius of the imperium. A law passed under sessed by the heads of the tribes. The purthe presidency of the tribunus celerum was pose for which they were appointed was only called a lex tribunicia, to distinguish it from to afford protection against any abuse on the one passed under the presidency of the king. part of the patrician magistrates; and that The tribunes of the three ancient tribes they might be able to afford such protection, ceased to be appointed when these tribes their persons were declared sacred and inviothemselves ceased to exist as political bodies, lable, and it was agreed that whoever invaded and when the patricians became incorporated this inviolability should be an outlaw, and in the local tribes of Servius Tullius. [TRI- that his property should be forfeited to the BUS.] temple of Ceres. A subsequent law enacted 2. TRIBUNES OF THE SERVIAN TRIBES that no one should oppose or interrupt a tri(Piappoet, rptrTvcdpXot). When Servius bune while addressing the people, and that'ullius divided the commonalty into thirty whoever should act contrary to this ordinance local tribes, we again find the tribune at the should give bail to the tribunes for the payhead of these tribes. The duties of these ment of whatever fine they should affix to his tribunes, who were without doubt the most offence in arraigning him before the commondistinguished persons in their respective dis- alty; if he refused to give bail, his life and tricts, appear to have consisted at first in property were forfeited. The tribunes were keeping a register of the inhabitants in each thus enabled to afford protection to any one district, and of their property, for purposes of who appealed to the assembly of the comtaxation, and for levying the troops for the monalty or required any other assistance. armies. When subsequently the Roman peo- They were essentially the representatives ple became exempted from taxes, the main and the organs of the plebeian order, and part of their business was taken from them, their sphere of action was the comitia tributa. but they still continued to exist. The tribuni With the patricians and their comitia they aerarii, who occur down to the end of the re- had nothing to do. The tribunes themselves public, were perhaps only the successors of however were not judges, and could inflict the tribunes of the tribes. When (B. c. 406) no punishments, but could only propose the the custom of giving pay (stipendiurn) to the imposition of a fine to the commonalty (mulsoldiers was introduced, each of the tribuni tum irrogare). The tribunes were thus in aerarii had to collect the tributum in his own their origin only a protecting magistracy of tribe, and with it to pay the soldiers; and in the plebs, but in the course of time their powcase they did not fulfil this duty, the soldiers er increased to such a degree that it surpassed had the right of pignoris capio against them. that of all other magistrates, and the tribunes In later times their duties appear to have been then became a magistracy for the whole Roconfined to collecting the tributlim, which man people, in opposition to the senate and they made over to the military quaestors who the oligarchical party in general, although paid the soldiers. [QUAESTOR.] The Lex they had nothing to do with the administraAurelia, a. c. 70, called the tribuni aerarii to tion or the government. During the latter the exercise of judicial functions, along with period of the republic they became true the senators and equites, as these tribunes tyrants, and may be compared to the national represented the body of the most respectable convention of Frande during the first revolucitizens. But of this distinction they were tion. subsequently deprived by Julius Caesar. At first the number of the tribunes was 3. TRIBUNI PLEBIS (6,SapXot, the office only two, but soon afterwards they were in&qtyapXia). The ancient tribunes of the ple- creased to five, one being taken from each of beian tribes had undoubtedly the right of the five classes, and subsequently to ten, two TRIBUNUS. 329 bteing taken from each of the five classes. was held was originally and lawfully the This last number appears to have remained Forum, afterwards also the Campus Martius, unaltered down to the end of the empire. and sometimes the area of the Capitol. The tribunes entered upon their office on We now proceed to trace the gradual the 10th of December, but were elected, at growth of the tribunician power. Although least in the time of Cicero, on the 17th of its original character was merely protection July. It is almost superfluous to state, that (auxilium or i3oiOeta) against patrician magisnone but plebeians were eligible to the office trates, the plebeians appear early to have reof tribune; hence when towards the end of garded their tribunes also as mediators or arthe republic patricians wished to obtain the bitrators in matters among themselves. The office, they were obliged first to renounce whole power possessed by the college of tritheir own order and to become plebeians; bunes was designated by the name tribunicia hence also under the empire it was thought potestas, and extended at no time further that the princeps should not be tribune be- than one mile beyond the gates of the city; cause he was a patrician. But the influence at a greater distance than this they canime which belonged to this office was too great under the imperium of the magistrates, like for the emperors not to covet it. Hence Au- every other citizen. As they were the public gustus was made tribune for life. During guardians, it was necessary that every one the republic, however, the old regulation re- should have access to them and at ally time; mained in force, even after the tribunes had hence the doors of their houses were open ceased to be the protectors of the plebs alone. day and night for all who were in need of There is only one instance recorded in which help and protection, which they were em-. patricians were elected to the tribuneship, powered to afford against any one, even and this was probably the consequence of an against the highest magistrates. For the attempt to divide the tribuneship between same reason a tribune was not allowed to be the two orders. Although nothing appears absent from the city for a whole day, except to be more natural than that the tribunes during the Feriae Latinae, when the whole should originally have been ejected by that people were assembled on the Alban Mount. body of Roman citizens which they repre- In B. c. 456 the tribunes, in opposition to sented, yet the subject is involved in consid. the consuls, assumed the right of convoking erable obscurity. Some writers state that the senate, in order to lay before it a rogathey were elected by the comitia of the curies; tion, and discuss the same: for until that others suppose that they were elected in the time the consuls alone had had the right of comitia of the centuries; but whether they laying plebiscita before the senate for apwere elected in the latter or in the comitia of probation. Some years after, B. c. 452, the the tribes, it is certain that at first the sanc- tribunes demanded of the consuls to request tion of the curies to the election was at all the senate to make a senatusconsultum for events necessary. But after the time of the the appointment of persons to frame a new Lex Publilia (B. c. 472) the sanction of the legislation; and during the discussions on curies is not heard of, and the election of the this subject the tribunes themselves were tribunes was left entirely to the comitia tribu- present in the senate. The written legislata, which were convoked and held for this tion which the tribunes then wished can purpose by the old tribunes previous to the only have related to their own order; but as expiration of their office. One of the old tri- such a legislation would only have widened bunes was appointed by lot to preside at the the breach between the two orders, they afelection. As the meeting could not be pro- terwards gave way to the remonstrances of longed after sunset, and the business was to the patricians, and the new legislation was to be completed in one day, it sometimes hap- embrace both orders. From the second depened that it was obliged to break up before cemvirate the tribuneship was suspended, but the election was completed, and then those was restored after the legislation was coinwho were elected filled up the legitimate pleted, and now assumed a different characnumber of the college by cooptatio. But in ter from the change that had taken place in order to prevent this irregularity, the tribune the tribes. [TRIBus.] The tribunes now L. Trebonius, in 448 B. c., got an ordinance had the right to be present at the deliberapassed, according to which the college of the tions of the senate; but they did not sit tribunes should never be completed by coop- among the senators themselves, but upon tatio, but the elections should be continued benches before the opened doors of the senon the second day, if they were not completed ate-house. The inviolability of the tribunes, on the first, till the number ten was made up. which had before only rested upon a contract The place where the election of the tribunes between the two estates, was now sanctioned aE E2 3310 TRIBUNUS. andl confirrmed bn- a law of M. Horatius. As the consuls, bly threatening them with irn-,he tribes nonw alsu iicluded the patricians prisonmerit, to appoint A. Postumius Tuberand their clients, the tnibunes mlight nat- tus dictator. From this time forward we irally be asked to interpose on behalf of meet with several instances in which the any citizen whether patrician or plebeian. tribunes compelled the consuls to comply Hence the patrician ex-decermvir, Appius with the decrees of the senate, si non essent in Claudius, implored the protection of the tri- auctoritate senatus, and to execute its combunes. About this time the tribunes also ac- mands. In their relation to the senate a quired the right of taking the auspices in the change was introduced by the Plebiscitum assemblies of the tribes. They also assumed Atinium, which ordained that a tribune, by again the right, which they had exercised be- virtue of his office, should be a senator. fore the time of the decemvirate, of bringing When this plebiscitum was made is uncerpatricians who had violated the rights of the tain; but we know that in B. c. 170 it was plebeians before the comitia of the tribes. not yet in operation. It probably originated By the Lex Valeria passed in the Comitia with C. Atinius, who was tribune in B. c. 132. Centuriata (B.C. 449), it was enacted that a But as. the quaestorship, at least in later plebiscitum, which had been voted by the times, was the office which persons held tribes, should bind the patricians as well. previously to the tribuneship, and as the While the college thus gained outwardly quaestorship itself conferred upon a person new strength every day, a change took place the right of a senator, the law of Atinius was in its internal organization, which to some in most cases superfluous. extent paralyzed its powers. Before a. c. In their relation to other magistrates we 394, every thiniig had been decided in the col- may observe, that the right of intercessio was lege by a majority; but about this time, we not confined to stopping a magistrate in his do not know how, a change was introduced, proceedings, but they might even command which made the opposition (intercessio) of one their viatores to seize a consul or a censor, to tribune sufficient to render a resolution of imprison him, or to throw him from the Tarhis colleagues void. This new regulation peian rock. When the tribunes brought an does not appear in operation till 394 and 393 accusation against any one before the people, B. c.; the old one was still applied in B. c. they had the right of prehensio, but not the 421 and 415. From their right of appearing right of vocatio; that is, they might command in the senate, and of taking part in its discus- a person to be dragged by their viatores besions, and from their being the representa. fore the comitia, but they could not summon tives of the whole people, they gradually ob- him. They might, as in earlier times, protained the right of intercession against any pose a fine to be inflicted upon the person acaction which a magistrate might undertake cused before the comitia, but in some cases during the time of his office, and this even they dropped this proposal and treated the without giving any reason for it. Thus we case as a capital one. The college of tri. find a tribune preventing a consul from con- bunes had also the power of making edicts. voking the senate, and preventing the pro- In cases in which one member of the college posal of new laws or elections in the com- opposed a resolution of his colleagues nothing itia; they interceded against the official could be done, and the measure was dropped; functions of the censors; and even against a but this useful check was removed by the excommand issued by the praetor. In the same ample of Tiberius Gracchus, in which a precemanner a tribune might place his veto upon dent was given for proposing to the people an ordinance of the senate and he could that a tribune obstinately persisting in his thus either compel the senate to submit the veto should be deprived of his office. subject to a fresh consideration, or could raise From the time of the Hortensian law the the session. In order to propose a measure power of the tribunes had been gradually risto the senate they might themselves convene ing to such a height that at length it was sua meeting, or when it had been convened by perior to every other in the state. They had a consul they might make their proposal acquired the right of proposing to the comitia even in opposition to the consul, a right tributa or the senate measures on nearly all which no other magistrates had in the pres- the important affairs of the state, and it would ence of the consuls. The senate, on the oth- be endless to enumerate the cases in which er hand, had itself, in certain cases, recourse their power was manifested. Their proposals to the tribunes. Thus, in B. c. 431, it re- were indeed usually made ex auctoritate senquested the tribunes to compel the consuls to atus, or had been communicated to and apappoint a dictator, in compliance with a de. proved by it; but cases in which the people cree of the senate; and the tribunes compelled itself had a direct interest, such as a general TRIBUNUS. TRIBUS. 331 legal regulation, granting of the franchise, a bunes. Henceforth, for many years, somechange in the duties and powers of a magis- times consuls and sometimes consular tritrate, and others, might be brought before the bunes were appointed, and the number of the people, without their having previously com- latter varied from three to four, until in B. c. municated to the senate, though there are 405 it was increased to six, and as the censors also instances of the contrary. Subjects be- were regarded as their colleagues, we have longing to the administration could not be sometimes mention of eight tribunes. At brought before the tribes without the tribunes last, however, in B. c. 367, the office of these having previously received through the con- tribunes was abolished by the Licinian law, suls the auctoritas of the senate. This, how- and the consulship was restored. These conever, was done very frequently, and hence we sular tribunes were elected in the comitia of have mention of a number of plebiscita on the centuries, and undoubtedly with less solmatters of administration. It sometimes even emn auspices than the consuls. occurs that the tribunes brought the question 5. TRIBUNI MILITARES (xtLiapxot) were concerning the conclusion of peace before the officers in the Roman armres.'Their numtribes, and then compelled the senate to ratify ber in a legion was originally four, and they the resolution, as expressing the wish of the were appointed by the generals themselves. whole people. Sulia, in his reform of the In B. C. 363, it was decreed that henceforth constitution on the early aristocratic princi- six of these military tribunes should always ples, left to the tribunes only the jus auxili- be appointed in the comitia, probably the coandi, and deprived them of the right of making mnitia of the centuries. Those who were aplegislative or other proposals, either to the pointed by the consuls were distinguished senate or the comitia, without having previ- from those elected by the people (comitiati) ously obtained the sanction of the senate. But by the name of Ruffuli. The number of trithis arrangement did not last, for Pompey re- bunes in each legion was subsequently instored to them their former rights. creased to six, and their appointment was During the latter period of the republic, sometimes left altogether to the consuls and when the office of quaestor was in most cases praetors, though subsequently we find again held immediately before that of tribune, the that part of them were appointed by the peotribunes were generally elected from among ple. Their duties consisted in keeping order the senators, and this continued to be the case among the soldiers in the camp, in superinunder the empire. Sometimes, however, equi- tending their military exercises, inspecting tes also obtained the office, and thereby be- outposts and sentinels, procuring provisions, came members of the senate, where they were settling disputes among soldiers, superintendconsidered of equal rank with the quaestors. ing their health, &c. Tribunes of the people continued to exist TRIBIUS (9)vov, OlvXLt), a tribe. 1. GREEK. down to the fifth century of our era, though In the earliest times of Greek history mention their powers became naturally much limited, is made of people being divided into tribes especially in the reign of Nero. They con- and clans. Homer speaks of such divisions tinued however to have the right of interces- in terms which seem to imply that they were sion against decrees of the senate, and on elements that entered into the composition of *behalf of injured individuals. every community. A person not included in 4. TRIBUNI MILITUM CUM CONSULARI Po- any clan (d~pilrip), was regarded as a vaTESTATE. When in B. c. 445 the tribune C. grant or outlaw. These divisions were rather Canuleius brought forward the rogation that natural than political, depending onl family the consulship should not be confined to connection, and arising out of those times, either order, the patricians evaded the at- when each head of a family exercised a patempt by a change in the constitution; the triarchal sway over its members. The bond powers which had hitherto been united in the was cemented by religious communion, sacriconsulship were now divided between two fices and festivals, which all the family or new inagistracies, viz., the Tribuni militum cumr clansmen attended, and at which the chief consulari potestate and the censors. Conse- usually presided. quently, in B. c. 444, three military tribunes, Of the Dorian race there were originally with consular power, were appointed, and to three tribes, traces of which are found in all this office the plebeians were to be equally the countries which they colonized. Hence eligible with the patricians. For the years they are called by Homer n A(ptger' L'ptatiEef. following, however, the people were to be These tribes were the Hylleis ('TYAegi), Painat liberty, on the proposal of the senate, to phyli (lI(peI/v2ot), and Dymanatae or Dymanes decide whether consuls were to be elected (Av/uavdrat or Avyuavef). The first derived according to the old custom, or consular tri- their name from Hyllus, son of Hercules, the 332 TRIBUS. two last from Pamphylus and Dymas, who many doubts have been thrown by modern are said to have fallen in the last expedition writers. The etymology of the last three when the Dorians took possession of the Pe- names would seem to suggest, that the tribes loponnesus. The Hyllean tribe was perhaps were so called from the occupations which the one of highest dignity; but at Sparta their respective members followed; the Hopthere does not appear to have been much dis- letes being the armed men, or warriors; the tinction, for all the freemen there were by Argades, labourers or husbandmen; the Aegithe constitution of Lycurgus on a footing of cores, goatherds or shepherds. But whatever equality. To these three tribes others were be the truth with respect to the origin of these added in different places, either when the tribes, one thing is certain, that before the Dorians were joined by other foreign allies, time of Theseus, whom historians agree in or when some of the old inhabitants were ad- representing as the great founder of the Attic mitted to the rank of citizenship or equal priv- commonwealth, the various people who inileges. Thus the Cadmean Aegeids are said habited the country continued to be disunited by Herodotus to have been a great tribe at and split into factions. Sparta, descended (as he says) from Aegeus, Theseus in some measure changed the regrandson of Theras, though others have lations of the tribes to each other, by introthought they were incorporated with the ducing a gradation of ranks in each; dividing three Doric tribes. the people into Eupatridae (Eivrarpidat), GeoThe subdivision of tribes intophratriae (bpa- mori (reou6pot), and Demiurgi (ArluLovpyoi), rpial) or patrae (7rdrpat), gene (yevry), trittyes of whom the first were nobles, the second (rpirTvErf), &c. appears to have prevailed in agriculturists or yeomen, the third labourers'various places. At Sparta each tribe con- and mechanics. At the same time, in order tained ten obae (d1eia), a word denoting a lo- to consolidate the national unity, he enlarged cal division or district; each obe contained the city of Athens, with which he incorpoten triacades (rp(idKa6eC), communities con- rated several smaller towns, made it the seat taining thirty families. But very little appears of government, encouraged the nobles to reto be known of these divisions, how far they side there, and surrendered a part of the royal were local, or how far genealogical. After prerogative in their favour. The tribes or the time of Cleomenes the old system of tribes phylae were divided, either in the age of Thewas changed; new ones were created corres- se-us or soon after, each into three phratriae ponding to the different quarters of the town, (rparpiat, a term equivalent to fraternities, and they seem to have been five in number. and analogous in its political relation to the The first Attic tribes that we read of are Roman curiae), and each phratria into thirty said to have existed in the reign, or soon after gene (yiel, equivalent to the Roman Gentes), the reign, of Cecrops, and were called Cecro- the members of a genos (yDvon) being called pis (Ke0powri),Autochthon (Ar6XOewv), Actaea gennetae (y]evv rat) or homogalactes (56poya('A.Kraia), and Paralia (lIapauia). -In the 2LdKreG). Each genos was distinguished by a reign of a subsequent king, Cranaus, these particular name of a patronymic form, which names were changed to Cranais (Kpavati), was derived from some hero or mythic ancesAtthis ('A-rOi), Mesogaea (Mea6yata), and tor. These divisions, though the names Diacris (AtaKcpi). Afterwards we find a new seem to import family connection, were inl set of names; Dias (Atle), Athenais ('AO)?- fact artificial; which shows that some advag), Poseidonias (Iloaete(ovtLS), and Hephaes- vance had now beenL made towards the estabtias ('Hoatltart); evidently derived from the lishment of a closer political union. The deities who were worshipped in the country. members of the phratriae and gene had their Some of those secondly mentioned, if not all respective religious rites and festivals, which of them, seem to have been geographical di- were preserved long after these communities visions; and it is not improbable that, if not had lost their political importance, and perindependent communities, they were at least haps prevented them from being altogether connected by a very weak bond of union. dissolved. But all these tribes were superseded by four After the age of Theseus, the monarchy others, which were probably founded soon having been first limited and afterwards abolafter the Ionic settlement in Attica, and seem ished, the whole power of the state fell into to have been adopted by other Ionic colonies the hands of the Eupatridae or nobles, who out of Greece. The names Geleonies (rFec- held all civil offices, and had besides the manovaref), Hopletes ("Or7Wrlreq), Argades ('Apyci- agement of religious affairs, and the interpre6eta), Aegicores (AtlytKopei!), are said by He- tation of the laws. Attica became agitated rodotus to have been derived from the sons by feuds, and we find the people, shortly be. of Ion, son of Xuthus. Upon this, however, fore the legislation of Solon, divided into three TRIBUS. 333 parties, Pediaei (Iertalot) or lonwlanders, Dia- machinery of the constitution. Of the senate rrii (Atricptot) or highlanderl. and Parali (II(- of five hundred, fifty were chosen from each poaot) or people of the sel-coast. The first tribe. The allotment of dicasts was accordtwo remind us of the anciellt i vision of tribes, ing to tribes; and the same system of elecnMesogaea and Diacris; and the three parties tion may'be observed in most of the principal appear in some measure to represent the offices of state, judicial and magisterial, civil classes established by Tlheseus, the first being and military, &c. In B. c. 307, Demetrius the nobles, whose property lay in the chain- Poliorcetes increased the number of tribes to paign and most -fertile part of the country; twelve by creating two new ones, namely. the second, the smaller land-owners and shep- Antigonias and Demetrias, which afterwards herds; the third, the trading and mining class, received the names of Ptolemais and Attalis; who had by this time risen in wealth and im- and a thirteenth was subsequently added by portance. To appease their discords, Solon Hadrian, bearing his own name. was applied to; and.thereupon framed his 2. ROMAN. The three ancient Romulian celebratedconstitutionandcodeoflaws. Here tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, or we have only to notice that he retained the the Ramnenses, Titienses, and Lucerenses,,four tribes as he found them, but abolished to which the patricians alone belonged, must the existing distinctions of rank, or at all be distinguished from the thirty plebeian'events greatly diminished their importance, tribes of Servius Tullius, which were entirely by introducing his property qualification, or local, four for the city, and twenty-six for the division of the people into Pentacosiomedimni country around Rome. The history and or(BlevralcoatoLedt/Lvot), Hippeis ('I7r7reig), Zeu- ganization of the three ancient tribes are spogitae (ZevylatL), and Thetes (OirES ). [CEN- ken of under PATRICII. They continued of SUS, GREEK.] The enactmentsof Solon con- political importance almost down to the tinued to be the law at Athens, though in period of the decemviral legislation; but after great measure suspended by the tyranny, un- this time they no longer occur in the history til the democratic reform effected by Clis- of Rome, except as an obsolete institution. thenes. He abolished the old tribes, and cre- The institution and organization of the ated ten new ones, according to a geographical thirty plebeian tribes, and their subsequent division of Attica, and named after ten of the reduction to twenty by the conquests of Porancientheroes: Erechtheis, Aegeis, Pandionis, sena, are spoken of under PLEBES. The Leontis, Acarnantis, Oeneis, Cecropis, Hippotho- four city tribes were called by the same olntis, Aeantis, Antiochis. These tribes were names as the regions which they occupied, divided each into ten demi (dirjuot), the num- viz. Suburana, Esquilina, Collina and Palatina. her of which was afterwards increased by The names of the sixteen country tribes which subdivision; but the arrangement was so continued to belong to Rome after the conmade that several demi not contiguous or near quest of Porsena, are in their alphabetical to one another were joined to make up a tribe. order as follows: Aemilia, Camilia, Cluentia, [D EMUS.] The object of this arrangement Cornelia, Fabia, Galeria, Horatia, Lemonia, was, that by the breaking of old associations Menenia, Papiria, Pollia, Pupinia, Romilia, a perfect and lasting revolution might be ef- Sergia, Veturia, and Voltinia. As Rome gradlrected, in the habits and feelings, as well as ually acquired possession of more of the surthe political organization of the people. He rounding territory, the number of tribes also allowed the ancient phratriae to exist, but they was gradually increased. When Appius were deprived of all political importance. Al Claudius, with his numerous train of clients, foreigners admitted to the citizenship were emigrated to Rome, lands were assigned to registered in a phyle and demus, but not in a them in the district where the Anio flows phratria or genos. into the Tiber, and a new tribe, the tribus The functions which had been discharged Claudia, was formed. This tribe was subseby the old tribes were now mostly transferred quently enlarged, and was then designated to the demi. Among others, we may notice by the name Crustumina or Clustumina. This that of the forty-eight naucrariae into which name is the first instance of a country tribe the old tribes had been divided for the pur- being named after a place, for the sixteen older pose of taxation, but which now became use- ones all derived their name from persons or less, the taxes being collected on a different heroes. In B. c. 387, the number of tribes system. The reforms of Clisthenes were was increased to twenty-five by the addition destined to be permanent. They continued of four new ones, viz. the Stellatina, Trome ntito be in force (with sorne few interruptions) na, Sabatina, and Arniensis. In B. c. 358 two until the downfall of Athenian independence. more, the Pomptina and Publilia were formed The ten tribes were blended with the whole of Volscians. In r. c. 332, the censors Q 334 TRIBUTUM. TRICLINIUM. Publilius Philo and Sp. Postumius increased not, like the other branches of the public revthe number of tribes to twenty-nine, by the enue, let out to farm, but being fixed in moaddition of the Maecia and Scaptia. In B. c ney it was raised by the tribunes, unless (as 318 the Ufe[ntina and Falerina were added. In was the case after the custom of giving pay B. c. 299 two others, the Aniensis and Teren- to the soldiers was introduced) the soldiers, tina, were added by the censors, and at last, like the kinghts, demanded it from the perin B. C. 241, the number of tribes was aug- sons themselves who were bound to pay it. mented to thirty-five, by the addition of the [AES EQUESTRE and HORDEARIUM.] When Quirina and Velina. Eight new tribes were this tax was to be paid, what sum was to be added upon the termination of the Social raised, and what portion of every thousand War, to include the Socii, who then obtained asses of the census, were matters upon which the Roman franchise; but they were after- the senate had to decide alone. But when it wards incorporated among the old 35 tribes, was decreed, the people might refuse to pay which continued to be the number of the it when they thought it too heavy, or unfairly tribes to the end of the republic. When the distributed, or hoped to gain some other adtribes, in their assemblies, transacted any vantage by the refusal. In later times the business, a certain order (ordo tribuum) was senate sometimes left its regulation to the observed, in which they were called upon to censors, who often fixed it very arbitrarily. give their votes. The first in the order of No citizen was exempt from it, but we find succession was the Suburana, and the last that the priests, augurs, and pontiffs made the Arniensis. Any person belonging to a attempts to get rid of it; but this was only an tribe had in important documents to add to abuse, which did not last. After the war his own name that of his tribe, in the ablative with Macedonia (B. c. 147), when the Roman case. treasury was filled with the revenues acWhether the local tribes, as they were es- cruing from conquests and from the provintablished by the constitution of Servius Tul- ces, the Roman citizens became exempted lius, contained only the plebeians, or included from paying the tributum, and this state of the patricians also, is a point on which the things lasted down to the consulship of Hirtius opinions of modern scholars are divided: but and Pansa (43 B. c.), when the tributum was it appears most probable that down to the de- again levied, on account of the exhausted ceniviral legislation the tribes and their as- state of the aerarium. After this time it was semblies were entirely plebeian. From the imposed according to the discretion of the tine of the decemviral legislation, the patri- emperors. cians and their clients were undoubtedly Respecting the tributum paid by conquerincorporated in the tribes. Respecting the ed countries and cities, see VECTIGALIA. assemblies of the tribes, see COMITIA TaI- TRICLI'NIUM, the dining-room of a RoBUTA. man house, the position of which, relatively TRIBU'TUM, a tax which was partly ap- to the other parts of the house, is seen in the plied to cover the expenses of war, and partly "house of the Tragic poet" (see p. 126). It those of the fortifications of the city. The was of an oblong shape, and was twice as usual amount of the tax was one for every long as it was broad. thousand of a man's fortune, though in the A triclinium generally contained three time of Cato it was raised to three in a thou.- couches, and as the usual number of persons sand. The tributum was not a property tax occupying each couch was three, the triclinin the strict sense of the word, for the ac- ium afforded accommodation for a party of counts respecting the plebeian debtors clearly nine. Sometimes, however, as many as four imply, that the debts were not deducted in the lay on each of the couches. Each man in valuation of a person's property, so that he order to feed himself lay flat upon his breast had to pay the tributum upon property which or nearly so, and stretched out his hand towas not his own, but which he owed, and for wards the table; but afterwards, when his wvhich he had consequently to pay the in- hunger was satisfied, he turned upon his left terest as well. It was a direct tax upon ob- side, leaning on his elbow. To this Horace jects without any regard to their produce, alludes in describing a person sated with a like a land or house-tax, which indeed form- particular dish, and turning in order to reed the main part of it. That which seems to pose upon his elbow. have made it most oppressive, was its con- We find the relative positions of two perstant fluctuation. It was raised according to sons who lay next to one another, commonly the regions or tribes instituted by Servius expressed by the prepositions super, or supra, Tullius, and by the tribunes of these tribes, and infra. A passage of Livy, in which he subsequently called tribuni aerarii. It was relates the cruel conduct of the consul L. TRIERARCHIA. 335 Quintius Flaminius, shows that infra aliquem connection with the forty-eight naucraries of cubare was the same as in sinu alicujus cubare, Solon, and the fifty of Clisthenes: each of and consequently that each person was con- which corporations appears to have been sidered as below him to whose breast his own obliged to equip and man a vessel. [NAUhead approached. On this principle we are CRARIA.] Under the constitution of Clisenabled to explain the denominations both of thenes the ten tribes were at first severally the three couches, and of the three places on charged with five vessels. This charge was each couch. of course superseded by the later forms of the lectus medius trierarchy. The state furnished the ship, and either the whole or part of the ship's rigging " H and furniture, and also pay and provisions for the sailors. The trierarchs were bound to.A g E keep in repair the ship and its furniture, sum m us ['6 ~5 ~i[ ~~and were frequently put to great expense in n i summus 6 5 4 inus ~ paying the sailors and supplying them with provisions, when the state did not supply m 3 medius sufficient money for the purpose. Moreover, ~! medi:s ] i 8 2 s some trierarchs, whether from ambitious or X imus 9 1 s u mm patriotic motives, put themselves to unneces-. sary expense in fitting out and rigging theii Supposing the annexed arrangement to rep- ships, from which the state derived an advanresent the plan of a triclinium, it is evident tage. that, as each guest reclined on his left side, The average expense of the trierarchy was the countenances of all when in this position 50 minae. were directed, first, fromn No. 1 towards No. In ancient times one person bore the whole 3, then from No. 4 towards. No 6, and lastly, charge of the trierarchy, afterwards it was from No. 7 towards No. 9; that the guest No. customary for two persons to share it, who 1 lay, in the sense explained, above No. 2, No.were then called syntrierarchs (CVV7p6pap3 below No. 2, and so of the rest; and that, Oe). When this practice was first introgoing in the same direction, the couch to the uced is not known, but it was perhaps about right hand was abovethe others, and the couch the year 412 B. c., after the defeat of the to the left hand below the others. It will be Athenians in Sicily, when the union of two found, that in a passage in the eighth satire persona for the choregia was first permitted. of the second book of Horace, the guests are The syntrierarchy, however, did not entirely enumerated in the order of their accubation —supersede the older and single form, being an order exhibited in the annexed diagram. only meant as a relief in case of emergency, when there was not a sufficient number of,- e, wealthy citizens to bear the expense singly. In the case of a syntrierarchy the two trierarchs'~~'Q5 commanded their vessel in turn, six months each, according as they agreed between themselves. Nomentanus Varius The third form of the trierarchy was connected with, or suggested by, the syntrierNasidienus Mensa. Viscus archy. In B. c. 358, the Athenians were unable to procure a sufficient number of legally Porcius Fundanius appointed trierarchs, and accordingly they summoned volunteers: This, however, was TRIDENS. [FUSCINA.] but a temporary expedient; and as the actual TRIENS. [As.] system was not adequate to the public wants, TRIERA'RCHIA ('ptqpapxia), one of the they determined to manage the trierarchy extraordinary war services or liturgies at somewhat in the same way as the property Athens, the object of which was to provide taxes (eisphora), namely, by classes or sym fbr the equipment and maintenance of the moriae, according to the law of Periander u hips of war belonging to the state. The passed in B. c. 358, and which was the priersons who were charged with it were called mary and original enactment on the subject. i ierarchs (rptipapXot), as being the captains With this view 1200 synteleis (cvvw7ErEi.) or of trireines, though the name was also applied partners were appointed, who were probably to persons who bore the same charge in other the wealthiest individuals of the state, accordvesse:,.. It existed from very early tmWnes in inig to the census or valuation. These were 336 TRIERARCHIA. TRIPOS. divided into 20 symmoriae (av/popiat) or class. taxes were rated in proportion to their propes;-,ut of which a number of persons (aoua- erty, so that the poor were benefited by it, i-a) joined for the equipment or rather the and the state likewise: for, as Demosthenes maintenance and management of a ship, says, those who had formerly contributed oneunder the title of a synteleia (CvvrTXeea) or sixteenth to the trierarchy of one ship were union. To every ship there was generally now trierarchs of two, in which case they assigned a synteleia of fifteen persons of dif- must either have served by proxy, or done ferent degrees of wealth, as we may suppose, duty in successive years. He adds, that the so that four ships only were provided for by consequences were highly beneficial. each symmoria of sixty persons. We do not know the amount of property It appears, however, that before Demo- which rendered a mnan liable to serve a triersthenes carried a new law on this subject archy or syntrierarchy, but we read of no in(B. c. 340), it had been customary for sixteen stance of liability arising from a property of persons to unite in a synteleia or company for less value than 5 0 minae. a ship, who bore the burden in equal shares. The appointm(.it to serve under the first This being the case, it follows either that the and second forms 4,t the trierarchy was made members sof the symmoriae had been by that by the strategi, ar Il in case any person was imne raised from 1200 to 1280, or that some appointed to serve. a trierarchy, and thought alterations had taken place in their internal that any one else (not called upon) was betarrangements, of which no account has come ter able to bear it than himself, he offered the down to us. The superintendence of the latter an exchange of his property [ANTIDOwhole system was in the hands of the 300 sis] subject to the burden of the trierarchy. wealthiest members, who were therefore In cases of extreme hardship, persons becalled the " leaders of the symmoriae," (fye- came suppliants to the people, or fled to the uo6veS- r-v av/UqOpev,) on whom the burdens altar of Diana at Munychia. If not ready of the trierarchy chiefly fell, or rather ought in time, they were sometimes liable to imto have fallen. The services performed by prisonment. On the contrary, whoever got individuals under this system appear to have his ship ready first, was to be rewarded with been the same as before: the state still pro- the " crown of the trierarchy;" so that in this vided the ship's tackle, and the only duty then way considerable emulation and competition of the trierarchs under this system was to were produced. Moreover, the trierarchs keep their vessels in the same repair and or- were vitre6v0vot, or liable to be called to acder as they received them. But even from count for their expenditure; though they apthis they managed to escape; for the wealth. plied their own property to the service of the iest members, who had to serve for their syn- state. teleia, let out their trierarchies for a talent, The trierarchy was a ground of exemption and received that amount from their partners from the other liturgies, any of which, in(vvreieIgf), so that in reality they paid next deed, gave an exemption from all the rest to nothing, or, at ally rate, not what they during the year next following that of its serought to have done considering that the tri- vice. erarchy was a ground of exemption from TRINU'NDINUM. [NUNDINAE.] other liturgies. To remedy these abuses TRIO'BOLON (rpet06o0ov), the fee of Demosthenes carried a law when he was the three obols, which. the Athenian dicasts rewtrTr7rn -ov vavritcov, or the superintend- ceived. [DICASTAE.] ent of the Athenian navy, thereby introducing TRLPOS (-rpi7rovg), a tripod, i. e. any the Fourth form of the trierarchy. The pro- utensil or article of furniture supported upon visions of the law were as follow: The naval three feet. More especially, 1. A three-legged services required from every citizen were to table. 2. A pot or caldron, used for boiling depend upon and be proportional to his prop- meat. and either raised upon a three-legged erty, or rather to his taxable capital, as regis- stand of bronze, or made with its three feet tered for the symmoria of the p-roperty taxes, in the same piece. 3. A bronze altar, not difthe rate being one triremne for every ten talents fering probably in its original form from the of taxable capital, up to three triremes and one tall tripod caldron already described. In this auxiliary vessel (Swra-pEr'aov) for the largest form, but with additional ornament, we see properties; i. e. no person, however rich, it in the left-hand figure in the annexed could be required to furnish more. Those cut. who had not ten talents in taxable capital The figure on the right hand represents the were to club together in synteleiae till they tripod from which the Pythian priestess at had made up that amount. By this law great Delphi gave responses. The celebrity of this changes were effected. All persons paying tripod produced innumerable imitations of it, TRIUMPHUS. 337 which were made to be used in sacrifice, and were then scrutinized and discussed with the still more frequently to be presented to the most jealous care. The following rules were treasury both in that place and in many other for the most part rigidly enforced, although Greek temples. the senate assumed the discretionary power of relaxing them in special cases. 1. That no one could be permitted to triumph unless he had held the office of dictator, of consul, or of praetor. The honours granted to Pompey, who triumphed in his 24th year (B. c. 81) before he had held any of the great offices of state, and again ten years afterwards, while still a simple eques, were altogether unprecedented. 2. That the magistrate should have been actually in office both when the victory was gained and when the triumph was to be celebrated. This regulation was insisted upon only during the earlier ages of the commonwealth. Its violation commenced with Q. Publilius Philo, the first person to whom the senate ever granted a prorogatio imperil after the termination of a magistracy, and thenceforward proconsuls and propraetors were perTmitted to triumph without question. Tripods. 3. That the war should have been prosecuted TRIPU'DIUM. [AusPIcIuM.] or the battle fought under the auspices and in TRIRE'MIS. [NAvIs.] the province and with the troops of the geneTRIUMPHUS (Opiayp3of), a solemn pro- ral seeking the triumph. Thus if a victory cession, in which a victorious general entered was gained by the legatus of a general who the city in a chariot drawn by four horses. was absent from the army, the honour of it He was preceded by the captives and spoils did not belong to the former, but to the latter, taken in war, was followed by his troops, and inasmuch as he had the auspices. after passing in state along the Via Sacra, 4. That at least 5000 of the enemy should ascended the capitol to offer sacrifice in the have been slain in a single battle, that the temple of Jupiter. advantage should have been positive, and not From the beginning of the republic down to merely a compensation for some previous disthe extinction of liberty a regular triumph aster, and that the loss on the part of the Ro(justus triumphus) was recognized as the sum- mans should have been small compared with mit of military glory, and was the cherished that of their adversaries. But still we find object of ambition to every Roman general. many instances of triumphs granted for geneA triumph might be granted for successful ral results, without reference to the numbers achievements either by land or sea, but the slain in any one engagement. latter were comparatively so rare that we 5. That the war should have been a legitishall for the present defer the consideration mate contest against public foes, and not a of the naval triumph. civil contest. Hence Catulus celebrated no After any decisive battle had been won, or triumph over Lepidus, nor Antonius over a province subdued by a series of successful Catiline, nor Cinna and Marius over their anoperations, the imperator forwarded to the tagonists of the Sullan party, nor Caesar after senate a laurel-wreathed despatch (literae Pharsalia; and when he did subsequently laureatae), containing an account of his ex- triumph after his victory over the sons of ploits. If the intelligence proved satisfactory, Pompey, it caused universal disgust. the senate decreed a public thanksgiving. 6. That the dominion of the state should [SUPPLICAT10.] After the war was conclud- have been extended, and not merely someed, the general with his army repaired to thing previously lost regained. The absolute Rome, or ordered his army to meet him there acquisition of territory does not appear to on a given day, but did not enter the city. A have been essential. meeting of the senate was held without the 7. That the war should have been brought walls, usually in the temple of Bellona or to a conclusion and the province reduced to Apollo, that he might have an opportunity of a state of peace, so as to permit of the army urging his pretensions in person, and these being withdrawn, the presence of the victoriF r 338 TRIUMPHUS. ous soldiers being considered indispensable general arrangements were as follow. The in a triumph. temples were all thrown open, garlands of The senate claimed the exclusive right of flowers decorated every shrine and image, and deliberating upon all these points, and giving incense smoked on every altar. Meanwhile or withholding the honour sought, and they the imperator called an assembly of his solfor the most part exercised the privilege with- diers, delivered an oration commending their out question, except in times of great politi- valour, and concluded by distributing rewards cal excitement. The sovereignty of the peo- to the most distinguished, and a sum of mople, however, in this matter was asserted at ney to each individual, the amount depending a very early date, and a triumph is said to on the value of the spoils. He then ascended have been voted by the tribes to Valerius and his triumphalcarand advanced tothe PortaTriHoratius, the consuls of B. C. 446, in direct umphalis, where he was met by the whole body opposition to the resolution of the fathers; of the senate headed by the magistrates. The and in a similar manner to C. Marcius Rutilus, procession then defiled in the following order. the first plebeian dictator; while L. Postumius 1. The senate headed by the magistrates. Megellus, consul B. c. 294, celebrated a tri- 2. A body of trumpeters. 3. A train of carumph, although resisted by the senate and riages and frames laden with spoils, those seven out of the ten tribunes. Nay more, we articles which were especially remarkable read of a certain Appius Claudius, consul either on account of their beauty or rarity B. C. 143, who having persisted in celebrating being disposed in such a manner as to be seen a triumph in defiance of both the senate and distinctly by the crowd. Boards were borne people, was accompanied by his daughter (or aloft on fercula, on which were painted in sister) Claudia, a vestal virgin, and by her in- large letters the names of vanquished nations terposition saved from being dragged from his and countries. Here, too, models were ex. chariot by a tribune. A disappointed general, hibited in ivory or wood of the cities and forts however, seldom ventured to resort to such captured, and pictures of the mountains, rivers, violent measures, but satisfied himself with and other great natural features of the subjugoing through the forms on the Alban Mount, gated region, with appropriate inscriptions. a practice first introduced by C. Papirius Maso. Gold and silver in coin or bullion, arms, weapIf the senate gave their consent, they at ons, and horse furniture of every description, the same time voted a sum of money towards statues, pictures, vases, and other works of defraying the necessary expenses, and one of art, precious stones, elaborately wrought and the tribunes ex auctoritate senatus applied for richly embroidered stuffs, and every object a plebiscitum to permit the imperator to re- which could be regarded as valuable or curitain his imperium on the day when he entered ous. 4. A body of flute players. 5. The the city. This last form could not be dis- white bulls or oxen destined for sacrifice, pensed with either in an ovation or a triumph, with gilded horns, decorated with infulae and because the imperium conferred by the comi- serta, attended by the slaughtering priests tia curiata did not include the city itself, and with their implements, and followed by the when a general had once gone forth paludatus, Camilli bearing in their hands paterae and his military power ceased as soon as he reon- other holy vessels and instruments. 6. Eletered the gates,. unless the general law had phants or any other strange animals, natives bbeen previously suspended by a special enact- of the conquered districts. 7. The arms and ment; and in this manner the resolution of insignia of the leaders of the foe. 8. The the senate was, as it were, ratified by the leaders themselves, and such of their kindred plebs. For this reason no one desiring a tri- as had been taken prisoners, followed by the umph ever entered the city until the question whole band of inferior captives in fetters. 9. was decided, since by so doing he would ipso The coronae and other tributes of respect and facto have forfeited all claim. We have a gratitude bestowed on the imperator by allied remarkable example of this in the case of Ci- kings and states. 10. The lictors of the imcero, who after his return from Cilicia linger- perator in single file, their fasces wreathed ed in the vicinity of Rome day after day, and with laurel. 11. The imperator himself in a dragged about his lictors from one place to circular chariot of a peculiar form, drawn by another, without entering the city, in the vain four horses, which were sometimes, though hope of a triumph. rarely, white. The circular form of the charIn later times these pageants were mar- iot is seen in the following cut, copied from shalled with extraordinary pomp and splen- an ancient marble. He was attired in a golddour, and presented a most gorgeous specta- embroidered robe (toga picta) and flowered cle. Minute details would necessarily be dif- tunic (tunica palmata): he bore in his rightferent according to circumstances, but the hand a laurel bough, and in his left a sceptre; TRIUMPtIUS. 339 Zenobia, but these are quoted as exceptions to the general rule. When it was announced that these murders had been completed, the victims were then sacrificed, an offering from the spoils was presented to Jupiter, the bay wreath was deposited in the lap of the god, the imperator was entertained at a public feast along with his friends in the temple, and returned home in the evening preceded by torches and pipes, and escorted by a crowd of citizens. The whole of the proceedings, generally v/ ps t 1 )I/ speaking, were brought to a close in one day; but when the quantity of plunder was very great, and the troops very numerous, a longer period was required for the exhibition, and thus the triumph of Flaminius continued foi three days in succession But the glories of the imperator did not end with the show, nor even with his life. It Triumphal Car. was customary (we know not if the practice his brows were encircled with a wreath of was invariable) to provide him at the public Delphic bay, in addition to which, in an- expense with a site for a house, such mancient times, his body was painted bright red. sions being styled triumphales domus. After He was accompanied in his chariot by his death his kindred were permitted to deposit children of tender years, and sometimes by his ashes within the walls, and bay-wreathvery dear or highly honoured friends, while ed statues standing erect in triumphal cars, behind him stood a public slave, holding over displayed in the vestibulum of the family his head a golden Etruscan crown ornament- mansion, transmitted his fame to posterity. ed with jewels. The presence of a slave in A TRIUMPHUS NAVALIS appears to have such a place at such a time seems to have differed in no respect from an ordinary tribeen intended to avert invidia and the influ- umph, except that it must have been upon a ence of the evil eye, and for the same purpose smaller scale, and would be characterized by a fascinum, a little bell, and a scourge were the exhibition of beaks of ships and other attached to the vehicle. Tertullian tells us, nautical trophies. The earliest upon record that the slave ever and anon whispered in the was granted to C. Duillius, who laid the foun ear of the imperator the warning words Re- dation of the supremacy of Rome by sea in spice post te, hominem memento te, but this state- the first Punic war; and so elated was he ment is not confirmed by any earlier writer. by his success, that during the rest of his life, 12. Behind the chariot or on the horses which whenever he returned home at night from drew it rode the grown-up sons of the impera- supper, he caused flutes to sound and torches tor, together with the legati, the tribuni, and to be borne before him. A second naval trithe equites, all on horseback. 13. The rear umph was celebrated by Lutatius Catulus was brought up by the whole body of the in- for his victory off the Insulae Aegates, B. c. fantry in marching order, their spears adorned 241; a third by Q. Fabius Labeo, B. c. 189, with bay, some shouting Io Triumnphe, and over the Cretans, and a fourth by C. Octavius singing hymns to the gods, while others pro- over King Perseus, without captives and withclaimed the praises of their leader or indulged out spoils. in keen sarcasms and coarse ribaldry at his TRIUMPHUS CASTRENSIS was a procession expense, for the most perfect freedom of of the soldiers through the camp in honour speech was granted and exercised. of a tribunus or some officer inferior to the Just as the pomp was ascending the Capi- general, who had performed a brilliant extoline hill, some of the hostile chiefs were ploit. led aside into the adjoining prison and put to After the extinction of freedom, the emdeath, a custom so barbarous that we could peror being considered as the commander-inscarcely believe that it existed in a civilized chief of all the armies of the state, every age, were it not attested by the most unques- military achievement was understood to be tionable evidence. Pompey, indeed, refrained performed under his auspices, and hence, acfrom perpetrating this atrocity in his third cording to the forms of even the ancient con. triumph, and Aurelian onIlike occasion spared stitution, he alone had a legitimate claim to 340 TRIUMVIRI. TROCHUS. a triumph. This principle was soon fully were magistrates first appointedby Augustus recognized and acted upon; for although to revise the lists of the equites, and to admit Antonius had granted triumphs to his legati, persons into the order.'his was formerly and his example had been freely followed by part of the duties of the censors. Augustus in the early part of his career, yet 7. TRIQVMVIRI MENSARII. [MENSARII.] after the year B. C. 14 he entirely discontinued 8. TRIuMVIRI MONETALES. [MONETA.] the practice, and from that time forward tri- 9. TRIUMVIRI NOCTURNI, were magistrates umphs were rarely, if ever, conceded to any elected annually, whose chief duty it was to except members of the imperial family. But prevent fires by night, and for this purpose to compensate in some degree for what was they had to go round the city during the night then taken away, the (ustom was introduced (vigilias circumire). If they neglected their of bestowing what were termed Triumphalia duty, they appear to have been accused beOrnamenta, that is, permission to receive the fore the people by the tribunes of the plebs. titles bestowed upon and to appear in public The time at which this office was instituted with the robes worn by the imperatores of is unknown, but it must have been previously the commonwealth when they triumphed, to the year B. c. 304. Augustus transferred and to bequeath to their descendants tri- their duties to the Praefectus Vigilum. umphal statues. These triumphalia ornamenta [PRAEFECTUS VIGILUM.] are said to have been first bestowed upon 10. TRIUMVIRI REtFICIENDIS AEDIBUS, exAgrippa or upon Tiberius, and ever after traordinary officers elected in the Comitia were a common mark of the favour of the Tributa in the time of the second Punic war, prince. were appointed for the purpose of repairing TRIU'MVIRI, or TRE'SVIRI, were eith- and rebuilding certain temples. er ordinary magistrates or officers, or else 11. TRIUMVlRI REIPUBLICAE CONSTITUextraordinary commissioners, who were fre- ENDAE. When the supreme power was quently appointed at Rome to execute any shared between Caesar (Octavlanus), Anpublic office. The following is a list of the tony, and Lepidus, they administered the afmost important of both classes. fairs of the state under the title of Triumviri 1. TRIUMVIRI AGRO DIVIDUNDO. [TRI- Reipublicae Constituendae. This office was uMvInI COLONIAE DEDUCENDAE.] conferred upon them in B. c. 43, for five 2. TRIUMVIRI CAPITAI,ES were regular years; and on the expiration of the term, in magistrates, first appointed about B. c. 292. B. c. 38, was conferred upon them again, in They were elected by the people, the comitia B. c. 37, for five years more. The coalition being held by the praetor. They succeeded between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, to many of the functions of the Quaestores in B. c. 60, is usually called the first triumviParricidii. [QUAESTOR.] It was their duty rate, and that between Octavianus, Antony, to inquire into all capital crimes, and to re- and Lepidus, the second; but it must be ceive informations respecting such, and con- borne in mind that the former never bore the sequently they apprehended and committed title of triumviri, nor were invested with any to prison all criminals whom they detected. office under that name, whereas the latter In conjunction with the aediles, they had to were recognized as regular magistrates under preserve the public peace, to prevent all un- the above-mentioned title. lawful assemblies, &c. They enforced the 12. TRIUMVIRI SACRIS CONQUIRENDIS payment of fines due to the state. They had DoNISQUE PERSIGNANDIS, extraordinary ofthe care of public prisons, and carried into ficers elected in the Comitia Tributa in the effect the sentence of the law upon criminals. time of the second Punic war, seem to have In these points they resembled the magis- had to take care that all property given or tracy of the Eleven at Athens. consecrated to the gods was applied to that 4. TRIUMVIRI COLONIAE DEDUCENIDA.E purpose. were persons appointed to superintend the 13. TRIUMVIRI SENATUS LEGENDI were formation of a colony. They are spoken of magistrates appointed by Augustus to admit under COLONIA, p. 91. Since they had be- persons into the senate. This was previously sides to superintend the distribution of the the duty of the censors. land to the colonists, we find them also called TROCHUS (7poXd6) a hoop. The Greek Triumviri Coloniae Deducendae Agroque Divi- boys used to exercise themselves, like ours, iundo, and sometimes simply Triumviri Agro with trundling a hoop. It was a bronze ring, Dando. and had sometimes bells attached to it. It 5. TRIUMVIRI EPULONES. [EPULONES.] was impelled by means of a hook with a 6. TRIUMVIRI EQUITUM TURMAS RECOG- wooden handle called claris and 2.ard-p. wOSCENDI, or LEGENDIS EQUITUM DECURIIS, From the Greeks this custom passed to the TROPAEUM. 341 Romans,who consequently adopted the Greek The trophies erected to commemorate naval term. The hoop was used at the Gymnasia, victories were usually ornamented with the and, therefore, on one of the gems in the beaks or acroteria of ships [ACROTERIUM; Stosch collection at Berlin, which is engraved ROSTRA]; and were generally consecrated to in the annexed wood-cut, it is accompanied Poseidon or Neptune. Sometimes a whole by the jar of oil and the bay branch, the ship was placed as a trophy. emblems of effort and of victory. On each The Romans, in early times, never erected side of this we have represented another gem any trophies on the field of battle, but carried from the same collection. Both of these ex- home the spoils taken in battle, with which hibit youths trundling the hoop by means of they decorated the public buildings, and also the hook or key. These show the size of the the private houses of individuals. [SPOLIA.] hoop, which in the middle figure has also Subsequently, however, the Romans adoptthree small rings or bells on its circumfer- ed the Greek practice of raising trophies on ence. the field of battle; the first trophies of this kind were erected by Domnitius Ahenobarbus and Fabius Maximus in B. c. 121, after their conquest of the Allobroges, when they built at the junction of the Rhone and the Isara towers of white stone, upon which trophies were placed adorned with the spoils of the enemy. Pompey also raised trophies on the Pyrenees after his victories in Spain; Julius Caesar did the same near Ziela, after his victory over Pharnaces, and Drusus, near the Trochus, Hoop. Elbe, to commemorate his victory over the TROJAE LUDUS. [CIRCUS, p. 81.] Germans. Still, however, it was more comTROPAEUM (-rpo7ratov, Att. rpo7ralov) a mon to erect some memorial of the victory at trophy, a sign and memorial of victory, which Rome than on the field of battle. The trophies was erected on the field of battle where the raised by Marius to commemorate his vicenemy had turned (rp7rcWo, I'porsn) to flight, tories over Jugurtha and the Cimnbri and and in case of a victory gained at sea, on the Teutoni, which were cast down by Sulla, nearest land. The expression for raising or erecting a trophy, is rpoeratov crriaat or CnoraarOat, to which may be added znro or Kcard r7Sv IroXe/oi)v. When the battle was not decisive, or each party considered it had some claims to the victory, both erected trophies. Trophies usually consisted of' the arms, shields, helmets, &c. of the enemy that were defeated; and these were placed on the trunk of a tree, which was fixed on some elevation. The trophy was consecrated to some divinity, with -Ii an inscription (7rriypauyoq), recording the'i l / names of the victors and of the defeated 1 party; whence trophies were regarded as inviolable, which even the enemy were not per-; mittend to remove. Sometimes, however, a l people destroyed a trophy, if they considered that the enemy had erected it without a suf- JJ ficient cause. That rankling and hostile feelings might not be perpetuated by the con- i tinuance of a trophy, it seems to have been originally part of Greek international law that trophies should be made only of wood andl not of stone or metal, and that they should not be repaired when decayed. It was not, however, uncommon to erect trophies of metal. Pausanias speaks of several which he saw in Greece. Tropaeum, Trophy. F F 2 Toaoa rpy 342 TRUTINA. TUBA. and restored by Julius Caesar, must have TUBA (aaLR;Lrtyy), a bronze trumpet, disbeen in the city. In the later times of the tinguished from the cornu by being straight, republic, and under the empire, the erection while the latter was curved. of triumphal arches was the most common The tuba was employed in war for signals way of commemorating a victory, many of of every description, at the games and pubwhich remain to the present day. [ARcvs.] lic festivals, and also at the last rites to the The preceding cut contains a representa- dead: those who sounded the trumpet at fution of a tropaeum, which Victory is engaged nerals were termed siticines, and used an inin erecting. The conqueror stands on the strument of a peculiar form. The tones of other side of the trophy, with his brows en- the tuba are represented as of a harsh and circled with bay. fear-inspiring character. TROPHIES. [TROPAEUM.] The invention of the tuba is usually asTRO'SSULI. [EQUITES, p. 138.] cribed by ancient writers to the Etruscans. TROUSERS. [BRACCAE.] It has been remarked that Homer never introTRUA, dim. TRULLA (ropetvr), derived duces the caRnrtyf in his narrative but in from rpV(, r6op, &c., to perforate; a large comparisons only, which leads us to infer and flat spoon or ladle, pierced with holes; a that, although known in his time, it had been trowel. The following woodcut represents but recently introduced into Greece; and it such a ladle. is certain that, notwithstanding its eminently martial character, it was not until a later period used in the armies of the leading states.' By the Greek tragedians its Tuscan origin is fully recognized. According to one account Trua. it was first fabricated for the Tyrrhenians by The trulla vinaria seems to have been a Minerva, who in consequence was worshipped species of colander [COLUM], used as a wine- by the Argives under the title of'a'rryL, strainer. while at Rome the tubilustrium, or purificaTRUMPET. [BUCCINA; CORNU; L- tion of sacred trumpets, was performed on TUUS; TUBA.] the last day of the Quinquatrus. [QUINQUATRU'TINA (rpvrdvy7), a general term, in- TRUS.] cluding both libra, a balance, and statera, a There appears to have been no essential steelyard. Payments were originally made difference in form between the Greek and by weighing, not by counting. Hence a bal- Roman or Tyrrhenian trumpets. Both were ance (trutina) was preserved in the temple of Saturn at Rome. The following wood-cut represents a remarkably beautiful statera, which is preserved in the museum of the Capitol at Rome. Trutina, Balanee. Tuba, Trumpet. TUNICA. 343 long, straight, bronze tubes, gradually in- ment universally adopted by men through the creasing in diameter, and terminating in a whole of Greece. bell-shaped aperture. They present precisely The distinction between the Doric and Ionic the same appearance on monuments of very chiton still continued in the dress of women. different dates, as may be seen from the cuts The Spartan virgins only wore this one garannexed. ment,and hadnoupperkind of clothing,whence TU BILU'STRIUM. [QUINQUATRUS.] it is sometimes called Himation [PALLIUM] as TULLIA'NUM. [CARCER.] well as Chiton. They appeared in the comTUMULTUA'RII. [TUMULTUS.] pany of men without any farther covering; TUMULTUS, the name given to a sudden but the married women never (lid so without or dangerous war in Italy or Cisalpine Gaul, wearing an upper garment. This Doric chiton and the word was supposed by the ancients was made, as stated above, of woollen stuff; to be a contraction of timor multus. It was, it was without sleeves, and was fastened over however, sometimes applied to a sudden or both shoulders by clasps or buckles (7r6pirat, dangerous war elsewhere; but this does not irep6vat), which were often of considerable appear to have been a correct use of the word. size. It was frequently so short as not to Cicero says that there might be a war without reach the knee. It was only joined together a tumultus, but not a tumultus without a war; on one side, and on the other was left partly but it must be recollected that the word was open or slit up (aerxa0C XtrrSv), to allow a also applied to any sudden alarm respecting free motion of the limbs. The following cut a war; whence we find a tumultus often represents an Amazon with a chiton of this spoken of as of less importance than a war, kind: some parts of the figure appear incombecause the results were of less consequence, plete, as the original is mutilated. though the fear might have been much greater than in a regular war. In the case of a tumultus there was a ces- - sation from all business (justitium), and all citizens were obliged to enlist without regard being had to the exemptions (vacationes) from military service which were enjoyed at other times. As there was not time to enlist the soldiers in the regular manner, the magistrate who was appointed to command the army displayed two banners (vexilla) from the capitol, one red, to summon the infantry, and the other green, to summon the cavalry, and said Qui rempublicam salvam vult, me sequatur. Those that assembled took the military oath together, instead of one by one, as was the usual practice, whence they were called conjurati, and their service conjuratio. Soldiers enlisted in this way were termed Tumultuarii or Subi- Doric Ciiton. tarii. TU'NICA (Xtr7V, dim. XTrMMorVco, Xt7d'- The Ionic chiton, on the contrary was a vtov), an under-garment. long and loose garment, reaching to the feet 1. GREEK. The chiton was the only kind (7rodr~pqS), with wide sleeves (Ic6pat), and of Wvdv,ua, or under-garment, worn by the was usually made of linen. The sleeves, Greeks. Of this there were two kinds, the however, appear generally to have covered Dorian and Ionian. The Dorian chiton, as only the upper part of the arm; for in ancient worn by males, was a short woollen shirt, works of art we seldom find the sleeve exwithout sleeves; the Ionian was a long linen tending further than the elbow, and somegarment, with sleeves. The former seems times not so far. The sleeves were sometimes to have been originally worn throughout the slit up, and fastened together with an elegant whole of Greece; the latter was brought over row of brooches. The Ionic chiton, accordto Greece by the lonians of Asia. The Ionic ing to Herodotus, was originally a Carian chiton was commonly worn at Athens by men dress, and passed over to Athens from Ionia, during the Persian wars, but it appears to as has been already remarked. The women have entirely gone out of fashion for the male at Athens originally wore the Doric chiton, sex about the time of Pericles, from which but were compelled to change it for the Ionic, time the Dorian chiton was the under-gar- after they had killed with the buckles or 344 TTUNICA. clasps of their dresses the single Athenian Greeks to wearan himrntion, or outer gaiment, who had returned alive from the expedition over the chiton but frequently the chiton was against Aegina, because there were no buckles or clasps required in the Ionic dress. The annexed cut represents the Muse Thalia wearing an Ionic chiton. The peplum has fallen off her shoulders, and is held up by the left hand. Diploldia, Double Chitons. worn alone. A person who wore only a chiton was called #ovoX1irov (oloXii-ov in Homer), an epithet given to the Spartan virgins. In the same way, a person who wore only an himation, or outer garment, was called aEXtrov. The Athenian youths, in the earlier times, wore only the chiton, and when it beIonic Chiton. came the fashion, in the Peloponnesian war, to wear an outer garment over it, it was reBoth kinds of dress were fastened round garded as a mark of effeminacy. the middle with a girdle, and as the Ionic 2. ROMAN.. The Tunica of the Romans, chiton was usually longer than the body, part like the Greek chiton, was a woollen under of it was drawn up so that the dress might garment, over which the toga was worn. It not reach further than the feet, and the part was the Indumentum or Indutus, as opposed to which was so drawn up overhung or over- the Amictus, the general term for the toga, lapped the girdle, and was called K6;o7rog. pallium, or any other outer garment. [AMicThere was a peculiar kind of dress, which TUs.] The Romans are said to have had no seems to have been a species of double chiton, other clothing originally but the toga; and called Diplois (6dtr)Loi), Diploidion (6t7r;oir6t- when the tunic was first introduced, it was ov), and Hemidiploidion (ytdtlr;Lo't&ov). It merely a short garment without sleeves, and appears not to have been a separate article of was called Colobium. It was considered a dress, but merely the upper part of the cloth mark of effeminacy formen to;wear tunics with forming the chiton, which was larger than long sleeves (manicatae) and reaching to the was required for the ordinary chiton, and was feet (talares). therefore thrown over the front and back. The tunic was girded (cincta) with a belt or The following cuts will give a clearer idea girdle around the waist, but it was usually of the form of this garment than any descrip- worn loose, without being girded, when a tion. person was at home, or wished to be at his Since the Diploidion was fastened over the ease. Hence we find the terms cinctus, praeshoulders by means of buckles or clasps, it cintus, and succinctus, applied, like the Greek was called Epomis (t7rGpuit), which is sup- ev'ovof, to an active and diligent person, and posed by some writers to have been only the discinctus to one who was idle or dissolute. end of the garment fastened on the shoulder. The form of the tunic, as worn by men, is The chiton was worn by men next their represented in many wood-cuts in this work. skin; but females were accustomed to wear In works of art it usually terminates a little a chemise (Xt7rcvtov) under their chiton. above the knee; it has short sleeves, covering It was the practice among most of the only the upper part of the arm, and is girded TUNICA. TURRIS. 345 at the waist (see cuts, pp. 22, 228): the I dom find the sleeves covering more'than the sleeves sometimes, though less frequently, ex- upper part of the arm. Sometimes the tunics tend to the hands. were adorned with golden ornaments called Both sexes at Rome usually wore two tu- Leria. nics, an outer and an under, the latter of Poor people, who could not afford to purwhich was worn next the skin, and corres- chase a toga, wore the tunic alone, whence ponds to our shirt and chemise. The under we find the common people called Tunicati. tunics were called Subucula and Indusium, the A person who wore only his tunic was freformer of which is supposed to be the name quently called NuDUs. of the under tunic of the men, and the latter Respecting the clavus latus and the clavus of that of the women: but this is not certain. angustus, worn on the tunics of the senators The word Interula was of later origin, and and equites respectively, see CLAVUS LATUS, seems to have been applied equally to the un- CLAvUs ANGUSTUS. der tunic of both sexes. It is doubtful whether When a triumph was celebrated, the conthe Supparus or Supparum was an outer or an queror wore, together with an embroidered under garment. Persons sometimes wore toga(Togapicta), a flowered tunic (Tunicapalseveral tunics, as a protection against cold: mata), also called Tunica Jovis, because it was Augustus wore four in the winter, besides a taken from the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. subucula. Tunics of this kind were sent as presents to As the dress of a man usually consisted of foreign kings by the senate. an under tunic, an outer tunic, and the toga, TURI'BULUM (OvuLtar7ptov), a censer. so that of a woman, in like manner, consisted The Greeks and Romans, when they sacriof an under tunic, an outer tunic, and the ficed, commonly took a little frankincense out palla. The outer tunic of the Roman matron of the acerra, and let it fall upon the flaming was properly called stola [STOLA], and is altar. More rarely they used a censer, by represented in the wood-cut on p. 303; but means of which they burned the incense in the annexed wood-cut, which represents a greater profusion, and which was in fact a Roman empress in the character of Concordia, small moveable grate orfocutus. The followor Abundantia, gives a better idea of its form. ing wood-cut, taken from an ancient painting, shows the performance of both of these acts at the same time. Turi ulum, Censer. TURMA. [ExERCITUS, p. 142.] TURRIS (iripyog), a tower. Moveable towers were among the most important engines used in storming a fortified place. They were generally made of beams and Roman Tunic. planks, and covered, at least on the three sides which were exposed to the besieged, Over the tunic or stola the palla is thrown in with iron, not only for protection, but also to many folds, but the shape of the former is increase their weight, and thus make them still distinctly shown. steadier. They were also covered with raw The tunics of women were larger and long- hides, and quilts, moistened, and sometimes er than those of men, and always had sleeves; with alum, to protect them from fire. Their but in ancient paintings and statues we sel- height was such as to overtop the walls, 34G TYRANNUS. towers, and all other fortifications of the be- chief. In the first two or three centuries folsieged place. They were divided into stories lowing the Trojan war various causes were (tabulata or tecta), and hence they are called atl work, which led to the abolition, or at least turres contabulatae. to the limitation, of the kingly power. EmiThe sides of the towers were pierced with grations, extinctions of families, disasters windows, of which there were several to each in war, civil dissensions, may be reckoned story. among these causes. Hereditary monarchies The use of the stories was to receive the became elective; the different functions of engines of' war (tormenta). They contained the king were distributed; hewas called Arbalistae and catapults, and slingers and arch- chon (cipXov), Cosmus (Kc6a/oS), or Prytanis ers were stationed in them and on the tops (7rpsravtg), instead of Basileus (3aaoezeg), of the towers. In the lowest story was a and his character was changed no less than battering-ram [ARIES]; and in the middle his name. Noble andwealthyfamilies began one or more bridges (pontes) made of beams to be considered on a footing of equality with and planks, and protected at the sides by hur- royalty; and thus in process of time sprang dies. Scaling-ladders (scalae) were also car- up oligarchies or aristocracies, which most ried in the towers, and when the missiles of the governments that succeeded the anhad cleared the walls, these bridges and lad- cient monarchies were in point of fact, though ders enabled the besiegers to rush upon not as yet called by such names. These olithem. garchies did not possess the elements of soThese towers were'placed upon wheels cial happiness or stability. The principal (generally 6 or 8), that they might be brought families contended with each other for the up to the walls. These wheels were placed greatest share of power, and were only unanfor security inside of the tower. imous in disregarding the rights of those TUTOR. [CURATOR.] whose station was beneath their own. The TY'MPANUM (/z5u7ravov), a small drum people, oppressed by the privileged classes, carried in the hand. Of these, some resem- began to regret the loss of their old paternal bled in all respects a modern tambourine with form of government; and were ready to assist bells. Others presented a flat circular disk any one who would attempt to restore it. on the upper surface and swelled out beneath Thus were opportunities offered to ambitious like a kettle-drum. Both forms are repre- and designing men to raise themselves, by sented in the cuts below. Tympana were starting upas the championsof popular right. Discontented nobles were soon found to prosecute schemes of this sort, and they had a greater chance of success, if descended from -(tn, 5 [ ^/the ancient royal family. Pisistratus is an example; he was the more acceptable to the people of Athens, as being a descendant of the family of Codrus. Thus in many cities arose that species of monarchy which the Greeks called tyrannis (rvpavvif), which meant only a despotism, or irresponsible dominion of one man; a;d which frequently was nothing more than a revival of the ancient governInent, and, though unaccompanied with any recognized hereditary title, or the Tympana. reverence attached to old name and long prescription, was hailed by the lower orders of covered with the hides of oxen, or of asses; people as a good exchange, after suffering were beaten with a stick, or with the hand, under the domination of the oligarchy. All and were much employed in all wild enthusi- tyrannies, however, were not so acceptable to astic religious rites, especially the orgies of the majority; and sometimes we find the noBacchus and Cybele. bles concurring in the elevation of a despot, 2. A solid wheel without spokes, for heavy to further their own interests. Thus the Sywagons, such as is shown in the cut on p. racusan Gamori, who had bhen expelled by 251., the populace, on receiving the protection of TYRANNUS (rspavvof). In the heroic Gelon, sovereign of Gela and Camarina, enaage all the governments in Greece were mon- bled him to take possession of Syracuse, and archical, the king uniting in himself the func- establish his kingdom there. Sometimes the tions of the priest, the judge. and military conflicting parties in the state, by mutual con TYRANNUS. 347 sent, chose some eminent man, in whom they rants, as they were connected with the Perhad confidence, to reconcile their dissensions; sian mIonarchy. investing him with a sort of dictatorial power The general characteristics of a tyranny, for that purpose, either for a limited period were, that it was bound by no laws, and had or otherwise. Such a person they called no recognized limitation to its authority, Aesymnetes (aioav/yvfryt). however it might be restrained in practice by The tyrannus must be distinguished, on the the good disposition of the tyrant himself, or one hand, from the aesymnetes, inasmuch as by fear, or by the spirit of the age. It was he was not elected by general consent, but commonly most odious to the wealthy and commonly owed his elevation to some violent noble, whom the tyrant looked upon with movement or stratagem, such as the creation jealousy as a check upon his power, and of a body-guard for him by the people, or the whom he often sought to get rid of by send seizure of the citadel; and on the other hand, ing them into exile or putting them to death. from the ancient king, whose right depended, The tyrant usually kept a body-guard of fornot on usurpation, but on inheritance and tra- eign mercenaries, by aid of whom he controlditionary acknowledgment. The power of a led the people at home; but he seldom venking might be more absolute than that of a tured to make war, for fear of giving an optyrant; as Phidon of Argos is said to have portunity to his subjects to revolt. miiade the royal prerogative greater than it The causes which led to the decline of was under his predecessors; yet he was still tyranlny among the Greeks were partly the regarded as a king; for the difference between degeneracy of the tyrants themselves, corthe two names depended on title and origin, rupted by power, indolence, flattery, and bad and not on the manner in which the power eddcation; for even where the father set a was exercised. The name of tyrant was good example, it was seldom followed by the originally so far from denoting a person who son; partly the cruelties and excesses of abused his power, or treated his subjects particular men, which brought them all into with cruelty, that Pisistratus is praised for disrepute; and partly the growing spirit of the moderation of his government. After- inquiry among the (;reek people, who bewards, when tyrants themselves had become gan to speculate upon political theories, and odious, the name also grew to be a word of soon became discontented with a form of reproach, just as rex did among the Romans. government, which had nothing in theory, Among the early tyrants of Greece those and little in practice, to recommend it. Few most worthy of mention are; Clisthenes of dynasties lasted beyond the third generation. Sicyon, grandfather of the Athenian Clis- Most of the tyrannies, which flourished bethenes, in whose family the government con- fore the Persian war, are said to have been tinued for a century since its establishment overthrown by the exertions of Sparta, jealby Orthagoras, about B. c. 672: Cypselus of ous, probably, of any innovation upon the old Corinth, who expelled the Bacchiadae, B. c. Doric constitution, especially of any tendency 656, and his son Priander, both remarkable to ameliorate the condition of the Perioeci, for their cruelty; their dynasty lasted be- and anxious to extend her own influence over tween seventy and eighty years; Procles the states of Greece by means of the benefits of Epidaurus; Pantaleon of Pisa, who cele- which she conferred. Upon the fall of tyranbratedl the thirty-fourth Olympiad, depriving ny, the various republican forms of governthe Eleans of the presidency; Theagenes of ment were established, the Dorian states genMegara, father-in-law to Cylon the Athenian; erally favouring oligarchy, the Ionian democPisistratus, whose sons were the last of the racy. early tyrants on the Grecian continent. In Of the tyrants of a later period, the most Sicily, where tyranny most flourished, the celebrated are the two Dionysii. The corprincipal were Phalaris of Agrigentum, who ruption of the Syracusans, their intestine disestablished his power in B. c. 568; Theron cords, and the fear of the Carthaginian invaof Agrigentum; Gelon, already mentioned, ders, led to the appointment of Dionysius to who, in conjunction with Theron, defeated the chief military command, with unlimited Hamrilcar the Carthaginian, on the same day powers; by means of which he raised himself on which the battle of Salamis was fought; to the throne, B. c. 406, and reigned for 38 and Hieron, his brother; the last three cel- years, leaving his son to succeed him. The ebrated by Pindar. The following also are younger Dionysius, far inferior in every reworthy of notice: Polycrates of Samos; spect to his father, was expelled by Dion, afLygdamnis of Naxos; Histiaeus and Aristago- terwards regained the throne, and was again ras of Miletus. Perhaps the last mentioned expelled by Timoleon who restored liberty can hardly be classed among the Greek ty- to the various statesitl Sicily. 348 VALLUM. VANNUS. U. V. tempt to raise the siege. In this case the army was encamped between the two lines VACA'TIO. [EXERCITUS, P. 145; EME- of works. RITI.] This kind of circumvallation, which the VAD1MO'NIUM, VAS. [ACTIO; PRAES.] Greeks called airotresXLa/z6 and repreretXtVAGI'NA. [GLADIUS.] IouIg, was employed by the Peloponnesians in VALLUM, a term applied either to the the siege of Plataeae. Theirlines consisted of whole or a portion of the fortifications of a two walls (apparently of turf) at the distance Roman camp. It is derived from vallus (a of 16 feet, which surrounded the city in the stake), and properly meansthe palisade which form of a circle. Between the walls were ran along the outer edge of the agger, but it the huts of the besiegers. The wall had batvery frequently includes the agger also. The tlements (7rcZXaetg), and at every tenth batvallum, in the latter sense, together with the tlement was a tower, filling up by its depth fossa or ditch which surrounded the camp the whole space between the walls. There outside of the vallum, formed a complete for- was a passage for the besiegers through the tification. middle of each tower. On the outside of each The valli (XhpaKxef), of which the vallum, wall was a ditch (rCupof). This description in the former and more limited sense, was would almost exactly answer for the Roman composed, are described by Polybius and mode of circurnvallation, of which some of Livy, who make a comparison between the the best examples are that of Carthage by vallum of the Greeks and that of the Romans, Scipio, that of Numantia by Scipio, and that very much to the advantage of the latter. of Alesia by Caesar. The towers in such Both used for valli young trees or arms of lines were similar to those used in attacking larger trees, with the side branches on them; fortified places, but not so high, and of course but the valli of the Greeks were much larger not moveable. [TURRIS.] and had more branches than those of the Ro- VALVAE. [JANUA.] moans, which had either two or three, or at VANNUS (lKuzys6C, 2iKvov), a winnowingthe most four branches, and these generally van, i. e. a broad basket, into which the corn on the same side. The Greeks placed their mixed with chaff was received after thrashvalli in the agger at considerable intervals, ing, and was then thrown in the direction of the spaces between them being filled up by the the wind. Virgil dignifies this simple implebranches; the Romans fixed theirs close to- ment by calling it mystica vannus lacchi. The gether, and made the branches interlace, and rites of Bacchus, as well as those of Ceres, sharpened their points carefully. Hence the having a continual reference to the occupaGreek vallus could easily be taken hold of by tions of rural life, the vannus was borne in its large branches and pulled from its place, the procession celebrated in honour of both and when it was removed a large opening these divinities. In the cut annexed the inwas left in the vallum. The Roman vallus, fant Bacchus is carried in a vannus by two on the contrary, presented no convenient dancing bacchantes clothed in skins. handle, required very great force to pull it down, and even if removed left a very small T'Uy. opening. The Greek valli were cut on the spot; the Romans prepared theirs beforehand, and each soldier carried three or four: d of them when on a march. They were made of any strong wood, but oak was preferred. The word vallus is sometimes used as; equivalent to vallum. In the operations of a siege, when the I place could not be taken by storm, and it became necessary to establish a blockade, this was done by drawing defences similar to those of a camp round the town, which was then said to be circumnvallatum. Such a circumvallation, besides cutting off all communication between the town and the surrounding country, formed a defence against the sallies of the besieged. There was often a double line of fortifications, the inner against the town, and the outer against a force that might at- Bacchus carried in a Vannus. VECTIGALIA. VELUM. 349 U DO, a sock of goats-hair or felt, worn by sons or towns), who had to pay to Rome only countrymen with the low boots, called perones. a fixed rent. Others again were worked, [PEno.] and the produce sold in the name of the state, VECTIGA'LIA, the general term for all or were, like those of Ostia, farmed by the the regular revenues of the Roman state. It publicani. means anything which is brought (vehitur) 5. The revenues derived from the mines into the public treasury, like the Greek 06po'. (metalla). This branch of the public revenue The earliest regular income of the state was cannot have been very productive until the in all probability the rent paid for the use of Romans had become masters of foreign counthe public land and pastures. This revenue tries. Until that time the mines of Italy apwas called pascua, a name which was used pear to have been worked, but this was foras late as the time of Pliny, in the tables or bidden by the senate after the conquest of registers of the censors, for all the revenues foreign lands. The mines of conquered counof the state in general. tries were treated like the salinae. The senate was the supreme authority in 6. The hundredth part of the value of all all matters of finance, but as the state itself things which were sold (centesima rerum venadid not occupy itself with collecting the taxes, lium). This tax was not instituted at Rome duties, and tributes, the censors were en- until the time of the civil wars; the persons trusted with the actual business. These of- whocollected it were called coactores. Tiberius ficers, who in this respect may not unjustly reduced this tax to a two hundredth (ducenbe compared to modern ministers of finance, tesima), and Caligula abolished it for Italy alused to let the various branches of the rev- together, whence upon several coins of this enue to the publicani for a fixed sum, and for emperor we read R. c. c., that is, Remissa a certain number of years. [CENsoR; PUB- Ducentesima. Respecting the tax raised upon LICANI.] the sale of slaves, see QUTINQUAGESIMA. As most of the branches of the public rev- 7. The vicesima hereditatium et manumisenues of Rome are treated of in separate sionum. [VICESIMA.] articles, it is only necessary to give a list of 8. The tribute imposed upon foreign counthem here, and to explain those which have tries was by far the most important branch of not been treated of separately. the public revenue during the time of Rome's 1. The tithes paid to the state by those greatness. It was sometimes raised at once, who occupied the ager publicus. [DECU- sometimes paid by instalments, and someMAE; AGER PUBLICUS.] times changed into a poll-tax, which was in 2. The sums paid by those who kept their many cases regulated according to the cencattle on the public pastures. [SCRIPTURA.] sUS. In regard to Cilicia and Syria we 3. The harbour duties raised upon import- know that this tax amounted to one per cent. ed and exported commodities. [PORTORIUM.] of a person's census, to which a tax upon 4. The revenuederived from thesalt-works houses and slaves was added. In some (salinae). Ancus Marcius is said to have first cases the tribute was not paid according to established salt-works at Ostia, and as they the census, but consisted in a land-tax. were public property they were probably let 9. A tax upon bachelors. [AES UXORIUM.] out to farm. The publicani appear however 10. A door tax. [OSTIARIUM.] at times to have sold this most necessary of 11. The octavae. In the time of Caesar all all commodities at a very high price; hence, liberti living in Italy, and possessing property during the war with Porsena, the republic of 200 sestertia, and above it, had to pay a itself undertook the direct management of the tax consisting of the eighth part of their salinae of Ostia, in order that the people property. might obtain salt at a more moderate price. It would be interesting to ascertain the Subsequently the salinae were again farmed amount of income which Rome at various by the publicani, but the censors M. Livius periods derived from these and other sources; and C. Claudius fixed the price at which but our want of information renders it imposthose who took the lease of them were sible. We have only the general statement, obliged to sell the salt to the people. At that previously to the time of Pomnpey the Rome the modius was according to this regu- annual revenue amounted to fifty millions of lation sold for a sextans, while in other parts drachmas, and that it was increased by him of Italy the price was higher, and varied. to eighty-five millions. The salt-works in Italy, and in the provinces, VELA'RIUM. [AMPHITHEATRUM, p. 20.] were very numerous; in conquered coun- VE'LITES, the light-armed troops in a tries however they were sometimes left in Roman army. [ExERCITUv.] the possession of their former owners (per- VELUM (aviQaia). 1. A curtain. CurG o 330 VENATIO. tains were used in private houses as coverings variety of animals was collected from all over doors, or they served in the interior of parts of the Roman world for the gratification the house as substitutes for doors. of the people, and many thousands were freIn temples, curtains served more especially (quently slain at one time. We do not know to veil the statue of the divinity. They were on what occasion a venatio was first exhibitdrawn aside occasionally, so as to discover ed at Rome; but the first mention we find the object of worship to the devout. The of any thing of the kind is in the year B. C. annexed wood-cut is from a bas-relief repre- 251, when L. Metellus exhibited in the circus senting two females engaged in supplication 142 elephants, which he had brought from and sacrifice before the statue of a goddess. Sicily after his victory over the CarthaginThe altar is adorned for the occasion, and ians. But this can scarcely be regarded as the curtain is drawn aside and supported by an instance of a venatio as it was understood a terminus. in later times, since the elephants are said to have been only killed because the Romans did not know what to do with them, and not for the amusement of the people. ~7,J / - There was, however, a venatio in the later sense of the word in B. C. 186, in the games celebrated by M. Fulvius in fulfillment of the vow which he had made in the Aetolian war; in these games lions and panthers were exhibited. It is mentioned as a proof of the growing magnificence of the age that in the ludi circenses, exhibited by the curule aediles P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica and P. Lentulus, B. c. 168, there were 63 African panthers and 40 bears and elephants. From about this time combats with wild beasts probably formed a Tegular part of the ludi circenses, and many of the curule aediles made great efforts to obtain rare and curious animals, and put in requisition the services of their friends. Elephants are said to have first fought in the circus in the curule aedileship of Claudius Pulcher, B. c. 99, and twenty years afterwards, in the curule aedileship of the two Velum, curtain Luculli, they fought against bulls. A hun2. Velum, and more commonly its derivative dred lions were exhibited by Sulla in his velamen, denoted the veil worn by women. praetorship, which were destroyed by javelinThat worn by a bride was specifically called men sent by king Bocchus for the purpose. flarnmeum. [MATRIMONIUM.] This was the first time that lions were al3. ('Ivriov.) A sail. [NA VIs, p. 219.] lowed to be loose in -the circus; they were VENA'TIO, hunting was the name given previously always tied up. The games, howamong the Romans to an exhibition of wild ever, in the curule aedileship of Scaurus, B. c. beasts, which fought with one another and 58, surpassed anything the Romans had ever with men. These exhibitions originally form- seen; among other novelties, he first exhibited part of the games of the circus. Julius ed an hippopotamus and five crocodiles in a Caesar first built a wooden amphitheatre for temporary canal or trench (euripus). At the the exhibition of wild beasts, and others venatio given by Pompey in his second conwere subsequently erected; but we frequent- sulship, B. c. 55, upon the dedication of the ly read of venationes in the circus in subse- temple of Venus Victrix, there was an imquent times. The persons who fought with' mense number of animals slaughtered, among the beasts were either condemned criminals which we find mention of 600 lions, and 18 or or captives, or individuals who did so for the 20 elephants; the latter fought with Gaetusake of pay, and were trained for the purpose, lians, who hurled darts against them, and they [B ESTIAR I I.] attempted to break throu gh the railings (clathri) The Romans were as passionately fond of by which they were separated from the specthis entertainment as of the exhibitions of tatores. To guard against this danger Julius gladiators, and during the latter days of the Caesar surrounded the arena of the amphirepublic, and under the empire, an immense theatre with trenches (euripi.) VENEFICIUM. 351 In the games exhibited. by J. Caesar in his of large trees which had been torn up by the third consulship, B. c. 45, the venatio lasted roots, was planted in the circus, which thus for five days, and was conducted with extra- resembled a forest, and none of the more savordinary splendour. Cameleopards or giraffes age animals were admitted into it. One of were then for the first time seen in Italy. the most extraordinary venationes of this kind The. venationes seem to have been first was that given by Probus, in which there confined to the ludi circenses, but during the were 1000 ostriches, 1000 stags, 1000 boars, later times of the republic, and under the em- 1000 deer, and numbers of wild goats, wild pire, they were frequently exhibited on the sheep, and other animals of the same kind. celebration of triumphs, and on many other The more savage animals were slain by the occasions, with the view of' pleasing the peo- bestiarii in the amphitheatre, and not in the pie. The passion for these shows continued circus. Thus, in the day succeeding the veto increase under the empire, and the number natio of Probus just mentioned, there were of beasts sometimes slaughtered seems almost slain in the amphitheatre 100 lions, and the incredible. Under the emperors we read of a same number of lionesses, 100 Libyan and particular kind of venatio, in which the beasts 100 Syrian leopards, and 300 bears. were not killed by bestiarii, but were given up In the bas-reliefs on the tomb of Scaurus to the people, who were allowed to rush into at Pompeii there are representations of comthe area of' the circus and carry away what bats with wild beasts, which are copied in they pleased. On such occasions a number the following cuts. iigp Venationes. VENEFI'CIUM, the crime of poisoning, is the Peloponnesian war, supposed the wells to frequently mentioned in Roman history. Wo- have been poisoned by the Peloponnesians; men were most addicted to it: but it seems and similar instances occur in the history of not improbable that this charge was frequently almost all states. Still however the crime of brought against females without sufficient ev- poisoning seems to have been much more freidence of their guilt, like that of witchcraft in quent in ancient than in modern times; and this Europe in the middle ages. We find females circumstance would lead persons to suspect condemned to death for this crime in seasons it in cases when there was no real ground for of pestilence, when the people are always in an the suspicion. excited state of mind, and ready to attribute the The first legislative enactment especially calamities under which they suffer to the arts directed against poisoning was a law of the of evil-disposed persons. Thus the Athenians, dictator Sulla-Lex Cornelia de Sicariis et when the pestilence raged in their city during Veneficis-passed in B. c. 82, which continued 352 VESTALES. in force, with some alterations, to the latest It was necessary that the maiden should not times. It contained provisions against all be under six nor above ten years of age, perwho made, bought, sold, possessed, or gave fect in all her limbs, in the full enjoyment of poison for the purpose of poisoning. The all her senses, patrima et matrima [PATRIMI], punishment fixed by this law was probably the daughter of free and freeborn parents who the interdictio aquae et ignis. had never been in slavery, who followed no VER SACRUM (Ero7 iEp6OV). It was a dishonourable occupation, and whose home custom among the early Italian nations, es- was in Italy. The Lex Papia ordained that pecially among the Sabines, in times of great when a vacancy occurred, the pontifex maxidanger and distress, to vow to the deity the rnus should name at his discretion twenty sacrifice of everything born in the next spring, qualified damsels, one of whom was publicly that is, between the first of March and the (in concione) fixed upon by lot, an exemption last day of April, if the calamity under which being granted in favour of such as had a sister they were labouring should be removed. This already a vestal, and of the daughters of cersacrifice in the early times comprehended both tain priests of a high class. The above law men and domestic animals, and there is little appears to have been enacted in consequence doubt that in many cases the vow was really of the unwillingness of fathers to resign all carried into effect. But in later times it was control over a child, and this reluctance was thought cruel to sacrifice so many infants, manifested so strongly in later times, that in and accordingly the following expedient was the age of Augustus libertinas were declared adopted. The children were allowed to grow eligible. The casting of lots moreover does up, and in the spring of their twentieth or not seem to have been practised if any respectwenty-first year they were with covered faces table person came forward voluntarily, and driven across the frontier of their native coun- offered a daughter who fulfilled the necessary try, whereupon they went whithersoever for- conditions. As soon as the election was contune or the deity might lead them. Many a cluded, the pontifex maximus took the girl colony had been founded by persons driven by the hand and addressed her in a solemn out in this manner; and the Mamertines in form. After this was pronounced, she was led Sicily were the descendants of such devoted away to the atrium of Vesta, and lived thencepersons. In the two historical instances in forward within the sacred precincts, under which the Romans vowed a ver sacrum, that the special superintendence and control of the is, after the battle of lake Trasimenus and at pontificial college. the close of the second Punic war, the vow The period of service lasted for thirty years. was confined to domestic animals.' During the first ten the priestess was engaged VERBE'NA. [SAGMINA.] in learning her mysterious duties, being termVERBENA'RIUS. [FETIALIS.] ed discipula, during the next ten in performing VERNA. [SERVUS, p. 289.] them, during the last ten in giving instructions VERSU'RA. [FENUS, p. 153.] to the novices, and so long as she was thus VERU, VERU'TUM. [HASTA.] employed she was bound by a solemn vow of VESPAE, VESPILLO'NES. [FuNus, chastity. But after the time specified was p. 158.] completed, she might, if she thought fit, throw VESTA'LES, the virgin priestesses of off the emblems of her office, unconsecrate Vesta, who ministered in her temple and herself (exaugurare), return to the world, and watched the eternal fire. Their existence at even enter into the marriage state. Few Alba Longa is connected with the earliest however availed themselves of these priviRoman traditions, for Silva the mother of leges; those who did were said to have lived Romulus was a member of the sisterhood; in sorrow and remorse (as might indeed have their establishment in the city, in common been expected from the habits they had formwith almost all other matters connected with ed); hence such a proceeding was considered state religion, is generally ascribed to Numa, ominous, and the priestesses for the most part who selected four, two from the Titienses died, as they had lived, in the service of the and two from the Ramnes; and two more goddess. were subsequently added from the Luceres, The senior sister was entitled Vestalis Maxby Tarquinius Priscus according to one au- ima, or Virgo Maxima, and we find also the thority, by Servius Tullius according to an- expressions Vestalium vetustissima and tres maxother. This number of six remained unchanged imae. to the latest times. Their chief office was to watch by turns, They were originally chosen (capere is the night and day, the everlasting fire which technical word) by the king, and during the blazed upon the altar of Vesta, its extinction republic and empire by the pontifex maximus. being considered as the most fearful of all VESTALES. 353 prodigies, and emblematic of the extinction of lamp, and a table with a little food. The the state. If such misfortune befell, and pontifex maximus, having lifted up his hands was caused by the carelessness of the priest- to heaven and uttered a secret prayer, opened ess on duty, she was stripped and scourged the litter, led forth the culprit, and placing by the pontifex maximus, in the dark and her on the steps of the ladder which gave with a screen interposed, and he rekindled access to the subterranean cell, delivered her the flame by the friction of two pieces of over to the common executioner and his aswood from afelix arbor. Their other ordinary sistants, who conducted her down, drew up duties consisted in presenting offerings to the the ladder, and having filled the pit with goddess at stated times, and in sprinkling and earth until the surface was level with the purifying the shrine each morning with water, surrounding ground, left her to perish deprived which according to the institution of Numa of all the tributes of respect usually paid to was to be drawn from the Egerian fount, the spirits of the departed. In every case the although in later tlf.s it was considered law- paramour was publicly scourged to death in ful to employ any water from a living spring the forum. or running stream, but not such as had passed The honours which the vestals enjoyed through pipes. When used for sacrificial were such as in a great measure to comrnpenpurposes it was mixed with muries, that is, sate for their privations. They were mainsalt which had been pounded in a mortar, tained at the public cost, and from sums of thrown into an earthen jar, and baked in an money and land bequeathed from time to oven. They assisted moreover at all great time to the corporation. From the moment public holy rites, such as the festivals of the of their consecration they became as it were Bona Dea, and the consecration of temples; the property of the goddess alone, and were they were invited to priestly banquets, and completely released from all parental sway, we are told that they were present at the sol- without going through the form of emancipatio emn appeal to the gods made by Cicero du- or suffering any capitis deminutio. They had ring the conspiracy of Catiline. They also a right to make a will, and to give evidence guarded the sacred relics which formed the in a court of justice without taking an oath. fatale pignus imperii, the pledge granted by From the time of the triumviri each was prefate for the permanency of the Roman sway, ceded by a lictor when she went abroad; condeposited in the inmost adytum, which no suls and praetors made way for them, and one was permitted to enter save the virgins lowered their fasces; even the tribunes of the and the chief pontifex. What this object plebs respected their holy character, and if was no one knew; some supposed that it was any one passed under their litter he was put the palladium, others the Samothracian gods to death. Augustus granted to them all the carried by Dardanus to Troy, and transported rights of matrons who had borne three chilfrom thence to Italy by Aeneas, but all agreed dren, and assigned them a conspicuous place in believing that something of awful sanctity -in the theatre, a privilege which they had enwas here preserved, contained, it was said, joyed before at the gladiatorial shows. Great in a small earthen jar closely sealed, while weight was attached to their intercession on another exactly similar in form, but empty, behalf of those in danger and difficulty, of stood by its side. which we have a remarkable example in the We have seen above that supreme impor- entreaties which they addressed to Sulla on tance was attached to the purity of the ves- behalf of Julius Caesar; and if they chanced tals, and a terrible punishment awaited her to meet a criminal as he was led to punishwho violated the vow of chastity. According ment, they had a right to demand his release, to the law of Numa, she was simply to be provided it could be proved that the encounter stoned to death, but a more cruel torture was was accidental. Wills, even those of the devised by Tarquinius Priscus, and inflicted emperors, were committed to their charge, from that time forward. When condemned for when in such keeping they were considby the college of pontifices, she was stripped ered inviolable; and in like manner very solof her vittae and other badges of office, was emn treaties, such as that of the triumvirs scourged, was attired like a corpse, placed in with Sextus Pompeius, were placed in their a close litter, and borne through the forum hands. That they might be honoured in death attended by her weeping kindred, with all as in life, their ashes were interred within the ceremonies of a real funeral, to a rising the pomoerium. ground called the Campus Sceleratus, just with- They were attired in a stola, over which in the city walls, close to the Colline gate. was an upper vestment made of linen; and in There a small vault underground had been addition to the infula and white woolen vitta, previously prepared, containing a couch, a they wore when sacrificing a peculiar head0e2 354 VESTALES. VIA. dress called suffibulum, consisting of a piece VESTI'BULUM. [DoMvs, p. 125.] of white cloth bordered with purple, oblong VETERA'NUS. [TIRo.] in shape, and secured by a clasp. In dress VEXILLA'RlI, veterans in the Roman and general deportment they were required army, who were released from the ordinary to observe the utmost simplicity and decorum, military duties, and retained under a flag (vexany fanciful ornaments in the one or levity in illum) by themselves, to render assistance in the other being always regarded with disgust the more severe battles. and suspicion. Their hair was cut off, pro- VEXILLUM. [SIGNA MILITARIA.] bably at the period of their consecration: VIA, a public road. It was not until the whether this was repeated from time to time period of the long protracted Samnite wars does not appear, but they are never represent- that the necessity was felt of securing a safe ed with flowing locks. The first of the fol- communication between the city and the lelowing cuts represents the vestal Tuccia who, gions; and then for the first time we hear of those famous paved roads, which, in after,v ~ i ages, connected Rome with her most distant provinces, constituting the most lasting of all her works. The excellence of the principles upon which they were constructed is sufficiently attested by their extraordinary durability, many specimens being found in the country around Rome which have been used without being repaired for more than a thousand years. The Romans are said to have adopted their first ideas upon this subject from the Carthaginians, and it is extremely probable that the latter people may, from their commercial activity, and the sandy nature of their soil, have been compelled to turn their attention to the best means of facilitating the conveyance of \\\ \\ \\ merchandize to different parts of their territory. The first great public road made by the Romans was the Via Appia, which extended in the first instance from Rome to Capua, Vestal Virgin. and was made in the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus (B. c. 312). when wrongfully accused, appealed to the The general construction of a Roman road goddess to -vindicate her honour, and had was as follows:-In the first place, two shalpower given to her to carry a sieve full of low trenches (sulci) were dug parallel to each water from the Tiber to the temple. The other, marking the breadth of the proposed form of the upper garment is well shown. road; this in the great lines is found to have The second is from a denarius of the gens been from 13 to 15 feet. The loose earth beClodia, representing upon the reverse a fe- tween the sulci was then removed, and the male priestess with a simpuvium in her hand, excavation continued until a solid foundation (gremium) was reached, upon which the materials of the road might firmly rest; if this &o^ 3 66 1could not be attained, in consequence of the swampy nature of the ground or from any peI !w culiarity in the soil, a basis was formed arti-, ficially by driving piles (fistucationibus). Above the gremium were four distinct strata. The lowest course was the statumen, consisting of stones not smaller than the hand could just Head of Flora. Vestal Priestess. grasp; above the statumen was the rudus, a and bearing the legend VESTALIS; on the mass of broken stones cemented with lime obverse is a head of Flora, with the words C. (what masons call rubble-work), rammed down CLODIUS C. F. Two vestals belonging to hard, and nine inches thick; above the rudus this gens were celebrated in the Roman An- came the nucleus, composed of fragments of nals. bricks and pottery, the pieces being smaller VIA. 355 than in the rudus, cemented with lime, and the city, erected in the forum a gilded column six inches thick. Uppermost was the pavi- (milliarium aureum), on which were inscribed menturn, large polygonal blocks of the hardest the distances of the principal points to which stone (silex), usually, at least in the vicinity the viae conducted. of Rome, basaltic lava, irregular in form, but During the earlier ages of the republic the fitted and jointed with the greatest nicety, construction and general superintendence of so as to present a perfectly even surface, as the roads without, and the streets within the free from gaps or irregularities as if the whole city, were committed, like all other important had been one solid mass. The general as- works, to the censors. These duties, when pect will be understood from the cut given no censors were in office, devolved upon the below. consuls, and in their absence on the praetor urbanus, the aediles, or such persons as the senate thought fit to appoint. There were also under the republic four officers, called quatuorviri viarum, for superintending the streets within the city, and two called curatores viarum, for superintending the roads without. Under the empire the curatores viarum ~ were officers of high rank. The chief roads which issued from Rome are: —l. The VIA APPIA, the Great South; a' ~ -L x,, i Road. It issued from the Porta Capena, and passing through Aricia, Tres Tabernae, Appii i orum, Tarracina, Fundi, Formiae, Minturnae, Sinuessa, and Casilinum, terminated at Capua, but was eventually extended through Calatia and Caudium to Beneventum, and finally from thence through Venusia, Tarentum, and Uria, to Brundisium. 2. The VIA LATINA, from the Porta Capena, another great line leading to Beneventum, but keeping a course farther inland than the Via Appia. Soon after leaving the city it sent off a short branch (VIA TuscULA NA) to Tusculum, and passing through i VC4 " Compitum Anagninum, Ferentinum, Frusino, u ~ o ~7n._ Fregellae, Fabrateria, Aquinum, Casinum, Venafrum, Teanum, Allifae, and Telesia, joined Street at the entrance of Pompeii. the Via Appia at Beneventum. A cross-road The centre of the way was a little elevated, called the VIA HADRIANA, running from Minso as to permit the water to run off easily. turnae through Suessa Aurunca to Teanum, Occasionally, at least in cities, rectangular connected the Via Appia with the Via Latina. slabs of softer stone were employed instead 3. From the Porta Esquilina issued the VIA of the irregular polygons of silex, and hence LABICANA, which passing Labicum fell into the distinction between the phrases silice ster- the Via Latina at the station ad Bivium, 30 nere and saxo quadrato sternere. miles from Rome. 4. The VIA PRAENESTINA, Nor was this all. Regular foot-paths (mar- originally the VIA GABINA, issued from the gines, crepidines, umbones) were raised upon same gate with the former. Passing through each side and strewed with gravel, the different Gabii and Praeneste, it joined the Via Latina parts were strengthened and bound together just below Anagnia. 5. The VIA TIBURTINA, with gomphi or stone wedges, and stone blocks which issued from the Porta Tiburtina, and were set up at moderate intervals on the side proceeding N. E. to Tibur, a distance of about of the foot-paths, in order that travellers on 20 miles, was continued from thence, in the horseback might be able to mount without same direction, under the name of the VIA assistance. VALERIA, and traversing the country of the Finally, Caius Gracchus erected mile-stones Sabines passed through Carseoli and Corfinium along the whole extent of the great highways, to Ateruum, on the Adriatic, thence to Adria, marking the distances from Rome, which ap- and so along the coast to Castrum Truentipear to have been counted from the gate at num, where it fell into the Via Salaria. 6. which each road issued forth; and Augustus, The VIA NOMENTANA, anciently FrCULNENwhen appointed inspector of the viae around sis, ran from the Porta Collina crossed the 356 VIATICUM. VICUS. Anio to Nomentum, and a little beyond fell sum at once to having ally part in the actual into the Via Salaria at Eretum. 7. The VIA business, it engaged contractors (redemptores), SALARIA, also from the Porta Collina (passing who for a stipulated sum had to provide the Fidenae and Crustumerium) ran north and east magistrates with the viaticum, the principal through Sabinum and Picenum to Reate and parts of which appear to have been beasts of Asculum Picenum. At Castrum Truentinum it burden and tents (muli et tabernacula). Aureached the coast, which it followed until it gustus introduced some modification of this joined the Via Flaminia at Ancona. 8. The system, as he once for all fixed a certain sum VIA FLAMINIA, the Great North Road, carried to be given to the proconsuls (probably to ultimately to Ariminum.. It issued from the other provincial magistrates also) on setting Porta Flaminia, and proceeded nearly north out to their provinces, so that the redemptores to Ocriculum and Narnia in Umbria. Here a had no more to do with it. oranch struck off, making a sweep to the VIA'TOR, a servant who attended upon east through Interamna and Spoletium, and fell and executed the commands of certain Roagain into the main trunk (which passed man magistrates, to whom he bore the same through Mevania) at Fulginia. It continued relation as the lictor did to other magistrates. through Fanum Fla7rinii and Nuceria, where The name viatores was derived from the cir. it again divided, one line running nearly cumstance of their being chiefly employed on straight to Fanum Fortunae on the Adriatic; messages either to call upon senators to atwhile the other diverging to Ancona continued tend the meeting of the senate, or to sumfrom thence along the coast to Fanum Fortu- mon people to the comitia, &c. In the earlier nae, where the two branches uniting passed times of the republic we find viatores as minon to Ariminum through Pisaurum. From isters of such magistrates also as had their thence the Via Flaminia was extended under lictors; viatores of a dictator and of the conthe name of the VIA AEMILIA, and traversed suls are mentioned by Livy. In later times, the heart of Cisalpine Gaul through Bononia, however, viatores are only mentioned with Mutilna, Parma., Placentia (where it crossed such magistrates as had only potestas and not the Po), to Mediolanum. 9. The VIA AURE- imperium, such as the tribunes of the people, LIA, the Great Coast Road, issued originally the censors, and the aediles. from the Porta Janiculensis, and subsequently VI'CTIMA. [SACRIFICIUM, p. 276.] from the Porta Aurelia. It reached the coast VICE'SIMA, a tax of five per cent. Every at Alsium, and followed the shore of the lower Roman, when he manumitted a slave, had to sea along Etruria and Liguria by Genoa as pay to the state a tax of one-twentieth of his far as Forum Julii in Gaul. In the first in- value, whence the tax was called vicesima stance it extended no farther than Pisa. 10. manumissionis. This tax was first imposed by The VIA PORTUENSIS kept the right bank of the Lex Manlia (B. c. 357), and was not abolthe Tiber to Portus Augusti. 11. The VIA ished when all other imposts were done OSTIENsis originally passed through the Por- away with in Rome and Italy. ta Trigemina, afterwards through the Por- A tax called vicesima hereditatium et legatorum ta Ostiensis, and kept the left bank of the Ti- was introduced by Augustus (Lex Julia Viber to Ostia. From thence it was continued cesimaria): it consisted of five per cent., under the name of VIA SEVERIANA along the which every Roman citizen had to pay to the coast southward through Laurentum, Antium, aerarium militare, upon any inheritance or and Circaei, till it joined the Via Appia at legacy left to him, with the exception of such Tarracina. The VIA LAURENTINA, leading as were left to a citizen by his nearest reladirect to Laurentum, seems to have branched tives, and such as did not amount to above a off from the Via Ostiensis at a short distance certain sum. It was levied in Italy and the from Rome. 12. The VIA ARDEATINA from provinces by procuratores appointed for the Rome to Ardea. According to some this purpose. branched off from the Via Appia, and thus VICOMAGISTRI. [VIcvs.] the circuit of the city is completed. VICUS, the name of the subdivisions into VIA'TLCUM is, properly speaking, every which the four regions occupied by the four thing necessary for a person setting out on a city tribes of Servius Tullius were divided, journey, and thus comprehends money, pro- while the country regions, according to an visions, dresses, vessels, &c. When a Ro- institution ascribed to Numa, were subdiviman magistrate, praetor, proconsul, or quaes- ded into pagi. This division, together with tor went to his province, the state provided that of the four regions of the four city tribes, hiiri with all that was necessary for his jour- remained down to the time of Augustus, who ney. But as the state in this as in most oth- made the vici subdivisions of the fourteen er cases of expenditure preferred paying a regions into which he divided the city. In VILLICUS. VINEA. 357 this division each vicus consisted of one main business of the farm, except the cattle, which street, including several.s ialler by-streets; were under the care of the magister pecoris. their number was 424, and;-ch was superin- The word was also used to describe a pertended by four officers, called vico-magistri, son to whom the management of any busiwho had a sort of local police, and who, ac- ness was entrusted. cording to the regulation of Augustus, were VINA'LIA. There were two festivals of every year chosen by lot from among the this name celebrated by the Romans: the people who lived in the vicns. On certain vinalia urbana or priora, and the Vinalia rustica days, probably at the celebration of the com- or altera. The vinalia urbana were celebrapitalia, they wore the praetexta, and each of ted on the 23rd of April, when the wine casks them was acompanied by two lictors. These which had been filled the preceding autumn officers, however, were not a new institution were opened for the first time, and the wine of Augustus, for they had existed during the tasted. time of the republic, and had had the same The rustic vinalia, which fell on the 19th functions as a police for the vici of the Ser- of August, and was celebrated by the inhabivian division of the city. tants of all Latium, was the day on which VICTOR[A'TUS. [DENARIUS.] the vintage was opened. On this occasion VI'GILES. [PRAEFECTUS VIGILUM.] the flamen dialis offered lambs to Jupiter, and VIGI'LIAE. [CASTRA, P. 70.] while the flesh of the victims lay on the altar, VIGINTISEXVIRI, twenty-six magistra- he broke with his own hands a bunch of tus minores, among whom were included grapes from a vine, and by this act he, as it the Triumviri Capitales, the Triumviri Mone- were, opened the vintage, and no must was tales, the Quatuorviri Viarum Curandarum allowed to be conveyed into the city until for the city, the two Curatores Viarum for this solemnity was performed. This day was the roads outside the city, the Decemviri Lit- sacred to Jupiter, and Venus too appears to ibus (stlitibus) Judicandis, and the four prae- have had a share in it. fects who were sent into Campania for the VINDEMIA'LIS FE'RIA. [FERIAE.] purpose of administering justice there. Au- VINDEX. [AcTIo.] gustus reduced the number of officers of this VINDICTA. [MANUMIss IO.] college to twenty (vigintiviri), as the two VI'NEA, in its literal signification, is a curatores viarum for the roads outside the bower formed of the branches of vines, and city and the four Campanian praefects were from the protection which such a leafy roof abolished. Down to the time of Augustus affords, the name was applied by the Romans the sons of senators had generally sought and to a roof under which the besiegers of a town obtained a place in the college of the viginti- protected themselves against darts, stones, sexviri, it being the first step towards the fire, and the like, which were thrown by the higher offices of the republic; but in A. D. 13 besieged upon the assailants. The whole a senatusconsultuml was passed, ordaining that machine formed a roof, resting upon posts only equites should be eligible to the college eight feet in height. The roof itself was of the vigintiviri. The consequence of this generally sixteen feet long and seven broad. was, that the vigintiviri had no seats in the The wooden frame was in most cases light, senate, unless they had held some other mag- so that it could be carried by the soldiers; istacy which conferred this right upon them. sometimes, however, when the purpose which The age at which a person night become a it was to serve required great strength, it was vigintivir appears to have been twenty. heavy, and then the whole fabric probably VIGINTIVIRI. [VIGINTISEXVIRI.] was moved by wheels attached to the posts. VILLA, a farm or country-house. The The roof was formed of planks and wickRoman writers mention two kinds of villa, the er-work, and the uppermost layer or layers villa rustica or farm-house, and the villa urbana consisted of raw hides or wet cloth, as a or pseudo-urbana, a residence in the country protection against fire, by which the besieged or in the suburbs of a town. When both of frequently destroyed the vineae. The sides these were attached to an estate, they were of a vinea were likewise protected by wickergenerally united in the same range of build- work. Such machines were constructed in ings, but sometimes they were placed at dif- a safe place at some distance from the beferent parts of the estate. sieged town, and then carried or wheeled The interior arrangements of the villa urbana (agere), close to its walls. Here several of corresponded for the most part to those of a them were frequently joined together, so that town-house. [DoMus.] a great number of soldiers might be employed VI'LLICUS, a slave who had the superin- under them. When vineae had taken their tendence of the villa rustica, and of all the place close to the walls, the soldiers began 358 VINUM. their operations, either by undermining the essentially the same among the Greeks and the walls, and thus opening a breach, or by em- Romans. After the grapes had been gatherploying the battering-ram (aries). ed, they were first trodden with the feet in a VIN UM (olvog). The general term for the vat (?Xnfv6C, torcular); but as this process did fermented juice of the grape. not press out all the juice of the grapes, they In the Homeric poems the cultivation of were subjected to the more powerful pressure the grape is represented as familiar to the of a thick and heavy beam (prelum) for the Greeks. It is worth remarking that the only purpose of obtaining all the juice yet rewine upon whose excellence Homer dilates maining in them. From the press the sweet in a tone approaching to hyperbole is repre- unfermented juice flowed into another large sented as having been produced on the coast vat, which was sunk below the level of the of Thrace, the region from which poetry and press, and therefore called the under wine-vat, civilization spread into Hellas, and the scene in Greek bnrouvteov, in Latin lacus. of several of the more remarkable exploits of A portion of the must was used at once, Bacchus. Hence we might infer that the being drunk fresh after it had been clarified Pelasgians introduced the culture of the vine with vinegar. When it was desired to prewhen they wandered westward across the serve a quantity in the sweet state, an amHellespont, and that in like manner it was phora was taken and coated with pitch withconveyed to the valley of the Po, when at a in and without, and corked so as to be persubsequent period they made their way round fectly air-tight. It was then immersed in a the head of the Adriatic. It seems certain tank of cold fresh water or buried in wet that wine was both rare and costly in the sand, and allowed to remain for six weeks or earlier ages of Roman history. As late as the two months. The contents after this protime of the Samnite wars, Papirius the dic- cess were found to remain unchanged for a tator, when about to join in battle with the year, and hence the name dei yaeuCKOC, i. e. Samnites, vowed to Jupiter only a small semper mustum. A considerable quantity of cupful (mini pocillum) if he should gain the must from the best and oldest vines was invictory. In the times of Marius and Sulla spissated by boiling, being then distinguished foreign wines were considered flr superior to by the Greeks under the general names of native growths; but the rapidity with which Ebpyua or yZ:tCf, while the Latin writers luxury spread in this matter is well illus- have various terms according to the extent to trated by the saying of M. Varro, that Lucul- which the evaporation was carried. Thus, lus when a boy never saw an entertainment when the must was reduced to two-thirds of in his father's house, however splendid, at its original volume, it became carenum, when which Greek wine was handed round more one-half had evaporated defrutum, when twothan once, but when in manhood he return- thirds sapa (known also by the Greek names ed from his Asiatic conquests he bestowed on siraeum and hepsema), but these words are frethe people a largess of more than a hundred quently interchanged. Similar preparations thousand cadi. Four different kinds of wine are at the present time called in Italy musto cotto are said to have been presented for the first and sapa, and in France sabe. The process was time at the feast given by Julius Caesar in carried on in large caldrons of lead (vasa dehis third consulship (B. c. 46), these being frutaria), over a slow fire of chips, on a night Falernian, Chian, Lesbian, and Mamertine, when there was no moon, the scum being and not until after this date were the merits carefully removed with leaves, and the liof the numerous varieties, foreign and domes- quid constantly stirred to prevent it from tic, accurately known and fully appreciated. burning. These grape-jellies, for they were But during the reign of Augustus and his nothing else, were used extensively for immediate successors the study of wines be- giving body to poor wines and making them came a passion, and the most scrupulous keep, and entered as ingredients into many care was bestowed upon every process con- drinks, such as the burranica potio, so called nected with their production and perserva- from its red colour, which was formed by tion. Pliny calculates that the number of mixing sapa with milk. wines in the whole world deserving to be ac- The whole of the mustum not employed for counted of high quality (nobilia) amounted to some of the above purposes was conveyed eighty, of which his own country could claim from the lacus to the cella vinaria, an aparttwo-thirds; and that 195 distinct kinds might ment on the ground-floor or a little below the be reckoned up, and that if all the varieties surface. Here were the dolia (7r-Woe), otherof these were to be included in the computa- wise called seriae or cupae, long bell-mouthed tion, the sum would be almost doubled. vessels of earthenware, very carefully formed The process followed in wine-making was of the best clay, and lined with a coating of VINUM. 359 pitch. They were usually sunk (depressa, checking the fermentation, or by partially def)ssa, demersa) one-half or two-thirds in the drying the grapes, or by converting them ground; to the former depth, if the wine to completely into raisins. Passurn or raisinbe contained was likely to prove strong, to wine was made from grapes dried in the sun the latter if weak. In these dolia the process until they had lost half their weight; or they of fermentation took place, which usually were plunged into boiling oil, which produced lasted for about nine days, and as soon as it a similar effect; or the bunches after they had subsided, and the mustum had become were ripe were allowed to hang for some vinum, the dolia were closely covered. The weeks upon the vine, the stalks being twisted, lids (opercula doliorum), were taken off about or an incision made into the pith of the bearonce every thirty-six days, and oftener in hot ing shoot, so as to put a stop to vegetation. weather, in order to cool and give air to the The stalks and stones were removed, the contents, to add any preparation required to raisins were steeped in must or good wine, preserve them sound, and to remove any im- and then trodden or subjected to the gentle purities that might be thrown up. action of the press. The quantity of juice The commoner sorts of wine were drunk which flowed forth was measured, and an direct from the dolium, and hence draught equal quantity of water added to the pulpy wine was called vinum doliare or vinum de cupa, residuum, which was again pressed, and the but the finer kinds were drawn off (diffundere, product employed for an inferior passum callecra7yiLetv), into amphorae. On the outside ed secundarium. The passum of Crete was the title of the wine was painted, the date of, most prized, and next in rank were those of the vintage being marked by the names of the Cilicia, Africa, Italy, and the neighbouring consuls then in office. [AMPHORA.] The provinces. The kinds known as Psythium amphorae were then stored up in repositories and Melampsythium possessed the peculiar (apothecae, horrea, tabulata), completely distinct flavour of the grape and not that of wine. from the cella vinaria, and usually placed in The grapes most suitable for passum were the upper story of the house (whence de- those which ripened early, especially the vascende, testa, and deripere horreo in Horace), for rieties Apiana, Scirpula, and Psithia. a reason explained afterwards. The Greeks recognized three colours in It is manifest that wines prepared and wines: red (jstag), white, i. e. pale straw-colbottled in the manner described above must have contained a great quantity of dregs and sediment, and it became absolutely necessary to separate these before it was drunk. This was sometimes effected by fining with yelks of eggs, those of pigeons being considered most appropriate by the fastidious; but more commonly by simply straining through small cup-like utensils of silver or bronze perforated with numerous small holes. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth (aKiclcof, saccus) was placed over the colum, ard the wine filtered through. The use of the saccus was considered objectionable for all delicate wines, since it was believed to injure, if not entirely to destroy their flavour, and in every instance to diminish the strength of the liquor. For this reason it was employed by the dissipated in order that they might be able to swallow a greater quantity without becoming intoxicated. The double purpose of cooling and weakening was effectually accomplished by placing ice or snow in the filter, which under such circumstances became a colum nivarium, or saccus nivarius. In all the best wines hitherto described the grapes are supposed to have been gathered as soon as they were fully ripe, and fermentation to have tun its full course. But a great variety of sweet wines were manufactured by Silenus astride upon a wine-ekin. 360 VINUM. our (Revwc6f), and brown or amber-coloured half of its original bulk, Attic honey being (KtbL/6g). The Romans distinguished four: added in the proportion of one to ten. This, albus, answering to aevc6S, fulvus to Ktb1k6I, therefore, was merely a very rich fruit syrup, while,uk;ar is subdivided into sanguineus and in no way allied to wine. Mulsum was conniger, the former being doubtless applied to sidered the most appropriate draught upon an bright glowing wines like Tent and Burgun- empty stomach, and was therefore swallowed dy, while the niger or ater would resemble immediately before the regular business of a Port. repast began, and hence the whet (gustatio) We have seen that wine intended for keep- coming before the cup of mulsum was called illg was racked off from the dolia into ampho- the promulsis. lifulsumwas given at a triumph rae. When it was necessary in the first in- by the imperator to his soldiers. Mulsum (sc. stance to transport it from one place to another, vinum) or oenoacli (oivo6zeaL) is perfectly disor when carried by travellers on a journey, it tinct from mulsa (sc. aqua). The latter, or was contained in bags made of goat-skin mead, being male(, of honey and water mixed (itcoi, utres) well pitched over so as to make and fermented, is the melicraton (,ueeUiKparov) the seams perfectly tight. or hydromeli ((>p-:/yeat) of the Greeks. As the process of wine-making among the The ancients considered old wine not only ancients was for the most part conducted in more grateful to the palate, but also more an unscientific manner, it was found neces- wholesome and invigorating. Generallyspeaksary, except in the case of the finest varieties, ing, the Greek wines do not seem to have reto have recourse to various devices for pre- quired a long time to ripen. Nestor in the venting or correcting acidity, heightening the Odyssey, indeed,drinks wine ten years old; but flavour, and increasing the durability of the the connoisseurs under the empire pronounced second growths. The olject in view was that all transmarine wines arrived at a modaccomplished sometimes by merely mixing erate degree of maturity in six orseven. Many different kinds of wine together, but more fre- of the Italian varieties, however, required to quently by throwing into the dolia or ampho- be kept for twenty or twenty-five years before rae various condiments or seasonings (ep r- they were drinkable (which is now considered aeug, medicamina, conditurae). The principal ample for our strongest ports), and even the substances employed as conditurae were, 1. humble growths of Sabinum were stored up sea-water; 2. turpentine, either pure, or in for from four to fifteen. Hence it became a the form of pitch (pix), tar (pix liquida), or matter of importance to hasten, if possible, resin (resina). 3. Lime, in the form of gyp- the natural process. This was attempted in sum, burnt marble, or calcined shells. 4. In- various ways, sometimes by elaborate condispissated must. 5. Aromatic herbs, spices, ments, sometimes by sinking vessels containand gums; and these were used either singly, ing the must in the sea, by which an artificial or cooked up into a great variety of compli- mellowness was induced (praecox vetustas) cated confections. and the wine in consequence termed thalasBut not only were spices and gums steeped sites; but more usually by the application of in wine or incorporated during fermentation, heat. Thus it was customary to expose the but even the precious perfumed essential oils amphorae for some years to the full fervour (unguenta) were mixed with it before it was of the sun's rays, or to construct the apothecae drunk (yvbb/ivq, murrhina). in such a manner as to be exposed to the hot Of these compound beverages the most air and smoke of the bath-furnaces, and hence popular was the oenomeli (oiv6geal), of the the namefumaria applied to such apartments, Greeks, the mulsurn of the Romans. This and the phrasesfumosos,fumum bibere, fuligine was of two kinds; in the one honey was testae, in reference to the wines. If the opemixed with wine, in the other with must. ration was not conducted with care, and the The former was said to have been invented amphorae not stoppered down perfectly tight, by the legendary hero Aristaeus, the first cul- a disagreeable effect would be produced on tivator of bees, and was considered most per- the contents. fect and palatable when made of some old In Italy, in the first century of the Chrisrough (austerum) wine, such as Massic or Fa- tian era, the lowest market price of the most lernian (although Horace objects to the latter ordinary quality of wine was 300 sesterces for this purpose), and new Attic honey. The for 40 urnae, that is, 15 sesterces for the amproportions were four, by measure, of wine to phora, or 6d. a gallon nearly. At a much earone of honey, and various spices and perfumes, lier date, the triumph of L. Metellus during such as myrrh, cassia, costum, malobathrum, the first Punic war (B. c. 250), wine was sold nard, and pepper, might be added. The sec- at the rate of 8 asses the amphora. The price ond kind was made of must evaporated to one of native wine at Athens was four drachmas VINUM. 361 for the metretes, that is, about 4k-d. the gallon, 7y2vcd v are designations comparatively rare, when necessaries were dear, and we may per- except ill the vague language of poetry. haps assume one half of this sum as the aver- The most noble Italian wines, with a very age of cheaper times. On the other hand, few exceptions, were derived from Latium high prices were given freely for the varieties and Campania, and for the most part grew held in esteem, since as early as the time of within a short distance of the sea. In the Socrates a metretes of Chian sold for a mina. first rank we must place the Setiuzzri, which With respect to the way in which wine fairly deserves the title of Imperial, since it was drunk, and the customs observed by the was the chosen beverage of Augustus and Greeks and Romrnans at their drinking enter- most of his courtiers. It grew upon the hills tainmnents, the reader is referred to the article of Setia, above Forum Appii, looking down SYMPosIUM. upon the Pomptine marshes. Before the age The wine of most early celebrity was that of Augustus the Caecubum was the most prized which the minister of Apollo, Maron, who of all. It grew in the poplar swamps border dwelt upon the skirts of Thracian Ismarus, ing on the gulf of Amyclae, close to Fundi. gave to Ulysses. It was red (tpvOp6v), and In the time of Pliny its reputation was en honey-sweet (yetivrdea), so precious, that it tirely gone, partly in consequence of the carewas unknown to all in the mansion save the lessness of the cultivators, and partly from wife of the priest and one trusty housekeep- its proper soil, originally a very limited space, er; so strong, that a single cup was mingled having been cut up by the canal of Nero exivith twenty of water; so fragrant, that even tending from Baiae to Ostia. It was full-bowhen thus diluted it diffused a divine and died and heady, not arriving at maturity until most tempting perfume. Homer mentions it had been kept for many years. also more than once Pramnian wine (olvof The second rank was occupied by the FaTIpayvelZo), an epithet which is variously in- lcrnum, of which the Faustianum was the most terpreted by different writers. In after times choice variety, having gained its character a wine bearing the same name was produced from the care and skill exercised in the cultiin the island of Icaria, around the hill village vation of the vines. The Falernus ager comof Latorea in the vicinity of Ephesus, in the menced at the Pons Campanus, on the left neighbourhood of Smyrna, near the shrine of hand of those journeying towards the Urbana Cybele, and in Lesbos. But the wines of Colonia of Sulla; the Faustianus ager at avilgreatest renown at a later period were grown lage about six miles from Sinuessa, so that in the islands of Thasos, Lesbos, Chios, and the whole district in question may be regardCos, and in a few favoured spots on the oppo- ed as stretching from the Massic hills to the site coast of Asia, such as the slopes of Mount river Vulturnus. Falernian became fit for Tmolus, the ridge which separates the valley drinking in ten years, and might be used unof the Hermus from that of the Cayster, til twenty years old, but when kept longer Mount Messogis, which divides the tributa- gave headachs, and proved injurious to the ries of the Caiester from those of the Meander, nervous system. Pliny distinguishes three the volcanic region of the Catacecaumene, kinds, the rough (austerum), the sweet (dulce), which still retains its fame, the environs of and the thin (tenue). Others arranged the Ephesus, of Cnidus, of Miletus, and of Clazo- varieties differently; that which grew upon menae. Among these the first place seems the hill tops they called Caucinum, that on the to have been by general consent conceded to middle slopes Faustianum, and that on the the Chian, of which the most delicious varie- plain Falernum. ties were brought from the heights of Ariusi- In the third rank was the Albanum, from urn in the central parts, and from the promon- the Mons Albanus, of various kinds, very tory of Phanae at the southern extremity of sweet (praedulce), sweetish, rough, and sharp; the island. The Thasian and Lesbian occu- it was invigorating (nervis utile), and in per pied the second place, and the Coa, disputed fection after beng kept for fifteen years. Here the palm with them. In Lesbos the most too we place the Surrentinum, from the prohighly prized vineyards were around Myti- montory forming the southern horn of the lene and Methymna. There is no foundation bay of Naples, which was not drinkable until whatever for the remark that the finest Greek it had been kept for five-and-twenty years; wines, especially the products of the islands for being destitute of richness, and very dry, in the Aegean and Ionian seas, belonged for it required a long time to ripen, but was the most part to the luscious sweet class. strongly recommended to convalescents, on The very reverse is proved by the epithets account of its thinness and wholesomeness. avaoTpo6f alcLp6C, XpeTrp6, and the like, ap- Of equal reputation were the Massicun, from plied to a great number, while ya.vtcmv and the hills which formed the boundary between i H 362 VITRUM. Latium and Campania, although somewhat teemed peculiarly suitable for glass-making, harsh; and the Gauranum,from the ridge above and exported in great quantities to the workBaiae and Puteoli, produced in small quanti- shops of Sidon and Alexandria, long the most ty, but of very high quality, full-bodied, and famous in the ancient world. Alexandria thick. In the same class are to be included sustained its reputation for many centuries; the Calenum from Cales, and the Fundanum Rome derived a great portion of its supplies from Fundi. The CalenunL was light and bet- from this source, and as late as the reign of ter fobr the stomach than Falernian; the Fun- Aurelian we find the manufacture still flour danunt was full-bodied and nourishing, but ishing. apt to attack both stomach and head; there- There is some difficulty in deciding by fore little sought after at banquets. This list what Greek author glass is first mentioned, is closed by the Veliturinum, Privernatinum, because the term vaAot- unquestionably deand Signinum, from Velitrae, Privernum, and notes not only artificial glass, but rock-crysSignia, towns on the Volscian hills; the first tal, or indeed any transparent stone or stonewas a sound wine, but had this peculiarity, like substance. Thus the iire3o' of Herodothat it always tasted as if mixed with some tus, in which the Ethiopians encased the boforeign substance; the second was thin and dies of their dead, cannot be glass, for we are pleasant; the last was looked upon only in expressly told that it was dug in abundance the light of a medicine valuable for its astrin- out of the earth; and hence commentators gent qualities. We may safely bring in one have conjectured that rock-crystal or rocknore, the Forntiannol, from the Gulf of Caieta, salt, or amber, or oriental alabaster, or some associated by Horace with the Caecuban, bituminous or gummy product, might be inFalernian, and Calenian. dicated. But when the same historian, in his The fourth rank contained the Marnertinum, account of sacred crocodiles, states that they from the neighbourhood of Messana, first were decorated with ear-rings made of meltbrought into fashion by Julius Caesar. The ed stone, we may safely conclude that he infinest was sound, light, and at the same time tends to describe some vitreous ornament for not without body. which he knew no appropriate name. Glass VI'RGINES VESTA'LES. [VESTALES is, however, first mentioned with certainty VIRGINES.] by Theophrastrus, who notices the circumVIS. Leges were passed at Rome for the stance alluded to above, of the fitness of the purpose of preventing acts of violence. The sand at the mouth of the river Belus for the Lex Plotia or Plautia was enacted against fabrication of glass. those who occupied public places and carried Among the Latin writers Lucretius aparms. The lex proposed by the consul Q. pears to be the first in which the word vitrum Catulus on the subject, with the assistance occurs; but it must have been well known of Plautius the tribunus, appears to be the to his countrymen long before, for Cicero Lex Plotia. There was a Lex Julia of the names it along with paper and linen, as a dictator Caesar on this subject, which im- common article of merchandize brought from posed the penalty of exile. Two Juliae Leges Egypt. Scaurus, in his aedileship (B. c. 58), were passed as to this matter in the time of made a display of it such as was never witAugustus, which were respectively entitled nessed even in after-times; for the scena of De Vi Publica and De Vi Privata. his gorgeous theatre was divided into three VISCERA'TIO. [FuNus, p. 164.1 tiers, of which the under portion was of marVITIS. [CENTURIO.] ble, the upper of gilded wood, and the middle VITRUM (iaPo2o), glass. A story has been compartment of glass. In the poets of the preserved by Pliny, that glass was first dis- Augustan age it is constantly introduced, covered accidentally by some merchants who, both directly and in similes, and in such terms having landed on the Syrian coast at the as to prove that it was an object with which mouth of the river Belus, and being unable every one must be familiar. Strabo declares to find stones to support their cooking-pots, that in his day a small drinking-cup of glass fetched for this purpose fiom their ships some might be purchased at Rome for half an as, of the lumps of nitre which composed the and so common was it in the time of Juvenal cargo. This being fused by the heat of the and Martial, that old men and women made fire, united with the sand upon which it rest- a livelihood by trucking sulphur matches for ed, and formed a stream of vitrified matter. broken fragments. When Pliny wrote, manNo conclusion can be drawn from this tale, ufactories had been established not only in even if true, in consequence of its vagueness; Italy, but in Spain and Gaul also, and glass but it probably originated in the fact, that drinking-cups had entirely superseded those the sand of the district in question was es- of gold and silver; and in the reign of Alex VITTA. UMBRACULUM. 363 ander Severus we find vitrearii ranked along of female dress, it was simply a band encirwith curriers, coachrnakers, goldsmiths, silver- cling the head, and serving to confine the smiths, and other ordinary artificers whom the tresses (crinales vittae), the ends, when long emperor taxed to raise money for his thermae. (longae taenia vittae), hanging down behind. It The numerous specimens transmitted to us was worn by maidens, and by married women prove that the ancients were well acquainted also; the vitta assumed on the nuptial day with the art of imparting a great variety of being of a different form from that used by colours to their glass; they were probably virgins. less successful in their attempts to render it The Vitta was not worn by libertinae even perfectly pure and free from all colour, since of fair character, much less by meretrices; we are told that it was considered most val- hence it was looked upon as an insignepudoris, uable in this state. It was wrought accord- and, together with the stola and instita, served ing to the different methods now practised, to point out at first sight the freeborn matron. being fashioned into the required shape by The colour was probably a matter of choice; the blowpipe, cut, as we term it, although white and purple are both mentioned. ground (teritur) is a more accurate phrase, When employed for sacred purposes, it was upon a wheel, and engraved with a sharp tool usually twisted round the infula [INFULA], like silver. The art of etching upon glass, and held together the loose flocks of wool. now so common, was entirely unknown, since Under this form it was employed as an ornait depends upon the properties of fluoric acid, ment for (1.) Priests, and those who offered a chemical discovery of the last century. sacrifice. (2.) Priestesses, especially those The following were the chief uses to which of Vesta, and hence vittata sacerdos for a vesglass was applied. tal, KaT7' 46X?7v. (3.) Prophets and poets, 1. Bottles, vases, cups, and cinerary urns. who may be regarded as priests; and in this 2. Glass pastes, presenting fac-simniles either case the vittae were frequently intertwined in relief or intaglio of engraved precious with chaplets of olive or laurel. (4.) Statues stones. 3. Imitations of colored precious of deities. (5.) Victims decked for sacrifice. stones, such as the carbuncle, the sapphire, (6.) Altars. (7.) Temples. (8.) The IKert7pLa the amethyst, and, above all, the emerald. of suppliants. 4. Thick sheets of glass of various colours The sacred vittae, as well as the infulac, appear to have been laid down for paving were made of wool, and hence the epithets floors, and to have been attached as a lining lanea and mollis. They were white (niveae) to the walls and ceilings of apartments in or purple (puniceae), or azure (caeruleae) when dwelling houses, just as scagliuola is fre- wreathed round an altar to the manes. quently employed in Italy, and occasionally ULNA. [PEs.] in our own country also. Rooms fitted up UMBI'LICUS. [LIBER.] in this way were called vitreae camerae, and UMBO. [CLIPEUs.] the panels vitreae quadraturae. Such was the UMBRA'CULIUM, UMBELLA (atimdEtkind of decoration introduced by Scaurus for ov, qKt&dlov,'aKctaeS6Kcr), a parasol, was used the scene of his theatre; not columns nor pil- by Greek and Roman ladies as a protection lars of glass, as some, nor bas-reliefs, as others against the sun. They seem not to have'have imagined. 5. Glass was also used for been carried generally by the ladies themwindows. [DoMus, p. 127.] selves, but by female slaves who held them VITTA, or plural VITTAE, a ribbon or over their mistresses. The daughters of the fillet, is to be considered, 1. As an ordinary aliens (It6rotcot) at Athens had to carry paraportion of female dress. 2. As a decoration sols after the Athenian maidens at the Panaof sacred persons and sacred things. thenaea, as is mentioned under HYDRIA1. When considered as an ordinary portion PHORIA. The parasols of the ancients seem to have been exactly like our own parasols or.i ~-'~ 5 umbrellas in form, and could be shut up and opened like ours. It was considered a mark of effeminacy for men to make use of parasols. The Roman ladies used them in the amphitheatre to defend themselves from the sun or some passing shower, when the wind or other circumstances did not allow the velarium to be extended. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] TO holda parasol over a lady was one of the common atvittae. tentions of lovers, and it seems to have been 364 UNCIA. VOLONES. very common to give parasols as presents. 8 drachmae, each - = 54'208 grs. Instead of parasols, the Greek women in later 24 scrupula. - - 18'069 times wore a kind of straw hat or bonnet, 48 oboli, - 9034 called tholia (Oo2ia). The Romans also 144 siliquae, - = 3-011 wore a hat with a broad brim (petasus) as a In this division we have the origin of the protection against the sun. mIodern Italian system, in which the pound is divided into 12 ounces, the ounce into three drams, the dram into three scruples, and the scruple into 6 carats. In each of these sys-'/02 It Dtems 1728 Keparia, siliquae, or carats, make up the pound. - The Romans applied the uncial division to all kinds of magnitude. [As.] In length the uncia was the twelfth of a foot, whence Av <1 \\ the word inch [PES], in area the twelfth of a jugerum [JuGERuM], in content the twelfth of a sextarius [SEXTARIUS; CYATHUS]; in time the twelfth of an hour.' - UNCIA'RIUM FENUS. [FENUS.] UNCTO'RES. [BALNEUM.] / D o ilN _ S w tI w UNGUEN''A, ointments, oils, or salves. The application of unguenta in connection Ad. i \\ I ) iL~xll with the bathing and athletic contests of the ancients is statedunder BALNEUM and ATHLE-,IIII TAE. But although their original object was simply to preserve the health and elasti/;I Iimes lsed Xs articlecity of the human frame, they were in later times used as articles of luxury. They were then not only employed to impart to the body or hair a particular colour, but also to give to them the most beautiful fragrance possible; they were, moreover, not merely applied after a bath, but at any time, to render one's appearance or presence more pleasant than usual. In short, they were used then as oils Umbraculum, Parasal. and pomaturns are at present. UNCIA (6ylcia, oiVyia, ovyyia), the At Rome these luxuries did not become twelfth part of the As or LIBRA, is derived by very general till towards the end of the reVarro from unus, as being the unit of the di- public, while the Greeks appear to have been visions of the as familiar with them from early times. The Its value as a weight was 433-666 grains or wealthy Greeks and Romans carried their i of an ounce and 105'36 grains avoirdupois. ointments and perfumes with them, especially [LIBRA.] It was subdivided into when they bathed, in small boxes of costly Oz. Grs. materials and beautiful workmanship, which 2 sernunciae, each - - I 107'46 were called Narthecia. The traffic which 3 deuellae,, - 35'12 was carried on in these ointments and per4 sicilici,, -,, 108'416 fumes in several towns of Greece and south6 sextulae,, -,, 72'277 ern Italy was very considerable. The per24 sciupula,, -,, 18069 sons engaged in manufacturing them were 144 siliquae,, -,, 3.011 called by the Romans Unguentarii, or, as they In connecting the Roman system of weights frequently were women, Unguentariae, and the and money with the Greek, another division art of manufacturing them Unguenturia. In of the uncia was used. When the drachma the wealthy and effeminate city of Capua was introduced into the Roman system as there was one great street called the Seplaequivalent to the denarius of 96 to the pound sia, which consisted entirely of shops in [DENARIUS; DRACHMA], the uncia contained which ointments and perfumes were sold. 8 drachmae, the drachma 3 scrupula, the VOLO'NES is synonymous with Voluntarii scrupulum 2 oboli (since 6 oboli made up the (from volo), and might hence be applied to all drachma), and the obolus 3 siliquae (Keparia). those who volunteered to serve in the Roman Therefore the uncia was divided into armies without there being any obllgation to VULCANALiA. YOKE. 365 do so. But it was applied more especially to VULGA'RES. [SERvus, p. 289.] slaves, when in times of need they offered or UXOR. [MATRIMoNIuM, p. 212.] were allowed to fight in the Roman armies. UXO'RIUM. [AEs UXORIUM.] Thus when during the second Punic war after the battle of Cannae there was not a sufficient number of freemen to complete the army, about 8000 young and able-bodied W. slaves offered to serve. Their proposal was WEAV [TELA.] accepted; they received armour at the public WHEELSVING. [TEL.] expense, and as they distinguished themselves they were honoured with the franchise. WINDOWS. [DoMUS,. 127. In after times the name volones was retained WINE. STLING. [L whenever slaves chose or were allowed to WRESTLING. [LUCTA.] take up arms in defence of their masters, which they were the more willing to do, as they were generally rewarded with the fran- X. chise. VOLU'MEN. [LIBER.] XENA'GI (:evayo~). The Spartans, as VOLUNTA'RII. [VOLONES.] being the head of that Peloponnesian and VOMITO'RIA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] Dorian league, which was formed to secure URAGUS. [CENTURIO.] the independence of the Greek states, had URNA, an urn, a Roman measure of ca- the sole command of the confederate troops pacity for fluids, equal to half an AMPHORA. in time of war, ordered the quotas which'his use of the term was probably founded each state was to furnish, and appointed ofupon its more general application to denote a ficers of their own to command them. Such vessel for holding water, or any other sub- officers were called Xenagi. The, generals stance, either fluid or solid. whom the allies sent with their troops were An urn was used to receive the names of subordinate to these Spartan xenagi, though the judges (judices) in order that the praetor they attended the council of war, as repremignt draw out of it a sufficient number to sentatives of their respective countries. After determine causes: also to receive the ashes the peace of Antalcidas, the league was still of the dead. more firmly established, though Argos reUSTRI'NA, USTRI'NUM. [BUSTUM.] fused to join it; and the Spartans were rigorUSUCA'PIO, the possession of property ous in exacting the required military service, for a certain time without interruption. The demanding levies by the scytale, and sending Twelve Tables declared that the ownership out xenagi to collect them. of land, a house, or other immoveable prop- The word Xenagus may be applied to any erty, could be acquired by usucapio in two leader of a band of foreigners or mercenayears; and of moveable property by usucapio ries. in one year. XENUS (~voc). [HOSPITIUM.] USU'RAE. [FENUS.] XESTES (i-oygfl), a Greek measure of USUS. rMATRIMONIUMi, p. 213.] capacity, both fluid and solid, which containUSUSFRUCTUS was the right to the en- ed 12 cyathi or 2 cotylae, and was equal to joyment of a thing by one person, while the i of the chous, I of the Roman amphora ownership belonged to another. He who had, the usustructus was Usasfructuarins or Fruc- or qladrantal, and, of the Greek amphora tuari'us, and the object of the usustiuctus was or metretes; or, viewing it as a dry measure, Res Fructnariae. it was half the choenix and 1- of the medim. UTRICULA'RIUS. [TIBIA.] nus. It contained'9911 of a pint English. VULCANA'LIA, a festival celebrated at At this point the Roman and Attic systems Rome in honour of Vulcan, on the 23d of of measures coincide; for there is no doubt August, with games in the circus Flaminius, that the Attic xestes was identical, both in where the god had a temple. The sacrifice name and in value, with the Roman sextarius. on this occasion consisted of fishes, which the people threw into the fire. It was also customary on this day to commence working by candle-light, which was probably considered Y. as an auspicious beginning of the use of fire, as the day was sacred to the god of this ele- YEAR. [CALENDARIUX.] ment. YOKE. [JUGUM.] 1I H 2 366 ZONA. Z. Men used their girdles to hold money instead of a purse. ZA'CORI. [AEDITUI.J As the girdle was worn to hold up the garZETE'TAE (,firn7ai), Inquisitors, were ments for the sake of business or of work reextraordinary officers, appointed by the quiring despatch, so it was loosened and the Athenians to discover the authors of some tunic was allowed to fall down to the feet to crime against the state, and bring them to indicate the opposite condition, and more esjustice. They were more frequently ap- pecially in preparing to perform a sacrifice pointed to search for confiscated property, (veste recincta), or funeral rites (discincti, inthe goods of condemned criminals and state cinctae). debtors; to receive and give information A girdle was worn by young women, even against any persons who concealed, or assist- when their tunic was not girt up, and reed in concealing them, and to deliver an in- moved on the day of marriage, and therefore ventory of all such goods (a7roypdbetv) to the called'6v77 r'apOevctK. The statue of Flora, proper authorities. in the annexed cut, shows the appearance of ZONA, also called CI'NGULUM (56vy, the girdle as worn by young women..C&ua, Ctarrip, tbirpa), a girdle or zone, worn about the loins by both sexes. The chief use of this article of dress was to hold up the tunic (;6vvvaoat), which was more especially requisite to be done when persons were at work, on a journey, or engaged in hunting. Hence we see the loins girded in the cuts of the boatman at p. 148, of the shipbuilder at p. 25, and of the goatherd at p. 246. The zona is also represented in many ancient statues and pictures of men in armour as worn round the cuirass. The girdle, mentioned by Homer, seems to have been a constituent part of the cuirass, serving to fasten it by means of a buckle, and also affording an additional protection to the body, and having a short kind of petticoat attached to it, as is shown in the figure of the Greek 1 warrior in p. 203. The cut at p. 3 shows that the ancient cuirass did not descend low /, enough to secure that part of the body, which was covered by the ornamental kilt or petticoat. To supply this defect was the design of the mitra (Yi-pa), a brazen belt lined probably on the inside with leather and stuffed with wool, which was worn next to the body. zona, Oirdle INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. avTrat, 16, a, 231, a. twr6?oELbt~, 122, a. A. ciZvr7pXng, 16, a. ro67reu~tgf, 122, a. t<[3an, 1, a. 4jua:a, 251, b. iwoaroCeb02,-v 28, b. dtya6oepyoi, 12, b. 4yap~vvta, 16, a. 7r7.-Xtyy6~f, 348, 6. yrla, 12, b. &/zap3ata, 16, a. urog6pr71a, 28, b. iyrr76pta, 67, b. &/rigrrapeg, 173, a. np, 247, a. iyxcotva, 225, a. iqurvE, 22, b. /ipyvpoC, 37, a. -cyKO6n, 17, b. cUll7rvKrp, 22, b. &p vpa6rtdeLS, 37, a. uyopa, 14, a. fotQicriove~, 18, a. ap6dcltov, 158, b. dyop& -Ar86ovaa, 14, a.'tUrV6ovef, 17, b. 6pdivtov, 158, b.,&yopav6oyot, 14, a. t4ucl7rvoVia, 18, a. UpEtof rdyof, 35, a.'iypaOtLa, 14, b. a/ytddea, 39, a. aptrTov, 111, b. ttyptlvta, 14, b. 6twotdp6ptla, 19, a. apyadltaua, 171, b. &ypovojtot, 14, b, &/c.opeiSg, 21, b. apo7pov, 31, a.'yporfpa~ Ovaia, 14, b. avadlKia, 29, b. ipovpa, 39, a. rtywvapxat, 14, a. ava6O/arTa, 127, b. uprd6371, 39, a. iywvwarai, 42, a. avaicaAvrr7pta, 212, a. lpreTtiCata.. 39, a. i ywvo6iKat, 14, a. cavaKegduEva, 127, b. &pro7rot6g, 251, a. U:yovoOerat, 13, b., avtKalvtrpov, 186, b. aprowr6At6Eif, 251, b "6Earrmorot, 173, a. ivdtKropov, 315, a. tPXEtov, 32, b. a6lrvarot, 7, a. &vavpider,.54, a. cpXlEtOpof, 322, a. diSvrov, 315, a. avdpela, 307, a. aPXov, 32, b. id, vta, 5, b. aivdpwvirtl, 123, a. aadltvOor, 47, a. 47rCtJa, 152, a. aveaOvvoC, 141, b. aKcacvwAy, 324, a. ietoevyia, 148, b. ivearo7pta, 119, a, b. aciriC, 86, a. &iO2Arai, 41, b. aivOvirarog., 263, b. ciairwrai, 38, a. ciXOoErat, 14, a, 239, a. avrvwO/coaia, 116, a. LarpdyaZof, 309, b. atiyi, 9, b. avo6of, 322, a. aCTvv6IIot, 41, a. atlavtizvrrC, 12, a, 14, a. &vridoatc, 26, b. cvAO)v, 41, a. atlx/u, 172, a., vrTypa~4, 26, b. c7rA;eta, 41, b. CtIdrtov, 2, a. aivria, 26, b. rtuyia, 42, b. 7c0arog, 2, a. ivrvS, 27, a. UTrpaKrof, 164, b. lltctvdlo?, 2, b. azivh7, 283, a. av'ObP9, 46, b. aK6VTLOV, 172, a. a:ove~, 47, a. a'Raia, 349, b. Kicpartlaa, 111, b. Ui:tv, 108, a. avsZetog Opa, 123, a. aKp6aOaa, 3, a. aop, 168, b. a6AX, 123, b. "Kp6wroAtl, 3, a. i7raywoyi, 27, a. aiVXinrpieg', 324,. b. (tKpOar6TXov, 3, a. &iraroVpta, 27, a. avi6g', 324, a. i pCrJiptolv, 3, b, awravtaa, 212, a. avrov6,uot, 47, a. iLKrLa, 3, b. i.ire-e8epog, 201, a. *emrai, 173, a. G)Kyo, 172, a. &7rodcTrat, 28, b. aoZaarov, 28, a. tKigv, 172, a. airoypa9o, 28, b. 6capatcrog vafg, 27, 6. iteZirrat, 15, 6. 1rroowcalg, 29, a. &ppodiaca, 28, a. 6aia, 14, a. a7ro0sij/, 29, a. aXirovw 344, b. TX7ApeL', 171, a. 467rotcia, 89, b. 368 1NDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 13. yvvatK6vtrt~, 123, a. | OCeozrpd evoc, 176, b. )ywpvr76, 105, b. eiloari, 131, a. /3atavdeov, 47, a. Euoaaro7SOyot, 131, a. i3a)2Xtqloi, 240, a. elt2.wreg, 172, b. j3ipaOpov, 49, b. A. epTyv, 131, a. ij3p3it70V, 50, a. eiaaTye2ia, 131, a.,cdp3trooC, 50, a. d a1oXo~, 133, a. eicarotdeaOat, 6, a. 3ioaavoc, 326, b. daidata, 110, a. eta7roit7vct, 6, a. i3aataeitc, 33, a. davdcr7, 110, a. EUa7roat7rg, 6, a. 3act2tKc, 50, a. dapeLtK6l, 110, a. elciopi, 131, b. I3aaitcaaa, 33, b. d6afvny6pta, 110, a. iKacaTr6y3aa, 173, b /Z6TLvy, 5, a. 6ei7rvov, 111, b. acar76/ut/, 276, b. 173, b. d3e2ovig, 5, a. &IteKir, 111, b. KOctdoC, 153, a. /evdideta, 51, a. (5tca7T;z6yoat, 111, b. ee-Xuetpia, 230, a.!3i)76g, 1'78, a. decarevrai, 111, b. Esctc 2qaia, 129, a. 0it/3a, 129, b. 248, b. deKCarCvat, 111, b. EIcKKozttd, 159, a. jli,3actl, 280, a. (eYFX'ta, 113, a. K6aoyedq, 132, a. Ic3tatov, 200, a. tECaTrowtovaIvat, 173, a. bEc7otEv', 6, a. ItXtalo7rt')g', 51, b. d'ev7epayovt9rjg', 174, a. lacrotdeao at, 6, a. [3t6g, 34, b. 6iXta, 113, a. CEXevaivta, 132, a.,orl6p6uta, 52, a. T7,uzapxia, 328, a. EtZevOtpta, 134, a. i3opeacaoi or f3opeaayLo6, 52,b. ft3/apXot, 113, a, 328, a. 0Z2Tavo6itcat, 172, b. 231, a. 3ov~2evrai, 53, a. 67uttovpyo,, 113, a, 332, b EAt2vora/uaat, 172, b. [3ovevuV7ptOV, 54, a. 6d7yo, 113, b. Ecavy a, 31, a. j3ov2Z~, 52, b. 671y6atot, 113, b.,uX3nyul,, 134, a. [3pa3eg,, 14, a. taypaiodo, 132, a. o3ov, 222, b. i4pa/3evrai, 14, a. 6ta;'t6ara, 317, b. EuoAoo, 222, b. Ih3f2log, 200, a. 5tatlrfrai, 114, b. 7trataca, 134, a. Bvccidvh, 54, b. d/tpuew, 220, b. Eil r6ptov, 135, a. f3vcraoo, 55, b. dtKcaacri, 115, a. &vayriayara, 161, a. ficoju6, 30, b. tKa(rtKC6v, 115, a. evata, 160, b. IiKt7, 115, b. EvdetStg, 135, a. dy/.dXat, 118, b. evd6Ea, oc, 173, a. r. 6toovoata, 118, b. Evdpoytg, 135, a. 6tir2oc6tov, 344, a. vo7rrpov, 299, a.:;atc6r, 165, a. 6twrto~9, 344, a. EvcwUoripXoot, 142, a. yayr?7Zia, 166, a. 6i~rrvXa, 120, b, 308, a. tvo/Loria, 142, a. 7y,/(of, 211, a. 6iacloc, 120, b. iivrea, 37, b.,ytvetov, 50, a. &dCtipat, 200, b.'evieaarai, 142, a. yevvtan, 161, a. d6ipof, 109, b. bEry7rai, 141, a. QEvvyi7at, 332, b. doS3EZia, 321, a. ipet', 221, b. yvo9, 332, b. doKctuaoca, 122, b. gt6dta, 147, b. ye;pavor, 279, a. (5op-,ov, 111, b. e#tng, 148, a. yepovaia, 166, b. 66pv, 172, a. C'(.ripa, 148, a. 7'/vpa, 255, hb. dobvog, 289, b. t1ra),yeOia, 135, a. yeaop6pot, 332, b. dpayyuz, 128, a. raavZ.ta, 212, a. Yzvviytoa', 6, a. 6lpodrat, 159, a. 7Ertiqdrat, 136, b. yv6iy(ov, 175, a. dpoy.tdtltov /ap, 19, b. Eqrtypaoe[., 132, a. yopyvpa, 66, a. dvpiavarat, 331, b. 7rt6aipta, 133, b. ypd&uza, 282, b. 6vauvef, 331, b. E7rt66act, 137, a. ypap/xaregf, 1(9, a. 6(dpa, 127, b.' briOrlya, 160, a. ypaqai, 115, b. e7ri/,Zttvrpov, 186, b. -;/iaa, 202, b. EblrtZapXia, 144, a.,vriay, 31, a. E. j rtye2j7rai tooa /U-ropi ov, yvptvaatciptpXr, 170, a. 135, a. yTvLvaaiapXoC, 170, a. EyKcXriua, 115, b. ( rdv lvaryTpiiv, 141, a. lv,.uvaotov, 169, b. ~YXOS, 172, a. r wTv veopiwv, 219, a. yvuvaorai, 170, ae. Mva, 128, a. tort7rrl'7, 53, b, 130, a, yvuvoiratlia, 170, b. s5c&Xta, 223, a. E'tlaro7e0'-f, 137, a. yvpv6f, 228, a. ESva, 128, a. rtaorp)ov, 108, b INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 369 bvriTay/ta, 144, b. t(taayuoC, 124, a, 223, a. irctov', 237, b. Ewt7rtzia, 42, b. Oaloop6pot, 239, a. ti7rraplzoar7'g, 142, b. r7trovoi, 186, b, 225, a. Oapy;ilta, 317, a. iwwee~, 73, b. TwtrpoTro', 137, a. Oeavpov, 317, a. 7rirS6potLoC, 301, b. tErwtepoTo via, 33, a. Oeoadvta, 320, b. ipvv, 131, a. 7rO7raiat, 133, a. eph-r&uv, 173, a. io7ro2)treia, 216, b. ETro-Tuea, 133, a. &aotC, 6, a. blo7't2eta, 216, b. E'touiF, 344, a. 0eaoO8,Tat, 33, a. iaorEete2c, 216, a. ETvrvvocf, 33, a. Oe-a/oi, 33, b. to:pa, 181, a. epavog, 112, a, 140, b. Oeotwoq6pta, 322, a t-i-tov, 223, b. EpyaorLvat, 239, a. O6rog, 6, a. iar-S, 311, b. oepaZ, 173, b. Owepia, 321, b. o7wCiv, 311, b. Epyaia, 174, a. OewpucKi, 320, b. irvC, 108, b. EpVIrT7peg, 173, a. OO&)pi, 113, a, 278, a pgowr7pov, 299, a. Oewpoi, 113, a, 278, a, 321, b. aXcapa, 30, b, 156, b. Oicat, 159, b. K. euXapic, 30, b, 156, b. O7yptouaiXot, 51, a. Eratpia, 140, b. Bacavpoi, 127, b. ca/3eipla, 55, b. estv7, 141, b. -yoeL~a, 322, a. Cadiaicot, 55, b. e5O8vroL, 142, a. Oi9rWE, 73, b. iiO6t, 55, b. eoota2ridat, 141, a. Oiaco~, 119, a. ict~apacf, 206, b ev, 186, b. 06XoS, 322, b. cKaOe7'p, 271, b. e'ra7rpi6at, 141, b, 332, b. 06wKOo, 14, a. tci0ocog, 322, a. E'Oetqt, 29, b. OpeTvtov, 322, b. i2L~aOo~, 56, b..0jrat, 136, a. OpavTrat, 223, a. Ka2Xtyiveta, 322, b. kfr/l3ela, 135, b. OpdvoS, 223, a. Kcac6ta, 224, 6. loq7goC, 135, b. Oprnvdoi, 159, a. t{(2Zot, 224, b. EoyiYatg, 136, a. Opiay,3og, 337, a. iKa/ipa, 62, b. topoLt, 136, a. Op6vog, 322, b. iivdclvS, 63, b. lovpot, 133, a. Ov/zt2?1, 318, a. icdveov, 64, a. v/ytari7ptov, 2, b. Kavl706po~, 64, a, OBpa, 177, b. acvOapog, 64, a. Z. Ovpe6~, 282, b. ia7rm74eZov, 70, b. O7per-pov, 178, a. Kd7r7oX0C, 70, b. CEvyirat, 73, b. Ovpi6eg, 124, b. Kapve7rat, 67, b. (yryrai, 366, a. Ogpao~, 323, a. tcapvaea, 67, a. (ltKopot, 9, b. Ovp6v, 123, a, 178, a. Kcapwaia, 280, a. fiJytot, 223, a. Ovpwpe-ov, 123, a. iara7'Xlr'tiK, 204, a. (vyirat, 223, a. Ovpwp6f, 123, a, 178, a. Karaytytov, 70, b. Ovyov, 183, b, 207, b, 223, a, Ovr7ptov, 30, b. carcoiyofa, 70, a. 281, a. - O6pa~, 202, b. caraXvautf, 70, b. i'yog, 183, b, 281, a. Kara7rt2r:V, 326, b. y((5a, 366, a. Karawrea2Lrtc, 326, b.'6vw, 366, a. I. KarafpdaKrg, 70, a. (oarryp, 366, a.;a7ara'oai, 317, b. Iepecov, 276, a. Kar7dbpaKcrot, 28, a, 70, a. Lepodc6a;Kao., 257, a. xKaraX-oayara, 211, b. H. lepopavreia, 121, b. darowrrpov, 299, a. iepo/nlvia, 230, a. tcaroXe6', 178, a. jacvarl7, 164, b. iepoIuvi1ovea', 18, a, 174, a. Kavaia, 71, a. ]Xtor7p6'tLov, 175, a. tepovbcat, 42, a. Ked6a~, 71, b. tLU6tt7rwotLdtov, 344, a. iepovo/of, 257, a. cetpia, 186, b. 4pala, 173, b. tepoaKowria, 121, b. KeKpvKtalog, 273, a. a7psov, 160, a. lepodvT'vr~g, 132, b. tKE2evurtG, 259, b.'Lpta vj7o~, 28, a. KEpicK8e, 317, b. iuapta, 174, a. KepOixot, 225, a e. i7X, 144, a. KpVKetov, 55, b. UdvrE', 76, a, 225, a. Krcplctov, 55, b. Oaad/tot, 223, a. yavrheC IrvwcrVtcoi, 76, a. I'pcuta, 76, a. aaauZiral, 223, a.. Iuari6tov, 237, b. clt3lor6f, 32, a. 370 INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. i6eapt~, 207, a. Xalvra(a opia, 184, b. 6Oaref, 173, a. iorcc 16(0, a. Iaptra'f, 184, b. |/,u60ave, i73, a. iiioT7, 82, a. 2otpvatxe, 159, a. | otoXEa, 6, b. Kh(o7oQ6poc, 8'2, b.! evrTOvp4ia, 188, b. yovo/uaiXo, 167, a. ciwv, 92), b;2cai,v7, 242, a. /L6pa, 142, a. c2.e[fpov, 178, a. i2XlXof, 186, b. /ovireTov. 218, b. he'V)pvia5, 1705, b. 2tKvOot, 158, b. /o~X, 178, a. 0tKpovAia, 85, a. ijZvata, 119, a. #vwrayoyS6, 132, b, 141, a. rlXpovXolt, 85, a. 2tvoi, 159, a. #/Ovaat, 132, b. yKryq7peC, 85, b. X7yv6f, 358, b. Uvar7ptov, 218, b. ij70ropEf, 85, b. ZrtzapXtKiv ypauyarelov, 6, KhXZl?7, 185, b, 186, b. a, 114, a. ICAtvidtov, 185, b. Lf:t~, 115, b. N. iClaoLad, 178, a. Xt,3avmodpig, 2, b. tivpaXov, 186, b. Xticj6g, 348, b. va6dtov, 160, a. It7yuat., 108, b. Ziicvov, 348, b. vaoc, 314, b, 315, a. KV/1yif, 229, a. Xirpa, 202, a. vavapXia, 219, a. KOlAOV, 317, b. Xoyelov, 319, a. vavapXoS, 219, a. ico;oor6o, 92, a..oyTlrU7gf, 57, b, 142, a. vavKpapia, 219, a. c6y,un, 93, a. X6y7Xr, 172, a. vawlcpapor, 219, b. iconri, 107, b. Xoerp6v, 47, a. vavf, 219, b. Kop6v?/, 244, a. Xotai, 277, a. vavrtlS6v, 153, a. h6pvpfiof, 105, a. Z'ovrrip, 47, b. veKp6deLrvov, 160, b. Kcopvc, 165, a. ovr77'ptov, 47, b. veKVcata, 161, a. o,oauoi, 105, b. Atov7TpOv, 47, a. veala, 226, a. lc6oopvoc, 105, 6. Xovrpo6b6poS, 277, a. veuea, 226, a. c6rra/3or, 106, a. X60Qo, 165, b. veytea, 226, a.:0coriZr, 106, a. AoXayoi, 142, a. vcodat6de8L, 173, a. ICoTvTrLa, 106, a. X6XoS, 142, a. vetO6pot, 9, b..ip(ivog, 165, a. 2Xtpa, 207, a. ve6pta, 219, a. ipar7p, 106, b. Xlyvoa, 203, a. ve)S, 314, b. JipryiriS, 106, b. Xvxvoitxog, 63, b. vef6ottcot, 219, a. KcpL6, 37, a. vriarea, 322, a.;cptr7i, 106, b. v6tof, 227, b.:ipotwc, 311, b. M. votoiri7f, 34, a, 227, a. icp6raXov, 106, b. vvOEvr7jS, 211, b. CKpowpiVxof, 105, a.,uavdaaoS, 178, a. hpvnrreia, 173, a.,avreotv, 234, a. Kcvaof, 109, a.,ziUvretg, 121, a., cvgltari7pef, 280, a. iFavrTciK, 121, a.;v/iiar Tatq, 279, b. ydxatpa, 107, b, 268, a. Fevayo1, 365, b. c1V0f/3o, 316, a. tliyapov, 315, a. Sevia, 176, a. /ci/KXa, 108, a. 6kdtquvoC, 214, b. ~evtKu1, 216, a. CVKuC2X(ui, 109, b. 0u1iav, 42, b. ~:vo~, 176, a. tvXt:,. 62, a. jueXia, 172, a.:carrf, 365, b. Kciyf3aXov, 109, b. YLeXiKparov, 360, b. T4bor, 168, b. c?,u371, 109, b. IeuX1eip7'v, 131, a. Fvuotcoria, 164, b. iKicU3of, 109, b. eaavLo, 123, b. arpa 15 b. Kvvn7, 165, b. jiaavXor K6pa, 123, b, 124, a. ucvp3aaia, 323, b. /.trav/or, 123, b, 124, a. c66cov, 324, b. tero70itov, 216, a. 0. Ko2aKpirat, 310, b. t.rotKot, 215, b. tcuirc7, 223, a. perpnrl7T, 216, b. f/oA0of6, 128, a. uKOpvr6f, 105, b.,Utu7ro0V, 222, a. o6'ia, 364, a.?I7rp67ro2tf, 90, a. oKlt/arf, 90, a. juyuoS, 216, b. obcKof, 123, a. A. uTirpa, 217, b, 366, a. oZv6eMeXt, 360, b. cuva, 309, a. olvof, 358, a. iaplrraSapxia, 184, b.,tvjara, 159, b. olovtarTKh, 121, o. Xaura'a&7poulia, 184, b. yuvnyiea, 159, b. olwvo7r6ot, 44, a. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 37 oKpi3af, 319, a. 7rapciaetpor, 108, b. rr6fo', 175, a. 6Kct(5e', 221, a. 7rapaarylov, 222, b. Tro/w~, 255, b. 627)trta, 229, b. 7rapaatKvtov, 318, b. 7topctra[, 259, a. 6?vxyrt(tf, 230, a. rapaaraS, 123, b. ro~S, 248, a. 6/toyilcaKrE, 332, b. 7r6pCI pot, 240, b. wpauc7ropef, 260, a. /ypotot, 83, b. wrappopof, 108, b. rpo3oX7i, 263, b. bvetpo7robia, 122, a. 7rdpoxof, 211, b. rpogo'i5evuya, 53, b. ovolya, 226, h. irdpodot, 318, a. irp6f3ovaot, 263, b. oTirtvO66oycf, 315, a. 7rapombi~, 241, a. irpoyalyeta, 211, b. 07rua, 37, b. 7rdrpat, 332, a. irp66poytoS, 123, b, 315, a. 67rXtrat, 38, a, 143, b. irarpov6oot, 243, b. rpoedpot, 53, b. opyoo, 218, a, 280, a. 7rew&tov, 57, a. wrp6o0etf, 158, b opxrletS, 278, b.' re2Xrat, 244, b. w'p66vpa, 123, a. 6opXirpa, 318, a. wrXieKvf, 283, a. wpozi, 128, a. bpxu7urvf, 278, b. 7rewrar7ai, 38, b, 143, b. 7rpouye6ta, 264, a. opyta, 218, b. ZrgXr, 244, b. r'p6vaof, 315, a. ornot, 234, b. r'evkerat, 245, a. rpo~evia, 176, a. oaXob6pta, 235, a. 7r&v-ra6aot, 245, a. 7rp6evof, 176, b. a7rpaKtctauo, 148, b. rrEvr7aO2ov, 245, a. 7rpogKeX&etov, 186, b. oarpalcov, 149, a, 158, b. 7revraKoaotoyud6tuvot, 73, b. 7rp6gCKlxatL, 115, b. ovd6a, 178, a. rrevr7c6v7ropoc, 220, b. rpoKcvvatlf, 6, b. oiyyia, 364, a. 7rev7Krxoari7, 245, a. 7rpoardf, 123, b. oiv ytca, 364, a. 7revr7Kco7roR6yot, 245, a. rpooar76rf, 201, a, 216, a o62ayoi, 142, b. 7FevTrlK1CorO7T, 142, a. 7rpogr-iryta, 116, b. o 6,?xvra, 276, b. 7revr7VpeCS, 221, b. 7rpoar6ov, 123, b. ovoXvratL, 276, b. irETruog, 245, a. wrpoSforejov, 247, b o6oay6g, 144, a. irepi6eetrvov, 160, b.' rp6owrrov, 247, b. ovpiaxof, 172, a. IrepiotKot, 246, b. 7rpor62eta y6dlov, 211, b 6xa&vy, 86, b. ~repiTro2ot, 135, b. irp6rovof, 225, a. oxavov, 86, b. ireptca/ekif, 247, a. 7rpoOk7qlf, 132, b, 234, a. 7reptr17'2tov, 123, b. 7rpoqi7tgLf, 234, b. trepltetLXtw. o, 348, b. rpoxetporovia, 54, a. II.'reaoro, 185, b. 7rpvXeft, 279, a. 7rera2tqa/o, 149, a. 7rp2)t1f, 279, a..rayKparLaacrat, 239, b. ~rerauof, 250, b. irp'yv,7, 222, b. ray/Kpartov, 239, a. rE'ravpov, 248, b. 7rpv'aveia, 53, a, 115, b. Traiav, 235, b. 7r&revpov, 248, b. 7wpvraveiov, 266, b. wratdayoy6f, 236, a. 7re7po362uoC, 326, b. 7rpvravedi, 53, a..ratdorpt3ai, 170, a. iriyyua, 244, a. 7rp6pa, 222. a. ratLtyOv, 235, b. 7ry636dtov, 169, a. 7rptopeuf, 222, b. -ratlv, 235, b. 27r', 165, a. irpCo7ayovltar7r, 174, a. rd;aLatara, 204, a.'riXv, 107, a. 7rvavltla, 268, b.'ra?~awLyoarv77, 204, a.'iTrT7ua, 250, b. 7rte2otl, 159, a.'raXaiarpa, 237, a. ~ri2of, 250, b. r-vyuaxia, 267, b. rciar?, 204, a. 7rt2TOr6v, 250, b. 7rvyyui, 267, b. sraX2?aKc, 6, b. 7r2,ayiavofr, 324, a. 7rvy/loatvq, 267, b.'rapuyaxot, 239, b. 7rrXIcrpov, 208, a. 7rOtha, 268, b. srl.u vXot, 331, b. ir,iyvl, 108, b. rIlOtot, 269, a. 7ravaWOvata, 238, b. 7rL/.LoXoat, 133, b. Mr;K7rat, 267, b. Trav6dKedov, 70, b. iry7p/yoXoi, 133, b. irv2aia, 18, a.'raviyvptf, 239, b. itroilov, 219, b. 7rvayT6pat, 18, a. savatOvta, 240, a. wrvvr7pta, 254, b. 7rvRlv, 123, a. 7ravorria, 240, a. r66ef, 225, a. 7r4:, 267, b. Trapayva6i6ef, 165, b. TrotlEv, 6, a. 7rvi6tdov, 269, a. 7rapaypaoj, 240, b. irotelOGat, 6, a. 7rvliov, 55, b. lrapd6etaof, 240, b. 7roitgCl, 6, a. irv'tC, 269, a. 7rtdpaLoSf, 278, a. 7roltr6f, 6, a. 7rffb, 55, 6. 7rapaivvgor, 211, b. wroaXgapxof, 33, a, 142, a. rrvpai, 159, a. iraparr'ray/a, 319, a. iro;treta, 82, b.'r'ipyof, 345, b. rapaadyyyqr, 240, b. 7ro;ir7nc, 82, b. irvpia, 48, a. 372 INDEX OF GREEK WORDS.,rvptarTptov, 48, a. arUpa~, 172, a. 7rtipag, 323, b. 7rvfiX7, 279, a. avtcojiavrTr, 304, b. r7uyjta, 116, b. 7rvIPtLXtaai, 279, b. avyzfo2~, 112, a. rolcoC, 152, b. arvulopia, 131, b, 336, a. r6vot, 186, b. avmwroaiapxof, 305, b. Trorea, 224, a.'P Cavurc6atov, 305, a. ropevrS, 342, a. COvtlKcof, 306, a. r6S:apXot, 113, b. ba36ov6fuol, 14, a. avvnyopof, 306, a. tO0oOijKc, 34, b. ba/6oovXot, 14, a. aovOErta, 144, b, 316, a. r65ov, 34, b. babiC, 5, a. uCrvraMtf, 313, b. ro56rat, 113, b. b6vt6f, 31, a, 108, b. avvrO7'eta, 336, a. rpdirweat, 215, a, 160, a. bvr6v, 274, a. CvvreL7ef, 335, b. -- 7rprat, 112, b. avvrptLpapXot, 335, b. - 64evrepat, 112, b. avvdpi~, 108, b. rpcdoy, 222, b. ]g. oLcpty:, 306, b. rptaKceGf, 332, a. acppla, 307, a. rptaKO6vropo, 220, b. aa.ayLtvia, 278, a. aSCKnrvot, 102, b. 7piatva, 164, b. a-62drtty, 342, b. avcarTLa, 307, a. rptrpapXia, 335, a. caaup8t6ln, 280, b. acayif, 107, b. rpltpapXot, 335, a. caa,3VKliaptat, 280, b. alapa, 249, b. rptlpect, 220, b. aav6aLtov, 280, b. caatpeif, 250, a. rptLporotowi, 221, b. aiv6a2ov, 280, b. aratptar7ptov, 170, b, 250, a. rpt7rovf, 336, b. aavi[, 178, a. acatpLtrtlK, 249, b. rpira, 160, b. aavpwry7p, 172, a. c~atptorLKc6, 250, a. rptrayvovcri7, 174, a. aeLarpov, 297, a. alaltpiarpa, 250, a. rpIrrva, 277, a. alyiara, 159, b. aCevdY6vn, 158, a. Trptrrv6pxoi, 328, a. anlyaat, 295, b. aCECv6ov7at, 158, a. rpi7rveg, 332, a. aryeiLa, 295, b. aXotvia, 224, a. rpt6/,oXov, 336, b. apttLc6v, 289, a. aXolvo9, 282, a. rpowralov, 341, a. atro9iXaKcf, 297, a. aCGpoviCrat, 170, a. rpoXoi, 108, a. alcaarrpda, 170, b. rpvr-yltara, 175, b. aKr/v0, 318, b. rpvr&v7l, 342, a. aKr7rrpov, 281, b. T. r7VZ, 186, b. aKtdr6etov, 363, b. r/yufog', 159, b. Clctd6tov, 363, b. 7ay6f, 308, b. vruwavov, 346, a. actaciadlrK, 363, b. raivla, 303, b. rtpavvog, 346, a. alctO7lpov, 175, a. ratvL&lov, 303, b. atcac, 322, b. 7r2Lavra, 201, b. acKVr(Cir, 283, a. r7iavrov, 309, a. T. aKVOat, 113, b. rZXLapo~, 56, b. aopoi, 159, a. rayuiaf, 310, a, 269, b. valcivOta, 177, a. arri7Or, 313, a. ra~iapXot, 311, a. vaXor, 362, a. cirelpa, 299, b. riStL, 142, b, 311, a. v6pav6f, 132, b. awrovdai, 277, a. rapavrtvapxia, 144, a. cdpia, 297, a. arci6tov, 300, b. ratt66f, 223, a. ivdpLtaopia, 177, b. aridtog, 300, b. ra6bot, 159, b. iVp6yexXt, 360, b. ara64iy6, 201, a. TEgpLTTrof, 108, b. ie2of, 362, b. ararip, 301, b. relX7rotoc, 311, a. vLUelg, 331, b. aribavog, 103, a. re7uerai, 218, a. v7rarog, 99, a. Cr7'jat, 160, a. 2re2ovpivpXfC, 313, a. vrepat, 225, a. aryultov, 311, b. re-2MVS f, 313, a. vrei)OvvoC, 141, b. ar7eyyif, 15, b. -ri2of, 144, a, 313, b. Wrovry, 50, a. aroC, 259, a. riuCevof, 314, a. vTr6yatov, 159, b. aroXEtOV, 175, a. rerpaopia, 108, b. TO'6yEcov, 159, b. arparyy6o, 303, a. rerpappXt7, 316, b. vr66la, 57, a, 280, b. aTpETrr6, 327, a. rerpapXia, 316, b. rroidKcopot, 9, b. acrp6ftLof, 170, b. 7rerpbpel, 221, b. wolcKpLrTn, 174, a. aTpoyyvLalt, 220, b, 221, a. rEvXEa, 37, b. wo72oXvLov, 358, b. arpS6jara, 186, b. trO3evvor, 325, a. vrolyeiovEg, 83, b. criV;oC, 92: b. riapa, 323, b. irorvo/coV, 107, b. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 373 r'o'orAmo, 322, b. yrvy7, 148, 6. Xoai, 161, a. v6poxyrlpa, 279, a. b;XapXot, 249, b, 328, a. xoeif, 79, a. v7ro/,uoaia, 116, a. Ov2v, 331, b. Xovt,:, 78, a. tcao6, 172, a. ov;~ofaait;elf, 249, b. XofS, 79, a. fvXov, 331, b. Xopy7yia, 78, a. Xopy6l', 78, a.'i,. Xop6f, 78, a. X. Xpva6g, 45, b. 0&2LayS, 144, a. Xpvao9,, 301, b. fii2apov, 248, b. Xa2lMgoct la, 76, a. Xy/ia, 13, b, 159, b. pdaog, 165, b. xa2K6C, 11, a. napfrpa, 248, b. xa;AKogg, 11, b. kapiUaKloi, 317, a. xetptdor'S Xtr6v, 77, a.. baepo0, 237, b. XetpoYpac/ov, 77, b. Qap)gs, 249, a. Xetpo7ovia, 76, b, 304, a. Oi/Xtov, 39, a. aciad avov, 168, b. X6Xvf, 207, b. gt/~ov or iIX2tLiov, 39, a, qt2gi(ao., 249, a. XeXSjvi7, 207, b, 316, a. teiayua, 54, a, 227, b. (paatl, 249, b. X]viaKaoS, 222, b. VpiOot, 185, b. pepyv, 128, a. Xt;tapXia, 144, a.,7pbooS, 267, a. pOop(i, 7, a. tXLiapxot, 331, b. ibtXoi, 143, b. otd6L2, 241, b. Xt7Sv, 343, a. Oope~ov, 185, b. XtLrjvtov,, 343, a. p6p ytyS, 207, a. Xctrvicro', 343, a. 2.,6pof, 313, b. x;alva, 184, b. qlopr7yoi, 221, a. XXayol6tov, 77, b. fjpai, 332, a, pOprttKd, 221, a. X3aurS 77, b. (dpo26ytov, 175, a. Oparpfa, 332, b. XyXtd6v, 39, a. (aXoSo6pta, 235, a. "THE MOST COMPLETE LATIN DICTIONARY THAT HAS APPEARED." A LATIN-ENGLISH LEXICON, Founded on the larger Latin-German Lexicon of Dr. WILLIAM FREUND. With Additions and Corrections from the Lexicons of Gesner, Facciolati, Schiller, Georges, &c. BY E. A. ANDREWS, LL.D. ROYAL 8VO, SHEEP EXTRA, $5 00. It is difficult to speak of this magnificent work in terms that will not savor of extravagance to those who have not examined it. The imperfections of the lexicons in common use, such as Airsworth's and Leverett's, have long been felt, while the larger works of Facciolati and others have been at once beyond the means and unsuitable to the purpose of ordinary students. The work before us combines the cheapness and compactness of the one class with the completeness and accuracy of the other. It is essentially a reproduction into English, with corrections by the American editor, of the great German Lexicon of Freund, a work which, being the result of many years' patient toil by one of the first Latin scholars of the age, stands confessedly at the head of this department of scholarship. ** * VVith these advantages this lexicon must speedily supersede all those in common use, as the cheapest and best acceptable aid to the acquisition of the noble language of Virgil and Cicero. —Watchman and Reflector. A little experience in the use of this extensive and accurate cyclopedia of the Latin language, will induce students to abandon the old lexicons at once.-Christian Advocate. Liddell and Scott's most admirable Greek Lexicon, Dr. Robinson's Lexicon of the New Testament, Prof. Anthon's Classical Dictionary, and now this work of Prof. Andrews, together form a series, whose usefulness, scholarship, and excellence, it would be impossible to exceed in the English language.-Christian Parlor Magazine. A great work-a work of great labor-a work of great practical importance to the classical student.-Mlethodist Protestant. The best work of the kind unquestionably in the English language.-Zion's Herald. A valuable work. It forms an excellent companion for the Greek Lexicon, edited by Prof. Drisler, and the English-Latin, by Prof. Anthonl. We perceive that anll EnglishGreek Lexicon, edited by Prof. Drisler, is also in preparation-when completed, the student will have a very complete apparatus for the reading of the classical authors of Greece and Rome, and composing in those languages with correctness and facility.Churchman. A superb volume. * * * The American student has here all the substantial advantages of the most superior of the German-Latin Lexicons, in a form adapted to daily use. This will become the standard Lexicon of its kind, and find its way into all the schools and colleges of the country.- Southern Christian Advocate. We congratulate the students and teachers of the Latin language on the appearance of this elaborate work. It furnishes themn with an apparatus far superior to that enjoyed by their predecessors. It contains the results of the most thorough scholarship, foreign and domestic, and is abundantly adapted to the wants of the student. The present work is distinguished from every manual Latin-English Lexicon heretofore published, not only by the number of authorities cited, but by its full reference in every case both to the name of the classical author, and to the particular treatise, book, section, or line of his writings in which the passage referred to is to be found. We hope the book will find its way into all the literary institutions of our land.-N. Y. Observer. The most complete Latin Dictionary that has ever appeared. —Mleth. Quart. Review. We venture to say that teachers of Latin, wherever the English language is spoken, will acknowledge their indebtedness to the editor, translators, and publishers for this Lexicon, as one altogether superior to any in existence.-New York Recorder. The Harpers have laid all the students of Latin in the Union under obligations of gratitude by the excellence of this Lexicon. All others that we have seen fade into insignificance when compared with this.-Louisville Courier. WVe may congratulate the schools of this country, and the readers of Latin. on the publication of this work, which is unquestionably far superior to any Latin-English dictionary we have. —New York Evening Post. The best dictionary of the Latin language we have yet seen.-National Intelligencer. i Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 82 Cliff Street, New York. AN ENGLISH-LATIN LEXICON. FOUNDED ON THE GERMAN-LATIN DICTIONARY OF DR. C. E. GEORGES, BY REV. J. E. RIDDLE, M.A., AND REV. T. K. ARNOLD, M.A. FIRST AMERICAN EDITION, CAREFULLY REVISED, AND CONTAINING A COPIOUS DICTIONARY OF PROPER NAMES FROM THE BEST SOURCES, BY CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D. ROYAL SVO, SHEEP EXTRA, $3 00. Among all the books in the field of classical literature, we speak from some experience, there is not one more useful, necessary, and valuable, than this lexicon.-Literary WVorld. This new English-Latin Lexicon, like Liddell and Scott's Greek, and Freund's Latin Dictionaries (Andrews's Latin-English Lexicon), will nec. essarily supersede all other works of the same class, and for the same reason-its superiority. — lethodist Quarterly Review. It is the only English-Latin dictionary that a student can consult with a reasonable hope of finding what he wants, or with any certainty of being able to trust what he finds.-Sartain's Mlagazine. The best work of the kind ever published, and destined to supersede the use of every other English-Latin dictionary.-Holden's Review. The most copious and the best arranged of its kind that we have ever seen. —National Intelligencer. It is a noble, an invaluable contribution to classical literature and to the cause of classical education generally.-Commercial Advertiser. Destined to take pre-eminent rank among the improved educational books of the present age.- Washington Union. The work displays great research, and must be invaluable to the classical reader.-Rochester Democrat. An invaluable work for the student of Latin, in method, fullness, and clearness.-Churchmatn. It must supersede every similar work now in use in schools and colleges throughout the United States, as it has already done in England.-Courier Of immense use to those who are learning to write Latin.-Puritan Rec: Superior to any thing of the kind. There is no such thesaurus of Latin equivalents for English expressions; all others are meager in the comparison.-Christian Intelligencer. I This work supplies every former deficiency, and must find its way at once into the hands of every teacher and pupil.-American Spectator. This is a work such as never before appeared in the English language.Freeman's Journal. HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK. Vatuahtt u Xt-iunnk fnr lr4nngl ail Vn{gr. ELEMENT S OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. DESIGNED AS A TEXT-BOOK FOR ACADEMIES, HIGH-SCHOOLS, AND COLLEGES. BY ALONZO GRAY, A.M.,'ltustrate' h"u Ebree 3qunlred alla her~tz watola-zuts. I 12Mo, MUSLIN, 70 CENTS; SHEEP, 75 CENTS. Well suited to win the confidence of the public, and to sustain the reputation of the author. It embodies a compend of the latest researches of modern science in Natural Philosophy, and preserves a just medium between more learned and voluminous treatises, and barren and profitless abstracts. -Rev. LYMAN COLMAN, D.D. From the particular attention I formerly bestowed upon some sheets of the work, I think you have very successfully prepared a book to occupy the medium place between the larger and the more elementary works now in use as text-books, as you designed to do. The analysis prefixed to each section, after the manner of Dr. Arnott, is an excellent feature of the work. I am glad to see that you have introduced so many facts and principles of modern science, and have given the pupil the opportunity to apply his knowledge as he acquires it to the solution of numerical questions.-E. S. SNELL, Professor of NVatural Philosophy, Amherst College. I regard it as superior both in matter and arrangement to any other elementary work on the subject with which I am acquainted.-W. H. WELLS, Putunam Free School, Newoburyport, Mass. It shows every where the marks of thorough working out, and that with a definite view to practical use in the school-room.-Meth. Quar. Review. It is a clear, compact, well-conceived, and well-executed treatise, lucid in style, simple in design and arrangement. We cordially recommend it to schools and teachers generally, as a suitable text-book for studies in this department.-Congregationalist. We regard the book as admirably adapted for academies and high-schools. — Watchman and Observer. Its lucid arrangement, the variety and force of its illustrations, and the even flow and simplicity of its style, are admirably adapted to make this volume not only an excellent manual for teachers, but a valuable book of reference for every class of readers who wish to keep up with the scientific improvements of the day. —INe York Tribune. HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK. A SYSTEM OF ANCIENT AND MEDIJEVAL GEOGRAPHY, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. BY CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D. 8vo, MUSLIN, $1 50; SHEEP, $1 75. It will be seen that the book is a history as well as a geography. The two are, in truth, happily combined. This renders the work something more than a dry enumeration of geographical details; it may be read with the same pleasure as one, anxious for information, would read a history. The work is every where instinct with life: it is, in fact, geography historically treated. It contains, besides, much curious and instructive information on points of knowledge concerning which we are accustomed to search elsewhere, and often to search in vain.-S. W: Baptist Chronicle. Those who have attempted to teach Greek and Latin literature, know that a good and complete system of classical geography has been among the absolute swants of American schools and colleges. The work before us is meant precisely to fill the gap; and it takes up the subject in the exhaustive way in which Dr. Anthon generally treats the subjects he undertakes to discuss.-MIethodist Quarterly Review. It is well done, and we do not know of a work in the English language that could be substituted for it in the department to which it belongs. —Puritagn Recorder. Of the many volumes for which the public are indebted to Dr. Anthon, there is not one more admirably executed, in all respects, than this. Every page evinces the most thorough discrimination.-New York Tribune. The work is a monument of the learning and the unwearied diligence of the author.-Sartain's Magazine. Invaluable to the traveler and the student.-Democratic Reviewo. A CLASSICAL ATLAS, TO ILLUSTRATE ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, COMPRISED IN TWENTY-FIVE MAPS, SHOWING THE VARIOUS DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. WITH AN INDEX OF THE ANCIENT AND MODERN NAMES. BY ALEXANDER G. FINDLAY, F.R.G.S. 8vo, HALF BOUND, PRICE REDUCED TO $3 25. 2 Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature. L'6tendue des recherches, le gout et la suret6 des appreciations litt6raires, lui donnent un prix tout spdcial.-BRUNET in " Le Bulletin Belge," Bruxelles. Mr. Ticknor's history is conducted in a truly philosophical spirit. Instead of presenting a barren record of books-which, like the catalogue of a gallery of paintings, is of comparatively little use to those who have not previously studied them-he illustrates the works by the personal history of their authors, and this, again, by the history of the times in which they lived; affording, by the reciprocal action of one on the other, a complete record of Spanish civilization, both social and intellectual.-N. American Review. These volumes on Spanish literature, which it is but moderate praise to say are far superior to any thing that has gone before them, in wideness of range, depth of learning, and thoroughness of research, quite absolve the coming world from the duty of writing another work on the same subject.-Christian Examiner. * * We have thus surveyed a work whose foundations are laid broad and deep in the most comprehensive learning. The materials are wrought together with consummate art, and the finished structure will stand secure against the attacks of time.-Baptist Review. The volumes on our table possess a degree of interest and attraction not to be surpassed by any that have been published in the present century, and open upon us a world as novel as that which the genius of Columbus made bare to the adventurers of Castile and Aragon.-DE Bow's Review of the Southern and Western States. This work makes a real addition to the stores of knowledge contained in the English language, and it should be remarked that this knowledge is of great value; for the history of the literature of a nation is a reflection of its political history; and, with respect to Spain, its history and its literature are peculiarly interesting and important, as developing the influences of the papal religion under circumstances the most favorable.-New Englander. Spain's literature (like all national literatures) faithfully mirrors the growth and decay of the national character. To those who feel but little interest in the mere annals of warfare abroad and persecution at home, and care only for the history of the human soul under these adverse circumstances, Mr. Ticknor's three volumes will supply more of interest and information than a hundred regular histories.-Westminster Review. It is a history in the better sense-dealing with men as well as books, and eliciting, from the facts of literary production, the higher truths of social civilization. There is nothing to compare with it on the subject of which it treats, and we may safely predict that it is likely to hold its ground as a standard book in English literature.-Londonr Examiner. * X' Arid to these must now be added the recently published History of Spanish Literature, by Mr. Ticknor; a masterly performance, and which perhaps, of all compositions of the kind, has the most successfully combined popularity of style with sound criticism and extensive research within its own compartment. —Edinburgh Review. HISTORY OF SPANISH LITERATURE. WITH CRITICISMS ON PARTICULAR WORKS, AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF PROMINENT WRITERS. BY GEORGE TICKNOR, ESQ. 3 VOLS. 8vo, MUSLIN, $6 00; SHEEP, $6 75; HALF CALF, $7 50. George Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature, in three volumes, is a masterly work.-Letter of ALEX. VON HUMBOLDT, Potsda7-t, JUne 19, 1850. Mr. G. Ticknor's admirable History of Spanish Literature is written with great conscientiousness, and with singular critical circumspection and judgment.-F. WOLF (Dissertatiow read to the Imperial Academy of Vienna). There has recently appeared fiom the American press, written by an American scholar, one of the most comprehensive, profound, and elegant works which has ever been published in the department of literary history. We receive it with patriotic pride. But this work could be written, in this country, only by one who could procure for himself the necessary literary apparatus. The library of the author contains some 13,000 vol- umes, and in the department of Spanish literature is one of the richest in the world.-I-'ourth Annual Report of the Board of Re gects of the Smithsonian IJnstitution to Congress. It is also with great pleasure that I find another gentleman from the United States, the author of the excellent History of Spanish Literature, augmenting the list of our honorary members.-LORD MAHON'S Address to the Society of Antiquaries, London, as their President. Here is one of those rare and noble contributions of intellect and learning which serve to exalt the character of a nation.-Nat. Intelligencer. We have no hesitation in affirming that we do not believe there are six men in Europe who are qualified to take Mr. Ticknor's volumes and "review" them, in the ordinary sense of the word. The masterly sweep of his general grasp, and the elaborated finish of his constituent sketches, silence the caviler at the very outset.-London MAorning Chronicle. Un ouvrage trhs remarquable, qui vient de paraitre aux Etats UnisI'History of Spanish Literature, par M. Ticknor, presente en trois forts volumes in 8vo un r6cit complet et judicieux de tout ce qui concerne la literature de la PNninsule. R6sultat de recherches infatigables, cette histoire ne laisse rien a d6sirer a l'6gard du sujet qu'elle traite. Elle est infiniment au dessus des livres de Bouterwek et de Sismondi.-TESCHNER, "Bulletin du Bibliophile," Paris. The appearance of a work like the present is an important event in our literary history. For completeness of plan, depth of learning, and thoroughness of execution, nothing superior has been produced in the English language in our day.-Bibliotheca Sacra.