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I P: ~11 i i ~ ~ - 'C.r I i I -s J r _s 'I i. ~s ~~ s ~: V fI. r. i~ a YI —i.__~ -:__i:; -~i~-, ~?- 3;.: '`I?'~ -;--?: ii I Z c,, '1' - ';:"';~:1..; ~_i-._~I ~/ j:~;;1 -r. f. i -i ~i ~ i- i;-i -I. - ~_ s.i. ~i;i^ i. i~~ 7r` "i \iz ~",;i.~I ~c~ ~.. " — . ~ ";:;:~; _- -!-.-i -i i 1'- ~Is: r -~XI: i ' 't -.i-.-, -Z —; 1~-:_' I, ~. I -; r\: r' -i:: ~ i ' `~.1 I r i, i; C .`i I;; ~- '~ I-'~~:: i =I:..-r d:;:.L.~ ". -' rfs~S,i ~h ", ' ~" 1: ~:5,:~ r+: 1~ - r-, ~: ..~" a;,Y n i, i:- "- I e, ~r i "r L `i I Z "-I ~'.-TI- id Id i ~~-, - RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION THE STANDARD OF LIVING AMONG WORKINGMEN'S FAMILIES IN NEW YORK CITY BY ROBERT COIT CHAPIN, PH.D. HORACE WHITE PROFESSOR OF ECONOMICS AND FINANCE IN BELOIT COLLEGE, WISCONSIN NEW YORK CHARITIES PUBLICATION COMMITTEE.. MCMIX COPYRIGHT, I909, BY THE RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION PRESS OF WM. F. FELL COMPANY PHILADELPHIA Table of Contents PAGE LIST OF DIAGRAMS..................................... V LIST OF TABLES........................................ Vi -- INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT. xiii WORKINGMEN'S BUDGETS IN STATISTICAL LITERATURE..... I THE STANDARD OF LIVING AMONG WORKINGMEN'S FAMILIES IN NEW YORK CITY PART I: The Method of the Investigation..................... 23 PART II: Analysis of the Returns Received..................... 35 I. Material Used and Method of Treatment...... 37 II. Sources of Income.......................... 54 III. Objects of Expenditure.................... 68 A. Apportionment (Averages and Percentages) Between Different Heads of Expenditure. 68 B. Discussion of Separate Heads of Expenditure............................... 75 I. Housing........................... 75 2. Car-fare............................. II 3. Fuel and Light...................... 115 4. Food............................... 123 5. Clothing............................ i62 6. Health............................. 82 7- Insurance........................... I91 8. Sundry Minor Items.................. 98 IV. Relation of Income to Expenditure.......... 229 Conclusions...................................... 245 iii 193608i-eFt~P TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE APPENDICES: I. Report of the Committee on Standard of Living. Seventh New York State Conference of Charities and Correction. Rochester, November 13, 19o6. By FRANK TUCKER, Chairman................... 253 II. Report of the Special Committee on Standard of Living. Eighth New York State Conference of Charities and Correction. Albany, November 12-14, 1907. By LEE K. FRANKEL, Chairman.................... 263 III. The Schedule..................................... 283 IV. Report from Nine Cities and Towns Outside of Greater New York.................................... 300 V. Report on the Standard of Living Among Workingmen's Families in Buffalo, New York. By JOHN R. HOW ARD, JR.................................... 307 VI. Report on Nutrition Investigation. By FRANK P. UNDERHILL, Ph.D............................... 319 VII. A Workingman's Budget, from Le Play's " Les Ouvriers Europeens." Translated by LOUISE CHARVET.. 326 VIII. A Partial Bibliography of Works on the Standard of Living. By ROBERT C. CHAPIN, Ph. D........ 353 INDEX..................................... 361 iv List of Diagrams PAGE I. Distribution of the 391 families according to nationality.. 38 2. Number of families in each income-group.............. 40 3. Distribution of the 391 families according to the occupation of the head of the family...................... 4I 4. Total number of families, and number supported entirely by the father..................................... 54 5. Percentage of income from each source in each incomegroup................................... 56 6. Total average expenditure for each income-group, and average amounts expended for various purposes...... 68 7. Percentage of expenditure for each item............... 69 8. Percentage of families reporting one or more dark rooms.. 78 9. Number of over-crowded families in each of the principal income-groups.............................. 80 io. Number of over-crowded families in each of the nationality-groups..................................... 82 Il. Number of under-fed families in each of the principal income-groups................................... 127 I2. Number of under-fed families in each of the nationalitygroups......................................... 128 13. Number of under-clad families in each of the principal income-groups.................................... 167 14. Number of under-clad families in each of the nationalitygroups......................................... 68 15. Number of families carrying insurance on persons in each nationality-group................................ 191 i6. Number of persons carrying insurance on property in each nationality-group............................ 192 V List of Tables NUMBER ENUMERATION OF FAMILIES NUMBER PAGE I. By income and nationality of father.................................. 44 2. By borough, income, and nationality of father......................... 45 OCCUPATIONS 3. By total family income............................................. 46 4. By earnings of father.............................................. 47 5. By nationality..................................................... 48 OCCUPATIONS IN DETAIL 6. By total family income...........................................49-52 NUMBER OF PERSONS PER FAMILY 6a.By income and nationality......................................... 53 SOURCES OF INCOME 7. Averages.-By income and nationality............................... 6 8. Percentages.-By income and nationality............................. 62 9. Averages and percentages.-By income............................... 63 Io. Percentages.-By borough and income............................... 63 II. Number of families reporting income from given sources.-By income and nationality................................................. 64 12. Number of families reporting income from lodgers: Manhattan.-By income and nationality........................................... 65 13. Number of families reporting wage-earners other than father.-By nationality and income................................................ 66 14. Number of families reporting wage-earners other than father.-By income. 67 EXPENDITURES FOR GIVEN OBJECTS 15. Averages and percentages.-By income............................... 70 15a.Averages and percentages.-By income and nationality..............7r-72 I6. Averages and percentages.-By occupation........................... 73-74 HOUSING 17. Rent per annum: All boroughs. Average amount and per cent. of total expenditure.-By income and nationality.......................... 85 i8. Rent per annum: Manhattan. Average amount and per cent. of total expenditure.-By income and nationality........................... 86 I9. Rent per annum: Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens. Average amount and per cent. of total expenditure.-By income and nationality............. 87 vi LIST OF TABLES NUMBER PAGE 20. Rent per month: Manhattan. Number of families paying given amounts. -By income...................................... 88 21. Rent per month: Manhattan. Number and per cent. of families paying given amounts.-By nationality................................... 88 22. Rent per month: Manhattan. Number and per cent. of families paying given amounts.-By income...................................... 89 23. Rent per month: Manhattan. Number and per cent. of all families paying given amounts.-By cumulative grouping.................... 89 24. Rent per month: Brooklyn and Bronx. Number of families paying given amounts.-By income...................................... 9o 25. Distribution into districts of 243 Manhattan families.-By rent, income and nationality................................................. 90 26. Rent per month: Manhattan. Number and per cent. of families paying rent of given amounts.-By district................................ 9I 27. Number of rooms per family: Manhattan. Averages.-By income and nationality..................................................... 91 28. Number of rooms per family.-By income, borough and nationality...... 92-93 29. Number of rooms per family.-By borough and income................ 94 30. Number of rooms per family: All boroughs combined. By income and nationality..................................................... 95 3I. Number of rooms per family: All boroughs combined.-By income..... 96 32. Number of rooms per family. Percentages.-By income and borough.... 97 33. Number of rooms per family. All boroughs combined. Percentages.By income..................................................... 97 34. Number of rooms, dark rooms, bathrooms, private toilets, per family. Averages.-By income and borough............................... 98 35. Dark rooms, bathrooms, etc.: All boroughs. Number of families reporting.-By income and nationality.................................. 99 36. Dark rooms, bathrooms, etc. Number of families reporting.-By borough, income and nationality........................................... 100 37. Dark rooms, bathrooms, etc. Number of families reporting.-By boroughs (combined and separate) and income.............................. 101 38. Dark rooms, bathrooms, etc. Number of families reporting. Percentages.-By boroughs (combined and separate) and income......... 102 39. Over-crowded families. Number of families reporting less than four rooms and more than one and one-half persons per room.-By nationality and income............................................. 103-I04 40. Over-crowded families. Number of families reporting more than one and one-half persons per room. Percentages.-By nationality and income.. ios 41. Over-crowded families. Number of families reporting less than four rooms and over one and one-half persons per room.-By income and boroughs (combined and separate)......................................... Io6 42. Over-crowded families. Number of families having more than one and one-half persons per room.-By nationality and income............. Io6 43. Over-crowded families.-By source of income and nationality........... 107 Vii LIST OF TABLES NUMBER PAGE 44. Over-crowded families. Number and per cent. reporting surplus and deficit.-By income............................................. o8 45. Over-crowded families. Number reporting surplus and deficit.-By nationality and income................................................ Io8 46. Rent in relation to lodgers: Manhattan.-By income................. 09 47. Rent in relation to lodgers: Manhattan. Percentages.-By income..... o09 48. Lodgers in relation to over-crowding. Number and per cent. of families.By income..................................................... 1Io 49. Increase of rent: Manhattan.-By districts............................ IIo 50. Increase of rent: Manhattan.-By monthly rental..................... o CAR-FARE 51. Manhattan and Brooklyn. Number of families reporting given amounts. -By monthly rental............................................. 11x3 52. Number of families reporting given amounts.-By borough............. 13 53. Manhattan. Families reporting expenditures for car-fare.-By district and amount of rent.............................................. 114 FUEL AND LIGHT 54. Average amount and per cent. expended.-By nationality and income...... I8 55. Fuel gathered free. Number of families reporting and percentages.-By income and nationality........................................... 119 55a.Fuel gathered free. Summary of Table 55.-By income............... ii9 56. Use of gas and kerosene: Manhattan.-By nationality and income...... 120 57. Use of gas and kerosene: Bronx, Brooklyn and Queens -By nationality and income................................................... 21 58. Use of gas and kerosene.-By boroughs (combined and separate) and income........................................................ 122 FOOD 59. Average annual expenditure and per cent. of total expenditure.-By nationality and income........................................... 137 6o. Average amount and per cent. of expenditure for food material of various kinds.-By nationality and income.............................. I38-139 6i. Average annual expenditure and per cent. of total expenditure for food material of various kinds.-By income............................. 140 62. Average number of units per family.-By income and nationality........ I40 63. Under-fed families. Number reporting expenditure of 22 cents per man per day and under for food.-By nationality and income............. 141 64. Food expenditure reduced to number of cents per man per day. Averages. -By income and nationality..................................... 141 6~. Urner-fed families. Sources of income.-By income and nationality.... 142 66k U rier-fed families. Number reporting surplus and deficit.-By nation> ality and income................................................ 143 67. Under-fed families. Number reporting surplus and deficit.-By income.. 144 viii VIII LIST OF TABLES NUMBER PAGE 68. Meals away from home. Number of families reporting.-By nationality, income, borough, sources of income and occupation................. I45 69. Meals away from home. Number of families reporting expenditure of given amounts.-By source of income............................. 46 70. Meals away from home. Number of families and their expenditures.-By income, in cumulative form....................................... 46 71. Alcoholic drinks at home. Number and per cent. of families reporting expenditure.-By nationality and specified amounts................... I47 72. Alcoholic drinks at home. Number of families reporting expenditure of given amounts.-By nationality and income................... I48 73. Alcoholic drinks at home. Number and per cent. of families reporting expenditure of given amounts.-By income.......................... 149 74. Alcoholic drinks away from home and at home. Average annual expenditure and number of families reporting.-By income.................. 49 55. Milk. Number of families reporting given prices.-By nationality and income................................................ 150 76. Milk. Number of families reporting given prices.-By income......... 151 77. Ice. Number of families reporting expenditure of given amounts and average amount expended.-By nationality and income.............. 152 78. Ice. Number and per cent. of families reporting expenditure of given amounts and average amount expended.-By income............... 153 CLOTHING 79. Average annual expenditure and per cent. of total expenditure.-By nationality and income........................................... 172 80o. Number of families reporting gifts.-By nationality and income......... 73 8i. Averages and per cent. of expenditure for each member of the family with and without gifts.-By income............................... 174 82. Averages and per cent. of expenditure for each member of the family. Incomes under $6o00 and over $iioo.-By income................... 75 83. Averages and per cent. of expenditure for each member of the family, for families without gifts.-By nationality.............................. 76 84. Under-clothed families.-By nationality and income.................... I77 85. Under-clothed families. Sources of income.-By income and nationality......................................................... 177 86. Under-clothed families. Number reporting surplus and deficit.-By nationality and income........................................... 78 87. Under-clothed families. Number and per cent. reporting surplus and deficit.-By income........................................... 179 88. Washing. Number and per cent. of families reporting given amounts.-By nationality and income........................................... 179 89. Washing. Average annual expenditure.-By income and nationality.... i8o 90o. Washing. Laundry. Number of families spending given amounts.-By nationality and income........................................... I8i ix LIST OF TABLES NUMBER HEALTH PAGE 91. Average annual expenditure and per cent. of total expenditure.-By nationality and income........................................... 86 92. Number of families reporting expenditure of given amounts.-By income and nationality....................................... 87 93. Per cent. of families reporting expenditure of given amounts.-By income. I88 94. Number of families reporting expenditure, serious sickness, free medical aid, dentistry.-By nationality and income......................... 89 95. Number and per cent. of families reporting no expenditure, serious sickness, free medical aid, dentistry.-By income....................... I90 96. Average annual expenditure and per cent. of total expenditure.-By nationality and income............................................... 95 97. Number of families carrying insurance on persons and on property.By nationality and income....................................... 196 98. Average number of persons insured.-By nationality and income....... 96 99. Number and per cent. of families insured and average number of persons insured.-By income........................................ 97 SUNDRY MINOR ITEMS Ioo. Sundry minor items collectively. Average annual expenditure and per cent. of total expenditure.-By nationality and income............... 99 FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS IoI. Average annual expenditure and number of families reporting.-By nationality and income........................................... 202 I02. Number of families reporting expenditure of given amounts.-By nationality and income.......................................... 203 103. Standard, and number of families reporting given amounts expended.By income..................................................... 204 104. Standard, and number of families reporting.-By nationality and income. 205 TAXES, DUES AND CONTRIBUTIONS IO5. Number of families reporting expenditure for given purposes.-By nationality and income........................................... 208 Io6. Number and per cent. of families reporting expenditure for given purposes.-By income.............................................. 209 RECREATION AND AMUSEMENT 107. Number and per cent. of families reporting and average annual expenditure.-By income............................................... 212 io8. Number of families reporting various kinds.-By nationality and income..................................................... 213 EDUCATION AND READING Iog. Average annual expenditure and per cent. of families reporting use of newspapers, books, public library.-By income.......................... 216 IIo. Average annual expenditure, and number of families reporting use of newspapers, books, public library.-By nationality and income....... 27 X LIST OF TABLES NUMBER PAGE ii. Number of families reporting purchase of given newspapers.-By nationality........................................................... 218 MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES II2. Average annual expenditure of all families.-By income and nationality. -224 113. Number and per cent. of families reporting expenditure of given amounts. By income..................................................... 224 114. Number of families reporting expenditure of given amounts.-By income. 225 II5. Number of families reporting expenditure of given amounts.-By nationality........................................................... 226 II6. Number of families spending given amounts.-By nationality-groups and income.................................................... 226 II7. Tobacco. Average expenditure of all families.-By income........... 227 ii8. Tobacco. Average expenditure of all families.-By nationality and income 228 RELATION OF INCOME TO EXPENDITURE II9. Surplus and deficit. Number of families reporting.-By nationality and income................................................... 235 I20. Surplus and deficit. Number of families reporting.-By income....... 236 12I. Surplus and deficit. Number of families reporting income from earnings of father only.-By nationality and income..................... 237 I22. Surplus and deficit. Number of families reporting composite income.By nationality and income....................................... 238 123. Surplus and deficit. Number and per cent. of families reporting.-By sources of income and income-group............................... 239 I24. Number of families below standard as regards both food and clothing, both food and shelter, or both shelter and clothing.-By nationality and income.................................................... 240 I25. Families under-fed, under-clothed, and over-crowded. Number and percentages.-By income......................................... 241 126. Families under-fed, under-clothed, and over-crowded. Number and percentages.-By income and sources of income.................... 242 I27. Savings and insurance. Number of families reporting.-By nationality and income.................................................................. 243 I28. Borrowing and pawning. Number of families reporting.-By nationality and income................................................ 244 NINE CITIES AND TOWNS OF NEW YORK STATE I29. Per cent. of total annual expenditure reported for the several principal items of the budget.............................................. 305 130. Average amount of expenditure for the several principal items of the budget......................................................... 306 ONE HUNDRED BUFFALO FAMILIES I31. Expenditures for principal items of the budget. Averages and percentages.-By nationality............................. 318 xi I I Introductory Statement At the seventh New York State Conference of Charities and Correction, held in Rochester in November, I9o6, in accordance with a resolution introduced by Mr. Frank Tucker, of New York, a committee was appointed to report to the Conference the following year the essentials and the cost of a normal standard of living in the cities and towns of the state. This action was the outcome of a spirited discussion of the subject by a committee appointed the previous year. The Committee as finally constituted consisted of the following persons: Lee K. Frankel, Chairman, New York; Rev. Adolph Guttmann, Syracuse; Edward T. Devine, New York; Cyrus L. Sulzberger, New York; Wm. H. Allen, New York; Abram J. Katz, Rochester; Rt. Rev. David H. Greer, New York; Rev. Wm. J. White, Brooklyn; Homer Folks, New York; Wm. Drescher, Rochester; John J. Fitzgerald, New York; Rt. Rev. Thos. F. Hickey, Rochester; Walter E. Kruesi, New York; Mrs. Wm. Einstein, New York; Wm. Guggenheim, New York; Frank Tucker, New York. The Committee, at its first meeting, January 21, 1907, elected Robert C. Chapin secretary, and appointed a committee on schedule, consisting of Messrs. Frankel, Tucker, and Chapin. The schedule was prepared, and early in April was ready for distribution among volunteers. Over 400 schedules were put into the hands of volunteers, and a number of extremely valuable schedules were returned by them, but it became evident by the first of June that, in view of the fulness of the schedule and the pressure of many duties upon these willing workers, the number to be expected from such sources would be small. In the end only 57 family reports were received from volunteers. It appeared necessary, therefore, if any considerable number of family reports were to be obtained, to hire visitors who should give their whole time to securing the desired information. The funds at the disposal of the Committee, however, did not suffice for any such xiii INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT expenditure. At this juncture, the trustees of the Russell*iage Foundation made a generous appropriation for the prosecution of the investigation, which enabled the Committee to employ a number of visitors, who were at work from the middle of June until the end of August. At the same time an effort was made to enlist the co-operation of the labor unions, and some very interesting schedules were received from them. Altogether, some 80 different persons were employed, and by the time that the canvass was closed, 642 schedules had been secured from all sources. The compilation of the data thus gathered was carried as far as was practicable before the meeting of the State Conference in Albany, November 12-14, and the results summarized by the Chairman, Dr. Frankel, were presented in a preliminary report at that time. This report is reprinted as Appendix II, page 263, in this volume, and the report of Mr. Frank Tucker, chairman of the committee of the previous year, may be found in Appendix I, page 253. The original schedules and tables were then re-studied from the beginning by the secretary, and the detailed analysis that follows was prepared. The completed work has been accepted by the Faculty of Political Science in Columbia University in satisfaction of the requirement of a thesis for the degree of doctor of philosophy. The account of Workingmen's Budgets in Statistical Literature, prepared in connection with the drafting of the schedule, is, at the suggestion of those whose co-operation has made possible the publication of this volume, prefixed to the report of the New York investigation. It is hoped that this sketch of the method used by previous investigators may prove suggestive to those who are engaged in such studies to-day. To the account of the investigation in New York City is appended a summary of the returns received by the Committee from nine other cities and towns in the State, gathered in the summer of 1907. In 1908 the Committee, with Mr. Frederic Almy of Buffalo as Chairman, organized an investigation in Buffalo, covering one hundred families, under the direction of Mr. John R. Howard, Jr. Mr. Howard's report of the results of this inquiry, which is also included in the present volume xiv INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT (Apkeiddix V, p. 307), affords an instructive comparison of conditions in Buffalo and in New York. The secretary desires to make grateful acknowledgment of the assistance and encouragement which he has received from the members of the Committee, from his instructors in Columbia University, and from other friends. To the wise generalship of the Chairman, Dr. Lee K. Frankel, and to the expert skill in schedule-making of Mr. Frank Tucker, are largely due whatever results have been attained. The interest of Miss Lilian Brandt was manifested in very helpful counsel in the initial stages of the investigation, and in the preparation of the diagrams that illustrate its conclusions. The patient ingenuity of Dr. Rasum Brodsky has been devoted to the elaboration of the statistical details. At every point the undertaking has had the active support of Professor Edward T. Devine, and the secretary desires to express his appreciation, both of the importance of Professor Devine's initiative and advice in all that has been done, and especially of the aid and support that has been so freely given in personal relations. ROBERT COIT CHAPIN. BELOIT COLLEGE, January, I909. XV I Workingmen's Budgets in Statistical Literature I Workingmen's Budgets in Statistical Literature * The object of collecting, comparing, and combining workingmen's budgets is to get a reliable representation of the standard of living, first, absolutely, for a given time, place and class of laborers; second, relatively, in comparison with the standard of different times, places and classes of men. Three general methods have been employed to accomplish these objects which, following the historical order of their appearance, are: I. Estimates, for a family in a given status, of the income, and of the kind, amount and cost of the principal items of expenditure. II. Reports of the actual income and expenditure, more or less fully itemized, of a single family taken as representing the class in which it is found. These reports are obtained either by the independent testimony of the family, by personal inquiry made by a reporter, or by inducing the members of the family to make out and keep in an account-book a record of the daily expenditures. III. The combination of reports of individual families obtained by either of the preceding methods. The use of the average has been the expedient most frequently employed in effecting the combinations and comparisons. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the first method only was employed; in the nineteenth century, the second method was developed by Le Play and the third by Engel. When a single family or a small number of families are studied in great detail the methods may be described as intensive; when a large number of family reports are combined, with little attention to detail, the method is extensive. I. ESTIMATES.-The earliest recorded instance, perhaps, of an estimate of the laborer's cost of living is to be found in the writings of Sir William Petty (circa 1672). He undertakes such an * In Appendix VIII (page 353) will be found a partial bibliography, containing the full titles of the books mentioned in this essay, and other works on the general subject of workingmen's budgets and the standard of living. 3 THE STANDARD OF LIVING estimate both for England and for Ireland. For Ireland he comes to the problem in accounting for the smallness of Ireland's foreign trade. ("Anatomy of Ireland," 1672, Ch. XI.) This trade is small, he says, because the standard of living of the mass of the people is so low. They live in "such cottages as themselves can make in three or four days," and provide their own food and clothing. He estimates the money value of the victuals of a man, wife and three children at 3s. 6d. a week, or Id. per diem per capita, and " two-sevenths of the expense of the people for food is for tobacco" (i. e., two-sevenths of the cash outlay for food). He estimates the clothing of a man at 30 shillings a year, of children under i6 at 15 shillings on the average. The house is "not worth 5 shillings the building." " Fuel costs nothing but fetching." The whole annual expense of a family of six averages 52 shillings per year. As to earnings, he calculates that the annual value of all the land of Ireland is about,ooo,ooo pounds; the annual value of the labor is three times as much, or 3,000,000 pounds, and this sum is earned by about 750,000 of the 1,1oo,ooo inhabitants. Each therefore earns 8-rW,%-, or 4 pounds a year, if all work, or 8 pounds if half work. Petty's estimates for England occur in his " Political Arithmetic" (1671-76, Ch. VII), in connection with an argument to show that the country could stand a tax of one-tenth of the whole expense of the people. He proceeds to estimate the yield of such a tax by estimating the average expense of the laborer in the following naive fashion: The laborer earns, without board, 4s. per week; with board, 2s. per week. The value of his food, therefore, is 4s. minus 2s., which equals 2s. per week, or f5 4s. per year. The expense of clothes cannot be less than the wage of the poorest maid-servant in the country-30s. per year. (The maid is given board and lodging, and must provide clothing out of her wages.) All other necessaries cannot be less than 6s. more, making a total for the year of 7 pounds.* A tax, now, of one-tenth of the * Recapitulation: E. s. d. Food per week, 2s.; per year........................5 4 Clothing.........................................i I o All other......................................... 6 o 700 7 4o 4 WORKINGMEN'S BUDGETS IN STATISTICAL LITERATURE annual expense of o1,000,000 subjects would yield 7,000,000 pounds, or enough to pay for 1oo,ooo foot, 20,000 horse and 40,000 men at sea. The people could surely bear this increase. They would only have to work one-twentieth harder, and eat one-twentieth less than before.* This will suffice for an example of the method of estimating costs of living. Stephan Bauer cites such estimates (Conrad: Handw6rterbuch 5: 318) by Vanderlint (about I735), arguing prices too high; by Massie (1756), arguing against a proposed house-tax; by Cantillon (about 1750, in the lost chapters of his work), giving an estimate of the subsistence-minimum in detail. The method has survived to the present day. Edward Atkinson, for instance, submitted to the Aldrich Committee, in 1892, the following estimate of the expenditures of a laborer's family having an income of $500: ANNUAL EXPENDITURE. PER CENT. Food............................$250 50 Clothing......................... 1oo 20 Rent............................ oo 20 Other....5....................... 50 o $500 I0o Clothing was subdivided as follows: woolen, 45 per cent.; cotton, 35 per cent.; miscellaneous, 20 per cent. (Aldrich Report I; liv, Iv.) The value of estimates depends upon the skill with which they are made. If more exact data are not to be had they are often the only available resource. Estimates like those cited above for a hypothetical family, should be distinguished from estimates made for a given family on the basis of a more or less careful inquiry into particulars. Such an estimate is often the only way in which the second method, the type-study, can be applied. II. STATEMENTS OF ACTUAL FAMILY RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES, UNCOMBINED.-The distressing condition of the laborers of England at the end of the eighteenth century gave rise to much discussion of wages, prices and the poor laws. Two works of this period are notable for their attempts to get at the exact facts by * Petty anticipates the phrase "standard of living" in the following: The expense of the laborer as he has calculated it, he says, " may well enough stand for the standard of expense of the whole mass of mankind." Economic writings of Sir William Petty. Hull's edition,: 306. 5 THE STANDARD OF LIVING means of reports of actual family budgets. These books are Davies' "Case of the Laborers in Husbandry" (1795), and the better known "State of the Poor," by Sir Frederick Morton Eden (1797). Davies was a clergyman in Barkham, Berkshire, and the purpose of his book is indicated by its motto: "The labourer is worthy of his hire." Davies collected accounts on his visits to families of his parish in the spring of 1787. Six of them he printed and sent around to friends throughout England, asking them to get similar accounts in their own localities. These friends for the most part were clergymen and country squires. Their returns were printed in full in the appendix, which contains, with Davies' own contributions, accounts from 15 counties in England, 2 in Wales and 3 in Scotland-133 family budgets in all. The method employed was to set down the weekly costs of bread and other items of food expenditure, with candles and thread. This was added together (8s. I id. for Davies' first family) and multiplied by 52 (L23 4s. 9d.). To this was added a fixed annual sum covering rent, clothing, fuel, expenses occasioned by sickness, deaths and births,estimated in 1787 at 6 pounds (later 7 pounds) for a family of five. The earnings per week of father, mother and children were set down and multiplied by 52. In balancing, a deficit appeared in practically every case, even where poor-relief was figured in. It is interesting to note in passing that Davies proposed to have the justices fix a minimum wage (Part III, Section V), and that one of his correspondents complained of the exploitation of the poor by "the harpy claws of pettifogging lawyers," by the short weights of retailers, and by the small loaves of the sellers of bread (p. 163). Of greater scientific importance is Eden's "State of the Poor."* Besides getting information through clergymen and other friends, he sent out "a competent person" and furnished him with an exhaustive questionnaire. His question-sheet included these questions: "Usual diet of labourers"; "Earnings and expenses of labourer's family for a year; distinguishing the number and ages of family; and price and quantity of their articles of consumption." This "faithful and intelligent person" he kept in the field for more than a year, going the round of the English counties. The budgets, * Marx says that Eden is the only disciple of Adam Smith that produced a work of importance. (Capital: English Translation, 2: 269.) 6 WORKINGMEN'S BUDGETS IN STATISTICAL LITERATURE from whatever source derived, are published, 54 of them collectively, in Appendix XII, Vol. III of Eden's work, and perhaps as many more sandwiched in between the workhouse accounts and the "parochial reports" (Volumes II and III). Engel found 73 of them complete enough to tabulate and average. The method is the same as Davies': a weekly statement of earnings, multiplied by 52; a weekly statement of cost of food, multiplied by 52; an annual statement for other items of expenditure, but figured independently for each family. Fifty-seven of the 73 summarized by Engel reported a deficiency; 19 spent more for food than their total earnings. The method of calculating food-expenditures may explain this result, although food-prices in 1795 were exceptionally high.* The difficulties of collecting information regarding family expenditures are well stated by Eden. "It must be confessed that the whole annual earnings of the laborer can seldom be ascertained with great precision. Some men are so habitually careless that they are totally unable to give any satisfactory information; others, who could give tolerable answers, think that inquiries concerning them can have no important object in view, and are therefore inaccurate; and a third class (which is by far the most numerous), are so apprehensive that the ultimate object of questioning them is to effect a reduction in wages, or something equally disagreeable, that they are unchangeably mysterious and insincere."t No marked improvement on Eden's method appears until the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Then we have the remarkable work of Le Play,: who carried the intensive study of family accounts to the highest degree of excellence. From 1829 to 1856 he spent a large portion of his vacations (he was professor of metallurgy in Paris), in traveling through the countries * In Vol. III: 7II, is a report from Epsom, Surrey, which gives the budget for a gardener, with income 45 to 50 pounds; expenditures;75 is. 8d. But there was no such deficiency in fact. The writer says that he has tried to make out similar accounts for several other laborers, but found that they always appeared to spend more than they either got or had, and so he "suspected that their statements were inaccurate." t "State of the Poor." Preface, I: xxvi. t Le Play was born in I806, and died in 1882. A good account of his work, by Henry Higgs, may be found in the "Quarterly Journal of Economics," IV: 408. 7 THE STANDARD OF LIVING of Europe, studying the condition of workingmen's families. His method was to make in each place careful inquiry of clergy, teachers, and others until he found what was considered to be a really typical family, whether a Sheffield cutler or a Dutch fisherman, and then he would arrange to live with the family for some weeks if necessary, observing their whole manner of living. He would ask questions, make notes of what he saw and heard, and when he had gathered his material, would prepare a family monograph, containing in fifteen or twenty octavo pages a photographic picture of the given family group. In 1855 he published thirty-six of these monographs in three volumes, entitled "Les Ouvriers Europeens." He subsequently (1877-1879) added two volumes of monographs and one introductory volume on method. He made studies during the long period of his activity of some 300 families, but carried only fifty-seven of them to the point where he was willing to have them published. The schedule he employed displays the thoroughness of his method. The only criticisms that can fairly be made are: first, that the families are not necessarily typical; second, that the details are carried to an illusive degree of over-refinement. For instance, the festivalclothes of his Dutch family are valued, and one one-hundredth of the value is set down in the annual budget, implying that they will last one hundred years. Some hint of his tact in winning the confidence of the families that he approached may be gained from his statement of the expedients which he used for this purpose. Le Play says* that he always had the good-will, even affection, of families investigated, and thinks that it was due to the method; but he observed the following expedients for gaining the good-will of the families: "Not to be abrupt in pushing inquiries,-an introduction from a well-chosen source helps in abridging the preliminaries; to secure the confidence and sympathy of the family by explaining the public utility of the inquiry, and the disinterestedness of the observer; to sustain the attention of the people by interesting conversation; to indemnify them in money for time taken by the investigation; to praise with discrimination the good qualities of * "La Methode Sociale," 1879, pp. 222, 3. (Vol. i of "Les Ouvriers Europdens," Edition of I879.) 8 WORKINGMEN S BUDGETS IN STATISTICAL LITERATURE different members; to make judicious distribution of little gifts to all."* The work of Le Play was continued by his followers in a serial publication entitled "Les Ouvriers des Deux Mondes." The volumes are made up of family monographs prepared on the same plan as those of Le Play himself. Ninety-one of these monographs are included in the ten volumes of the series published. The last volume, the tenth, appeared in 1899. III. THE COMBINATION OF REPORTS OF INDIVIDUAL FAMILIES. -The transition to the use of the average in combining workingmen's budgets passed through three stages: First, the Brussels Statistical Congress, in i853; second, the preliminary inquiry in Belgium under direction of Ducpetiaux, in 1853; third, the elaboration of the data of Ducpdtiaux and Le Play by Ernst Engel, in 1857. Of the first and second, Engel gives the following account:t Fletcher, the secretary of the London Exhibition of 1851, persuaded Visschers, the Belgian Minister, to include workingmen's budgets in the program of the International Statistical Congress to be held in Brussels. Ducpetiaux, the Belgian inspector of prisons and charitable institutions, co-operated, although Fletcher, and also G. R. Porter, of England, died before the Congress met. The Belgian Statistical Bureau, with Quetelet at its head, approved the plan of Ducpetiaux and Visschers for an immediate budget inquiry, so as to have something to lay before the Congress. About one thousand household accounts were collected. Those from two provinces were worked up by the Bureau and laid before the Congress, and final publication was made in I855. In this inquiry three classes were distinguished: First, dependent,-income supplemented by public relief. Second, poor,-self-supporting ordinarily, but saving nothing. Third, comfortably off,-never receiving public aid, and able to lay up something for old age. "Typical" families were sought; i. e., having 2 parents, and 4 children, ages 16, I2, 6 and 2.: Visschers reported to the Congress a scheme for household * A translation of one of Le Play's monographs may be found in Appendix VII, page 326. t "Lebenskosten Belgischer Arbeiterfamilien," I6. t Engel remarks on the folly of this limitation to the-" typical" family, claiming that it was better to work out the "quets." 9 THE STANDARD OF LIVING reports which was adopted without change. In the debate, in answer to Horace Say, Visschers said that "Laissez-faire, laissezpasser" should not justify "laissez-souffrir, laissez-mourir." The schedule thus adopted was as follows: I. Income. A. Salary and wages of father, mother, children, with record of hours of work, work-days and holidays for each member of the family. B. Other sources of income: Produce of garden. Returns for house or land rented. Returns from raising of live stock. Share in commercial privileges. Pensions-income from investments. Miscellaneous income. Accidental income. II. Expenditures (throughout with note of quantity and value or price). A. For physical necessaries (Depenses de l'ordre physique et materiel). (a) Food (20 specifications, including wine, etc., at home). (b) Dwelling (with number of rooms). (c) Clothing, for adults and for children. (d) Beds. (e, f) Heat, Light. (g) Washing. (b) Care of health. (i) Care in disease. (k) Dwelling: maintenance and repair; fire insurance. (I) Purchase and repair of furniture. (m) Taxes. (n) Postage, etc. (o, p) Expenditure for carrying on of trade (excluding raw materials); for carrying on garden, etc. B. For cultural purposes (Depenses de lordre religieux, moral et intellectuel). (a) Church. (b) School-fees. (c) Apprenticeship charges. (d) Books, pictures, etc. (e) Dues to societies for religious, moral and educational purposes. (f) Dues to societies for sick-relief, burial-expenses, etc. (g) Savings deposits. 10 WORKINGMEN'S BUDGETS IN STATISTICAL LITERATURE C. Luxuries and extravagances (Depenses de luxe ou resultant de l'imprevoyance). (a) Visits to cafes, ale houses, etc. (b) Tobacco. (c) Gambling and lotteries. (d) Ornaments (personal). (e, f) Theater,-Public festivities. (g) Interest on loans and pawnbroker's charges. In the final publication of his returns in 1855 (" Budgets Economiques") Ducpetiaux gives the data gathered in 1853 from I99 families in accordance with the scheme laid before the Congress. He did not combine the returns by averages,* but he did undertake to calculate a minimum by a comparison of his data with the standard allowances for the food of soldiers, sailors and prisoners. He concluded that the laborers were less well-fed than the prisoners, and in general that unless wages rose or the prices of provisions went down, there must be an increase in pauperism and crime, and in the death-rate. Ernst Engel (182I-1896) had, as a student, accompanied Le Play on some of his excursions, and recalled them in I895 as redletter days ("Lichtpunkte meines Lebens"). He was, in I85o, placed at the head of the Saxon Statistical Bureau, and in 1857, in an effort to estimate the balance between production and consumption in the kingdom, made a thorough statistical elaboration of the figures of Ducpetiaux and Le Play.t Taking first the Belgian budgets, he (i) grouped the expenditures under 9 heads, instead of the more extended order of" Ducpetiaux; (2) averaged the family total under each of the 9 heads for each of the 3 income-classes, and for all classes combined; (3) calculated the expenditure per capita for each of the 9 headings of expenditure for the Belgian families, and also for the 36 families whose budgets had been published by Le Play; (4) calculated the percentage of total expenditures which was spent for each of the 9 heads, for the Belgian families and for Le Play's; (5) deduced his two laws: First, The smaller the income * The figures in the budgets are not combined in general averages, save that the local authorities in two or three provinces returned the average for a number of families in place of individual returns. Wages are averaged in the comparison of laborers' and prisoners' fare, but not the details of expenditure. t From this he argued that the poorer people paid the greater share of the indirect taxes, which fell largely upon articles of food and drink. 11 THE STANDARD OF LIVING the greater the proportionate expenditure for food; second, The proportion expended for food is a sure index of the material prosperity of a people. He then (6) estimated for a family in Saxony in each class, the percentage-expenditure under each of his nine heads; (7) tabulated the per cent. of the income paid for food in a table of incomes rising, by stages of Ioo francs, from 200 francs, with 72.96 per cent. for food, to 3000 francs, with 56.90 per cent. for food;* (8) derived from the table for families of the third class, having incomes of 1200 to 1300 francs, a scale for measuring miserliness, parsimony, economy and extravagance in the expenditures of a given family; (9) applied his estimate for typical Saxon families (see (6) above) to the 1,894,431 inhabitants of Saxony, reported by the Census of 1849, and thus reached the lump sum of 94,721,500 thalers as the total value of the consumption of all families; (io) estimated from the statistics of occupations the numbers engaged in producing the commodities in each of his 9 expenditure-groups, and calculated whether the production per individual was equal to the consumption. The subjoined table shows the percentages as calculated by Engel. It is noteworthy that these Saxon percentages, which are the basis of the deductions familiar under the name of Engel's Law, are based, not on an original collection of Saxon budgets, but on estimates obtained from the study of Ducpetiaux's Belgian budgets. BELGIUM AVERAGE INCOME. (All 565 fr. 796 fr. 1197 fr. Families.) 856.5 fr. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Food......................... 70.8 67.4 62.0 65.8 Clothing...................... 11.7 13.2 I4.0 13.2 Shelter...................... 8.7 8.3 9.0 8.7 Heat and light................. 5.6 5.5 5.4 5.5 Utensils....................... o.6.2 2.3 1.6 Education.................... 0.4 I.0 1.2 I.0 Public security................. 0.2 o.5 0.9 o.6 Health................... 1.7 2.8 4-3 3.2 Personal service................ 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 * Zeitschrift des statistischen Bureaus des k6niglichen Siichsischen Ministeriums des Innern, 857: 153 ff. 12 WORKINGMEN'S BUDGETS IN STATISTICAL LITERATURE SAXONY AVERAGE INCOME. Under 1200 fr. 1200 to 3000 fr. Over 3000 fr. (Working Class.) (Middle Class.) (Well-to-do.) Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Food.................. 62 55 50 Clothing............... 6 I8 I8 Shelter................. 12 L2 12 Heat and light....... 5 5 5 Utensils................ 2 Education.............. 2 35 55 Public security.......... I 2 3 Health................. 2 3 Personal service......... I2.5 35 This shows what can be done by the use of the statistical method. For the sake of showing the further developments in the application of the method, let us pass to the last work of Engel's life, "Die Lebenskosten Belgischer Arbeiterfamilien" (I895), where he works over once more Ducpetiaux's and Le Play's figures of 1855, and also elaborates the returns from a Belgian inquiry of 1891 and compares them with the earlier returns. What is new in this second treatment is: I. The use of his unit of comparison, the "quet," for families of varying composition (see later). 2. The arrangement, in terms of this unit, of the averages of the 5 income-groups so as to show: (1) Value of the unit in marks, in 1853 and I89I. (2) Ratios of increase in different items of 1891 over 1853. (3) Variations in percentages spent on the separate items in the various groups. 3. Calculations of food-consumption with reference to dietary requirements on the basis of Voit's tables. In this connection occurs a comparison of city and country budgets and a study of Ducpetiaux's estimate, on prisoners'-fare basis, of the minimum. The results of the comparison of the Belgian investigations of 1853 and I891 showed an increase of 198 per cent. per "quet" in expenditure for food, and that there was no lessening in the I3 THE STANDARD OF LIVING percentage of the total expenditures that was spent for the satisfaction of physical wants. The figures of the comparison are as follows: I FRANcs PER QUET. PER CENT. RATIO OF INCREASE. 1853 1891 1853 1891 Subsistence....... 49.27 97-55 93-80 96.30 I.98 Food............... 3400 6.00 64.90 65.66 1.96 Clothing.......... 7-77 14.78 14.80 I4.57.90 Housing............. 3.96 9-77 7-55 9.64 2.47 Fuel and light........ 2.94 5.33 5.60 5.25 I.8i Health.............. 0.52 1.24 0.99 I.22 2.38 The most original proposition contained in this final work of Engel's was his solution of the difficulty involved in comparing families differing in the number, age, and sex of their members. Before speaking of Engel's solution it may be well to note some other ways of meeting the difficulty that have been proposed. The simplest method is to reduce everything to a per capita basis, dividing expenditures for each family by the number of persons in the family. This neglects the differences in consumption that go with differences in age. A second solution is to include in the investigation only families exactly alike as to composition. Ducpetiaux proposed to use only families consisting of father, mother, and 4 children, aged respectively 16, 12, 6 and 2. Col. Carroll D. Wright defined a "normal" family in the reports of the United States Bureau of Labor as one consisting of father, mother, not over 5 children, none over 14, and no other members. The difficulty with Ducpetiaux's method is that it restricts so much the number of families available that it increases greatly the task of gathering the returns. The more flexible limits of the United States Bureau of Labor diminish the difficulty but do not remove it. Of the 25,440 families included in the annual report of I903, only 1,156, or less than half, were "normal." A third method, applied by the earlier investigators, is to 14 WORKINGMEN'S BUDGETS IN STATISTICAL 'LITERATURE apply the rule of thumb, and count 2 children as equal to I adult. A fourth method is to calculate the relative consumingpower of persons of different ages and sexes, and evaluate each family in terms of a common unit, usually the demands of I adult man. This has been undertaken with reference to food by most of those who have gone into the study of dietetics. The results reached by various authorities may be compared in the following table: EQUIVALENCE OF DIETARY REQUIREMENTS, STATED IN PERCENTAGES OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF AN ADULT MAN U.S. FOLEY.* ATWATER.t BUREAu RONTREE. ENGEL. |I OF LABOR.* Father..................00 100o o 100 o100 Mother................ 80 to 6o 8o 90 8o 86 Child I Ito 14 years....... 60 70 to 8o 90 6o 70 Child 7 to io years..... 50 to 6o 75 50 57 Child 4to 6years....... 4 40 40 40 42 Child under 3 years....... 20 30 30 3 37.~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~3 37. Engel's proposition was an elaboration of this fourth method. On the basis of a comparison of the average weight per centimeter of height, for a large number of persons at different ages, he concluded that a man of 25 or over required 3.5 times as much as a child in its first year, and that for each intermediate year between the first and the twenty-fifth, there was an increase of one-tenth over the demands for the first year. That is, a child of io would consume twice as much as a child under a year old; a child of 15, 2.5 times as much, and so on. A woman reaches her full measure at 20, when she needs 3 units. These units Engel named, after the famous Quetelet, "quets." The consumption of every family could be reduced to a common denominator by * In Davies' " Case of the Laborers in Husbandry," 1795, p. I6I. t U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmer's Bulletin No. 142, p. 33. t Eighteenth Annual Report (1903), p. I9. ~ "Poverty," p. 229. [[ "Lebenskosten Belgischer Arbeiterfamilien," p. 5, the "quets" being reduced for comparison to percentages of the adult's 3.5 quets. I 5 THE STANDARD OF LIVING dividing the expenditures in a given case by the number of "quets." * Engel's methods have been applied on an extensive scale by the American state and national Labor Bureaus. Carroll D. Wright, in the Massachusetts Labor Report for 1875, published the budgets of 397 families and classified the returns according to a large number of categories. His method of gathering returns was to send enumerators supplied with a rather brief schedule to the factory towns to accost the men as they left the factory, and ask one after another until one was found who was willing to furnish the information. The workman was visited in his home, and the schedule was filled out on the basis of his recollections and such written memoranda as he might have. Substantially this method has been employed in many state compilations, and in those of the United States Labor Bureau, of which Colonel Wright became head in I888. In I89O, this bureau gathered budgets from 2490 families of men engaged in the * The following table exhibits the number of quets and the weight in grammes per centimeter, corresponding to the several ages. (Lebenskosten Belgischer Arbeiterfamilien, s, 5.) AGE. UNITS (QUETS). 0........................... 1.0 I...................................I 2........................... 1.2 3.. --- —--—...................... 1.3 4.................4 5......................... I.5 6...................................6 7.- -....-......-..... I.7 8.................................. i.8 9.................................. 1.9 10.................................. 2.0 I I.......................... 2.1 I2................................. 2.2 13-.... --- —------------------ —. --- 2.3 14.................................. 2.4 15 —. ---................................. 2.5 i6..........,................. 2.6 17 --- —--------------------------- 2.7 1i8.................................. 2.8 19.................................. 9.8 2.................................. --- —--------- 3 20.................................. 3.0 22.................................. 3-2 23.................................. 3.3 24..................... 34 24. --- —------------------------------ 3.4 25.................................. 3.5 i6 WEIGHT IN GRAMMES PER CENTIMETER. 62.3 132.I 139.8 140.7 I49-5 157-7 i6o.6 168.5 I74.2 I81.2 187.6 198.8 210.0 233I1 253.2 275.2 304.0 315-5 340.4 350.0 365.4 WORKINGMEN S BUDGETS IN STATISTICAL LITERATURE coal, iron, and steel industries in the United States, and also of 770 in Europe engaged in the same industries. In 1891, budgets of 5284 families in the textile manufactures and glass-works of the United States were reported on, together with several hundred in Europe. The report of 1903 includes a still greater number; viz., 25,440 in 33 states (including the District of Columbia), most of them gathered during the calendar year 19o0. The report of 1903 may be taken as typical of the method. First, the returns are classified for the whole 25,440; but, second, a selection is made of the I1,156 normal families, (having husband at work, wife, not over 5 children, none over 14, with no dependent boarder, lodger, or servant, and having expenditures reported for food, clothing, rent, fuel and light and sundries.) Third are tabulated the budgets of 2567 families furnishing details as to expenditure for various group-items; and fourth, details for food for the IO43 of these 2567 that were normal. The returns are summarized and averaged: (i) By states, (2) by nativity, (3) by states and nativity, (4) by number in family, (5) by amount of income. In marked contrast to the extensive method of the labor bureaus in the United States is the method that has been employed in a few instances in England, Germany and Switzerland. It may be called the account-book method. A selected family is persuaded to keep a daily account of every penny received and spent, and from these accounts the budget is drawn off in due form by the investigator. Landolt, of Basel, published an elaborate exposition of this method in 1894. In briefer form his account of it appears in the "Bulletin de l'Institut Internationale de Statistique," 1891. In that year he published IO workingmen's budgets obtained in BAlsel. His exhaustive schedule includes an inventory of every pin and crust in the house at the beginning and at the end of the year. It includes the suggestive question, "Are there rats or mice in the house? How long have they been there?" This method, essentially, was employed in two well-known English inquiries into conditions of living; Charles Booth's in London, 1889,* and B. S. Rowntree's in York, g19o.t * "Life and Labor of the People in London." t "Poverty: A Study of Town Life." 2 17 THE STANDARD OF LIVING In the first volume of Booth are published 30 family budgets, distributed among 3 income-classes (under 20o. 4d. per week, 6 families; 20o. 4d. to 22s. 8d., Io families; 22s. 8d. to 32s., 14 families.) Accounts were kept for 5 weeks. Expenses are reduced to a weekly basis, and food values reduced to a uniform man-per-day scale. Mr. Booth was also one of the co-operators in the work of the Economic Club of London, which, in I896, published the budgets of "Twenty-eight British Households," gathered 1891-1894. These families were scattered over England, and were induced to keep accounts for not less than a month, by the visitors who co-operated in the undertaking. The introduction, signed by Messrs. Booth, Aves and Higgs, says, with great truthfulness: "We cannot, in inquiries of this kind, expect to be able to give the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. All we can hope to arrive at is the truth, nearly all the truth, and very little but the truth." Possible objections are stated as follows: I. Absence of any budget of important classes of the community. 2. Incompleteness of analysis and enumeration in many cases. 3. Small number of budgets given. 4. Modifications of accounts due to fact that they are to be inspected; e. g., as to drinks and other indulgences. In answer to the fourth objection it is rejoined; first, that accounts are of respectable families, where such expenditures will be relatively small; second, that the accounts of respectable families are the most representative. Before Rowntree's study of York was published, Professor W. O. Atwater had, in this country, conducted his investigation into dietary standards. Without going into detail in regard to this investigation it may be said that it consisted of two parts; first, the determination, by the use of his copper chamber for the measuring of wastes given off from the body, of the amount of food required to maintain the physical efficiency of the human body; second, the examination of the dietary of selected workingmen's families to find out whether it included the requisite amount of protein to build up muscular tissue and enough of fats and carbo-hydrates to serve as fuel to supply heat and energy.* * Farmers' Bulletin No. I42, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, gives in condensed popular form the results of Professor Atwater's inquiries. i8 WORKINGMEN'S BUDGETS IN STATISTICAL LITERATURE Atwater's standard for the daily consumption of an adult man, at moderate muscular work, is 125 grammes of protein and 3500 calories of heat-energy,-roughly, what is contained in Ii pounds of lean beef for the protein and in 24 pounds of bread (io cents' worth) for the heat-giving food. He worked out also a scale, to which reference has already been made, for reducing the food demands of other members of a family to aliquot parts of the consumption of the man at moderate muscular work. (See pages 15 and 125.) In the examination of actual food consumed, the accounts of food expenditures of representative families for IO days were secured by visitors, and were reduced by the use of the scale to their equivalents in the consumption of an adult man. Then the nutritive value of the articles purchased for the week was estimated by the use of the results of chemical analysis of bread, meat, etc., and the resulting number of grammes of protein and calories of energy, compared on a man-per-day basis with the normal requirements of the standard as previously ascertained. These budgets of food-consumption were gathered in New York in I895 (21 families) and I896 (36 families) and subsequently in nine other localities. It was with these standards of dietary requirements in mind that Rowntree gathered his budgets in York in 19oI. He gave note-books to housewives, and published returns for I8 workingclass families, having discarded accounts received from 17 more. He also got returns from 6. families of the servant-keeping class. Of the I8 published budgets, I covered a period not exceeding 4 weeks (6 were for 3 weeks), 7 were kept for more than 4 weeks, and 3 for 13 weeks. The food-expenditures are compared on the basis of a reduction to a uniform man-per-day equivalent, according to Atwater's scale. The results are presented in striking diagrams, showing a standard for families with incomes under 26 shillings a week much below the requirements of a normal dietary. An interesting collection of budgets was made by Dr. S. E. Forman in Washington, D. C., and published in United States Labor Bulletin No. 64, May, 19o6. Nineteen families are here reported, and the detail of entries in their account-books is published, as well as summaries and averages. The accounts were 19 THE STANDARD OF LIVING kept for 3 weeks in August and September, 1905, and 2 weeks in January, 19o6. The families were very close to the line of dependence, and the returns are skillfully interpreted to show such particulars as that in the week when the monthly rent was paid the food-expenditure fell. The increased cost of goods purchased in small amounts also appears, one family sending three times a day to purchase tea. An application of Le Play's method on an extensive scale has been made by Mrs. Louise Bolard More.* Two hundred families living in the Greenwich district in New York City were visited by Mrs. More and her co-workers, and persuaded to keep accounts. Frequent visits were made throughout a period of nearly two years, and the data regarding the family budget gathered by careful and repeated questions, supplemented in 50 cases by accounts kept for periods varying from a week to a year. In looking back over the various attempts to find out how the laborer spends his earnings, it is interesting to note the occasions that gave rise to the inquiries, and the uses that have been made of their conclusions. Financial exigencies of governments gave rise to the earliest attempts that we have noted. The purpose was to find whether an increase of taxes could be borne by the working population. Another occasion for these inquiries is the economic distress of the people, as seen in high prices for food, lack of employment, increasing demand for poor-relief, unrest and discontent -"les plaies sociales," as Visschers put it. This distress is sometimes acute, as in Eden's day, or at the time of the two Belgian investigations. It may be chronic, like that of London and York that gave rise to the studies of Booth and Rowntree. Scientific interest as well as humanitarian zeal attracted Engel and Le Play to the investigation of the subject, and the necessity of justifying their raison d'etre has apparently led some of our state labor bureaus to enter the field. The uses which have been made of the results of inquiries into the cost of living are manifold. Le Play sought to utilize his family monographs in his argument for the maintenance of the monogamic family and paternal authority. Engel connected his studies with generalizations regarding the economic welfare * "Wage-earner's Budgets." New York, 1907. 20 WORKINGMEN S BUDGETS IN STATISTICAL LITERATURE of the nation. Eden argued from his reports the need of changes in the poor laws and other remedial legislation. Davies deduced from his data the need of establishing by law a minimum wage. Dietary experts use the figures of expenditure for food to show the need of education in domestic science, and protectionists compare standards of living in the United States and in Europe to justify the protective tariff. Arbitrators appeal to the figures of the family budget in deciding on the reasonableness of a given wage-scale, and charitable organizations want to know how much a dependent family needs in order to live according to a normal standard. It seems plain from a consideration of the results of the various methods that have been applied, that both the intensive and the extensive methods are valuable, and that they should supplement each other. The intensive study of a single family can be applied to but a limited number of cases, and the assumption that a given case is typical may be mistaken. The extensive method can include a large number of cases, and eliminate, by the use of the average, the exceptional case, but it cannot give the intimate knowledge of detail that the type-study attains. With the extensive method to give breadth and perspective, and the intensive study to give color and definiteness to the outlines obtained by the extensive method, the study of the family budget can best be made to bring out the standard of living. 21 la PART I The Method of the Investigation -*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The Method of the Investigation The origin and purpose of the investigation have been summarized in the introductory statement on page xiii. Before setting forth the results obtained it is in order to give some account of the methods employed, both as an aid in the interpretation of the data secured and as a means of making the lessons of our experience available for other investigators. I. THE SCHEDULE.-The schedule was prepared, as has been stated, by a sub-committee. After an examination of the schedules used in other inquiries into family budgets, it seemed best to make one that should be detailed and comprehensive. A copy of the form used, and a general interpretation of the meaning of the items included, may be found in Appendix III (page 283). The schedule seemed, to some of those who undertook to work with it, needlessly detailed. But it was necessary to push the questions far enough to include a specification of what was had for the money expended, if much light was to be had on the very important question as to what the families enjoyed in return for their expenditures for food, clothing, amusements, and other purposes. For this reason the dimensions of the rooms were called for, and the enumeration of the forms of recreation, and even an inventory of the furniture in each room. A further reason for elaboration of detail was the fact that in this way fewer expenditures would be likely to be omitted than if only a gross total were asked for. The only way in which a firm or a family can find out exactly what it spends for a given purpose is to add up all the separate items included under the main head. To specify as many as possible of these items in advance, therefore, must conduce to the likelihood of their being included in the returns as rendered. Inasmuch as the schedules were to be worked out by a number of different enumerators, it was all the more desirable to make the questions minute and definite enough to secure uniformity in the arrangement of the data gathered by the various reporters. 25 THE STANDARD OF LIVING In the light of experience in the use of the schedule that was adopted, it may be said to have been well adapted to its purpose. Though it appeared somewhat complicated, it was a workable form. Its exhaustiveness was discouraging to volunteer reporters, whether from settlements or from labor unions. But those who persisted with it did secure a pretty full and definite description of the manner of living of the families visited. " You've got our whole story," said one woman, after answering the questions. A few redundancies and ambiguities appeared as it was used, and a few omissions, such as that of macaroni from the food list. Though some of the visitors were inclined to think that considerable facility in the use of the simple processes of arithmetic was demanded, only a very elementary knowledge of bookkeeping was needed to fill out the forms. The effort to secure information on the basis of a year's expenditure led to some difficulties, especially in regard to the amount expended for food. Here the weekly expenditure for the various food-stuffs was put down in detail and the yearly expenditure was obtained by multiplying each weekly item by 52-or a less number for articles used for less than a year-and adding the sums together. Where a family keeps a careful account, this result can be checked up and verified. But where the weekly expenditure is only an estimate made by the housewife, a total obtained by this process can be only a rough approximation. On the other hand, many careful housewives allow regularly a definite sum per week for the table, and the smaller this sum, the more exactly is the spender likely to know of the detail of its apportionment, and the smaller are the variations likely to be from week to week. 2. THE ENUMERATORS.-Those who filled out the schedules may be grouped into three classes: social workers, without pay, tradesunion members, and paid schedule-reporters. Until the appropriation was made from the Russell Sage Foundation, the schedules were entirely in the hands of visitors of the first class. Over 400 schedules were distributed among these volunteers, and 57 were returned, filled out by 43 different persons, including residents of settlements, visitors connected with churches and charitable organizations, and students in Columbia University and in the 26 THE METHOD OF THE INVESTIGATION School of Philanthropy. These persons had the great advantage of possessing already the confidence of the families interviewed, so that it was easy to secure the information. They also were able to check up the statements made on the basis of a thorough knowledge of the conditions of living in their own neighborhoods. On the other hand, the time required to complete the inquiries of the schedule was more than many of these busy workers could afford; and so, with the best of good-will on their part, the number of schedules that they sent in was comparatively small. These reports, however, as compared with those received from paid visitors, are fuller and richer in minor details that often give an illuminating glimpse of unsuspected family problems. On the other hand, the volunteers, as a whole, had greater difficulty with the mathematical pitfalls of the schedule than those who acquired facility in this respect by frequent repetition. The co-operation of the trades unions was sought, and at the suggestion of Mr. Herman Robinson, of the American Federation of Labor, schedules were sent to the secretaries of some 300 unions in Greater New York, with the offer to pay for schedules returned at the same rate that was given to the visitors employed by the Committee. Much interest in the investigation was expressed, and 34 reports in all were received from representatives of the unions. Doubtless the complexity of the schedule discouraged many. The reports received were of convincing genuineness and full of instructive detail, although not always entirely satisfactory from the point of view of the accountant. Valuable comments and suggestions as to the work of the Committee were embodied in a letter accompanying one of these trades-union schedules, and the letter is reprinted on page 34. The paid visitors were employed as soon as funds were available to hire them. Twenty-one different persons were employed for longer or shorter periods in visiting families and filling out schedules, to say nothing of o1 others who registered for service, but for various reasons gave it up without turning in any schedules. Altogether, 551 schedules were received from these paid reporters, 424 coming from the 9 persons who turned in more than 20 apiece. The first members of the paid staff were set to work June I ith, and the greater number of their reports were filled in during 27 THE STANDARD OF LIVING the months of July and August. The paid visitors were chiefly persons who either possessed a personal acquaintance with families suitable for the purposes of the inquiry, or who had had experience in similar social work. Of those who brought in 5 or more schedules, 5 were teachers, 5 had been connected with some form of organized charity, 3 were labor-union members, I was a physician, I an ex-insurance-collector. Ten were women; 13 men. Two of the most successful were married women. Visitors who spoke Italian and Yiddish were sent to the Italian and Jewish families. All of these visitors grew more apt in the work with practice, and some of those who had their first taste of such work in this undertaking developed marked interest and skill. The visitors were paid, someof them $50 a month, the others at the rate of $1.50 for each schedule returned. A comparison of the results of the two methods of payment leads to the conclusion that the time-wage produced the best results. The best visitors did not average more than one schedule a day, by whichever method paid, but the desire to increase earnings tempted some of those on the piece-wage basis to try to double this rate, with the result that many of their reports had to be rejected. On the other hand, the piece-payment made it possible to secure the services of some especially competent persons, who could give only a part of their time to the work. The importance of the work of the visitors was recognized from the outset of the investigation, inasmuch as on their accuracy depended the whole value of the returns. It may be questioned whether a somewhat higher rate of remuneration would not have resulted in securing a larger number of reliable schedules, even though the total number handed in were not so great. 3. THE FAMILIES INTERVIEWED.-The families were selected on the basis of their willingness and ability to give the information that was sought. Dependent families were excluded, and the visitors tried to find families of normal composition and of moderate size, that is, having both parents living and from 2 to 4 children under 16 years of age. As to the amount of income, attention was concentrated on families having an income of from $500 to $Iooo a year. An attempt was made to scatter the visitors over the various parts of the city, and among the most important nationalities represented, but beyond this the selection 28 THE METHOD OF THE INVESTIGATION of particular families was left to chance. Visitors naturally began, where possible, with families with which they happened to be acquainted or to which they were introduced by friends, but in nearly half of the cases they canvassed the tenement buildings without introduction, until they found a family whose composition and income were within the prescribed limits, and whose members were willing to give the information that was wanted. It is probable that the families most able to give such information are those of at least average intelligence and thrift, so that the returns are likely to err, if at all, on the side of showing better management and a higher standard than that which prevails among the mass of families having corresponding incomes. It is, of course, a question how far a few hundred families, selected thus at random, are representative of the million families of New York City, and it is not claimed that what is true of these families is true of all families similarly situated. On the other hand, certain physical necessities must in all families be provided, and must be paid for, in each locality, at a fairly uniform scale of prices. When, therefore, the smallness of the income limits expenditure mainly to these physical necessities, a comparatively small number of cases will be sufficient to indicate the main features in the apportionment of those expenditures which are dictated by circumstances, and also the amount of the variable margin where individual choice has play. On the other hand, the number is large enough, so that averages will eliminate many of the idiosyncrasies of individual divergence from type, although when classified into sub-groups, the numbers are often too small to make the average and percentage of any real significance. The 391 families whose budgets are discussed in the text of this report have been grouped by nationality, location, income, and occupation, as may be seen in Tables I-6 A (pages 44-53). 4. THE PROCESS OF GATHERING THE DATA.-It was hoped, when the schedule was first circulated, that those who undertook to fill it out would be able to secure the keeping of cash accounts, for some weeks or months, by the families visited. The ideal method is, of course, to have an exact account kept for a full year, accompanied by an inventory of the family possessions at the beginning and the end of the period. This, however, was im2Q THE STANDARD OF LIVING possible in the present case, since a preliminary report of the results of the inquiry had to be laid before the State Conference within seven months of the printing of the schedule. It was found very difficult to get housewives to keep accounts for even one month. In a few cases this was done, however, and these reports served as a guide in reviewing the estimates made without account-books. In the majority of cases, however, it was not practicable to secure account-books, and the visitor sat down with the housewife, and ran over the questions of the schedule with her, getting an estimate where exact figures were not available. Often the mother would be able to tell with a good degree of accuracy the principal items of her budget of expenditures. Tactful questioning brought out matters that might have been overlooked, and in case of manifest inconsistencies or exaggerations, a roundabout approach resulted in a revision more nearly correct. All this required time, and the patience of mother and visitor was sometimes exhausted before the end was reached. Several visits were often necessary, although in a few cases the visitor was refused admittance a second time. On the whole, however, visitors were well received, and found it not difficult to present the purpose of the inquiry in such a way that the members of the families were willing to contribute their life-story in furtherance of the end in view. Among the difficulties encountered was a tendency in some cases to exaggerate in statements of earnings and expenditures, partly from a pardonable pride in making as good a showing as possible, partly from the method of estimating food-expenditures on the basis of a week's outlay. In this case it is natural to reckon a rather more generous bill of fare than the family enjoys week in and week out, representing an ideal rather than the actual state of the table. The opposite tendency to underestimate appeared in a few cases, prompted apparently by a desire to make out as bad a case as possible. It was usually practicable for the visitor, forewarned, to guard against overstatements by a mild species of cross-examination, but a large number of schedules had to be rejected because of this fault. Other difficulties arose in the failure to understand the meaning of some of the questions, and in the unwillingness of many to 30 THE METHOD OF THE INVESTIGATION answer certain intimate inquiries, such as the amount of savings, or of expenditures for drink away from home. One visitor relates the following experience regarding the item of expenditure for "drinks away from home": "When the item of 'liquors' (page 7 of the schedule) was touched upon, the wife, who was answering most of the questions, emphatically exclaimed, 'Nothing.' At this the father, sitting silently and letting the wife do the talking, turned his head outside of the window toward the street. However, when I touched again upon the items of beer and whisky, looking straight into the father's face, I emphasized the words 'drinks away from home.' Here the father could no longer restrain himself, and said, 'About Io to 15 glasses of beer a day and a glass of whisky. " Indifference and suspicion were often encountered by the visitors. Many families refused to be interviewed. In some cases the woman answered the questions willingly, but when the visitor called a second time to complete the report, the woman stated that her husband had forbidden her to give the facts. On one occasion a visitor, while interviewing a family, was attacked by an angry landlord, who called in the police to arrest the visitor as a thief. The visitor was able to explain himself to the officer, but sought his next case in another street. The real nature of the landlord's apprehensions may be surmised from the fact that the scene occurred in one of the two or three most densely overcrowded tenement-blocks in the city, and that the visitor found that eleven persons were accustomed to sleep in the three rooms of the apartment. The occurrence of the so-called "wave of crime," widely exploited by the newspapers in July and August of 1907, increased the suspicion with which the visitors were met. One of them, inquiring his way of a child on the landing, was assailed with violent language by the child's mother, and only his quickness of wit saved him from a mob attack. These were exceptional instances, however, and in general the visitors met with a friendly reception. It cannot be claimed that every account is exact down to the last cent, or even the last dollar. But it is believed that the reports present an approximation to the facts sufficiently accurate to give a correct general impression of the way in which the income is apportioned in families like those under consideration. 31 THE STANDARD OF LIVING 5. THE PROBABLE ACCURACY OF THE RETURNS.-It would be absurd to claim for these family reports the exactness of a bank statement. But although only approximations, they were carefully prepared. They show abundant evidence of good faith, as a rule, on the part of visitors and the members of the families themselves, and the majority of them are fairly consistent, whether taken each by itself or compared one with another. Some sources of error have already been suggested. In addition to indifference and suspiciousness on the part of those interviewed, ignorance, misunderstanding of the meaning of questions asked, forgetfulness, and impatience gave rise to inaccuracies. Enumerators at the outset were inexperienced; they and those whom they questioned became weary before the end of the schedule was reached, and gave less attention to some of its later pages. No doubt the total income was often misstated through failure to make an exact allowance for days of unemployment. The calculation of the food-expenditures for the year on the basis of weekly expenditures opened the way, as has already been stated, to considerable divergences from the exact sum of the expenditures for the fifty-two weeks. Some of the dangers could be foreseen and guarded against by the visitors. Some of these inaccuracies would counterbalance one another, and be eliminated by the process of averaging. Thus the tendency to exaggeration would be offset by the tendency to concealment. It would not be safe to suppose that all errors would disappear by any such magic process, however, especially with no more cases than in the present instance. The errors due to the causes mentioned probably entered very slightly into statements regarding the kinds of things used, but affected, to a greater degree, statements as to quantity and price of what was bought. A comparison of the estimates as to foodexpenditure with the account-book returns from a few families comparable with the others, suggests the tentative estimate of Io per cent. as the probable margin of error in the food-statements, the error most frequently occurring in the form of over-statement. The constantly recurring elements in the food-budget are so large a proportion of the whole, and the seasonal fluctuations of prices are in so far compensatory, that it does not seem unreasonable that an estimate, prepared as were those of the schedules, should 32 THE METHOD OF THE INVESTIGATION come within lo per cent. of the amount actually expended. This is the more probable if the schedule as a whole is made out with due regard to keeping the proper balance between income and outgo. In the selection of the schedules for tabulation, none were admitted showing an excess of total expenditure over total income of more than 5 per cent., save in cases where a wider divergence was accounted for by circumstances explained in the body of the schedule. It is believed, therefore, that a tentative estimate of the cost of living may be deduced from the data procured, subject to correction in the light of further investigations based upon a larger number of families. The experience gained in the conduct of the present inquiry may, perhaps, do something toward making the next investigation more exact and comprehensive. 6. COST OF THE INVESTIGATION.-The following statement shows the cost of the investigation, including the printing of the preliminary report: Postage............................... $39.57 Printing and Stationery.................. 451.03 Professional services of food expert........ 200.00 Services of secretary for three months..... 300.00 Services of visiting schedule-reporters...... 939.17 Clerical service; stenographers, tabulators, etc................................. 490.82 Miscellaneous........................... 59.94 $2480.53 To this amount should be added the expenditures for clerical assistance in the more detailed elaboration of the data for the final report, making the total cost as follows: Expenditures enumerated above..........$2480.53 Clerical service, etc., for final report....... 495.17 $2975.70 The whole of this expense, as has already been stated, was borne by the Russell Sage Foundation. The secretary received remuneration only during the three months when his entire time was given to the investigation. 3 33 THE STANDARD OF LIVING NOTE.-The following letter, referred to on a previous page, was received by the Committee on Standard of Living, with a schedule filled out by the writer: Gentlemen: I have spoken to quite a number of men in our trade about your family report. They are not as a rule interested enough to ask their wives how much it costs. Their usual answer is, "All I can earn." Put specific questions to them and they could not make a good guess. Now if the committee find this to be the rule I would suggest that something be gotten up where a woman will only have to mark down what she has laid out, such as I have sketched in the book, and that for a specified time. Women as a rule have so much to do in the house, particularly 410 o WA' o W -- /O ARTICLES WEEK BUTCHR 3.2 25S 7 ~ ~~~~~/ ~ ~/sfL 3 'GROCER where there are five children that they can give no time to family reports. I am very much interested in this as I think it is something every man should know. Hand up $20 on Saturday night week after week and then come home and see your son 12 or I3 years old, after coming out of a sham battle, waist all gone, overalls about gone, undershirt about spent. Grab him, bring him before his mother and ask her, are those the only clothes he has. And at this time of the year particularly (it's vacation) your liable to be answered yes-then you begin to think of your 20 a week and ask where it goes and your liable to be sued for divorce. Good luck to the committee, keep it up, its what working men and women want and until they know it they are groping in the dark. After giving your report all the consideration possible and diving into accounts that could be found around I concluded to do some figuring. The enclosed figures are conservative although they run in the grand total a few hundred dollars more than my income. But when it is understood that considerable overtime is made in our trade that will even accounts. I have endeavored to interest several men in your report but when I explained how essential it was to have facts and not guess work they refused to attempt to fill one. But I think if the committee will adopt some plan where the future accounts could be easily enumerated, working men who want to know how much it costs to live would be pleased to assist their wives in keeping those correctly. And in so doing would be educating themselves and their children along with acquiring a knowledge of one of the most essential things in a home, co-operation in economy and that with pleasure instead of friction and many times trouble for the lack of knowledge where all of one's money goes to. I believe that if the committee will have a report similar to this one sent to the men in the city that work for a living, arranged so that when his wife runs out to a wagon in the street and spends 25 or 50 cents that she will only have to go to the report and where it says wagon mark what she spent and so on with all expenditures. For example a number of pages strung together like this sketch or something equally as good. As to the past no one can or will attempt to fill out report accurate, it can not be done. and be correct, look to future not to the Past. From one of them, A. J. F. 34 PART II Analysis of the Returns Received I>.*~~~~~~~~. *0 ~* ' I. Material Used and Method of Treatment The number of schedules received from Greater New York was 642, as follows: From volunteers............................ 57 From trades unions......................... 34 From paid agents.......................... 551 Total............................... 642 Of these, 251 were rejected, as follows: Incom plete................................ 14 Palpably inaccurate......................... 07 Of abnormal families....................... Of house-owning families.................... 6 Of families having less than 4 or more than 6 members............................ io6 Total............................... 251 There remained, accordingly, reports from 391 families, each consisting of 4, 5, or 6 persons. The number of persons in the standard family being assumed as 5, families containing I more and I less than this number were included as being fairly comparable with families of 5 persons in mass groupings where excess and deficiency would tend to offset one another. In cases where this method appears to bias the results, attention will be called to the difficulty. The number of persons to a family is shown in Table 6 A* (page 53). * That 5 persons per family is a sufficiently large allowance appears from the following tabulation of the size of the 319,000 families, comprising 1,402,897 persons, reported as living in tenements in New York in 900o, as given by the New York Tenement House Department. (Tenement House Department of the City of New York. First Report, 1902-I903, vol. ii, pp. 152-153.) Families of i comprise 4.01 per cent. of all families 2 " I6.67 " " " 3 c 8.65 " " cc 4 i 8.o6 c" c 5 IS.Io 6. 11.26 C 7 742 " 8 " 4.51 " cc. cc 9 2.40 I O 1.14 c< c " over Io c' 0.78 cc ( 37 THE STANDARD OF LIVING As will be seen from the tables which follow, 318 of the 391 families report incomes between $6oo and $I ioo. The 25 below $600 and the 48 above $i Ioo are included for the sake of indicating tendencies, but the main attention is given to the 3 8 families within the narrower range. Among the different boroughs (Table 2, page 45), the families are distributed as follows: BOROUGH. INCOMES BETWEEN $600 AND $I 0O. Manhattan..................... 243 Bronx........................... 15 Brooklyn........................ 52 Queens.......................... 8 3i8 ALL INcOMES. 291 17 64 9 39' DIAGRAM i.-Distribution of the 391 families according to nationality. The distribution by nationalities, determined according to the nationality of the father (his birthplace, save in case of colored persons), is as follows: 38 MATERIAL USED AND METHOD OF TREATMENT NATIONALITY. INCOMES BEI $6oo00 AND $ United States*................... 67 Teutonic nationst................ 39 Irish......................... 24 Colored......................... 28 Bohemian...................... 14 Russian........................ 57 Austro-Hungarian, etc.t.......... 32 Italian.......................... 57 Others.......................... 318 IWEEN OO1100. ALL INCOMES. 88 46 26 29 14 78 39 69 2 391 * The nativity of the fathers of the natives of the United States is as follows: INCOMES AL $600 TO $IrOo. INCOMES. United States................................24 34 Great Britain.............................. 4 5 German Empire.............................. 9 25 Ireland..................................... 8 22 Bohemia.................................... Holland..................................... i 67 88 t Including the following, by nativity of father: INCOMES $600 TO $11oo. Great Britain..................... 8 German Empire............................24 Holland................................... Norway and Sweden................. 5 Switzerland................................ 39 Including the following, by nativity of father: INCOMES $600 TO $I Ioo. Austria...................... 0..... Io Hungary.....5................ Galicia.................... 6 Roumania................................. 32 39 ALL INCOMES. IO 29 I 5 46 ALL INCOMES. 14 i6 7 2 39 0.... 1. - THE STANDARD OF LIVING By incomes, the grouping of families may be summarized as follows: $400 600 900 1000 1100 to to to to to to and $ 599............................ 699.......................... 99............................ 899.......................... 999......................... 1099............................ over............................. 25 7f 79 31 39' ~91 The occupations represented are principally those of the less skilled employments, in which the wage is from $2.00 to $3.00 9A. h^l:6, I I I Z. ' — I ~. IIII y<> __ _~ ~ _ _______. r. I I t, 0.~~ (( < % ^W^A~~~~\U t&S?%~i^ I I I ^ "I, ", '. I t t, \ 0 A 8 DIAGRAM 2.-Number of families in each income-group. (See Table i, page 44.) a day. The classification employed follows that of the Twelfth Census of the United States, and in every case the occupation specified is that of the father. Of the 391 men included in the tables, laborers (38), teamsters (30), and garment-workers (66), 40 MATERIAL USED AND METHOD OF TREATMENT make up one-third. The following table shows the apportionment among the main groups of the Census Bureau's classification: Professional service........................ 6 Domestic and personal service................ 96 Trade................................... 47 Transportation............................. 53 Manufactures and mechanical trades............ 89 39I DIAGRAM 3.-Distribution of the 391 families according to the occupation of the head of the family. In the tables which follow, the families are classified by occupation of the father and by income. In Tables 3 and 6 (pages 46, 49), the classification is on the basisof the total income of the family; in Table 4 (page 47), on the basis of the earnings of the father. It must not be supposed that the range of annual earnings in the lower paid occupations is as great as in the range of incomes of the families of the men thus employed, because it is especially these low incomes from fathers' earnings that need to be supplemented by rent from lodgers and the earnings of mother and children. 4I THE STANDARD OF LIVING The number of persons per family ranges from 4 to 6; 142 of the 318 families consist of 5 persons, 80 of 4, 96 of 6. The average number is 5, and the average for each income-group is either 5, 4.9, or 5. I. (Table 6A, page 53.) In the statistical treatment of the material discussed, the object has been, first, to bring out as fully as practicable the facts, considered collectively; and, in the second place, to compare the results in such a way as to find out, if possible, on what income a family may meet the demands of a normal standard. With these ends in view, general averages of the returns for all families have been for the most part avoided, and averages and percentages calculated with reference to each income-group and nationality separately. Where differences of locality were important in their influence upon expenditures, as in the matter of rent, the figures are presented for Manhattan apart from those for the other boroughs of New York. This method brings together the data that are most completely comparable. It is subject to the objection that the number of cases in any one group is so small that the main advantage of the average-the elimination of individual departures from type-is lost. To meet this difficulty, comparisons and averages have been regularly made by combining families of all nationalities in each income-group, and families of all incomes within each nationality-group. This method ought to bring out at least the principal variations due primarily to difference of income and those due primarily to difference of nationality. For certain purposes it has seemed safe to combine adjacent income-groups; i. e., to compare all cases in incomegroups between $6oo and $800 with all cases in income-groups between $9oo and $I ioo. Also, for many purposes, the families of American, Teutonic and Irish parentage may advantageously be combined for the purpose of contrasting them with families of the stocks predominating in recent immigration-the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Italian. When the average has been employed it has in every case been obtained by dividing the sum of the items by the number of cases. This amounts, in cases where combination is made of different groups (e. g., of the 291 Manhattan cases and the Ioo non-Manhattan cases), to adding together all the items in all groups and 42 MATERIAL USED AND METHOD OF TREATMENT dividing the sum by the total number of cases (by 391 in the instance cited). In other words, in all such cases the weighted average has been applied. More useful than the average, sometimes, has been found the grouping of items into classes, and the enumeration of the number of cases falling in each class; e. g., the number of families paying less than $io monthly rent and the number paying over $15. This method has been applied to the study of wages in Professor Dewey's special report in the Twelfth Census. For the modest purpose of the present report it has not been thought necessary to calculate the cumulative percentage as Professor Dewey has done, but the ordinary percentage calculations have been made. Again, it should be remembered that all percentages diminish in significance as the number of cases grows small. For this reason, the number of cases should always be kept in mind, and therefore these numbers, wherever practicable, are printed in connection with the percentages. 43 TABLE 1.-ENUMERATION OF FAMILIES.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY OF FATHER. NATIONALITY OF $400 $900 $1000 $1100 $1200 $1300 $1400 $1500 $1600 FATHER. TO,$4 $500 T $600 T $700 T $800 TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO AND TOTAL $599 $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 $1199 $1299 $1399 $1499 $1599 OVER — ~ - — g-1~~~~~~i~~1~~-~m~u"0 l I I 1t~;a;J~Ion, T T o o To T United States.. 2 2 II 19 3 6 8 6 2 5 3 I 88 Teutonic........... 4 7 9 II 8 2 3 I.. I.. 46 Irish............ 4 7 7 5....... I 26 Colored.... I II 6 8 2 I............ 2 Bohemian........ 4 3 3 4........... 14 Russian......... 3 6 i 6 14 12 9 6 5 2.. I.. 4 78 Austrian, etc.. I 3 6 9 9 7 I 2.. I...... 39 Italian.......... I 4 6 4 12 9 6 3 I I.. I I 69 Others.......... i I.................... 2 Total........... 8 7 72 79 73 63 31 I8 8 8 6 7 39 H O >H td Q^ 3 ci CD * y? CD CD..,,,,,, Ct. t * * t | |On..:. *:*: cC I r+~~~~~~~~.4 0 Z?I: P I...... j 1V nMhattan. tn-4 " I _ '_|Br n. $400 To $499 |I *_____.....Brooklyn. _> M c_ oo t Manhattan. $500 To $599 __ M __ _ ', M ' 'o. Brooklyn. _oo Iw oo s o IManhattan. o ___,I; o; Bronx. $600 To $699 H I. H | Qu ee n s c Brooklyn. ____ o I 00 00oo C o cO n.. Manhattan. ' - | *...H —| Bronx. $700 To $799 0 I. H H *. Brooklyn. 'on,* o > o c cj o o on Manhattan. 00 _ O cO 00 w 00 '.lManhattan.:rj. on. M |\ H Manhattan. _ _ t o _ _ _ _' _ _ I " H cBronx.,-~HO J' --- I -- i --: --.... -B- - rons - $800 To $899 0-1 | H.. H Brooklyn. 'H- J',- ', H. H, Queens.. o | o H cH H C |O Manhattan. Hcc~~~~~~ H:.to'Bronx. HI '__ co ' Q'ueBrooklyn. _ fi-0- ___ __ _-'_: ': Manhattan. ^____ '-'.n ~..Brooklyn. ___ _____ ______ ___ _ |Bgrooklyn. $1300 To $1399 1HI-~~~ '|: * ' |_ _ - H Q ueens. c_ 'I o: _ ___ _. ___ / H Manhattan. $ $1599 ':,,, Bronx. $1600 To $1199 HI::::.. H IBrooklyn.____:| H - H:|:. H Manhattan. |$1200 To $1699 Hi:i ___ ':. ':::Brooklyn. ' _T _ H M H Manhattan. $1700O$1799 I By.......$1300 To $1399 -cc~~~~ )q:ueens. to [ ' ~...... ~ Brooklyn. $1400 To $1499 I,. q: ' ' c ' c ~o Manhattan. 'Brooklyn. '~~( I.....Manhat.160 1699 _ Manhattan. $1700 To $1799 HM..... H | c Manhattan. $2000 TO $2099 H;:: M 1:::.: Manhattan. $2100 TO $2299 W r O ot 1 -C3 z 0 O H t4 0 0 II 0 z~.0 Ln c P4 1I a H D -rl t cH o C Manhattan. r. C- e, |i: ',- co 0o, I Bronx. -P 4. p4 o.. 0o c-. oo Brooklyn. \o I: '::: H C, IQueens. 00 D. 14 ti K I O r4 H V w ^ P., Oo All bor'M I v6 3 o 00 o C oo oughs. ON TABLE 3.-OCCUPATIONS.-BY TOTAL FAMILY INCOME. $400 $500 $600 $700 $800 $900 $1000 $1100 $1200 $1300 $1400 $1500 $1600 OCCUPATIONS. TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO TO AND TOTAL. $499 $599 $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 $1199 $1299 $1399 $1499 $1599 OVER Professional service. 2.................... 2....... 6 Personal and domestic service: Bartenders, cooks, waiters, etc....... 6 3 3 4 i..1.... 17 Janitors, porters, etc............. 2 3 6 6 i I........ 19 Longshoremen...................... 2 3 4 -. I.... --.... Io 10 Laborers.......................... 2a 8 7 6 2 2............ 28 Public service employees............ 4 2 3...... 2... 1 Others.......................... 3 1 I I I I...... I Trade: Agents, clerks, salesmen.............. 5 6 3.... 3.-.... 2 I 20 Merchants and dealers.............. i 2 6 7 3 2 2 2 1 -.... 27 Transportation: City railway employees........ 6 I............ 9 Teamsters, drivers, etc................ 8 9 4 3 I 2.. 2...... 30 Others.............................. 4 a 3.. I.... 2.. 14 Manufactures and Mechanical Trades: Building trades.................... 5 2 9 9 5 I.. 2 I.. I 37 Food and food products......... i 4 2 2 3..... 13 Leather........................... 4 I.. - - 3.. 9 Lumber............................ I I I 3 I.. I I.... 9 Metal......................... 2 4 3 I.. I...... I 13 Printing..... 3 I 2 I.. I.... i.. 10 Textiles.............2......... 2 4 13 13 II 12 6 3 3 67 Others............................ 2 6 4 6 8 a.......... 31 Total........8 7 2 7 63......3........ 8 17 72 79 73 63 31 8 8 8 i 6 7 391 4 TABLE 4.-OCCUPATIONS. —BY EARNINGS OF FATHER. OCCUPATIONS. 2mH 8 5 s 5e ~ 5 S Professional service.......................................... 6 Personal and domestic service: Bartenders, cooks, waiters, etc................. I I 9 2 2............ 17 Janitors, porters, etc................................ 2 4 7 4 I I........... 19 Longshoremen.......................... 5 5........ 0Io Laborers....................................... I 2 2 5 8 8 I.............. 28 Public service.................................. i I 6.......... Others............................................... 2 3 I I 2 I... 2... Trade: Agents, clerks, salesmen, etc............................ I 5 7 2 I..... 2..... 20 Merchants and dealers.............................. 2 3 6 7 2 2.. 2.. I I.. 27 Transportation: City railway employees................................... I x 7. 9 Teamsters, drivers, etc......................... 3 4 6 4 2... 30 Others..........................................4.... 2 3 5 I I........ 4 Manufactures and Mechanical Trades: Building trades..................................... 2 6 8 5 6 5.. 2.... 37 Food and food products........................... 2 I 2 2 2 2 I I........... 13 Leather........................................ i 3.. I I..... 9 Lumber...................................... I...... 3.. I 2 2........ 9 Metal.................................... 2..... I 3 I......13 Printing.......................................... 2 3 2 I...... I I I I 10 Textiles...................................... I 5 7 8 2 2..7 3 7 8 2 67 Others........................................ 4 6 7 7 I 4 I I - - 31 Total.........1....6............................ 2 I 6 24 53 99 85 38 47 13 8 4 5 I 4 I 391 TABLE 5.-OCCUPATIONS.-BY NATIONALITY. OCCUPATIONS. | 0 D.~~~~~~9. H 1 ~ ~ C 0 Professional service:.................................. I..... 2.. 3.. 6 Personal and domestic service: Bartenders, cooks, waiters, etc..................... 2 6 I 5 I.. I I.. 17 Janitors, porters, etc.............................. 3 3 4 6 I.... 2.. 19 Longshoremen................................... 3 4.... I.. 10 Laborers........................................ I 3 5 2.. 2 2 I2 Ia 28 Public service................................... 4 I I 4...... I.. II Others................ -............................ 3 I 7 II Trade: Agents, clerks, salesmen, etc....................... 10 4 3.... I I I.. 20 Merchants and dealers....................... 3...... 7 3 3 27 Transportation: City railway employees........................... 4 2 3............ 9 Teamsters, drivers, etc........................... 13 6.. 2 I 3 I 4.- 30 Others.......................................... 7 2 3 I.... i.... 14 Manufactures and Mechanical Trades: Building trades............................. 9 5 I 2 2 8 6 4.. 37 Food and food prqducts............................ 6..... 2 I 3 I. 13 Leather......................................... 2 I...... 2 3.. 9 Lumber........................................ 2... I I 2 2.. 9 Metal.................................... 6 2 I.... 3 I.I 13 Printing...................6.......... 3.. o Textiles........................... 3.. 45 I3 6 67 Others..................... I 3 7 2 3 2 Ib 31 Total....88............. 88 46 26 29 I4 78 39 6939I 3 aSra. bCbn a Sgrian. b Cuban. 4 TABLE 6. —OCCUPATIONS IN DETAIL.-BY TOTAL FAMILY INCOME. OCCUPATIONS. s j | | l In Professional service: Clergyman............... I Dentist............................................ o..I.. I Fashion artist......................................................... 2 I Journalist.................................................... I Teacher.............. I Teacher........................................... " " x ", i Personal and domestic service: Barber-Proprietor................................... I " — Employee................................... 3... -- 7 Bartender.............................................. 2 3 I...... 7 Bootblack....................................................2.. 2 Cook................................................. 2...... 3 Elevatorman.............................................i 3 Janitor............................................... I Office-cleaner......................................... i......... I W atchman........................................... 3 3 Laundry worker......................................... I Porter............................................... I 3 2 5........ II W aiter................................................. 3 3 7 Laborers: Casual............................................. 2 Coal heaver.......................................... 2. 2I....... 4 Longshoreman........................................ 2 34...... 10 Laborer (unspecified)............................... i 6 6 6 2 I.......... 22 Public service: Park employee............................................................ I Policeman................................................ 2 P. 0. employee............................................ I Street cleaner......................................... 3 I I.......... 5 Turnkey........................................... I Civil service..........................................i 0 TABLE 6.-OccuPATIONS IN DETAfL.-(Continued.) 120 %f 0 % O 0 0 % O 0% Trade: Agent................................................... 2 Clerk................................................... 4.......... i II Peddler............................................ I.. 2 I.. I I I....... 7 Salesman.............................................. i I...... I i 5 Merchants and dealers: Candy........................................................... i Coal and wood......................................... I........ 9 Groceries................................................... I Ice man.......................................... 2................ Newsdealer........................................ i........ i Packer............................................ 2..2................ Produce and provisions.................................. i I............ 3 Shoes.................................................... i Storekeeper (unspecified)............................... i......... i 2 Transportation: Boatman........................................ 2 Carriage and hack driver......................................... Drayman, teamster, etc............................. i 8 4 3 2.. 2.... 3 Hostler, stableman...................................... i. 2 I 2........ 7 R. R. Inspector..........................................i R. R. Laborer.................2......................... i. I 2 Street R. R. Laborer................................................. " " Conductor...................................... 2 I 3 d I Motorman....................................... 4.. " " Inspector.I................... I Telegrapher..........................................i........ x Manufactures and Mechanical Trades: Building Trades: Carpenter.......................................... i i 3 2 I.... i.. 10 Mason............................................. I. x 2 I I........ 6 Painter, varnisher................................... 3 3 3 3... 13 Plumber...................................... I...... '.. 5 TABLE 6.-OCCUPATIONS IN DETAI.-(Contintued.) OCCUPATIONS. I 0 0 - -1 S48 Occn-P ll jiliois.- 0..8. q ff) 18 U 8 Eft,;; fie 0 ) Oft 6S Roofer................................................. x........... x Whitewasher........................................ -.............. 2 Food and food products: Baker........................................2....... I 2......... 7 Butcher................................... I I I............ 3 Confectioner..................................... I i............... 3 Leather: Boot and shoe maker........................................... Currier and tanner...................................... i........ Lumber, wood, etc.: Basket maker............................................... Cabinet maker................................ i..... 3 Piano varnisher............................................. Picture framer....................................... I Upholsterer............................... Metal: Iron and steel: Blacksmith..................................... i 2 Iron worker...I....... nIron worker.................................... M achinist........................................ Pattern maker.............................................. Sawsmith.......................................... Auto repairer................................................. Badge maker............................. i... Brass worker................................................ Gold and silver worker...................................... Lead worker........................................ I Tinplate maker................................... Printing, etc.: Bookbinder......................................... Electrotyper..................................................... Lithographer............................................. x........ 2 Pressman...................................................... 2 Printer................................... 2.......... 3 TABLE 6.-OCCUPATIONS IN DETAIL.-(Continued.) OCCUPATIONS. Manufactures and Mechanical Trades: Textiles: Buttonhole maker...................... I Cloak maker.................................. Clothing carrier.................................... Cutter............................ Clothing sorter................................... Dyer............................................ Garment worker (unspecified)....................... Hat and cap maker............................... Lining cutter..................................... Pants maker................................ Presser......................... Tailor................................ I V FMiscellaneous: Bottle labeller...................................... " washer...................................... Brewer................................. Brick maker.................................... Button maker................................... Carpet layer...................................... Cigar maker........................................ Cigarette maker.................................... Electrical worker........................... Engineer............................................ Factory hand (unspecified)........................... Fireman..................................... Pipe layer........................................... Photographer....................................... Rag picker......................................... Total................................................ 8 I I I I I 4 I.. I..I I ii...... I I 4 I I 3 I I I I I 4 5 I 2 I.. I I 3 6 I I 3 I 6.. I I 4.. 4 I 2 I I I... I 3 I I. I.. 2 I 2 I I I I I..... I I 3 3 I 4 2 I I8 2 I I 5 26 I I 2 I 5 2 I 5 5 3 I I 17 72 79 73 63 31 8 8 8 I 6 7 391 I - TABLE 6A.-NUMBER OF PERSONS PER FAMILY.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 T $699 $700 TO $799 $800 T $899 ' jF Number of Nm of '7 Number of b g Families with: Families with: Families with: NATIONALITY. _ _____ S _ _ _... _ _... 0(5._._. | 0 |4 P cI 04I 04I 0 United States.. 0.o 3 6 2 5.3 13 5 50 4 5 4 Teutonic...... 4.7 I 3.. 5.0 3 I 3 5.1 3 2 4 Irish..o...... 6.o. 4 5.3.. 5 2 4.9 2 4 I Colored....... 5.4 -- 7 4 5.5 - 3 3 5.2 I 4 3 Bohemian..... 45 3. 6.o.. 3 5.7.. I 2 Russian....... 5I 3 8 5 5 3 5 6 54 2 2 8 Austrian, etc... 4.3 3 2 I 4.8 3 4 2 5.0 3 4 2 Italian........ 4.6 3 2 4.6 7 6 45 8 2 2 Total......... 22 32 18 5.1 17 37 25 5.0 23 24 26 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. 0 s Number of ': Number of 'I> Number of [ Families with: Families with:: Families with: NATIONALITY. E.____ 43......... P1 v g P. 04 "~I 0& 4 0I 4 PA - 4 P 4 United States.. 5.2 2 8 6 5.4 i 3 4 5.2 TI 35 2I Teutonic..... 5. 3 5 3 5. I 5 2 5-0 I I6 12 Irish........ 4 3 2 5.0 I 5-3 2 13 9 Colored....... 5 I I 5.0 - I.. 5.4 I 16 I Bohemian.....5.2.. 3 i. 5 3 I 7 6 Russian....... 50 3 3 3 4.8 2 3 5. 3 21 23 Austrian, etc... 4.9 2 4 1 6.o.... I 4.8 Ii 14 7 Italian..... 5.1 I 6 2 4.5 3 3 4.6 30 20 7 Total......... I 33 19 5.0 7 i6 8 5. 80 142 96 $400 to 599; av.,5.2 persons per fly; 5 families of 4 persons; II of 5; 9 of 6 $rIIooandover; " 5.o " " 6 " " I8 14 " 53 THE STANDARD OF LIVING II. Sources of Income An examination of the sources of income of the families included in this report shows that, while the earnings of the father are the main dependence, the importance of additions from the earnings of others, and from lodgers, increases with the higher incomes. Tables 7 to 14 (pages 61-67) show the sources of income for the families included in the tabulations of the report. Two methods of analyzing the sources of income are followed in the tables. The first method proceeds on the basis of the average amount in dollars and cents received from each source, and the percentage of the average total income for each group of families, by income and nationality, which the average from each source represents. The other method proceeds by counting in each group the number of families that receive income from each source, and calculating the corresponding percentage of the total number of families in each group. Oro Pl 5 60 I., _ea 1Ko L __4 _3_ lmmwlmmwlmm I I * I DIAGRAM 4.-Total number of families, and number supported entirely by the father, in the principal income-groups. 54 SOURCES OF INCOME The most significant item is the earnings of the father. These constitute 97 per cent. of the whole income for the families with incomes of between $400 and $500, 94 per cent. for families in the next two groups ($500 to $599 and $6oo to $699), 89 per cent. for families with a total income of from $700 to $800; 84 per cent. for families in the 8oo group, 85 per cent. for the $goo families, 82 per cent. for the $iooo group. If we count the families supported wholly by the father's earnings in each incomegroup the same decrease in the higher income-groups appears, while the fact is also brought out that in a large number of families the additions to the income from sources outside the main wages form a small proportion of the whole. The number and percentage of families supported entirely by the father in the successive income-groups are as follows: FAMILIES SUPPORTED TOTAL NUMBER ENTIRELY BY FATHER: INCOME. OF FAILIES. NUMBER. PER CENT. $600 to $699...... 72 46 63.9 700 to 799...... 79 40 50.6 800 to 899...... 2230. 9oo to 999...... 6333 54.0 1000 to 1099...... 31 8 25.8 318 149 46.8 That is to say, less than half of these 3 8 families are able or willing to get along with what the father's wages bring in. The table of averages shows that it must be, for the most part, a small amount that is added in the lower income-grades. The fact that the proportion of families not supported by father alone, and the average amount of the additions from other sources both increase in the higher income-groups, shows that, for the particular families that our visitors have reached, an income of above $700 or $800 is obtainable as a rule only by taking lodgers or by putting mother and children to work. It will be noticed from Table 9 (page 63) that the average earnings of the father do not reach $9oo in any of the income-groups until a total income of $I o00 to $1200 is reached. A glance at the tables of occupations (pages 44-52) explains why 55 THE STANDARD OF LIVING the father's earnings are so inadequate. The occupations predominating (e. g., laborers, garment-workers, teamsters) are those in which it is seldom possible for the father to earn more than from $600 to $800 a year. If his family is to enjoy comforts beyond what this sum will provide, someone else must earn, or a lodger or two be taken in, to help out in the rent. It will be tfa_=Jit *fC. I ' ' r& d ofg 77 7c- a 7cr 7. DIAGRAM S.-Percentage of income from each source in each income-group. found, further, as comparisons are made at specific points, that the families with composite income do not live as well, on the same amount, as do the families supported entirely by the father. The principal resources for additions to what the father earns ld o. - - - - Dar ete earnings of wife and children, and the in each incom lode-group. found, further, as comparisons are made at specific points, that the families with composite income do not live as well, on the same amount, as do the families supported entirely by the father. The principal resources for additions to what the father earns are the earnings of wife and children, and the income from lodgers. In Table i I (page 64) will be found the data regarding the number of families dependent on these means of support, and in Tables 7-9 56 SOURCES OF INCOME (pages 61-63) the average amount and per cent. of average total income yielded by these sources. In 86 of the 3 8 families with incomes between $600 and $I Ioo, or 27 per cent., there are wageearners besides the father; 93 families, or 29 per cent., have lodgers. By incomes, the proportion of other wage-earners is least in the $6oo income-group (12.5 per cent.), and greatest in the $800 group (41 per cent.). It is notably high, however, in the $9oo and $iooo groups, the percentage for these groups combined being 34, as compared with i6 per cent. for the combined $600 and $700 groups. The average earnings of these other members of the family increase likewise, with increase of income, being $14.62, or 2.3 per cent., for the $600 families; $8i.93, or 9.7 per cent., for the $800 group, and $i21.36, or I.6 per cent., for the $Iooo group. Who these other wage-earners are may be seen in Tables I3-14 (pages 66-7). In the 318 families with incomes between $600 and $I Ioo there are reported 103 wage-earners, besides the father, belonging to 86 different families. Sixteen families have 2 supplementary wage-earners; I family (Bohemian) reports 3. Of these 103 persons, 58 are the mothers. Twenty-seven of these women receive pay.for janitor service, in many cases in the tenement buildings in which they live. In the majority of cases where the woman is janitress of a tenement building she is given in payment the use of an apartment rent free. In 31 cases the woman earns money in some other way. The cases where the mother is a wage-earner occur most frequently in the $800 income-group, where 24 of the 58 cases occur. No more than I2 are found in any other income-group. Forty-five children are reported at work for wages, 20 boys and 25 girls. The children are reported more frequently in the higher income-groups than in the lower, as will be seen from the following table: TOTAL NUMBER NUMBER OP WITH CHILDREN INCOME. FAMILIES. EARNING WAGES $600 to $699..................72 3 700 to 799.................79 7 oo to.99.......73 9 9ooto 999..................63 15 1000 to 1099.................. iioo and over..............48 15 57 THE STANDARD OF LIVING These figures, taken in connection with the occupations most largely represented, would corroborate the impression that, where the father's earnings are low, say under $800, the children have to go to work as soon as the law allows,-sometimes earlier,-if the standard of living is not to be lowered in the effort to make the same income meet the wants of children who, as they grow, must have continually more to eat and to wear. The different nationalities show some differences in regard to the supplementary wage-earners. Among the Bohemians the largest proportion of mothers at work is reported; viz., in 7 out of 14 families. The Russians report only 4 women as wage-earners out of 57 families, and these are all janitresses. The women are reported as wage-earners in i family out of 7 among the Americans, in i out of 6 among the Irish, in I out of 4 among the Teutonic families, in I out of 5 families among the Austrians, and in I out of 8 among the Italians. Families with more than one supplementary wage-earner are more frequent among the families in our second nationality-group, 12 out of the 16 cases being found among the Bohemians, Russians, Austrians and Italians. In regard to children at work there is no apparent difference among the different nationalities, the number reported at work bearing, practically, the same ratio to the total number of families in the case of each nationality. The families dependent on lodgers for part of their support are more evenly distributed among the income-groups than are the families with supplementary wage-earners. Twenty-four per cent. of the $6oo families report lodgers, and 39 per cent. of the $1ooo families, but the fluctuations in the returns for the intermediate groups do not show any regular increase. The number reporting lodgers in the $600 and $700 groups combined is 28.5 per cent. of the whole; in the $oo and $Iooo groups it is 26.6 per cent. of the whole. The amount contributed by lodgers averages $18.26 for the $600 families (2.8 per cent. of the whole income), and $60.94 (5.8 per cent.) for the $Iooo families. The small average for the lower income-group is due in part to the small number of families reporting income from lodgers. The average amount received by each of the 17 families in this group that report lodgers is $77.33, or 12 per cent. of the average 58 SOURCES OF INCOME total income of the families in this group. The average per family taking lodgers among the $Iooo families is $157.43, or 15 per cent. of the average total income of this group. The relation between lodgers and over-crowding is discussed in another connection (page 83). An examination of Tables IO and 12 (pages 63 and 65) shows that, so far as our families are concerned, those resident in Brooklyn depend less upon lodgers for supplementary income than those in Manhattan. All of the families in the Bronx that report lodgers are in two income-groups ($800 to $899 and $ ioo to $I 199), and in these cases the lodgers pay as large a share of the total income as in Manhattan. The number of families in the Bronx is altogether too small, however, to warrant any general conclusions, and the same observation holds in less degree regarding the 52 Brooklyn families, as compared with the 243 in Manhattan. A comparison of the different nationalities with reference to the sources of income shows that the greatest dependence on other resources than the father's wages is found among the Bohemians, Austrians and Russians. If to these there be added the Italians, making i6o families, we find that only 60 families, or 37.5 per cent., report no additional sources of income. Among the 158 families of the other four nationalities (Americans, Teutonic peoples, Irish, colored), 89, or 56.3 per cent., are supported by the father alone. The Italians, however, with 51 per cent. of families supported entirely by the father, rank above the colored, with 43 per cent. (Table I, page 64). As to the secondary sources of income, dependence on the earnings of others than the father is found to be more general among all nationalities than is reliance upon lodgers. The proportion with women or children at work varies from 16 per cent. among the Russians to 64 per cent. among the Bohemians. Dividing the families into two groups as before, according to nationality, 45, or 28.5 per cent., of the families in the first group have other wageearners than the father, as compared with 41, or 25.6 per cent., of the families in the second group. As regards lodgers, however, only 26 families, or I6.5 per cent., of the first group report income from this source, while 67 families, or 41.9 per cent. of the second group, report taking lodgers. 59 THE STANDARD OF LIVING The "income from other sources" than those already discussed, for which space is assigned in the tables, includes gifts of money, loans and other occasional windfalls. This is so inconsiderable a factor, however, amounting to from 0.5 to o.9 per cent. in the averages of the income-groups, that further mention of it seems not to be necessary. In regard to the whole subject of the proportion between families with and without income from supplementary sources, a concluding word may be in place. It is not claimed that three-' fifths of all the families in New York that spend from $800 to $i Ioo a year are obliged to eke out the earnings of the father by taking lodgers or sending mother and children out to work. The fact here shown is only that three-fifths of the 167 families selected at random within the range of incomes mentioned did thus fall back on supplementary sources of income. But this fact, taken in connection with the reports of what that income was spent for, raises the question whether an income of less than $800 is sufficient to maintain a family of five up to the time when the children are really old enough to be set to work. 6o 0% TABLE 7.-SOURCES OF INCOME. AVERAGES.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 NATIONALITY.,' 1 W B 8 'o. '0. ^. *l.'s.'s. 'o.. '............... 0 Z 4 ^ MWfa ~ fr-4 0 W O C United States.................. 650.92 6.82.... 19 701.7 10.93 34.48 6.o 13 705.43 49.69 25.55 6.is Teutonic.................... 4 606.50 47.75.... 7 615.86 89.85 66.86.. 9 85.1z 34.67 x.56 3.55 Irish.......................... 4 65o.oo.. 7 705.71 19.72. 7.04 7 762.57 31.89 37.15 11.43 Colored....................... 614.73 14.18 S.91.. 6 672.99 73.50 21.67.. 8 649.65 147.25 35.75 Bohemian..................... 4 569.00 39.00 45.50 3 654.33 58.33 34.67.. 3 SIx.33 334.67 Russian....................... x6 597.53 io.66 23.75 15.62 14 672.86 26.57 37.99.. i 678.17 61.58 100.33 Austrian, etc................... 6 577.22.. 79.93 9 603.56 51.33 93.22 9 626.oo 106.56 91.33 19.55 Italian..................... 16 604.00 19.00 19.75 10.94 14 68o.86 29.71 23.14 o.oo00 12 731.00 76.67 40.00 Total......................... 72 611.39 14.623 8.26 5.9o 79 670.38 35.96 38.63 3.86 73 712.74 81.93 46.55 5.04 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 NATIONALITY. I i.i....i.. _ _..... United States.............. 16 846.87 76.25 19.50 1.94 8 958.25 26.oo00 52.00 16.87 Teutonic.................. zi 828.56 x111.28.... 8 875.87 94.75 55.90 14.38 Irish..................... 5 930.00.... 624.00 416.oo00 Colored................... 2 741.06 138.00 32SO.50 624.00 260.00 182.00 Bohemian................. 4 551.75 436.37...... Russian................... 9 772.s3 s2.50 I 8.oo 829.17 8o.0oo 134.66 Austrian, etc............... 7 669.57 214.00 28.oo00 37.14 I 498.00 584.00 Italian.................... 9 867.55 34.67 31.78.. 6 838.92 176.oo00 6.00 833 Total..................... 63 88i.oo 107.11 29.49 4.62 31 852.o50 121.36 60.94 9.68 El TABLE 8.-SOURCES OF INCOME. PERCENTAGES.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 To $699 $700 To $799 $800 To $899 NATIONALITY. 0 0..8 I a I s 0 * z I United States.................. 11 91.1 8.9.... ig 93.1 IX. 4.6 o.8 13 90o.5 5.8 3.0 0.7 Teutonic...................... 4 92.7 7.3... 7 797.7 8.6.. 9 95.3 4.! o.2 0.4 Irish........................ 4 953 oo.o2.7 1.0 7 90.5 3.8 4.4 1.3 Colored...99..................... 96.9. 0.9. 6 87.6 9.6 2.8. 8 78.0 17.7 4-3 Bohemian.................... 4 87.0o 6.o 7.0 3 87.6 7.8 4.6.. 3 60.4 39.6 Russian....................... 6 92.3 1.6 3-7 2.7 14 91.3 3.6 S.1.. - 2 80.7 7.3 12.o Austrian, etc................... 6 87.8.. I.a. 9 80.7 6.9 12.4. 9 74.2 12.7 10.8 2.3 Italian........................ 16 92.4 2.9 3.0 17 14 91.6 4.0 3.1 1.3 12 86.2 9.1 4.7 Total......................... 72 94.0 2.3 2.8 0.9 79 89.5 4.8 5.2 0.5 73 84.2 9.7 5.5 0.6 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099. NATIONALITY. F.f Ze S..................... United States.............. x6 89.6 8.I 2.1 0.2 8 9z.0 2.5 4.9 x.6 Teutonic.................. 11 88.2 1.8.... 8 84.! 9.1 5.4 1.4 Irish..................... 5 ioo.o.... 6o.o 40.0 Colored................... 2 8.3 5.1 36.. S8.5 24.4 17.1 Bohemian................. 4 55.8 44.2.... Russian................... 9 82.5 S.6 11.9 6 79.4 7.7 1I.9 Austrian, etc............... 7 70.5 22.6 3.0 3-9 46.0 54.0 Italian.................... 9 992.9 3.7 3.4.. 8z. 17.1 0.6 o.8 Total..................... 63 85.0 11.4 3.1 o.5 31 81.7 zi.6 5.8 0.9 SOURCES OF INCOME TABLE 9.-SOURCES OF INCOME. AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES. -BY INCOME. EARNINGS OP EANINGS OF FROM FROM OTHER No. FATHER. OTHERS. LODGERS. SOURCES. ICO. OF TOTAL _ _ _ FAo- INCOM0E. st I IIES. ___ n I __ 1 I pI $400- 499.- 8 $452.38 $437.91 96.8 $97 2.2 $4.50 I.0. $soo- 599.,.. 17 544. 1 509.41 93.6 17.47 3.2 17.23 3.2 $60 699... 72 650.17 61.39 94.0 14.62 2.3 I8.26 2.8 $5.90 0.9 $700- 799... 79 748.33 670.38 89.5 35.96 4.8 38.63 5.2 3.86 0.5 $8oo- 899..... 73 846.26 712.74 84.2 81.93 9.7 46.55 5.5 5.04 o.6 900 999.... 63 942.03 88i.oo 85.0 107.11 I1.4 29.49 3.1 4.62 0.5 $0o0-iO99..... 31 1044.48 852.50 81.7 121.36 II.6 6o.94 5.8 9.68 0.9 $ o-199..... 18 1137.42 1003.95 88.3 69.69 6.I 48.50 4.3 15.28 1.3 1200-1299..... 8 1256.25 IOI2.75 8o.6 I39.50 11.1 104.00 8.3 $i300o-399.8-. 8 1344-12 1028.25 76.5 93.2 7.0 222.75 I6.5 $400-1499. I 1425.00 1300.00 91.2.80.. I25.00 $1S5o-15990.. 6 1518.47 I236.67 8I.4 I20.00 7.9 93.47 6.2 68.33 4.S TABLE 10.-SOURCESIOF INCOME. PERCENTAGES.-BY BOROUGH AND INCOME. EARNmNGS OF FATHER, EARmNOGS O PER CENT. OTHES, PER CENT. FROM LODGERS, FROM OTHM PER CENT. SoURacs, PER CENT. |INCOME. 400- 499.. $50- 599 — $6oo 699.. $00- 799.. $Soo- 899. I100-iO 99.. 1200-1299.. $130o0-1399. $I5o-1599I. 93.8 91.8 92.2 87.9 82.1 81.0 80.8 82.7 84.0 69.3 77-7 97.7 O00.O 90.1 100.0 100.0 82.2 91.2 m 98.x 99.5 91.2 79.1 97.5 57.1 82.4 IOO.O 4.3 3.8 2.9 5.8 11.1 14.4 12.8 8.7 8.3 II.1 9-5.. 2.3 4.9 8.9...o. '.9 I.0 1.3 6.7 8.3 I.9 30.6.. 1.9 4-4 3.7 5.8 16.x 3-9 5-3 6.o 7-7 19.6 7.4 5.o 8.9 i 1E1 m.. 0.5 2.9 2.4 2.1 12.6 o.6 12.3 I7.6.... 1.2 0.5 0.7 0.7 'I.I 2.6 5.4 9 m...... oo...... 0.5 63 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 11.-SOURCES OF INCOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING INCOME FROM GIVEN SOURCES.BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 To $699. $700 TO $799. $800 TO $899. NATIONALITY. United States..... Teutonic........ Irish............ Colored.......... Bohemian........ Russian......... Austrian, etc...... Italian........... zCl II 4 4 II 4 I6 6 i6 72 10 2 4 9 I 1I 8 46 ' S 0 I 2 I I I 3 9 I 2 5 5 4 17 1.1 I9 7 7 6 3 14 9 14 79 F4P II 2 5 3 2 6 2 9 40 IOS So 2 3 I 3 I I 3 I Le 5 3 I I 8 5 3 '3 9 7 8 3 12 9 12 0 7 5 3 2 I 4 aCD 4 2 3 6 3 4 3 5 3 I I 3 8 5 4 Total............ I5 26 73 22 30 25 $900 TO $999. $1000 To$1099. TOTAL. Earnings of Earnings of From Father Only. Others. Lodgers. ZU tS. a o S 4 2_| _u United States z6 9 5 2 8 3 2 2 67 4o 6I.2 I4 20.9 I2 I7.9 Teutonic.... II 8 3.. 8 3 3 2 39 20 51.2 13 33-3 6 15.4 Irish 5........ * 24 17 70.8 20.8 I 4. Colored..... 2.. 2 I I.. I I 28 12 42.9 I3 46.4 7 25.0 Bohemian... 4 -. 4....... 14 3 21.4 9 64. 3 21.4 Russian..... 9 2 2 6 6.. 6 57 2 36.9 9 I5.8 33 57-9 Austrian, etc. 7 3 3 2.. I 32 7 2I.9 10 34-4 17 53.1 Italian..... 9 2 6 2 3 57 29 50.8 3 22.8 14 24.5 Total....... 63 33 20 13 31 8 1 2 2 318 149 46.8 86 27.0 93 29.2 64 SOURCES OF INCOME TABLE 12.-SOURCES OF INCOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING INCOME FROM LODGERS: MANHATTAN.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. o FAnLIES RECEIVING INCOME FROM LODGERS: MANHATTAN. NATIONALITY. 0 Per NATIONAL Y. Z $600 $700 $800 $900 $1000 Cent. to to to to t to Total. of All $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 Famo ilies. United States............. 44. 5 3 2 I I 25.0 Teutonic................. 27. 3 I. 2 6 22.2 Irish................. 7.... I.. 5.8 Colored.... 28 I I 3 I I 7 25.0 BohemianII............ 3 21.4 Russian........... 34 4 7 6 5 5 27 79-4 Austrian, etc............. 30 5 4 5 2.. 6 53.3 Italian.................. 49 3 3 3 2 I 12 24.5 Total.................... 15 24 22 2 10 83 Total number of families... 52 63 58 45 25 243 Per cent. with lodgers...... 28.8 38.1 37.9 26.6 45.0 34.1 5 65 TABLE 13.-SOURCES OF INCOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING WAGE-EARNERS OTHER THAN FATHER.-BY NATIONALITV ANT) TNMYTnh. 8^ $600 To $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 Wage-earners Besides Father. Wage-earners Besides Father. Wage-earners Besides Father. NATIONALITY. ___ u Mother. M oher. & L 6 z4~.B O 0 0 United States... I.... II 1 I I 2 13 I 2 2 I I 6 Teutonic.. 4 2.. 2...2 7 2 2...... Irish.... 7........ 3 Colored.............. 6 I. I Bohemian....... 3 II 3. 2 - 3 Russian, i6.... I 2 2 4 I 2 2.... 5 Austrian, etc........6....I 3 9 I 2 4 I I Italian.............i6. 2 2 I.... 3 4 2 z I 2 I I 5 ~0~~~~ -3 NATIONALITY. a Mother. Mother. - Mother. United States........ i6 2 i 2 5 8.. i.. I 2 67 5 4 4 3 2 16 Teutonic......... i 2 I 3 8.. I 2 3 39 4 6 2 2 I 14 Irish.......... 5.. I I.. 24 2 2 I I 6 Colored............. 2 2...... I 28 7 4 I I.. 13 Bohemian...... 4 3 2 2 2* 7... 14 2 5 3 2 2* 12 Russian............. 9 3 I 3 6....... 57 4 3 6 4 13 Austrian,etc. 7 7 I - 4 2 5.. I I I 2 32 2 4 I 7 4 14 Italian................... 6 2 I I 4 57 6 5 3 2 5 Total.... 63 5 7 5 5 27 3 36 5 2 14 318 27 3120216 * One case, 2 wage-earners; i case, 3 wage-earners. SOURCES OF INCOME TABLE 14.-SOURCES OF INCOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING WAGE-EARNERS OTHER THAN FATHER.-BY INCOME. NUm- WAGE-EARNER BESIDES FATHER. WITH BER OF OTHER MOTHER. T INCOME.. F"- Two ES WAGE- Wagea-s. W -EAG- Boys. Girls. EarnERS. Jan- Other. ers. tress. $400 to $499.............. 8 2.. 2.... $500 to $599 I.......... 7 3 - 3 $600 to $699.-.......... 72 9 2 5 I 2 I $700 to $799.............. 79 5 7 5 3 4 4 $800oto $899.............. 73 29 I3 II 5 4 4 $9oo to $999-........... -63 2I 5 7 5 o1 5 $1ooo to $1099.............. 31 I2. 3 6 5 2 $IIoo to $iI99 gg....-.-..... I8 6 I I 4 $x200 to $I299.............. 8 3.. I 2 I $I300 to $1399............ 8 3 I I 3. 2 $I400 and over............ 4 4. I 4 I 2 Total................. 391 I17 29 40 32 28 21 $400to $599............. 25 5. 5 $600 ooto $799.............. 151 24 9 o1 4 6 5 $8oo to $899.............. 73 29 13 I I 5 4 4 $900 to $1099............. 94 33 5 Io II 15 7 $xIoo and over............. 48 i6 2 4 12 3 5 67 THE STANDARD OF LIVING III. Objects of Expenditure A. APPORTIONMENT (AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES) BETWEEN DIFFERENT HEADS OF EXPENDITURE The relative expenditure for different purposes is shown in Tables 15 and 16 (pages 70-74). The percentages show which are the elastic elements. Housing demands a decreasing proportion of income as income increases; food remains nearly constant; clothing claims a larger proportion of the higher incomes than of the lower. The expenditures for sundries, including furnishings, society and church dues, amusements and miscellanies, show a rapid increase in percentage with increasing income. Further -t r, -/:a-o W _o Y?1'. 20b lE!ev. u&MxId t 3)7,-tU,, DIAGRAM 6.-Total average expenditure for each income group, and average amounts expended for various purposes. The items are arranged in each column in the following order, beginning at the bottom: rent; car-fare; fuel and light; food; clothing; insurance; health; sundries. 68 OBJECTS OF EXPENDITURE '40 - 7v - //ro - /30ad /,v5Zo i yog co0 IBBI H^^^^^^ i Arm -- - S iSi o-_6 Co - 700 - 1/3 - //-of - /tow3 OZ> _ / $_0 DIAGRAM 7.-Percentage of expenditure for each item. The items are arranged in the same order as in Diagram 6. Beginning at the left: rent; car-fare; fuel and light; food; clothing; insurance; health; sundries. discussion of the variations of amount and percentage of the expenditures under the different heads for the several income-groups and nationalities will be taken up in the consideration of the successive items. The heading "Units, Average" in the fourth column (Table 15) refers to the food-requirements of the families, stated in multiples of the requirementof an adult man as a unit. The method of reckoning these equivalents is described in another connection, on page 125. 69 0 TABLE 15.- EXPENDITURES FOR GIVEN OBJECTS. AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES.-BY INCOME. DESCRIPTION. INCOE. EPENDITURES. Rent. Car-fare. Fuel and Food. Clothing. Insurance. Health. Sundries. Light. Total Total -- --- - lAver- Aver- - Aver age. age. ~ ~. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~P e. ++ $400- 499. 8 5.4 3.3 $452.38 $463.98 $124.0 26.8 $11.94 2.6 $25-97 5.6 $I89.30 40.8 $60.65 13.0 $5-57 x.2 $I4.I8 3.1 $31*87 6.9 $500- 599. 17 5.0 3.2 544-II 547.30 I41.53 25.9 9.80 1.8 32.55 5.9 243.32 44.4 67-95 12.4 7.00 1.3 10.31 1.9 34.84 6.4 $600- 699,, 72 4.9 3.27 650.17 650.57 153.59 23.6 11.31 1.7 37.71 5.8 290.10 44.6 83.48 12.9 13.05 2.0 13.78 2.1 47.55 7.3 $700- 799.. 79 5.1 3.46 748.83 735-98 I6I.36 21.9 10.53.5 36.94 5.0 335.82 45.6 98.79 I3.4 18.24 2.5 I4.02 1.9 60.28 8.2 $800- 899. 73 5.2 3-51 846.26 8Ii.88 168.24 206.7 l586 2.0 41.04 5.0 359.26 44.3 113-59 14.0 I7.62 2.2 22.19 2.7 74.o8 9.1 $900- 999. 63 5I. 3.61 942.03 906.70 171.67 19.0 13.79 1.5 46.70 5.1 405.1 44.7 32.34 I4.6 23.71I '.6 23.30 2.6 90.o 9.9 $SI000-1099.. 31 5.0 375 1044-48 1009.57 183.12 I8.i 18.46' 1.8 46.11 4-5 45I.46 44-7 155-57 15.5 25.46 2.5 14.80 1.5 1 4.59 11.4 $II00-1199.. 8 5.0 3.2 1137-42 I110330 178.33 x6.2 20.74 1.9 42.53 3.8 502.73 45.6 I63.80 14.9 27.69 2.5 40.18 3.6 127.30 11.5 $1200-1299.. 8 5.4 4.3 1256.25 1249.00 248.25 19.8 27.61 2.2 47.68 3.8 562.02 45o0 189.57 I5.2 27.50 2.2 16.03 I.3 130.34 I0.5 $300-1399.. 8 4-9 3.96 I344.12 I3I2.37 220.50 i6.8 I4.-72 '1. 47-64 3.6 572.04 43.6 180.48 I3.7 63.88 4.9 14.31 Ix. 198.80 15.2 $ssoo-1599.. 6 4.7 3.5 x5x8.47 I556.28 254.00 16.3 18.27 1.2 64.57 4-. 572.32 36.8 260.97 x6.8 36.50 2.3 1I5.62 7.4 234.03 15.1 * Per cent. of expenditure for all purposes. TABLE 15A.-EXPENDITURES FOR GIVEN OBJECTS. AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. DESCRIPTION. INCOME. EXPENDITURES. Fuel and v(~.*o~~.*o ^Rent. Car-fare. Light. Food. Clothing. Insurance. Health. Sundries. ' Total Total- ~ ---g ^. ^ < Aver- Aver-o 0 0 i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~jb $6oo- 699 U. S. II 5.0 3.2 657.74 665.20 146.47 22.o 7.23 I.- 40.17 6.2 292.74 44.o 86.87 13.o 25.26 3.8 1.o9 1.6 55.37 8.4 Teut. 4 4.7 3.x 654.25 669.69 153.00 22.9 29.30 4.4 27.43 4.1 283.35 42.3 94.08 14.0 31.02 4.6 I5.33 2.3 36.18 5.3 Irish 4 6.0 4.0 650.oo00 662.97 133.50 20.1 22.52 3.4 27.14 4.1 292.83 44.2 9o.87 13.7 36.oo00 5.4 17.05 2.6 43.o6 6.5 Col. ii 5.4 3.3 634.82 647.11 175.64 27.1 i8.53 2.9 44.10o 6.8 263.06 40.6 85.46 13.1 19.59 3.3 7.95 1.2 32.78 5.0 Boh. 44. 5 3.4 653.50 694.16 133.50 19.2 7.8o x.i 59.93 8.6 315.51 45.5 110.92 r6.o 6.73 1.o 9.50 1.4 50.27 7.2 I Rus. i6 5.1 3.4 647.56 627.79 157.50 25.1 6.69 1.1 33.28 5.3 273.31 43.5 85.77 13.6 4.83 0.8 14.38 2.3 52.03 8.3 Aus. 6 4.3 3.3 657.15 604.96 173.50 28.7 14.I7 2.3 30.07 5.0 258.92 42.8 62.48 10.4 3.33 0.5 14.15 2.3 48.34 8.0 Ital. i6 4.6 3.1 653.68 663.99 142.12 21.4 6.27 0.9 38.59 5.8 330.00 49.7 74.02 11.2 3.38 o.$ x8.75 2.8 5o.86 7.7 $700- 799 U. S. 19 5.3 3.3 752.75 763.13 I57.31 20.6 12.98 1.7 43.o10 5.6 348.44 45.7 112.95 14.8 26.73 3.5 10.26 1.4 31.36 6.7. Teut. 7 5.0 3.7 772.57 759.29 177.43 23.3 12.35 1.6 35.88 4.7 358.90 47.3 85.65 xr.3 36.67 4.9 7.51 3.o 44.90 5.9 Irish. 7 5.3 3.4 732.57 766.32 137.14 17.9 9.23 1.2 33.73 4.4 366.40 47.8 zz19.o8 z.6 24.18 3.1 20.16 2.6 56.40 7.4 Col. 6 5.5 3.4 768.i6 783.04 207.00 26.5 12.41 x.6 53.72 6.9 321.40 41.0 114.07 14.6 27.02 3.4 5.02 0.6 42.40 5.4 Boh. 3 6.0 4.1 747.33 736.92 x38.oo i6.o 2.17 0.3 45.32 6.2 363.89 49.3 II.67 I5.2 19.03 2.6 12.53 1.7 64.31 8.7 Rus. 14 5.1 3.5 737.41 698.88 167.96 24 0 9.31 1.3 33.54 4.8 299.34 42.8 84.28 I2.1 3.28 0.5 26.52 3.8 74.65 10.7 Aus. 9 4.8 3.6 748.11 7o10.51 63.72 23.1 8.04 I., 35.54 5.0 321.97 45.3 86.43 12.2 15.67 2.2 15.63 2.2 63.51 8.9 Ital. 14 4.6 3.0 743.71 705.40 152.57 21.6 20.74 1.5 26.03 3.7 337.39 47.8 89.14 12.7 7.24 I.o0 9.93 1.4 72.36 10.3 $8oo- 899 U. S. 13 5.o 3.5 856.82 867.89 167.54 19.3 13.76 z.6 42.61 4.9 409.88 47.2 127.06 14.6 24.86 2.9 8.53 1.0 73.65 8. Teut. 9 5.1 3.2 854.91 873.28 158.67 i8.2 25.81 2.9 40.61 4.6 347.06 39.8 143.14 i6.4 25.33 2.9 30.30 3.5 102.36 11.7 Irish. 7 4.9 3.3 843.04 812.82 I64.57 22.2 16.20 2.0 38.26 4.7 357.09 43.9 124.26 15.3 23.37 2.9 19.41 2.4 69.66 8.6 Col. 8 5.2 3.3 832.65 788.93 212.25 26.9 x6.io 2.0 52.61 6.7 297.22 37.71 "5.34 14.6 23.31 3.0 15.91 2.0 56.19 7.1 TABLE 15A (Continued).-EXPENDITURES FOR GIVEN OBJECTS. AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. DESCRIPTION. INCOME. EXPENDITURES. Fuel and. I [1 Total Total[. ~ I 111-< AaA^' igt &od ig I Aver- Aver- &s age. age. 0 U 0? u g 0 $8oo-$goo Boh. 3 5.7 3.7 846.00 840.16 I30.00 15.5 20.80 2.5 37.44 4.4 408.87 48.7 138.75 i6.5 17.97 2.I 18.40 2.2 67.93 8.i " Rus. 12 5.4 3.9 840.08 770.56 165.34 21.5 14.91 1.9 40.83 5.3 348.44 45.2 94.i6 I2.2 6.99.9 27,18 3.5 72.71 9.5.* id Aus. 9 5.0 3.6 843.44 82i.87 I74.I7 21.2 12.74 1.5 46.58 5.7 318.69 38.8 io8.68 1 3.2 24.42 3 49.41 6.o 87.18 io.6 Ital. 12 4.5 3.2 847.67 746.66 157.00oo 21.0 12.37 1.7 30.52 4.1 385.03 51.6 86.28 I1.5 2.31.3 12.23 1.6 60.92 8.2 $9oo- 999 U. S. 6 5.2 3.5 944.56 949.23 172.50 i8.2 56.49 1.7 40.1o 4.2 425.75 44.8 143.26 15.0 38.24 4.2 23.98 2.5 88.91 9.4.... Teut. iI 5.1 3.4 939.84 917.90o 164.84 i8.o 17.07 1.9 51.69 5.6 395.44 43.1 135.85 14.8 31.52 3.4 22.02 2.4 99.47 io.8 Irish 5 5.4 3.5 930.00 911.56 i60.8o 17.6 7.68.9 42.07 4.6 404.87 44.3 149.I7 16.4 41.83 4.6 9.53 I.o 95.6 I10.5 Col. 2 5.5 3.7 911.56 843.89 156.00 18.5 18.70 2.2 50.67 6.0 341.53 40.5 146.54 I7.4 25.06 2.9 13.25 1.6 92.14 10.9 Boh. 4 5.2 4.0 988.12 983.26 144.00 I4.6 16.35 1.7 69.96 7-1 4I6.18 42.4 i8i.79 18.5 28.40 2.9 37.41 3.8 89.17 9.0 " " Rus. 9 5.0 4.2 936.03 892.51 206.67 22.7 i8. 2.3 41.28 4.6 372.39 431.7 113.16 I2.6 5.92 0.6 27.21 3.0 111.77 12.5 Aus. 7 4.9 3.4 94871 905.20 166.5 i8.3 7.o6 o.8 43.39 4.8 419.54 46.4 130.87 14.4 14.50 I.6 38.02 4.2 85.67 9.5 Ital. 9 5.1 3.5 934.00 810.04 173.69 21.5 7.04 0.9 51.67 6.4 411.65 50.8 94.43 ii.6 0.87 o.1 11.95 1.5 58.74 7.2 $1000-1099 U. S. 8 5.4 3.7 I053.12 1072.83 174.95 I6.3 19.23 1.8 42.52 4.0 497.29 46.3 16.18 I55.4 40.72 3.8 13.55 1.3 119.39 i.i Teut. 8 5.0 3.7 1040o.0 1035.50 19I.87 18.5 23.08 2.2 54.29 5.2 42.40 40.7 18336 17.7 43.97 4.3 7.72 0.7 109.8ii i0.6 Irish I 5.0 4.0 1040.oo00 915.86 2io.oo00 22.9.... 69.68 7.6 492.33 53.7 67.63 7.5.... 21.00o 2.3 55.22 6.0 " Col. I 5.0 4.0 io66.oo 886.73 180.00 20.3 3I.20 3.5 54.60 6.2 302.44 34.1 107.74 12.2 20.80 2.3 1.00 o.i 188.95 21.3 Rus. 6 4.8 4.0 1043.88 1046.75 197.00 18.8 I0.I8 1.o 47.80 4.6 469.36 44.8 1I39-46 I3.3 8.17 0.8 32.92 3.1 141.86 13.6 6" " IAus. 16.o 5. z1082.00 978.79 x68.oo 17.1 68.oo 6.9 42.90 4.4 451.91 46.2 177.30 i8.i 8.20 0.9.... 62.48 6.4 ". Ital. 6 4.5 3.4 I029.25 894.71 167.00 I8.7 12.25 1.4 33.51 3.7 430.48 48.1 140.84 15.7 5.64 0.6 11.53 1.3 93.46 1xo. TABLE 16.-EXPENDITURES FOR GIVEN OBJECTS. AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES.-BY OCCUPATION. Sundries.? d s6 GARMENT-WORKERS. $400- 499 $o50- 599 $6oo- 699 $700- 799 $8oo- 899 $900- 999 $IOO-1Io99 2 3 13 12 Io Io 5 4.5 5.o 5.0 4.6 5.1 4.9 4.8 2.8 2.8 3.4 3.3 3.7 3.9 4.0 3.2 4.0 $437.50 542.00 658.69 751.90 839.70 934.95 1oS2.60 $420.52 $120.00 28.5 550.23 126.00 22.9 S15.50 | 3.7 l$30o.90 7.4 | $I79-48 17.33 1 3.1 32.49 5.9 637.54 721.45 794.47 860.57 1084.38 170.08. 176.38 159.00 I70.I3 200.40 212.00 260.00 26.7 24.4 20.0 I9.8 I8.5 19.5 23.5 42.7 $42.30 1o.1 45.5 56.77 10.3 7.97 6.60 10.52 7.86 6.22 14.07 1.2 0.9 1.3 0.9 o.6 1.3.o. 33-50 34-24 47.93 44.75 50.05 50.95 42.29 5.3 4.7 6.o 5.2 4.6 4.6 3.8 250.06 272.51 310.63 373-59 422.68 494.04 42.8 43.0 47.1 49.2 45.6 80.85 82.90 92-73 95-59 144.53 I58.o5 137.26 12.7 II.6 x1.7 II.I 13.3 14.6 I2.4 $1.67 4.73 10.36 7.34 9.82 8.90 3.80 4.00 0.3 0.7 1.4 0.9 I.I o.8 $13.75 3.2 20.00 3.6 $i8.6o 4.4 45.90 8.4 I4.10 x8.96 23.39 I7.IO 29.10 2.2 2.7 2.9 2.0 2.7 53.8o 81.36 79.97 92.65 I5I.I4 I30.03 141.98 8.4 11.3 IO.I 10.7 13.9 I1.9 12.9 3 5.0 I 6.o0 1140.33 1087.14 1280.00 104.6I 490.7I 45.2 409.08 36.1 0.4 27.53 2.5 0.4 10.00 0.9 TABLE 16.-(Continued.)-EXPENDITURES FOR GIVEN OBJECTS. AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES.-BY OCCUPATION. DESCRIPTION. INCOME. EXPENDITURES. Fuel and i] |~ | t | ~ | Rent. Car-fare. Light. Food. Clothing. Insurance. Health. Sundries. ~ ~ -~ -~ - -_.............. ~~~~~~~ ~ t~ zS 9 1 d I LABORE I 29.50 I RS. $400- 499 $6oo- 699. $700- 799 4 $8oo- 899 I 10 10 12 6.o 5.2 5.3 4.8 3.5 3.4 3.7 3-3 $900- 999 2 55 4.2 $Sooo-1O99 3 5.0 4.0 $45o.0o 639.60 745.14 832.20 960.00 1043.33 641.44 751.44 870.00 939.33 1003.53 1 47.50 1322.50 $6oo- 699 $700- 700 $800- 899 $9oo- 999 $1ooo-1099 $IIoo-1199 $1300-1399 9 9 4 3 1 2 2 5.2 5.6 4.3 5.3 5.0 5.5 4.5 3.I 3.8 2.7 3.7 3.0 3.2 4.2 630.20 751.58 745.07 787.92 944.76 644.93 727.72 863.26 900.67 975:04 1170.37 1336.74 I42.80 i68.oo I77.60 $500.95 I $126.00o 25.2 | 3.00 | 6.2 22.7 22.4 23.8 15.78 10.02 12.86 2.5 1.3 1.7 141.00 17.9.... 32.52 4.1 x8o.oo 19.1... 45.86 4.9 413.40 52.4 509.86 54.0 166.66 146.31 I74.00 352.00 180.00 28o.oo 210.00 36.96 37.29 33.99 25.9 20.1 20.1 28.0 I8.4 15.3 15.7 7.63 0.25 24.80 I8.93 31.20 31.20 I6.Io 5.9 5.8 5.0 4.6 $202.50 291.02 352.I3 327.97 40.4 46.2 46.8 44.0 TEAMSTERS. 1.2 36.89 5.7. 39.74 5.5 2.9 34.27 3.9 2.2 46.39 5.I 3.2 40.91 4.2 2.6 49.83 4.2 I.I 47.92 3.6 $68.70 76.67 105.57 96.94 125.36 94.I5 79.42 97.09 I26.76 65.48 I69.o0 146.43 145.69 I5.9 13.00 1.7 9.9 10.38 I.I 13.7 12.1 I4.I 13.0 I3.68 25.52 I5.60.. I 2.1 3.3 2.2 $9Soo.8 10.65 1.8 4.6I o,6 I5.46 2.1 2.85 0.4 12.43 1.3 $48.I5 6.8 42.64 48.44 64.62 6.8 6.5 8.7 59.80 7.6 92.08 9.7 260.5i 357.25 339.5g 387.35 35i.06 605.85 647.97 40.3 40.I 39.5 43.0 36.0 51.7 48.4 12.3 I3.4 14.7 7.2 17-3 12.5 11.0 20.66 22.49 4.46 59.83 10.40 40.50 50.20 3.2 3.I 0.7 6.6 I. | 3.4 3-7 21.79 7.12 37.19 27.15 24.20 1.35 o.6o 3.4 1.0 4.3 3.1 2.5 0.9 0.1 51.36 57.46 I20.25 43.55 169.Io II0.21 218.26 8.o 7.8 23.9 4.8 17.3 9.4 16.4 _ -I I I I Il _.... - _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I I I -I ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I HOUSING B. DISCUSSION OF SEPARATE HEADS OF EXPENDITURE. I. HOUSING. I. RENT AS A FACTOR IN THE BUDGET.-As the table of averages shows (Table 15, pages 70-72), the amount paid for rent increases with increase of income, while the percentage of all expenditures paid for rent tends to diminish as the income increases. Twenty-seven per cent. of all expenditures is paid for housing, on the average, by the 8 families with incomes between $400 and $500, and 26 per cent. by the 17 families with incomes between $5oo and $600. The 63 families with incomes between $goo and $iooo average only 19 per cent., although paying $171 on an average, as compared with $124, the average of the rent of families in the $4oo income-group. A study of the rent payments (Tables 20 and 21, page 88) shows the same tendency. Of the 243 Manhattan families with incomes between $600 and $I ioo, 74 families, or 30 per cent., pay from $12 to $14 a month for rent; and 157 families, or 60 per cent., pay $14 and under. But in the $600 income-group 73 per cent. of the families pay not more than $I4; in the $700 group, 67 per cent.; in the $800 group, 62 per cent.; while in the $9oo group, 49 per cent., and in the $Iooo group, 36 per cent. are in this category. Or, drawing the line in another way, as in Table 23, the percentage of families in the different income-groups spending $14 or more monthly for rent is: $600 to $699............. 36.5 per cent. 700 to 799........... 44.5 8oo to 899............. 57 900 to 999............. 66.7 IOOO to 1099............. 72.0o When it is remembered that in most quarters of the city an apartment of 4 rooms costs more than $I4 a month, it will be seen that no very high standard, in the matter of housing, is assured on an income of less than $9oo. 2. COMPARISON OF RENT-CHARGES ACCORDING TO LOCALITY AND NATIONALITY.-The tables of averages (Tables 18 and 19, pages 86-87) show that families living in Manhattan spend somewhat 75 THE STANDARD OF LIVING more for rent than those living in Brooklyn. The average yearly expenditure for this purpose in Manhattan ranges from $ 57.33 to $185.72 as the.income rises from $600 to $I oo, or 24 and 18.I per cent., respectively, of all expenditures. In Brooklyn the averages range from $144.2I to $171.40, or 22.3 and 17.9 per cent. respectively, of all expenditures. The numberof families in the Bronx and Queens is too small to justify citation of averages, but in the cases from these boroughs the figures run somewhat lower than in Brooklyn. For the purpose of comparing rents in different parts of Manhattan, arbitrary lines were drawn on the map, dividing the boroughs into five districts: North, all territory north of 96th street; East, east of Broadway, between I4th and 96th streets; Southeast, east of Broadway, south of I4th street; South-west, west of Broadway, south of i4th street; West, west of Broadway, between i4th and 96th streets. The tables on pages go-91 show the apportionment of the Manhattan families among these districts, both by income and nationality. Table 26 (page 9I) shows that the lowest rents are paid in the South-west, where only 2 families out of 24 pay more than $I5 a month. Between the other districts, the differences are not so marked. However, 40 per cent. of the families north of 96th street pay more than $i 5 a month, as compared with 25 per cent. in the western section, 33 per cent. in the east, and 36 per cent. in the lower east side. A comparison of the housing expenditure of different nationalities shows that the highest average and the highest percentage of all expenditures is reported by the colored people, the lowest by the Bohemians. It was reported that higher charges were made to the former than to whites. Arranging the nationalities in descending scale according to expenditure for housing, the order seems to be: Colored, Teutonic peoples, Russian, Austrian, American, Irish, Italian, Bohemian. In some instances the number of cases is too small to warrant very confident assertions on this point. (See Table 17, page 85.) 3. CHARACTER OF HOUSING ACCOMMODATIONS.-Indications on this point may be found in the number of rooms, the number of rooms without direct access to outside light and air, the presence or absence of bath-room and toilet in the apartment, and the 76 HOUSING ratio of number of rooms to number of persons occupying them at night. The measurement of each room was also asked for in the schedule, and the number of cubic feet per occupant was calculated. But the measurements were in so many cases inexact that this item has not been included in the tables. The average number of rooms per family increases with income regularly, being for Manhattan, 3.1 for families with incomes of between $600 and $700, and 3.8 for families between $iooo and $I oo. For the other boroughs the figures rise correspondingly from 3.7 to 4.2. (See Tables 27 and 34, pages 91 and 98.) The number of families reported as occupying tenements of 2 rooms, 3 rooms, etc., is exhibited in Tables 28-33 (pages 92-97). It appears from the final summary that out of 115 Manhattan families with incomes between $6oo and $8oo, 71 per cent. have no more than 3 rooms; of the 58 families in the $8oo group, 48 per cent. have not more than 3 rooms, and of the 70 families with incomes between $9oo and $I Ioo, 39 per cent. live in 3 rooms or less. The percentage of families having not more than 3 rooms is as follows: TOTAL NUMBER OF FAILIES. PEB CENT. LIVING IN THEE Rooms. ROOMS. INCOME. Manhattan. Other Boroughs. Manhattan. Other Boroughs. $600oo to $799....... II5 36 71 31 $8ooto $899.......... 58 15 48 27 $900 to $1099......... 70 24 39 17 A comparison of nationalities with respect to number of rooms shows a range for Manhattan of an average for the American families of from 3.2 ($700) to 4.3 ($8oo); for the Teutonic nations from 3.4 ($8oo) to 4.3 ($iooo); colored, from 3.4 ($60o) to 4 ($9oo); Bohemians, 3 ($700) to 3.25 (9oo); Russian, 3.1 ($600) to 3.8 ($iooo). Austrians average 3 rooms for the $1ooo group, 3.6 for the $600 group. The Irish range from 3 ($600) to 3.7 ($0oo), with a single case of 5 rooms on an income of over $1ooo. The Italian reports show the lowest average, 2.6 at 60oo and 3.9 at $goo. Considered by count of families, the same relation exists. Three-quarters of the Italian families reported from Man77 THE STANDARD OF LIVING hattan were living in 2 and 3 rooms, one-quarter of them in 2 rooms. Sixty per cent. of the Manhattan Russians were in 2 and 3 rooms, and the same proportion was true of theAustrians. Only 2 of the 14 Bohemian families reported as many as 4 rooms. Combining the Americans, Teutons and Irish, 36 out of 88 families in Manhattan, or 40 per cent., had no more than 3 rooms. Fifty-three per cent. of all the 391 families report dark rooms; i. e., rooms without direct access to outside air and light. (See Tables 34-38, pages 98-g12.) Sixty per cent. of the Manhattan families report dark rooms, and 32 per cent. of the families in the outlying boroughs. The frequency of dark rooms seems from the table of averages (Table 34, page 98) to be as great with high incomes as with lower. The count of cases, however, yields more favorable indications, as appears in the following table giving the percentage of families reporting one or more dark rooms: ALL BOROUGHS. INCOME. PER CENT. $400 to $599.....64 t0o to 799... 54 800 to 899....64 900 to 1099.....49 I oo and over.....38 All incomes.....53 MANHATTAN. OTHER BOROUGHS. PER CENT. PER CENT. 8X 33 64 I9 67 53 54 33 38 38 60o 32 faZ - 7/ F0- -y/ff //^a m C Y/o.- I _~ f I", I V. I It. ~ ~~~~~~.I 1 ba0?oS: \^ -1w 1-I DIAGRAM 8.-Percentage of families reporting one or more dark rooms. The black part of the bar represents the proportion of families who had at least one dark room; the shaded part, the proportion who had none. 78 HOUSING The extent to which bath-rooms and toilets are included within the apartments appears from the following summary of the number and percentage of families reporting them: REPORTING BATH- REPORTING TOILET. INC0OME. TOTAL NMBER ROOM INCOMWE. oFALE. - ___OF FAxMILES. No. Per Cent. No. Per Cent. $400 to $599..... 25 I 4 8 32 $600 to $799. --- —--- 151 21 14 40 26 $8o0 to $899 73 12 i6 I8 24 $900 to $1099................ 94 23 24 29 3I $IIoo and over................ 48 23 48 25 40 In other words, not more than a quarter of the families possess these conveniences on any income below $1 ioo. To more than three-fourths of the families with incomes under this amount, bath-tubs and separate toilets for each family are luxuries in the sense in which Professor Patten uses the term; i. e., they have not yet been included in the standard of living. As between different localities, about one family in 7 of the Manhattan group have bath-rooms, and about 2 out of 7 in the other boroughs. A private toilet is reported by 22 per cent. of the families in Manhattan, and by 43 per cent. of those outside. These figures in every case are for the 318 families with incomes between $600 and $I IO, 243 being in Manhattan and 75 outside. Taking the same families by nationality, the colored and Russian families make the best showing, one family in every three reporting bath-rooms and about the same proportion reporting private toilets. This may be due in part to the selection of families among the negroes, the whole number being only 28, and to the fact that the Russians are more largely housed in the new-law tenements of the East Side than the families of the other races. Of the American families I in 7 reports bath-room, I in 3, private toilet. The Teutons and Irish report both fewer bath-rooms and private toilets, in proportion, than the Italians. The Austrian families show I bath-room for every 5 families, and a private toilet in 2 cases out of every 7. 79 THE STANDARD OF LIVING 4. RELATION BETWEEN NUMBER OF ROOMS AND NUMBER OF PERSONS.-For the purpose of judging of the degree of over-crowding in the cases embraced in this report the number of families having less than 4 rooms is tabulated in Tables 39-45 (pages 103 -IO8) and also the number of families where the number of rooms is less than i to every iI persons. Since none of the families includes less than 4 persons and the greater number consist of 5 or 6, ino _ DIAGRAM 9.-Number of over-crowded families in each of the principal incomegroups. The black part of the column represents the over-crowded families. an allowance of 4 rooms would not seem to exceed, as a rule, the demands of decency. To make allowance for variations in the number of persons using the family apartment, a standard of II persons to a room has been applied. That is, more than 6 persons to 4 rooms, and more than 4 persons to 3 rooms, are considered to constitute over-crowding. Lodgers are included in the number of persons occupying the rooms, since the most serious difficulty regarding fresh air is found at night, when the lodgers are in their quarters. A count of families on this basis 80 HOUSING shows that of the 39I families 171, or 44 per cent., have less than 3 rooms, while I87, or 48 percent., have more than i~ persons per room. In the lower income-groups over-crowding is the rule. Sixty-one per cent. of the families with incomes between $600 and $800 have less than 4 rooms; 58 per cent., more than i~ persons per room. In the $800 group 36 per cent. of the families have less than 4 rooms, but 53 per cent. have more than Ii persons per room. This means that while more space is rented, lodgers are called in to help pay for it. Thirty-five per cent. of the $9oo and $Iooo families have less than 4 rooms, and practically the same proportion exceed the standard ratio of persons to rooms. The relief when the income exceeds $i oo is apparent. Of the 48 families in this income-group only 2 report less than 4 rooms, and io report a ratio of more than i~ persons per room. As is to be expected, the congestion in Manhattan exceeds that reported in Brooklyn, Bronx and Queens. In the outlying boroughs the percentage of over-crowded families, measured by the 4-room standard, is 23 as compared with 51 per cent. in Manhattan. As for the persons-per-room standard, 29 per cent. of the families in the outside boroughs fall below it, as against 55 per cent. in Manhattan. As regards nationalities, the following table shows the proportion of families out of the 3 8, with incomes between $600 and $ Ioo, reporting more than I persons per room: NUMBER REPORTING TOTAL NUMBER MORE THAN x3 NATIONALITY. OF FAMILIES. PERSONS PER ROOM. PER CENT. United States....... 67 20 30 Teutonic nations..... 39 8 2I Irish................ 24 12 50 Colored............. 28 6 57 Bohemian........... 14 79 Russian............. 57 35 Austrian, etc......... 32 21 66 Italian.............. 57 37 65:i8 60o 0o Our figures indicate that the over-crowding is most frequent in the families with incomes less than $800 and among immigrants from southern Europe. Further light may be thrown on the subject by noticing the apportionment of the over-crowded families 6 8i THE STANDARD OF LIVING among those having surplus, deficit, or even balance at the end of the year. Grouped on this basis of classification, as in Tables 44 and 45 (page Io8), we find that 34 per cent. of the over-crowded families come out even, 44 per cent. report a surplus and only 22 per cent. report a deficit. When this is compared with the percentage for all families; viz., 36 per cent. even balance, 36 per cent. surplus, 28 per cent. deficiency (Table I19, page 235), it seems not improbable that the over-crowded families are able to come out on the right side in the larger number of instances iza _-. 20 L!Z.10 DIAGRAM Io.-Number of over-crowded families in each of the nationality-groups. by reason of their living according to a low standard in the matter of housing. This is suggested especially by a comparison of families reporting surplus, by income-groups: PERC] FAMIL INCOME. $600 to $699.......... 700 to 799......... oo to 899.......... 900ooto 999.......... 1000 to 1099.......... ENTAGE OF ALL IES REPORTING SURPLUS. 28 33 48 35 42 PERCENTAGE OF OVER-CROWDED FAMILIES REPORTING SURPLUS. 30 43 56 48 44 82 HOUSING The analysis of over-crowded families according to sources of income shows that over-crowding is more frequent among families where the father is not the sole bread-winner (Table 43, page 107). Forty-seven per cent. of all the 318 families are supported by the father alone, while only 41 per cent. of the over-crowded families are thus supported. This disparity is most striking in the families with incomes between $9oo and $iooo. Fifty-four per cent. of all families in this group are supported entirely by the father, as against 36 per cent. of the over-crowded families in this group. In the other income-groups the ratio corresponds more nearly to that prevailing among the families as a whole. 5. OVER-CROWDING AND LODGERS.-An analysis of over-crowded families with reference to sources of income brings out the relation of lodgers to the housing problem. In the first place, the function of the lodger as a rent-paying necessity appears in the large proportion of lodgers in high-priced tenements. It will be seen in Table 46 (page Iog) that lodgers are reported by 20 per cent. of the Manhattan families which pay $IO or less a month for rent, by 23 per cent. of those paying from $1o to $14, by 50 per cent. of those paying from $14 to $16, and by 62 per cent. of the families paying over $16. An inspection of the same table will show also that many families with incomes under $goo pay $175 and more annually for housing, but that in almost all of these cases, lodgers are taken to eke out the income.* Coming now to the over-crowded families (Table 48, page I o1), it appears that lodgers are more frequent among them than among the remaining families reported. Twenty-nine per cent. of the 318 families with incomes between $6oo and $ 0oo have lodgers, while 41 per cent. of the 160 over-crowded families have lodgers. Further, of the 93 families reporting lodgers, 65 families, or 70 per cent., are over-crowded. 6. INCREASE OF RENT SINCE I905.-The burden of high rentals was increased up to the middle of the year 1907 by the general ten* One man who filled out a schedule for his own family writes: "I think it would be just as well to include in the report the letting of one room at the rate of $5.oo per week, 50 weeks per year. That is the general thing we have done, but I dislike to have roomers and had decided to do without them, but figuring up the expense without them, guess will have to try it again soon." The writer was paying $360 a year for a steam-heated apartment on a total income of $1500. 83 THE STANDARD OF LIVING dency of rents to rise. In answer to the questions in regard to increase of rent it was reported by the 243 Manhattan families that 45 of them had been in their present quarters less than one year. Of the 198 who had been a year or more in the same tenement, 102, or a trifle more than half, reported increase of rent. The amount of increase varied from 50 cents to $5 a month,* but in the majority of cases was $.oo0, $1.50, or $2.00. As between the different parts of the island, divided into the regions already designated, an increase was reported in 60 per cent. of the cases in the central East, in 57 per cent. of the cases in the central West, in 53 per cent. of the cases in the Southeast, 43 per cent. for the South-west, and 17 per cent. (3 cases out of 18) for the North. As between the different amounts paid for rent, the increase seems to vary arbitrarily. The details may be found in Tables 49 and 50 (page IIO). * One family on Essex Street has been in its present tenement for io years. It now pays $23.oo a month for 4 rooms, with toilet in apartment. Two years before the rent was $i8.oo. 84 00 Mrl TABLE 17.-RENT PER ANNUM: ALL BOROUGHS. AVERAGE AMOUNT, AND PER CENT. OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 Average *Per A| Average *Per Average *Per Average *Per t Average *Per Amount. Cent. Aount Cent. Amount. Cent. Cent. Amount. Cent United States. II $146.47 22.0 19 $157-3I 20.6 I3 $I67.54 19.3 i6 $172.50 i8.2 8 $i74.95 I6.3 Teutonic.... 4 153.00 22.9 7 177.43 23-3 9 I58.67 I8.2 II I64.84 i8.o 8 191.87 I8.5 Irish......... 4 33-50 20.I 7 I37-14 I7-9 7 I64.57 20.2 5 i6o.8o I7.6 I 210.00 22.9 Colored...... 1I I 75.64 27.1 6 207.00 26.5 8 212.25 26.9 2 I56.oo 18.5 I80o.oo 20.3 Bohemian.... 4 133-50 I9.2 3 xI8.oo I6.o 3 130.00 15.5 4 I44.-00 4.6.......... Russian...... I6 I57.50 25.1 I4 I67.96 24.0 I2 x65.34 21.5 9 206.67 22.7 6 197.00 i8.8 Austrian, etc. 6 I73-50 28.7 9 I63-72 23.1 9 I74-I7 21.2 7 I66.15 I8.3 I I68.oo 17.1 Italian....... 6 I42.12 21.4 14 152.57 2I.6 I2 I57.00 2I.o 9 I73-69 21.5 6 I67.00 I8.7 Total........ 72 153-59 23.6 79 I61.36 2.I9 73 I68.24 20.7 63 17I.67 19.0 31 I83.12 i8.i * Per cent. of expenditure for all purposes. TABLE 18.-RENT PER ANNUM: MANHATTAN. AVERAGE AMOUNT, AND PER CENT. OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699 $700 TO 799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 Average *Per Average *Per. Average *Per Average *Per a Average *Per Amount. CentAmount. Cent. nt n Ag. Ce Amount. Cent. Amount. nt. z4z zz 4; United States... 6 $143.00 21.3 I4 $151I.4 20.1 8 $i8o.00 20.2 II $190.9I 20.1 5 $174.00 15-9 Teutonic.. 2 I56.00 25-1 7 I77.43 23 3 8 I54.50 17.4 4 8I.50 20.I 6 201.83 19-3 Irish...... 3 138.00 2.0 5 I39.20 I8.2 5 I59-00 20.7 3 I64-00 I8.2 I I95-00 19-4 Colored.. 11 75.64 27.1 6 207.06 26.5 8 2I2.25 26.9 2 156.00 I8.5 I I80.00 20.3 Bohemian. 4 I33-5o 19.2 3 i8.oo i6.0 3 130.00 15.5 4 144-00 14.6............ Russian...[ 7 I76.57 27.4 8 I85.81 25.I 8 177-75 22.9 6 206.00 22.8 5 240.00 18.5 Austrian,etc 5 I79.40 29.8 8 166.19 23.3 9 74.I7 21.2 7 I66.I5 18.3 I I68.oo 17.1 Italian.... 14 142.72 2I.3 12 162.00 22.6 9 i6o.00 21.1 8 178.91 22.4 6 167 -00 8.7 Total... 52 I5733 24.0 63 165.24 22 3 58 172.27 21-0 45 I78-58 19.8 25 185-.2 i8.i * Per cent. of expenditure for all purposes. TABLE 19.-RENT PER ANNUM: BRONX, BROOKLYN, QUEENS. AVERAGE AMOUNT AND PER CENT. OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 NATIONALITY. It - 8 P Average Per Average Per Average Per Average Per Average *Per g Amount. Cent. Amount. Cent. Amount. Cent. Amount. Cent. Amount. Cent. BRONX. United States.... 2 $153.00 23.9 i $I92.00 22.3 i $I74.00 19.5..... $I92.00 I7.1 Teutonic................... I 192.00 24.4 2 192.00 20.9 Irish.................. i 86.00oo 21.6.... Russian.......... 2 144.00 23.2.......... Italian........... i 120.00 21.0 72.00 2.8 2 150.00 22.2.... Total........ 142.80 23.0 2 132.00 i8.6 5 170.40 2.8 2 192.00 20.9 I 192.00 17.1 BROOKLYN. United States.... 3 149.07 22.2 4 170.20 21.7 4 141.00 17.3 2 162.00 17.1 2 i68.8o I7.0 Teutonic......... 2 50.00 20.9........ 3 178.40 I9.2 I 168.oo 17.1 Irish............ i 120.00 17.7 2 132.00 17. I 168.00oo 17.5 I 168.oo 17.7 Russian......... 7 142.29 23.2 6 144.17 22.4 4 140.50 20.2 3 196.00 22.4 i 8o.00 21.0 Austrian, etc..... I 144.00 23.1 i 144.00 20.8.. Italian........... i 156.oo 24.0 i 120.00 16.4..... I 132.00 14.5 Total.......... 15 144.21 22.3 I 14 148.13 United States.... Teutonic...... Irish...... Italian......... 20.8 Q 9 I 4378 JEENS. I 144.00 18.i 18.5 I 1o 1 74.72 1 19.1 I 4 3 2 I II2.00 84.00 i44.oo i.8 9.1 i6.i I 171.40 56d.oo I7.9 I5.5 Total.............. I 144.00 i8.i 6 io8.oo I.6 I 1 56.oo 5 * Per cent. of expenditure for all purposes. TABLE 20.-RENT PER MONTH: MANHATTAN. NUMBER OF FAMILIES PAYING GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY INCOME. i I i 4 INcoua. RENT PER MoNTm. Tot$L TOt, $400 to $600 to 700 tol $800 to $900 to $1000 $1 100 Incomes Ttl $599. $699. $799. $899. $999* to and $600 to AIIIn$1099. Over. $1099. comes. $IO and under. $IO to $12..... $12 to $I4.-... $114 to $i6..... $W6 to $8..... Over $i8..... 4 5 5 I I 10 8 20 8 5 I 12 '7 '3 6 8 7 6 9 21 8 3 II 3 6 13 9 7 7 2 7 7 6 3 I I 4 3 3 20 3' 42 74 38 29 29 36 48 83 42 33 49 Total. i6 52 63 58 45 25 32 243 291 TABLE 21.-RENT PER MONTH: MANHATTAN. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES PAYING GIVEN AMOUNTS.BY NATIONALITY. $10 PER OVER $10 OVER $12 OVER $14 OVER $16 OVER NUmL- MONTH TO $12 TO $14 TO $16 TO $18 $18 PER BER AND PER PER PER PER MoNTa. NATIONALITY. or UNDER. MONir. MONiM. MONTH. MONTH. FAm- ______ _____ United States. 44 7 i6 8 I8 13 29 6 14 4 9 6 14 Teutonic.... 27 3 II 7 26 6 22 2 8 3 II 6 22 Irish...... 17 3 i8 6 35 3 i8 3 i8 2 II Colored....... 28 I 4 I 4 9 32 6 21 4 14 7 25 Bohemian.... 4 I4 6 42 6 42 I 8 I 8 Russian...... 34 I 3 I 3 9 26 9 26 12 36 2 6 Austrian, etc.. 30 I 3 5 17 13 43 5 17 5 17 1 3 Italian. 49 9 19 8 i6 20 41 6 12 3 6 3 6 Total......... 243 31 13 42 17 74 30 38 i6 33 12 25 12 88 TABLE 22.-RENT PER MONTH: MANHATTAN. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES PAYING GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY INCOME. RENT PER MONTH. NuIMSHR INCOME. OP $10 and under. $10 to $12. $12 to $14. $14 to $16. $16 to $18. Over $18. FAMILIES. - ----- ----- - --------- - -------- Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. $6oo to $699............. 52 io 9 8 I5 20 39 8 15 4 8 2 4 $700 to $799..........-.. 63 II i8 17 27 2 3 21 6 o10 8 13 7 II $800 to $899............. 58 6 o 9 I 21 36 8 14 3 5 II 19 $900 to $999............. 45 3 7 6 13 13 28 9 20 7 i6 7 I6 $00oo0 to $o99............. 25... 2 8 7 28 7 28 6 24 3 12 $600 to $799............. II5 21 8 25 22 33 29 I4 12 12 11 9 8 $800 to $899........... 58 6 io 9 i6 21 36 8 i4 3 5 II 19 $900 to $1099............. 70 3 4 8 II 20 29 x6 23 13 19 Io x4 TABLE 23.-RENT PER MONTH: MANHATTAN. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF ALL FAMILIES PAYING GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY CUMULATIVE GROUPING. o4 BELOW $10 PER $12.50 PER $14 PER $15 PER $17 PER $19 PER $20 PER $10 PER MONTH AND MONTH AND MONTH AND MONTH AND MONTH AND MONTH AND MONTH AND INCOME. MONTH. BELOW. BELOW. Aso. ABOVE. AOVE. AOVE. ABOVE. ABOVE. F Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Z ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Ccent. $600 to $699.. 52 5 9.6 Io I9.2 22 42.3 9 36.5 I2 23. 4 7.7 I 1.9.. $700 to $799.- 63 7 MII. 12 i9.0 30 47.6 28 44-5 21 33-4 12 19.0 7 II.i 6 9-5 $800 to $899.. 58 I i.7 6 Io.3 I7 29.3 30 5I.7 22 38.0 14 24-.1 10 7.3 5 8.6 $900 to $999.- 45 3 6.6 3 6.7 10 22.2 30 66.7 21 46.7 I3 28.9 7 i5.6 6 13.3 $1000 to $xo99.. 25........ 3 12.0o 8 72.0 15 60.0 9 36.0 3 i2.o i 4.0 TABLE 24.-RENT PER MONTH: BROOKLYN AND BRONX. NUMBER OF FAMILIES PAYING GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY INCOME. BROOKLYN. BRONX. E M Nm- Income. Income. RENT PEB MONTH. NUBER OF FAI- $600 $700 $800 $900 $1000 TES. to to to to to All Incomes $699. $799. $899. $999. $1099. $I0 and under.. 9 3 4 2.... 3 $IO to $2........ 20 7 5 4 3 I 2 $I2 to $14.....-.... 3 2 2 2 I 2 $I4 to $I6........ 11 2 3 I 3 2 6 $I6 to $I8....... I.. I I Over $I8........... I. Total............ 52 15 I4 9 io 4 I5 TABLE 25.-DISTRIBUTION INTO DISTRICTS OF 243 MANHATTAN FAMILIES.-BY RENT, INCOME AND NATIONALITY. (A) BY MONTHLY RENT. MONTHLY RENT. N. E. S. E. S. W. W. TOTAL. $Io and under....... 5 9 6 5 6 31 $I0.50 to $2.5o.... 8 9 2I 6 8 52 $13.oo to $I5.oo0..... 5 15 27 II 28 86 $I5.50 to $I7.5..... 4 6 I6 I 9 36 $I8.oo and over..... 8 IO 14 I 5 38 Total.............. 30 49 84 24 56 243 (B) BY INCOM. INCOME. N. E. S. E. S. W. W. TOTAL. $600 to $699........ 7 9 I5 6 I5 52 $700 to $799....... — Io 8 25 6 14 63 $800 to $899........ 7 5 19 4 13 58 $900 to $999........ 2 12 17 4 10 45 $Iooo00 to $99...... 4 5 8 4 4 25 Total................ 30 49 84 24 56 243 (C) BY NATIONALITY. NATIONALITY. N. E. S. E. S. W. W. TOTAL. United States......... 2 14 8 6 14 44 Teutonic............ 2 5 7 3 Io 27 Irish................ 4.... 5 8 7 Colored.............. IO I 1... 17 28 Bohemian....... 14...... 14 Russian.............. 2 3 29.... 34 Austrian, etc.......... 8 2I.. I 30 Italian................ I 4 19 o1 6 49 Total.3.......... 30 49 84 24 56 243 90 TABLE 26.-RENT PER MONTH: MANHATTAN. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES PAYING RENT OF GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY DISTRICT. f^c8 ~ FAMILIES PAYING MONTY RENTAL OF: D $10.00 and $10.50 to $13.00 to $15.50 to $18.00 and DISTRICT. Z under. $12.50 $15.00 $17.50 over. North........ 30 5 16.7 8 26.7 5 16.7 4 I3 3 8 267 49O O O B O PB ao East,...... 49 I84 9 I8. 4 9 5 30.6 6 12.2 IO 20.4 South-east. - 84 6 7.I 21 25.0 27 32. I 6 19.0 I4 I6.7 South-west.. 24 5 20.8 6 25.0 II 45.8 I 4.2 I 4.2 West........ 56 6 10.7 8 14-3 28 50.0 9 I6. 5 89 Total....... 243 31 I2.7 52 2.14 86 35.4 36 14.8 38 15.6 TABLE 27.-NUMBER OF ROOMS PER FAMILY: MANHATTAN. AVERAGES.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. o INCOME. NATIONALTY. ~ ~ $T600 to $700 to $800 to $900 to $1000 to $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 United States.......... 44 3-3 3.2 4.25 4-. 3.8 Teutonic....... 27 35 37 3-4 4.25 4-3 Irish................. 17 3.0 3 4 3 4 3.7 5-0 Colored.............. 28 3-45 4-3 3-9 4.0 4.0 Bohemian............. 4 3-25 3-. 3.0 3.25 Russian............. 34 3.1 3.25 3.25 3.7 3-8 Austrian, etc.............. 3 3.6 3.1 3-55 3-. 3-0 Italian............ 49 2.6 2.8 3.2 3-9 3.2 Total................... 243 3- 5 3-7 38 91 TABLE 28.-NUMBER OF ROOMS PER FAMILY.-BY INCOME, BOROUGH AND NATIONALITY. $600 To $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 NATIONALITY. i........... z UnitedStates...... Manhattan* 6.. 5.. r. 4 3 5 6.... 8. 2.. Tet....Othert 5.. i 3 I 5.. 7 3 I | 5 I 2 2.. Teutoi...I...... Manhattan 2.. I...... 5.....5. 32.... Teutonic........ Other 2.. i Irish...f...... Manhattan 3 -.... 5.. 3 2..5 3 2.... sr is Other I I 2 I I....... Austrian, etc....... { | | I.... 2...... | 2 || i| lreM Manhattan Ih.. 7 3..6.. 4. 2* 8. I 7.. Colored......... O th e r ta............... ther.............. Bohemian'... Manhattan 4 3 I. 3. 3 3 3 Other Russian.{..... Manhattan 7 4 2... 8.. 6 2.... 8.. 6 2.... Other 9 I x 6.. 6 I I 3 I.. 4.. 2 2 Austrian, etc..[...Manhattan 5.. 2 3.... 8 i 5 2.... 9.. 4 5.... Other I... I... I.... I....... Manhattan I4 6 8...... 2 5 5 I 9 2 4 2....... Other 2... 2... 2.. 2 3 I. I. I Total Manhattan 52 7 33 10 2. 63 9 33 I8 I 2* 58 2 26 27 3............. ther 20 I 4 13 2.. i6 i 5 8 2. I5 2 6 3 2 * Seven rooms. t Other boroughs combined. TAB3LE 28 (Continued).-NUMBER OF RooMs PER FAMILY.-BY INCOME, BOROUGH AND NATIONALITY. $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. NATIONALITY. -.......United States [Manhattan I.. 3 5 x 5 I 2.. I 44 4 14 19 5 2 O........ ther 5.... 3 I 3.. I..23 I 3 12 6 i Teutonic............. Manhattan 4.... 3 I.. 6....5 I 27.. 8 17 I I. O ther 7.. 2 4 I.. 2 12.. 3 7 I I Irish................ Manhattan 3. 2.......... 7.. IO 6...Other 2... I I 7. 2 2 2 I Colored.............. Manhattan 2.... 2........ I.... 28.. I2 13 I 2*. Other Bohemian.. IManhattan 4 3 I4 2 2 Other........ KRussian f/,, ~~Manhattan 6.. 2 4.. 5.. 2 2 i..34 I 20o 12 I. Other 3 I I I.. I.. 23 2 5 I2 4 Austrian, etc.......... Manhattan 7 2 4 I.. 30 3 6 I Other............ Italian~, r~~~C Manhattan 8.. 2.5 ' 6 5 x..49 13 24 9 3 Other...... 8 I 2 4..I Totalf / Manhattan 4525 15225 I 25 I 9 11 2 2 243 2I 116 88 13 5............... ther 8. 3 10o 4 I 6.. 2 2 75 4 I5 39 I3 4 * Seven rooms. THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 29.-NUMBER OF ROOMS PER FAMILY.-BY BOROUGH AND INCOME. MMANATTAN. BRONX, BROOKLYN, AND QUEENS. INCOME... P.. 8. A 01.8 8 8 a Z48 'S a $400 to $499.... 4 I 2 I... 4.. 2 2..2. $500 to $599 ----- I2 3 7 2-.... 5 -- 3 2.... $6tooto $699..... 52 7 33 Io 2.. 20 I 4 I3 2.. $7o0 to $799..... 63 9 33 8 2 6 I 5 8 2.. $8ooto $899... 58 2 26 27 3 - 15 2 6 3 2 $900 to $999...- 45 2 I5 22 5 I I 8.. 3 I 4 I $00oo to SIo99.....25 I 9 II 2 2 6.. I 2 2 -I $I1o to $II99..... 9 I 2 5 I.. 9 2 6 i $I200 to $1299..... 7.... 3 I 3 I...... I $I300 to $I399.... 5.... 3 2.. 3 I 2. $I400 and over... I.. I 4 4 2 3.. I 2 Total........... 291 26 28 io6 2 100 4 2 47 22 5 $400 to $599....' 6 4 9 3 -..- 9.. 5 4 -- $600 to $799..... I5 6 66 28 3 2 36 2 9 2 4. $8oo00to $899 —.- 58 2 26 27 3. 1 5 2 2 6 3 2 $90oo to $I99 --- 70 3 24 33 7 3 24 4 12 6 2 $IIoo and over.... 32 I 3 5 8 5 i6.. 2 4 9 I Ttl........ 9 6z8z65 ozo4 2 75 94 TABLE 30.-NUMBER OF ROOMS PER FAMILY: ALL BOROUGHS COMBINED.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 To $699 $700 To $799 $800 TO $899 NATIONALITY. A E N m United States..................................... I.. 6 3 2.. I9 3 6 9 I.. 3 I - 8 4 - Teutonic......................................... 4.. 2.... 7.. 2 5 9 - 5 4.... Irish............................................ 4 4 -- 7 -. 3 3 2 I 1 Colored......................................... 7 3 6.. 4.... 2* 8.. 7 —.... Bohemian........................................ 4.. 3.... 3 — 3.... 3 -- 3 —... Russian........................................... 16 2 5 8..1 4 I 7 5 I.. 12.. 8 4.... Austrian, etc..................................... 6.. 2 4.... 9 I 5 3 -..- 9 4 5.... Italian........................................... 6 6 8 2....14 5 7 I 23 4 3 Total............................................ 72 8 37 23 4 79 io 38 26 3 2 73 4 28 33 6 2 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. NATIONALITY. V 4 a. I I * V4 Z. United States.....................................6. 3 3 2 8 1 2 3 I 67 5 17 31x 3 Teutonic........................... 2 7 2.. 8.... 6..2 39.. II 24 2 2 Irish........................................... 5.. 1 3.........- 24.. I2 8 3 1 Colored.................................................. 28.. I2 13 I 2* Bohemian........................................ 4.. 3....... 12 2.. Russian.......................................... 9.. 3 5 1.. 6.. 2 2 2.. 57 3 25 24 5.. Austrian, etc.........7...I..3........................ 7 2 4..... -. 32 3 i6 12.. Italian.............................................. 9.. 2 6.. 5 -- 57 14 26 13 3 Total................................................ 63 2 8 32 9 2 31 1 10 13 4 338 25131127 26 * Seven rooms. THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 31.-NUMBER OF ROOMS PER FAMILY: ALL BOROUGHS COMBINED.-BY INCOME. BER OF TWO THREE Fouv FIVE SIX INC1OME:. Fi- Rooms. FRooms. Rooms. Rooms. Rooxs. IIES. $400 to $499.................... 8 4 3 $5o0 to $599-.......... 17 3 1O 4 $600to $699 —............... 72 8 37 23 4 $700 to $799................... 79 Io 38 26 3 2 $80o to $899.................... 73 4 28 33 6 2 $900 to $9999.............*. 63 2 I8 32 9 2 $I000 to $1099...-......... 31 I IO I3 4 3 $IIOO to $199................... 8 I 2 7 7 1 $I200 to $1299.................... 8.... 3 $I300 to $1399 --- —-- —......... 8.. I 3 4 $I400 and over.................. 4 2 6 4 2 Total........................... 391 30 150 I53 43 I5 $400 to $599.................. 25 4 I4 7 $6ooto $799.............. 151 i8 75 49 7 2 $800 to $899............. 73 4 28 33 6 2 $900 to $1o99.................. 94 3 28 45 13 5 $iIoo and over.................... 48 I 5 19 I7 6 96 HOUSING TABLE 32.-NUMBER OF ROOMS PER FAMILY. PERCENTAGES. -BY INCOME AND BOROUGH..MANHATTAN. BRONX, BROOKLYN AND QUEENS. INCOYE. r, o af $600 ooto $699............... 52 I4 63 19 4.. 20 5 20 65 IO.. $700 to $799............... 63 14 52 29 2 3 i6 6 31 50 13.. $800 to $899............... 58 3 45 47 5. 5 1 3 44 20 13 $900 tO $999........... 45 5 33 49 II 2 I8.. I6 56 22 6 $IOOO to $ IO99 25 4 36 44 8 8 6 I7 33 33 17 $400 to $599.....-..-....- i6 25 56 19.... 9. 56 44 $6 t$799............... 5 4 57 24 3 2 36 25 58. $800 to $899........ 58 3 45 47 5.. 5 3 I4 40 20 13 $900 to $1099........... 70 5 344 47 IO 4 24. 17 50 25 8 $iIOO and over..... 32 3 9 47 25 I i6I6.. 13 25 56 6 Total (all incomes)..........29 9 45 36 7 3 00 4 22 47 22 5 TABLE 33.-NUMBER OF ROOMS PER FAMILY: ALL BOROUGHS COMBINED. PERCENTAGES.-BY INCOME. o u. I ~ 00 ~~ 0. 0' $700 to $799................... 79 3 48 33 4 2 $8 0 to$899................. 73 6 38 45 8 3 $900 to $999................... 63 3 29 51 4 3 $6000 to $i99.3................. 32 3 4 2 13 $400 to $599 -—... 25 i6 --- 69 I3 48 3 4 $600 to $799.................. I I2 50 32 5 I $800 to $899.............. 73 6 38 45 8 3 90oo to $1999..94 3 3 48 14 5 $iIoo and over.............. 48 o 40 35 3 Total (all incomes)................ 39 8 38 39 4 Total 7all incomes)................ 397 8 38 39 4 7 97 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 34.-NUMBER OF ROOMS, DARK ROOMS, BATH ROOMS PRIVATE TOILETS, PER FAMILY. AVERAGES.-BY INCOME AND BOROUGH. MANHATTAN. BROOKLYN, BRONX, AND QUEENS. E AVERAGE NUMBER PER AVERAGE2 NUMBER PER NdC V INCOME. FAMILY. FAMILY..0 5.% ~~~ r a *~~0.s > c G0 o fl $400oto $499.... 4 3.0 1.0... 4 3.5 0.2. 0.7 $5oo to $599... 1 2 2.9 1.2 o.o8 - 5 3.4 0.4 0.2 0.4 $6oo to $699.... 52 3.1 1.1 0.10 0.17 20 3.7 0.2 0.4 0.7 $700 to $799....- 63 3.3 0.97 o.o8 0.19 i6 3.7 0.2 0.3 0.5 $Soo to.89..... 58 3.5 '.3 0.17 0.24 '51 3.9 '1.5 0.1 - $900 to.99..... 45 3.7 I.1 o.i8 0.27 iS 3.9 0.4 0.4 o.8 $xooo to $1099.... 25 3.8 '.4 0.24 0.24 6 4.25 0.75 0.5 0.75 $Inoo to $1199g.... 9 3.7 0.3 0.11 0.33 9 4.9 0.2 0.7 o.6 $I2oo to $1299.... 7 5.0 1.0 0.7 0.7 I1 5.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 $1300 to $1399....- 5 4.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 13 4.3 '.7 0.3 0.7 $I400 and over... - II 5.0 1.4 0.8 o.8 3 4.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Total families....291...... 100. $4oo to $599.... x6 2.9 1.2 o.o6. 9 3.4 0.3 0.11 0.5 $6oo to $799.... 115 3.2 1.3 0.09 jorS8 36 3.7 0.2 0.4 o.6 $8ooto $899.... 58 3.5 '.3 0.17 0.24 15 3.9 '.5 0.1 - $9oo to $109.. 70 3.7 11.2 0.19.026 24 4.0 0.5 0.4 o.6 $ixioo and over....- 32 4.5 o.85 0.49 0.55 i6 4.6 o.8 0.7 0.7 98NI TABLE 35.-DARK ROOMS, BATH-ROOMS, ETC.: ALL BOROUGHS. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING. -BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. NATIONALITY. Q I.o.z i oo, 8 oE 8 E Oo: S O p p ~ 1 o: P4 ~t United States.......... 1. I 6.. 3 19 15 2 6 I3 9 3 4 I6 I3 I 4 8 5 3 3 67 48 9 20 Teutonic................. 3 7 9 5 I I I I 2 4 8 4 2 2 39 I8 5 7 Irish................. 4 2. 7 2.... 7 6 I 3 5 3.... I' 'L l 24 14 I 3 Colored 1................ II I I 6 3 2 2 8 6 4 4 2 2 I I I I.. 28 22 8 8 Bohemian.3.... 4 3 3....3 3 3.... 4 3 I I 3.... 3.... 1 4 I2 I I. Russian....I.6..16 3 5 7 14 2 3 5 I2 6 I 1 9 3 4 5 6 3 32 57 I7 I6 20 l*. Austrian, etc......6 2 3 9 4 I 2 9 7 3 7. I I I... 32 14 69: Italian..................... 2 6 4 8 2 5 2 5 I 2 9 4 3 5 6 2 I 57 29 9 I9 rl.~~~~~~61 /1/ ~ /9I Total.................. 2 39..... 79 42 1 20 73 47 I2 8 63 29 13 21 31 I7 9 8 3I8 174 55 87 _~~~~~~~1:,1. o.9-.. _o _.l -3 4..I.!,1.9.1,: ~l:.~;I TABLE 36.-DARK ROOMS, BATH-ROOMS, ETC. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING.-BY BOROUGH, INCOME, AND NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 T $1099 TOTAL. NATIONALITY. BOROUGHS. '43 S-e4 S I Op 4) 43 1z4 0i C l~ H - SD* 8 o G d 0~F.0 *% H Is, ~i6~ '.4 1^ c, P4. *S-M g^ United States... { Manhattan Other Teutonic........ Irish........... Colored........ Bohemian....... Russian........ Austrian, etc.... ( Italian.......... Total........... Manhattan Other Manhattan Other Manhattan Other Manhattan Other Manhattan Other Manhattan Other Manhattan Other Manhattan Other 6 5 2 2 3 I II 4 7 9 5 I 14 2 52 20 4 2 2 I 2 IO 3 2 I 2 I0 35 4.. 3 I I 4 2 I I I 5 6 I 14 5 7 5 2 6 3 8 6 8 I 12 2 63 i6 I 6 2 I 5 9 II 13 2 5 2 3 3 I I 4 8 39 3 I I 2.. 2 2.. 4 2 8 5 8 I 5 2 8 3 8 4 9 9 3 6 3 5 4 2 6 3 4 2 7 4 I 2 I I 3 I I I 2 4. I 4 I I I 3 I I 5 4 7 3 2 I 2 5 5 5 I I 5 12 8 I 3 2 2 o. 4 6 3 7 8 I 9 4 I I 2 2 3 3 4 I 1. 2 I I I 3 3 I I 2 3 I 5 3 I 4 'II 5. 5 3 6 2 I I I.... 4 I 3 I.. I 2 2 I 2 2 44 23 27 12 I7 7 28 14 34 23 30 2 3.5 1z ~E o puH '43 4); -Tg I2 0 36 12 i6 2 IO 4 22 12 13 4 14 28 I 5 I 3 I 2 I I I I 6 5 4 3 2 I 8 I... i. - o9 5 I I 4 2 8 I II 9 3 4 I 2 8 I 5 I5 7 2 i8 I 2 I I 49 8 58 39 10 15 45 23 8 13 25 i5 6 5 243 I5I 34 54 15 8 2 3 I8 6 5 8 6 2 3 3 75 23 21 33 HOUSING TABLE 37.-DARK ROOMS, BATH-ROOMS, ETC. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING.-BY BOROUGHS, (COMBINED AND SEPARATE) AND INCOME. BRONX, BROOKLYN. ALL BOROUGHS. MANHATTAN. AND QUEENS.: i 8i,8; oI iO I $400 to $499......... 8 4 -- 3 4 3.... 4 I.. 3 $70 IN t $799 C. 79 42 IO 20 3 5 I I0d O 20 I 6 ~~ $8o 0 o 0 I5 5 8 3 $900 to $999 -—. 63 29 I4 2i 45 23 8 I3 i8 6 5 8 $Iooo to $Io99.......... 3I I7 9 8 25 I5 6 5 6 2 3 3 $4oo to $499........... 8 4 8 9 3 I3 9 I 6 $I500 to $299 --- —- 7 2 I 5 6 2 3 5 2 I $I300 to $3699.......... 8 39 I 22 5 5 9 2 3. $I400 and over........... 14 6 9 9 II 4 7 7 3 25 2 2 Total............ 39I 208 80 I20 29I I76 49 73 IOO 32 3I 47 $400 to $599 --- —- 79 42 2 63 39 5 2 6 3 3 9 3 5 $600 to $799............i5i 8I 2i 4o II5 74 IO 2I 36 7 II I9 $800 to $899......-.. 73 47 I2 I8 58 39 IO 15 15 8 2 3 $900 to $I999.......3-. 94 46 23 29 74 3 8 13 24 8 6 8 $I00 toand ov99. --- — - 31 17 9 8 25 15 6 5 6 2 3 3 $IIOO to $o199.......... i8 4 7 8 9 3 I 3 9 I 6 9 $I200to $I299......... 4 6 6 7 3 5 5 I I I I $I300 to $I300......... 8 4 I 2 5 2 I I 3 2.. I $1400 and over...........14 6 9 9 II 4 7 7 3 2 2 2 Total................ 39I 208 So I20 291 176 49 73 100 32 31 47 $400 to $599 --- —------ 25 i6 I 8 i6 13 I 3 9 3 1 5 $6oo to $799. --- —------ I5i 8I 21 40 II5 74 10 21 36 71119 I1 $800 to $899. --- —----- 73 47 12 iS 58 3910 I5 15 8 2 3 $900to $o1099......... 94 46 23 29 70 381I4 i8 24 8 8 I $iioo and over........... 48 18 23 25 32 12 14 i6 i61 6 9 9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I _ _ _ _~~~~~~~~ IOI THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 38.-DARK ROOMS, BATH-ROOMS, ETC. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING. PERCENTAGES.-BY BOROUGHS (COMBINED AND SEPARATE) AND INCOME. BROOKLYN, BRONX, ALL BOROUGHS. MANHATTAN. AND QUEENS.._.... _-_: 1-i Cd,.g.. 1 I I o ~ ' - to, i- z4 s~^ ^ sii l sl^P $600 to $699........... 72 54 5 28 52 67 17 20 4 3 55 $700to $799..-.... —.- 79 53 8 6 63 56 8 9 I6 I7 31 50 $8ooto $899........... 73 64 6 25 58 67 17 26 15 53 13 20 $900 to $999.......... 63 46 2I 33 45 51 I 8 29 I8 33 28 44 $1ooo to $199 —.. ---..... 3I 55 34 26 25 60 24 20 6 33 50 50 $400 to $599........... 25 64 4 32 i6 8 8 I9 9 33 I 55 $6ooto $799........... 15I 54 I4 26 115 64 9 i8 36 19 31 53 $800 to $899 --—...... 73 64 i6 24 58 67 I7 26 I5 53 13 20 $900 to $IO99....... 94 49 24 31 70 54 20 26 24 33 33 46 $IIoo and over........... 48 38 48 40 32 38 43 50 i6 38 56 56 Total (all incomes)........ 39I 53 20 31 29I 6o 17 25 oo 32 31 47 $ 1 102 TABLE 39.-OVER-CROWDED FAMILIES. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING LESS THAN FOUR ROOMS AND MORE THAN I~ PERSONS PER ROOM.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME.............. ~. _..... $700 To $799 $800 TO $899 $600 TO $699 Number of Families. Number of Families. Number of Families. _,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. Manhattan. Other Boroughs. Manhattan. Other Boroughs. Manhattan. Other Boroughs. NATIONALITY. 3 & L) I 0 United States.................................... Teutonic........................................ Irish............................................ Colored......................................... Bohemian.................................... Russian.......................................... Austrian, etc..................................... Italian............................. Total........................................... 6 2 3 11 4 7 5 I4 5 3 I I 3 3 7 7 3 2 5 6 2 3 14 II 40 36 5 I 21I I I 9 2 I.. 2 I 20 6 I I I I I 5 I4 7 5 6 3 8 8 12 63 8 2 3 4 3 5 6 I0 41 7 3 4 3 6 6 II 41 5 6i I.. 2 2 i6 5 I I.. 3 5.. _ 8 8 5 8 3 8 9 9 58.,. 5 I 2 3 3 4 6 24.. 5 3 I 3 2 3. 3.8 4 5.. 7 3 32 I5 I I.. 4 I 2 2 7 52 TABLE 39 (Continued).-OVER-CROWDED FAMILIES. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING LESS THAN FOUR ROOMS AND MORE THAN i4 PERSONS PER RoOM.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $900 TO $999 $1000 To $1099 TOTAL. Number of Families. Number of Families. Number of Families. Manhattan. Other Boroughs. Manhattan. Other Boroughs. Manhattan. NATIONALITY. cd 0 H 0 gi d o zz w Q4 d I8 H 0 0 AP I |O E- a g. EH o 0 i8 d -4. 0 United States.................................. Teutonic......................................... Irish.......................................... Colored.......................................... Bohemian........................................ Russian.................... Austrian, etc..................................... Italian........................................... II 4 3 2 4 6 7 8 3 i 3 3 6 2 4 I 3 4 6 3 5 7 2 3 I 2 2 I 5 6 I I 5 I 6 2 I 2 I 5 2 I 2 I 2 3 2 I I..4.. -4 QH 4 a..0 0 H o i O I 44 27 I7 28 14 34 30 i8 8 8 I5 12 i8 19 L. 16 5 I I6 II 26 21 23 12 7 23 2 4 3 2 3 4 3 2 9 Other Boroughs... H P4 In. IB5 | 491 371 341 81 41 3 Total............................................ 45 1 9122 I8 2 3 125 II 8 6 1 I 243 I35 139 75 I6 2I TABLE 40.-OVER-CROWDED FAMILIES. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING MORE THAN i~ PERSONS PER ROOM. PERCENTAGES.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 NATIONALITY. Z i cq o Qo O WU | | O. i a0a a p4 i3 | op p | United States................................., 5..... 20 37 50 20 42.. 20 8 Teutonic.................................... 50 50 50o 4. I 4 38.. 33 Irish.....00... 0............0................. oo oo o00 50 57 60.. 42 Colored............................................... 64.. 64 67.. 67 38.. 38 Bohemian S........................... 5 0 5 oo.- o o o.. 00 Russian................................. 86 I 44 75 50 64 Ioo Ioo 0oo Austrian, etc...................................... 6.. 50 75.. 67 55 -. 56 Italian.................................................. 79 64 67 6 38 38 Italian..................... 79 50 75 93 -- 79 78 75 75 Total...........69.......2....................... 69 25 57 65 31 58 55 47 53 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. NATIONALITY. W 1 1 r 3 I l I 5 o A United States............................................ 36.. 25 40 33 38 36 I7 30 Teutonic.................................................. 29 8...... 9 25 2i Irish...........................33.. 20...... 59 29 50 Colored........ 5.. 5 10oo*.. o00* 57.. 57 Bohemian..........................75.. 75...... 79.. 79 Russian................................................. 67 33 56 40.. 33 76 39 6o Austrian, etc....... 86.. 86 Ioo*.. 00* 70.. 66 Italian................................................. 37.. 33 33 33 7 38 65 Total.............................................. 49 17 4I 32 17 29 558 50 *I case. TABLE 41.-OVER-CROWDED FAMILIES. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING LESS THAN FOUR ROOMS AND OVER I4 PERSONS PER ROOM.-BY INCOME AND BOROUGHS (COMBINED AND SEPARATE). ALL BOROUGHS. MANHATTAN. BROOKLYN, BRONX, AND QUEENS. Havi Over HaHav ing O Having Over Having Over I less than i Per- less than xi Per- { less thanI PerINCOME.,D, Four sons per sons per } Four sons per sons per E s Room. Room. Rooms. Room.:t E _- rE I. $ $9 8 o ED W - $400 to $499 8 5 63 5 63 4 3 75 3 75 4 2 50 2 50 $500to $599 I7 I3 76 12 7I I2 IO 83 9 75 5 3 60 3 60 $600 to $699 72 46 64 4I 57 52 40 77 36 69 20 6 30 5 25 $700 to $799 79 46 58 46 58 63 41 65 41 65 I6 53 5 3 1 $8ooto $899 73 26 36 39 53 58 24 41 32 55 I5 2 13 7 47 $900 to $999 63 2I 33 25 40 45 I9 42 22 49 18 211 3 7 $IOO to $IO99 31 I2 39 9 29 25 II 44 8 32 6 1 I17 I 17 $IIoo to $1199 I8 i 6 3 I7 9 -.. 3 33 91 II..I $I200 to $1299 8.... 7....... I.... $I300 to $I399 8 4150 5.... 2 40 3. - 267 $I40o and over I4 I 7 3 2 1.... 2 20 4 I 25 I 25 Total.. 139I I7I 44 I87 48 290 I48 1 5I 58 55 IOI 3 23 2 29 29 $400 to $599 25 i8 72 I7 68 i6 13 8 I2 80 9 5 i55 5 55 $6oo to $799 I5I 92 6i 87 58 II5 8I 70 77 67 36 II 131 I10 30 $8oo to $899 73 26 36 39 53 58 24 4I 32 55 15 2 13 7 47 $900 to $IO99 94 33 35 34 36 70 30 43 30 43 24 3 13 417 $IIoo and over 48 2 42 IO 2I 3 * 7 23 17 2 2 3 8 TABLE 42.-OVER-CROWDED FAMILIES. NUMBER OF FAMILIES HAVING MORE THAN i4 PERSONS PER ROOM.BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. TOTAL OVER-CROWDED —NUMBER OF FAMILIES. NUMNATIONALITY. BER OF $600 $700 $800 $900 $1000 FAM- to I to to to to TOTAL. ILIES. $699. $799. $899. $999. $1099. United States.............. 67 4 8 I 4 3 20 Teutonic............... 39 2 I 3 2 - 8 Irish.................... 24 4 4 3 I.- 12 Colored................. 28 7 I 4 3 I I 6 Bohemian.................. 14 2 1 3 3 3 | — 1 Russian................... 57 7 12 5 2 35 Io6..i i o TABLE 43. —OVER-CROWDED FAMILIES.-BY SOURCE OF INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 401 INCOME FROM:, INCOME FROM: ' INCOME FROM: NATIONALITY. - _ ____ __ _| I_ _1 Cf 11 z I United States................................... ii 4 4 -.... i 8 3 5 3 13 I I.. -. Teutonic....................................... 4 2 I I.. 7 I I -- -. 9 3 3..-. Irish........................................... 4 4 4.... 7 4 3.. 7 3 I 2 Colored........................................ 7 6 I 6 4 2 2 8 3 I 2 2 Bohemian...................................... 4 2.. 2 2 3 3 I 2 2 3 3 -- 3 - Russian......................................... 6 7 3 4 4 4 2 7 7 32 I2 2 Io 8 Austrian, etc.................................... 6 3 3 3 9 6 I 5 4 9 5 I 4 3 Italian......................................... i6 12 6 6 4 14 II 7 4 4 12 9 2 7 3 Total.......................................... 72 4 24 17 14 79 46 20 26 20 73 39 II 28 x6 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. t INCOME FROM: t INCOME FROM: INCOME FROM:_____ w i* d g Father Other 4,0 0Z;'-~ D~ o 15 Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per C C E- C ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. United States............................ i6 4 2 2.. 8 3 2 I i 67 20 12 6o 8 40 4 20 Teutonic................................ Ii 2 2.... 8 i...... 39 8 7 88 I I3.. Irish................................... 5 I I............ 24 12 9 75 3 25.. Colored................................. 2 I.. I I I I.. I I 28 i6 9 56 7 44 5 31 Bohemian............................... 4 3 —...1.. 14 I I 910 91 4 36 Russian.................................. 9 5 5 4 6 2.. 2 57 35 7 20 28 8o 25 71 Austrian, etc............................ 7 6 3 32 i i.. I.. 32 2I 5 24 i6 76 I2 57 Italian.................................. 9 3 I 2 2 6 2..2 2 57 37 i6 43 2I 56 5 40 Total................................... 6325 9 9 3 9 2 7 6 J318 I60 4 94 59 5 4 TABLE 44.-OVER-CROWDED FAMILIES. NUMBER AND PER CENT. REPORTING SURPLUS AND DEFICIT.-BY INCOME. REPORTING: 0 ~ 3 Balance Pn O o within Surplus. Deficit. INCOME. g A 25.00. _ o. _y $2500. _ _ z ~W. Ii $6o0 to $699.................... 72 4 5 36 I2 30 14 34 $700 to $799. --- —----—. ----. —. --- —--- 79 46 17 37 20 43 9 20 $800 to $899 8..............-...... 73 39 IO 26 22 56 7 I8 $900 to $999. -—.. --- —-........ — ---- -- 63 25 IO 40 12 48 3 I2 $rooo to $Io99.. —...-..-.... ----.....- 31 9 2 22 4 44 3 Io Tootoal o9...,................................. 9318 i6o 54 34 70 44 3i 22 Total...3.8 I6 54 34 70 44 36 22 $600 to $799 -—. --- —-----. —.. —.....-I 151 87 32 37 32 37 23 26 $800 to $899..........-.. -- -. —...-..- 73 39 Io 26 22 56 7 I8 $900 to $IO99........ ---......... - - -.-.. 94 34 I2 3 5 I6 47 6 I8 TABLE 45.-OVER-CROWDED FAMILIES. NUMBER REPORTING SURPLUS AND DEFICIT.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 NUMBER NUMBER j NUMBER REPORTING: REPORTING: REPORTING: OR NATIONALITY. o 0 8 United States................... 4 3 2 3 I I Teutonic................. 2 I.... I.. 3 I.. 2 Irish.....-......-... —.... 4 2 I I 4 I I 2 3.- 3 Colored........................ 7 3 I 3 4I 3.. 3 Bohemian...................... 2. 3 3.. 3 3 -- Russian................... 7 2 2 3 9 2 7. 12 1 101 Austrian, etc.................. 3 2 6 3 3.. 5 3 2.. Italian........................ 2 2 6 4 II 2 6 3 9 I 7 Total.......................... 4 I5 I2 4 46 I7 20 | 9 391 i 22 7 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. NUMBER NUMBER REPORTING: REPORTING: FAI REPORTIG: NATIONALITY. 8 E Balance. Surplus. Deficit. 0!_. to Rd a G | | *S'S ': ---- FUnited States.......... 4 2 I 3 2.. 2011 55 3 15 6 30 Teutonic.......... 2.. i....-..-. 8 2 25 2 25 4 50 Irish................ I..I x.......... I2 3 25 6 50 3 25 Colored............ i.. I.. I.. I6 6 38 319 7 43 Bohemian........... 3 3.. -- * -..II IO 91.. - I 9 Russian............. 5 1 3 I 2 -... 2 35 6 17 22 63 7 20 Austrian, etc......... 6 3 3 -.. I. -- 21 10 48 II 52 Italian.............! 3 I 2.. 2 -. 2 -- 37 6 I7 23 63 8 21 Total............... 25 o 2 3 9 2 4 3 I0 4 5434 70 44 36 22 1o8 TABLE 46.-RENT IN RELATION TO LODGERS: MANHATTAN.BY INCOME. $600 $700 $800 $900 $1000 TO TO TO TO TO TOTAL. $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 Number Number Number Number Number of Fam- of Fam- of Fam- of Fam- of Fam- Number of RENT PER MONTH, ilies. esilies. iles. i lies. ies Failies. i iB i i 3 ii i i 3s.^ 0s. -t U $IO and under.................. 2 4 6 9.5 $Io to $I2..............8 2 17 4 9 2 6 I 2 I 42 IO 23.8 $12 to$i4.............. 20o 4 I3 5 21 6 I3 I 7 I 74 I7 23.0 $4to$6.............. 8 3 6 2 8 2 9 2 7 5 28 50.0 $16 to $8.............. 5 3 2 5 6 2 29 I8 62.1 Over $I8................ 7 4 II IO 7 3 3 I 29 I8 62.1 Total................ 52 S 63 24 58 22 45 I2 25 IO 243 83 34.0 TABLE 47.-RENT IN RELATION TO LODGERS: MANHATTAN PERCENTAGES*.-BY INCOME. $600 TO $700 To $800 T $900 TO $1000 T $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 RENT PER MONTH. | bg ^ |.B cts Cd Cd co = gu g'gu ~4 g'g S., _'~o N 4 Ii, g. 8;~4 -., i.^/ ~ EYh I t E,l tP _s E k, fc _ s o tS0 < ~o < (SI o 0 o 0 Below $Io........ 9.6 9.6 II.I 7.9 1.7 1.7 6.6 4.4 $Io and below.... I9.2 I5.4 I9.0 12.7 10.3 10.3 6.7 6.7 $12 and below... 34.6 26.9 46.0 33-3 25.9 22.4 20.0 17.8 8.o 4.0 $14 and above.... 36.5 2I.i 44-5 22.2 51.7 22.4 66.7 44-5 72.0 40.0 $15 and above.... 23.1 II.5 33.4 15-9 38.0 13.8 46.6 26.7 6o.o 32.0 $16 and above.... 9.2 7-7 28.6 I2.7 29.3 5.2 35.6 15.5 40.0 24.0 $8 and above.... I.9 1.9 12.7 6.3 21.2 I.7 24.4 II.I 24.0 I2.0 $20 and above......9 9 9.5 3.2 8.6 1.7 I3.3 6.7 4.0 4.0 * Percentages are reckoned number of families in that group. in each income-group on the basis of the total 109 TABLE 48.-LODGERS IN RELATION TO OVER-CROWDING. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES.-BY INCOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES. PERCENTAGES.. A I. * Over-crowded. n 1 3 [ Having Lodgers. INCOME. | | | B_____________^ I ~ __ ____ $600 to $699.............. 72 4 I7 14 24 34 82 $700 to $799 g..... 79 46 26 20 33 43 77 $8ooto $899............ 73 39 25 6 34 41 64 $900 to $999 --- —63 25 I3 9 21 36 70 $Iooo to $1099........ 3 9 12 6 39 67 50 Total................. 318 93 65 29 4 7 $6ooto $799.............. 51 87 43 34 28 39 79 $800 to $899........... 73 39 25 i6 34 41 64 $900 to$99.............. 94 34 25 5 27 74 6 TABLE 49.-INCREASE OF RENT: MANHATTAN.-BY DISTRICTS. DISTRICTS OF MANHATTAN. North............... East................ South-east......... South-west......... West................ 0 30 49 84 24 56 e8 sG AMOUNT OF INCREASE REPORTED. y 8 * m 6W 6W 12 7 i6 3 7 z8 42 68 21 40 3 25 36 9 29 IO 5I.43 38 52 '7 60 53 43 57 3 4 3 3 8 i6* 5 4 4 3 I 5 9 6 2 IO I I I I 2 3 8 4 3t Total..... 243 45 I 98 IO2 42 152 IO 1 36 I3 7 457 * Including one case at $I.25. t One case at $3.50; two cases at $4.00. $ Three cases at $4.00; one case at $5.00. TABLE 50.-INCREASE OF RENT: MANHATTAN.-BY MONTHLY RENTAL. 0 0 I o o!_. RENT PER MONTH. S Z U O PI P$IO and under....... 3I 2 9 13 42 44 2 6. 4 I $I0 to $I2.......... 42 9 33 24 57 73 2 IO* 6 6.... $I2 to $I4........... 74 8 66 31 42 47 5 2 2 6. 4 '2 $I4 to $I6........... 38 6 32 19 50 59... 4 93 1 2 $6 to $8........... 29 II IS 6 21 33 I 2 I I.. Over$i8............ 29 9 20 9 31 45 6. I 2~ Total.......2..... 243. 45 I98 I02 42 53 IO 36 I3 27 4 5 7 e __ __ _!__ _ _ _.___ _on s * Including one at iI.25. T 03.50. + *4.00. II0 g one case oF4.oo; one case;5.oo. CAR-FARE 2. CAR-FARE. Closely allied to expenditure for rent is expenditure for car-fare. The general averages for this item give little information because the amount of car-fare paid in a given case depends upon the distance of the dwelling from the wage-earner's place of work, rather than upon income or nationality or even occupation. It is to be expected, therefore, that car-fares will bulk larger, absolutely and relatively, in Brooklyn and the Bronx than in Manhattan. Tables 51-53 (pages 13-114) show that 67 per cent. of our families outside of Manhattan, and only 52 per cent. of the families residing in Manhattan, report expenditure for car-fare. In the elaboration of the returns, car-fares for visiting, recreation, etc., have been taken out of the car-fare account and charged to recreation. Such car-fares are not considered in the discussion of this section. As to the amount paid, families paying $30 or more constitute 23 per cent. of the total number of families in Manhattan, and 36 per cent. of the families in the other boroughs. Those paying $20 and over constitute 31 per cent. of the families in Manhattan, and 39 per cent. of the families in the other boroughs. It is to be noted, however, that a large number of families report no expenditure for car-fare; namely, 48 per cent. of all in Manhattan, and 33 per cent. of all in the other boroughs. This means that a large proportion even of the workers who reside in Brooklyn and the Bronx are employed within walking distance of their homes. An examination of the returns regarding car-fare from the different sections of Manhattan (page I4) shows that families living north of I4th street pay more in car-fare than families in other regions, while those residing in the South-east, paying the highest rents, have the smallest expenditure for car-fare. Or, by number of families: Of 30 families in the North, 60 per cent. pay car-fare; of 49 in the East, 72 per cent.; of 84 in the South-east, 35 per cent.; of 24 in the South-west, 46 per cent.; and of 56 families in the West, 6i per cent. pay car-fare. Of the 243 Manhattan families, 76 report an expenditure of $20 and over for car-fares. This indicates that the father usually rides to his work. Of these 76 families, 17 were in our North section, making 57 per cent. of all the families there; 22 were in the East, III THE STANDARD OF LIVING or 45 per cent. of all families in that section. In the South-east were only 14 of these cases, comprising 17 per cent. of all families in that region. The same percentage prevailed in the South-west, while in the West 19, or 34 per cent. of all families, paid over $20 in car-fare. That is to say, the people who live in the Southern end of the island save in car-fare a part of what they have to pay out in rent. A comparison of expenditures for car-fare in different income-groups and nationalities yields no significant results. It is to be observed that of the 25 families with incomes under $600, 13 report payments for car-fare, and 13 of the 48 families with incomes of $I Ioo and above report no expenditure for this purpose. Table 51 shows the variation in car-fare with variations in rent. So far as it is possible to make any generalization from it, it seems to show that expenditure for car-fare does not fall off as rent increases. If the line is drawn at a $I 5 rental, of 138 families paying from $I0.50 to $I 5.00 a month, 76 families, or 55 per cent., report car-fare, as against 51 per cent. of the 74 families paying a rent of $I5.50 to $18.00 a month. 112 CAR-FARE TABLE 51.-CAR-FARE: MANHATTAN AND BROOKLYN. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY MONTHLY RENTAL. MONTHLY RENT. TOTAL NUMBER O1 PER CENT. OF $10 and $10.50 $13 to $15.50 Over FAIEs. ALL FAIL.IES. Under. to $15 to $17.50 rEXPENDITURE _ $12.50 $17.50 rOR CAR-FARE.- _ QQC d. Under $Io...... 5 I 10 3 Io 3 4 9 — 38 7 I5.6 13.5 $I to$20..... 2 2 3 2 7 2 I... 3 7 5-3 13.5 $20 to $30o......... 5 I 8 I 2 - 5.. 20 2 8.2 3.8 $30 to $40...... 3 I 9 3 20 4 6 2 9.. 47 IO 19.3 19.2 Over $40... - - 3 2 3 3 2 2 I.. 9 9 3.7 17.5 Total reporting car-fare....... 3 6 28 12 48 I2 1 4 4 4 4 127 35 Total number of families....... 3I 9 52 20 86 I7 36 5 38 i 243 52 TABLE 52.-CAR-FARE. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY BOROUGH. Total..Jl~NB Under to to to Over C 8 P$xoer g~ ~ 10 SI o. $20. $3o. $40. Num- of All [~~,O ~ ber. Families. Manhattan........... 243 38 13 20 47 9 127 52 Bronx............ 5 3..4 7 47 Brooklyn........ 52 7 7 2 o1 9 35 67 Queens.............. 8 3.. 2 2 8 Ioo 8...... 8 I 3 W 10140 - TABLE 53.-CAR-FARE: MANHATTAN. FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURES FOR CAR-FARE.-BY DISTRICT AND AMOUNT OF RENT. NORTH. EAST. SOUTH-EAST. SOUTH-WEST. WEST. TOTAL. RENT PER MONTH. 5 '5l!J I z1 I i | 1 1 |lis r, ~ 14 'S U $o and under......................0 6 5 83.4 31 13 42 $10O.50 to $12.50.................... 8 7 87.6 9 4 44.4 21 8 38.1 6 2 33-3 8 7 87.5 52 28 54 $13.00 to $15.00................ 5 4 8o.o 5 I3 86.6 27 8 29.6 I 7 63.6 28 6 59 86 48 56 $15.50 to $17.50.................... 4 3 750 6 3 50.0 6 5 31.2 I I 100.0 9 2 22.2 36 14 40 $i8 and over.................... 8 4 5o.o o 8 8o.o 14 8 57.0 I.... 5 4 8o.o 38 24 63 Total..30..............60 49 35 72 84 29 35 24 I 46 56 34 I6 243 I27 52 FUEL AND LIGHT 3. FUEL AND LIGHT. The expenditures for fuel and light as shown in the tables of averages (Table 54, page I 8, and Table 15, page 70) vary less with differences of income and nationality than most of the other items of the budget. The average for families with $600 incomes is $37.7I, and for families with $1ooo incomes $46.11; and in no case does the average reach $5o.oo with incomes below $1500 a year. Among different nationalities the expenditure varies more widely, owing, in some instances, to the small number of cases. The Bohemians and the colored people show the highest range of expenditure for fuel; the Italians, except in the $600 incomegroup, the lowest. Expenditure for fuel and light forms a constantly decreasing per cent. of the total expenditures, being 5.8 per cent. for incomes between $600 and $700, and 3.8 per cent. for incomes between $I Ioo and $1200. (Table 15, page 70.) An indication of the low standard of living is found in the gathering of fuel, for the most part wood, on the streets and elsewhere free of cost (Table 55, page I9). One hundred and nineteen of the 318 families, with incomes between $6oo00 and $I Ioo, report the gathering of fuel in this way. These cases are most frequent in families of the lower income-groups as will be seen in Table 55 A. Fifty-one per cent. of the families in the $600 group gather wood free, 35 per cent. in the $700 group, 42 per cent. in the $800 group, and 24 and 26 per cent. of the families in the $9oo and $ ooo groups respectively. By nationalities, 64 per cent. of the Bohemian families, 54 per cent. of the Irish, 50 per cent. of the colored, 49 per cent. of the Italians (including 9 cases where the man is a fuel-dealer), and 46 per cent. of the American families gather free fuel. Only II per cent. of the Russians and 16 per cent. of the Austrian group report free fuel. In most cases the wood gathered consists of boxes thrown out by the merchants, or waste material from building operations. One family reports picking up coal in the neighborhood of a coal-yard, and the employees of wood-working establishments sometimes bring home more or less fuel. Considered by locality, the proportion of wood-gatherers is exactly the same in Manhattan and in Brooklyn, or 35 per cent. Sixteen out of the 23 families reported from Bronx and Queens gathered wood free. 115 THE STANDARD OF LIVING What is provided in return for the outlay for fuel and light varies much more widely between the individual families than the group-average would indicate. There is a difference in the amount of fuel required, according to the number and size of the rooms occupied and according to the character of the building. Families living in the Yorkville district reported larger expenditures for fuel than those living in the more compactly built tenement-houses of the lower East Side. Individual economy and extravagance also appear in the variation of the expenditures for fuel and light, as well as differences of taste and habit as to the amount of heat and light required. A comparison of the books is the basis of the following estimate of the requirements for a family occupying a four-room tenement: Three tons coal at $6.50................... $2I.00 Wood and matches........................ 300 Gas, $2.00 a month in summer and $i.oo in w inter................................. I8.oo $42.00 Coal is bought, in a few cases, by the ton or half-ton, but usually in small quantities-by the bag of Ioo pounds for 35 or 40 cents, by the bushel of 75 pounds at 25 cents, or by the pail of 25 pounds for io cents. If the 6000 pounds (3 tons) of coal in the estimate given above were bought by the bag at 40 cents, or by the pail at io cents, it would cost $24.00.* * One report of coal for a family with income of $6oo, occupying 4 rooms is as follows: 2 months in winter, 3 bushels a week................. 24 bu. 4 months in winter, 2 bushels a week................. 32 " 6 months in summer................................ 6 " 62 bu. Another family with income of $650, occupying 3 rooms, shows coal used about 5 months: 300 lbs. at 35 cents for i week in very cold weather. 200 lbs. at 35 cents for I week in moderately cold weather. In summer bought by Ioo pounds for 6 weeks, just for washday,....................................... $x.75 The report for another family, with an income of $792, occupying 4 rooms is: For 17 weeks in winter 3 bags a week, at 35 cents....... $7.85 For 35 weeks in summer 2 pails a week at I cents...... 7.70 $25.55 FUEL AND LIGHT In regard to the kind of lighting provided, gas is the main reliance (Tables 56-58, pages 120-122). In no case was electricity used. Seventy-five out of the grand total of 391 families reported no use of gas. Gas is more largely used in Manhattan than in the outlying boroughs, 15 per cent. of the Manhattan families reporting no gas, as against 29 per cent. of families in the other boroughs. The families in Manhattan that did not use gas are almost all in the income-groups below $9oo. The use of gas for cooking is somewhat less general than its use for lighting. Two hundred and ninety-one of the whole 391 families use gas for cooking and 307 of them use gas for lighting. The use of kerosene is reported by 133 families of the grand total. In many cases, of course, its use is auxiliary to the use of gas, but the larger number of cases are reported by the poorer families. Out of the 99 Manhattan families, for instance, which report the use of kerosene, 42 are families with incomes under $8oo and only 15 are families with incomes above $Iooo. Only 8 families with incomes over $900 report no gas. Where kerosene is used the average amount is about a gallon a week, costing from 12 to 14 cents a gallon and from $6 to $8 for the year. Expenditure for gas is eliminated in cases where kerosene is the only illuminant. The cases where gas is used for cooking and not for light are extremely rare. The gas bills reported range from $I to $2 a month, for the most part, according to season. There is little variation among the families of different nationalities in regard to fuel and light, a common necessity being imposed upon them all. The Italian families use wood in larger proportion than most of the others, even in cases where it has to be bought. I17 TABLE 54.-FUEL AND LIGHT. AVERAGE AMOUNT AND PER CENT. EXPENDED.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. o0 $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 NATIONALITY. 41l Ie _,~~. _1 ~. _ _.. _ * ~ E, United States................$40.I7 6.2 19 $43.10 5.6 I3 $42.61 4.9 I6 $40.10 4.2 8 $42.52 4.0 Teutonic................... 4 2743 4.1 7 35.88 4.7 9 40.6I 4.6 5.69 5.6 8 54.29 5.2 Irish................................. 4 27.I14 4.1 7 33.73 4.4 7 38.26 4.7 5 42.07 4.6 I 69.68 7.6 Colored.............................. I 44.10 6.8 6 53.72 6.9 8 52.6I 6.7 2 50.67 6.o I 54.60 6.2 Bohemian............................ 4 5993 8.6 3 45.32 6.2 3 37.44 44 4 69.96 7.I Russian.............................. 6 33.28 5-3 14 33-54 4.8 12 40.83 5.3 9 41.28 4.6 6 47.80 4.6 Austrian, etc......................... 6 30.07 5.0 9 3554 5.0 9 46.58 57 7 4339 4.8 I 42.90 4.4 Italian........................... I6 38.59 5.8 14 26.03 3-7 I2 30.52 4.1 9 51.67 6.4 6 33.51 3.7 Total..72............... 72 37.7 5.8 79 3694 5.0 73 41.04 5.0 63 46-70 5.I 31 46.I 4.5 * Per cent. of expenditure for all purposes. TABLE 55.-FUEL GATHERED FREE. NUMBER OF FAMILIES RED'rDPThTr'( ATPn PEIp.CENTAGES.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. FAMILIES GATHERING SOME FUEL FREE. $600 to $700 to $800 to $900 to $1000 to $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 TOTAL NATIONALITy. 3! I3 1 | z Io z lo i United States....... II 8 I9 8 13 7 i6 5 8 3 67 31 46.3 Teutonic........... 41 7 3 9 2 1 5 8 2 39 ~ 3 33.3 Irish.............. 4 3 7 3 7 5 5 I I I 24 I3 54.1 Colored............ II 8 6 2 8 4 2.. I.. 28 I4 50.-0 Bohemian.......... 4 2 3 2 3 3 42 4 2.... I4 9 64.1 Russian............ 6 5 14.. I2.. 9 6.. 57 6 Io.5 Austrian, etc........ 6 2 9 2 9 7.. 32 5 5.6 Italian............. 6 8* I4 8t 12 9 9 I 6 2 57 28 49.I Total............. 7 9 28 73 3 63 5 38 I9 37.4 I 4 31 / I 5 1 - T fIul dal r.I *2 cases, iuel aealers. 14 caset1s, IUC1 UICr.dO 1. ss~~ ~uv1 uuurv TABLE 55A.-FUEL GATHERED FREE. SUMMARY OF TABLE 55.BY INCOME. TOTAL NUMBER TOTAL NUMBER INCOME. or FAmiLIES. GATHERNG PER CENT. I~OMEr FuEL FaEEL. $4ooto $599........25 II 44 $600 to $699..................... 72 37 5I $700 to $799. --- —-------------- 79 28 35 $8oo to $899-...... —.. --- —- - -—. 73 31 42 $900 to $999..................... 63 I5 24 $IOOO to $Io99....... —.......-..-. 31 8 26 $IIoo and over..................... 48 Io 21 Total............................ 391 140 36 II9 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 56.-FUEL AND LIGHT. USE OF GAS AND KEROSENE: MANHATTAN.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. United States.......... Teutonic................ Irish............ Colored................ Bohemian.............. Russian................ Austrian, etc........... Italian................. 6 2 3 II 4 7 5 14 5 2 2 2 4 7 5 I I 2 4 6 4 9 I I 2 II 3 I I 4 I I 8 I 5 I4 7 5 6 3 8 8 12 9 3 4 2 3 8 8 IO II 6 4 3 2 8 8 II 4 I 3 5 2 I I 2 3 I I 3 I 8 8 5 8 3 8 9 9 5 7 3 I I 8 8 8 6 7 3 5 3 8 9 8 2 4 6 I1 2 3 2 2 2 3 I 4 9 Total.................. 52 35 32246 63 47 53 9 8 4 49 20 8 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. __...... NATIONALrry. 6 ~ 0 S 8 A Is s J 1 United States..-...... 9 9 42 5 4 4 3 - 44 32 35 4 8 Teutonic............... 4 3 3 I- 6 5 5 2.- 27 20 22 9 Irish...3 3.. I....... 7 12 I2 6 4 Colored................ 2I I I I... 28 7 I2 23 15 Bohemian.............. 4 4 4 4 I.. - -. 14 12 13 7 - Russian................ 6 66 5 5 5 I 34 34 33 6 Austrian, etc.......... 7 7 7 3 — I I I.. 30 28 29 8I Italian................. 8 8 8.. 6 5 5 I 49 40 4 98 Total......... 45 4 4I I2 3 25 2 22 7 I 243 85 97 82 37 120 FUEL AND LIGHT TABLE 57.-FUEL AND LIGHT. USE OF GAS AND KEROSENE BRONX, BROOKLYN, AND QUEENS.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 To $699 $700 To $799 $800 TO $899 United States........... 533225442 5.I5 T eu to nic........ 2 2I.... 2. 2 2 2 2 i Irish........ Colored St....................... T eutonic................. 2 2 2 I I x.... Irish................... I I I 2... 2 9 2 2 2 2... Colorem....................................... Bohemian...... Russian................ 9 6 6 3 6 6 6.. 4 4 4.. Austrian, etc........... I I......... Italian................. 2 I I I.. 2 I I 2 1 3 I.. 2 2 Total.................. 20 II ii 9 8 16 12 12 6 4 15 7 8 7 7 $900 TO $999 $1000 To $1099 TOTAL. NATIONALITY. E;j V. t.= A t ~ o0: ~ 0.=g t |_ k. _ ^11^ I O_ _ United States........... 5 I 2 3 3 3 2 2 I I 23 10 12 13 12 Teutonic............... 7 5 5 2 2 2 2 2 I 12 7 8 5 4 Irish............. 2.. 2 2..7 2 2 5 5 Colored.................. Bohemian................ Russian..33..... 3 3 3.... 232020 3 3 Austrian, etc........................2 2 2.. Italian........... 8 3 2 6 4 Total.................. 8 9 I 8 8 6 5 5 2 I 75 44 46 32 28 12I TABLE 58.-FUEL AND LIGHT. USE OF GAS AND KEROSENE.-BY BOROUGHS (COMBINED AND SEPARATE) AND INCOME. ALL BOROUGHS. MANHATTAN. BROOKLYN, BRONX, AND QUEENS. INCOME. 0.. $400 to $499......................... 8 6 6 2 2 4 2 2 22 4 4 4.... $500 to $599....'7.'3........... I7 13 7 3 12 8 9 73 5 5 5 — - $6ooto $699...................... 72 46 43 33 24 52 35 32 24 i6 20 11 9 8 $700 to $799................ 79 65 2513 63 47 53 9 9 i6 12 12 6 4 $8ooto $899-........................ 73 48 57 27 I5 58 41 49 20 8 15 7 8 7 7 $900 to $999..................... 63 50 51 20 11 45 4I 41 12 3 i8 9 Io 8 8 $IOO1 to$1o99..................... 31 26 27 9 2 25 2I 22 7 1 6 5 5 21 $1200 to $i99-......................... 2 3 8 *$~ooto$399- — ~-~ —~-~ --- —~ --- —-— 6 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 4 4 4.... $I200 to $1299......................... 8 10 2 7 7 7 2 23 $I300to $399.....8..........3 I...4 4 2 2 5 3 3 2 2 3 5 I$640oand over......................... 14 6 4315 5 3 -3 II II 3 2 3 4 4 Total................................. 391 291 307 133 75 291 223 236 99 46 ioo 68 71 34 29 $400 to $599......................... 25 19 20 9 5 i6 1047 53 I 9 9 9.... $6oo to $799......................... 15I 105 io8 58 37 II5 82 85 43 25 36 23 23 15 I2 $8oo to $899......................... 73 48 57 27 15 58 41 49 20 8 15 7 8 7 7 $900 to $1I99......................... 76 78 29 15 70 623 3 9 4 24 14 5 10 9 $iioo and over......................... 48 43 44 Io 5 32 28 28 8 4 i6 I5 i6 2 I FOOD 4. FOOD. I. FOOD AS A FACTOR IN THE BUDGET.-Food is much the largest item in the family budget, comprising nearly half of the total outlay. (See Table 59, page 137, and Table 15, page 70.) The average amount spent for food rises from $290o.10 per annum for the $600 families to $451.46 for the $Iooo group. But, although the average amount increases by about $50 with each $ioo added income, the percentage of total expenditures remains almost constant at about 45 per cent. When a wider range of income is included, the percentage variations are greater. Thus, the 8 families with average income of $452.38 spend only 40.8 per cent. of it for food; the 17 families with incomes between $500 and $6oo00 spend 44.4 per cent. of their money for food. Among the larger incomes, the percentage remains close to 45 for the $IIoo and $200oo groups, and begins to fall only with the families whose income is $1300, where it is 42.6. For the 6 families with incomes of $I500 the percentage is 36.8. These figures would seem to indicate that not until the family is able to spend well beyond $iooo does it satisfy its wants for food upon a smaller proportion of its total income than when it had only $600 or $700 for all purposes. Whether this is due to insufficient nutrition on lower incomes, or to indulgence of more expensive tastes as resources increase, we may be able at a later point to suggest. Certainly, the point of diminishing percentage of expenditure for food is placed much higher in the income scale than in the cases on which Engel based his well-known generalizations. A comparison of nationalities suggests that the families which spend the largest proportion of their income for food are those which pay the smallest share of it for rent. The Italians and Bohemians, whose rent-expense is relatively low, expend in the various income-groups from 45 to 50 per cent. of their total outlay upon food; while for the colored people and the Russians, who pay heavy rents, the percentage range is between 40 and 45 per cent., rising to 45.2 per cent. for the Russians with incomes of $800, and falling to 37.7 per cent. for colored families in the same income-group. The expenditures for different classes of food have been ar123 THE STANDARD OF LIVING ranged by income-groups and nationalities, and the percentage of total expenditures for food-materials calculated (Tables 60 and 6I, pages 138-140). The percentage calculation is on the basis of the sum only of the items mentioned, excluding meals away from home and ice. The summary by incomes shows a tendency to spend in increasing proportion for meats as income rises, and to diminish relative expenditure for bread and other cereal foods. For eggs and dairy products and for alcoholic drinks the percentage fluctuations seem erratic. For meats and fish the percentage is 29.4 for $600 incomes, and 32. I for incomes in the $Iooo group. For cereals the results are 21 per cent. for the $6oo families, and 17.3 per cent. for $iooo families. For eggs and dairy products the percentages vary from 19.8 ($700 incomes) to 23.3 ($0oo incomes). For sugar, tea, and coffee the percentage remains not far from constant at 8 per cent. In fruits and vegetables there is a slight increase, from 13.8 per cent. among the $600 families to 14.2 per cent. among those with incomes of $1ooo to $I oo. For alcoholic drinks, the percentage ranges between 6 and 7.4 per cent. The varieties of national custom in regard to diet are reflected only slightly in these tables of averages. It appears that the Russian and Austrian Jews report the largest percentage expenditure for meat, and the Italians the smallest. In the matter of cereals and vegetables the tables are reversed, the Italians showing the greatest percentage and the Russians and Austrians the least. This corresponds with the Italians' well known dependence on macaroni and dried beans. For the I6 American families with incomes between $9oo and $1ooo, the averages and the percentages are as follows: PERCENTAGE OF ALL EXAVERAGE PENDITURES FOR EXPENDITURE. FOOD PROPER. Meats and fish............... 27.56 32.5 Eggs, butter, milk, etc........ 83.43 21.2 Cereals..................... 72.45 18.5 Vegetables and fruit......... 6549 I6.7 Sugar, tea, coffee, etc......... 363 8.o Alcoholic drinks at home..... 12.01 3.I 392.57 IOO.O 124 FOOD The constituents of the family dietary are more clearly exhibited in summaries of the reports from typical families which may be found at the end of the present section (page 154). 2. INADEQUACY IN KIND AND AMOUNT OF FooD.-In order to judge how far the food provided is sufficient for the needs of a family, the food-stuffs consumed should be analyzed and the amount of nutritive value contained in the various constituents should be calculated and compared with the established standards of what is needed to maintain physical efficiency. In order to compare families composed of persons of varying age and sex, tables have been worked out showing the proportionate amount to be assigned to each person, as compared with the requirements for an adult man. The scale adopted by the United States Department of Agriculture is as follows: * An adult woman requires......8 as much as an adult man A boy of 5 to 16............ A boy of 13 to 14............8 A boy of 2..............7 A boy of Io to I............... A girl of 15 to 6............8....... A girl of 13 to 14...........7 A girl of I to 12............6 Achildfrom 6to 9...........5 A child from 2 to 5...........4 A child under 2.............3 By the application of this scale the equivalent of each family in "units" of an adult man has been figured out and applied under the head "number of units" in the comprehensive tables of averages (Tables 15 and 16, pages 70-74, and in Table 62, page 14o). In order to secure evidence as to the nutritive value of the food reported by the families interviewed, ioo schedules selected so as to represent all nationalities and income-groups were sent for examination to Dr. Frank P. Underhill, assistant professor of Physiological Chemistry in Yale University. While the returns were not stated with scientific exactness as to the amount of each article consumed, and no allowance could be made for * U. S. Department of Agriculture. Farmer's Bulletin, No. 142, p. 33. 125 THE STANDARD OF LIVING wastes, a rough approximation to the nutritive value of the dietary was calculated, which is not without value. Professor Underhill's report may be found in Appendix VI (page 319). On the basis of the prices prevailing in the summer of 1907, Dr. Underhill found that the families which spent at the rate of less than 22 cents per man per day were not receiving enough food to maintain physical efficiency*; that is, for less than this amount the family did not purchase materials sufficient to provide a minimum allowance of Ioo to 125 grams of protein and 2500 to 3000 calories of fuel for the tissues.t The detailed figures for two schedules analyzed by Dr. Underhill may be found on page 323. For all the families included in the report a calculation was made of the expenditure reduced to terms of "cents per man per day." This method of calculation may be easily illustrated by an example: A certain family consists of father, mother, a girl of 4 years, a boy of 3 and a baby under 2. The father buys lunch 6 days in the week. The calculation therefore runs, applying the equivalents given on page 125: i man 15 meals per week.......................................... 15.0 I woman 21 meals, equivalent for man to 21 X o.8 meals per week....... 6.8 I boy 2 " " " " " 21 X 0.4 " "....... 8.4 i girl 21 " " " " "C 21 X 0.4 " " "....... 8.4 I child 21 " " c c. 21 X 0.3 ".......... 6.3 Total number of meals, on basis of consumption of adult man............ 549 This total is equivalent, counting 3 meals per day, to meals for I man for 18 days. The weekly expenditure for food foots up $4.24; that is, to meet a demand for food equivalent to the needs of one man for I8 days, this family spends $4.24, or, dividing $4.24 by 18, spends 23.6 cents per man per day. This calculation makes it * Dr. Atwater, from data gathered 1896-7, estimated the cost at 23-25 cents per man per day. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin of Experiment Stations No. I 6, pp. 74,75.) Of 63 families, tabulated by Dr. Underhill as adequately nourished, two spent 22 cents per man per day; two less than 22 cents. Of 37 tabulated by him as under-nourished, 6 spent 22 cents per man per day, 7 over 22 cents. tThe non-technical reader may be reminded that one calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise one kilogram of water one degree centigrade (i.8 degrees Fahrenheit) in temperature. Into the disputed questions as to the minimum allowance of protein for tissue-building and of fats and carbo-hydrates for fuel, it is not the purpose of this report to enter. But the amounts as given will be recognized as conservative as compared with the standard set by most dietary experts. 126 FOOD possible to compare families without regard to differences in number and age of their members, and to apply a uniform standard to them all. The tabulation of the average expenditure per man per day is given in Table 64 (page 141). Applying the minimum suggested by Dr. Underhill, 22 cents per man per day, we have the result shown in Table 63 (page 141). The showing by income-groups is as follows: UNDER-FED FAMILIES. (22 cents per man per TOTAL NUMBER day and under.) INCOME. OF FAMILIES. NUMBER. PER CENT. $400 to $599........ 25 9 76 600 to 799..........15I 48 32 800 to 899........ 73 6 22 9oo to 199............ 94 8 9 IIoo and over............ 4o o 391 9I 23.2:60 n nI I 60 5c40 1_11 ~ 40~ 90 ItI I1u z ~ — O24!4 Ale DIAoGAx i I.-Number of under-fed families in each of the principal income-groups. 127 THE STANDARD OF LIVING This means that with less than $6oo to spend for all purposes, an adequate food-supply is not provided, and that on from $600 to $800 incomes I family in 3 is under-fed, while less than I in Io of the families having $9oo and $1ooo to spend fell short of the minimum for food. Of the nationalities represented, the proportion of under-fed was greatest among the Russians, where more than half of the families with incomes between $6oo and $800, spent less than the minimum for food. For the 318 families with incomes between $600 and $i Ioo the figures are as follows: NUMBER OF NATIONALITY. FAMILIES. United States........... 67 Teutonic............... 39 Irish.............. 24 Colored.............. 28 Bohemian............... 14 Russian................ 57 Austrian, etc............. 32 Italian.................. 57 318 UNDER-FED FAMILIES. NUMBER. PER CENT. IO 14.9 8 20.5 2 8.3 8 28.6 28.6 2 45-5 1I 34.5 3 5.3 72 22.7 %c,,_ ff7^^~uo 'o 'o _____ ________: - I oI 39q DIAGRAM 12.-Number of under-fed families in each of the nationality-groups. 128 FOOD The small proportion among the Italians is due in part to the fact that the Italian families reported on consist, very many of them, of parents and two young children. The large proportion of income devoted to buying food by the Italians has already been pointed out (page 123). By occupations; the three groups selected for comparison show a larger proportion of under-fed families than the whole mass. The figures, for incomes between $600 and $ ioo, are as follows: TOTAL NUMBER UNDER-FED FAMILIES: OCCUPATION. OF FAMILIES. NUMBER. PER CENT. Garment-workers.......45 16 33.3 Laborers............. 35 31.4 Teamsters, etc..........26 8 30.7 io6 35 33 The same distribution of these under-fed families among the incomegroups is found that appears in regard to the families as a whole. Ten of the i6 under-fed among the garment-workers have less than $80o income; 9 of the I under-fed laborers' families, and all of the 8 under-fed among the teamsters, have incomes under $8oo. The analysis of all under-fed families with reference to sources of income (Table 65, page 142) shows that the scanty provision of food is more frequent among families with composite incomes than among families supported by the father alone. Of the I49 families (out of 318) which are supported by father alone, 30 families, or 20 per cent., are under-fed, as against 42 under-fed families out of the 169 with composite incomes, or 24.8 per cent. That the scant provision of food is often a necessity, if expenditures are to be brought within income, appears from noting the relation of under-fed families to the families at large in the matter of surplus or deficiency in the annual budget (Tables 66 and 67, pages 143-144). Of all the 318 families, 116 families, or 36.5 per cent., report a surplus (Table 120, page 236). Of the 72 under-fed families, 36 families, or 50 per cent., report a surplus. Eighty-six families, or 27 per cent. of the total 318 families, report a deficit, and 116 report an even balance, within $25. Of the 72 under-fed, only 9 families, or 12.5 per cent., report a deficit, and 27 families, or 37.5 per cent., report an even balance. 9 129 THE STANDARD OF LIVING One other point that should be considered with reference to these under-fed families is the relation of deficiency of nutrition to the size of the family. In regard to this point, the following data are available. As appears from Table 62 (page 140), the number of "units" in the average of all the 318 families is 3.5. By number of units is meant, as already explained, the number of full-grown men whose food-requirements would be equal to those of the given family. The average number of "units" of the 62 under-fed families is 3.85, as compared with the average of 3.5 for all families. Comparing income-groups and sources of income with reference to this point, the results are even more suggestive, as will be seen from the following table: AVERAGE NUMBER OF UNITS. NUMBER OF FAMILIES. NUMBER OF FAIES$600 $700 $800 $900 $1000 ALL to to to to to IN$699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 coMEs. 26 (Families supported by father alone.) 3.5 3.6 3-7 4.0... 3.6 36 (Families with composite income).. 38 4.2 4.0 54 4.1 4.1 62 (All under-fed families)............ 3.6 4o 39 5-I 4.I 3.85 318 (All families)..................... 3.3 3.5 3.5 3-6 3.7 3-5 By income: AVERAGE NUMBER OF UNITS. INCOME. TOTAL NUMBER NUMBER OF FAMILIES. UNDER-FED. Under-fed All Families. Families. $600-$799.. - 1 51 42 3 4 3-8 $8oo- $899 —. 73 13 3-5 3-9 $900-$99...- - - 94 7 3-7 4-7 For this comparison the io families with expenditure of exactly 22 cents per man per day are omitted, leaving 62 families spending 21 cents and under. These figures indicate that the increase of expenditure for food does not keep pace with the increase of demand for it as children grow older, even though the income be pieced out by additions from lodgers and by the earnings of mother and children. It is significant that although few under130 FOOD fed families are found in the higher income-groups, the cases that do occur show the need of an exceptionally large amount of food.* Reviewing the causes for insufficient provision of food as suggested by the statistics of the comparisons, we have discovered that four circumstances frequently attend the families that are under-fed. These circumstances are, first, a larger number of mouths to be fed, or rather, a larger food-necessity to be supplied; second, a larger dependence on other resources than the wages of the father; third, a desire to save money even at cost of inadequate nutrition; fourth, a low family income. It will readily be seen that the last mentioned cause, low income, is in a sense inclusive of most of the others. Excluded from this enumeration is the lack of economy in management, and of wisdom in the purchase of food, but even with the best economy the other causes do not cease to operate. In a few of the cases classified as under-fed there is evidence of exceptional expenditure for drink, but the number of these cases is too small to overshadow the causes already mentioned. 3. ITEMS OF DETAIL.-Some interesting side-lights are thrown on the subject by the returns regarding certain more or less significant items of detail in the food-budget. Frequency in food purchases, meals away from home, the use of alcoholic drinks, * Pursuing the same analysis on the basis of nationality, the following results appear: INCOME $600 TO $699. NATIONALITY. Number Families. Average Number Units. Total. Under-fed. All. Under-fed. U. S., Teutonic, Irish............... 52 i2 3-4 3-3 Russian, Austrian and Bohemian..... 52 24 3-5 3-9 INcoME $900 to $1099. U. S., Teutonic, Irish............. 49 I 3-6 4.3 Russian, Austrian and Bohemian..... 27 4 4.0 5.I YVII~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~LU~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I31 THE STANDARD OF LIVING the kind of milk used, the use of ice and refrigerators, dependence upon the baker for bread, are the matters included under this head. Dependence on Baker.-Taking the last item first, it is sufficient in a word to say that New York families such as those under consideration universally buy bread. Only 26 families out of 3 I8 reported making bread at home for the whole or a part of the year. Eight of these were Italian families, 6 Russian and 5 colored. Among the Italian families the custom prevails of mixing the bread at home and taking it to a bakery to be baked at a charge of lo cents a week. The contrast in this regard with families outside of New York City is striking. Out of 19 families in Syracuse, with incomes between $500 and $I650, 17 reported making bread at home. Seven out of o1 in Richfield Springs made bread at home. Frequency of Food Purchase.-In regard to the frequency of the purchase of food, the questions of the schedule did not bring out answers as definite as were desired. Most families buy their supplies from day to day in very small quantities, partly from the lack of facility for storing and keeping food, and partly from the lack of money enough at one time to enable them to buy any large amount. Many families reported buying staple articles, like flour and sugar, once a week; but mention is equally frequent of purchasing butter by the quarter-pound, potatoes by the pound, and other supplies by the nickel's-worth. The nature of the material did not seem to warrant the effort to make statistical tables of these data. Meals Away from Home.-Tables 68-70 (pages 145-146) show that 136 of the 318 families reported expenditure for meals away from home. Expenditure for this purpose is more frequent in the case of families having children at work. Only 38 per cent. of the 149 families where the father's earnings constitute the whole income, report meals away from home, while 50 per cent. of the 86 families where other members are wage-earners report expenditure for this purpose. Of the various nationalities, the expenditure for lunches is most frequent among the American families, 54 per cent. of whom spend money for this purpose. Only 21 per cent. of the colored families and 32 per cent. of the Italian families report such expenditure. In the three occupations 132 FOOD classified separately, 38 per cent. of the laborers, 50 per cent. of the teamsters and 53 per cent. of the garment-makers bought lunches. In certain occupations one or more meals are furnished free to employees. Fourteen such cases were counted among the 318 families, 8 being bartenders, cooks and waiters, and 3 drivers of provision-wagons. Location of families with reference to place of work is, of course, a determining factor in regard to the purchase of meals, but the classification by boroughs does not bring out this relation. Forty-four per cent. of the Manhattan families and 40 per cent. of the families in other boroughs report expenditure for meals away from home. In the matter of income there is a noticeable increase in the amount paid for lunches as the income increases. This appears in the following table: TOTAL NUMBER OF NUMBER FAMILIES REPORTING OF MEALS AWAY AVERAGE INCOME. FAMILIES. FROM HOME. EXPENDITURE. $500 to $699......72 22 $34-48 700 to 99......79 42 41.87 8oo to.......73 31 42.8 9ooto 999......63 28 5I.8 ioo to io99......31 13 65 06 318 I36 Fifteen of 25 families, with incomes between $400 and $6oo, spend on the average $29.29 for lunch, and 26 of 48 families, with incomes of $i ioo and over, report spending $71.36 each on the average for this purpose. In Tables 69 and 70 (page 146) the increase in the amount expended for lunches with increase of income, and also its relation to the composition of the family income, is shown under groups according to the daily expenditure per family. Alcoholic Drinks.-The expenditure for drinks was divided in the schedule. The cost of alcoholic liquors drunk at home was included under the specification of food; the cost of drinks away from home was put with the miscellaneous expenditures. The result was that a fairly complete report regarding liquors drunk at home was received, inasmuch as the families regarded this item as a matter of course, and felt no more reticence about it I33 THE STANDARD OF LIVING than about any other detail. What was drunk away from home, on the other hand, was considered as a more personal matter, and the information was not as readily secured. When the mother answered the questions she often knew only that she was in the habit of giving her husband perhaps $i a week for spending money, and that out of it he paid for what he drank, along with other incidentals. It may safely be assumed that the expenditure for drinks away from home, as reported, did not exceed the actual amount. In regard to the use of alcoholic drinks at home there is a marked difference, among the nationalities represented, in the proportion of families reporting expenditure. Table 71 (page I47) shows that all of the Bohemian families, and 98 per cent. of the Italian families report some expenditure for alcoholic drinks; only the American families report this expenditure in the case of less than two-thirds of the families, the percentage of the American families being 46.3. The amounts expended are in many of these cases small, as will be seen in Tables 71-73 (pages 147-149). Ninety of the 243 families expending money for drinks, spend less than $20 a year. More thati half of the Russian families spend less than $20. On the other hand, I out of 14 Bohemian families, 19 out of 28 Teutonic families and 9 out of 17 Irish families that expend for this purpose, spend more than $30 a year. Table 74 (page 149) shows the increase in expenditure for drink with increase of income. The actual amount (average expenditure of the families using alcoholic drinks) increases from $23.23 in the $600 income-group to $37.03 in the $1ooo income-group. If to the expenditure reported for drinks at home the expenditure for alcoholic drinks away from home be added, and the totals in each income-group divided by the number of families using alcoholic drinks, the average total expenditure by income-groups is as follows, together with the percentage of the average total income which goes for this purpose: 134 FOOD AVERAGE EXPENDITURE FOR PER CENT. INCOME. ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. OF INCOME. $40 to $599......8.... 847 2.7 to 699......27.25 4.2 700to 799............ 32.52 4-4 800to 899......... 37.65 4-4 900 to 999................ 3636 3.9 1oo to 1099............. 5067 4.9 00oo to 1199................ 5996 5.2 This table suggests that a rise in the standard of living to certain families means, among other things, an increased indulgence in intoxicants. Milk.-Some indication of the quality of the milk used may be found in the price paid for it. Ordinary "loose" milk at the grocery and provision stores was sold for 5 and 6 cents a quart during the summer of 1907. The bottled milk, complying with the sanitary requirements, was sold for 8 cents a quart bottle. Condensed milk at o1 cents a can was not infrequently used, in a few cases to the exclusion of fresh milk. The classification of families by nationalities and income with reference to the price paid for milk will be found in Tables 75 and 76 (pages 150-151). Seventeen families, 9 of them under-fed, reported 4-cent milk, the quality of which may be inferred from the price. One hundred and sixty-six families, or 52 per cent., reported 5-cent milk; 41, or 13 per cent., reported 6-cent milk; 78, or 24.5 per cent., reported 8-cent milk; 13, condensed milk only. Three families reported no milk used. Eleven of the 4-cent cases were in families with incomes under 800o. We should expect to find 5-cent milk less frequent and 8-cent milk more frequent as the income increases, but the figures show no such tendency. About one-quarter of the families in each income-group use the bottled milk, and about two-thirds use the loose milk at 5 and 6 cents a quart. An extraordinary proportion of the Italian families (33 out of 57) report the use of bottled milk, while only 4 out of 57 Russian families use it. Eight of the 13 families depending on condensed milk are American. Ice and Refrigerators.-(See Tables 77 and 78, pages 152-153.) Only 41 of the 318 families report no expenditure for ice, '35 THE STANDARD OF LIVING so that its use may be considered a part of the accepted standard for New York City. The amount expended increases on the average from $4.64 for the $600 families to $7.80 for the $Iooo families, or to 9.21 for the families with incomes of $1 oo and over. Classified on the basis of the amount expended, 64 per cent. of the $6oo families pay not more than $5.oo a year for ice. Forty-eight per cent. of the $800 families and 70 per cent. of the $1ooo families pay for ice $5.oo a year or more. An expenditure of less than $I.oo is reported by 21 families, 15 of them having incomes of less than $800. Twenty-five of the 41 families without ice have incomes under $800. Refrigerators are found in more than four-fifths of the families, or in 81 per cent. of the families with incomes between $600 and $8oo, and in go per cent. of the families with higher incomes. In some cases it is reported that the ice is kept in a tub; in some cases an ice-box is reported, which is often hardly better than the tub; but in the majority of cases the refrigerator serves as a place for keeping perishable food as well as for keeping the ice itself. I36 TABLE 59.-FOOD. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE AND PER CENT. OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE.BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 NATIONALITY. w S - S. l Averge Average AveAvege A e Average Amounount A m Amount. Amount United States..........iI $292.74 44.0 19 $348.44 45.7 I3 $409.88 47.2 i6 $425.75 44.8 8 $497.29 46.3 Teutonic............ 4 283.35 42.3 7 358.90 47-3 9 347.06 39.8 II 395-44 43-1 8 421.40 40.7 Irish................ 4 292.83 44.2 7 366.40 47.8 7 357-09 43-9 5 404.87 44.3 I 492.33 53-7 Colored............... I 263.6 40.6 6 32.40 4. 8 297.22 377 2 3453 40.5 I 302.44 34. Bohemian..........4 3 455 3 363.89 49. 5 3 -3 3 408.87 48.7 4 4I6.I8 42.4.. Russian............. 6 273.31 43.5 I4 299.34 42.8 I2 348.44 45.2 9 372.39 4I17 6 469.36 44.8 Austrian, etc....... 6 258.92 42.8 9 321.97 45.3 9 318.69 38.8 7 419-54 46.4 I 451.9I 46.2 Italian................ I6 330.00 49-7 14 337.39 47.8 I2 385.03 5i.6 9 4165 50o.8 6 430.48 48.1 Total.............. 72 290.10 446 79 335.8 45.6 73 35926 443 63 405 447 31 4546 447 * Per cent. of expenditure for all purposes. TABLE 60.-FOOD. AVERAGE AMOUNT AND PER CENT. OF EXPENDITURE FOR VARIOUS KINDS.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. EXPENDITURE FOR MEAT AND FISH. FOOD-MATERIAL OF $600 TO PER $700 TO PER $800 TO PER $900 TO PER $1000 TO PER $699 CENT. $799 CENT. $899 CENT. $999 CENT. $1099 CENT. United States................. Teutonic..................... Irish......................... Colored....................... Bohemian.................... Russian....................... Austrian, etc................... Italian................. United States.................. Teutonic...................... Irish......................... Colored....................... Bohemian..................... Russian................... Austrian, etc................... Italian........................ $82.97 29.6 $ 80.53 29.3 69.04 27.0 71.8I 28.3 71.29 23.6 82.21 32.2 90.07 36.6 85.03 26.8 EXPENDITURE FOR $63.68 22.7 64.04 23.3 67.60 26.5 48.50 19.1 66.69 22.I 59-93 23.5 55.66 22.6 59.60 18.7 IO4.74 33.5 I03.35 30.6 95.08 27.6 I03.90 34.2 80.49 23.2 93.I7 35-4 94.78 31.5 89.57 28.3 EGGS, BUTTER, $61.54 I9.7 66.i8 19.6 73.54 21.3 55.38 I8.2 64.29 18.5 52.45 I9.9 65.86 21.9 59.2I 18.7 $122.08 92.67 99.89 97.70 96.76 II3.03 90.22 110.82 MILK AND $71.66 76.99 74.27 59.82 66.56 65.II 58.23 66.63 33.5 28.8 33-5 34I. 24.7 35.2 29.8 30.5 CHEESE. I9.7 23.9 25.0 20.8 I7.0 20.3 I9.3 I8.3 $I27.56 II7.54 114.83 88.28 114.83 II8.57 123.72 9I.15 $83.43 I00oo.9 96.30 63.72 71.10 83-79 87.60 90.99 32.5 30.6 29.I 28.0 31.4 34-3 32.9 23.9 21.2 26.3 24.4 20.1 I9.4 24.3 23.2 23.8 $146.63 132.54 123.37 8I.I2 81.12 157.96 131.98 102.05 32.7 33.5 28.7 27.0 37.1 36.5 25.2 00 $98.95 22.I 77-I5 I9.5 73.32 17.0 92.56 30.8 83.85 19.6 80.o8 22.1 93.58 23.1 United States.................. Teutonic..................... Irish......................... Colored....................... Bohemian................... Russian....................... Austrian, etc................... Italian........................ $61.64 62.66 53.42 55-40 65.78 49.62 39-55 69.87 EXPENDITURE FOR CEREALS. 21.9 $65.84 2I.0 $76.88 2I.1 22.8 60.98 i8.o 49-74 15.4 20.9 72.26 2I.o 45.67 I5.3 21.8 57.07 I8.8 54.05 18.8 21.8 80.28 23.2 99.93 25.5 19.5 45.68 17.3 63.47 I9.8 i6.I 56.84 I8.9 57.98 I9.2 22.0 65.22 20.6 69.65 19.2 $72.45 i8.5 63.1 I6.4 70.33 I7.8 75.46 23.9 63.83 I7.4 56.51 66.4 58.95 15.7 72.40 19.0 $86.13 19.2 60.64 I5.3 83.20 19.3 33.80 II.3 74.93 I7.6 45.76 I2.7 73.44 i8, TABLE 60 (Continued).-FOOD. AVERAGE AMOUNT AND PER CENT. OF EXPENDITURE FOR FOOD-MATERIAL OF VARIOUS KINDS. -BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. EXPENDITURE FOR VEGETABLES AND FRUIT. $600 TO PER $700 TO PER $800 TO PER $900"TO PER $1000 TO PER $699 CENT. $799 CENT. $899 CENT. $999 CENT. $1099 CENT. United States............. Teutonic...................... Irish......................... Colored....................... Bohemian..................... Russian......... Austrian, etc............. Italian........................ United States................ Teutonic...................... Irish......................... Colored....................... Bohemian..................... Russian....................... Austrian, etc................... Italiani........................ United States.................. Teutonic..................... Irish......................... Colored....................... Bohemian..................... Russian....................... Austrian, etc................. Italian........................ $39.04 30.76 30.69 42.22 33.23 31.I6 26.91 50-47 13.9 II.3 12.0 I6.6 II.0 12.2 I0.9 I5.9 $41.99 50.68 45.18 49-97 52.83 32.36 38.29 48.61 I3.4 I5.0 I3.I i6.5 15.2 12.3 12.8 15.3 $48.69 39-53 3I.50 33.I6 52.08 38.16 39.7I 64.88 13.4 12.3 10.5 I.6 I3.2 11.9 I3.I 17.8 $65.49 49.21 54.86 46.87 51.08 40.87 48.29 59.84 EXPENDITURE FOR SUGAR, TEA, COFFEE AND CONDIMENTS. $25.86 9.2 23.46 8.6 22.88 9.0 24.I2 9.5 27.20 9.0 20.06 7.9 18.47 7.5 I8.66 5.9 EXPENDITURE $7.65 2.7 13.00 4.7 11.70 4.6 12.09 4.7 37.95 I2.5 I2.02 4.7 15.39 6.3 34.26 10.7 $28.47 9. $30.95 35.09 I0.4 31.76 35.62 10.3 28.62 29.75 9.8 28.61 22.13 6.4 28.34 22.50 8.6 24.04 22.90 7.6 26.36 I7.0I 5-4 20.53 FOR ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AT $10.49 3.3 $I3.69 21.54 6.4 31.36 23.07 6.7 i8.ii 7.67 2.5 13.48 46.93 I3.5 48.87 I7.I5 6.5 I7.44 21.86 7-3 30.54 37.00 II.7 31.30 8.5 9.9 9.6 I0.0 7.2 7.4 8.7 5.6 HOME. 3.8 9.7 6.I 4.7 12.4 5.4 9.9 8.6 $31.63 33.59 38.22 32.50 30.80 25.12 24.57 28.05 $12.01 I9.59 I9.76 9.10 34.36 20.41 33-70 40.21 I6.7 12.8 I4.0 14.8 I4.0 II.8 I2.8 I5.6 8.0 8.8 9-7 Io0.3 8.4 7.3 6.5 7.2 3.1 5.I 5.0 2.9 9.4 5-9 8.9 I0.5 $66.24 59.68 93.20 43.I6 39-59 48.36 65.27 $36.56 37.60 20.54 33.80 33-33 31.92 25.35 $14.11 28.17 36.40 15.60 36.68 23.70 44.78 I4.7 I5.I 21.7 14.4 9.3 13.4 I6.1 8.2 9.5 4.8 II.3 7.8 8.8 6.3 3.1 7.1 8.5 5.2 8.6 6.5 II.I -t 4_ TABLE 61.-FOOD. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE AND PER CENT. OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE FOR FOOD-MATERIAL OF VARIOUS KINDS.-BY INCOME. NuM- MEATS AND EGGS, MILK, VEGETABLES AND BER FISH. ETC. CEREALS. FRUITS. SUGAR, ETC. ALCOHOL. INCOME. OF - - TOTAL. FAM- Per Per Per Per Per Per ILIES. Average. Cent. Average. Cent. Average. Cent. Average. Cent. Average. Cent. Average. Cent. $600 to $699... 72 $80.59 29.4 $59.35 2I.6 $57.83 21.0 $38.o5 I3.8 $21.87 8.o $I8.o6 6.5 $274.72 $700 to $799.. 79 96.90 31.4 6I.I2 I9.8 6I.I5 19.9 43.II I3.9 25.82 8.3 20.93 6.7 308.95 $8oo to $899... 73 I05.35 31.6 67.51 20.2 63.27 I8.9 44.I7 13.2 28.42 8.5 24.68 7.4 336.98 $900 to $999... 63 II5.77 30.8 87.69 23.3 66.42 17.7 54.o6 14.4 30.24 8.o 22.9I 6.0 376.02 $I000 to $1099... 31 I32.78 32.1 87.35 2I.1 71.37 I7.3 58.50 14.2 33.I7 8.o 29.62 7.2 413.09 TABLE 62.-AVERAGE NUMBER OF UNITS PER FAMILY.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. NATIONALITY..A. z 1Z4 -'cZ0o Z Z -, Z Z8. 1C Z United States......................... II 3.2 9 35 3 3.5 I6 3-5 8 3.7 67 3.5 Teutonic............................. 4 3.I 7 37 9 3.2 II 34 8 37 39 3.4 Irish......................... 4 3.6 7 3-4 7 3.7 5 3.5 I 4.0 24 3.6 Colored........................... I 3.3 6 3.4 8 3.3 2 3.7 I 4.0 28 3.4 Bohemian...................... 4 3.4 3 4.1 3 3-7 4 4-0.. 14 3.8 Russian........................... 6 3.4 14 3.5 I2 3.9 9 4.2 6 4.0 57 3.7 Austrian, etc.................... 6 3.3 9 3.6 9 3.6 7 3.4 I 5.1 32 3.6 Italian............................... 6 3.1 14 3.0 i2 3.2 9 3.5 6 3.4 57 3.2 Total.................72............ 7 3.3 79 3.5 73 3.5 63 3.6 31 3.7 318 3.5 TABLE 63.-UNDER-FED FAMILIES. NUMBER REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF 22 CENTS PER MAN PER DAY AND UNDER FOR FOOD.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. k T UNDER-ED —NUIBER OP FAMILIES. ~ $600 to $700 to $800 to $900 to $1000to Nn $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 TOTAL. NATONALrrY..... United States..............67 3 I 4 I.......... 8 2 Teutonic..................39 I 2 3 I........ 5 3 Irish.......,4 2................. 2 Colored....8 3. I I...... I.. 7 I Bohemian................. '14 I.. I.... I I..... 3 I Russian..........57 9 7 5 I -24 2 Austrian, etc.......3....... 33 4 I....... I 8 tlan 57............... 3 -- IrishTa1 '4...................... 24.................. 62 IO Italian.................... 57 2.. 3 Total..................... 318 23 I I9 5 13 3 4 I 3. 62 1o TABLE 64.-FOOD EXPENDITURES REDUCED TO NUMBER CENTS PER MAN PER DAY. AVERAGES.*-BY INCOME A NTTn NT A 'TTrNT A T T'TV OF INCOME. NATIONALITY. $600to$699 $700to$799 $800to$899 $900to$999 $1000to$1099 United States........ 239 26.0 32.4 338 38. Teutonic............ 25-3 26.4 29.5 31.6 31.9 Irish................ 20.8 30.0 26.5 3I.4 32.0 Colored............. 23.5 25.7 24.5 25.0 21.0 Bohemian........... 25.5 24.3 30.2 28.5 Russian............. 23.1 23.6 24.0 25.5 29.7 Austrian, etc......... 24.0 25.1 23.8 3I1. 23.0 Italian.............. 3. 31.2 33-9 3I.5 34-3 Total............... 25.3 26.7 25.6 - 30.8 32.9 * See footnote, Appendix V (p. 312). 14I I I i i I I i I i i THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 65.-UNDER-FED FAMILIES. SOURCES OF INCOME.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 t Income 3. Income ~. Income NATioNALITY o from: 1S 2 from: E- ro 0 4 0 t-E (5 5 United States....... I 4 4.. 19 5 5.. 13 -.. I Teutonic........... 4.. 7 5 I 4 9 I i.. Irish.............. 4 2 2.. 7 -.... -- 7 -. Colored............ I 3 2 6 2 I r 8 2.. 2 Bohemian........ 4 i.. I 3 i i. 3 i.. i Russian............ i6 9 6 3 14 7 2 5 12 6 2 4 Austrian, etc........ 6 2.. 2 9 4 I 3 9 5 - 5 Italian............. x6 2 i i 14..... I2 Total. 72 24.. 9 79 24 1 13 73 I6 3 I3 $900 TO $999 $1000 To $1099 TOTAL. Income Income Income from: from: from: NATIONALITY.. 6 8 S Father Other ~4 E ~:5 O n5 o Sources. United States.......... 6...... 8..... 67 o1 9 90 I 10 Teutonic..................... 8.. 39 8 2 25 6 75 Irish.................5....... —.. 24 2 2 oo -00.. Colored...............2...... i. i 28 8 3 37 5 63 Bohemian............. 4.. i.. 1 4 4 25 3 75 Russian............... 9 3.. 3 6.. 57 26 10 39 16 61 Austrian, etc.......... 7...... I...... 32 II I 9 10 91 Italian................ 6 7 3 2 67 33 Total.................635 4 3 3 3 3 8 72 30~ 42 42 58 142 FOOD TABLE 66.-UNDER-FED FAMILIES. NUMBER REPORTING SURPLUS AND DEFICIT.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699 Number Reporting: ~1 ~.et. - 0 o ' v I M. C0 P ~'1~ U) l 1z ~ $700 TO $799 -d Number.I Reporting: $800 TO $899 % Number 1 Reporting: W i -d M ------- C ~ United States....... Teutonic........... Irish.............. Colored............ Bohemian.......... Russian............ Austrian, etc....... Italian............. 4 I 2 3 I 9 2 2 2 I I 2 I 2 I I 5 2 2 I I 2 5 5 2 I 3 2 2 I I I I 2 6 3 I I i I I 2 I 6 5 I I 4 I 6 I I I.... 7 4 Total. * 24 9 II 4 24 10 I2 2 i6 6 8 2 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL.. Number.d Number al Families Reporting: Reporting: 4 Reporting: o" NATIONALITY. Balane S. -De ~o Un wited States.. C IS.= United States..".... I o 6 6o.o 2 20.0' 2 20 Teutonic................ 8 3 37.5 3 37-5 2 25 Irish.............2 I 50.0 I1 50.0 - Colored........... -.... 4 50.0 2 25.0 2 25 Bohemian.. i I....I........ 4 4 ioo.o........ Russian....... 3 I I I.. 26 4 15.0 19 73.0 3 I2 Austrian, etc................. 6 545.0 Italian.......... I - i...... 3.00...... Total......... 52 2 3. 3 72 27 37 36 50 9 13 143 TABLE 67.-UNDER-FED FAMILIES. NUMBER REPORTING SURPLUS AND DEFICIT.-BY INCOME. REPORTING: TOTAL INCOME. NUMBER OF NUMBER Balance within $25. Surplus. Deficit. FAMILIEs. UNDER-FED._________ ________ Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. $600 to $699................. 72 24 9 38 11 46 4 I6 $700 to $799............. 79 24 IO 42 12 50 2 8 $8oo to $899................. 73 6 6 37 8 50 2 3 $900 to $999............ 63 5 2 40 2 40 I 20 $Iooo to $1099 —......... 31 3 I 3 100 Total..................... 318 72 27 38 36 50 9 I2 $6oo to $799.............. 5I 48 19 40 23 48 6 I2 $8oo to $899........... 73 I6 6 38 8 50 2 12 $900 to $1o99................. 94 8 2 25 5 63 I I2 v.......... x TABLE 68.-MEALS AWAY FROM HOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING.-BY NATIONALITY, INCOME, BOROUGH, SOURCES OF INCOME, AND OCCUPATION. 0 BY NATIONALITY. BY INCOME. Reporting Reporting Total Expenditure for Average Total Expenditure for Average Num- Meals Away. Amount for Num- Meals Away. Amount for Nationality. ber of Families Income. ber of Families Fami- Spending. Families. Num- Per Spendinlies. Num- Per Spending. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. United States................ 67 36 54 $53.68 $600 to $699.............. 72 22 31 $34.48 Teutonic.................... 39 I3 33 40.98 $700 to $799............. 79 42 53 41.87 Irish....................... 24 12 50 36.55 $8oo to $899........... 73 31 42 42.08 Colored..................... 28 6 21 36.40 $900 to $999.............. 63 28 44 51. Bohemian................... 14 7 50 46.16 $Iooo to $1099.............. 31 I3 42 65.06 Russian.................... 57 28 50 45.6i........../ — - Austrian, etc................ 32 15 50 38.44 Total................ 318 136 42 44.82 Italian................. 57 i8 32 38.68 $400 to $599.............. 25 15 52 29.29 ----------------—....- -- -- —.. - $600 to $o199............ 3I8 136 42 44.82 Total............... 318 I36 42 $44.82 $IIoo and over....... 48 26 54 71.36 BY BOROUGH. BY SOURCES OF INCOME. BY OCCUPATION. I I I- I _ 1_ Manhattan.... 243 io6 44 $46.26 Father's earnings only. 149 57 38 $43.60 Laborers.37 14 38 $40.53 Brooklyn, Bronx, and Queens......... 75 30 4 39.71 Other wage-earners... 86 43 5 4785 Garment workers 59 3 53 47.15 Borough. 8 1 4 $. eamsters. Manhattan..........I 243 io6 441546.26 Father's earnings only.I 149 57 38 $4'3.6o Laborers-........- 37 I4 38 $40-53 Brooklyn, Bronx, and Total......... 3I8 I36 30 ---$4418~ 1o66 7Teamsters.....3~ 55o 66.75 i 'a ^ *.( t TABLE 69.-MEALS AWAY FROM HOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY SOURCE OF INCOME. NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF CASES CASES SPENDING CASES SPENDING CASES SPENDING CASES SPENDING CASES SPENDING CASES SPENDING TOTAL.' DAILY 5C. AND DAILY IOC. DAILY ISC. DAILY 20C. DAILY 25C. SPENDING DAILY OVER BELOW. DAILY 30C. 30C. INCOME," E" E a A $600 to $799.. 4 3 1 7 9 I- 3 I I.... I 33 I3 $900 to $1099... I 3 4 4 4 I 5 3 3 I.... 4 I 2 2 I.... TABLE 70.-MEALS AWAY FROM HOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES AND THEIR COME, IN CUMULATIVE FORM. EXPENDITURES.-BY IN-........~~~~ TABLE 71.-ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AT HOME. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE.-BY NATIONALITY AND SPECIFIED AMOUNTS. FAMLmis wrIT REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF: TOTAL EXPENDITURE FOR NATIONALITY. BEN O DRN. Under $20. $20 to $30. Over $30. FAMFLIES.- -- beNuE-. Num- Per Cent. Num- Per Cent. NNU Per Cent Num- Per Cent. b er. ber e. b.er. e United States........................... 67 3 46.3 12 17.9 4 6.o I5 22.4 Teutonic...... 39 28 71.7 8 20.5 I 2.5 I9 48.7 Irish...................24 I7 70.8 6 25.0 2 8.3 9 37.5 Colored............................. 28 g 67.9 14 50.0 2 72 3 10.7 Bohemian..................4 100.0 7.5 2 13.9 II 78.6 Russian................... 57 51 89.4 32 56.1 6 10.5 13 22.8 Austrian, etc............................. 32 27 84.4 9 28. 7 21.9 II 34.4 Italian........................... 57 56 98.2 8 4.0 4 70 44 77.2 Total............................. 376.4 28.3 28 8.8 125 393 _~~~~~~- i 4, s.... TABLE 72.-ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AT HOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 To $899 Number of Families. Number of Families. Number of Families. ' Reporting ExpendiNA rting Expendi-;5 Reporting Expendi- Reporing ExpendiNATIONALITY. ] g'g ture of: ture of:. ture of: 0 ~ ~ r ~ United States....................... Teutonic........................... Irish.............................. Colored............................ Bohemian.......................... Russian............................ Austrian, etc................. Italian............................. Total.............................. II 4 4 II 4 i6 6 i6 6 I 2 9 4 14 5 15 3 3 6 I 2 I 5 I 5 5 3 I I I 2 3 7 I I 4 29 7 7 6 3 14 9 '4 7 4 6 2 3 I4 8 14 I I I 3 2 2 I 2 I IO 3 2 5 4 3 I I 2 6 I I 4 I3 9 7 8 3 12 9 12 7 9 4 6 3 10 8 12 I I I 3 2 3 I I 5 4 2.3 3 7 I I 2 2 3 6 I I I I 3 72 i 56 13 22 1 5 I 6 791 58 1 Io I 9 23 6 73 591 8 1I9 I251 7 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. Number of Families. Number of Families. Number of Families. NATIONALTY. Reporting Expendi- i1 Reporting Expendi- - Reporting ExpendiNATIONALITY. ' ture of: ture of: I ture of: _ _e__ n__ Go ^ _ __ United States................... i6 8 2 2 4 -- 8 3 I 2 1. 67 31 7 9 5 - Teutonic.............................. 11 8.. 4 4 8 61.. 3 I 2 39 28 I 8 i6 3 Irish......................... 5 4 -. 2 2 I I I 24 27 2 6 8 i Colored............................ 2...... I...... 28 19 4 12 3 - Bohemian.......................... 4 4.- I 3 - -...... - - - 14 I4 -- 3 8 3 Russian............................ 9 7 2 3 I I 6 6 2.. 2 57 51 i6 22 9 4 Austrian, etc........................ 7 5 - 2 2 I I..I 32 27 5 II 7 4 Italian............................. 9 9 - - 5 4 6 6. 3 2 57 56 4 8 27 7 Total.............................. 63 46 5 13 2I 7 31 24 3 6 9 6 38 243 39 79 93 32 FOOD TABLE 73.-ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AT HOME. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY INCOME. FAMILIES FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF. wITH ExPENDITURE TOTAL FOR DRiNK. Under $io. $io to $30. $30 to $so. Over $So. INCOME. BER OF FAMi- LIES.. u $60oto $699...... 72 56 78 13 18 22 3115 21 6 8 $700 to $799. ---- 79 58 73 IO 13 19 24 23 29 6 7 $8ooto $899..... 73 59 8i 8 II Ig 26 25 34 7 10 $900 to $999. ----- 63 46 73 5 8 13 21 21 33 7 11 $IOoO to $1o99.... 31 24 77 3 io 6 19 9 29 6 19 Total.318 243 76 39 12 79 25 93 29 32 10 $400to $599...... 25 20 8o 7 28 8 32 5 20 $6oOto $799...... 151 II4 75 23 I5 41 27 38 25 12 8 $8 00to $899...... 73 59 8i 8 ii 19 26 25 34 7 10 $900 to $I099..... 94 70 74 8 8 19 20 30 32 13 I4 Siioo and over.- 48 37 77 4 8 7 15 10 21 i6 33 TABLE 74.-ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AWAY FROM HOME AND AT HOME. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE AND NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING.-BY INCOME. REPORTING ALCo- AVERAGE EXPENsouIc DRINKS DITURE FOR ALcOAVERAGE AT Hosss. DOLIC DRINKS AT TOTAL EXPEN- HHE HOME AND) AWAY. Nux- AVERAGE DITuRE INCOME. BER OF INCOME FOR ALFABfI- (TOTAL). COROLIC Averae Per LIES. DRINKS Num- Expen Ae- cent. of AT Hoanx her F ture of Average Average Famu- Families AmoUnt. Total lies. Reporting. Income. $400 to $599...... 25 $503.03 $14.I3 20 $17.67 $18.47 2.7 $6oo to $699. --- 72 650.17 i8.o6 56 23.23 27.25 4.2 $7oo to $799. --- — 79 748.83 20.93 58 28.51 32.52 4.4 $800 to $899. ---— 73 846.26 24.68 59 30.53 37.65 4-4 $90o to $999. ---— 63 942.03 22.91 46 31.38 36.56 3.9 $iooo to $10999 ----. -31 1044.48 28.67 24 37.03 50.67 4.9 $00oo to$uiI99,.....i8 1137.42 39.63 14 50.95 59.96 5.2 I49 0 TABLE 75.-MILK. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING GIVEN PRICES.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 NATIONALITY. Num- Number Paying for Milk Num- Number Paying for Milk Num- Number Paying for Milk her of per qt.: ber of per qt.: ber of per qt.: Fai- Fai- Families. 4.c. 5c. 6c. 8c. ioc. * ilies dC. Sc 6c. 8c. oc. * ilies. 4C. Sc. 6c. 8c. loc. * United States............... I.. 6 3 I I 19 I 7 2 6 3 13.. 8.. 3 2 Teutonic.......................... 4 I I.. - 2 7 i 5 - I 9 I 5 2 I Irish............................. 4 I I I.. 7 — 5 i -- 7.. 2 2 3 Colored........................... o....2 5. 2 I 2 8.... 2.. 4 2 Bohemian........................ 4 i 3..... 3 I 2... 3 I 2.... Russian........................... i6 2 8 3 3.- 14 2 8 4.... 2.. 12...... Austrian, etc...................... 6 I 2 2.. 8.. 6 2.. 9 2 6 i.. Italian............................ I I 16.. - 7 i.... 3. 7 2 Total............................. 71 6 34 Io 20 I 77 5 42 15 4 73 4 40 5 i8 6 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. NATIONALITY. Num- Number Paying for Milk Num- Number Paying for Milk Num- Number Paying for Milk ber of per qt.: ber of per qt.: ber of per qt.: Fam- - -- -- Fam- Families. 4C. 5c. 6c. 8c. oc. * ilies. 4c. 5c. 6c. 8c. ioc. * ilies. 4c. Sc. 6c. 8c. ioc. * United States..................... 6.. 8 3 2 8 3 4 I. 67 I 32 I2 14 8 Teutonic............................ 3 3 58.. 7 -- I 39 3 21 5 9 I Irish............................. 5 -- 4 - -...... I I I24 I 13 4 6 Colored.............................. I I I.. 26.. I 2 2 IO 2 Bohemian.......... 4 I 3.............. 4134- 4 o.... Russian........................... 9 6 2 1 6 5.... 5.... 57 439 104 Austrian, etc...................... 7 i 4.. I.. I..... 31 4 19 6 2 Italian............................ 9.. 4 5 6 I..5 57.. 20 2 33 2 Total............................ 63 2 32 IO 17 2 31..i8 5 8.. 315 I17 i66 41 78 13 * Condensed milk. -4r 14 TABLE 76.-MILK. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING GIVEN PRICES.-BY INCOME. FAMILIES PAYING FOR MILa PER QUART. NUMBER OF INCOME. FAMILIES. c. and 6c. 8c. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. $600 to $699................... 72 44 6i 20 28 $700 to $799.................. 79 53 67 5 19 $8ooto $899.................. 73 45 62 8 25 $900 to $999............. 63 42 67 I7 24 $Iooo to $o99................... 3 23 74 8 26 $6oo to $799................... 5 97 64 35 23 $8oo to $899........... 73 45 62 i8 25 $900 to $1099................... 94 63 69 25 27._ -.~~~~~~~2 TABLE 77.-ICE. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS AND AVERAGE AMOUNT EXPENDED.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. %) ws $600 To $699 $700 TO $799 $800 To $899 xpenditure Expenditure Expenditure R. Reported. t Reportedi g Reported. NATIONALITY. | 1^6 I 11 |i ' I 1 1 United States... i... 5 5 9 $4.8o0 19 4 7 8 12 $4.60 13 2 I 3 7 II $4-93 Teutonic.......... 4 2 I I 4 2.45 7 I I I 4 6 4-74 9.- 6 3 9 5.25 Irish.......4..'. ' 1 1 2 4 3 2. 3.40 7 I 5 I 6 3-73 7 '. 4 2 7 3.84 Colored........... I 2 5 3 IO 324 6 3 3 5 4.67 8.. I 4 3 6 4.55 Bohemian......... 4 - I 3 3 5-57 3 I I I. 21.33 3. I 2 3 2.20 Russian........... 6 4 2 6 4 11 304 4 2 3 2 7 125.26 2.. 3 8 I 6.23 Austrian, etc....... 6 2.. 3 5 3.69 9 2 1 I 5 7 4.46 9-.. I 8 9 6.12 Italian.......... 6 2. 1 6 7 14 5-15 I4 3 -- 7 4 I3 3-99 12 I 7 4 II 535 Total.......... 72 ii 26 26 59 3-9371 6 27 32 634.4273 5 3 0 35 -- 67 5.14 $900 To $999 $1000 To $1099 TOTAL. Expenditure Expenditure..Expenditure " Reported. 0 Reported. ], g IReported. NATIONALITY. i|. 2 o k. 2. | l | z |Za* |8 8 gl ^ ^1Z | 88O o Z United States.. i6...... 6 2 5 913 $5.79 i i 6 8$6.13 6710 I 21 35 53 $6.07 Teutonic..........1 I 2 I 4 4 9.35 8. I 7 79.32 393 413 19 35 6.oo00.Irish51..5 3 I 44.40......... 245 I 14 4 20 4.43 Colored........... 2.... I 2 4.20 2403 14 Io 23 4.10 Bohemian......... 41.. I 2 4 4.50....4...... 422 5 5 124.24 Russian..9.. 2.. 7 87.80 6. 6 68.68 577 7 1 32 48 6.39 Austrian, etc....... 7.... 3 4 7 4.71 I.I 9.10 324 2 5 2I 29 5.70 Italian. 9 2 — I__. 9_2_.. 3 4 9 4.50 6I. 3 2 65.19 57 9i 26 21 53 5.71 Total............. 63 8 3 20 32 56 5.27 31 3.. 6 22 28 7.05 318 41 2I 109 II47 273 5.63 O ur TABLE 78.-ICE. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS AND AVERAGE AMOUNT EXPENDED.-BY INCOME. EXPENDITURE REPORTED..........-............_-_________ H AVING A VERAGE TOTAL REPRIGERATORS. AMOUNT NmEaR None. Under $I.oo. $x.oo to $5.oo. Over $5.00. ExINCOME. o PENDED FAMILIES. BY Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per Number Per FAMILIES ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. mbe Cent. SPENDING. $600 to $699................. 72 I 5 9 13 26 36 26 36 59 82 $4-64 $700 to $799-........ — 79 14 I7 6 8 27 34 32 41 63 80 5-37 $800 to $899................ 73 5 7 3 4 30 4I 35 48 67 92 5-52 $900 to $999............ 63 8 I3 3 5 20 31 32 51 56 89 6.04 $Iooo to $1o99............... 3I 3 IO.... 6 20 22 70 28 90 7.80 Total......................... 38 41 3 2 7 9 34 47 46 273 8 563 $400 to $599................ 25 9 36 3 I2 9 36 4 I6 I6 64 3.66 $6ooto $799-.*...5.. 15I 25 17 I5 0I 53 34 58 38 I22 8I 5.02 $800 to $899................. 73 5 7 3 4 30 41 35 48 67 92 5-52 $900 to $o99................. 94 II 12 3 3 26 28 54 57 84 90 6.63 $IIOO and over................. 48 7 4 I 2 8 17 32 67 36 75 9.21* * Average for thirty-two families buying ice, having incomes from $I oo to $1599. THE STANDARD OF LIVING NOTE ON DETAILS OF FOOD-BUDGETS To illustrate the items of detail in expenditures for food, six fairly representative schedules are presented in detail; 2 American, I Russian, I Austrian and 2 Italian. Three are chosen from families having an income between $6oo00 and $700, and 3 from families, comparable in nationality, with incomes of about $90oo. This selection makes possible a comparison of the diet of a family somewhat below the normal standard of living, with that of one not far above the normal. i. The first family is that of an American truck-driver, living in Harlem. The father earns $12 a week, $600 a year. The family consists of the man and his wife and 3 children, aged 2, 4 and 8 years. The nutrition demanded weekly for this family is the equivalent of that required for an adult man for 22 days. The dietary analysis made by Dr. F. P. Underhill (see Appendix VI, page 319) showed a total of I02 grams of protein and fuel-values to the amount of 2504 calories, both reckoned per man per day. The average expenditure, on the same basis, was 21.6 cents per man per day. The details of the weekly food-budget are as follows: Meats and fish: WEEKLY EXPENDITURE. 4 Ibs. fresh beef................... $.48 4 lbs. salt beef.....................28 I lb. ham..........................16 I lb. chicken (4 Ibs. once a month)...14 I lb. fish (4 Ibs. once a month).......05 $. II Eggs, dairy products, etc.: I lb. butter.......................27 14 eggs............................25 7 qts. milk........................70 I can condensed milk...............o 1.32 Cereals: 12 loaves bread......................6o 3~ doz. rolls........................35 r package crackers.................0o I package breakfast-food............1 Flour..............................05 I.20 Carried forward $3.63 154 FOOD Brought forward $3.63 Vegetables and fruits: 2 qts. potatoes..............16 Turnips, onions, etc.............. lb. dried peas.................... 05 i can tomatoes.................... o8 Fresh fruit.........................05.44 Sugar, tea, etc.: lb. tea......................... 18 34 lbs. sugar...................... 17 Molasses (i pt. monthly).............03 i bottle pickles.................48 Alcoholic drinks: 2 pints beer........................20.20 Total......................... $4.75 2. The following is the food-budget for an American family living on East 8oth street. The father drives an express-wagon; the family consists of the parents, 3 girls, aged 14, io, and 2, and i boy 9 years old. The father's earnings amount to $8I6, supplemented by $I44 from other members of the family. The dietary equivalents per week amount to what would be needed by I man for 26 days. The dietary analysis shows a total of 129 grams of protein and 3483 calories per man per day, and the average expenditure per man per day is 27 cents. The weekly expenditures are reported as follows: Meats and fish: WEEKLY EXPENDITURE. 5 lbs. beef....................... $o.68 lb. beef......................... 03 24 lbs. pork........................40 2 lbs. ham.........................19 i lb. mutton (4 Ibs. once a month)...8 4 lb. chicken (goose at Christmas $2.00; chicken once in 3 months, 85 cts.)....................10 I4 Ibs. fresh fish...................20 ~ can salmon....................... 07 $i.85 Carried forward $.85 155 THE STANDARD OF LIVING Brought forward $i.85 Eggs, dairy products, etc.: I lb. butter........................30 ~ lb. cheese........................15 I5 eggs.........................25 21 qts. milk........................ i.05.75 Cereals: 21 loaves (stale) bread...............53 I dozen rolls.......................10 Cake twice a week...................20 Rice (i lb. a month).................02 Flour (3~ lbs. twice a month).........o6 Oatmeal....................5...... Grapenuts, etc...................1 3.09 Vegetables, fruits, etc.: 6 qts. potatoes (8 to 12 cents)..........6o Turnips or carrots..................0. o3 2 Ibs. onions.........................09 Fresh vegetables.................... 70 Dried beans and peas................ 03 i can tomatoes.......................o I can corn monthly, per week..........03 elly (6 glasses a year at IO cents)......o01 resh fruit...........................25 Dried prunes (I lb. a month)..........3 1.87 Sugar, tea, coffee, etc.: Ii Ibs. coffee.........................30 Id Ibs. sugar.........................og Syrup, lo-cent can twice a year.......01 Pickles and spices....................05 Alcoholic drinks: Beer, io cents in 2 months.............0.46 Total........................... $7.02 3. The following is the food report for a Russian family in Brooklyn (Brownsville). The father is a carpenter (non-union) with wages of $15 a week, but, on account of unemployment, earning only $600 a year, which is the entire income of the family. Besides the parents there are 4 boys, aged 6, 4, and 2 years and 6 months, respectively, making a food equivalent of 3.3 units, the 156 FOOD weekly requirement being that of I man for 22 days. The foodvalues amount to 1 5 grams of protein and 2710 calories per man per day. The expenditure amounts to 2I cents per man per day. Meats and fish: WEEKLY EXPENDITURE. 7 Ibs. beef....................... $0.84 I lb. mutton................16 2 Ibs. fish..........................20 2 cans salmon.....................28 $1.48 Eggs, dairy products, etc.: 2 Ibs. butter.......................64 2 packages cheese..................o8 I dozen eggs......................24 6 qts. milk (at Straus depot).........20 3 cans condensed milk...............30.46 Cereals: 7 loaves of bread...................56 24 rolls...........................20 31 Ibs. flour.......................1 ~ lb. cereal........................02.88 Vegetables and fruits: 6 Ibs. potatoes.................... 2 Ibs. onions...................... Fresh vegetables...................o I lb. dried beans..................o8 I lb. dried peas....................04 Fresh fruit.........................15 4 lb. dried prunes...................o6.58 Sugar, tea, etc.: lb. tea.................0........ 05 X lb. coffee........................05 31 lb. sugar........................20 i lb. spice.........................02.32 Alcoholic drinks: (Wine on holidays, $I.50 a year).....03.03 Total $4.75 I57 THE STANDARD OF LIVING 4. The report which follows is for an Austrian family on East 82nd street. The father is a shipping-clerk, earning $760 a year, to which is added $Io4 from a lodger. There is a boy of I2 and a girl of 3. The weekly food requirements of the family are equivalent to those of an adult man for 20 days. The dietary computations show a total of 150 grams of protein per man per day and 3685 calories, at a cost of 35 cents per man per day. Meats and fish: WEEKLY EXPENDITURE. 4 Ibs. beef........................ $072 ~ lb. corned beef (cooked).............15 2 lbs. mutton........................36 4 Ibs. chicken.......................75 2 lbs. fish..........................25 I can salmon.........................1 $2.33 Eggs, dairy products, etc.: I lb. butter.........................I I lb. cheese........................ 32 16 eggs weekly (in summer)............25 21 qts. milk (4 cents)..................84 1.51 Cereals: 7 loaves bread...................... 35 49 rolls (7 for 5 cents daily)............35 2 boxes crackers......................o 31 lbs. flour.......................Io I box breakfast-food................. 14 1.04 Vegetables, fruits, etc.: 4 qts. potatoes.......................20 i Ibs. onions...................... o6 Carrots..............................05 Fresh vegetables..................... 4 qt. dried beans.................... ~ qt. dried peas..................... 06 Cucumbers (io cents weekly in summer).05 Jelly (I2 cents weekly in winter). o6 Oranges and bananas................ 4 lb. nuts in winter.................. I. II Carried forward $5-99 I58 FOOD Brought forward $5.99 Sugar, tea, etc.: ilb. tea............................05 l Ib. coffee..........................o I box cocoa.................0........ 3~ lbs. sugar.......................18 Spices.............................. 04.47 Alcoholic drinks: i int bottle whiskey.................50 ine....................... o8.58 Total $7.04 5. An Italian family living on West Houston Street makes the report of food-expenditures that follows. The father is a longshoreman, earning $14 a week, or allowing for unemployment, $672 a year. The family consists of the parents, the woman's father, a girl of 13, a boy of 9 and a boy of 14 months. The nutriment required amounts to 4.2 in terms of an adult man, and the weekly requirement is the equivalent of food for i man for 29 days. The dietary analysis shows o16 grams of protein and 3888 calories per man per day, at a cost of 24 cents per man per day, or of 20 cents for everything except beer. Meats and fish: WEEKLY EXPENDITURE. I lbs. beef.................o........$o.9 3 Ibs. fish......3..0 $1.20 Eggs, dairy products, etc.: 7 lbs. lard......................... 50 3 lb. cheese.........................5 8 eggs..............................20 7 qts. m ilk.......................... 35 1.20 Cereals: 21 loaves bread....................... I.05 4 bs. flour......................... 14 14 lbs. macaroni (American)....98 2.17 Carried forward $4.57 I59 THE STANDARD OF LIVING Brought forward $4-57 Vegetables, fruit, etc.: 3 qts. potatoes...................... 15 nions............................ 05 Fresh vegetables.....................I 2 Ibs. dried beans................... 15 Fresh fruits.........................55 Sugar, tea, etc.: I lb. coffee..........................3 3 Ibs. sugar......................... I qt. olive oil.20.73 Alcoholic liquors: 14 pints beer.........................40 1.40 Total $7.25 6. Another Italian family, that of a printer, living on Oliver Street, is comprised of father, mother, a boy of 9 years and a girl of 7. The man earns $884 a year, which is the sole income of the family. The nutriment required for the family is 2.8 times the requirements of an adult man, and the weekly requirement is equivalent to that for one man for 20 days, The food-analysis shows 176 grams of protein, and 4390 calories per man per day at a cost of 33 cents per man per day. The weekly expenditures for food are reported as follows: Meats and fish: WEEKLY EXPENDITURE. 8 Ibs. beef.......................$1.28 X lb. bologna sausage.................I 9 lbs. fish...........................54 5 Ibs. salt fish......................35 $2.27 Eggs, dairy products, etc.: 2 lbs. lard.......................25 ~ lb. Roman cheese...................I I doz. eggs......................... 25 7 qts. m lk.......................6 7 Carried forward $3.44 i6o FOOD Brought forward $3.44 Cereals: 14 loaves bread......................70 9 lbs. flour..........................27 5 Ibs. macaroni (imported)............35 1.32 Vegetables and fruits: qts. potatoes.......................25 urnips.............................05 Onions..............................15 Carrots.............................Io Fresh vegetables......................40 4 Ibs. dried beans...........40 2 lbs. dried peas......................15 Fresh fruit...........................20 Dried fruits..........................5 1.85 Sugar, tea, etc.: 1 lb. coffee......................... 12 2 lbs. sugar.........................12 I qt. olive oil....................... 5 74 Alcoholic drinks: 7 pints beer.........................70.70 Total $8.05 A comparison of these selected budgets shows some features that are typical of the classes that they represent. The Italian schedules show a dependence on vegetable food for a larger part of the protein provided than do those of the other nationalities. Olive oil and lard take the place of butter; macaroni and dried beans and dried peas furnish their share of protein. The poorer families throughout buy cheaper kinds of food,-more bread and less meat, for instance, and cheaper qualities of the same kind of food. Of the $6oo families, none provides the standard amount of both protein and fuel-food, and the expenditure in each case is under the 22-cent minimum suggested by Dr. Underhill. In the 3 schedules for higher incomes, the standard amount of protein and fuel-value is provided, but the cost ranges from 27 to 35 cents per man per day. The Italian family gets more of both protein and fuel-values for 33 cents, than the Austrian family for 35 cents. ~II~.; r16i THE STANDARD OF LIVING 5. CLOTHING. I. AMOUNT AND PERCENTAGE OF EXPENDITURE FOR CLOTHING.The expenditure for clothing increases steadily with increase of income, as shown in the table of averages (Table 79, page 172), and the percentage of expenditures devoted to this purpose also increases, as may be seen in the following summary, taken from Table 79: AVERAGE PER CENT. OF NUMBER OF EXPENDITURE TOTAL EXPENDIINCOME. FAMILIES. FOR CLOTHING. TURE. $600 to $699......72 $83.48 12.9 700 to 799.... -79 98-79 13.4 8oo to 899.....3 I I359 4o. 900oo to 999......63 132.34 I4.6 1000 to 1099......31 155-59 15.5 Of the nationalities represented, the Italians report the smallest expenditure for clothing, the Austrians and Russians next. The highest averages and percentages are found among the Bohemians, and the American, Teutonic and Irish families are above the average in almost every income-group. Considered by occupations (Table 16, page 73) the laborers report clothing-expenditures somewhat below the average for all families of the corresponding income-groups, the teamsters are close to the general average, and the garment-workers are distinctly below the average. The following table shows the figures for all the income-groups where more than 3 families are represented: ALL FAMILIES. LABORERS. TEAMSTERS. GARMENT-WORKERS. INCOME. Ave. Pe er v Pe r Av Per Per Cent. Av Cent. Cent. Cent. $6o0-$699 $83.48 26.9 $ 76.67 2.1 $79-42 123 $80.85 12.7 $700-$799 98.79 13-4 I05.57 I4. 97.09 I3.4 82.90 11.6 $8o0-$899 I13-59 140o 96.94 13.0 126.76 14.7 92.73 I.7 $900-$999 I32.34 I4.6...9... 95.59 II.I $Iooo-$Io99 155.59 I5-5 4 -- - 1I44-53 13.3 A certain offset in the case of the garment-workers is to be found in their greater opportunities for making their own clothes. 162 CLOTHING In the slack season of the garment-trades the men are often found, when materials are procurable, making clothing for the members of the family. Inquiry was made as to gifts of clothing received by the families interviewed. While the answers bring out no very exact data as to the value of the gifts received, they do show that a large proportion of the families on the lower incomes depend upon gifts to keep up such standard in regard to dress as they maintain. The figures may be found in Table 80 (page 173), from which it appears that 87 of the 318 families with incomes between $600 and $I 1oo, or 27 per cent., report gifts of clothing. Separating the American, Teutonic, Irish and colored families from the others, we find that in 71 of the 158 cases of these nationalities, or 45 per cent., gifts of clothing are reported, as against only I6, or IO per cent., among the 16o families of Bohemians, Russians, Austrians and Italians. The tabulation by income-groups shows that until the $0oo level is reached, more than one-quarter of all families, or more than 40 per cent. of those included in the four nationalities first named above, report gifts of clothing. Inasmuch as these four nationalities also report a higher average expenditure than the South-European families, it seems a safe inference that a higher standard prevails, in the matter of dress, among the American and North-European families of our group than among the Russians, Austro-Hungarians and Italians. The apportionment of expenditure for clothing among the different members of the family is a subject of some interest. In Table 81 (page 174) may be found the average amount, by incomegroups, and the percentage of the total outlay for clothing that is expended for each member of the family. In the case of the children, the average is obtained by adding the amount for each boy or each girl reported, and dividing by the number of families reporting expenditure for boys or for girls.' The amount for each child as included in the addition aboye described, is the amount reported for each boy or girl were one is reported in the family; when more than I boy or more than I girl is reported, the amount entered is the average amount expended per boy, or per girl, in the given family. Table 8i I-III shows the averages and percentages, first, for all the 318 families; second, I63 THE STANDARD OF LIVING for the 231 families which report no gifts; third, for the 87 families reporting gifts. The amount expended for each member of the family increases with each rise in the income-scale in almost every instance. In the case of the families receiving gifts, however, the movement is quite erratic, perhaps because the amount of gifts received bears no necessary relation to income. The father's clothing takes about one-third of the clothing-allowance, the mother's about one-fifth; each child from one-eighth to one-sixth. It appears in the table that the father's clothing costs more than that of any other member of the family, and also that the percentage, but not the actual amount, diminishes as income increases. In the case of families without gifts,-perhaps the most significant for this comparison,-the father spends, on the average, 35.6 per cent. of all that is spent for clothing, in the case of families with incomes of between $600 and $7oo, as against 29.3 per cent. in the case of families with incomes of from $Iooo to $I ioo. The mother's percentage remains nearly constant, but is lowest in the $1ooo income-group, where it is 20.3 per cent. The mother, that is, spends much less on her clothing than the father. Even in the families with incomes of over $i ioo, hardly a case was reported in which the woman spent as much for clothing as the man. The boys and girls stand nearly on an even footing as regards expenditure for clothing. The average for each boy is, however, a trifle above that for each girl, in each income-group. The children's clothing consumes a larger proportion of all that is spent for clothing in the case of higher incomes than in the lower. In the $600 group, I2.5 per cent. of the total goes for each boy, 12.2 per cent. for each girl; in the $Iooo income-group the percentages are I5.7 and 6.1 respectively. This increase may be in part referred to the fact that a larger proportion of the children among the families with higher incomes are wage-earners (see page 57), and that these children are likely to need relatively large expenditure for clothing, by reason both of age and of occupation.* * The money-value of the assistance received in the way of gifts may be inferred from a comparison of the averages for the families "without gifts" and "with gifts." This is an uncertain reliance, however, since several families "with gifts" report a larger clothing-bill than other families of the same income and nationality "without gifts." It may be noted, however, for what it is worth, that the average 164 CLOTHING Table 82 (page 175) shows, for the incomes above $1Ioo and below $6oo, the data regarding expenditure for clothing. The tendency of clothing to claim a larger part of the income as income increases appears also in these scattering cases, as well as the tendency for the father's dress to claim a diminishing proportion of the whole expenditure for clothing. In the averages of the 6 families with $ 500 incomes the [mother's amount ($54.34) and percentage (21) approach more nearly to the father's ($66.47, or 25.5 per cent.) than on the lower incomes. But the number of families is too few to warrant anything more than the suggestion that it is only in families with a relatively high standard of living that the woman is able to spend more on dress than her husband. In Table 83 (page 176) is given the average expenditure for clothing for each member of the family, by nationalities, of the families without gifts of clothing in two representative incomegroups ($700-799 and $9oo-999). These tables are given to permit a comparison of nationalities in regard to the point before us. The general tendencies already noticed appear in most cases. In every case save the Austrians the father's percentage is less on the higher income than on the lower. The Irish, Bohemian, Russian and Italian mothers spend a larger percentage of the total on the higher income than on the lower. The proportion expended for Italian children is exceptionally low, but this is accounted for in part by the low average age of the children reported in the Italian schedules. 2. ESTIMATE OF THE CLOTHING NECESSARY FOR A NORMAL FAMILY AND ITS CST. —On the basis of the averages of expenditures and the details given in typical schedules, the following estimate is made of the articles of clothing needed annually by a normal family, consisting of father, mother, and 3 children; for instance, a girl of io, a boy of 6 and a boy of 4: total expenditure for clothing is less by $6.39 in the $600 income-group for families with gifts than for those without, and in the $iooo income-group is less by $30.63. The figures are as follows: FAMILIES FAMILIES INCOME. WITHOUT GIFTS. WITH GIFTS. DIFFERENCE. $600 to $699........... $85.70 $79.3I $6-39 700 to 799.-....-o102.79 86.99 i5.8o 800 to 899......... I13.63 113.49 0.14 900 to 999........ 35.67 I22.06 13.6I iooo to I99............62.49 I31.86 30.63 I65 THE STANDARD OF LIVING FOR THE MAN. 2 hats or caps.......... I overcoat*............ I suit................. I pair pantaloons....... 2 pair overalls.......... 3 working shirts........ 2 white shirts.. 6 collars............... 4 ties................. 4 handkerchiefs........ Summer underwear..... Winter underwear...... 6 pair hose............. 2 pair shoes............ Repair of shoes......... Gloves or mittens....... FOR EACH BOY. 2 hats................ i overcoat............ I suit................. I pair trousers......... 2 waists............... Summer underwear..... Winter underwear...... 6 pair stockings......... 2 pair shoes............ Repair of shoes......... Mittens............... $2.00 5.00 10.00 2.00 1.50 I.00 1.00.6o.50.30 1.00.6o0 4.oo00 1.50.50 $33.00 $0.50 2.50 2.50.50.50 ~50 1.00.50 2.00 1.25.25 FOR THE WOMAN. I hat................ $I.50 i cloakt............... 2.50 2 dresses of wash goods 2.50 i woolen dress......... 5.0o 3 waists............... 1.50 I petticoat.............50 Linen, etc...............70 Summer underwear......50 Winter underwear...... I.oo 6 handkerchiefs........45 Gloves or mittens......50 3 aprons...............50 6 pair stockings......... 2 pair shoes............ 3.00 Repair of shoes.........25 Sundries...............oo $23.00 FOR THE GIRL. 2 hats................ $.25 I cloak................ 2.00 4 dresses of wash goods 2.00 I woolen dress.......... I.50 4 waists............... oo 2 petticoats.............50 Summer underwear......50 Winter underwear...... i.oo Ribbons, etc............50 6 handkerchiefs.......25 Gloves or mittens.......25 6 pair stockings.........50 2 pair shoes............ 2.50 Repair of shoes.........25 $5.oo0 SUMMARY. For the man...........$33.00 For the woman......... 23.00 For2 boys, each $12.00.. 24.00 For I girl.............. 15.00 For washing.. o0.00 $105.oo $12.00 FOR WASHING. Soap, etc. (I5 cts. a week) $7.50 Laundry ( 5cts. a week) 2.50 $10.00 * Costs $1o to $I5, lasts 2 or 3 years. i66 t Costs $5, lasts 2 years. CLOTHING Such an estimate presupposes, on the part of the mother, a high grade of efficiency in mending and remaking. It makes a meager allowance for outside garments, and one quite insufficent for men in certain occupations. It seems within bounds to assume that less than $1oo will not suffice to provide decent clothing for a normal family of five.* Assuming, then, that less than $1oo marks a standard in G4 ~ n n n.n 6n Io _ - *fj_____ u <26:Zc' | | ' ~~lB.*r ' ci DIAGRAM 13.-Number of under-clad families in each of the principal incomegroups. (See Table 84, page I77.) clothing below the normal, the families reporting less than this amount have been counted and designated "under-clothed." An exception has been made in the case of garment-workers, and $80 has been assumed as the minimum expenditure indispensable for the families of those in this occupation (page 162). Tables 84-87 (pages 177-179) show the results of this analysis. *The writer is not prepared to affirm the converse statement that $1oo will suffice to provide decent clothing for the ordinary family of five. 167 THE STANDARD OF LIVING Of the 318 families with incomes between $600 and $I 1oo, 126, or 40 per cent., report less than $ioo spent for clothing.* By incomes, 57 per cent. of the families with incomes of between 6oo and $800 are under-clad, 32 per cent. of those with incomes of $8oo to $9oo, and 18 per cent. of those with incomes between $90oo and $I Ioo. Of those with incomes below $600 we find that three-quarters are under-clothed, while only I in 12 of the families (4nM60 dAp&o - _- [ --- DIAGRAM 14.-Number of under-clad families in each of the nationality-groups. with over $I 1oo to spend falls in this category. By nationalities, the under-clad families are most frequent in the group comprising Russians, Austrians, Italians, and Bohemians, where they comprise 79 out of i6o families, or 49 per cent. Of the other nationalities (American, Teutonic, Irish, colored), the under-clad number 47 out of I58 families, or 30 per cent. Thirteen, however, of the * Of the garment-workers, only those reporting less than $80 are included in the 126 enumerated as under-clad. Twelve garment-workers' families reported between $80 and $ioo for clothing. 168 CLOTHING 28 colored families are under-clad. Considered with reference to sources of income, we find (Table 85, page 177, and Table 125, page 241), that with the exception of families having incomes between $600 and $700, the under-clad are less frequent, relatively, among families supported by the father alone than among all families. In tabular form this will readily be seen:* UNDER-CLAD FAMILIES. PER CENT. OF ALL PER CENT. OF UNDERINCOME. FAMILIES. CLOTHED FAMILIES. $6oo to $699.............63.9 76 700 to 799........... 50.6 46 8o to 899.............30.1 22 9oo to 999...........54.0 31 o000 to 1099.............25.8 Considered with reference to the reporting of surplus or deficit at the end of the year, the under-clad families make the same sort of showing as the under-fed and over-crowded. Table 86 (page 178) shows that the under-clothed are the families that, as a rule, oftener come within their income than all the families taken at large. Of the whole 318 families, 36.5 per cent. report an even balance (within $25.00) between income and expenditure, 36.5 per cent. report a surplus, and 27 per cent. a deficit (Table 119, page 235). Of the under-clothed families 32 per cent. report an even balance, 65 per cent. a surplus, and only 17 per cent. a deficit. The percentage reporting a deficit by income-groups, is as follows: FAMILIES REPORTING DEFICIT. PER CENT. OF ALL PER CENT. OF UNDERINCOME. FAMILIES. CLOTHED FAMILIES. $600 to $699.............29 25 700 to 799........... 25 I 5 800 to 89t..............3 3 9oo to 999............ 6 1000 to 1099............ 29 An examination of Table 86 shows that the Americans, the Teutons, and the colored have a larger proportion of families *In the above enumeration, families receiving gifts and reporting a clothing expenditure under $Ioo are counted as under-clothed, because so far as their own resources are concerned they are not able to maintain the standard. 169 THE STANDARD OF LIVING reporting deficit among their under-clothed than have the families representing the other nationalities. Only 2 of the 21 underclothed Russian families report a deficit, and these are both in the $6oo income-group. 3. WASHING.-Following the example of Le Play, expenditures for washing are included under the head of clothing, as pertaining to the up-keep of that part of the family equipment. In almost all of the families under consideration, the washing is done at home, involving an outlay of money only for soap and minor washing-materials. This is usually reported at from o1 to 15 cents a week. In some cases,-most frequent in our schedules among the Bohemian families, where the mother goes out to work, -some one outside the family is paid to do the washing. The same arrangement is reported for one or two families with an invalid mother. Table 88 (page 179) shows the average expenditure for washing, by income, and the number and per cent. of families spending (i) under $Io, (2) from $ o to $20, and (3) over $20 for washing. The average expenditure increases with each increase of income, from $8.36 for the $600 families to $13.53 for the $iooo group. By the $Io grouping, we see that more than threequarters of the $600 families and less than half of the $Iooo families, report less than $o0, while of the 14 families reporting more than $20, 3 only have incomes below $800, and 8 have incomes above $9oo. The average by nationalities (Table 89, page 180) shows some variations that appear arbitrary. But the Americans spend more and the Italians less than the average, in every income-group. Some aberrations in the averages, as in individual cases, are due to the inclusion of the cost of washing-materials in cases where the woman takes in washing. The sending of some articles to the laundry is reported by the majority of families. Table go (page 181) shows the details. Nearly half of the 151 families with incomes between $6oo and $800 send some work to the laundry, although only 13 of them spend more than IO cents a week. Two-thirds of the 94 families with incomes of $9oo to $i 0oo report sending work to the laundry, and 16 of them pay more than Io cents a week. The laundry finish is evidently a sign of a rising standard of living, for five17o CLOTHING sixths of the 48 families with over $I ioo a year send work to the laundry, and half of them pay more than io cents a week. The nationalities differ widely in their dependence on the laundry. Only one-eighth of the 57 Italian families and only 5 of the 28 colored families pay for work done by this institution. Sixty-eight per cent. of the American families resort to it, and 22 per cent. of them pay over o1 cents a week. Eighty-seven per cent. of the Russians depend upon it, 15 per cent. paying over Io cents a week. The work sent to the laundry is usually the collars and cuffs worn by the men and boys. 171 TABLE 79.-CLOTHING. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE AND PER CENT. OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE. -BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 NATIONALITY. Per Aveag P - A Avera e Average PerPer Aer Average Per er Average Per Am'un CeIAmoun Amount. Cent.* t.'g Amount. Cent* Amt. ent.* Amunt nt.* Aount. Cent.* United States.......... Ii $86.87 13.0 19 $II2.95 14.8 I3 $127.06 14.6 i6 $I43.26 I5.0 8 $I65.I8 I5.4 Teutonic............. 4 94.08 I4.0 7 85.65 11.3 9 143.14 I6.4 II 135.85 14.8 8 183.36 17.7 Irish............... 4 90.87 I3.7 7 I 9.08 x5.6 7 124.26 15.3 5 I49.17 I6.4 I 67.63 7.5 Colored.......... I.... n 85.46 13.1 6 14.o07 14.6 8 XI5.34 14.6 2 146.54 17.4 I 107.74 12.2 Bohemian............. 4 I I0.92 i6.0 3 111.67 I5.2 3 138.75 I6.5 4 181.79 I8.5.. Russian.....I.... I6 85.77 13.6 14 84.28 12.I 12 94.16 I2.2 9 113.16 I2.6 6 139.46 I3.3 Austrian, etc....... 6 62.48 I0.4 9 86.43 12.2 9 Io8.68 13.2 7 130.87 14.4 I 177.30 i8.i Italian.............. 6 74.02.2 4 89.14 2.7 2 86.28 1.5 9 9443 I.6 6 I40.84 15.7 Total.............. 72 83.48 12.9 79 98.79 13.4 73 113.59 14.0 63 132.34 I4.6 31 I55.57 I5.5 * Per cent. of expenditures for all purposes. CLOTHING TABLE 80. —CLOTHING. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING GIFTS. -BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 T 00 O $800 TO $ $900 TO $1000TO TOTAL $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Families. Familie. Families. Families. Families. Families. NATIONALITY. ~Q i -.. i- S~S l - i za z za i z a United States.. ii 7 19 9 13 5 16 8 8 3 67 32 48 Teutonic...... 4 4 7 3 9 3 I I 8 a 39 13 33 Irish.......... 4 2 7 2 7 4 5 2 I I 24 11 46 Colored....... 7 6 2 8 4 2 I I I 28 15 54 Bohemian.... 4 2 3 I 3.. 4.14 3 21 Russian....... I.. 14.. 12 9 2 6.. 57 3 5 Austrian, etc... 6 I 9 2 9 I 7 I I 32 5 I6 Italian....... 6 2 14 2 9 6.. 57 5 9 9 _I_ Total....... 72 25 79 21 73 I9 63 I5 31 7 318 87 27 TOTAL NUMBER OF NmBER REPORT- PER CENT. REPORT. INCOME. FAMIIES. ING Grr. iNG GIrTS. $400 to $599.......... 25 7 28 $600 to $799. —.. ---- I5- 46 30 $8oo to $899.......... 73 I9 26 $9oo to $io99....... 94 22 23 $IIoo and over.......... 48 6 13 I73 I- I - - I ~~~ I. I I. II I -- - II _ - _, " _ _ -, - ".1. - - -.-I, _ -n I. ----~-.-. ICI * - I _. ~, ~.,QI * _- ll I Irr- I I i-X l i -l- -. - -i" -: — ll" i -i - - -.", I T. - rr ~ r I-x i",. u - ~ - - rrr -, D11* TABLE 81.-CLOTHING. AVERAGES AND PER CENT. OF EXPENDItURE FOR EACH MEMBER OF THE FAMILY WITH AND WITHOUT GIFTS.-BY INCOME. I. AVERAGES FOR ALL FAMILIES. TOTAL EXPENDITURE EXPENDITURE FOR EXPENDITURE FOR EXPENDITURE FOR EXPENDITURE FOR FOR CLOTHING. FATHER'S CLOTHING. MOTHER'S CLOTHING. CLOTHING OF EACH Boy. CLOTHING OF EACH GIRL. 6o 6 INCOsME. g.. ~ g4 -4 8aa'~; It $6oo to $699.. 72 $83.48 12.9 72 $28.IO 33.6 72 $17.48 21.0 59 $io.68 12.8 63 $10.90 13.0 $700 to $799.. 79 98.79 13.4 79 34.19 34.6 79 20.23 20.5 65 12.98 13.2 68 12.23 I2.4 $8oo to $899.. 73 i13.59 i4.o0 73 34.o 30.0 73 22.76 20.0 66 16.13 14.2 62 15.96 14.1 $900 to $999.- 63 132.34 14.6 62 40.36 30.5 62 27.71 21.0o 56 19.29 14.6 57 i6.86 12.8 $1000 to $1099.. 31 155.57 15.5 30 44.02 28.3 30 32.25 20.8 27 24.32 15.7 23 24.79 i6.o II. AVERAGES FOR FAMILIES WITHOUT GIFTS OF CLOTHING. $6oo to $699.. 47 $85.70 13.2 47 $30.53 35.6 47 $18.62 21.7 35 $10.75 12.5 41 $10.48 12.2 $700 to $799. 58 102.79 14.0 57 36.28 35.0 57 22.49 21.9 48 13.68 13.3 5 12.17 II9 $8oo to $899.. 54 I13.63 I4.o 54 34.09 30.0 54 23.51 20.7 49 16.36 14.4 43 16.20 14.3 $900 to $999.. 48 I35.67 15.4 47 41.92 30.8 47 28.89 21.3 43 20.63 15.2 43 I7.21 12.7 $100ooo to $1099.. 24 162.49 16.2 24 47.57 29.3 24 32.90 20.3 22 25.44 15.7 I8 26.12 i6.i III. AVERAGES FOR FAMILIES RECEIVING GIFTS OF CLOTHING. $6oo to $699.. 25 $79.31 12.2 9 $16.97 21.4 8 $8.73 Ii.o 10 $8.48 IO.7 o10 $8.oi 10.1 $700 to $799.. 21 86.99 1i.8 10 24.67 28.4 II 11.98 13.8 7 6.66 77 9 9.35 Io.7 $8oo to $899.. 19 113.49 14.0 5 28.62 25.2 7 21.46 18.9 9 10.71 9.4 9 i6.14 I4.2 $900 to $999 15 122.06 13.4 8 27.42 22.4 7 15.21 12. 5 9.98 8.2 7 2.74 1o.5 $1000 to $1099.. 7 131i.86 13.1 2 22.88 17.4 3 13.88 10.5 2 28.39 215 3 8.97 14.4 TABLE 82.-CLOTHING. AVERAGES AND PER CENT. OF EXPENDITURE FOR EACH MEMBER OF THE FAMILY: INCOMES UNDER $600 AND OVER $1100.-BY INCOME. \n $400 to $499 -. $500 to $599 - 8 17 $ I00 to $1199.. $I200 to $1299.. $1300 to $I399 - - $I500 to $1599 -. i8 8 8 6 $60.65 67-95 $163.80 189.57 180.48 260.97 i3.0 12.4 I4.9 I5.2 I3-7 i6.8 8 I7 $16.30 25.26 27.0 37.0 i8 8 8 6 $58.06 56.04 52-35 66.47 35-4 29.5 29.0 25.5 8 I7 18 8 8 6 $9.89 14.8I i6.o 22.0 $38.49 41.46 41.8I 54.34 7 12 $I11.I 9-54 i8.o 14.0 7 14 23.5 22.0 23.0 21.0 i6 8 7 5 $I9.79 26.45 25.42 31.64 12.0 14.0 I4.o 12.0 $9.o6 7.88 I5 7 7 5 $18.13 20.15 28.05 54.09 I5.o 12.0 I 11.0 io.6 I5.5 20.7 TABLE 83.-CLOTHING. AVERAGES AND PER CENT. OF EXPENDITURE FOR EACH MEMBER OF THE FAMILY, FOR FAMILIES WITHOUT GIFTS.-BY NATIONALITY. INCOME $700 TO $799 Total Ex- Expenditure for Clothing of: penditure. E for Clothing. Father. Mother. Each Boy. Each Girl. NATIONALITY. S -o 8 z} Oa ~~ 01 ZI 0 0 0 -t 8 N "I 0 4. U 34 35 -4 36 36 8 0 0 0.15 -O 0 U;3 0 a U f94 '4 td Pk U $I H i 0 12 II I6 14 I3 13 14 14 13 0 I.0 8 0 z ~E 8 be 0 ba Z! a 0 Pc United States.......... Teutonic............. Irish................. Colored............... Bohemian............. Russian.............. Austrian, etc.......... Italian............... Total................. II 4 5 4 2 14 7 12 59 $13I-.4 95.8I 125.05 I 3.35 125.48 84.28 90.21 91.22 T02.79 Io0 3 5 4 2 14 7 12 57 $44-43 42.44 43.81 32.99 30.93 27-97 30.47 39.89 36.98 10 3 5 4 2 14 7 12 57 $29.10 26.18 24.99 28.62 Z8.i8 I8.o0 21.60 19.43 22.49 22 28 20 25 I4 21 24 21 22 IO 3 3 3 2 13 4 IO 48 $i5.50 10.93 20.26 16.2I 16.82 11.20 12.92 12.83 13.68 I0 2 4 4 2 13 5 5I $15.25 13.46 I6.40 11.59 I6.27 11.25 12.89 7.8i 12.17 12 14 13 IO 13 13 14 9 12 INCOME $900 TO $999 Total Ex- Expenditure for Clothing of: penditure for Clothing. Father. Mother. Each Boy. Each Girl. - I ~I NATIONALITY. I a 0 9 $158.12 136.20 i6I.8o 147.75 I8I.80 I2I.36 I37.6I 94.43 135.67 I i 0 k $47.6i 44.15 47.50 35.75 35.80 35.8I 46.98 37.7I 41.92.2 t 30 32 30 24 20 29 34 40 31 10 18 zs;I.3 bl4 o.: $28.35 33.63 39.33 2 1.20 27-94 28.69 29.51 22.13 28.89 U w 0 t-e iH U IM8 24 24 14 I6 23 22 23 22 *s 0._ @c S25.7I 23.07 21.82 I7.I7 26.47 22.03 18.98 Io.I6 20.63.1 0 I2 '8 II 17 13 12 i5 i8 14 15 a 6 T4 0 6 8 3 I 4 7 6 8 43 a - I$8.24 22.21 I9.77 17.43 28.54 13.23 17.11 8.35 17.21 0 U 16 Ca H IX 0 12 9 13 United States......... Teutonic............. Irish................. Colored............... Bohemian............. Russian............... Austrian, etc.......... Italian................ Total................. 8 io | 20 3 I 4 7 6 o 48 8 9 3 4 7 6 9 47 8 9 3 I 4 7 6 9 47 8 9 3 I 3 7 4 8 43 176 TABLE 84.-UNDER-CLOTHED FAMILIES.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. TOTAL UNDER-CLOTHED. NUMsER oF FxAnIEs. NUMNATIONALITY. BER OF $600 $700 $800 $900 $1000 FAMI- TO TO TO TO TO Total. LIES. $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 United States............... 67 6 7 2 4..- 19 Teutonic................... 39 2 4 I I.. 8 Irish....................... 24 3 2 I.. I 7 Colored.................... 28 3 I.... 13 Bohemian.................. 14.... Russian.................... 57 6 7 4 4.- 21 Austrian, etc............... 32 5 6 4 3.. IS Italian..................... 57 14 11 10o 4.. 39 Total...................... 318 45 41 23 I6 I 126 TABLE 85.-UNDER-CLOTHED FAMILIES. SOURCES OF INCOME.BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $700 To $799 [ ~ [ |. fr Income 'It.2i 4 from: $800 TO $899,4 on Income -S5 S-S. from: IS 11;;. 1,8Z~.. -4 0 I 0 44 QoU2 United States....... Teutonic........... Irish.............. Colored............ Bohemian......... Russian............ Austrian, etc...... Italian............ II 4 4 II 4 i6 6 i6 6 2 3 9 6 5 '4 6 i 3 7 5 5 7 I 2 I 7 I9 7 6 3 14 9 14 7 4 2 3 I 7 6 11 I I 2 6 2 7 6 4 I I I I 4 4 13 9 7 8 3 12 9 12 2 I I I 4 4 I0 I I 3 2 I I 3 4 7 Total..............72 45 34 - 79 4I 19 22 73 23 5 I8 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. J Income Income: N Y from: In o from: i _ _from: NATIONALITY~ 3. ~.~ - ' ' Father Other li: Only. Sources. C C: O. -__4______ 0 t No. IPer ct No. Per ct. United States.... i6 4 I 3 8...... 67 9 8 42 II 58 Teutonic......... i8 x.. 9 8 2 25 6 75 Irish............ 5 —...-..I 24 7 4 57 3 43 Colored.. 2.............. 28 13 9 70 4 31 Bohemian........ 4 1 I --..4 I oo00 Russian..........57 2I I2 57 9 43 Austrian, etc.... 7 3 1 2 I...... 32 I8 8 44 io 55 Italian...........9 43 I 6 57 3920 5I I9 49 Total............ 63i 5 I 31 I I I 3I 8 I26 63 50 63 50 12 177.. 12 177 TABLE 86.-UNDER-CLOTHED FAMILIES. NUMBER REPORTING SURPLUS AND DEFICIT.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. NATIONALITY. United States.... Teutonic....... Irish........... Colored......... Bohemian....... Russian......... Austrian, etc.... Italian..........:2 o4 6 2 3 9 6 5 14 45 $600 To $699 Number Reporting: 7 1 I. *E 8,a, 3 2 2 5 I I 4 i8. 4j i2 t' 2 2 3 4 5 i6 I 2 2 5 II $700 TO $799 -Q ing: 4 3 I I.. 7 4 I 2 6 2 4. i 4 5 2 41 15 20 6 I 23 23 1 -*^ *g8. fljD V 1. j.. 3 2 2...... 2.. 2.1. I I I 4 2 9 I8 $800 TO $899 4. Number Report-;PZ). ing: — 30 S~ J I 8%i~ I I I 3 Total........... $900 TO $999 Number Reporting: e1s i 8 I I.. 2 $1000 TO $1099 Number Reporting: TOTAL. NATIONALITY. United States. Teutonic..... Irish......... Colored...... Bohemian.... Russian...... Austrian, etc. Italian........5 'I "I 0 's 2 y 0 -o z i 8._ od m 2. Ci) I::.i - o.5 "3 1 I 2I 8 21 i8 39 126 Balance within $25.00. Surplus. I Deficit. Families Reporting: 4 I.. 4 3 4 I I I I I 2 3 2 3 I I.. I.... I 8 4 3 6 I I 3 6 9 40 I.; It I 3 42 50 43 1 47 100 14 33 23 32 6 2 3 4 i6 12 22 65 32 25 43 31 I 76 66 56 52 o S z 5 2 I 3 2 8 21 2 Iv U t 04 26 25 I4 23 10 IO 21 17 Total........ 6 Total.. I6 5 0 I I I I 178 CLOTHING TABLE 87.-UNDER-CLOTHED FAMILIES. NUMBER AND PER CENT. REPORTING SURPLUS AND DEFICIT.-BY INCOME. REPORTING. ~, o Balance within Surplus. Deficit. INCOME. $ ~ 25.00. Z Num- Per Num- Per Num- Per P ber. Cent. ber. Cent. ber. Cent. $600 to $699..... 72 45 I8 40 i6 35 II 25 $700 to $799....... 79 41 I5 37 20 48 6 I5 $8oo to $899...... 73 23 2 9 I8 78 3 13 $900 to $999.... 63 I6 5 31 Io 63 6 $IOOO to $1o99...... 3 I.... I I.. $6ooto $799....... 151 86 33 38 36 42 I7 20 $800to $899....... 73 23 2 9 I8 78 3 3 $900 to $1099...... 94 17 5 3~ II 64 i 6 Total................ 3I8 I26 40 32 65 52 21 17 TABLE 88.-WASHING. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTING GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. FAMILIE WITH EXPENDIRE OF: LAUNDRY. Families Ac N Over Families with S. __ penditure |INCOME. |oc. or Over $6oo00 to $699-. 72 $8.36 56 78 I5 2I I I I 27 38 22 31 5 7 $700 to $799 - - 79 9-78 5I 65 26 33 2 2 45 57 37 47 8 IO $800 to $899. 73 IO-99 40 55 30 4I 34 47 64 38 52 9 I2 $90o to $999- 63 II.OI 34 54 22 35 5 8 43 7~ 32 5I IO 2 / 4 les&~ 'oc. $1000 to $IO99- * 3I 13.53 I2 49 I5 40 3 II 20 65 14 5o 6 I9 $400 to $599 — 25 78.38 22 88 53 I2.... 12 44 1I 44 $600 to $799 — I5 9.1 I07 7I 4I 27 33 2 72 47 59 39 4 9 $800 to $899..- 73 IO.99 40 55 30 41 3 4 47 64 38 52 9 12 $900 to $I199.. 94 1.84 46 49 37 39 8 8 63 67 46 149 6 17 $9looto$1099. 9 11.84 46 49 37 39 8 8563 67 46 49 I6 17 $Ioo and over.. 48 20.24 12 25 22 46 I3 28 40 83 I6 33 24 50 I79 0 o TABLE 89.-WASHING. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699. $700 TO $799. $800 TO $899. $900 TO $999. $1000 TO $1099. United States.......... $903 $10.82 $14.7I $12.I7 $I2.80 Teutonic............ 6.62 13.18 II.95 7.11 I7.03 Irish................. 4.49 7.28 8.62 6.52 I7.68* Colored............... 950 9.25 12.67 11.70 13.00* Bohemian............. 2.48 I0.23 11.89 3I.o8 Russian............... 9.26 8.99 IO.47 9.00 Io.88 Austrian, etc......... 6.46 9.22 I0.4 11.32 15.00* Italian................ 7.32 9.21 7.58 8.o5 1.54 Total............... 8.36 9.78 10.99 1.oI 1 3.53 * One case only CLOTHING TABLE 90.-WASHING: LAUNDRY. NUMBER OF FAMILIES SPENDING GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 To $699. $700 To $799. $800 To $899. Number of Families. Number of Families. Number of Families. With Week- - With Week- With WeekNATIONALITY. ly Expendi- lyEen ly Expenditure of: ditureof ture of: 1 11 n ~ I II ^1! 0 0 United States....... 4 2 2 19 9 2 13 8 3 Teutonic.......... 4 3 3 7 3 2 9 8 6 2 Irish.............. 4... 7 3 3.. 7 5 4 1 Colored............ 2 1 6.. 8 I.. Bohemian..........4 2.. 3 3 3 3 3 3 Russian............ 6 10o I 14 14 12 2 12 10 8 2 Austrian, etc...... 6 3 3.. 9 7 6 I 9 9 9 Italian............. 6 2 I 14 3 2 12 Total...........72 27 22 5 79 45 37 8 73 47 38 9 $900 TO $999. $1000 TO $1099. TOTAL. With Expen- With With Number of Number of diture for Weekly Weekly Families. Families. Laundry. Expendi- Expen-- -^ -With- -- With k ture of diture 'NATIONALITY.. Weekly..Weekly.8 _Ioc. or of over We ekly. - less. loc. gg Expen- 3'c Expen- oa - - a diture of: ' S.5/ditureof:l.Z United States.. 6 15 9 6 8 5 3 2 67 46 68.7 3147 15 22 Teutonic. II5.... 5 - 8 6 6 39 2564.1 2154 4 10 Irish.......... 5 3 2 24 12500 1042 2 8 Colored....... 2........ 28 5 7.8 3 1 2 7 Bohemian..... 4 2 2...... 4 2 85.7 10 7 2 14 Russian....... 9 8..6 6 3 3 57 50 87.7 41 72 8 15 Austrian, etc.. 7 4 11 I I 32 25 78.1 22 69 3 9 Italian........ 9 6 6 -- 57 7 12.3 5 9 2 3 Total......... 63 43 32 i 31 20 14 6 38 82 57.0 143 4538 THE STANDARD OF LIVING 6. HEALTH. Expenditures for the maintenance of health and the cure of disease are so intermittent in the history of any family that it is not possible to treat them like the regularly recurring expenditure for food and rent. The average of the expenditures of a large number of families on account of sickness must strike a point that marks the mean of what is spent neither by families where sickness prevails nor by families free from serious illness. Nevertheless the averages, including a considerable number of families of each kind, may serve as an indication of the degree to which expenditure for this purpose increases as income increases. As may be seen from Table 91 (page 186) the average expenditure for health ranges from $13.78 for the families with incomes between $600 and $700 to $23.30 for families with incomes between $9oo and $1ooo. It falls to $I4.80 in the $1000iooo group, and rises, on account of a few cases where the amount is very high, to $40.18 for the $1roo families (Table 15, page 70). The percentage of total expenditure that is devoted to this purpose likewise fluctuates. It is 2.1 in the $600 group, 1.9 in the $700 group, 2.7 and 2.6 in the next two income-groups, but falls to 1.5 for the $rooo families. As between nationalities, it does not seem possible to make safe generalizations from the returns, by reason of the irregularities in the distribution of families with exceptional burdens of sickness to carry. More light may perhaps be had by counting the number of families reporting certain significant details. (See Table 94, page 189.) Thirty-seven of the 318 families, or Il.6 per cent., report no expenditure on account of health. These cases are distributed pretty evenly among the income-groups, indicating that it was absence of sickness, rather than poverty that prevented the outlay. The only income-group where every family reports expenditure for this purpose is the $I ioo group. The families not spending on this account are most numerous among the Americans, where 13 of the total 37 are found. No Bohemians, only I Italian family, and 2 Irish, are reported in the column of no expenditure. Table 93 (page I88) shows more clearly how expenditure for 182 HEALTH the cure of sickness increases as income increases. The table shows the number of families, by income and nationality, that report spending less than $io, from $io to $20, and so on. It will be seen that the number of families reporting the smaller sums is greatest in the lower income-groups and vice versa. Of the 132 families with incomes between $600 and $800 that report expenditure for health 48.5 per cent. spend less than $Io, as against 36.6 per cent. of the 82 families with incomes of from $goo to $i ioo that report expenditure for health. On the other hand, expenditures of $75 and over are reported by 13.4 per cent. of the families in the upper income classes ($oo to $1o99), and by but 3.8 per cent. of the families in the lower income-classes ($6oo to $799)-* This disparity is not due to relative infrequency of serious illness among the poorer families. The third column of Table 94 (page 189) shows that such cases are to be found in just about the same frequency all along the line. The fourth column, "free medical aid," suggests that the dispensary and the free hospital take the place, to a certain extent, of medical aid paid for entirely by the family. The percentage of families reporting free medical assistance diminishes from 40 per cent. for the 6oo families to 16 per cent. for the $Iooo families.t * The reports of the families with incomes below $600 and above $iioo show the following distribution of expenditures for health: INCOME INCOME EXPENDITURE. $400 TO $599. $1100 TO $1599. FAMILus. FAMLIES. None......................... 4 4 Under $...................10 14 $Io to $20................. 7 7 20 to 30................ --- 3 5 3o0 to 40................... 3 40 to 50................... I 2 50 to 75 --- —----------- - 2 50 to 75. 2 75 to IO................... I Over ioo................... 3 25 41 Of the three families spending more than $Soo one reports paying $og9, one $240, and one, with income of $S5oo, reports expenses of $600 for the mother in the hospital. Such expenditures are out of the question with the smaller incomes. One of these families with income of $600o reports that the son, 20 years of age, a medical student, prescribes for the family. t Little light is thrown by the schedules on the prevalence of the patent-medicine habit. One woman reported buying a 75-cent bottle of stomach medicine every 183 THE STANDARD OF LIVING The reports regarding dentistry indicate a deplorable lack of attention to the teeth on the part of the large majority in all income-groups. Only 51 out of the 318 families, or 16 per cent., report paying for dentistry. The percentage of families that do pay the dentist increases, however, with increase of income. Only I in 9 of the $600 families reports this expenditure, as against I in 4 of the $1ooo families. The details may be seen in the fifth column of Table 94 (page 189). The amount paid for dentistry varies from 50 cents for pulling a tooth, to $20 or more in exceptional cases. An examination of the cases of serious illness shows how such an illness draws on the slender resources of the family.* An American family, for instance, in the $700 income-group, reports spending $41.6o for a child who did not live, and for the mother, who suffers from nervous prostration. In another case in the same income-group an expenditure of $41.oo is reported, with the statement that the mother had pleuropneumonia, following the birth of a child. These families spent 6 per cent. of their income, or three weeks' wages of the man, for relief in sickness. Items of $31.00, $24.50, $33.00, $53.00 must involve an even heavier burden on the families with from $6oo to $700 that report them. In many cases where these expenditures on health-account are high, there is eviweek, another reports buying a 25-cent bottle of Castoria every month. For the most part, however, the medicine is prescribed by a visiting physician or at the dispensary. * The diseases reported include most of those prevalent in New York City. The enumeration of them would throw no special light on our present problem, for there seems to be no necessary connection between specific diseases and particular nationalities or income-groups, and the number of cases of any one disease must, with no more than 318 families, necessarily be small. Only 12 deaths are reported, but some were doubtless overlooked, since no point-blank question in the schedule relates to this point. Among the specifications most frequently reported are the following, the 318 families with incomes between $600 and $Sioo being considered: Pneumonia........................................ 3 cases Accidents......................................... 13 Measles......................................I.. I ' Tuberculosis...................................... 7 Diphtheria........................................ 7 Typhoid fever..................................... 6 Nervous prostration................................ 6 Female disorders.................................. 6 " Rheumatism................. 5 It is possible that tuberculosis was sometimes reported under another name. I84 HEALTH dent curtailment of expenditure in other directions. An abnormally low expenditure for the man's clothing appears in one schedule, wherein it is stated also that the man was laid up in the hospital for several weeks. In other cases where doctor's bills are large, expenditures for amusement and recreation and for miscellaneous purposes disappear. To judge from all these data, it seems that the liability to disease does not vary greatly in the different income-groups represented in our schedules, nor in different nationalities, but that the resources available for combatting disease are much more limited among families with only 700oo or 800 to live on. These families are accordingly thrown upon dispensaries and other free medical assistance, or else their members are left to succumb to the attacks of disease without adequate medical aid. If the family undertakes to make better provision at its own charges, the result is a lowering of the standard of living at some other point. An income of less than $8oo does not permit expenditures sufficient to care properly for the health of the family. i85 TABLE 91.-HEALTH. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE AND PER CENT. OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE.BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 To $699 $700 TO $799J $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 NATIONALITY. I f l.; United States.............. $.09 i.6 $10.26 1.4 13 $8.53.o I6 $23.98 2.5 8 $I3-55 I.3 Teutonic.................. 4 1533 2.3 7 7-5 I-0 9 30-30 3-5 II 22.02 2.4 8 7.72 0.7 Irish.................... 4 7.05 2.6 7 20.6 2.6 7 I9.4 2.4 5 9.53 I.0 I 2I.00 2.3 Colored............ 7.95 1.2 6 5.2 o.6 8 5.9 2.0 2 I3.25 i.6 i 1.00 o.I Bohemian............. 4 9-50 I.4 3 I2.53 I.7 3 18.40 2.2 4 37-4I 3.8 Russian.................. 6 4.38 2.3 4 26.52 3.8 27.8 35 9 27.2 3. 6 32.92 3. Austrian, etc..............6 14.15 2.3 9 15.63 2.2 9 49.41 6.o 7 38.02 4.2 I Italian.................. 6 8.75 2.8 4 9.93 1.4 I2 I2.23 i.6 9 11.95 1.5 6 11.53 1.3 Total.......... 72 I3.78 2.I 79 4.02.9 73 22.19 2.7 63 23.30 2.6 31 14.80 1.5 * Per cent of expenditure for all purposes. HEALTH TABLE 92.-HEALTH. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. (A) BY INCOME. TOTAL NUMBE OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITUrE oF: NuxMINCOME. BER OF No Ex- $10 $20 $30 $40 $50 $75 ILrr. ture. $10 tto ve Flue- pniUnder to to to to t to LnS. ture. $10 $20 $30 $40 $50 $75 $100 $100 $600 to $699...... 72 7 34 I2 II 4 I 2.. $700 to $799...... 79* II 30 20 8 4 3.. I $800 to $899.. ---. 73 7 28 20 5 4 I 4 I 3 $900 to $999...... 63 7 i6 i6 Io 4 2 3 4 I $Iooo to $1099...-.. 3I 5 I4 5 3.. I 3.... Total......... 38* 37 I22 73 37 I6 8 I2 7 5 (B) BY NATIONALITY. TOTAL NUMBER OP FAMIIES REPORTING EXPENDITUE OF: NuM- -...... NATIONALITY. BER O0 FAm- NO EX- under $10 $20 $30 $40 $50 $75 Over IES. pendi- $10 to to to to to to $100 LS ture. $20 $30 $40 $50 $75 $100 United States........ 67* I3 27 I3 4 3 3 I I I Teutonic......... 39 7 2 13 2.. 3 I Irish............... 24 2 7 8 4 -.2 I Colored............. 28 4 I5 6 I.. 2.. Bohemian........ 4. 4 3 3 3..... Russian.......... 57 6 I2 14 11 4 2 5 2 I Austrian, etc........ 32 4 II 6 4 3.... 2 2 Italian.............. 57 I 34 Io 9 I.. I. Total........ 38* 37 22 73 37 6 8 2 7 5 * One case amount not specified. I87 TABLE 93.-HEALTH. PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY INCOME. $600 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $1099 AMOUNT OF EXPENDITURE FOR HEALTH. NumbPer Cent. of Ct NumPer Centr C. of Per Cent. of Number of Per Cent. of Families Number of Per Cent. of Families Number of Per Cent. of Families Families. all Families. Spending. Families. all Families. Spending. Families. all Families. Spending. With no expenditure.. I8 12.0.. 7 o.o.. 12 13.0 Under $io.......... 64 42.4 48.5 28 37.4 42.4 30 31.9 36.6 $xo to $20.......... 32 21.2 24.2 20 27.3 30.3 21 22.3 25.6 $20 to $30.......... 19 I2.6 I4.4 5 6.8 7.6 13 13.8 I5.8 $30 to $40......... 8 5.3 6.o 4 5-5 6. 4 4.3 4.9 $40 to $50...... 4 2.6 3.0 I 1.4 1.53 3. 3.7 $50 to $75.......... 2 1.3 1.5 4 5.5 6. 6 6.4 7.3 $75 to $Ioo......... 2. 2 1.3 1.5 I 1.4 1.5 4 4.3 4.9 Over $Ioo.......... I 0.7 o.8 3 4.I 4.6 I I.I 1.2 Under $30........... I15 76.2 87.1 53 72.6 80.3 64 68.0 78.0 $30 to $50........... 12 7.9 9.1 5 6.8 7.6 7 7.4 8.6 Over $50.......... 5 33 3.8 8 10.9 12.I1 II I.8 13.4 HEALTH TABLE 94.-HEALTH. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE, SERIOUS SICKNESS, FREE MEDICAL AID, DENTISTRY.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. United States....... Teutonic............ Irish............... Colored.......... Bohemian........... Russian............ Austrian, etc......... Italian.............. II 4 4 II 4 i6 6 I6 2 I 2 I I I. 6 4 3 3 3 9 4 9 3 2 2 6 2 8 2 4 I I 3 I 2 19 7 7 6 3 14 9 I4 5 2 2 I I IO 5 4 I 2 12 7 6 8 3 I 3 2 2 I 3 3 3 13 9 7 8 3 12 9 12 4 1 2 2.. 6 7 4 5 2 8 5 5 7 6 4 5 I 5 2., I 2 2 4 2 7 4 2 Total............... 72 7 4 29 8 79 I 47 30 2 73 7 42 3 12 $900 TO $999. $1000 TO $1099. TOTAL. Jn. NATIONALITY. i.. -. I: United States........ i6 i 7 6281 2 67 13 33 27 7 Irish.. 51 2 I.. I I....24 2 I4 8 3 Colored 2.. 2...........2 2 8 4 I I. 5 2 Russian....... 3 6 2 46 4 57 639227 Austrian, etc......... 5 5 2.. 3242113 8 Colored............2 I 11.........28 I -1 52 Italian. 9-.. 4. — I 6.. 2 I.57 I 26 7 6 Total............... 63 7 34 19 12 31 5 15 5 7 318 371I7911351 189 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 95.-HEALTH. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTING NO EXPENDITURE, SERIOUS SICKNESS, FREE MEDICAL AID, DENTISTRY.-BY INCOME. WITHOUT EXPENDITURE FOR HEALTH. CASES OP SEIOUS ILLNESS. FREE MEDICAL Am. WITH EXPENDITURE FOR DENTIST. INCOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES. C "a, U z 04 At z 84 t 04 $400 to $499......... $500 to $599. —..... $6oo to $699-........ $700 to $799.. —..... $800 to $899......... $900 to $999......... $1000 to $1099........ $Sroo to $II99......... $1200 to $1299......... $1300 to $1399-........ $1400 and over......... 8 17 72 79 73 63 3I 18 8 8 14 I 3 7 II 7 7 5 13 i8 10 14 I0 II 16 25 25 7 5 9 41 47 42 34 15 9 3 5 7 63 53 57 59 58 54 48 50 38 63 50 i g 6 7 29 30 30 19 5 3 r I! 75 41 40 38 41 30 I6 16 13 I3 7 M U 2 2 8 12 12 12 Ia 7 6 3 3 25 II 15 17 19 23 33 38 21 2 2 I Total.......... 39 46 I.8 217 55 I32 34 67 i6 $400 to $599....... 25 4 i6 14 56 I3 52 4 i6 $600 to $799 —..... 15I I8 2 88 58 59 39 20 13 $8oo to $899..... 73 7 I 42 58 30 41 12 17 $990 to $io99.. --- - 94 I2 13 49 52 24 26 19 20 $11oo and over......... 48 5 Io 24 50 6 I3 12 25..............~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 190 INSURANCE 7. INSURANCE. A majority of the families included in our tables report expenditure for insurance of persons, and nearly half report insurance on property. (See Tables 96-99, pages 195-I97). In exact figures, 191 out of the 318 families with incomes between $600 and $i Ioo, or 60 per cent., pay for life-insurance, and 143, or 45 per cent., pay for insurance on property. The insurance on the lives 60 60 DIAGRAM 15.-Number of families carrying insurance on persons, in each nation ality-group. (See Table 97.) of persons is for the most part of the "industrial" type; that is, for a weekly payment of a fixed sum,-Io to 25 cents in most cases,-an amount, determined by the age of the insured, is paid to the family after death. The amount of the policy is usually about $1oo for adults and $50 for children. The money received from the insurance company usually goes to pay the funeral expenses attendant on the death, so that it is more properly described as burial-insurance than as life-insurance. A limited number of families, as will be seen later (page 233), do carry a I9I THE STANDARD OF LIVING real life or endowment policy of $500 or even more. Some 56 cases are reported among the 318 families under consideration. In general, however, the insurance is not a provision for a rainy day, but a provision for meeting a single contingent expense; viz., the cost of burying the dead. At the outset of the inquiry as to the average expenditure for insurance, we are met by a striking difference in the customs of the different nationalities in regard to insurance. (See Table 97, 60 n so!i i i i hi. DIAGRAM i6.-Number of families carrying insurance on property in each nationality group. (See Table 97.) page 196). Americans, the Germanic peoples, the Irish and the colored, insure almost every member of the family, but less frequently insure property. Of the 158 families of these nationalities, persons were insured in 139 cases, property in 51 cases. On the other hand, the Russians and Austro-Hungarians carry insurance as a rule on property, and as the exception on persons. Of the 89 Russian and Austro-Hungarian families, 79 carried insurance on property, and 21 on persons. In other words, in the first group personal insurance was carried by 88 per cent. of the families, insurance on property by 32 per cent.; in the second group 192 INSURANCE personal insurance was carried by 24 per cent. of the families and insurance on property by 89 per cent. The Bohemians report in most cases insurance of both kinds; of 14 families, 13 report insurance on property, 11 insurance on persons. The Italians, on the contrary, report no insurance of any kind in the majority of cases. Of the 57 Italian families 18, or about one-third, carry insurance on persons; only 2 report insurance on property. The lack of insurance on persons is compensated in a measure by membership in fraternal organizations. These societies usually give to members sick-benefits besides making provision for burial. The Russian and Austrian families are those most frequently reporting membership in these benefit societies, as appears from the table which follows: FAMILIES REPORTING FAMILIES REPORTING BOTH MEMBERSHIP MEMBERSHIP IN A AND INSURANCE ON NATIONALITY. BENEFIT SOCIETY. PERSONS. United States.............. 6 Teutonic.................. 8 Irish...................... I I Colored.................... Bohemian.................8 8 Russian................ 26 4 Austrian...................13 3 Italian.................... 3 2 69 35 These figures indicate that the benefit society is only a supplement to life-insurance, save for the Russians and Austrians (the Jewish families), with whom it is a substitute.* With these differences in national custom in mind we may look at the averages and percentages of expenditures for insurance (Table 96, page I95). For all nationalities combined, the average expenditure for insurance rises from $I3.05, or 2 per cent. of total expenditure, for families in the $600 income-group, to $25.46, or 2.5 per cent. of total expenditure, for families in the $0ooo group. For the American families the average is $25.26, or 3.8 per cent. in the $600 group, and $40.72, or 3.8 per cent. again in the $1ooo * Among the Italians it is not infrequent for a group of relatives and friends to contribute $4 or $5 apiece for funeral expenses when a death occurs within their circle. This might be considered a form of fraternal insurance. 13 193 THE STANDARD OF LIVING group. For the Russians, the averages for the $600 and $Iooo families are $4.83 and $8.I7 respectively, and the percentage of total expenditure 0.8 in both cases. Variation in regard to insurance with rise of income appears in the data presented in Tables 97 and 98 (page I96). The number of families carrying insurance on persons and on property does not increase appreciably as the income increases, but the number of persons insured per family does increase, as may be seen in the following summary: AVERAGE NUMBER OF AVERAGE NUMBER OF INCOME. PERSONS IN FAMILY. PERSONS INSURED. $600 to $699.............49 1.7 700 to 799........... 5.I 2.6 800 to 899.............5. 2.2 900 to 999............5.I 2.5 1000 to 1099............. 5 2.3 Separating the two groups of nationalities already distinguished, we find that in the first group (Americans, Teutonic nations, Irish, colored) out of 831 persons included in 158 families, 585 are insured, or an average of 3.7 persons per family. Among the Russians, Austrians and Italians, only 86 out of 711 persons included in 146 families are insured, or an average of o.6 per family. Among the families of this second group it is usually the father only who is insured. The question of the expensiveness of the insurance provided for the money paid in premiums lies beyond the scope of the present report.* It is very evident from our data, however, that provision for the expenses of the last sickness and burial constitutes an essential part of the American standard of living, and that most families will go without many comforts in order to keep up their insurance. Even among the 25 poorest families, with incomes below $600, most of them over-crowded and under-fed, 6 report insurance on persons, while the American families with but from $600 to $700 to spend, contrive to pay $25 or $30 a year for insurance. * See S. E. Forman's study of Industrial Insurance in the Bulletin of the United States Department of Labor, No. 67, Nov., I906. I94 .1 TABLE 96.-INSURANCE. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE AND PER CENT. OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE. -BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 NATIONALITY... * 'O. -a I*.!' " — - i*. AveraAvee Average [ i Average Average E g Amount., E Amount, Amont Amount. Amount. Unt. _ I Am unt. P4 P4 Z P., United States...... i $25.26 3.89 1 $26.73 3.5 13 $24.86 2.9 i6 $38.24 4.2 8 $40.72 3.8 Teutonic.......... 4 3I.02 4.6 7 367 4.9 9 25.33 2.9 II 352 3-4 8 43.97 43 Irish............ 4 36.00 5.4 7 24.I8 3.I 7 23-37 2.9 5 41.83 4.6 i| Colored........... 9.59 3.3 6 27.02 34 8 23-31 3.0 2 25.06 2.9 I 20. 80 2.3 Bohemian........ 4 6.73 I. 3 I903 2.6 3 797 2. 4 28.40 2.9.. Russian........... 6 4.83 0.8 14 3.28 0.5 I2 6.99 0.9 9 5.92 o.6 6 8.1I7 o.8 Austrian, etc....... 6 333 05 9 5.67 2.2 9 24.42 3.0 7 I4.50 I.6 I 8.20 0.9 Italian............ 6 338 05 4 7.24 1.0 I2 2.3I 0.3 9.87 o.I 6 5.64 o.6 Total.......... 72 13.05 2.0 79 18.24 2.5 73 17.62 2.2 63 23.7I 2.6 3I 25.46 2.5 * Per cent. of expenditure for all purposes. THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 97.-INSURANCE. NUMBER OF FAMILIES CARRYING INSURANCE ON PERSONS AND ON PROPERTY.BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. NUMBER OF FAMmIE CARRYING INSURANCE. 0 0 0 0 0 NATIONALITY. o 4 t0 " 5S "1 5 5 ~ 3 United States.... 67 II 4 17 I II 5 i6 5 7 I 62 i6 92.6 23.9 Teutonic.. 39 3 2 7 4 6 4 I I 3 8 6 35 9 78.9 48.7 Irish...........7 2 44I....22 8 73.4 26.7 Colored......... 28 I 5 6 2 2... 20 8 7.5 28.6 Bohemian.... 4 3 2 3 2 3 3 4 4 I3 I I 72.9 78.6 Russian......... 57 2 13.. 13 2 Io I 9 I 6 6 51 I1.5 89.5 Austrian, etc.... 32.. 55 5 8 5 8 4 6 I I 15 28 46.8 77.5 Italian.......... 57 4 I 8 2 3.6 3-5 Total........... 8 3 8 33 53 33 37 35 43 28 20 I4 I9I 143 6o.o 45.0 1~ 4I i~[I!2[ ' —i~It 11I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ TABLE 98.-INSURANCE. AVERAGE NUMBER OF PERSONS INSURED.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. AVERAGES OF NUMBER OF PERSONS IN FAMILY AND OF NUMBER OF PERSONS INSURED. NATIONALITY. 00 ' oo 67 39 24 28 14 57 32 57 United States.... Teutonic........ Irish............ Colored......... Bohemian....... Russian......... Austrian, etc..... Italian.......... $600 to $699 ). 4) I, 5.0 3.2 4.7 3.5 6.o 5.5 5-4 3.2 4.5 I.0 5.I O.I 4.3 - 4.6 o.8 4.9 1.7 $700 to $799. 14 5-3 3-9 5.o 4.0 5-3 4.3 5-5 4-7 6.0 5.0 5.I -. 4.8 I.I 4.6 I.i 5.1 2.6 $800 to $899 0 ~5>.o 3 ~ *-. 4 I 51 Z 5.0 3.2 1 5.I 3.0 4.9 3.4 5.2 3.8 5-7 3-6 5.4 0.25 5.0 1.8 4.5 0.7 5.0 2.2 $900 to $999 I z 1f 5.2 4.3 5-I 3-3 5.4 4.0 5.5 4-0 5.2 4.2 5.0 0.2 4.9 I.o 5.I 0.I 5.1 2.5 $1000 to Tota. Total. $1099 5.4 4.7 5.2 3.9 5.0 2.5 5- 3.2 5.0. -- 5-314.0 5.0 4.0 5.4 3.8.. -3 3-4 4.8 0.2 5.1 0.I 6.0 1. 4.81.o 4.5.O- 4.6 o.8 5.o 2.3 5.0 2.3 Total......... 318 [ 196 INSURANCE TABLE 99.-INSURANCE. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES INSURED, AND AVERAGE NUMBER OF PERSONS INSURED. —BY INCOME. NUMBER OF PER CENT. or AVERAGE NUMBER FAMLIES FAMLIES INSUED. OF PERSONS. INSURED. INCOME. $400 to $499...... $5oo to $599.... $6o0 to $699...... $700 to $799... $8oo to $899...... $900 to $999...... $100 to $1099...... $11oo to $I99...... $I200 to $1299...... $1300 to $399...... $x4oo and over..... Total.............. NUxBER OP FAMILIES. Pe- Pp On Per- O Prop- In Insured. so ert ns. errty. Family. sons. ert~~~~~Fmiy. 8 17 72 79 73 63 31 I8 8 8 14 2 4 38 53 37 43 20 4 2 2 5 I 9 33 33 35 28 14 II 51 4 II 25.0 23.5 52.8 67.I 50.7 68.2 64.6 22.2 25.0 25.0 35-7 12.5 53.0 45.8 41.8 48.0 44.4 45.1 6i.o 62.5 50.0 78.6 5.4 5.0 4-9 5.I 5.0 5.I 5.0 5.0 5.4 4.9 4.6 -.3 o.6 -.7 2.6 2.2 2.5 2.3 2.7 2.1 3.3 2.0 391 210 184 53.7 47.1 5.0 2.2 I97 THE STANDARD OF LIVING 8. SUNDRY MINOR ITEMS. Under this head are grouped the items of the schedule not already considered; viz., Furniture, Dues and Contributions, Recreation and Amusement, Education and Reading, and Miscellaneous. They represent expenditures for the satisfaction of what the economist calls "culture-wants"; that is, wants arising out of the desire for intellectual, social and aesthetic gratifications, as distinguished from wants connected with the mere prolongation of physical existence. They include also some physical satisfactions, like tobacco and soda water, which are not indispensable to life. Largely these headings include the cost of that which makes life worth living. In considering these details, and especially in remarking on the small amount that the ordinary family has left for such expenditures, it must not be forgotten that much that satisfies the extra-physical wants can be had free of cost. Public schools provide education for the children, the parks and playgrounds give opportunity for fresh air and recreation, the intercourse with kindred and neighbors gives social satisfaction, and the evervarying pageant of street-life, sordid though it often is, gives constant novelty and diversion. Nevertheless, there are important needs for which no gratuitous provision has been made, and the amount of expenditure for these purposes is an indication, so far as it goes, of the standard of culture attained, and of the opportunities for raising it. Considering then, the expenditures for this group collectively (Table oo, page I99), it is instructive to note that they constitute but 7.3 per cent. of the total expenditures of the families with incomes between $600 and $700, and 1.4 per cent. of the expenditures of the families with between $iooo and $I 1OO. The average amount spent is, for the lowest income-group, $47.55, and for the highest, $I I4.59. The amount and the percentage increase constantly with each rise in the income-scale, showing that the desires for such satisfactions as we are considering always tend to push ahead of the means available for satisfying them, and that on the smallest incomes the margin left for them, after supplying a bare physical subsistence, is narrow enough. 198 TABLE 100.-SUNDRY MINOR ITEMS COLLECTIVELY. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE AND PER CENT. OF TOTAL EXPENDITURE.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699. $700 TO $799. $800 TO $899. $900 TO $999. $1000 TO $1099. NATIONALITY. 4j. * 4. United States.......... ii $55-37 8.3 19 $51.36 6.7 I3 $73.65 8.5 i6 $88.9I 9.4 8 $119.39 II.I Teutonic.............. 4 36.8 5.4 7 44.90 5.9 9 102.36 11.7 II 99.47 io.8 8 I09.81 io.6 Irish................ 4 43.06 6.5 7 56-40 7.4 7 69.66 8.6 5 95.6I 10.5 I 55.22 6.o Colored............... 32.78 5.0 6 42.40 5.4 8 56.9 7. 2 92. 4 0.9 I 88.95 2.3 Bohemian............. 4 50.27 7.2 3 64.3 8.7 3 67.93 8. 4 89.17 9.0.. Russian...............6 523 8.3 4 74.65 10.7 72.71 95 9.77 2.5 6 4.86 3.6 Austrian, etc........... 6 4834 8.o 9 635 8.9 9 87.18.6 7 85.67 95 i 62.48 6.4 Italian................ 6 50.86 7.7 14 72.36 o1.3 I2 60.92 8.2 9 58.74 7.2 6 93.46 I0.5 Total............ 72 47.55 73 79 60.28 8.2 73 74.08 9.1 63 90.00 9.9 31 1I4.59 II.4 * Per cent. of expenditure for all purposes. THE STANDARD OF LIVING I. FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS.-Table IOI (page 202) shows the average expenditure for furniture by income and nationality, and also the number of families reporting no expenditure for this purpose. The average amount, taking into account only the families that report this expenditure, is $6.22 for the $600 families, and $I2.89 for the families with incomes of between $1ooo and $I Ioo. The increase is not very regular, however, counting by $1oo stages. Yet the average expenditure of the 140 families with incomes between $600 and $800 is $7.56, and that of the go families with incomes of between $9oo and $1 100 is $13.20. The count of families spending given amounts (Tables I02 and 103, pages 203-204) shows more plainly than the table of averages the tendency to larger expenditures in the higher income-classes. Of the families in the $600 and $700 income-groups, 80 per cent. spend less than $IO for furniture. Of the families in the $0oo and $Iooo groups, 58 per cent. spend less than $Io, and of the families with over $I 0oo a year only 35 per cent. spend less than $io, while 48 per cent. spend more than $20. The same table shows that of all the nationalities represented the Russians spend most liberally for furniture. Their average is the highest in each income-group, and the number of families reporting expenditures of $20 and more is likewise largest. The colored families report, as a rule, the least expenditure for furniture. As for the other nationalities, the variations between different families and income-groups within each nationality are quite as much in evidence as the differences between the different nationalities. It isobvious that expenditures for furniture must vary greatly, and that the averages will be affected by the accidental inclusion or exclusion, in a given group, of families that have had occasion to buy articles of considerable value.* An effort was made to get an inventory of the furniture in each room of the apartment. On the basis of the returns the families were classified into groups according as the furniture described seemed to make meager, fairly comfortable or ample * The purchase of furniture on the instalment plan was reported in a few instances, but too few to warrant generalization on this point. One family was paying a dollar a week on its furniture; another was paying $6 a month on a piano. 200 FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS provision for the needs of the family. Where nothing beyond the barest supply of indispensable articles-beds and bedding, chairs, table-is reported, the outfit is designated "meager." Where some additional articles-rugs or oilcloth, mirrors,* easychairs-are reported, the furnishing is designated as "fair." Where there is an abundant supply both of necessary articles and of accessories, the designation "ample" is applied. Tables 103 and o04 (pages 204-205) show the number of families in each of these classes. It will be seen that the standard rises with the income. The percentage of "meager" falls from 54 for the $600 families to 13 for the $Io00 group, and the percentage of "fair" increases from 46 in the $600 group to 74 in the $Iooo group. Combining the $600 and $700 families and the $9oo and $0ooo groups, it is found that 52 per cent. of the families in the first double group are reported as having a meager equipment of furniture, and 3 per cent. as having ample. In the second double group 20 per cent. are reported meagerly equipped, and 14 per cent. as having ample furniture. The equipment of only l2 of the 318 families (with incomes between $600 and $I I00) and of 32 of the whole 391 cases is graded as "ample," and of these cases 18 of the 22 and 28 of the 32 are found in families with more than $9oo a year. The possession of a piano may be considered as one sign of ample furnishing. The families that reported pianos were counted, and 18 altogether were found in the 391 families, 8 of them belonging to families having over $1o00 a year. The distribution by incomes may be seen in the appended note.t * Pier-glasses are much in demand by tenement-dwellers in many districts. tINCOME. NUMBER OF INCOME. NUMBER OF PIANos REPORTED. INCOME. PIANOS REPORTED. $600 to $699.........o $Iooo to $1099...... 2 $700 to $799..... ---.2 $IIOO to $II99........ I $800 to $8g9....... $I200 to $I299........ I $900 to $999. —......5 $I300 and over........ 6 Total....... 20I 0) TABLE 101.-FURNITURE. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE AND NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING. -BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699. $700 TO $799. $800 TO $899. $900 TO $999. $1000 TO $1099. TOTAL. Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Families. Families. Families. Families Families Families. NATIONALITY. | a l t I i Ie 0 i United States...... 9 2 i $.3 52 13. $3.92 I5 I $11.53 8.. $8.25 63 4 I zBl $3 I I $I53. 6 Teutonic.......... 4.. 5.00 5 2 4.99 9.. 9.8 0 i 8.27 7 I.2 35 4 Irish.............. 4.. 3.88 7.. 7.29 7.. 6.70 4 i i0.08 i.. 11.00 23 i Austrian, etc...... 6.. 6.27 9.. 11.31 8 i 6.o6 7...47 i.. 3.58 31 I Italian............ i. I6. 5 4 4. 7.01 I2.. 5.92 9.. 8.o4 6.. I3.03 57.. Total............. 7 2.. 73 6.. 7 3. 6o 3.. 30 I.. 303 15 Average of all families with expenditure forfurniture.. $6.22.... $8.90. $7.64.... $I3.36.... $2.89 Average of all families. s... 6.o05.... 8.22... 7.33 -- -- 1273 - 12.48. FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS TABLE 102.-FURNITURE. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME.' $600 To $699. $700 To $799. $800 To $899. c o. t 0. 0 0 0 0 S r NATIONALITY. C 4: O C;:S z z z United States... II 2 9...... 19 I 15 2.. I 13.. 12 I Teutonic..3...... 4.. 3 72 5. —. — 9- 5 31 Irish........... 4- 4. 7.. 5 2.... 7 6. Colored.......... II... 6 2 4...... 8 I 6 i Bohemian...... 4 — 2 2-.. 3..2. I 3 3... Russian..6.... i6.. 3 2 I4 I 7 I 3 2 12 I 5 2 2 2 Austrian, etc.... 6. 5 I.... 9 — 4 32.. 9 6 2 Italian.......... i6.. 14 I.. 14.. II 2. 12.. 2 Total-...-..... 72 2 59 5 4 2 79 6 53 6 3 73 3 53 11 4 2 $900 TO $999. $1000 TO $1099. TOTAL. $ o. [ U) o C ~; Sc;q en oc; 6 Cs o a a NATIONALITY........ U ( (f I 7 s ( 3.. IJ e CI ___ _ _A____________ __ ___ United States... i6 1 9 5..i 8-. 6 i i.. 67 4 51 9 I 2 Teutonic....... 7 3.... 8 I 4 2 I.. 39 4 24 92.. Irish......51 2 2 I I. 24 I 17 51.. Colored.............. I.... 28 3 21.. i Bohemian...... 4. I 3 - 14............... 4 8 6.... Russian........ 9 I 4 2 2 6.. i 2 I 2 57 2 25 9 1110 io Austrian, etc..... 5 I..i........ 32 I 21 72 Italian.......... 9. 8.... 6.. 2 2 — 2 57 -- 45 84 — Total........... 63 3 33 20 2 5 31 1 I 9 5 2 318 I5 22 54 211I4 203 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 103.-FURNITURE. STANDARD, AND NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING GIVEN AMOUNTS EXPENDED.-BY INCOME. STANDARD. ANNUAL EXPENDITURE. NumINCOME. BEE OF Meager. Fair. Ample. Under $10. Over $20 FAMILIES. $400to $499...... 8 7 88 I I2 8.0ioo0 $500 to $5991 --- — 17 13 76 4 24 1 14 82 2 I2 $6oo to $699...... 72 39 54 33 46... 6I 85 6 8 $700 to $799......79* 39 50 35 45 4 5 59 76 9 12 $Mooto $899..., 73 30 41 39 53 4 6 56 77 6 8 $900to $999...... 63 15 24 38 6o IO i6 40 63 6 IO $I000 to $og99...... 31 4 13 23 74 4 13 15 48 7 23 $iioo to $ii99g. 1.... 8 I 6 14 781 3 16 7 39 5 28 $I 200to $1299...... 8t 4 67 2 33 4 50 4 50 $x300 to $1399.8..... 8 6 75 2 25 31 38 4 50 $I400oand over... 1.. I. I 79 3 21 31 21 T0 71 Total. --- —-- -391 I48 38 208 54 32 8 270 70 59 14 $400 to $599 --- —- 25 20 So 5 20j...j 22 88 2 8 $6ooto $799.1 ---- I5I* 78 52 68 45 4 3 I20 So' I5 10 $8ooto $899...... 73 30 4I 139 53 4 6 56 774 6 8 $900 to $Io99..... 94 i9 20 6i 65 14 15 55 58 I3 14 $iooandover*. 48t i 2 35 76 io 22 17 35 23 48 * Standard not reported in I case. t Standard not reported in 2 cases. 204 FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS TABLE 104.-FURNITURE. STANDARD, AND NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699. $700 To $799. $800 To $899. NATIONALITY.. o United States....... I Io.. 19 6 I 2 13 2 10 I Teutonic....... 4 I 3.. 7 2 5.. 9 I 7 Irish4 2 -2..........7 3 4 -. 7 I 5 I Colored........ 11 6 5. 6 3 I 2 8.. - 7 Bohemian.......... 4 3 I 3 3 -.... 3 3 Russian.........o 6.. 14 8 6.. 12 7 5 'i Austrian, etc........ 69 5 4 9 6 3 - Italian.......... 6 12 4. 13* 9 4 1 1 2 10 2 Total.............. 72 39 33 -- 78 39 35 4 73 30 39 4 $900 To $999. $I10 To TOTAL. $1099. NATIONALITY. 8j. A Meager. Fair. Ample. United States...... 12 4 8 i 6 i 67 10 5 4973 8 12 Teutonic......... I 3 8 S. 5339 78 28 72 4 10 Irish............. 5 I -- 24 65....7 1 4 Colored... 2..... 2. I I 1.... 28 io 36 1450 4 14 Bohemian... 4 2 2.14 I 79 3 21 Russian.......... 9 I 5 3 6.. 6.. 57 26 46 28 49 3 5 Austrian, etc..... 7 6 I I I....32 22 69 9 28 3 Italian........... 9 3 5 I 6 5 56* 35 62 20 36 I 2 Total............ 63 15 38 1031 4 23 4 31 27 40 i68 53 22 7 * Standard not reported in i case. 205 THE STANDARD OF LIVING 2. TAXES, DUES, AND CONTRIBUTIONS.-Under this head are grouped expenditures for the support of labor organizations, churches, and other religious societies, social and benefit societies, and also gifts of friendship and charity. Of such gifts the entries are few and far between. Taxes for the support of the government are not reported, save in the case of 6 house-owning families, which, by reason of this departure from type, were not included in the number tabulated. Tables 105 and IO6 (pages 208-209) show the principal items as returned on the schedules of the 318 families with incomes between $6oo and $I Ioo. No expenditures at all under this general head are reported from 62 families. Of these, 35, or more than half, are in the lowest 2 income-groups, and only 14, or one-quarter of the whole, in the $9oo and $iooo groups. By nationalities, the Italians furnish the largest number of families without expenditure for social organizations, 25 of all the 57 Italian families, or 44 per cent., spending nothing. Fifteen of the 67 American families make the same return, and only 4 of the 57 Russian, and 2 of the 32 Austrian. The average expenditure included in the table is that of families reporting such expenditure. It varies among the nationalities in a manner corresponding to the distribution of the families reporting no expenditure, the Russians and Austrians returning a high average, the Italians and colored a low average amount. The 13 Bohemian families show the highest average, and report spending for a greater variety of purposes than most of the other nationalities, but the number of families is small. By incomegroups the average amount increases with each advance in the scale, rising from $IO.96 in the $600 group to $I8.65 in the $Iooo group. This latter sum would permit the payment of IO cents a week to the church, 50 cents a month to' the labor union, and the same amount to a lodge. Looking now at the principal social organizations for whose advantages the laborer pays, we find that 83 families, or 26 per cent., report contributions to labor unions; 175, or 55 per cent., contribute to religious organizations, and 126, or 40 per cent., to lodges and similar organizations. Membership in the unions seems to be about as frequent in the lower income-groups as in the higher. Combining, however, the $6oo and $700 incomes and comparing them with the combined $9oo and $1ooO groups, it appears that 206 TAXES, DUES AND CONTRIBUTIONS 25 per cent. of the families in the lower groups belong to unions, and 32 per cent. of the families in the higher income-groups. Twenty-five per cent. of the American families, 23 per cent. of the Italians, 35 per cent. of the Russians and 18 per cent. of the colored contribute to the unions. These differences may be due to accident in the selection of families reporting, and too much stress is not to be laid upon them. For the support of religious organizations, the families with higher incomes more often report expenditure than those with lower incomes. Forty-eight per cent. of the families having incomes of $6oo to $800 report such expenditure, as against 61 per cent. of the families with incomes between $goo and $11oo.* A comparison of nationalities shows that seven-eighths of the Irish pay something for this purpose, while five-eighths of the Teutonic and American families, two-thirds of the Russians and Bohemians, more than half of the Austrians, less than half of the colored families, and only one-fourth of the Italians report payments for this object. To lodges, 38 per cent. of the families with incomes between $6oo and $800 contribute, while 45 per cent. of families with incomes between $9oo and $I Ioo spend for this purpose. A smaller proportion of the Irish and colored families report paying lodge dues than of the other nationalities. Twelve of the 14 Bohemian families report such payments, 31 of the 57 Russian, and 20 of the 67 American families. Under this head are included societies paying sick and death-benefits. So far as could be distinguished from the returns, 69 of the families included in the 126 that supported lodges belonged to benefit societies. A sharp difference between nationalities appears at this point, the American, Teutonic, Irish and colored families in only 19 cases reporting payment for benefit societies, while 50 families in the other 4 nationalities report such expenditure. It has already been pointed out (page 192) that insurance of persons is favored by these groups of nationalities in exactly the converse proportion. * The amount of payment for religious organizations differs greatly among different families as well as between different nationalities. Ten cents a Sunday is a common contribution for attendants at Protestant and Roman Catholic churches. Many Jewish families report for the year only $2 or $3, given for the services at the annual festivals. In many cases the fraternal societies are related to some religious organization. One schedule reports the woman as saying, "The church has more money than we; this is why we don't go to church." 207 TABLE 105.-TAXES, DUES AND CONTRIBUTIONS. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE FOR GIVEN PURPOSES.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699. $700 To $799. $800 TO $899. NATIONALITY. 45 9 iS K 5. — I Number of Families. i. th ExX pendiI I 0.2 o.0.p. mre for: [ o * - a 2 0 N Number of Families.. With Ex-. pendi-.I i ture for: H i 0 _i!'5 45 0 5. Number of Families. * With Ex-! pendi-.s ture for:. l. g N o c aI k5 p.1.., 4 United States... Teutonic...... Irish........... Colored........ Bohemian...... Russian........ Austrian, etc..... Italian........ $1.24 III 5.27 4 10.90 4 4.22 III 20.86 4 13.33 i6 17.29 6 7.75 I6 2 2 I 3 I 3 I 7 5 5.. 2 i 3 2 3 2 3 31"1 I 3 36 3 I 4 2 7 4 5 $9.5I 9-73 15.02 9.32 19.63 IO.94 II.88 9.29 I91 4 71 2 7! I 6 I 3I. - 3i — 14, I 9i '4| 6 51II o.3 2 2I 5 I 21 21 2 II 3 4 7 6 3i 4 $8.83 13.28 18.79 6.80 28.97 16.42 15.25 4.80 I3 9 7 8 3 12 9 12 i 2 { 2lIO I I 8..2 7 3 I 4.. 6 6 I I 5 6 31 2 4 2 2 I 3 7 6 2 Total......... 11..1 7220173626 IIoI79 15 2037130 13.39 73 13 i6145J27 ______i I-I-,; I _i t j i 1 j_$900 TO $999. $1000 TO $1099. TOTAL. Number of Number of Number of Families. Families. Families. => ] i*WithEx-. With E x- W. With Exs | 1pend g n pendi- pendi- pendi0 iu for: for t re tur e for: NATIONALITY. 3. Lturref: United States..$I3.11 1 5 3 IO| 3 $I8.84 82215' 4$..5I 67I5I7 4I 20 Teutonic...... 18.91 |II i 1 4| 6 5 I9.29 8 -- 315I5-I 39 6 81 241 I5 N 0 0 N 0 Colored ----- 53~ 2 1- 2 II 2 * I 6.89 28 71 51 II1 IO Bohemian..... 33-85 4.- 2 34..-. -- 26.45 I4 Ii 51 Io I2 Russian..45 14 Russian....... I8.50 9 - 3 6 7 I8-67 6 6 5 6 4 I5-30 57 421 36 3I Austrian, etc... 20.75 7 253 26..0 I 32 2 7 I8 20 Italian........ Io.o8 91 4 I 21 33 2 i - 3 8.64 57125173 I4 I5 ITosht137 5. ' 52 ''.... IO 13 2 —271 — Total......... 16.78630 io ii35 1 85 1. 314 i3i918 i3.58 3I86 58317526 Bohemia. 3.85 3..2..4 I 14 I 5I101 208 H -P. Io ~ TABLE 106.-TAXES, DUES AND CONTRIBUTIONS. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE FOR GIVEN PURPOSES.-BY INCOME. WITH EXPENDITURE FOR: WITHOUT EXPENDITURE lOR TAXES, ETC. INCOME. NUmlER OF Labor Unions. Religion. Lodge, etc. FAMILIES. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. $600 to $699......... 72 20 28 17 24 36 50 26 36 $700 to $799. —.79 5 I9 20 25 37 47 30 38 $8oo to $899....... 73 13 I8 I6 22 45 62 27 37 $900 to $999......... 63 o 6 7 27 38 60 25 40 $Iooo to $1099 3........ 3I 4 13 I3 42 19 61 I8 58 3400 to $599..25 5 20 4 i6 II 44 7 28 $600 to $799.......... I5I 35 23 37 25 73 48 57 38 $800 to $899...73 13 I8 I6 22 45 62 27 37 $900 to $1099.....94 I5 30 32 57 6I 42 45 $IIOO and over....... 48 I 2 14 29 33 69 28 58 THE STANDARD OF LIVING 3. RECREATION AND AMUSEMENT.-The way in which expenditure for purposes beyond subsistence-wants is restricted by poverty appears very plainly in the table showing average expenditures for recreation and amusement (Table I07, page 212). The average for the $6oo families is $3.79; for the $800 families $8.44, for the $1ooo families $14.76, and if we look at the families with incomes between $1IOO and $I6oo we find an average of $22.29. A comparison of the averages by nationalities (Table io8, page 213) shows that a larger expenditure for amusement and recreation prevails among the nationalities that have adopted most completely the American standard. The Italians, however, show an average above the general average in every income-group save one. The families reporting no expenditure for recreation number 32, more than half of them among the families in the lowest 2 income-groups, only 4 in the highest 2. One-third of them are among the Russians, one-half among the Russians and Austrians. Those who report no money-expenditure make remarks like the following: "Never go any place at all except to the woman's parents, who live across the way." "The only recreation is the display of their furniture." "In the evening they sit in front of the house." Twelve of these 32 families report the use of parks or some other form of recreation involving no expense, but in 20 cases no mention is made of any form of recreation.* Three forms of recreation specified in Table IO8 (page 213) are: the use of parks, excursions, and theaters. The use of parks was not made a direct question in the schedule, as were the other forms, but they are mentioned in the answers to the general question as to the forms of amusement and recreation enjoyed by the family. In this connection they are specified in 102 of the 318 schedules, somewhat more often in the families with the lower incomes. Excursions, involving at least the cost of car-fare, for visits to parks or to friends, are reported in 237 of the 318 cases, or 74.5 per cent. Thirty-four per cent., or IO9 families, report expenditure for the theater. A comparison of the number of * The transference of an old-world tradition appears in the following note in an Italian schedule: "The daughter has better chance at marriage by staying away from public amusements." 210 RECREATION AND AMUSEMENT families reporting expenditures for theaters and excursions in the upper and lower income-groups is instructive. Twenty-five per cent. of the $600 and $700 families spend for theaters, 66 per cent. for excursions. Of the $0oo and $iooo families, 51 per cent. spend for theaters and 87 per cent. for excursions. By nationalities, theaters seem to be best patronized by Americans, the Teutonic families, and the Italians, and the expenditure for excursions is likewise most frequent among these same nationalities. The amount of expenditure varies greatly in individual cases. One family puts down $I weekly for theater-going, out of an income of about $9oo. Others report 5 or o1 cents occasionally for the "five-cent theater" or moving-picture exhibition. Excursions range from visits to the parks to a three months' visit with a sister in the country for mother and children. Very seldom is mention made of a stated vacation for the principal wage-earner. Outings provided by the fresh-air charities are specified in a few cases, and visits to Coney Island or Fort George by the whole family once or twice a summer are not infrequently mentioned. Expenditure for dances, although entered separately in the schedule, is very seldom reported. One family reports spending $14 for phonograph records, and the phonograph appears in perhaps 4 other cases. The voluntary societies, mentioned in the preceding section, often furnish means of recreation, such as social gatherings, picnics and excursions, and expenditure for recreation is sometimes not differentiated from dues and payments to the society. 4. EDUCATION AND READING.-(See Tables 1og-I II, pages 216 -218.) The public school furnishes free the means of giving the children a formal education, and the free libraries provide reading matter. But additional instruction (e. g., in music) is often desired, and the newspapers cost a cent apiece. With these items are grouped expenditures for postage and stationery, and incidental expenditures for children at school. The total amount reported under this heading is less than that under any other of the groupheads of the schedule, and increases with income on the average less than many other items. The average for the $6oo families reporting expenditure under this head is $5.56; for the $1ooo families the average amount is $8.54. 21I TABLE 107.-RECREATION AND AMUSEMENT. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTING, AND AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE.-BY INCOME. WITHOUT EXPENDI- FORM OF RECREATION REPORTED. TURE FORNUMBER TURECREATION. AVERAGE INCOME. O RECRETO Parks. Excursions. Theaters. AMOUNT FAMILIES. _ _ EXPENDED.* Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. W> 0 $600 to $699............ 72 $700 to $799............... 79 $800 to $899.............. 73 '$900 to $999....... 63 $Iooo to $Io99.............. 31 $400 to $599............. 25 $600 to $799............... 11 $8oo to $899............... 73 $900 to $Io99. 94 $IIoo and over.............. 48 7 12 9 3 I 7 I9 9 4 I IO I1 12 5 3 28 12 12 4 2 21 26 26 22 7 7 47 26 29 14 29 33 36 35 23 28 31 36 31 29 44 55 56 55 27 II 99 56 82 38 6i 70 77 87 87 44 66 77 87 79 IS 23 23 29 I9 4 38 23 48 33 21 29 32 46 6i 16 25 32 5I 69 $3-79 7.07 8.44 11.7I I4.76 $2.72 5.42 8.44 12.73 22.29f * Average for families spending. t Average of 41 families with incomes between $I0oo and $1599. TABLE 108.-RECREATION AND AMUSEMENT. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING VARIOUS KINDS.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 To $699 $700 To $799 $800 To $899 Num- Form of Num- Form of Number of Rec- ber of Rec- ber of Form of Fam- reation. Fam- reation. Fa- Recreation. ilies. lies. ilis. NATIONALITY. E I, I iji || I ip-i- ni United States... $3.32 II.. 310 4 $7.541I9 4 511 7 $9.01 3 I 4 13 4 Teutonic........ 6.35 4.. — 3 4 — 7-71 7 2 I 3 -- II73 9 -- 7 9 5 Irish.......... 4.62 4 —.. — 3 1 7.I7 7-..- I 7 2 48 7 - -- 5 2 Colored........ 3.00II --- 5 I 2.56 6.1-. 4 I 2.I4 81 I..- 3 -- Bohemian...... 2.87 4. —. 3 4 I 6.83 3-.. 2 3 I 4-00 3.. 2 3 - - Russian........ 3.25 i6 5 7 7 2 8.2 14 4 9 8 3 4.6 12 3 7 9 4 Austrian, etc.... 2.81 61 3 2 2 3.96 9 — 1 7 7 I7 7.87 9 3 6 4 2 Italian........ 4.98 i6 2 9 4 9-92 I4 2 I2 8 14.42 12 1.. IO 6 Total.......... 3-79 72 7214415 7-07 79I2126,55123 8.44 73 9 26 56 23 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I. i l _ _ l I _ _ _ _ $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. 'Num- Form of Num- Form of Number of Rec- berof Rec- ber of Form of Fai- reation. Fam- reation. Fam- Recreation lies. ilies. ilies. NATIONALITY.. g! ~ x 5.4 8 x6. -1 6 d United States... $I5.48 i6. 6151 7 $I6.40 8 2j 6 5 $9.54 67 6 20 55 27 Teutonic....... 14.83 II.. 2 95 I5.52 8.. 27612.35 39 2 15 32 I6 Irish......... IO78 5 —. - 5 4 2.00 I...... 7.-38 24.. 21 9 Colored... 2.50 2. 1 2...00...I... 2.72 28 I I5, 2 Bohemian...... II.00 41. 3 4 2 I -..- 6.29 14.. 0 I4 4 Russian..... 6.o 9 I i.1 6.. 6!. 6.23 57 3 27 37 17 Austrian, etc.... 7 2 7.3 4 4 2.00 I.. I I I. 5.37 32 6 24 8 io Italian......... I72 9.. 9 3 21.34I 6.. 5 3io.88 57 4 45 24 Total.......... 1.763 3225529 I4.7631 I 72719 841 31832 102237109 213 THE STANDARD OF LIVING By nationalities the highest average amounts are found among the English-speaking people, the lowest among the Italians. Some expenditure for education and reading is reported in all but 24 of the 318 cases. In 19 cases, however, less than 75 cents is reported. Both classes are included in the column "with no expenditure" in the table, making 43 cases in all. Of these 43 cases, 28 are in families with less than $800 a year, 5 only in families with $goo or over. Twenty-one of them are Italian families, and only 2 occur among the 130 families of American, Teutonic, and Irish descent. All of the 24 Irish families report something spent for reading. (Table I o, page 217.) Almost all of the money spent under this general head goes for newspapers. One or two i-cent dailies 6 days in the week, and 5 cents weekly for a Sunday paper, amounts to between $5 and $8 a year, according to the number of one-cent papers purchased. In a few cases (printers or barbers), newspapers are obtained without cost. What kind of newspapers are read may be seen in Table I I (page 2 18), from which it appears that the "Journal" and "World" are far in the lead with readers of English; that there are some in all of the foreign-speaking nationalities that read the papers printed in English; and that among the Russians, Austrians and Italians a majority of the people buy papers printed in their native tongues. Of the 158 families of the first 4 nationalities on our list, 78 mention the "Journal" or "American," 59 the "World," and i6 all other newspapers. In 25 cases, however, the name of the paper bought is not stated. There are 160 families in the group comprising Bohemians, Russians, Austrians and Italians. Twenty-six of these name the "Journal," 16 the "World," and none any other paper in English. Ninety-one, or 57 per cent., buy papers in the foreign languages, and 30 cases are reported in which newspapers are bought, but no names of papers are given.* * The following list shows the papers mentioned, outside of the "Journal" and "World," with the number of families reporting each paper: Press................................................ 5 Sun...... —.-. 2 esun................................................. 2 Time s.............................................. 2 Herald..........................................-... --- —-- 3 Eagle................................................ 2 St. Andrew's Cross.................................... i The W orker.......................................... I Carried forward i6 214 EDUCATION AND READING Newspapers are less frequently omitted by families with $9oo and $Iooo than by thosewith lower incomes. Ninety-three per cent. of all families in the 2 highest income-groups have newspapers, as against 79 per cent. in the 2 lowest income-groups. By nationalities, practically every family in the first 3 nationalitygroups has newspapers, while 21 of the 57 Italian families go without, and 13 of the 89 Russian and Austrian families. As an indication of interest in reading, questions were put as to whether there were books in the house, and whether use was made of the public library. The answers to these questions are tabulated in Tables o09 and I I (pages 216, 217), and show that books were reported in 97 of the 318 families, or 30.5 per cent., and that use of the library was reported in 68 cases, or 2I.4 per cent. The figures, as far as they go, indicate a somewhat greater use of books by the families with larger incomes. The books most frequently named were novels and religious books.* Brought forward I6 Eternal Progress..................................... I Munsey's Argosy................................... 2 Ladies' Home Journal................................. I Standard Union.................................... 2 Herald.............................................. 9 Journal (German)................................... 3 Volkszeitung............... Staatszeitung.................................... 2 Tageblatt............................................ 7 Morgen.................................... i W ahrheit............................................ 11 Amerikaner.................................... 3 Vorwarts....................................... 21 New Yorker Liste..................................... 5 Amerika Echo........................................ 2 Freedom (Hungarian)................................. Slovak American...................................... I Italo Amerikano........3........,,............ 3 Progresso.......................................... 5 Heraldo........................................ 8 Bollettino dela Sera.................................... 8 Telegrapho........................................... 6 Total..................-................ 1 9 Only 3 families, all Americans, mention monthly magazines. * Outside of the items tabulated, some interesting details appeared in the schedules. One Jewish family, recently arrived, was paying a Rabbi $3 a month for teaching two children. Twenty-five cents was entered, in one schedule, as paid for writing a letter. The entries for postage and stationery are seldom more than a few cents. One schedule reports, "In 3 years i letter, 3 cents." 215 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 109.-EDUCATION AND READING. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTING USE OF NEWSPAPERS, BOOKS, PUBLIC LIBRARY.-BY INCOME. FAMMLIES REPORTING: Q rA FAximus I SPENDING -_ LESS THAN 75 CXNTS. C4 75 CENTS.Books at Use of E, INCOME. Newspapers. Home. Library. $ 0 0 Z..0.~ ~ ~~~0 >0 Z G4 PL Z Z P$6ooto $699.-.. 72 17 24 53 74 15 $5.56 $700 to $799-... 79 II I4 66 84 21 27 II 4 4-93 $8ooto $899... 73 10 14 6o 82 27 37 14 19 $900to $999... 63 4 6 57 90 i6 25 i8 29 6.70 $0ooo to $1099.... 31 I 3 30 97 13 42 10 8.54 $400to $599....- 25 5 20 i8 72 1io 40 4 i6 3.64 $6ooto $799.... I5I 28 II II9 79 4 27 26 17 4.69 $8ooto $899.... 73 10 14 6o 82 27 i 37 14 19 7.66 $900 to $1o99.... 94 5 5 87 93 29 I 31 28 30 7.08 $iio and over... 48... 45 94 j 27 56 14 29 IO.33t * Average of families spending. t Average of 41 families with incomes between $iioo and $1599. 216 TABLE 110.-EDUCATION AND READING. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE, AND NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING USE OF NEWSPAPERS, BOOKS, PUBLIC LIBRARY.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 Num- Number Num- Number Num- Number berof Re- berof Re- ber of ReFa- I porting. - porting. Fam- porting. Iii es. i i!NATIONALITY. ~. s ii h i,li li -1, 1 1 C1 i. #!. o-Sl X i.' 5 I United States... $6.13..II 2$5.8o0 I9 I8 41 5 $8.8i 13 3. 1 5 Teutonic....... 7.33 4 4 i I5.29 7 I 7 I 9 98.9 9 3 3 Irish..... 8.6 4 1 4 I- 6.0oI 7 6.... II-95i 7 7 3 3 Colored... 5.43 3 64 3 736 6 4| 549 8 6 2.. Russian... - |.. 5.43 16 3|i3! 5 3 4I12 34: 2IO; 57 3! 6.55 12 I 4 Austrian, etc.... 5.85 6 2 31 4 I 2 6 9! 2 8|. i 10.03 1 85 2 Italian... 3.27 616.91 5l 3 3-08 'I4 6j 8 7.- 2.74 I2 7 5 5.. $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. i,um-l Number Number Num- uNumber er of R- ber of!e- ber of KeRe- P,:, ReI~ I orting^ 'am- portig. i porting. I I | j, I i _1_ Teutonic.. ---- 7.34 |-.!I; 2 i IO-98 8. 8 4I 4 8.IOI 39 i 391 II I Colored 6..4..../ 6. 7- 6..|..|!. 3.960 I |I* 5-94 281 47 I I 3 5 ' I '. 1 Russian........ 5.9-43 9-| 9| 3! 5i 7.22 6..| 6i I; 6.I4-! 571 6. 48 8 8 12 Austrian, et.... 7.82 7 II 6 I 4ir 6.90 I. I I I 7.6I 32; 7i 27 8 IO Italian...... j 5.48 5! 9321 7.1 2 6.5562' 6 "'o 4: —37! 571211 35g 1 5 _Totac....,.| 7 6.7 63; 4 57I.6I8 8.-54. 31 i3_oj3o 6. 9 8'3I18 43 t266197 j 68 * Including cases with expenditure less than 75 cents.. 51i 4 62 i. United States... 7.82 i..6 I4 41 6.90II Ii2 67 7.61 3 67 5 2 1 Teutonic...-... 7-34 III - ~ 2- t1o.98 8& 4 41 8.io "39I 39 11 Io Irish......... 5.55 562 4 I — 2 24 4 4 Colored......... 3-74 2... 3.60 I I I 5.94 2& 4 20o 11 3 Bohemian..... ' I5 4l 2' 6. I4 64 5 5.98 4 I- I3 ~ " 5 Russian........ 478 I2 Austrian, etc.... 7.82, 7 z 6 6.90 z 76 I 32 7 27 Italian.- 5.48 9 21 7 2 2' 4.62 6 6 6 4- 437! 57 21! ~5i s Total.......... 7 6.7 63 457618 8.54 oiio 6983 43 66 97 68 * Including cases with expenditure less than 75 cents. 217 co LO TABLE 111.-EDUCATION AND READING. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING PURCHASE OF GIVEN NEWSPAPERS.-BY NATIONALITY. NUMBER OF FAMILIES 'JOURNAL" OTHER PAPERS IN NATIONALITY. NUMBER OF REPORTING AND 'WORLD." U. S. MAGAZINES. FOREIGN NOT TOTAL. FAMILIES. NEWS- "AMERICAN." PAPERS. LANGUAGES. SPECIFIED. PAPERS. United States....... 67 65 38 29 II 3.. 8 89 Teutonic............ 39 39 20 3 2.. 7 II 53 Irish................ 24 22 13 8 I.... 4 26 Colored............. 28 20 7 9 2.... 2 20 Bohemian........... 4 I 3 3 2.. 6 2 6 Russian............ 57 48 8 2.... 37 13 6o Austrian, etc....... 32 27 8 5.... i8 8 39 Italian............. 57 35 7 6.... 30 50 Total............... 318 266 104 75 i8 3 98 55 353 MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES 5. MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES.-Under this head are included items not easily classified under any of the preceding heads. Here fall expenditures for tobacco, for alcoholic drinks away from home, for barber's services; the spending money not otherwise accounted for, funeral expenses, the cost of moving, and a variety of other charges. The expenditures for these miscellaneous items are an expression of the individuality of the members of the family. The range for such expression is very restricted on the narrow incomes, but increases with increase of resources. The expenditures chosen out of those included in this group are also an index of the character and experiences of the members of the family. An excessive drink-bill tells its own story; an entry of $50 for repayment of debts suggests a happier state of affairs. A comparison of the averages of the amounts included under miscellaneous expenditures for the different income-groups shows a marked increase with increase of income (Table 112, page 224). The averages for the 5 income-groups between $6oo and $I Ioo are $25.47, $32.38, $41.3I, $45.51, $63.3. The average for the 150 families with incomes between $6oo00 and $800 is $27.o9; for the 94 families with incomes between $9oo and $1100 is $51.38, or nearly twice as much as for the poorer families. Tables I 13 and 114 (pages 224-225) show the number of families spending sums within given limits, in each income-group. The preponderance of entries of the lower sums for the smaller incomes is as striking as the frequency of the larger sums on the higher incomes. Table I I4 (page 225) shows that only i* of the 25 families with less than $600 a year spends over $30 for miscellanies, that 61 per cent. of the families with from $600 to $800 a year do not exceed this limit, and that only 36 per cent. of the families with from $9oo to $I IOO a year fall below it. Of the 48 families with $I IOO a year and more, only 8, or 16.7 per cent., spend less than $30 for miscellaneous items, and 58 per cent. report more than $50. The different nationalities show little difference in the total amount charged to the account of miscellaneous expenditures. A few large entries for certain families bring up the averages * This family, under-fed and in poor health, reports $66.40 for spending money, probably for intoxicants. 2I9 THE STANDARD OF LIVING in a few cases, but Table I 5 (page 226) shows a general correspondence in the number of families spending given amounts. Even more striking is Table I 16, showing these data for the two groups of nationalities; the first group comprising Americans, the Teutonic nations, Irish and colored; the second, Bohemians, Russians, Austrians and Italians. It appears that almost exactly the same number is to be found spending less than $30, from $30 to $50, and over $50. It will not be without importance to consider some of these items separately. The details included under the title "miscellaneous" are sometimes concealed under the general head of "spending money." The schedule asked for a return of spendingmoney for the different members of the family, and in some cases this was entered at large as 50 cents or $i a week, without further explanation. In other words there was obvious duplication with other entries, as for tobacco and car-fare. In the sheets showing details for each family, these duplications have been eliminated and nothing is charged to spending-money which is elsewhere charged to tobacco, car-fare or other stated objects of expenditure. In many families the mother is the cashier and receives her husband's wage week by week, allowing him out of it a fixed sum, say $I or $2, for his pocket-money. Out of this he pays for car-fare, lunches, tobacco, and what not. To the children small sums are given from time to time, but seldom as a regular amount every week. Under the general head of spending money are sometimes included expenditures for questionable purposes, such as an excessive amount for drink, or for gambling. No attempt has been made to draw the line in such cases. Expenditures reported for tobacco are shown in Tables II7 and 118 (pages 227-228). The average amounts expended increase from $9.40 for the $600 incomes, to $I6. 6 for incomes between $Iooo and $1 oo. This would mean a little under 20 cents a week in the first case, and something over 30 cents a week in the second case. The Russians and Austrians report a relatively high expenditure for this purpose, although a larger proportion of cases with no expenditure for tobacco is reported from these nationalities than from any others. The use of tobacco is re220 MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES ported in all but 63 of the 318 families with incomes between $6oo and $ Ioo. In 8 cases it is reported as received without cost, either as a gift, or in connection with employment in the tobacco trades. Its use is so general that it must be included as forming part of the established standard of living. The returns in regard to alcoholic drinks away from home are so incomplete as to warrant small inference from them. In certain cases the details are given with completeness, as stated in another connection (page 133). But more often the expenditure for drink has been hidden under "spending money," or "meals away from home," or in one or two obvious instances omitted entirely, leaving an apparent surplus quite irreconcilable with the meager provision reported for the necessities of life. The amount actually reported for drinks away from home may safely be considered as not exaggerated. It has been included in the table concerning alcoholic drinks at home (page I49). A few exceptionally large entries for drinks away from home are $200 in the $800 group of Americans, $233.60 for one $1ooo American family. No sums so large as these are reported by the families of other nationalities. For the Italians the returns give something under this head for three-fourths of the families. The amounts are usually not large. In a few cases occurs an entry of from $30 to $4o, or about io cents a day. Illustrations for the temperance lecturer may be found in the report of one woman that she bought heavy cups so the drunken husband might not break them, and in the entry under "playthings for children" that the only expenditure was on one occasion when the father was drunk and bought a 5-cent toy for each child. For the services of the barber something is reported from the great majority of families. The children's hair is often cut at home. One case of co-operative hair-cutting is reported-"The neighbors cut the father's hair." But for the most part the barber is patronized for this service, and in the majority of cases for shaving also. A count of the cases shows that in 176 of the 318 cases, or 55 per cent., there is resort to the barber for shaving at least once a week. The cost is usually io cents, in some cases 5; or for hair-cut and shave together, 25 cents. The distribution 221 THE STANDARD OF LIVING of the 176 families by income and nationality may be seen in the footnote.* The amount of expenditure for funerals is reported in only 12 cases. The amounts range from $30 to $50 for the funeral of a child, to $130 for the funeral of an adult. In 8 of the 12 cases expenditures are reported of from $30 to $50; in the other 4 cases the amounts are $65, $78, $120, $13O. The details of these expenditures are not given. In one case it is stated that $40 out of the $65 spent was given by relatives. For moving, expenditures vary. Three dollars, $5 and $7 are common entries under this head, but the entries are too few to warrant tabulation. Expenditures for candy, ice cream and soda water are reported in a number of schedules. A dollar a week in the summer is perhaps the maximum entry. Another family reports $18.20 for the year for this purpose. The pennies of the children that go for these luxuries are more often entered under the head of spending money for children. It remains only to notice a few single cases where a large entry among the miscellaneous items sheds some light on the gen* FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE FOR SHAVING AT THE BARBER'S. BY NATIONALITY. BY INCOME. With Expendi- With Expenditure for ture for. Shaving..- Shaving. Teutonic........ 39 9 49 $700 to $799 79 4 52 Irish......-...... 24 I2 5~ $800 to $899.... 73 39 53 United States... 67 38 57 $6ooto $699.... 72 31 43 Teutonic........ 39 19 49 $7ooto $799... 79 41 52 Irish...... 24 12 50 $8ooto $899.... 73 39 53 Colored......... 28 7 25 $9oo to $999.... 63 44 70 Bohemian....... I4 Io 71 $Iooo to $Io99.... 31 2 68 Russian........ 57 43 75 Austrian........ 32 25 78 318 I76 55 Italian........ 57 22 39 318 176 55 222 MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES eral conditions of work and life. One milk-driver receives an allowance, in addition to regular wages, of $2 a week from his employer, which he is expected to spend among the small dealers to whom he delivers milk. Another milk-driver is required to deposit $200 with his employer as surety for his honesty. One man, earning $1300 a year, paid $48 for a watch and chain for his wife; one gas-fitter, with an income of $60oo, was obliged to make good the loss of $250 worth of materials stolen from a building where he had been employed. In most of the cases, however, where the amount spent for miscellanies reaches $75 or more, it is accounted for under the vague term "spending money", or under the items of tobacco and drink. 223 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 112.-MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES. AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPENDITURE OF ALL FAMILIES.-BY INCOME AND NATIONALITY. $600 TO $699: $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 1. -.! E 8 1. s. Is United States. I I Teutonic.... 4 Irish......... 4 Colored...... I II Bohemian.... 4 Russian......6 Austrian, etc.. 6 Italian....... 16 $35-65 14.66 I8.23 21.87 13.85 20.77 22.92 34-04 I9 7 7 6 3 14 9 I4 $26.02 23-59 23.o6 24.17 23.60 37.98 33.I9 49-34 I3 9 7 8 3 12 9 12 $45.12 60.93 24.73 4I.02 20.9I 32.21 52.96 37-77 i6 II 5 2 4 9 7 9 $45-77 52.59 57-42 40.43 24.74 57-70 43-44 29.53 8 8 I I 6 I 6 $72.55 54.29 30.80 159.80 76.59 24.00 45.6o Average....7-l 72 1 25.47 79 32 3.3 73 4455 3 63 3 1 TABLE 113.-MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTIN,G EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY INCOME. FAMILIES WITH EXPENDITURE OF: NUMBER Under $30 $30 to $50 Over $50 INCOME. OF FAMILIES. Num- Num- Number. Per Cent. ber. Per Cent. ber. Per Cent. $600 to $699...... 72 50 69.5 I5 20.8 7 9.7 $700 to $799 ----- 79 42 53.2 22 27.8 15 19.0 $800 to $899..... 73 37 49.5 I9 26.0 17 24.5 $900 to $999..... 63 24 38. I 21 33-3 8 28.6 $Iooo to $099...... 3 32.2 6 9.3 5 48.5 3I III9-3 I, 4 - Total, $6oo to SIo99 3I8 I63 5I.I 83 26.2 72 22.7 $400 to $599....- 25 24 96.0.... 4.0 $600 to $799..... I5I 92 60.9 37 24-5 22 14.6 $8oo to $899...... 73 37 49.5 19 26.0 17 24-5 $9oo to $o99......[ 94 34 36.2 27 28.7 33 35-1 I$IOO and over..... 48 8 I6.7 I2 25.0 28 58.3 224 MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES TABLE 114.-MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY INCOME. TOTAL ExPENDITuRE. BEEME O $10 $20 $30 $40 $50 $60 $70 $80 $90 FA~n- Under to to to to to to to to to Over LIEs. $10 $20 $30 $40 $50 $60 $70 $80 $90 $100 $100 $400 to $499 8 4 $500 to $599 '7 51 Total, $400 to $599 25 9 2 9 II I 3 4 I I $6oo0to$699 72 II i8 21 8 7 2 3 '1 '1 $700 to $799 79 8 20 1413 9 6 5 ii.. I 2 $800 to $899 73 6 I5 i6 81II 8 2 1 I 5 $9oo to $999 63 I I0131I3 8 4 3 212 2 5 $IOOOto$Io99 3I.. 4 6 5 I1 I.. 5 2 2 5 Total, $6oo to $Io99 318 26 67 70 47 36 21 13 10 6 5 17 $1200 to$1299 $1300 to $1399 $I1400 to $1499 $1500to $1599 $ i6oo and over Total, $iioo and over I8 8 I 6 7 48 I I 3 2 2 I I I 3 4 I I I 7 2 I I I 5 2 I I 5 2 2 2 2 A I I I I 2 3 3 4 IE 3 '4 I5 '5 ~~~~225 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 115.-MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING EXPENDITURE OF GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY NATIONALITY. 0 EXPENDITURE. NATIONALITY..d - 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 United States......67 6 i6 9"II 7 8 4.. I 2 3 Teutonic......... 39 2 9 7 8 3 3.. I. I 5 Irish..24 3 5 9 2 2.. I. Colored...... 28 4 5 7 5 3 -. I I I -. I Bohemian.1........ I4 3 5 I 4 I Russian............57 2 15 15 3 5 4 3 6 2 -. 2 Austrian, etcn,etc- 32 3 4 II 3 41I 2.. I I 2 Italian.. 57 3 8 II xI II 5 2 2 I.. 3 Total..318.... 3 26 67 70 47 36 21 I3 Io 6 5 I7 TABLE 116.-MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES. NUMBER OF FAMILIES SPENDING GIVEN AMOUNTS.-BY NATIONALITYGROUPS AND INCOME. TOTAL NUIBES UNDER $30. $30 To $50. OVEz $50. or FAMuIES. INCOME. Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group I.* It I. II. I. ILII I. II. $6ooto $699...... 30 42 22 28 4 II 4 3 $700 to $799 --- —-- 39 40 24 i8 II 11 4 II $8ooto $899. --- —- 37 36 20 17 9 Ic 8 9 $9ooto $999 —. ---- 34 29 II 13 12 9 I1 7 $Iooo to $1o099....... IS 13 5 5 5 I 8 7 Total,,,,,,...,..,.,. I58 i6o 82 8i 41 42 35 37 * Group I includes Americans, Teutonic nations, Irish, and colored. t Group II includes Bohemians, Russians, Austrians, etc., and Italians. 226 TABLE 117.-TOBACCO. AVERAGE EXPENDITURE OF ALL FAMILIES.-BY INCOME. REPORTING NO EXPENDITURE. INCOME. NUMBER OF FAMILIES. AVERAGE AMOUNT. Number. Per Cent. $6oo to $699.................................. 72 20 7 $9.40 $700 to $799.................................. 79 I7 22 io.8I $800 to $899................................... 73 15 21 II.52 $900 to $999................................... 63 I3 21 II.63 $Iooo to $I099................................... 31 6 19 6.I6 $400 to $599.................................. 25 7 28 $6.48 $6oo to $799.................................. I51 37 24 9.74 $800 to $899.................................. 73 15 2I 1I.52 $900 to $I099..........9 21.................. 94 9 20 I3I5 $IIOO and over................................... 48 I8 37 I4.85* * Average of expenditures reported by 26 families reporting; incomes, $I100 to $I599. THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 118.-TOBACCO. AVERAGE EXPENDITURE OF ALL FAMILIES.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699. $700 TO $799. $800 TO $899. Number Number. Number of Z of of I Families. | Families. O Families. | NATIONALITY. 0 0 II dS |I I E' f i I~ United States........ I 2 $ 8.2 19 5 $11.3I 13 3 $IO.74 Teutonic............ 4.. 5.25 7 3 I0.78 9 I 1.-05 Irish............... 4 2 5.o6 7 2 6.64 7 I 8.27 Colored............. I 3 8.12 6 2 9. I 8 I I 2.2 Bohemian........... 4 2 5.65 3.. 6.07 3 I 7.80 Russian............. 6 7 8.66 14 5 I6.9og 2 2 12.65 Austrian, etc........ 6 2 13.00 9.. I3.36 9 3 I 7.06 Italian............. 6 2.25 14.. 8.29 2 3 IO33 Total.............. 72 20 9.40 79 17 io.8I 73 I5 11.52 $900 TO $999. $1000 TO $1099. TOTAL. Number. Number Number of of of of Families. Families. o Families. NATIONALIT. Y. a ce 02 0 United States........ 6 $.9 8 i 2403 67 $.6 United States........ I6 I $10.09 8 I $24.o3 67 12 $Io.}6 Teutonic............ ii 3 15.29 8 2 I0.53 39 9 I.29 Irish............... 5 I 12.42 I.- 3.00 24 6 8.65 Colored............. 2 5.20 I. 7.80 28 6 9.32 Bohemian........... 4 3 1.40.... 4 6 6.94 Russian............. 9 1 I3.IO 6 2 I4.07 57 I7 I3.25 Austrian, etc........ 7 I 3.84 I.. 5.20 32 6 I3.95 Italian.............. 9 3 8.28 6 I I8.o8 57 9 IO.55 Total............... 63 I3 11.63 31 6 16. 6 318 71 Io.98 i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 228 RELATION OF INCOME TO EXPENDITURE IV. Relation of Income to Expenditure Having considered the elements of the subsistence that our families provide, it remains to consider the question how far they are able to provide this subsistence out of the incomes that they have. If a family is able to make both ends meet out of its income, it seems a fair inference that it is able to maintain such standard of living as is represented by its expenditures. Still more probable is this if the family has a surplus of income over expenditures. This is not to say that the standard maintained is normal or adequate, however. It may be so low that in the course of a few years, if not sooner, the physique and morale of the family must deteriorate, or the effects may be apparent only in the gradual deterioration of a whole group of the population in the course of one or two generations. This deterioration may be going on at the same time that individual families are living as best they can within their incomes. The comparison of income with expenditure has therefore been deferred until after the examination of the main items of expenditure in the several income-groups. In comparing the income and expenditure of the families included in our tables, three classes have been made: families with an eVen balance, those showing a surplus, and those reporting a deficiency. In view of the probabilities of error in the estimates which the figures represent, a margin of $25 has been allowed, and all cases where the difference either way between income and expenditure does not exceed this sum, are counted as having neither surplus nor deficiency. Tables 119 and I20 (pages 235-236) show the results of this enumeration. Of the 318 families that have incomes between $600 and $I Ioo, II6 show an even balance within $25, 1 6 show a surplus, and 86 show a deficiency. Of the 25 families with incomes under $600, 13 came out even within $2i5 5 show a surplus of more than $25, and 7 show a deficiency. Among the 48 families with incomes of $I Ioo and above, 15 come out within the $25 limit, 22 report a surplus, and I a deficiency. This comparison shows that there are extravagant families and economical families on whatever income. It suggests also, what figures already presented substantiate, that the families that 229 THE STANDARD OF LIVING make both ends meet on less than $600 are living far below the normal standard. Examining by income-groups the returns for the 318 families with incomes between $600 and $i Ioo, we find that the percentage of those reporting deficiency tends to diminish with increase of income, but with a movement in the opposite direction for the $800 groups. The table of averages shows no such interruption,* so that the amount of the deficiency must be smaller in the families with incomes of $800 and $9oo, even if the number of families reporting deficiency increases. The table indicates that s a comfortable margin of income over expenditure is first possible with an income between $800 and $9goo. If the column showing the number of families reporting a surplus be examined, it will be found that the percentage here increases from 28 in the $600 group to 42 in the $Iooo group. The $800 families, which report the largest percentage of families with deficit, report also the largest percentage of families with a surplus, 48 per cent., and the smallest percentage (22) of families with balance within $25. An examination of the tabulation by nationalities furnishes an explanation of these variations. In the $800 income-group, only 3 families of our second nationality-group (Bohemians, Russians, Austrians, Italians) report a deficit, or 8 per cent., while of the 37 families in the first nationality-group (Americans, Teutonic nations, Irish, colored) 19, or 50 per cent., report a deficit. The standard set by the nations of Southern Europe can be attained on $800 much more certainly than the American standard.t The figures for the various nationalities taken by income-groups and as a whole tend to confirm the inference that has been made regarding the difference between the American standard and that of the natives of Southern Europe. Only 32 of the 86 families AVERAGE AVERAGE TOTAL * INCOME GRouPS. TOTAL INCOME. EXPENDITURE. $600 to $699................ $650.I7 $650-57 700 to 799 --- —-........-.. 748.83 735.98 800 to 899................ 846.26 8I.88 900 to 999...-......... 942.03 906-70,ooo000 to 1,099............... 1,044.48 1,009.57 t It appears further that these 37 families of the first group contain an exceptional proportion of families with high equivalents in demand for food. 230 RELATION OF INCOME TO EXPENDITURE reporting a deficiency are in the 4 nationalities representing Southern Europe, although these 4 comprise a full half of the 318 families under discussion. Further, of these 32 families only II are found in the 3 income-groups above $8oo. If we look at the families reporting a surplus, we find that more than 50 per cent. of all Russian, Austrian, and Italian families report a surplus as against only 23 per cent. of the American and Teutonic families. Even on incomes between $600 and $800, among the combined Russian, Austrian and Italian families, a surplus is reported by 39 per cent. of the families in the $6oo group and by 49 per cent. in the $700 group, as compared with 17 per cent. of the combined nationalities of the first group (American, Teutonic, Irish, colored) in the $6oo group, and 2I per cent. in the $700 group. Taking all incomes together, the largest percentage of families with deficit is found among the colored people (43 per cent.); the next largest (37 per cent.) is reported by the American families; the largest percentage with surplus is 58, which falls to the Italians; next come the Russians, with 51 per cent.; while the lowest percentage, as has already been stated, is found among the American and Teutonic families. The economic disadvantage of the family not drawing upon other sources of income than the father's earnings appears in a comparison of the standing, as regards surplus and deficit, of the families of this sort and families with a composite income. This may be found in Tables 121-123 (pages 237-239). In every income-group from $500 up to $1 IO, the percentage of families reporting a deficit is larger among the families supported only by the father than in the other class; the percentage reporting surplus is smaller in the greater number of income-groups, and for these families as a whole, than for the families with composite income. A survey of the various nationalities represented in the tables shows the same tendency in favor of the families with composite income (Tables: 21 and 122, pages 237-238). For the 67 American families, 45 per cent. of those supported by the father alone report a deficit, and 26 per cent. of the families with composite income. The'percentage of families reporting a surplus is the same for both classes, namely, 22 per cent., but the percentage of families with even balance is 52 for the families with composite income and 231 THE STANDARD OF LIVING but 33 for families supported by the father alone. Among the Irish and Russians only is there an exception. However, there are only 7 Irish families altogether with composite income. Even in the Russian families those with composite income show a larger percentage with surplus than the families supported by the father alone. Considered from the view-point of the content of a standard of living, this tendency indicates that where the families are compelled to resort to the supplementary sources of income, they are either content with a lower standard of comforts than families of the other class, or are able to attain it at a lower expense. Put in another form, it appears that many families send their children to work at an early age, and cramp their housing accommodations by taking lodgers, in order to lay up money, rather than to maintain a given standard of living in their current expenditures. This interpretation is supported by corroborative details in a large number of the individual schedules for families with composite income, especially those of the families of foreign birth. The under-fed, under-clothed, and over-crowded families (Tables 124-126, pages 240-242), as has already been shown, make a better showing in keeping expenditures within income than do the families as a whole. This indicates that on the lower incomes, where most of these cases with sub-normal standard are found, an even balance or a surplus can be attained only by curtailing expenditures for necessaries below the point of meeting the requirements of healthy existence. This inference is further substantiated by noting the location, by income-classes, of the families that are reported as below the minimum standards assumed. Table 124 (page 240) shows that two-thirds of the 33 families, both under-fed and under-clothed, have incomes under $800; two-thirds (29 out of 45) of the families both under-fed and over-crowded, and two-thirds (56 out of 8 ) of the families underclothed and over-crowded are likewise in the same income-classes. Fourteen of the 20 families below standard in all three respects are in the $6oo and $700 income-groups, 5 are in the $800 group, and only I among the families with incomes above $9oo. Table 127 (page 243) shows the returns made as to savings, and as to insurance that is comparable with saving; that is, where the 232 RELATION OF INCOME TO EXPENDITURE policy, whether an ordinary life policy, or one of the endowment type, is for a sum that represents something more than burial expenses. The table shows the number of families reporting that they had savings in one form or another, and the number reporting an insurance policy of $500 or over, the limit of $500 being arbitrarily assumed as marking something more than the ordinary industrial or burial insurance. It should be remembered that not all families reporting a surplus of income over expenditure admitted possessing savings or investments in any form; hence the numbers in the table doubtless are under-statements. At the same time, there is no reason to suppose that the concealment of savings and investment would be more frequent in one income-group than in another. Taking the figures as they stand, savings are reported by I5 per cent. of the $600 families, 20 per cent. of the $700 families, 38 per cent. of those with incomes between $800 and $900, 23 per cent. of those in the $9oo group, and 45 per cent. of the $1ooo families. Insurance of $500 or more is reported in about the same proportion of families in each income-group, and by 56, or 18 per cent., of the 318 families under consideration.* These figures, so far as they go, show that saving is relatively infrequent until the $8oo line is reached.t The converse of savings is borrowing (Table 128, page 244). Here, too, the reports cannot be assumed to be inclusive of all actual cases among our families. It is safe to assume that borrowing did occur in every case where it is reported. Pawning is reported in about half of the cases of borrowing. Only 42 of the 318 families admit borrowing, and 23 pawning. Inasmuch as the amount borrowed is not in every case stated, it is not possible always to distinguish between small sums borrowed in anticipation of pay-day, and loans of considerable sums to meet a serious deficiency of income, or provide for an extraordinary emergency. * By nationalities, the American families report savings in the smallest number of cases (save the Irish), and the largest number of cases of life insurance. The Italians report the largest proportion of families with savings (29 out of 57), but no insurance for as much as $500. About one-third of the Russian and of the Teutonic families report savings. t The savings are not always invested in savings banks. Several families reported buying lots in Long Island or New Jersey; one or two reported making additions to business capital. 233 THE STANDARD OF LIVING Taking the figures for what they are worth, nearly half of the cases of borrowing reported (20 out of 42) are in the $600 incomegroup; one-quarter are in the $700 group. The pawning reported is likewise nearly half of it in the $600 families. This corroborates the suggestion already made, that the task of making both ends meet is too severe to be successfully accomplished in ordinary circumstances, on all incomes under $8oo, without a lowering of the standard of living below the normal demands of health, working efficiency, and social decency.* * The question, "In case of retrenchment, what expenditures are curtailed?" while not eliciting all that was hoped for, brought out some suggestive answers. In one case it is reported that "In case of retrenchment they live principally on bread and coffee or tea, curtailing all other expenses for food." In other cases clothing, amusements, and certain articles of food are mentioned. More eloquent than these answers are the pages of the books that show the severest struggle with poverty,-the absence of entries for newspapers, society dues, recreation in any form. The meager diet is epitomized in this quotation: "I believe we can eat more, but it has to be sufficient." Another family buys cracked eggs: "They are much cheaper, about one cent each." Economy in dress is well represented by the statement regarding the expenditures for hats of a woman married some ten years, "One hat, bought long before she knew him." 234 TABLE 119.-SURPLUS AND DEFICIT. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING.BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 To $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $9991 $igfT%~o TOTAL. /4. ~I-Balance Surplus. Deficit. ~~ g 8l8 8. within $25. NATIONALITY. Pe p| Per I -P. I0 1| I 1/ | 2 Q F3 0 Cent. Cent. Cent. United States....... 67 6 3 2 O 3 6 3 4 6 3 5 8 5-3 27 40 5 3 25 37 Teutonic........... 39 4. -. 3 3 4 I 4 6 3 2 4 2 2 21 54 9 23 9 23 Irish.............. 4 2 I 3 I 3 - 3 4 4 i ---- I — 9 38 7 29 8 33 Colored............ 28 5 5 3 I1 2. 3 5 1 1. —. 9 32 7 25 12 43 Bohemian.1....... 4 3 3.... 4 -- - - 12 86.... Russian......... 57 6 5 2 8 4 iio ' 3 3 3 -. 4 1 19 29 51 I7 30 Austrian, etc...... 32 2 4. 4 4 I 4 4 3 3 1 -I - 13 41 i6 50 3 9 Italian......... 57 5 5 6 5 6 33 1 I 3 6. 14 25 3358 1017 Total.3........ 18 31 20 2I 33 26 20 i6 35 22 27 22 14 9 13 9 1 "6 36.5 4 6 36.5 86 27 w Uo TABLE 120.-SURPLUS AND DEFICIT. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING.-BY INCOME. BALANCE WITHIN $25.00 SURPLUS. DEFICIT. INCOME. NUMBER OF. - __ FAMILIES. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. Number. Per Cent. $400 to $499............ 8 5 63..3 37 $500 to $599............ I7 8 47 5 29 4 24 $600 to $699............ 72 31 43 20 28 21 29 $700 to $799............ 79 33 42 26 33 20 25 $800 to $899............ 73 i6 22 35 48 22 30 $900 to $999............ 63 27 43 22 35 I4 22 $00ooo to $1099..:......... 3' 9 29 3 42 9 29 $II00oo to $1199............ I8 8 44 7 39 3 17 $I200 to $I299........... 8 3 38 2 25 3 38 $I300 to $I399........ -. 8 I 12 4 50 3 38 $140o and over......... I4 3 22 9 64 2 14 Total.................. 39I I44 37 I43 36 104 27 TABLE 121.-SURPLUS AND DEFICIT. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING INCOME FROM EARNINGS OF FATHER ONLY.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 To $799 $800 TO $899 $900 To $999 $1000 To TOTAL. 04 $1099 o v, v, ( lr, Y, Balance |NATIONALITY. |within $25. Surplus. Deficit. NATIONALITY. | |I _______II IL I United States........ 40 5 3 2 5 2 4 2 2 3 2 7 I.. 2 13 33 9 22 i8 45 Teutonic......... 2.2.. 2 2.. 3 4 2 2.. I 2 8 40 5 25 7 35 Irish............... 7 2 I 2 I 2 2 1 4 I..... 8 47 5 30 4 23 Bohemian........... 3 I *-.2 3 I00 Russian............. 21 5 4 2. 3 3 2.. i....... 6 29 Io 48 5 23 Austrian, etc........ 7 -- I- - 2 I.... i-.. - - 3 47 4........ 57 Italian....... 29 2 2 43 5 3 I 6.... 2 5 17 18 62 6 21 Austrian,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~I [tc x81 6~ [ 6[:2x- -I-II.(31-i ----I- ' 2 4 3 5_ I 1- 3. - - 1 - I 2 Total....... 149 20 12 14 4 15 I 4 1 8 2 2 9 I 3 4 51 34 52 35 46 31 TABLE 122.-SURPLUS AND DEFICIT. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING COMPOSITE INCOME.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 To $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 To TOTAL. Pg4~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~$1099 Balance Surplus. Deficit. NATIONALITY. I within $25. United States.......27 I 5 I 2 I 2 3 3 3 I 4..I 14 52 6 22 7 26 Teutonic...........9 2 3 I I 2 I 2 I.. 4 I I3 68 4 2 2 II Irish............... I.. I 3..... I 4 229 4 57 Colored......... I.. 3 5 I... 4 25 6 37.5 6 37.5 Bohemian.............. i I I..... 3 4.... 9 82.... 2 i8 Russian.......... 36.. 2 3 2 5 I I 8 I 2 2 3.. 2 4 5 I4 I9 53 I2 33 Austrian, etc...... 25 2 3.. 4 2 I 4 3 I. 3 I.. 10 40 I2 48 3 I2 Italian............. 28 3 3 2 2 2 I 7.. 3 3 42 15 54 4 14 Total............ 169 i 8 7 19 II 9 12 25 14 I5 Io 5 8 10 5 65 38 64 38 40 24 RELATION OF INCOME TO EXPENDITURE TABLE 123.-SURPLUS AND DEFICIT. NUMBER AND PER CENT. OF FAMILIES REPORTING.-BY SOURCES OF INCOME AND INCOME-GROUP. FAMLES SUPPORTED BY FATHER FAmILIEs HAVING CoWOsIim ALONE. INCOIE. 0 Balance Balance INCOME. ~ within Surplus. Deficit. within Surplus. f $25.00 $25.00 z 4.; 4) 41 V~E Pc ~4 pt p pE i F. $4ooto $499 8 6 5 83.... 117 2 2 100 $500to $599 I7 I4 6 43 4 28.5 4285 3 2 67 133 - $6oo to $699 72 46 20 43 12 26 14 31 2611 42 8 31 7 27 $700 to $799 79 40 I4 35 15 38 II 27 39 I9 49 II 28 9 23 $8ooto $899 73 22 4 19 IO 45 8 36 511 12 24 25 49 I4 27 $9g00to $999 63 33 12 36 12 36 9 28 30 15 50 110 33 5 17 $Iooo to$Io99 3i 81 I12 3 38 4 50 23 8 35 IO043 5 22 $Iio to$iigg i8 7 3 42 2 29 2 29 II 5 45.5 5 45.5 19 $I200 to $I299 8 4 2 50 I 25 I 25 4 I 25 1 25 2 50 $I300 to $I399 8 2.... 21 00... 6 I I7 233 3 50 $i4oo and over 14 3 13 I 33I33 112 i8 8 73 1 9 Total......... 391 i85 68 37 62 33 55 30 206 78 38 81 39 47 23 $400to $599 25 20 11 55 4 20 5 25 5 4 80 I120 $6oo to $I099 318 149 51 34 52 35 46 3I 169 65 38 64 38 40 24 $iiooandover 48 i6 6 37.5 6 37.5 4 25 32 9 28 I6 50 7 22 239 o 0 e( g,, 0 ~ *. * ' CIn z H 0 t4 H 14 H 0 El > P, d W n C"1 W _3c 1= 0rO lZ= r g. -,. *~, u. Cl * D z 0 H I C \0 -4' o. t c H Cs Total Number of Families. H....... Number Under-fed and |.. ).... ~. | Under-clothed. |..... Number Under-fed and ~~ (.. c,, I~ * *(. ' | Over-crowded..... Number Under-clothed and -. o ca H.... Over-crowded. o....... Number Under-fed, UnderH * Oe r-rwdclothed, and Over-crowded. H C H 0\ H H 00 0o Total Number of Families.........|. Number Under-fed and._ |** | Under-clothed. HI....... Number Under-fed and o _........... Over-crowded........ Number Under-clothed and 5.......... '| Over-crowded. o......._... Number Under-fed, Under-._......._ _clothed, and Over-crowded. o| oH oH- HO\ H, P Total Number of Families. H.. Number Under-fed and 69 o | H. o ca. Under-clothed. o H | Number Under-fed and. | o 1Ca H H h H H | Over-crowded. H M. Number Under-clothed n to t H ). 0\Coi * C. c and Over-crowded. o H,: * H> Number Under-fed, Under'_ t * M M.. H. | clothed, and Over-crowded. \o.o 40P ca W0 -- 'o Total Number of Families.. I... I Number Under-fed and IH. ' H '.. c^ | Under-clothed. I | H..H H Number Under-fed and __ | -: c_ _. _ E_ _ _ |___ Over-crowded. H|evu ~ H Number Under-clothed 3 __o _ O _ n n W to-*. | W and Over-crowded. '0 I I....: I Number Under-fed, UnderI____'* | | '' ' clothed, and Over crowded. O n | OtdO tzz0 w> I t l t H I Cr Ir _l CI' r 0 Cw 00 (i a (t H to to ) 0\ I to -4 40 004^ O -- Total Number of Families. 4 H 00 1H H0 C I " \0 Na H 00-n \J ) Total Number of Families. - I M 4 *| I Number Under-fed and Ho 0| o.oo CA. ~o | I Under-clothed.. H Number Under-fed and en HS o o O I to to 4H - Over-crowded. oo W H H Number Under-clothed and 1 H W. H n o oc H - Over-crowded. ~..... H 0 5. I.:.... I Number Under-fed and 4. c '^ ' H... | Under-clothed. H.. Number Under-fed and M a W c0.. Over-crowded.... Number Under-clothed and oo 10 oo 4.. H H I Over-crowded. H \o lo %0 '0 M I.. O I On 0 o * H. to I Number Under-fed, Underclothed, and Over-crowded. "'-I I: k4 W Number Under-fed, Under. clothed, and Over-crowded. RELATION OF INCOME TO EXPENDITURE TABLE 125.-FAMILIES UNDER-FED, UNDER-CLOTHED, AND OVERCROWDED. NUMBER AND PERCENTAGES.-BY INCOME. UNDERUNDER- UNDER- NDLOTHED UNDER- UNDER- OVER- FED AND FED AND CLOTED. FED. CLOTHED. CROWDED. UNDER- OVER- OwVER.~..CLOTHED. CROWDED. CROWED. INCOME. < __ __ __ __ __ I:Y O a. 2 k 2 a $400 to $499 8 8 Ioo 7 88 5 63 7 88 5 63 4 50 $500 to $599 7 II 65 5 88 12 71 IO 1 59 8 4 9 53 $600 to $699 72 24 33 45 63 4 57 I3 i8 I4 19 28 39 $700 to $799 79 24 30 4I 52 46 58 II 14 I5 I9 28 35 $8ooto $899 73 i6 22 23 32 39 53 7 io 11 15 I8 25 $900 to $999 63 5 8 I6 25 25 40 2 3 4 6 7 I $rooo to $1099 31 3 10 IO 3 9 30 -.. I 3 $IIoo to $ii99 i8... 3 6 Io 2I $I200 to $I299 8 $I300 to $1399 8 - $1400 and over I4 -..... -. -. - i I - - - - I Total....... 39I -- - $400 to $599 251 I9 76 22 88 17 1 68 17 68 I3 52 I3 52 $6ooto $799 15I 48 32 86 57 87 1 58 24 i6 29 I9 56 37 $800 to $899 73 16 22 23 32 39 53 7 I 011 I5 i8 25 $900 to $IO99 94 8 9 7 I 34 36 2 2 5 5 7 7 $IIOO and over 48 - - 3 6 IO 2 - i6 241 ht to TABLE 126.-FAMILIES UNDER-FED, UNDER-CLOTHED, AND OVER-CROWDED. NUMBER AND PERCENTAGES.-BY INCOME AND SOURCES OF INCOME. UNDER-CLOTHED WITH d UNDER-FED WITH INCOME. INCoME. OVER-CROWDED WITH INCOME. w From Father From other ~ From Father From other 0 From Father From other;4 g only. Sources. w only. Sources. p N only. Sources. INCOME. o0 ----.... — --------- II I l l I I l U U U $6oo to $699............... 72 24 15 63 9 37 45 34 76 II 24 41 24 59 17 41 $700 to $799-.............. 79 24 ]I 46 13 54 41 19 46 22 54 46 20 43 26 57 $8oo to $899............... 7 36 3 19 13 8i 23 5 22 i8 78 39 II 28 28 72 $00 to $999... ---... --- — 63 5 20 4 8o i6 5 31 II 69 25 9 36 i6 64 $I000 to $I99............ 31 3 - - 3 I00 I.. I 100 9 2 22 7 78 $6oo to $799............... 15 48 26 54 22 46 86 53 62 33 38 87 44 51 43 49 $8oo to $899.............. 73 6 2319 I3 81 23 5 22 18 78 39 II 28 28 72 $900 to $o99............... 94 8 I 12 7 88 17 5 30 I2 70 34 11 30 23 70 TABLE 127.-SAVINGS AND INSURANCE.* NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. 4 $600 TO $699. $700 TO $799. $800 TO $899. $900 TO $999. $1000 To $1099. TOTAL. NATIONALITY. _. _. United States.................. Teutonic.................... Irish.......................... Colored....................... Bohemian..................... Russian....................... Austrian, etc................. Italian........................ fj Total......................... 67 39 24 28 I4 57 32 57 I 2* 4t I 2 5 2 I 3 I I.o. 2 I 5 I 7* 6 8 I 3 2t 61 I 2 4 3 IO* 3 2 2 2 3.. 3t i I 4 3 4 7 2 2 I I.. 5t 2 I 6 2 4.. 5 14 I 6 '9 9 29 83 23 8 7 7 3 8 56 318 Io 13 I6 12 28 12 5 13 14 6 Per cent. of all families............ 5 1 6.43.8 20.3 15.1 39.4.4 451 9 26. I7.6 * I)rew on sav ngs, 2. t Drew on savings, 2. t Drew on savings, 3. $400 TO $500 TO $1100 TO $1200 TO $1300 TO $1400 TO $1500 TO $1600 AND o4 $499. $599. $1199. $1299. $1399. $1499. $1599. OVER. TOTAL..| 5 | j l.O i I _ - All nationalities....... 73... 8 3 I 3 3 3 3 5 3 ~~~~~~~~83]I33[3 x —1 [3. ---.... * Insurance on persons to amount of $500 or over. t) 2~ TABLE 128.-BORROWING AND PAWNING. NUMBER OF FAMILIES REPORTING.-BY NATIONALITY AND INCOME. $600 TO $699 $700 TO $799 $800 TO $899 $900 TO $999 $1000 TO $1099 TOTAL. NATIONALITY. S S United States.................. 67 2. 6 I............ 8 i Teutonic......9 I.................I I Irish................... 4 2 i 3.. 2 2....... 7 3 Colored.................... 28................. Bohemian................ 4 2......... 2 I Russian...................... 57 4 I 2 I 2 I I. 4 3 13 6 Austrian, etc.. I................ 32.. 2 2 Italian........................ 57 9 8............. 9 8 Total...........,......- ----. 318 20 II j I 2 5 5 2 2 4 3 42 23 $400 TO $500 TO $1100 TO $1200 TO $1300 TO $1400 TO $1500 TO $1600 AND ~ C $499 $599 $1199 $1299 $1399 $1499 $1599 OVER. NATIONALITY. a '3 3 d ed St 6 8 1O Irs...... 4 2 37 3 All nationalities.......73 3 4 5 2 I 3.. CONCLUSIONS Conclusions 1. It seems safe to conclude from all the data that we have been considering, that an income under $800 is not enough to permit the maintenance of a normal standard. A survey of the detail of expenditure for each item in the budget shows some manifest deficiency for almost every family in the $6oo and $700 groups. The housing average shows scarcely more than 3 rooms for 5 persons. Three-fifths of the families have less than 4 rooms and more than I~ persons to a room. Fuel is gathered on the street by half of the $600 families and by more than one-third of the $700 families. One-third of the $6oo families are not able to afford gas. Onethird of the $600 families are within the 22-cent minimum limit for food, and 30 per cent. of the $700 families spend 22 cents or under. In the same way the average expenditure for clothing in neither of these groups reaches $1oo, and 30 per cent. of the families are in receipt of gifts to eke out the supplies of clothing. In sickness the dispensary is the main dependence of these families, each of whom spends less than $1o annually in the average, on account of health, and only I family in IO in the $600 group, and I in 6 of the $700 group, spends anything for the care of the teeth. The returns as to the furnishing of the houses show that in the $6oo and $700 groups adequate furnishing is scarcely attained as the rule, and it is difficult to see how it could be kept up with the average expenditure reported for this purpose. In regard to membership in organizations, such as labor unions and churches, $I 1oo does not permit generous co-operation, and the families in the lower income-groups are seen to be represented in smaller proportion in these organizations than are the families in higher income-groups. Recreation and education are reduced to their lowest terms, save in so far as they may be had without expense. Items included under the head of miscellaneous expenditures represent, to a certain extent, the modest comforts above physical necessities, and the average of $25 or $30 puts a pretty narrow limit to what may be enjoyed in this category. As to provision for the future, industrial or burial insurance is one of the necessities that the poorest families provide, and the returns show cases where some245 THE STANDARD OF LIVING thing is saved out of a $700 income, but the savings are at the expense of essentials of the present, as is seen in the number of under-fed families reporting a surplus at the end of the year. 2. On the other hand, an income of $9oo or over probably permits the maintenance of a normal standard, at least so far as the physical man is concerned. An examination of the items of the budget shows that the families having from $9oo to $1ooo a year are able, in general, to get food enough to keep soul and body together, and clothing and shelter enough to meet the most urgent demands of decency. Sixty-eight per cent. of the $9oo families have 4 rooms or more, the average number of rooms being 3.75. The average expenditure for fuel allows comfortable provision; one-quarter of the families report gathering wood on the streets. Only I family in 6, in Manhattan only I in 15, is without gas. The average expenditure for food is a trifle over $400, enough to provide adequate nourishment, and only 5 families out of 63, or I in I2, report less than the minimum of 22 cents per man per day. As to clothing, gifts are reported still in one-fourth of the cases, but the average amount expended is between $130 and $140, and 3 families out of every 4 spend more than $1oo. Dispensaries and free hospitals are not for the $900 and $1ooo families the main dependence in cases of illness. The expenditures for furniture indicate that the existing outfit is fairly well maintained and the equipment as it stands is reported fairly comfortable in the case of three-fourths of the $9oo families, and of seven-eighths in the $Iooo group. Participation in the benefits of labor unions or religious and fraternal organizations becomes possible to the majority of the families, and some margin is available for the pursuit of amusements and recreation, the purchase of books and papers, and the indulgence of personal tastes outside of the indispensable necessities of existence. 3. Whether an income between $800 and $9oo can be made to suffice is a question to which our data do not warrant a dogmatic answer. In some respects the $800 families make no better showing than those with incomes of between $700 and $800, for instance, in regard to insurance, free fuel, and kerosene. Even as to food, there is a large percentage of under-fed families in this group, and the average expenditure is only $25 above that of the 246 CONCLUSIONS income-group below. In regard to housing, distinctly better conditions prevail and the limit of the tolerable is perhaps reached by half of the families in this group. In regard to clothing also, conditions are better than with the $700 families, but in view of the fact that one-third of the 73 $800 families spend less than $Ioo for clothing, it seems an open question whether a normal standard is maintained in the group as a whole. The same query arises regarding expenditures for social obligations, amusements, and miscellaneous purposes. It is important to notice that in this income-group the cases of families below our assumed standards for food, clothing, and housing are largely in the second (South-European) group of nationalities. Anticipating the paragraph which follows, it seems probable that on $800 to $9oo the standards prevailing among Bohemians, Russians, Austrians, and Italians may be maintained, but that it is the exception rather than the rule when the more expensive standards of the Americans and kindred nationalities are maintained on this amount. 4. A comparison of the families by nationalities shows that at almost every point a lower standard of expenditures prevails among the Bohemians, Austrians, Russians, and Italians than among the Americans, Teutons, and Irish. The families of the former group on incomes above $700 or $800 begin to save and show a surplus, and the sum total of expenditures above this point does not, as a rule, increase in proportion to increase of income. The families of the other group, on the contrary, do not reach the saturation point, so to speak, below an income of $9oo or $1ooo. Expenditures in these families increase all along the line with increase of income, and the point where saving is preferred to immediate satisfaction is scarcely reached at $I I00. 5. In the interpretation of the results of such an investigation as ours, certain serious difficulties arise. We have assumed that a normal standard of living exists, and that it can be maintained by a given family only by the expenditure of a certain minimum income. That is, when a family falls below the normal standard, the primary explanation is to be sought in a low income, or if ultimate causes are sought, in the reasons, personal or social, why this income is so small. It may be said, however, that the failure to maintain a normal standard may be due to 247 THE STANDARD OF LIVING causes quite outside of the capacity of the individual breadwinner, or of the economic forces that determine the rate of wages. Two of these outside considerations are the presence of too many mouths to be fed and the inability to make a wise use of the money earned. Over-population on the one hand, improvidence, extravagance, and vice on the other, are alleged to explain why so many families make so poor a showing on $600 or $700 a year. With reference to the proposition that the falling short of a normal standard is to be referred to the increase of numbers, without a corresponding increase of resources, it is, perhaps, sufficient to point out that however such a tendency might operate in its influence on wages, considered with regard to the whole mass of the wage-earners, it cannot properly be adduced to account for the failure of a family of only normal size to make out a decent living on its income. Not only is the average size of all the families in the United States not far from 5 persons, but the prevailing average must be near that point if the population of the country is to hold its own in numbers, apart from immigration. Our investigation has included only families of 4, 5, and 6 persons, almost exactly 5 on the average, so that a failure to keep up to the standard on the part of a family of only normal size cannot be attributed to the presence of too many members in it, unless we are willing to set a standard so high that the population at large must be diminished in order to reach it.* In regard to the second point, that the maintenance of the standard depends more upon the wise use of the family income than upon the mere amount received, the schedules returned in this investigation afford much evidence in its support. But they also furnish evidence that there are limits to what can be done by thrift and economy. In Manhattan decent, sanitary, adequate housing cannot be had under $I2 to $14 a month-in many parts of the island more is required. A family cannot be brought up in health and strength for work on bread and tea, even if these can be supplied for a dollar a week. Coal will burn up, coats and shoes will wear out, notwithstanding all that mending can do. * The average number of persons per family, for the families included in this investigation is almost exactly 5 in each income-group. The details are given in Table 6A (page 53). 248 CONCLUSIONS Further, to bring expenditures down to the exact requirements of an ideal economy, even supposing that all that is claimed could hereby be saved, is not within the ability of the ordinary wage-earner's wife. She cannot spend hours in bargain-hunting, in experimenting with new food-combinations, in making and mending garments. She has not, and cannot be expected to have, the training and ability to do all these things, even if she had the time. She has to take the methods of housekeeping that are traditional in her environment and apply them as skilfully and intelligently as her native and acquired powers of mind and body permit. What the exceptional woman might do cannot be made the measure of what the average woman maybe expected to do, and if the morale and efficiency of the population are to be kept up, provision must be made for what the woman of average capacity must have to keep her family up to the prevailing standard. Only when education in a better economy is widely diffused, will it be possible to maintain the existing standards of physique and character on a lower absolute income. One form of bad management of the family income is an excessive expenditure for indulgences like tobacco and drink. Where over-indulgence results in lowered earning-power, such expenditure reacts to lower the standard by diminishing income. Where this extreme result is not reached, expenditures of more fundamental importance are often curtailed. Instances of this sort were not wanting in the schedules received, and have been alluded to in another connection. But the number of cases in which the failure to come up to the normal standard could be attributed to over-indulgence was not large enough to warrant us in making this a comprehensive explanation. As has often been remarked, poverty is a cause of drink, as truly as drink is a cause of poverty. In summary, therefore, the results of our investigation indicate that, while the personal factor does operate in the case of every family, both as regards the habits of the father and the managing ability of the mother, the limits within which it may affect the actual sum total of material comforts that make up the living of the family are set by social forces. These social forces find expression, on the one side, in the income which the family 249 THE STANDARD OF LIVING receives-that is, in the rate of wages received by the father and others who are at work; on the other side, they are expressed in the prices that have to be paid to get housing, food, and the other means of subsistence. The actual standard that prevails is set primarily, therefore, by the wages paid and the prices charged. Into the discussion of the causes that underlie these phenomena it is no part of our task to enter. This investigation has aimed only to show wherein the actual content of the standard (what things, and how many, are had) varies as the two jaws of the vise, wages and prices, contract and relax; and to show how the possibilities of human well-being are modified in consequence of the movement of the external forces that set the economic limits of the standard of living. 250 Appendices I I APPENDIX I Report of the Committee on Standard of Living Seventh New York State Conference of Charities and Correction. Held at Rochester, November 13, I906 BY FRANK TUCKER, Chairman The progress of social thought in this country has been closely related to the National and State Conferences of Charities and Correction. It is true that the history of the National Conference begins with the problem of the charitable and correctional institutions of the State; it is true that our various State Conferences are largely given over to discussion of the administrative and financial problems of institutions and activities dealing with the wrecked, the broken, the deficient, and those offending law; but ever increasingly has there developed a desire to get at causes of poverty and crime, to know the reasons for industrial inefficiency, physical infirmities, lack of character, and subnormal mental capacity. We know the amount of the bill we have to pay; we want to know why it is so big and why it rolls up in the face of what we call "prosperous times." The future historian of social work will, I am sure, record two addresses as distinguishing the recent Philadelphia session of the National Conference. In the Presidential address of Dr. Devine we find the spirit of this Conference, which seeks expression in to-night's session, summed up in the following passage: "If I have rightly conceived the dominant idea of the modern philanthropy, it is embodied in a determination to seek out and strike effectively at those organized forces of evil, at those particular causes of dependence and intolerable living conditions which 253 THE STANDARD OF LIVING are beyond the control of the individuals whom they injure and whom they too often destroy." In Dr. Frankel's address, as Chairman of the Section on Needy Families, we find a new statement of the causes of poverty, and in the discussion of those causes we realize he is really setting up the elements of a standard of living which cannot be violated without the social unit becoming a social deficit. Dr. Frankel says: "Stripped of all verbiage and reduced to their elements, we find that all existing poverty and pauperism are attributable and may be attributed to one of three major causes; for the sake of clearness, however, we shall define four causes: "I. Ignorance. "2. Industrial Inefficiency. "3. Exploitation of Labor. "4. Defects in governmental supervision of the welfare of citizens." To discuss satisfactorily the "standard of living" it is obvious that we must first endeavor to define the phrase in such terms as to permit it to convey a common meaning to all who use it. If such a definition can be evolved, the obvious next step is to agree upon the essentials of a standard of living which shall mean, for each individual, existence as a happy and independent member of society. Accepting these essentials as founded upon experience and embodying the best thought of social economists, it should not be difficult to measure them in terms of dollars and cents for given social units in definite localities. And, again, having such schedules setting forth in terms of dollars and cents the cost of the essentials of a standard of living which will permit a given social unit in a definite locality to exist in a happy, healthy, and independent manner, it should not be impossible to compare such schedules of cost with the known standards of compensation in the same localities. And by such comparisons alone shall we know the extent to which labor is exploited; and if exploited, we are led to inquire how the deficiency is made up. We shall be led to inquire the price that society pays when the work of women and children is necessary to supplement the wages of the father. We shall be led to inquire the price that society pays when a portion of it is housed below the standard, is fed below the standard, is 254 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING clothed, is warmed, has its rest and pleasures, is protected against sickness and accident, below the standard, because that portion is ignorant through lack of education, because it is incapable through lack of education, because its services are exploited for the selfish purpose of others, or because of the unenlightened attitude of some who conscientiously (perhaps) maintain that labor is a commodity to be paid for according to supply and demand, without regard to the essentials of a normal standard of living and the cost of those essentials. And, again, having such schedules setting forth in terms of dollars and cents the cost of the essentials of a normal standard of living, have we not found a measure by which the "adequate relief" of our modem theory method of aiding dependent families may be measured? In short, it seems apparent that until the essentials of a normal standard of living are set up and accepted, and until investigation discloses the cost of such essentials in definite localities for given social units, society cannot determine: Whether labor in that community is exploited or adequately compensated. How inadequate compensation of the natural wage-earner is supplemented and at what cost to the well-being of the family. Whether our educational systems are effective in preparing boys and girls for the problems of our modern life. Whether the standards by which our material relief for dependent families is measured are really "adequate" or not. Nor, in the absence of this knowledge, can labor in its various subdivisions intelligently move from one locality to another. Offhand it seems a simple thing to define the phrase "standard of living," but when the attempt is made, terms that define are found to be elusive, and the natural inclination is to seek a definition by describing the essential elements of a normal standard of living. In the hope that it will stand the test of analysis and as offering a basis for our discussion the following definition is put forth: A standard of living is a measurement of life expressed in a daily routine which is determined by income and the conditions under 255 THE STANDARD OF LIVING which it is earned, economic and social environment and capacity for distributing the income. A normal standard of living is one which permits each individual of a social unit to exist as a healthy human being, morally, mentally, and physically. A normal standard of living requires as essential elements in the daily routine of life: I. Government-for control of common acts, needs, and property. II. Compensation for labor-that there may be secured for the family: I. Education. 2. Shelter. 3. Food. 4. Clothing. 5. Fuel. 6. Light. 7. Furniture and Household Furnishings. 8. Transportation. 9. Recreation. IO. Provision for sickness and accident, dental, surgical, and other care necessary for the establishment and preservation of sound health. I I. Savings. 12. Insurance. 13. Burial (through Insurance or Savings). It should not be difficult to bring about a general acceptance of the essentials. The list given above is generally accepted by those who have written recently on this subject. It is varied but slightly by a group of social workers who have prepared budgets for given social units which will be referred to later. At this point two questions naturally arise: Has the cost of these essentials been determined? Can the cost be reasonably determined? To the first question I answer that so far as I know the presentday writers on social economics have assumed certain round sums as the cost of living; as, for instance, Dr. Devine in his "Principles of Relief" says: 256 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING "Recognizing the tentative character of such an estimate, it may be worth while to record the opinion that in New York City, where rentals and provisions are, perhaps, more expensive than in any other large city, for an average family of five persons the minimum income on which it is practicable to remain selfsupporting, and to maintain any approach to a decent standard of living, is $600 a year." Professor Albion W. Small is quoted as saying in a lecture: "No man can live, bring up a family, and enjoy the ordinary human happiness on a wage of less than $IOOO a year." Mr. John Mitchell estimates the minimum wage that will maintain a workingman and his family according to the "American standard" as $6oo a year. Nor have I been able to find any government tables which are based on given units and definite localities. The estimate of Dr. Devine has a value in that it is for a given social unit in a definite locality, but it is insufficient in that it does not set up a standard of essentials and the total is not reached by a detailed estimate of the cost of each element-and he frankly says so. Professor Small's estimate is without value; it is a sweeping generalization dealing with no unit, measured by economic conditions in no locality, and without educational effect because it is refuted by the experience of many men in many places. While Mr. Mitchell's estimate in its explanation conveys a more definite picture than Professor Small's, it is of doubtful value because it is a generalization, and the processes by which it is arrived at are not set out for our judgment as to their soundness. Only those estimates of the cost of a normal standard of living are sound which are based on a given social unit and on the cost of the essential elements of that standard in a given community, and at a given time. Can these costs be determined in such a way as to make society believe that they are well founded? To this question I answer, Yes, I believe they can. And my belief is the result of a careful experiment to test the possibility of just such an effort. About three months ago five social workers came together in New York by accident, and the above question 17 257 THE STANDARD OF LIVING was asked. The essential elements of a normal standard of living were agreed upon-the list is set out in the earlier part of this paper. The social unit was fixed as a man and his wife and three children under earning age. The cost of each essential was calculated in reasonable detail and with more than an average knowledge of economic conditions. The total when cast made each man and woman at that meeting look at his neighbor and wonder if there was anything wrong with the figures. That total was $93 I, which meant a compensation of $3.io per day for 300 working days for the natural bread-winner of that family. If those figures were sound, it meant hard thinking for some people in that great city. But were they sound? To test them this question was put to two groups of the ablest social workers among dependent families in New York-women familiar with the necessary quantities, qualities, and costs of the essentials; women whose daily work it is to deal with them. "What items other than the following enter into a family budget? "I, Rent; 2, food and drink; 3, clothing and shoes; 4, light and fuel; 5, provision for sickness and accident, dental, surgical, and other care necessary for establishment and preservation of sound health; 6, insurance; 7, recreation; 8, furniture and furnishings; 9, car-fares; IO, savings; ii, spending money and incidentals. "Would you eliminate any of these items as unnecessary? Will you make up a budget which will show the cost of living for a family of a man and his wife and three children, the children being under earning age, it being assumed that the family is housed, fed, clothed, etc., in such a way as to preserve health, mind, and character, and permit the man to be a self-respecting citizen, and the children to grow up as such? It should also be assumed that both man and woman have average character and average capacity for management. To sum up, what ought it to cost a normal family of this size to live in a normal way under the conditions that prevail in New York at the present time?" One group consisting of six sent in a combined estimate which was the result of their joint deliberations; the other group sent in individual estimates. 258 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING The estimate of the first group was 942 a year. The individual estimates of the second group of ten showed three divisions. In division one there was: I Estimate...............................$I,449 I............................... 1,403 I "............................... 1,394 In division two there was: I Estimate..............................$,78 I.900 I............................... 90i I ***............................ 900 I. 879 I oo oo............................ 879 In division three there were: 2 Estim ates.............................. $768 In both estimates of division three no allowance was made for medical services, furniture and furnishings, savings, or insurance. Had these items been included these estimates would have been in the second division, a fair average of which is $95o. It will be noticed that the estimates in division one are entirely consistent, and an examination of the details of cost shows a higher ideal of life than that contemplated by the problem to be answered. The reasonable establishment by these estimates of $950 a year as the cost of the essentials of a normal standard of living for the social unit of a man and his wife and three children in New York City points the way for investigations and estimates in other communities by a body whose findings would carry weight in each community in which it worked. But assuming that the essential elements of a normal standard are accepted; their cost for different social units in definite localities known; how can this knowledge affect standards of compensation, adequate compensation being necessary to the maintenance of the standard? and what basis has society for interfering between employer and employee in a matter which is personal to them? Let us answer the last question first. It is fundamental that society has a right to protect itself against the acts of its individual 259 THE STANDARD OF LIVING members detrimental to the general welfare. Poverty is detrimental to the general welfare. Therefore, society, which pays the bill for poverty, has the right to say whether poverty that is preventable shall continue to exist. And if a cause of preventable poverty is the exploitation of labor, as Dr. Frankel says it is, then it is the duty of society to investigate and determine the facts; it is the right of society to say to the employer, " You are not obliged to employ this man or woman, but if you do you must pay him a living wage for a given day's work and you must permit him to work under proper conditions." Society has been quick to enact laws for the protection of physical property and dumb animals, but against the destruction of human beings by all the subtle causes growing out of a subnormal standard of living there is little or no protection as yet. The cause is not difficult to find; we hold human life too cheap and we pay the bill for its destruction by subtle causes too indirectly. At the same time society has the right to say, and does say, to the employee, "You must live in a way that is not detrimental to the general good." Before this audience one may predict, without being thought a visionary, that some of us may live to see a new court created to try new social crimes which will be recognized as growing out of violations of an established standard of living. And now let us consider how knowledge of the cost of a normal standard of living can affect standards of compensation. In the first place, how are standards of compensation set up? (Having in mind people of moderate earning capacity.) I. By obligation on the part of the employer, when organization on the part of labor is powerful enough to command the rate and supply. 2. By mutual agreement on the part of employer and employees when there is an intelligent conception by both of the rights of each. 3. By thought and consideration on the part of intelligent employers who consider the welfare of their employees as well as their own interests. 4. By payment of what they call "going wages" on the part of thoughtless but not necessarily selfish employers. (These 260 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING "going wages" have usually been going for twenty-five years or more and may originally have had some logical basis in the conditions that prevailed at the time of their establishment.) 5. By exploitation on the part of employer; the needs of the employee being used to reduce the compensation to the minimum. With that portion of labor compensated by the first three methods named we need not concern ourselves. It usually commands a sufficient wage to maintain a normal standard at least. For that body of labor whose destinies are controlled by thoughtless employers there would be new hope if upon their standards of compensation could be fixed the light of authoritative statement of what is necessary to a normal standard of living and what these essentials cost. To-day the wages of hundreds of thousands of porters, cleaners, drivers, delivery-men, clerks, and others are fixed by employers on the basis of what they have been in the habit of paying, regardless of the cost of living or any other interest of the employee; and to-day the working conditions of hundreds of thousands are fixed by thoughtless employers without regard to the happiness or well-being of the employees. And I regret to say that among this group of offending employers may be found the managers of some of our charitable institutions and activities, although in the past few years there has been great improvement in this direction. Individual cases illustrating the above situation have multiplied in my own experience; they might be cited here, but time forbids. For the thoughtless employer there must be an educational campaign based on knowledge; public opinion can only be formed when facts are produced. All our life of to-day is too much affected by attitudes of mind which originate in precedents and axiomatic sayings based on facts of years ago. For the selfish exploiter of the dire needs of men and women there is nothing but the stern arm of the law. But law cannot be intelligently enacted unless there is knowledge of the conditions that demand it. Law fixing a minimum daily wage must be, based on knowledge of the requisites of a normal standard of living 26I THE STANDARD OF LIVING andTtheircost in definite localities. We have decreed in many places the physical and moral conditions under which labor may be performed, and we have decreed those conditions in order that the lives of men and women may be prolonged. We have decreed in many places the physical and moral conditions under which men and women may live. And why stop short and not say that in that mutual relation of men and women we call labor, therelshall be paid by one to another at least sufficient to maintain a family according to an established normal standard? For the intelligence of employer and competence of employed, society is responsible through its educational systems. For the exploitation of one by the other it is responsible through its legislation. For intelligent action in both directions we must have facts, and facts can only be obtained by investigation by those who are competent and fair seekers for truth. 262 APPENDIX II Report of the Special Committee on Standard of Living* Eighth New York State Conference of Charities and Correction. Held at Albany, November 12 to 14, I907 BY LEE K. FRANKEL, Chairman To the Members of the Conference: The Committee on Standard of Living was appointed pursuant to a resolution adopted by the seventh New York State Conference of Charities and Correction, which reads as follows: Resolved, that the President of this Conference be authorized to appoint a Committee of not less than eight nor more than sixteen to report to this Conference what constitutes the essentials of a normal standard of living, and the cost of such a standard of living for a definite social unit at this time, in the cities and towns of this State; and further Resolved, that the raising of special funds to defray the expenses of this Committee be referred to the Executive Committee with power. Acting upon this resolution, the Committee held its first meeting on January 21, 1907. At this meeting it was reported that the Executive Committee had made an appropriation of $300 for the work of the Committee, and that when the usual appeal for funds to meet the expense of the Conference was sent out in the spring, a special request was to be included for money to meet the expenses of the Committee on Standard of Living. Under these conditions, the Committee decided to attempt to obtain the necessary information regarding the cost of living * The figures here given correspond with those in the Secretary's final report, which differ in many details, though not fundamentally, from the results of the preliminary computations. 263 THE STANDARD OF LIVING through voluntary effort. The Committee was fortunate in securing the services of Professor Robert C. Chapin, of Beloit College, as secretary, until September, when his college duties required his return. It is in order at this time to extend to Professor Chapin the sincere thanks of the Committee for the conscientious and painstaking services which he has rendered. THE SCHEDULE At this meeting, a sub-committee was appointed to prepare a schedule of questions for the Committee's use. The schedule as finally adopted was purposely made very comprehensive so as to include every possible item of income and disbursement of a family's budget, and to express at the same time the Committee's conception of the essentials of a normal standard of living. A copy of the schedule is printed in Appendix III, following this report (page 283). In general, the schedule brings out the sourcesof the family income, showing not only the earnings of the members of the family of working age, but likewise the income derived from boarders, lodgers and other sources. The disbursement account was subdivided into twelve general headings, as follows: Housing; car-fare; fuel and light; furniture; insurance; food; clothing; health; taxes, dues and contributions; recreation and amusements; education and reading, and miscellaneous. HOUSING. Under this heading are included questions to ascertain the type of dwelling occupied by the family; the rent paid and the rent of similar dwellings in the neighborhood; the size of the rooms and the number of rooms having direct access to the outer air; the size of the yard; the distance from the place of business of the working members of the family, and the distance from the school attended by the children. It was deemed important to determine whether the family had a private bathroom and a private toilet. FUEL AND LIGHT. No special explanation of this subdivision is necessary. The questions in the schedule sought to bring out the kind and methods of fuel and light used. FooD. The food schedule was very carefully itemized, to bring out in detail the cost of the actual food purchases, and to 264 REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING show the quantities used during a week, from which the amount spent per annum could be estimated. The subdivisions as arranged in the schedule brought out, furthermore, the amounts of animal and of vegetable food. The classification adopted was based largely upon the reports of the United States Commissioner of Labor, upon investigations made by the Bureau of Agriculture, and upon studies made by Professors Atwater and Chittenden. The units adopted in these various reports have been adopted by the Committee. We have taken as a unit, for the purpose of this inquiry, an adult man. Compared with him an adult woman consumes.8 as much food; a child of twelve consumes.7; a child of ten to eleven consumes.6; a child of two to five consumes.4, etc. All calculations with respect to the cost of food have been based on these units instead of upon the actual number of individuals comprising the family. Meals taken away from home by the father or other wage-earners have been considered separately and have not been added to the general food budget. The effort has been made to determine from the families' statements whether the food provided was wholesome and sufficient. Naturally a wide margin of opinion must be allowed here since the opinions of investigators are at variance. Again, the questions under this heading brought out the components of the meals partaken of by the family. To determine with some degree of accuracy and to limit as largely as possible the personal equation regarding the amount and sufficiency of food, Ioo schedules were submitted for examination to Dr. Frank P. Underhill, assistant professor of Physiological Chemistry in Yale University. Dr. Underhill analyzed these schedules to determine their food values, in terms of proteids, fats, carbo-hydrates and calories. The calculations were based on the amounts of food materials bought, and not on the amounts eaten, which necessarily could not be determined. No allowance was made for waste. Results of scientific value could not be obtained in this manner, and emphasis is laid on the fact that there has been no intention of drawing any conclusions, the bases of which would necessitate exactness. All that was hoped for from the investigation, was the determination in a general way whether the families were buying food of the amount and kind to keep them in bodily health and vigor. 265 THE STANDARD OF LIVING On the basis of the cost of food in New York City, May, 1907, as shown by the schedules, Dr. Underhill estimates that in general, when less than 22 cents per man per day is spent for food, the nourishment derived is insufficient; when more than 22 cents per man per day is expended, the family is well nourished. The latter statement does not hold so well as the former. Of interest is the relatively large quantities of fat bought by both classes, which in Dr. Underhill's opinion is uneconomical both financially and physiologically. While the failure of some of the families to live well is due to injudicious buying, the majority of failures do not appear to be due to this cause, but to the inability to purchase food in sufficient amount and variety at less than 22 cents per man per day. This amount will allow of the purchase of food containing proteids, fats and carbo-hydrates, to produce a fuel value approximating 3000 calories. The Committee is not in a position to set up a minimum standard of fuel value. Various authorities who have written on this subject give minimums ranging from 2500 to 7000 calories. For the purpose of this report, it is sufficient to state that the standard mentioned by the Committee is approximately the minimum given by those who have investigated the subject. INSURANCE. It is interesting to note that nearly all families carry insurance to a greater or less extent. Practically all of the insurance is in the so-called "industrial companies," for which a proportionately high premium is paid. The carrying of insurance, however, is no indication that the family necessarily has means for a proper standard of living; in many instances insurance is carried at the expense of food and clothing. Insurance is largely of the burial order, and the amount received from the insurance companies at death is expended for the payment of the burial charges. SAVINGS. Probably of all the replies received in answer to the questions in the schedule, those under savings are the least satisfactory. Where in many instances no difficulty was experienced in obtaining requisite information regarding the other subdivisions of the schedule, there was hesitancy or in some instances even misstatement regarding the amount of savings. The Committee is of the opinion that in a number of instances 266 REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING where no savings were given, judging from the schedule returns there must have been distinct savings for which no accounting is made. On the other hand, as appears later on in the report, many families are ashamed to mention the fact that they have borrowed money or sought the pawn shops to obtain necessary means to live. That such must have been so, however, is likewise indicated by the schedules where the disbursements are in excess of the receipts, and where the entire situation of the family shows there must have been sources of income other than those actually admitted. CLOTHING. What has been said for the food schedule holds likewise for the clothing schedule. Every possible expenditure for clothing for the father, mother and children in the family has here been included, together with any expenditures for repairs, laundry, washing materials, new materials, and for garments made at home. Of extreme importance was the ascertaining of information regarding the amount of clothing which families received as gifts from friends, employers, relatives, benevolent organizations, churches, and other sources. It does not seem to be infrequent, judging from the schedules, for families to purchase clothing at second hand. HEALTH. Under this heading have been included disbursements for physicians, dentists, oculists, nurses, surgical appliances, medicines, hospital charges, dispensary charges, spectacles and eye-glasses. The questions under this heading also show the amount of free medical attendance that has been received, particularly from dispensaries and hospitals. It may be said here that many have omitted to mention gratuitous treatment of this kind. FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS. The replies under this heading show expenditures made for various articles of household equipment of the family. In some instances a much higher standard of equipment was shown than would be warranted by the family income for the year. The explanation of this is obvious. In many cases, the family had at some previous period, at the time the equipment was provided, a larger earning ability. Instances are in evidence where furniture was sold to meet living expenses. Much of the furniture, such as washstands, ice boxes, beds, mirrors, and sewing machines, is bought on the instalment plan. 267 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TAXES, DUES AND CONTRIBUTIONS. Under this heading have been included all disbursements made on account of labor unions, fraternal orders, benefit societies, lodges, and religious and social organizations. RECREATION AND AMUSEMENT. The questions under this subdivision were framed to bring out not only the amount of expenditure of the family for recreation and amusement, but to determine the manner in which the family takes its relaxation. The replies show expenditures for theater, dances, excursions and pleasure trips, for toys and other playthings for the children, and other amusements of all kinds. CAR-FARES. This subdivision includes car-fares of the wageearners to and from work, for children to and from school, and disbursements on this account for visits, recreation, etc. EDUCATION AND READING. Under this heading are grouped the expenses of children at school, and disbursements for newspapers, periodicals, books, postage and stationery. The replies received also brought out the kind and titles of the newspapers, periodicals and books read by the family, and the extent to which public libraries were made use of. MISCELLANEOUS EXPENDITURES. Under this heading have been grouped all expenses not readily classifiable under any of the above subdivisions. Among other disbursements there are funeral expenses, legal expenses, expenses for moving, interest on debt, expenditures for tobacco, liquor, barber, and the personal expenditures of the various members of the family. Under date of May 27, I907, the chairman of the Committee reported to the Executive Committee that the effort to obtain information from volunteers had met with only indifferent success. The schedule which the Committee had prepared had been distributed throughout the city and state, among settlement and charity workers, secretaries of labor unions, college students, etc., but the returns at the time of the meeting of the Executive Committee were comparatively meagre. The Executive Committee thereupon appropriated $200 additional for the purposes of the Committee, and authorized the Committee to receive money directly from any source whatever for the prose268 REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING cution of its work. Sufficient funds were obtained from private sources to enable the Committee, in June, to begin more active work, the results of which are appended below. METHOD OF INVESTIGATION. Three thousand schedules were printed. Of these over 400 were distributed to volunteers engaged in social work, particularly to residents in the various settlements and church houses, to agents of charitable and relief agencies, to students at the universities, and to others. Of these, 57 were returned. In the belief that highly valuable information could be obtained from representatives of the trades unions, a list of the secretaries and officers of these organizations in New York City was obtained through Mr. Robinson, the local president of the Federation of Labor. To each of these officers a schedule was sent, together with a letter of instruction and advice, which was subsequently followed up by other letters. A total of 690 of these schedules was thus distributed: 34 of them have been returned. Since June, practically all of the replies to the schedules of Greater New York have been obtained by paid investigators. In obtaining replies to questions in the schedules, the effort was made to limit the inquiry to a family of five individuals, composed of husband, wife and three children under working age, with an income over $600 and under $Iooo. As can readily be understood this was not always possible. At an early stage of the investigation, it was seen that an income of $Iooo was ample to meet the demands of the normal family of 5. Similarly, it was shown that an income of less than $600 was insufficient to keep up a proper standard of living for the same social unit. The facts on which these conclusions were based will be developed later in the report. Careful instructions were given to the enumerators in regard to the inquiries to be made on the questions in the schedules. For certain elements of the schedule, such as rent, number of rooms, income, etc., it was possible to get fairly exact replies. Inquiries with reference to cost of food, cost of clothing, and other essentials had, to a certain extent, to be averaged. Wherever possible, the individual interviewed,-and in nearly all instances this individual was the mother of the family,-was requested to 269 THE STANDARD OF LIVING keep an itemized statement of her disbursements for a period of one week, and upon the statement which she presented the estimate for the year's disbursements was made. Where such statement could not be secured, it was found possible in a number of instances to make use of the expense book which the housewife kept with the grocer, butcher, etc. Where both of these methods failed, it was necessary for the investigator to carefully go over each item in the schedule with the individual interviewed and to endeavor to obtain as accurate a statement as possible. Naturally there are inherent errors in such a procedure. In many instances there was a tendency to exaggeration. On the other hand, it can safely be said that certain items, particularly those showing savings and expenditures for liquor, were under-estimated. While the replies for this reason are not scientifically exact, they nevertheless indicate, with sufficient accuracy, the general character and amounts of the disbursements made by the families who were interviewed, and bring out enough salient features upon which to base a judgment as to the cost of living at the present time. The Committee, however, does not feel that the investigation which has been made is more than a preliminary one, and for this reason its findings are but the interpretation of the facts presented in the schedules. The number of schedules returned, while larger than in any similar investigation made heretofore, is still too small to postulate definite conclusions. So many factors enter into the question of the cost of living, such as thrift, economy, ability of the housekeeper to utilize most advantageously the purchases made, that the amount on which one family may live with some degree of comfort and decency will be found inadequate for another family which is improvident and shiftless. RESULTS The Committee has received a total of 728 schedules. Of these it was found necessary to discard 139, as the information contained therein was either inaccurate or incomplete. Of the balance of the schedules, 503 were obtained in Greater New York, 86 in the towns and cities outside of Greater New York. Of those for Greater New York it has been deemed unnecessary for the purposes 270 REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING of this inquiry to go very carefully into 185 schedules in which the income was below $6oo or above $I Ioo, or where the number in the family deviated very largely from the unit of inquiry; in other words, where the number in the family was below 4 or above 7. The schedules showing incomes from $300 to $600 were at once eliminated, as the analyses of the most important items of the budget, such as food, rent and clothing, indicated that the families were maintaining an exceptionally low standard of living, and were not independent of outside assistance. As a matter of fact, 17 schedules of families showing incomes between $500 and $600 were examined. The average rental of these 17 families was $141 per annum. Disbursements for food averaged 20 cents per man per day or 2 cents less than Dr. Underhill's minimum. The family spent $68 per annum for clothing. The disbursements for the other essentials of the budget were proportionately so low that a more detailed study of the group was deemed unnecessary. Of the 318 families remaining, 72 have incomes between $6oo and $700, 79 have incomes between o700 and $8o0, 73 have incomes between $8oo and $9oo, 63 have incomes between $9oo and $iooo, 3I have incomes between $ ooo and $I IOO. The appended tables show the distribution of these families according to nationality and residence: TABLE I. INCOME. NATIONALITY. TOTAL. $600 $700 $800 $900 $1000 to to to to to $699 $799 $899 $999 $1099 United States...................... 67 1 19 13 i6 8 Teutonic................ 39 4 7 9 I 8 Irish........................ 24 4 7 7 5 I Colored........................... 6 8 62 I Bohemian......................... 4 4 3 3 4 Russian..................... 57 6 14 12 9 6 Austrian, etc.32 6 9 9 7 I Italian............................ 57 i6 14 12 9 6 Total............................. 38 72 79 73 63 31 271 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE II. INCOME. MANAT BROOLYN. BRONX. QUEENS. TOTAL. TAN. $600 to $699............ 52 I5 5 72 $700 to $799....... 63.4 2 0 79 $8ooto $899............ 58 9 5 I 73 $900 to $999........... 45 I0 26 63 $00ooo to $Io99.....25 4 I I 3I Total.................... 243 52 15 8 318 THE FAMILY BUDGET For the immediate purpose of this report, the inquiry has been confined to 224 schedules of families ranging in income between $600 and $9oo, for reasons that will appear below. The occupations of the wage-earners are shown in Tables 3-6 (pages 46-52) of the final report. The average incomes and disbursements of these three groups are shown in the following table: TABLE III. GROUP I. GROUP II. GROUP III. $600 to $699 $700 to $799 $800 to $899 Average Average Average Income. Income. Income. $650 $748 $846 Rent.............$......... $154 $I6i $i68 Car-fare........................... 11 Io 16 Fuel and light............... 38 37 41 Furniture........................... 6 8 7 Insurance.......................... I3 I 8 Food.............................. 279 314 341 Meals eaten away from home....... I 22 I8 Clothing.......................... 83 99 II4 Health............................. 14 14 22 Taxes, dues and contributions......... 8 9 II Recreation and amusement........... 3 6 7 Education.......................... 5 5 7 Miscellaneous....................... 25 32 41 Total.............................. $650 $735 $8II 272 REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING GROUP I.-$600 TO $700. This group included 72 families, of which 52 are in the Borough of Manhattan, 15 in the Borough of Brooklyn, and 5 in the Borough of the Bronx. The 72 families show an average income of $650, and an average disbursement of $650. For the purpose of this report, the Committee has endeavored to interpret these figures in connection with all other replies presented in the schedules. The limitations of time and space will not permit of the presentation of statistical tables. These the Committee hopes will be published at length in book form. The income of these 72 families is derived from various sources. In many instances the employment of the father is irregular and must be supplemented. In 7 families the mother adds to the income and in 3 families children help in the family support. Seventeen families keep 23 lodgers, of whom a few take meals with the family. The question naturally arises,-"Do these 72 families showing incomes varying from $600 to $700 and who have an average income of $650 maintain a standard of living sufficient to preserve physical and mental efficiency?" The Committee is of the opinion that the figures speak for themselves. Without attempting at great length to show the facts by statistics, it appears from a careful study of this group that the average family of five persons pays $13 per month for rent. For this they are able to obtain, in the Borough of Manhattan, from 2 to 3 rooms, depending upon the section in which they live. Rents seem to be highest on the upper West Side, in central Manhattan, and on the lower East Side. Occasionally on the upper East Side and in other sections of the city, it is possible to find cheaper rentals than the one given. Such a family has no bath and only I family in o1 has a toilet within the apartment. The rooms are apt to be low and comparatively small, and one room is usually dark; i. e., has no window to the outer air, or no window at all. Kerosene is used for lighting, and coal for cooking and heating. Every other family uses wood which the father brings home with him or which the children collect on the streets. In some homes, gas is used for cooking in summer. The cost of fuel and light averages in this group, $38 per annum. Ii8 273 THE STANDARD OF LIVING The furniture equipment of such a family is in most instances meagre. If there are three rooms, the so-called parlor is a combined parlor, sitting-room and bed-room. As a rule, it contains a table, a bed and a few chairs. Occasionally a rocking-chair or a sofa is found. In the corner there is a sewing-machine; on the walls a few cheap pictures, family portraits and the like. Cheap ornaments are found here and there. In some few instances the floor is covered with a cheap carpet. The second room, which is a combination dining-room and kitchen, has a table covered with oilcloth, a few chairs, a stove, and kitchen utensils which hang on the walls, owing to the lack of a cupboard. Frequently an ice-box is found. The third room, which is a bed-room, contains an iron folding bed, chair and trunk. Clothes hang on the wall; seldom is there a bureau. The washing of the family is done at the sink in the kitchen, there being no wash-stands or wash-bowls in the bed-rooms. In one case only was a piano found. The disbursements per annum for furniture average $6, for which the housewife declares she can purchase only the necessary things. These include dishes, table, linens, beds, chairs, kitchen utensils, and supplies for cleaning. If more than this is required, for example, mirrors, sewing-machines, etc., resort must be made to instalment purchases. The value of the furniture is indicated by the cost of moving, which varies from $3 to $5, and but rarely does it pay to have the furniture insured against fire. Most of the disbursements for insurance, which averages $13 per annum, are for so-called life or burial insurance. The food disbursement for such a family approximates $270 per annum, for five individuals or 3.3 units. This is $82 per annum per unit or 224 cents per man per day. For breakfast the family has rolls and coffee; sometimes bread with butter; occasionally eggs or oatmeal. The nature of the meal varies with the nationality of the family. Some families are satisfied with herring or a piece of sliced salmon for breakfast. The father or wage-earner is usually not home for lunch. This, however, means an additional expense to the family of $I i for lunches eaten away from home. The other members of the family make their lunch out of food left over from the preceding evening,-for example cold meat, potatoes, occasion274 REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING ally coffee or tea; or else are satisfied with bread and milk, crackers and milk, eggs, bread and tea; or bread and onions. Occasionally the family have a full meal (so-called) at mid-day, but in this case they have no supper; if they are hungry in the evening, they eat bread. In nearly all these families the important meal of the day is in the evening, when the entire family is present. The menu consists of meat, potatoes, occasionally soup, coffee or beer. On Sunday the family allows itself greater latitude for dinner; a roast is served and cake as dessert about once a month. Many families, however, make no difference between Sundays and other days. The above menus apply largely to native families. Russian and Austrian Jewish families have special dinners on Friday evenings or on Saturday, using fish and fowl. The Italian lives chiefly on macaroni, fish or meat, lentils and beans. Food is bought daily in all these families in small quantities; dry food, such as potatoes, flour, tea, coffee and sugar, is generally bought in quantities to last a week. Chicken and fish are purchased in exceptional cases only. The same is true of fresh fruits. There is little variety in the food used. Guests are seldom to be found at the table; in fact, this question frequently brought forth the reply, "We are glad to have enough to eat for ourselves." Only on holidays and on special celebrations are relatives invited. Twenty per cent. of the food disbursements is for bread and similar forms of food; 6.2 per cent. of the total disbursement for food is for liquor used in the home. The family clothes itself at a cost of $84 per annum. Of this amount approximately $28 is disbursed for the clothing of the father, $18 for the clothing of the mother, and $28 for the clothing of the three children. Ten dollars a year must be expended for washing materials, laundry supplies and for repairs. The question whether a family of 5 can purchase sufficient clothing for their needs on $80 per annum is difficult to answer. There can be no doubt that clothes can be worn and are worn even when they become exceedingly shabby and torn. A partial answer to this question is shown by the schedules. Of the 72 families, 25 admitted receiving gifts of clothing from relatives, employers, private individuals, churches and charitable organizations. This happens more frequently among native-born families than among 275 THE STANDARD OF LIVING foreign-born families. The latter apparently make greater use of the second-hand clothing stores. Under all circumstances, the ability to get along on $80 per annum assumes a large amount of thrift and economy on the part of the housewife, and the skill constantly to repair the clothing which is purchased. If more clothing than the above is desired, it must be purchased on the instalment plan, or by cutting down the other important items in the budget, particularly that of food. The budget permits a disbursement of $I4 for the preservation of the health of the family,-or rather sickness requires this disbursement. The money expended is almost wholly paid for physicians and medicines in cases of acute and chronic illness. Almost none of it goes for care of the teeth; only 8 families (II per cent.) out of the 72 reporting the use of the dentist, whom they pay in instalments. Twenty-nine families out of the 72 (40 per cent.) make use of free dispensaries. Twelve families report using free hospitals. Where illness becomes chronic and covers a long period of time the family almost invariably runs into debt. Eight dollars is spent annually by this family for taxes and contributions. It can safely be said that this average has largely been raised by the Catholic families, whose contributions to churches are far in excess of those of any other religious denomination. Either the father or the mother belongs to a political organization, to a labor union, or to some religious body. Depending upon the location in which the family lives, the amount spent for car-fare varies. Where the car-fare item is low, and the father lives near his place of work, it frequently happens that the saving in car-fare is used for rental. Practically all of the car-fare is used by the wage-earner in going to and from his place of work. Very little remains for recreation, or for excursions to the country. The $3 that the family may spend for recreation permits of almost no diversion. Occasionally in the summer-time the family goes to Coney Island, to Fort George, to the beaches around the city, or listens to the gramophone on the Bowery, 14th Street, and other places where this form of amusement is to be found. Two families out of the 72 visited the theatre; many of the families spend part of their Sundays in the parks. For educational purposes the family spends $5 per annum, 276 REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING most of which is used for the daily newspaper. The children spend for school supplies 50 cents per annum, and postage and stationery may run up to 25 or 50 cents a year. There is practically no expenditure for books. Seventeen families report the use of public libraries. This leaves a total of $25 per annum for miscellaneous expenditures, including moving, payment of debts, etc. Of this, the larger amount is spent for personal expenses of the father, such as tobacco, liquor, barber and spending money. Expenditures for funerals are given in comparatively few instances, the assumption being that insurance money is used for this purpose. To summarize, a family having an income of $650 per annum spends 24 per cent. of its income for rent, 45 per cent. for food, or 85 per cent. of its income for four items, food, rent, clothing, fuel and light. Only 2.5 per cent. is spent for education, recreation, and dues to societies; the other 12.5 per cent. is for health, insurance, furniture, car-fare, meals away from home, and miscellaneous. The family is unable to make any provision against accident or to lay by anything for a rainy day. As a matter of fact, the schedules show that the families are unable to live within this income under the conditions shown above. Twenty of the 72 families admit being in debt, the money being borrowed for food and rent. Not rarely do they visit the pawnshop. Ten of these families claim to have small savings varying from $5 to $25 per annum. A study of these o1 families, however, shows that the savings are due to exceptionally favorable conditions. Most of them have less than 5 persons in the family. The children are very young and hence consume less food and require less clothing; the conditions of health are better than in the average family, and the income of the father is above the average of $650. In addition, in most instances, the father has steady work and an income which lasts throughout the year. These families likewise show a high degree of thrift and economy. The amount spent for food and clothing is comparatively low, and they receive gifts of various kinds. Rentals, likewise, are lower than the average, and all in all these families may be considered as variations rather than as normal types. The Committee is of the opinion that an income between $600 277 THE STANDARD OF LIVING and $700 per annum is insufficient for a family of 5 to maintain a proper standard of living in the Borough of Manhattan. Leaving aside the exceptions, it is apparent that on an income of $600 to $700 many families in Manhattan have a fierce struggle for existence. The maximum of food purchases approximates the minimum set up by authorities on this subject. The narrowest margin is allowed for other essentials. No provision can be made for accident or emergency. If either of these occur, the family runs into debt. Were it not for the charity of friends, relatives, employers or philanthropic organizations, the expenditure of the family would be, and frequently is, larger than the income. Such a family literally lives a hand-to-mouth existence, with neither opportunity nor means for enjoyment or recreation. It can make no provision for repairs to equipment. The health of its members cannot be safeguarded from its own resources. The housing accommodations barely prevent over-crowding. It requires no citation of elaborate statistics to bring convincing proof that $600 to $700 is wholly inadequate to maintain a proper standard of living, and no self-respecting family should be asked or expected to live on such an income. GROUP II.-$700 TO $800. Of primary interest in this group is the fact that the 79 families in the group, having 5 to the family, manage to live within their incomes-the disbursement being practically the same as the income. A difference of $85 in the average expenditures of this and the preceding group is readily accounted for,-$45 more being spent in the second group for food and $I6 more for clothing, the two together making over 70 per cent. of the additional disbursement. The balance of $24 is fairly distributed among the other items of the budget. There is a difference of $2 per annum for health and an additional disbursement of $2 per annum for furniture, $i for taxes, $3 for recreation, $7 for miscellaneous expenditures, $7 for housing and $ I for meals taken away from home. It is of particular interest to note that there is practically no increase in the expenditure for rent. The housing conditions remain the same,-if anything, if the housing conditions may be assumed to have been bad in the preceding group, they are somewhat accen278 REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING tuated in this group by the fact that a larger number of the families, to obtain the above income, keep lodgers and boarders. In the first group, 24 per cent. of the families increased their income through this means; in the present group 26 families out of the 79, or 33 per cent., keep lodgers or boarders, being I family out of every 3. In the food budget, the $45 additional permits a larger amount of animal food and a better quality of food, the per capita per day having risen to 25 cents or 9 per cent. There is a decrease in the number of families who receive free gifts of clothing, 35 per cent. in the first group receiving gifts from various sources and 27 per cent. in the present group. There is similarly a reduction from 40 per cent. to 38 per cent. in the number of families who receive free dispensary treatment. Only 8 families report using free hospitals. Only 35 per cent. use free wood. The family spends proportionately more per annum for medical services. More families make use of dentists in this group. All in all there is a tendency toward improvement in condition, and were it not for the fact that housing conditions have not improved, it might be assumed that the family is beginning to reach the point where a fairly decent standard of living is being maintained. The Committee believes that with an income of between $700 and $800 a family can barely support itself, provided that it is subject to no extraordinary expenditures by reason of sickness, death or other untoward circumstances. Such a family can live without charitable assistance through exceptional management and in the absence of emergencies. GROUP III.-$800 TO $900. This group at once shows a marked variation from the preceding groups, particularly from the first group. Not only is the family apparently able to live on its income, but it can save on its income. The average income in the group being $846 and the average disbursement $8 I. It is true that 12 families in this group claim to be in debt. The indebtedness, however, is lower than in the preceding groups, and the causes of indebtedness are personal to the families and not characteristic of the group. Twenty-one families actually show savings in the schedules,-these savings running from $50 to $1oo. Even in those schedules where no actual 279 THE STANDARD OF LIVING savings are shown, the schedules indicate that the families have not used their entire incomes. Only in cases of chronic illness have the families spent their entire income and shown indebtedness. In one instance, for example, the family shows a disbursement of over $200 for physicians and medicines. This, however, is exceptional. There is an increase in disbursements over the previous group of $76 per annum, of which 50 per cent. goes for food and clothing; IO per cent. for rent; 15 per cent. for miscellaneous, and 25 per cent. for other items. In practically the same proportion there is an increase in disbursements for rent, the increase averaging 60 cents per month. The average, however, does not tell the full story, either for this or for the preceding groups. Of families paying $120 or less per annum ($1o per month), there are: In $600 to $700 group... 14 families, or 19 per cent. In $700 to $800 group... 17 families, or 2I per cent. In $800 to $goo group... 8 families, or I I per cent. Of families paying $228 or over per annum there are: In $600 to $700 group... I family, or 1.4 per cent. In $700 to $800 group... 7 families or 9 per cent. In $800 to $9oo group... lo families or 14 per cent. Of families paying $I68 or over per annum (for which 4 rooms can usually be obtained) there are: In $600 to $700 group....2 families, or 29 per cent. In $700 to $800 group..33 families, or 42 per cent. In $8oo to $900 group...37 families, or 51 per cent. There are more baths, and particularly more toilets, in the apartments. The rooms are larger and have more light. The families in this group keep a proportionately larger number of lodgers than in the other group. Of 73 families, 25, or 34 per cent., keep 49 lodgers. In all these groups, lodgers are necessarily kept to meet additional expenditures. The keeping of lodgers is not primarily a question of standard of living, but rather one of wages. If these families had sufficient income from their wage-earners so as not to be compelled to take in lodgers, the housing accommodations which could be obtained for the rentals paid by this group would 280 REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STANDARD OF LIVING be sufficiently ample and hygienic for a family of normal size. The amount that is now disbursed for food (27 cents per day) and for clothing appears to be adequate. All along the line there is the opportunity for larger disbursements, and in the miscellaneous group considerable latitude is allowed, the average being $41, to which can be added the $35 surplus in case of necessity. It may be mentioned in this connection that the amount of gifts in clothing, free dispensaries, etc., is materially decreased. More provision is made for health and for replenishing the furniture equipment. Of most importance, however, is the statement made above that there is an indication of actual saving by the families here discussed. These families seem to be able to provide themselves with the food which they require, with the clothing which they require, and to live under conditions which they consider fairly decent. They have opportunities for recreation and for amusement which are fairly normal, and apparently these families are typical of hundreds, if not thousands, of wage-earners and small tradesmen of the middle class who are self-respecting and self-supporting. In view of all these facts, the Committee is of the opinion that it is fairly conservative in its estimate that $825 is sufficient for the average family of 5 individuals, comprising the father, mother and 3 children under 14 years of age to maintain a fairly proper standard of living in the Borough of Manhattan. The extent to which this amount would be changed in the other boroughs of Greater New York would be measured largely by the item of rent, and not by the other items in the budget. This item may vary from $I 5 to $30 per annum in the Borough of Brooklyn; probably a similar amount in the Borough of the Bronx. In the Borough of Queens, from the very few schedules which have been obtained, the Committee, while it does not draw any conclusions, is of the impression that the rent item would be even lower. NATIONALITIES A word should be said on the subject from the standpoint of the nationalities of the families investigated. The schedules show that in native and Irish families the greater the income, the greater the disbursements for so-called necessities. In other foreign-born fam281 THE STANDARD OF LIVING ilies, particularly Italian, Austrian and Russian, the tendency is to save even if a lower standard must be maintained, the ratio of disbursements not keeping pace with the increase of income. It is among the foreign-born that one finds most of the lodgers and boarders, and where most of the working mothers and children are to be found; all this, of course, for the purpose of increasing income and corresponding savings. In conclusion it should be repeated that the inferences drawn are based on the facts as presented in the schedules. The Committee believes that they have a distinct practical and social value and they are submitted to the Conference in this belief. 282 APPENDIX III The Schedule INSTRUCTIONS TO INVESTIGATORS The object of the Committee, in this investigation, is to find out both the cost and the elements of a normal standard of living. Its success depends absolutely upon the patience, tact and accuracy of those who gather the information from families of their acquaintance. I. The families selected should be those with which the visitor has already established friendly relations. The schedule is to be filled out by the visitor, not by the members of the family. Several visits may be necessary to secure all the information desired. 2. Each family should be a representative family: (a) selfsupporting; (b) comprising father, mother, 2 to 5 children under 16, and preferably no other members; (c) of average earning power and economy. Where practicable, the selection of two or more families in the same occupation will facilitate comparisons. 3. The answers to the questions should be filled out as exactly and fully as possible. It is essential to know, not only the cost of the articles purchased, but also what the family gets for what it pays-what things, how many, how good. Hence the questions are drawn out in detail, not in order to increase labor, but to save it. 4. Families should be assured that the information will be regarded as confidential, and informed of the purpose for which it is sought. The names of the families are not to appear on the schedules. 5. The details of expenditure, especially for food and clothing, should be derived from accounts kept by the housekeeper already, or which she may be induced to keep for a few weeks for the purposes of this investigation. Where this proves impracticable, it 283 THE STANDARD OF LIVING may be necessary to fall back on estimates as to details and totals, obtained by careful inquiry. The first method is greatly to be preferred, and will have an added value if the original accounts can be filed with the schedule. Where the second method is used, the process by which the estimates were reached should be stated on the schedule. 6. Duplications should be avoided. An examination of the schedule as a whole will show the place designed for each item. Lunches and car-fares, for example, are specified separately, and should not be included under spending-money. The secretary will be pleased to give additional explanations in answer to inquiries. It is requested that the accompanying schedule be returned within thirty days of the time when it is received. When completed, this schedule should be returned to the Secretary of the Special Committee on the Standard of Living appointed by the New York State Conference of Charities and Correction, Robert C. Chapin, 105 East 22d Street, New York City. 284 I CONFIO NTIA L FAMILY REPORT ON STANDARD OF LIVING,H-wYoRsc Cirr, BOROUe#.........................L......... Ri-tS-eonCs O f-r, Mo..,.,....~...,, ~ SrA t^C REP~o rTE s* D * ~ ~ - ~ t.. T.,., OF. r.,,,*,. ~..*..~ *... ^,.,., _w., ( P*.. AooA.CSS) RAsotA Ncg OF tEer~R. T NE A........................-.......... ro Br/L A OC T............ -........ o.............. (::;,,;,.,,,.............,,.,. /2 P e. Y/fIS Ace OF FArME........... IS e........ P..AI..... 2.-'.............S OTf N O....OF.... Pq..3. 3. IF roRI6iNOR80R, YCARS P.N7t ivN rTe 1.5. ar FA. 9.. r orr...... 4. COMPOSITION. OCGUPATION AND EARNINGS.,u. FAMIIY HlURo VAY5 EARNiNo _ MEMBERS A, a S EX C c U P T I oN M LOY InItRPEPD WEEKLY - ACUALTOTu.L.________l_:Wl_ ILK__ _______yq ftW I t^XIMUt PIR 1YEAR 'I GrPLILL&~'-t - FATHf _?ffR _...... ' 1037...,,i I.___..______._ __. CH(t _ 1____ __________________ _______ ------ I 5. CTifHR5 Llvr G NUMEr A MOUtUNT PAL VrV1 fVAM1tY MALfEtFALE fEA WEEKLY' YErA RNLATlYE5 (5PtCIFY I RfClAtON' HIPR)._TA.4...E _____..... _.._._ IA R; _ -..; - TOTAL /ICOMpE fro,, WAt3S pOR tr# YSAR LY INCOME fROm LODGERS, SOAROERS Trc.-G _ FOR YSAR. J. INCOME fROM OTHER SOURcCE3 S rY*Y.. ( SPCIFY aouRCES ) INCI MMJ ALL a. SOvRCES PO r1N, Ym R /AYfOtEh i'l" A L SOURC~$ FORt riL EA1R. *r~r~ rr _ I i I i I ". 'DZ tArtD 8v ODsGES Cec.A ) 1EAR 4 N.B. WA'E. f'F -Otrgr.TPACE I MEEO ~O t0 US8 QK P&GOL3 285 2 DESCR IPTION OF tM FAMILY (ciaAC7f/rZe ArTH~CR', MOTHR AND CH/LDREN WIvH REPCERENCftC 70 PYsICI, MHNLa^ AND tORAL rTRA/Ir NOTE ANY IrHER/TrD DEFECTrS ANY IYARMfED AarIITr) 6. PHY51CAL CDNDITION FA/t7HR..a --- --.. - -........................................ C/fL bR~NE.... —...... -------- --- -. __ -. 7. IENTAL CONDITION AND GAPACITY FA ~E R...-~.~.... --- —-. _-,.-, _- - -.. ______ Cf107.. _-_-_ __ _ _ _ -- -_ - -_ _ - -_- - ------ — _ - — _-...MD H_~ _ A ___ __ _ _ _._ _ - _. _._ ___ __ _ _.. _ _. _.._-........ 8. ARE CI/LDREM NOFRMAL. IV PMtYSlSIUL, NHlt AND Ha9ltS?.................. 9./A4trsT OF FAtrHeR 30 PAR AS ASCGEtRANABLE.,,__-,,.,,,,.. 1J. CAPAC/rY or MOrtER AS CXPRESSD FY CONOlr TION O Ro5m PS, CcQURNISNtNO, ~COINtl, U/SE OF POOD SUtPPLIES AND GONE~9AL APP~ARANCE OP O...._............ |, // CASe O AST RTNCEfCTr, WHAIr EJXPEtITURE A4E CURTir4tLC 04 EL/fRNtrTED......... 12, V/fAT ARTI/CLES, /PSRNY ASI BOUHT oN tHe /nSTALENT-PLAMd?_..._... -. --- - -. 13. WvNATr IF A N; WltH TIfAD/NG —STAMPS? i'.( IRE IOUI0SEIOLO GOODO EVER.ORTOAG D?............... -......... /5 PeRSONli. PROPERty YVEtR PAwnE?.... - - _. —.. - s/3 o/eyr tVER BORROWED ON PERSONA C ECi'r RiO FRIENDS?... _ -—, - - -. ~ FROM NoEY LENOERS? _-~ --- 16. FoRt WHAT PUpose I f/ rc MtONIV BORROW.O N ANY OF TfECS WAYS 1.. -. 286 3 HOUSING t. rYPE or HOUSE. (T TfMENTEr, DETA CHfD DWe LLNING ZTCr_ _. ^.,_, _ _ 2. s O.WELLINO RENTb_ o _R ONED...... 3. If RENrED, ANNUAL RENr PAID? $...... _ -. _. _ _. _ _.. 4 A t OWNeD; ESr/AT D VALUE?...... _ _ __-....,A NIJAL RETr OFi ciE H OUsS N?4C? P._. --- - - C /S.1 ti OORTGAGED?... _. OR PW MUCH e D. ANv lA L /NrTREST PAiD ft _ _......- _. _ _.-_. 5. / rENTDvrE; OES RENfr -NCLUOD WAT'R/?......_ H. ANr/TOR SERVICE?. -.. - - - - -...- - - - - - 6. f3 T 4 CORIT R^-B/-ILDG' _. _. _.... RARt 7'e rt _NT _?. s,WH.. C - L. C.........-._ t S l X f Oz f A R D..__g. How IS YARD USE.D - IO. WHAf use, DoEs fAfILrY MAE OF ROOF.. -. 1I. Wfe/MC oP ROOMS oCcuPI/o, EXCLUSIVE Of BATH-ROOM ___, - -- - 12. /3. T'ERL. A 8ATrROOtm - - - - -__ - - - -— ~ 13A. / THES -rff - /E J - — e - ~ 6. is tf LOCATED /At APARtMENT, IN HAL —, Oft IN YARD.. ti f4W MA / YS ORE- CLOSETS? -...- - - (S. N/io. ARE ItOMS 1EA TE ___- -_- - _.._ LI./tD ATrN/r _ __16. OW S WATR OBTA/NE5 ' ' A...... 1 WftYrT fPACtLI'IE foR WAS l/N ANO DRYlhO CLOrTHS -?_1&. SttAr OF REPAIR OF WOODWORK AND WALLS _ - -. - - 19 WRE IS COALW.. r.ED L- - ---- - - - - -.-. 287 4 St2e IN iE r NU1M3ER DR~CT ACCE SS 0. DtSIGNAT ION of ROOMS OF To__ _t_ AR WI __WOT H -LEN LNGT H HeICIHT WIN DOWS EI oRt) Nlo) 3 IAAES.l5 Y _ M.MIY 21A. 7/NE ANO OISANCC FROM HOLSE TO PLACE WHR FATHe REPORTS FO..R OF... 3. TH/M AND DISTANCE TO. PLAC. WH.ER ANY OrTHR VVORH/ia ~ M(MS.R EPORT?.... C r.eM 4do od/STANCE TO SCHOOL ATTENO.o SY C /LDREN?...... 22.,fez kOOfs USE FOR orTHER THANV DbWLLLNO P4UR PO S i-.S _ - -- - --- /F O, FOR WHA.T PUR.POSE S...- 2.H. fO LONG HAS' FAirLY 13CEV IN FReSENT OwESL/G?....- __ _.. — 24.,VAJ ReNT BrEH fmICREASED wfrl4il TWO Y _AR$?_ -- - -- - - AHOwt MUCH NCREA SE _ FUEL AoLt&1T BOUsHT 8e PRICE YEfARLY ARTICLES TDoiwBUSsHt? pER UNtr LRJlPITTY TOTAL PA1D 21.W/iAr FUEL. IF ANY, fS GArTHeED 4EE OF COST?.'AL K --- ——. -...... -- —.......-.....-. CoA. _ _ 3.15 OAS UsED FOR COOa/'G T, -. _ W.OD. _W..___s SQS U~ lD Fos LIOwrN N? CA1IztS__..7I_ S&NO___ EIS.^tlforR OF BLURNERS?Y_... __.fow /ANr /'~ T SUA LLr I/fEOSEA~E_ ______,I UNEO ALL THE EVENII/?. - _.-.~... AF TCHeS / SS f -...........................ER _?^5____________ UISO ___ _1 C-OA. OUGHT-....... - 7OTAL WZIAOVT c ut f4 U 'D LiN#r foR r CAA 288 '.Fnn n ARTICLES WEEKL1__ EARY ArOUNT REMARK5 QUINTITT7 pRlc AKn PAID PA t I ROLLS CA rL t - _.... _ _, -.-, - ZOAVT~ o~.._.____ __ _0...e- --,,, CRA CAER,$ CERA LSoee. I L -.... CfAM, BAcON...... __.. RFDY- CO.OD.. MEA.TS____ U..O.N.l...AM,. V.EAL.rc.. CNNE......;..........___________________________________________ PORK___._____ ____________________________ Dr C" M....___..__ ___.. E.. _ B U T E R_______ _ ________________ 289 1 I 19 6 W E. E LY YEARLY AM. ARTICtWLV REMASKS ARTICLES QiUANTITiY PRICE AMT PA PAI REPARKS ~E~~As D, OSe,Y QTS. _____ - alr......- i La. i.... TURLI PS, COAOEN$ CANS _,. D _o..EA s._ ONIONI I Ios. ______ __P_ CANN/D GOO/VS - | V. YFGE7^BLE5 - l ___ __| F. L IASE _ i1rs - - ------ - ED EAN_____ __________ co. S\____________________ M 'oAMSES 'LLESEC. __ _F_ LJII ---___ — COCOR____!,______$_........... SU A. ___; __ ' __!__ ___ ___.........____^ O FR. es,v........... _____ _____________... o/1~.......,................... _____ -------------- I I 290 WEEKLY. ARL. AMT i ARTICLES QUANTITY PRiC7 AMT. PAID PAID E K LIQUORS (uStO A? A Ei. Wt/N~.. Or'E(R iSrtLL~e' LuoS....,______,_,, P/cL... Igt (o P //AIV____ ________ ________________________________ NUMeHR FROVIOrD~PS MuOUS _OuGtiT OUT S1 -t - MEAS..AY fO HOME...AT.. [L iE.e..... i R No, OEWE COST E E PCH(L~_R5N WSO ___________ C/flsEW-ACO _________ ______I _ _ -- re R iF - P t ii ii i fi i i ii MEALS AIAY FROM HmOE WHAT MEALS "PER FROyLDFo HOUS BOUgHTTlDUTSt DE. _____ ___ -- ~_ _~, _________ WEeK.(.E,..No) COs0T PER WEE K COST PER (EAk MOTHER,,,,,.. CHCDREN Ar WOR.............. Cf/l0oRe/V- r SCHOOL /,,,......... - T707o'A COSt Of MEALS 80UOiHT AWAr:F ROM HoME \i I TO A L A^NNUA. ~XPENJ DITURE FOR POOO...................................... /3 FOOD PROVIfCE WHROLeSOM.-.. _. SU FF'I/CeT"?..........- F...... SrTT~ Avr Y tVfDr/CE O' i//VA. Ct/ ACY 'IN /tND OR O / OU/Nr.. _ _. -. -... __ -_. I/ NOW SMALL QUt/T4r/IES A/DO HdoW fRQLEQU/TLY /S DOO.OUOH...-....... 291 8 4.WYNCE/ APR,,ooD-SUPPL/C5 PFuCIASCO"D (vut dAUle) Ar CROC~eS A'o 8JTCERS'S HOPS, MA^RE tr, DOLICjA tES$SE- STORSj_ O_ STrE t. C OE R3.. - _._.___ —_. _ _ — __* S. Af< ff'PARCD 89~AKPAST- FOODS /uSD?............HOW 'MUCH?.............. WAT rACfRci~/Ts rfOfR nfEEpft PfOVIS/OIO ANY COOIfED &o 00. 01 7A. iywAr /S ORO/iNARLY SERYVEO OR BRCAAASf'?........ 3. 'fOR THE N/OON MEAL?......... -... 'OR THE E?Yr/No MfEAL..?., * -- - - _ Of./oF R. SUN DAY'S D/ANf..R..?._______ 8. sT WH#T MEALS DOES THr Fa AMIL r TS OOW ER 7.,......._ __ 93. vW FReqUENTLY ARTE U0ESTS PRResEVr A4T EA LS -/ - *.INSURANCE fCR INSURANCEoF tIt D oD INSIURANCELr o ^_-_ ^o t^-t Lp CHILO. 3.....,,,,,, -.CHIL___ __ -. CHILD ____~.................__.. --- _ 5~.C.t................. S AV I N G S rOrAl DOR WINU wAMCc e P*r JS ~Wlt.UMnUtRS Op rHC FAMILY HAYe A SAVlINfS BANX.1/ fUt /rul f vR INSUReD..... It'Ir. ~CMNUAL AC(Teef, ~ ~ ~ ~,0 H.- FO r NOW m.... PR.uI,u.. r S. -. _............_.0o.,.E u _.................. * W#ATWM-~- AOOELTO*.-I7 DUAIN6... - - Aoq - UA-..it.'A AOOO1 f OU___. _?........ F~_._o mu0t__?. ^ r.A.................P... ~PrtU......... WVriW5 *Mnw oA WoN I/r ouftv,,YeI? _....... L 0r o MONSUAMN ^F P SOMwS A.oD P,,Qry 292 r1 tI IU. a: j U. 2 2 I 4! ) I I I =I I I V) - I. 1% ft 4c v teJ US n I t. I s o I _ ~ *..... at (C - It 1. U -. tf a IC 4*' a) 4t 0 u oI V 64 q a.. a 44 Q t; q k I k v 14 k '4 ~c I (ij tc.4 44, M I, a. I It I i ~3 v t * 0 Q L 3 u a k. 'I, k 4 a R *~J I "4 s!k.I it fa.4 U I rr I - --- z t z 4 If ' '10 z Zr a 4 I I ufl 0 a I. -U it U) a I~ - P Q c a m 4' a m a 44 4] 4 8 a I t I I. I i I 11 0 * ~:,jei~ Er:z: 0 0 V -9 A I_- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - -_ A a U - a ic 4, 4. v t~ -C I C 14 I t 4 c 4 a 4' V tI. V) *1 4, -i Oi qu et to a. a a C C V) ft;t I v..q Mk cc V m. al~* * "'H %J s 94 #A 44 4j.4 x t *?: tc a C CA v) I 3 I I. (I Q a v i a:I z 4n 4' z '4 'L C I, 1/n 1J V, 4~ Er Q; v a1 Q C vi I' J tQ.1 u;~~~~~~~~~~. i i i I. 293 t0 i i I I - I i I i - I r I I I Ir -amI r r-I I r l r I I 1. - - ct (t O OU ' - - t~ z - - 'a I < enLE -WARE_: ICHE U ITNSILS " __ rTRLE- LiCA,/.?oVVeLS.___.. ____S~ores. aa?/Ogrrco_ ~..... I,St/PPLC S5 FOR SWEEPiNO AW. Cs(ANJ THER,R..,......... L2 ~,_ -- AMr fWO... TOTAL eXPfN/ ffU IT MOr#t$ FJs PUrtITUR, ro At.R.IJNNOS 2 Pf C;S~e/ r P/ PM Efv t (fnumerrote ithe principal tri;cZcesi /1 eac i-roow-, dsiangratmgt t~os0n as aror o?: kitccer, etc., and Sta~e 7?he kind of furnitfue (cg. folding bedc Cfce cCu-rtairtns) and presewt C07%d&i/07) /sr Roo tf _.___.. _ _ _ _ _ __ '-.._.._.......... o. ROO.... -. - - -.- - - - -. - - - 4so. RooM... C O. O — — 4.... C - --.. _H~ ff... _ _ _ _, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ ____9.-6 7,/. ~ro.......... ~.....~... - ~ *.. I- - 3 W POrtfs THP sm^/fA o o^ r^STe AOo dCOffM. efPfteseftfrs ss we./.^/tU RE A.u/9w. S................... bI /1S~Ar ',nn/r',"' eOiUeOM lr 9C~oND-~HAWD.P ~...... - C ---- -. 'r * — 296 TAXES, DUES AND CONTRIBUTIONS I. t#AT' nMt4RS. OPF tH~.MILY OCLONG TO LA8R-tIY/ONS?...,_ TA#O-Ur PAID 1 1O9LA80OR.0^ Pt~EK PYER 53.Amori PAio IN rAXe~ FOR rHt YEAR __ _ _ _ __ __ __INS,, 8_r __ _.ArMo rAiDoJrrs o; CAArRY L_ I__ IL.______ _.fAnMOUNT PAIo tO IfURCI OR On THERi RFtElGOUS ORG-A- -- Tr Fo7tlARioLA80R.?IUOHrff$,a ' /IZATIO/tS fOR THE YATR......... -- - _ — k -dfATlncpERs OF tC.^fM/LY o~LONO 70 A LOGE OR OTHR SOCIAL ORetAN/7ATI/ON?.... * _^ _ _ _,'RM, _~ T...*.. _ _ __ _ON PA_ 18mr A SUCH SOCIT:ES PE*R YEA q.........._(2") AFOUNT PAID TO LAIOR-R/A'IOIIS FOR THE YEAR _________, TOfTL ~. xMPIOIURES fOR. TAXES, DiES Av COwNTRISUrIO/I RECREATION ANo AMUSrEMENTS W WlfHAT wArV5 oo ADULT HMfEBERS Of THE FAMIILY SrEf AMtUSEMENT APND RECRE!tOtN9Z.._._ _ ^.-. - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -_ -. - _ _ _ _ _ - _ _- - _ _ _ _ _ 2._ fSP l DrUR_ S _FO THE_ EYA__R FOc THE TfAT____ 4.. FOR EXCURS/ONS ANO PLZAS u E- TfR/PS ( EXCLU _NG C R. -RE__) _ 5..O TO YS, AND PLAYTHINGOS 6. ffE OTIHeER FORMS OF AwfUSE E4 (SSTATE TH PUCRPOSESJ. -.. "TOTAL,XPENOITIIRvES FOR RCRE4A7TrIONf ANO AMLULSEIVCTS t _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,,,,, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _......................................,_, 297 CAR-FARES tAtOU^r' PAIo rORt CAR.-ARES o. F,AtHR TO AND FrRoM PLAC' 'oPC WORf K t CtR-~FARE OJ OTHER WAf-_t~oE4tERffS 70 ANDOI FRO7. PLACEi OP WOff% CAf^ e/ f-f/tes. oP 'CHILoneiV 7O AND' FROM SCOOL40_ Fof? C-f 'AROf? _ _ _____./CQ.-FAAR AES_ O It.07.YER _ IC-*-.-rnES IItOR 'VISIriNlG. RCCReAT7I0M, EC. 'OTAL. EXPVNDIt/RES FOt CA/R-.CAfRECs t7E Y~EA4 rEDU CATION AND READING SCHOO, EXPENSES OF C/.OREN FOR VNWAT NEflSPAP6ER5 ND PERlOD/CAS LA7.... _,E Y vtF (f XCLtVs/fL or CR-Fr RFs) __._ | U RUCHt..,_ ft/wSPAPeRS flND PERIODICALS _______ - _ _ POSZAGE AND STATfONeRY- ______ WHAT 0OiOK'S DOES te FAMI/LY HAVE? T07TAL. EXPENDITURE P r EDDUCATIOriAN READING6 _ '.......... /3 PU.IO L/SRARY US/0............ - - - -.. Yr wuvwCH / B~ERS OF FA'ILY. - HMSCELLANEOU5 EXPENDITURES. ~~~~~~sL?:-.._...... CLf/GENft E. PEN$CS. [FPR tIE _A _ tP) F_ ortf/oTp FORYEAR FOI.ARBEr. _ FLU!-^ Efs __ __ fotR ONrER PCERSPAHL SCRV ACE.. L P aGAL EXPE~ASfSS j |SPLNWON6 ONVEr fOT THrWIJSIw SPCtCrlE __O__| __ES = ~ _OV/NG$ o/' _..__ _,_,__ 5AIRIJ~R WIEK-.WK YtP, I __~___. INrEST ov oDErs..TS_.. OTTHR sa. o. ____ fiEPrAYMTr OF DearS....C!.DREC!._r wor ___, eXPE.DoftrvR FOR YEAR rORp | sCELDRfE 4 r SCROOL.. P I TDpccp D l|TOoLs....,. _ f. Jh'fS EC.T. R INO IOEPNI 'A CS IC- L CREA - CANDPy VNE' SODA-WATER A tY f po. TOrAt. M1SCELLAN4dfJ Ifpp/tDUReS _I 298 SUMrIARY or ANNUAL. EXPENDITURES lOU.l IN a:__ F4_ L AN/ L/0HTr FOOD CL Or H / -.G HEA LTH FURNITURE ANO fUiRNISHINGS 7XjES. DUS AND CO'TRI.BUrIONS. grECREA T7'N AND A.,USEM N TS /!$SCE L LANEOUS$ TOT^A REMARKS WREN FILLED OUTj SEND rTNS SCHEDLILE To rILE SECCerTAfI Of THr COM/TTEE o_ ST.ANDqAR O_ /IviN o THE N.YSTAT CONFERENCE Of CHARITIES AN CORRE CT7 1NS R oeT C CH AP/I 299 299 APPENDIX IV Report from Nine Cities and Towns Outside of Greater New York Returns were received in the summer of 1907 from ten cities and towns in the state outside of Greater New York, including in all 86 schedules. Grateful mention should be made of the willingness and efficiency of those who co-operated with the Committee in gathering the information.* The schedules from Buffalo, Syracuse and Richfield Springs were gathered by paid investigators; in the other cities and towns by volunteers. The more exhaustive investigation into the standard of living in Buffalo made by Mr. Howard, in 19o8 (see Appendix V, page 307) renders unnecessary, in the present connection, the consideration of the 30 Buffalo schedules of 1907. Three of the remaining 56 schedules were rejected because of incompleteness, and the data from the remainder have been tabulated. The returns utilized include schedules from nine localities, as follows: Syracuse............................... I9 Rochester............................... 7 V ictor..................................... 2 Honeoye Falls.............................. 2 Richfield Springs................... o1 Elm ira...................................... 6 A lbany...................................... 3 W hiten all................................... 3 M aryland.................................... 53 By income, the distribution appears in the following table: * The thanks of the Committee are due especially to Mr. John R. Howard, Jr., Buffalo, Mrs. Lewis Bigelow, Rochester, Professor E. L. Earp, Syracuse, Miss Anna B. Pratt, Elmira, Miss Alida Lattimore, Whitehall, Mr. Robert W. Hill and Mr. Arthur W. Towne, Albany. 300 REPORT FROM NINE OTHER CITIES 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 80%00%90%0 o 08~o S. _ Syracuse........... 9.... 3 3 2 4 3 I Richfield Springs... Io 2. 3 3 I...... Rochester.......... 7 I 2 I..... I I I Victor...........2.... Honeoye Falls.... 2............ I.. Elmira............ 6.. 2 1.. I.... I Albany.-.......... 3...... 2.. I. Whitehall........... I...... Maryland.......... i I Total............ 53 I I 4 IO 8 8 3 4 5 6 3 In view of the small number of schedules obtained, it has been deemed advisable to include not only those of families with incomes well above $1ooo, but also those of families with less than 4 and more than 6 members. This wide range, however, together with the small number of schedules, makes difficult any very exact comparison of the returns from the different localities. Nevertheless these returns have a distinct value, and it is hoped that the publication of them may suggest the value of a more comprehensive study of local conditions in each locality. The occupations of these 53 families are typical of the communities in which they live. Factory-operatives predominate in the manufacturing centers, with employees in the building-trades, clerks, laborers and railway employees. In the smaller places are clerks, printers, artisans and laborers. For the purpose of exhibiting some of the resemblances and differences, so far as they appear in the schedules received, Tables 129-130 (pages 305-306) have been prepared. In several cases, where only one family could be taken, it is not safe to assume that this family, or the averages for 3 or 5 families, are typical, and too much should not be inferred from these tables. They do at least show what is possible in a given case, and the selection has been made so as to include a wide variety of circumstances. Rochester and Syracuse are manufacturing cities, Victor is a suburban outpost of Rochester, Richfield Springs a country town of 3000 inhabitants. For these localities, comparison of the families with in30I THE STANDARD OF LIVING comes of from $600 to $700 has been possible, and the figures for the New York City families of the same income-group are reproduced for comparison. Elmira and Albany are cities of a different type, and Whitehall is a small manufacturing city in a locality where fuel is dear. The one schedule from the town of Maryland gives the budget of a farm laborer, who occupies a 4-room house at the nominal rent of $2 a month. The salient feature of these schedules from outside New York City is the lower cost of housing. This appears in two forms: in the lower rental charges, and in the large proportion of houseowners among wage-earners. The proportion of income spent for rent is less, the smaller the city. In New York rent absorbs 24 per cent. of the expenditure of a family with an income between $600 and $700. In Syracuse and Rochester it takes less than 20 per cent., in Richfield Springs 14 per cent. (in 2 cases out of 3), in Victor 14 per cent. In the second place, the number of house-owners reported is suggestive. In Rochester and its suburbs 8 of the I families own houses, or are buying them on the instalment plan. Two of the Rochester families averaged in the $600 column are paying for houses of their own. One of these, an Italian family of 5 persons, occupies 3 rooms and rents the rest of the house for $132, paying $48 a year for interest on a mortgage of $600. An English shoemaker, with a family of 4 and a total income of $680, is paying for his house in instalments of $200 a year. Clothing is the only item in his budget that seems to suffer in consequence, although the food-expenditure is at the rate of 24 cents per man per day. Altogether, 15 of the 53 families are reported as owning their houses.* In the tables two Whitehall families are entered, one owning and one renting its dwelling. The house-owning family has a money income of $780, as against $884 for the house-renting family. But the charge of $120 for rent in the budget of the latter family consumes the difference, and leaves the expenditure for the remaining items nearly the same for the two families. * Out of 642 schedules received from Greater New York, only 6 were of houseowning families; 4 of these were from Brooklyn, 2 from Manhattan, and in all but i case the family income was over $1ooo. 302 REPORT FROM NINE OTHER CITIES The principal exception is in the matter of taxes, where the house-owning family pays $45 as against $12 for the other family. In the schedules of house-owning families in other cities the taxes appear as a larger item than for the house-renters, and the surplus otherwise seems to be expended among the various items according to no fixed rule.* Not only is the cost of housing less in the cities outside of New York, but the accommodations enjoyed are better. Detached houses are the rule, with no question of access to light and air. The number of rooms is 3 in only I case of the 53 (Rochester); only 6 report 4 rooms, and 7 and 8 rooms are of frequent occurrence. In cities with water service a private toilet is the rule, and a bath-room is frequently reported. For $8 a month in the smaller towns of the State and$ IO or $I I in the cities like Syracuse, better accommodations can be secured than for $ 5 in Manhattan. In the smaller places there is opportunity to raise vegetables and fruit in a garden, and this is noted in many of the schedules. Eggs and poultry are also raised in many instances at home. The calculation of food-expenditures per man per day, on the cash basis, needs supplementing in these cases. The large size of some of the families reported, especially in Syracuse, explains in part the low allowance for food per man per day. In regard to clothing the averages and percentages as tabulated point to a larger expenditure for this purpose outside of New York City than within it. It would be interesting to pursue the subject further, especially with regard to Rochester. Rochester is, like New York, a center of the garment-trades, and the 3 families there with incomes between $600 and $700 report a lower average expenditure for clothing than the average of the 72 with the same income in New York City. With this exception, the figures point to a higher cost of clothing in the state at large than in New York City. A comparison of the expenditures for the various items of the budget in the several localities may be facilitated by the tables of averages and percentages on pages 305 and 306. In many in* In the tabulation of the Syracuse schedules an amount equal to the rental value of the house owned is added to the total income, and the same amount is entered under "Housing" and included in the total of expenditures. 303 THE STANDARD OF LIVING stances the variations indicate merely the taste and habit of a single family rather than a social standard. It would be hazardous on the basis of so small a number of cases to make an estimate of the sum required to maintain a normal standard in each community. It would certainly fall below the amount needed in New York City, but the exact measure of the difference requires a larger induction of cases. 304 0 w 'In TABLE 129.-NINE CITIES AND TOWNS OF NEW YORK STATE. PER CENT. OF TOTAL ANNUAL EXPENDITURE REPORTED FOR THE SEVERAL PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF THE BUDGET. WHITE NEW ROCH- RICH- SYRA- HALL. WHITE- MARYYORK. ESTER. VICTOR. FIELD USE. ELIRA. ALBANY. (House- HALL. LAND. SPRINGS. owner.) (Renter.) 72 Fam- 3 Fam-3 Fa- 3m- 3 Families. ilies.t ilies. iies. ilies.+ Income Income I Family Income Income Income I Family i Family I Family I Family $600 to $58o to U. S.* $600 to $589 to $750 to U. S.* U. S.* U. S.* U. S.* $700. $680. s.t $700. $700. $8o10. 4. s.-t 3.t 6.t Various.* Various.* U. S.* Various.* Various.* 4.9.t 4-5.t 5.t 5.9.t 7.7.t Total income.................. $6507 $627.66 $6oo00.oo $624.00 $628.40 $769.I2 $815.00 $780.00 $884.00 $380.00 Total expenditure............. 650.57 636.4I 595.4I 571.82 2654.94 795.68 804.82 803.65 894.42 356.36 Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Housing...................... 23.6 9.9 14.1 8.2 19.7 10.3 12.0.. 13.4 6.8 Car-fares......................7.6.... 2 0. 2 o.6 Fuel and light................. 5.8 6 6.8 45 6.9 6.6 49 93 9.6 44 Food......................... 44.6 42.0 34.6 46.5 34 533 57.3 5 1 43.5 51.3 Clothing...................... 12.9 I.4 27.3 21.2 20.4 51 33 I79 7-5 99 Insurance........................ I.9.5.8 0.7 io.6 9.2 1.4 Health........................ 2.1 2.7 I.7 3.7 2.5 2.2 3-3 I-0 ~.9 -4 Health.......~,.... 2.1 2.7 1.7 3.7 2.5 2.2 3-3 1.0 0.9 1.4 Furniture..................... 8.3 2.5 I.0 3 43. 0. 05.4 Taxes, dues, etc.................. 2.8 0.3 1.3.I 0 6.6 5.6 1.3 Recreation and amusement...... 05 o.6 5-5.0 0.5 0.3 I.5 0.4 i.6 1.4 Education and reading.......... 07. 7 1.7 0.5 0.9 1.0 o.6 3.2 0.4 1.8 Miscellaneous.................3 3.8 0.9 2.1 10.2 * Nationality. t Average number of persons in family. t Average. TABLE 130.-NINE CITIES AND TOWNS OF NEW YORK STATE. AVERAGE AMOUNT OF EXPENDITURE FOR THE SEVERAL PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF THE BUDGET. WHITENEW Roca- RICH- SYRA- HALL. WHITE- MARYYORK. ESTER. VICTOR. FIELD CUSE. ELMIRA. ALBANY. (House- HALL. LAND SPRINGS. owner.) (Renter.) 72 Fam- 3 Fam- 3 Fam- 5 Fam- 3 Famles. lesilies. ilies. t ilies. Income Income I Family Income Income Income I Family x Family i Family i Family $600 to $80 to U. S.* $600 to $589 to $750 to U. S.* U. S.* U. S.* U. S.* $700. $680. s.t $700. $700. $8io. 4.t st 3.1 6.t Various.* Various.* U. S.* Various.* Various.* 4.9.t 4.5.t s.t 5.9.t 7.7.Total income.................. $650.I7 $627.66 $600.00 $624.00 $628.40 $769.12 $815.00 $780.00 $884.00 $380.00 Total expenditure............... 650.57 636.41 595.45 571.82 645.94 795.68 804.82 803.65 894.42 356.36 Housing.................. 53.59 126.90 84.00 I04.00 127.20 8i.66 96.00.. 120.00 24.00 Car-fares..................... 11.3I I33.....2 1.53 5.00 Fuel and light................. 37.7I 4310 40.50 25.77 45.04 52.25 38.90 74.98 85.94 15.75 Food......................... 290. 267.29 207.00 265.90 220.0o '426.I2 462.97 409.09 388.44 183.36 Clothing...................... 83.48 8o.6 62.95 121.52 132.46 I19.55 I06.45 I44.18 I55-95 71.25 Insurance.......... 3.05 12.05 I2..5 35.72 I4.I3 6.oo 85.40 82.33 5.00 Health....................... I3.78 7.16 IO.0 21.68 I6.io 17.73 26.50 8. 8.oo 5.00 Furniture..................... 6.05 52.80 15.00 5.72 I9.44 34.00 I..00 I.I6 4.70 5.00 Taxes, dues, etc............... 790 8.3 2.00 7.60 7.60 4.61 5.00 4500 12.oo Recreation and amusement...... 3.42 3.92 31.00 5.67 372 253 I2.00 3.00 14.06 5.00 Education and reading.......... 4.7I 4.96 0.00 96 5.94 7.60 5.00 25.60 4.00 6.oo Miscellaneous................. 25.47 I33 33.00 2.00 357 3394 3000 7.24 9.00 36.00 31. 5 7~ 3 3.9 3.0 7 4 19o36o * Nationality. t Average number of persons in family. t Average. APPENDIX V Report on the Standard of Living among Workingmen's Families in Buffalo, New York BY JOHN R. HOWARD, JR. The investigation of the cost of living in Buffalo, undertaken on behalf of the Committee on Standard of Living of the New York State Conference of Charities and Correction, was limited to ioo families. This was done partly because the amount of the appropriation and the brief time allowed (three summer months) admitted of no more extensive study; and partly in the belief that ioo families, selected with care and interviewed by a few experienced investigators, would yield more accurate results than a larger number selected at random and interviewed by untrained volunteers. Miss Emma 0. Lundberg, Master of Arts in the University of Wisconsin, who was chosen to execute the work, gathered her own facts from 51 of the Ioo families; while 30 of the families of foreign birth were interviewed by three women peculiarly qualified by experience and nationality for work in this field, and the other 19 by social workers, men and women, most of whom had the advantage of long-standing acquaintance with the families they selected for the study. After careful consideration of the study that had previously been made in New York City, the investigators in Buffalo came to the conclusion that the single standard adopted in the New York investigation would not be satisfactory for all nationalities. It was believed, for instance, that the Poles, of whom there are about 95,000 in the city, and the Italians, of whom there are about 20,000, would show, and would require, a lower standard of life than the other, more Americanized peoples. It was there307 THE STANDARD OF LIVING fore determined to select 50 families of various nationalities, 25 Polish, and 25 Italian, believing that while the numbers were not sufficient accurately to define standards of life for families of these three types, they would at least indicate prevailing differences, and taken together form an adequate ground for comparison with the standard set up for New York by the Committee last year. It was suggested that the investigation be limited to families with incomes not exceeding $500, the supposed maximum wage of the average day laborer, in order to discover what the ordinary workingman was able to provide for his family; but it was concluded that the investigation must include incomes large enough to provide the essentials of a proper standard of living, in order to learn the cost of such essentials. Accordingly, the investigation was limited to families with incomes not exceeding $700, a sum generally considered ample in Buffalo. THE SCHEDULE.-The procedure with respect to filling out schedules for these families was similar to that followed in New York. The schedules were identical. It is not necessary, therefore, again to describe the questions asked under the several headings with regard to housing, fuel and light, furniture, insurance, food, clothing, taxes, dues and contributions, recreation and amusements, education and reading, and miscellaneous. NATIONALITIES.-As has already been indicated, 25 of the Ioo families were Italians and 25 Polish. Of the other 50 families, 19 were Americans, 13 Germans, 5 Irish, 3 Scotch, 2 English, 2 Canadians, 2 Swedish, I colored, I Dutch, I Austrian, and I Roumanian. OCCUPATIONS.-Among those selected were 42 laborers, 8 carpenters, 3 paperhangers, 3 moulders, 3 painters, 3 watchmen, 3 hackmen, 2 delivery men, 2 tailors, 2 gardeners, and I each of twenty-seven other occupations. INCOME. The average income of the ioo families was $6oo, and the average disbursement $632. This discrepancy, however, seems to have been due more to the hard times than to permanent inability to make ends meet. The largest part of it occurs in the Polish families, who have no idea how their money goes, and so are at 308 REPORT OF INVESTIGATION IN BUFFALO a loss to know how to meet the emergency when earnings are curtailed. In 29 per cent. of the Ioo families the mother's earnings added to the income, the number of cases being pretty evenly distributed among the races, with one exception. The exception was, as might be supposed, in the Italian families, where only one mother was reported as adding to the income, and she by work in the country during the summer. There would undoubtedly have been more cases reported of this kind of labor had the investigation not been made in the summer, for hundreds of the low-wage Italians move to the canning districts with the spring. Six per cent. of the families have lodgers and 31 per cent. have incomes from children's earnings and other sources. It is in the Polish families that the man's earnings are most frequently supplemented, as indicated by the fact that the average income of the Polish families is $604, while the average wage of a Polish man is $422. EXPENDITURES. In discussing the various expenditures of these families, comparison will be made with the 72 families of the $600 to $700 group in the New York study, the average disbursement of that group being $650, while the average disbursement of the Buffalo families is $632. It should be noted that the New York family averages 5 persons, and the Buffalo family 6. This in itself may indicate a less severe struggle for existence in Buffalo than in New York, though it may also be due to a difference in selection of cases. HOUSING. The average amount paid for rent by the Buffalo family of 6 is $8.oo a month. For this, 4 rooms are obtained, with an average of I4 windows to a room, each opening upon the outer air. The New York family of 5 persons pays $I3 a month for 3 rooms, one of which is without access to the outer air. In the Buffalo investigation 7 dark rooms only were found, 2 of them alcoves of rooms with outside windows. In addition to this, half of the families live in one- or two-family, detached, frame houses with 309 THE STANDARD OF LIVING air-space on four sides, and the other half live, for the most part, in houses to which the name tenement-houses is applied only because there are three or more families in them. The typical Buffalo house is a two-story, detached frame house, having a grass plot in front and a yard behind. Almost any residence street on the east side of Buffalo is wider, greener, and quieter than the finest residence streets in Manhattan, but clean air is lacking. Buffalo is a smoky city. There is over-crowding in Buffalo, but, outside of a few large tenement-houses, the crowding occurs within detached houses surrounded by ample air-space. Over-crowding under such conditions may be a serious evil if health laws are not wise and health officers vigilant, but in Buffalo the laws are good, and they are well enforced. There are, however, among the 50 Polish and Italian families of this study, 13 families averaging 5 persons who live in 2 rooms, 2 of these families having 7 persons; and there are 12 families averaging 6 persons who live in 3 rooms, one a family of 9, and three others numbering 7 persons each. FURNITURE. The annual expenditure for furniture is $7.oo, $i.oo more than in New York. When it is considered that this sum, amounting to 13~ cents a week, provides for all furniture and household and kitchen utensils, it is seen to be little enough. All large purchases must be made on the instalment plan, but there was very little of this last year because of the hard times, even those with normal earnings seeming to hold back for fear of coming to want. INSURANCE. Twenty dollars is the average amount spent for insurance, as against $I3 in New York; and in Buffalo, as in New York, this is chiefly for life insurance, only 13 of the families having property insured. Sixty-five per cent. of the ioo families were insured: of the Italian families, only 28 per cent., of the Polish families, 84 per cent., and of the other 50 families, 74 per cent. 310 REPORT OF INVESTIGATION IN BUFFALO FOOD. In discussing the food item, it should be pointed out that the average Buffalo family is 3.8 units, figuring an adult man as the unit, and the mother and children in proportion thereto, while the average New York family of the group under consideration is 3.3 units. In the New York investigation Ioo schedules were submitted to Dr. Frank P. Underhill, assistant professor of Physiological Chemistry at Yale, to determine the nutritive values of the food actually bought by these families, and to calculate from such figures what expenditure was necessary to maintain physical efficiency. Dr. Underhill estimated that families that spent less than 22 cents per man per day were insufficiently nourished, and that those who spent 22 cents or more per man per day were sufficiently nourished. (See Appendix VI, page 322.) In like manner, 50 of the Buffalo food schedules were submitted to Dr. Underhill for analysis (see page 324). The item "liquor used at table," however, which was included in the New York schedules analyzed, was omitted. From this study it appears that 21 cents per man per day is the minimum for Buffalo; but when the item "liqour used at table" is included, it brings the standard up to the 22 cents estimated for New York. Because of some misunderstanding with respect to this standard, the fact must be emphasized that it is not an a priori standard based upon the cost of food bought in assumed quantities and variety, but a figure based upon the actual food bought by representative families. The analysis showed that of the 50 Buffalo schedules submitted, 80 per cent. of those showing an expenditure of 21 cents or more per man per day were sufficiently nourished, and 83 per cent. of those showing an expenditure of less than 21 cents per man per day were insufficiently nourished. The average disbursement for food in Buffalo is $299, compared with $279 in New York; but, as we have seen, the New York families average 3.3 units, while the Buffalo families average 3.8. The actual expenditure per man per day is 211 cents in Buffalo, and 23 cents in New York, comparing always with the $6oo to $700 group in New York. These figures include 311 THE STANDARD OF LIVING liquor at table, so that the average Buffalo family spends onehalf cent less than the standard of 22 cents, and the average New York family spends I cent more than the standard.* The meals correspond very nearly to those of the New York families. The meals in the Polish families are not unlike those of the other nationalities in Buffalo, except that a breakfast of coffee and bread only is more common, meat is oftener served at lunch, and a chicken for Sunday dinner is not infrequent. The Italians have macaroni once or twice a day, beer every day, and a greater variety of food than the other nationalities. It may be of interest to note, here, that IO of the 50 schedules submitted to Dr. Underhill were of Polish families, and o0 Italian, and that the tables show that the same minimum of 22 cents per man per day holds even more decidedly for these nationalities. Pertinent to this subject is Dr. Underhill's statement to the effect that "no definite relation appears to exist between the purchase of a preponderance of animal or vegetable food and an ability to live at a low figure." In spite, then, of the apparent variety of the Italians' food, it is interesting to note that they average but 201 cents per man per day, and so are probably undernourished; and, further, that i~ cents of this amount goes for beer, so that 19 cents is the amount spent for nutritive food, or an amount 2 cents below the minimum set by Dr. Underhill. The expense per man per day of the Poles is 21I cents with liquor, which is one-half cent below minimum, and 20 cents without liquor, which is I cent below minimum. The expense per man per day for the other 50 families is 22 cents, which equals the minimum; and because they spend less for liquor at table, their expense without this item is 211 cents, or one-half cent above the minimum. The New York families spend 6.2 per cent. of the total disbursement for food for liquor used in the home, which reduces their actual expenditure for nutritive food to 211 cents per man per day, as in Buffalo. * The number of cents per man per day is here calculated as in the report of Dr. Frankel, page 265, by dividing the average annual expenditure for food by the average number of "units," and this annual average per unit by 365. For Table 64, page 14I, calculation was made for each family, as explained on page 126, and the results averaged by income and nationality. The variations in the results obtained by the two methods are due to the difference in treating meals away from home. 312 REPORT OF INVESTIGATION IN BUFFALO CLOTHING. The Buffalo family spends for clothing $117, or 18j per cent. of the total expenditure, where the New York family spends $83, or 13 per cent. of the total. In Buffalo $IO.50 of this goes for washing; in New York $8.50. One-third of the families receive gifts of clothing in both cities. HEALTH. The average amount spent for health in Buffalo is $i5. This shows an average expenditure of $I.oo more than was shown in New York, but there was less use of free dispensaries, probably because they are not so available in Buffalo. Twelve of the families reported having had free medical aid; only 4 had employed a dentist. CAR-FARE. Fifteen dollars is the average sum spent for car-fare, nearly all by the man going to and from work. This item is $4.oo higher than for New York, probably because of the greater distances of the homes from the places of work. TAXES, DUES, AND CONTRIBUTIONS. To religious organizations, labor unions, and lodges about $8.oo is contributed. This is the same as in New York; but in New York 28 per cent. of the families spent nothing for these purposes, while in Buffalo but 20 per cent. reported no expenditures under this head. RECREATION. Four dollars is spent for recreation and amusement, 14 per cent. more than in New York. Twenty-five of the families reported taking excursions, 21 attendance at the theaters, and 39 the use of the parks; but the amount of such recreation that can be enjoyed by a family of 6 on an expenditure of $4.oo per year may be easily reckoned. 3I3 THE STANDARD OF LIVING EDUCATION AND READING. The Buffalo family spends $6.oo for education and reading, mostly for newspapers; the New York family, $5.00. The expenditures of the Poles bring up the average of this item because of their parochial-school tax. Sixty-eight families buy newspapers, 35 have books in their homes, and 38 make use of the public library. MISCELLANEOUS. For miscellaneous expenditures, including all spending money and incidentals, the average amount is $12. Most of this goes for tobacco and shaving for the man. In the New York group this item is $25, of which $1o is spent for tobacco alone. SUMMARY. To summarize the results and comparisons, the average expenditures (by percentages) are: BUFFALO. NEW YORK. Rent......................... 15 percent. 23~ per cent. Food........................-.. 47. 44i(... Clothing......'..C.............. 8 " " 3 " " Fuel and Light..................... 6 " " 6 " Total........................ 86~ per cent. 87 per cent. Car-fare, Insurance and Health....... 8 per cent. 6 per cent. Sundries.......C............... 5~ " " 7 " " Total............................ oo per cent. Ioo per cent. From a study of the New York report and the Buffalo schedules, it appears that the only item of real difference in the respective schedules is rent. The high rentals in New York render it impossible for families in that city to spend as much upon the other items as families of the same income in Buffalo. The excess on food expenditure in Buffalo is due entirely to the larger sized family. The greater expenditure for clothing may be explained partly by the additional member in the family, but is undoubtedly due mainly, as are the larger expenditures for the remaining items, to the fact that there is a greater surplus available, owing to the lower cost of housing. 314 REPORT OF INVESTIGATION IN BUFFALO If all the items but rent, then, be practically the same, or if there is no fundamental reason why they should not be the same for the same sized family in New York and Buffalo, what is to prevent our transposing the standard proposed for New York to Buffalo, simply by modifying this one item? The New York report (page 279) reads: "With an income of between $700 and $800 a family can barely support itself, provided that it is subject to no extraordinary expenditures by reason of sickness, death, or other untoward circumstances. Such a family can live without charitable assistance through exceptional management and in the absence of emergencies." But the difference in rent between the Buffalo families ($96) and the New York families with an income of $700 to $800 ($161) is $65; so by substituting $635 to $735 for $700 to $800 in the above statement, we arrive at an analogous standard for Buffalo. Again, the New York report (page 281) reads: "It is a fairly conservative estimate that $825 is sufficient for the average family of 5 individuals, comprising father, mother, and 3 children under fourteen years of age, to maintain a fairly proper standard of living in the Borough of Manhattan." The difference between the Buffalo rent ($96) and that of the $800 to $900 group in New York ($168) is $72, so the standard of $825 proposed for New York becomes approximately $755 in Buffalo, because of the difference in rent. This standard seems to be as necessary for Poles and Italians as for the other nationalities. This New York standard of $825 is, as stated above, based upon the average expenditure of the $800 to $9oo group (Table III, page 272), namely $8 I, the surplus being allowed for emergencies. The New York report says of this group (page 28I) that all its main items of expense seem to provide for a normal standard. Examination of the Buffalo'families leads to the belief that the items of expense as shown for this group in New York, with one exception, would provide in Buffalo what should be called a minimum standard. The one exception is the item of food. For this item the amount of $359 appears. Eighteen dollars of this is for meals away from home, an item that does not appear in the Buffalo budgets, and the remaining $341 provides an allowance of 27 cents per day per unit. That is 5 cents 315 THE STANDARD OF LIVING per day per unit, or $64 a year, more than the minimum set by Dr. Underhill. Dr. Underhill demonstrates that a large proportion of the families spending 22 cents per day per unit or more (in Buffalo 80 per cent.) were, as far as could be determined, sufficiently nourished. The minimum was purposely set at a figure that made the chances greatly in favor of this condition. Dr. Underhill himself says of this minimum: "The task of deciding whether a person is receiving sufficient food is not easy, owing to the many standards upheld by the various schools of nutrition. However, if the average standard generally accepted be adopted, there need be no hesitation in the acceptance of the condition of sufficient nourishment." Therefore, in determining a minimum standard for Buffalo, a sum upon which a family of 5 can maintain physical efficiency, which surely demands a "fairly proper standard of living," it seems fair to adhere to Dr. Underhill's minimum of 22 cents per day per unit for food. To do this we must subtract from the standard of $755 already proposed, $18 for the meals away from home, and $64 for the lower food allowance, and so obtain a standard for Buffalo approximating $675. In estimating a minimum standard, the item of rent is readily determined. The $800 to $9oo group in New York spends $168 for rent, which is $72 more than the Buffalo families spend. They obtain for this 31 rooms, one of which is dark, while the Buffalo families have 4 rooms, all opening on the outer air. Under present conditions the New York standard of housing cannot be raised nor the Buffalo standard lowered, for New York tenementhouses do not permit of the one, nor the Buffalo detached houses of the other. In the matter of clothing, the studies reveal important facts bearing on a possible minimum. But who can say that an average family of five needs this amount or that? And if there is difficulty in determining the item of clothing, what is to be said of such items as health, insurance, education, or amusements? Does any one who believes recreation to be an essential part of the cost of a proper standard of living really think that $6.oo covers the need for a family of 5 for a year? The man who agrees to $6.oo will probably agree also to $1o. How are we to decide which is right? What process of reasoning is actually applied to the items outside of food, rent, and clothing, in basing a stan3i6 REPORT OF INVESTIGATION IN BUFFALO dard of living upon the expenditures shown by 400 families? Is there any actual measuring of the efficacy of the average disbursements? There is not; and the method is an a priori method, modified possibly by the facts shown, but in a very vague way that by no means establishes the standard on empirical grounds. These remarks are not offered as a criticism of the New York investigation. The New York committee very distinctly says that it "does not feel that the investigation which has been made is more than a preliminary one, and for this reason its findings are but the interpretation of the facts presented in the schedules"; that "the number of schedules returned, while larger than in any similar investigation made heretofore, is still too small to postulate definite conclusions." But there is need of insisting on the very general and unfinal nature of such reports as that of this year and last, because the standard set for New York by the committee has been widely received as a definite standard to be accepted without further inquiry. The figures of the New York committee have even been incorporated in the most recent book on economics, from a trusted university department, having been accepted there as a standard for the'average American city! Times have changed, when academic scholars accept as established standards the tentative conclusions of a small number of social workers; but if this change has come, it is all the more important for us to be accurate in method and conservative in statement. In conclusion, if there can be no agreement as to the accuracy of the standards proposed for New York and Buffalo, all will agree that one point has been established without question, namely, that the average wage of unskilled labor in these two cities is far below the income necessary to provide what any one of us could call a minimum standard of living. Such a conclusion, together with a knowledge of the methods and results of these studies, emphasizes the importance of a more thorough investigation of the whole subject, extending over a far larger number of families, and through a period of at least twelve months. 317 THE STANDARD OF LIVING TABLE 131.-ONE HUNDRED BUFFALO FAMILIES. EXPENDITURES FOR PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF THE BUDGET. AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES.-BY NATIONALITY. 25 FAMILIES, 25 FAMILIES, 50 FAMILIES TOTAL, 100 ITALIAN. POLISH. VARIOUS. FAMILIES. ALL NATIONALITIES. Total income......... $578.08 $603.59 $609.9I $600.37 Total expenditure..... $564.77 $678.18 $643.43 $632-45 Per Per Per Per Average. cent.* Average. cent.* Average. cent.* Average. cent* Housing............. $88.52 15.7 $90.24 I3.3 $IO2.I8 I5.8 $95.78 I5.I Fuel and light........ 29.88 5.3 38.66 5.7 39. 6. 36.93 5.8 Furniture.5............ 593. 5.0 7 8.5 4 6.83 I. Insurance............ 4.52.8 26.94 4. 23.37 3.6 19.58 3.1 Food................ 265.23 47. 335.23 49.4 298.16 46.3 299.20 47 -Clothing............. 27.85 22.6 II4.91 17. 11 2.59 I7.5 117.23 I8.5 Health............... 8.86 1.5 15.70 2.3 17.63 2.7 14.96 2.3 Car-fare............. 1356 2.4 I9.8I 3. 11.98 I.8 14.83 2.3 Recreation and amusements.......... 4.63.8 4.90.7 3.03.4 3.90.6 Education and reading 2.50.4 8.58 1.2 6.72 I. 6.13.9 Taxes, dues, and contributions......... 5.52.9 9-30 13 8-I 1.4 7.76 1.2 Miscellaneous........ 7 I4 1.2 7.87 I ' I5.60 2.4 1155 i.8 Number of units...... 3.5 4.3 3.7 3.8 Food expenditure per day per unit......... 20.. 2 22. 2IC. 2 IC. Number of rooms..... 3.3 3.8 4.7 4.1 Percentage of families with lodgers...4.... 4% I2% 4% 6% Percentage reporting purchase of newspaper............. 48% 76% 74% 68% Percentage reporting use of public library 36% 48% 34% 38% * Percentage of total expenditure. 318 APPENDIX VI Report on Nutrition Investigation From Data Collected by the Special Committee on Standard of Living BY FRANK P. UNDERHILL, PH.D. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY, SHEFFIELD LABORATORY OF PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY, YALE UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY, I907 The present investigation was primarily undertaken with a view to ascertaining the cost of living in New York City among various representative classes of people. Subsequently there arose the query whether some indication might be obtained 'concerning the nutritive condition of these classes of people as judged from the quantities and kinds of food materials bought. In the following pages this subject is discussed. In any determination of the nutritive condition of man several methods of procedure are open to the investigator. To the one desiring exact data the estimation and analysis of the body ingesta and egesta are essential. On the other hand, where merely the amount and kind of food consumed is desired, a determination of the amount of food consumed is computed by the difference between the food bought and the waste. The food values may be ascertained by actual analysis of food samples or may be calculated from tables issued by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (Bulletin 28, Revised Edition, 1899). Many such metabolism experiments have been carried out in recent years by the department named. In the present investigation the method employed has been to calculate the food values of food materials bought by the various classes of people for a period of a week. The data obtained were collected from grocery and meat books of the family, from account books kept by the housewife, and finally from estimations by the family of the various staple articles bought. It is at once apparent that from such data results of any scientific value cannot be 319 THE STANDARD OF LIVING obtained, and emphasis is laid upon the fact that there has been no intention of drawing any conclusions the basis of which would necessitate exactness. The most that can be hoped for from such an investigation is merely the determination, in a most general way, whether the various classes are buying food of the amount and kind to keep them in bodily health and vigor. Even the question of waste cannot be entered into, although this item is probably small, judging from dietary studies made in the same city by Atwater and Woods (Bulletin 46, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture). The results presented here then are calculated upon the food bought, and the values given were computed from analyses of food materials made by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (Bulletin 28, Revised Edition) upon the materials as purchased. One hundred representative families, preferably those with two or more children, and with various earning powers, have been chosen from among the various nationalities (Italians, Bohemians, Negroes, Russians, Austrians, Hungarians, Americans, English, Dutch, Germans, Irish, and Swedes) in New York City. The amount of food (and the various components comprising that food) bought by the family, together with the cost, has been reduced to terms of per man per day, upon the assumption that women and children eat less than a man. This reduction has been made possible by the employment of standard factors adopted by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (see Bulletin 46, page 6). The question whether a person is eating sufficient food is a difficult one. According to the so-called dietary standards, a man of 70 kilos body-weight at moderate muscular work needs 125 grams protein and enough of fats and carbo-hydrates to furnish 3000 to 3500 calories per day. Other standards call for Ii8 grams protein and 2800 calories. Indeed, the older standards vary from ioo to 150 grams protein with a fuel value of from 2500 to 7000, the variations depending upon body-weight, habit, and occupation. It is evident that a man engaged in strenuous muscular work needs more energy-yielding food than one whose labor calls for less muscular activity. Opinions vary somewhat with regard to the relative amounts of fat and carbo-hydrate that should be eaten to supply this energy. To sum up the 320 REPORT ON NUTRITION INVESTIGATION question, the consensus of opinion is in favor of a preponderance of carbo-hydrate material. Fat has twice the potential energy of carbo-hydrate, but for two reasons it is unwise to obtain the greater proportion of energy from that source. In the first place, fat costs more than carbo-hydrate; and, secondly, it is uneconomical from a physiological standpoint, inasmuch as it is very difficult of digestion when compared with carbo-hydrate. For a man of average weight, performing moderate muscular work, from 50 to 6o grams of fat and from 400 to 500 grams of carbohydrate are not far from the right proportions from the viewpoint of physiological economy. The amount of protein necessary is a question upon which there exist two opinions. In the first place, the data given above are derived from observations made upon man concerning the actual quantities he is in the habit of eating, not how much he really needs. Within recent years the extensive experiments of Chittenden have shown that the protein intake may be diminished by half that usually considered necessary, with a greatly decreased calorific value, and man still maintain health and vigor and perform his accustomed duties. Some of the difficulties of deciding the query whether a man is eating sufficient are at once obvious from the above considerations, and to attempt to do so in more than a most general way is to open the way for criticism, and justly. Accordingly, when in the present discussion the data obtained have been divided into two classes, representing (i) families well nourished, and (2) those poorly nourished, it has been done by comparison with the older dietary standards having a range for protein from 100 to 150 grams, of fat from 50 to 70 grams, of carbo-hydrate from 350 to 600 grams, and a fuel value of from 2500 to 7000 calories. The division cannot be hard and fast, especially when the figures given represent materials purchased, not necessarily eaten; and account must also be taken of the digestibility-or, better, availability-of the foods, together with another important factor, namely, absorbability. Inasmuch as the calculations presented have been made upon the materials as purchased, not ready to eat, consideration as to waste, etc., is unnecessary. Comparison between the amounts spent for food by well 21 321 THE STANDARD OF LIVING nourished and poorly nourished families indicates that in general when less than 22 cents per man per day is spent for food the nourishment derived is insufficient, and when more than 22 cents per man per day is expended the family is well nourished. But the latter statement does not hold so well as the former. Another point of interest is the relatively large quantities of fat bought by both classes, which is uneconomical both financially and physiologically. Classified according to nationality, it has been found that of the Italian families (19) represented, 89 per cent. are listed in the class of those well nourished; of the Bohemian (5), 40 per cent.; of the negroes (5), 60 per cent.; of the Russian (19), 33 per cent.; of the American (25), 57 per cent.; of the Irish (9),77 per cent.; of German (6), 86 per cent.; while Austrian (2), Hungarian (I), English (3), Dutch (I), and Swedish (2) were all well nourished. The Italians and Dutch obtained their protein largely from the vegetable kingdom. The Bohemians, Negroes, Americans, English, Irish, and Swedes obtained their protein about equally from animal and vegetable sources. The Russians, Austrians, Hungarians, and Germans preferred protein from the animal kingdom. To a greater extent than the other nationalities, the Italians obtained their energy from the vegetable kingdom. The explanation of the failure of some of the above classes of people to live well is not so much a question of ability to purchase nourishing food at the price given (22 cents per man per day) as of injudicious buying. For example, 3 pounds of butter per week at 30 cents per pound is extravagance when this amount represents 13 per cent. of the total spent for food. The item of beer, wine, pickles, etc., used at table is also a factor of considerable importance in this connection. For instance, to cite a specific case, in one family, out of a total of $6.17 spent for food, $1.83 was expended for beer, wine, and pickles-about 30 per cent. On the other hand, the majority of failures does not appear to be due to the above causes, but to an inability to purchase food at less than 22 cents in sufficient amount and variety; and in nutrition, variety of food plays almost as important a r6le as does sufficiency. The following schedules are printed as an illustration of the method employed in the calculation of nutritive values: 322 REPORT ON NUTRITION INVESTIGATION SCHEDULE NO. I. MEALS I man................................................ i woman (21 X o.8)................................... 17 I child (21 X 0.5)...................O................ 2 children (2I X 0.4)..................................17 Equivalent to I man for 22 days. 65 4 lbs. beef......... at $0.48 4 " salt..................28 i lb. ham.................16 chicken..............14 " fish..................05 " butter..............".27 3 lbs. eggs.............25 14 " milk.................70 I lb. milk (cond.)..........IO $2.43 Foo: 3 D. 12 lbs. bread.................at $o.6o 4 " rolls.....................35 I lb. crackers..........I I " flour.................. 05 2 lbs. rolled oats..............IO 5 " potatoes.,............. ".16 I lb. onions................. 05 " string beans...........".05 " dried peas..............05 2 lbs. canned tomatoes........o8 I lb. apples...............".05 I " tea...................".S8 31 lbs. sugar................".17 l Ib. molasses............... " 03 "beer, pickles............30 $2.32 af'f1~'ilV 'r'~'h~ If 'l tiSU 1 U.UL-. NO. 2. WEIGHTS AND FUEL VALUE PER MAN PER DAY. Knu O FOOD. FFood Protein. Fat Car Fuel Vue. COST. Material (Grams). (Grams). hydrates (Calories.) (Grams). (Grams). Beef, veal, mutton...... 58 32 i6.. 221 Pork, ham, bacon, etc... 20 3 IO.. Io8 Poultry............... 20 3 2 34 Fish, etc............... 20. 8 Eggs.................. 64 8 6.. 90 Butter, lard............ 20.. 7.. 58 Cheese............ Milk.................. 313 12 14 II 272 Total animal food...... 6I5 59 65 i 891 $o.II Bread, cake, etc........ 337 30 7 I85 940 Flour, cereals.......... 60 8 3 41 232 Vegetables....... I80 5.. 26 34 Fruits.... 20.... 2.. Tea, coffee, etc............. Sugar, molasses........ 74 72 297 Liquors............... Total vegetable food.... 67I 43 io 326 I613 $0.1o Total food.......... 286 o2 75 337 2504 $0.2 323 THE STANDARD OF LIVING BUFFALO, I9o8 In the course of an investigation similar to that carried on in New York City to determine the cost of living in the city of Buffalo among several representative classes of people, the question arose here also as to the nutritive condition of the subjects judged by the quantity and kind of food bought. Estimations of the cost and quantity of food bought for a period of a year have been collected. From 50 such schedules an endeavor has been made to divide the families thus represented into those receiving sufficient nutriment and those whose nourishment is insufficient. As in the report on the cases selected in New York City, the conclusions herein drawn should not be regarded as exact; their purpose is merely to serve as an indication of nutritive condition. Nevertheless, in a very general way, the data submitted may be accepted as being not far from the true condition. The results were computed from the food bought, and the values were calculated from the analyses of food materials made by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (Bull. 28, Revised i899) upon the materials as purchased. Fifty typical families, containing two or more children, were selected for observation, of which number thirty fall into a group designated "General," with reference to nationality. The remaining twenty were equally divided between Italian and Polish families. The amount of food (and the components of that food) bought by the family, together with the cost, have been reduced to terms of one man per day, according to the standard factors adopted by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (Bull. 46, page 6). The task of deciding whether a person is receiving sufficient food is not easy, owing to the many standards upheld by the various schools of nutrition. However, if the average standard generally accepted is adopted, there need be no hesitation in the acceptance of the condition of sufficient nourishment. A person at moderate muscular work, according to this standard, consumes IOO to 125 grams protein, 50 to 70 grams fat, 350 to 6oo grams carbo-hydrate, with fuel value ranging from 3000 to 7000 calories per day. Taking these figures as a criterion, the results obtained 324 REPORT ON NUTRITION INVESTIGATION in the present investigation may be divided into two groups: (I) representing families buying sufficient food, (2) representing families buying insufficient food. A general analysis of the data obtained follows. It was found that in general, when less than 21 cents is spent for food per man per day, the nourishment derived is insufficient, and in general when more than this sum is spent the family is well nourished. This relation between food value and cost holds equally well for all three classes of families represented. Reduced to terms of percentage, of those families spending 21 cents or more for food per man per day, 75 per cent. received sufficient nourishment; and with this sum 25 per cent. had insufficient food. Of those families who spent less than 21 cents per man per day for food, 16 per cent. were well fed, 84 per cent. were not. In the same group of those who spent 22 cents or more per man per day, 85 per cent. were well nourished and 15 per cent. bought food insufficient for health, vigor, and work. Turning to the Italian group, 86 per cent. of those spending 21 cents or more for food per man per day were well nourished, and 14 per cent. were not. No family spending less than 21 cents per man per day was well nourished. Of the Polish families, 86 per cent. were well nourished when 2I cents or more were spent and 14 per cent. were poorly nourished. Thirty-three per cent. of those well nourished spent less than 21 cents per man per day. The conditions existing in the Italian and Polish families give to these groups a rather large advantage over the "general" group. In the "general" group of those spending 21 cents or more per man per day 75 per cent. were well nourished, while under similar conditions the Italian and Polish groups contained 86 per cent. The general conclusion may therefore be drawn that for 21 cents per man per day sufficient nourishment may be bought in the city of Buffalo to keep a man in bodily health and vigor at moderate muscular work. No definite relation appears to exist between the purchase of a preponderance of animal or vegetable food and an ability to live at a low figure. 325 APPENDIX VII A Workingman's Budget.-F. Le Play* TRANSLATED BY LOUISE CHARVET A Type-setter of Brussels, Belgium, Working by the Day under the System of Indeterminate Engagements FROM INFORMATION GATHERED ON THE SPOT, IN NOVEMBER, 1857, BY M. J. DAUBY PRELIMINARY STATEMENTS Defining the Condition of the Different Members of the Family. Description of the Place, of the Industrial Organization, and of the Family. I. LAND, INDUSTRY, AND POPULATION. The family of the type-setter lives in Louvain, in the commune of St. Jean-ten-Noode, one of the most important suburbs of Brussels. This commune, situated for the most part in a valley, extends around the capital, from the Leopold district to the river Senne, a distance of one and a half miles. During the past few years the commune of St. Jean-ten-Noode has had a remarkable growth. Its population was 1340 in 1826, 5000 in i836, 14,850 in 1846, 17,700 in I856. To-day it has a population of more than 18,ooo, in spite of the loss of a district comprising about 350 acres which was annexed to Brussels, and which forms now the Leopold district, with 5000 inhabitants. The commune now covers 250 acres; it has 35 streets, and 27 courts or alleys inhabited mostly by the working class. There are 2600 houses constructed of stone. In October, 1846, when the census was taken, St. Jean-ten-Noode had 120 vacant houses and 2283 houses that were occupied. The 2283 houses had 13,517 rooms occupied by 3782 families. Of this number, 808 families * "Les Ouvriers Europdens." Vol. V, ch. III, p. 103. 326 A WORKINGMAN'S BUDGET had one room each, 983 had two rooms each, and 1991 had three rooms and more. The family of the workman who is the subject of this monograph lives in a court in the eastern part of the town. This court is remarkable for being well-kept, and is inhabited by an exceptionally good class of people. On the left side are large gardens with villas. The houses on the right side are inhabited by well-to-do workmen, upper-class clerks, and men of independent means. The economic activities of St. Jean-ten-Noode are at the same time agricultural, industrial, and commercial. It has several important printing establishments, and about one hundred of the employees have their homes there. Brussels with its suburbs includes among its inhabitants about 700 printers, 500 of whom are compositors and 200 pressmen. Almost all of them belong to societies whose objects are the maintenance of wages, mutual benefits, and the promotion of thrift. The principle of a standard invariable wage has been in force for a long time. However, some changes have lately been made. There are both piece-workers and day workers. The latter generally have steadier work and better pay. Although the relation between employer and employee is based on the system of indeterminate engagements, it is not uncommon to find workmen employed for many years by the same master. The workman described here has been with the same employer for seventeen years. 2. COMPOSITION OF THE FAMILY. The family consists of husband, wife, and four children, viz.: John Francis D., head of the family, married for 15 years, born at Brussels..................34 years old Katherine B., his wife, born at Brussels..3....5.. " Henry Octavius D., their first son, born at Brussels.................................. 14 Armand Constant D., second son, born at Brussels......................................12 " Adolphe Joseph D., third son, born at Brussels. IO1 " Antoinette Constance D., their daughter, born at St. Jean-ten-Noode........................ I year old 327 THE STANDARD OF LIVING The father and mother and one of the brothers of the workman are still living. The father is a shoemaker in the same town. Though 65 years of age, he is in perfect health and is able almost entirely to support himself and his wife, who is thrifty. The brother is a type-setter and is employed in the same shop as the workman. He lives with his parents, whom he helps a little. The wife's father has been dead ten years; her mother lives in Louvain with one of her sons. The mother has an income from a house which her children agreed to leave to her. The wife has another brother and two sisters, who are all married and who support themselves. 3. RELIGION AND MORAL HABITS. Our workman and his wife were born of Catholic parents. He had very little religious instruction, because as he began to work at 9 years of age, it was difficult for him to find time to learn the catechism. The hard school of adversity and of work inculcated moral and religious feelings which he never lost. Every Sunday he goes to church with his sons, who consider it a real punishment when they cannot accompany him. In fine weather they take a short walk after the service. The father takes this occasion to impress his children with the greatness of the works of the Creator, telling them to think of Him in all their actions. At the same time he develops their minds and their morals, and often takes pleasure in testing the good results of his instruction. The morning and evening meals always begin with a silent prayer and the sign of the cross. Before the dinner, which they take all together, the children by turns say the prayer aloud. Not one would willingly give up his turn, but when one is absent and the usual order is interrupted, it is a pleasant sight to see how anxious the others are to take his place. The wife seldom takes any part in this. Since the birth of the last child, she has been almost entirely absorbed in her household cares, and very rarely attends religious services. She leaves to her husband the moral training of her sons, which she considers herself incapable of undertaking. Our workman is inclined to be irritable. However, he values the esteem of his employer and his fellow-workmen; he is anxious 328 A WORKINGMAN'S BUDGET to have the reputation of an intelligent, industrious, and honest man. It is by pursuing incessantly this purpose and by his hard work that he has been able to obtain a good position, which he tries every day to improve. He went to school only between the ages of 7 and 9 years. However, because of the demands of his profession and owing to his perseverance, he has acquired a good education. He devotes his spare time to the study of literary, economic, and social matters. He has written on these subjects several little works which have been well received. In a scientific and literary competition at Bruges in 1853, he won a silver-gilt medal and was elected corresponding member of a scientific society. The report that he wrote on that occasion received the honor of being printed. In 1856 he won another medal at the exhibition of domestic economy at Brussels for the manuscript of a book written especially for the working classes, in which he gives advice on the principal points which concern the physical and the moral welfare of the workman under the three-fold aspect of his life-in society, in the shop, and in the family. This work received the approbation of several eminent persons, who gave our workman much encouragement. He occupies a high position among his companions. On several occasions, when the interests of the firm were at stake, he has been chosen to represent it, together with others of his colleagues. He has also taken an active part in the founding of the associations of which he is a member. The three boys go to the public school of St. Jean-ten-Noode. The two oldest are clever, the youngest is less gifted. As to the wife, she has no education to speak of; but she atones for this lack by a great deal of common sense, and by incessant devotion to her family duties. The husband and wife lead a regular life, in perfect accord, and avoid all discussions which might have a bad influence on the children. A few years ago, difficulties connected with the household management, together with his extreme youth, nearly started the husband on a downward path. But he was not slow in recovering his better self, when he had perceived how detrimental his conduct was to the physical and moral welfare of the family. 329 THE STANDARD OF LIVING 4. PHYSICAL TRAITS AND CARE OF THE HEALTH. Our workman is rather tall, 5 feet IO inches, and has a sanguine and nervous temperament. Although he enjoys good health, his constitution is not strong, and for this reason, he was exempted from military service. Except for some children's diseases, such as measles and scarlet fever, he has had only one serious illness, typhus fever, which a few months after his marriage proved almost fatal. After this illness, he decided to join a mutual benefit society, of which he has been a member for nearly 14 years, without having received pecuniary assistance except for 14 days. The wife is of medium height, 5 feet 4 inches, has a good constitution, and a phlegmatic yet cheerful temperament. At the time of her marriage she showed a tendency to pulmonary tuberculosis, which developed two years later and made her an invalid for nine months. The birth of a child served to restore her health and to enable her again to devote herself to the cares of her household, which had seriously suffered on account of her sickness. Since then she has had no serious sickness except for an affliction of the eyes which lasted a few weeks. On the whole, however, her health is not very satisfactory. It seems as if the material cares were not sufficiently counterbalanced by intellectual and moral interests. The oldest child has had the various infantile diseases. Like his father, he had an attack of typhus fever complicated by a miliary fever, which did away with the most alarming symptoms of the first disease. Since his recovery his eyes have been weak and he has had quinsy. He is now recovering from the last effects of his illness. For five or six years the second child had uninterruptedly sickness after sickness. These were of such serious character that his life was despaired of twenty times. He was almost totally blind for five months; at four years of age he had hardly recovered from a severe attack of measles when he broke his leg. Now he is perfectly well. The last boy has a robust constitution. He has also had measles and typhoid fever, both very severely. His temperament is like his mother's; he has little ability, but an honest and obliging disposition. The daughter, who is only one year old, has always been well. Dur330 A WORKINGMAN S BUDGET ing the first years of his married life our workman was under considerable expense for medical service. However, as the members of the family have been in better health since that time, the yearly medical expense can be estimated at about 20 francs, or 300 francs for the past fifteen years, including the monthly dues to the workman's association. According to an agreement with the physician of the association, since 1858, our workman, like the other members of the association, has received medical service for six francs a year, medicines not included. 5. STANDING OF THE FAMILY. Independently of the easy circumstances which a high salary and industrious habits have assured the family, our workman has attained a distinguished position in his firm. His ability and good conduct soon induced his employer to give him the management of the workshops as well as the clerical work, which is rather complicated because of the numerous details involved in the special line of work. Before the Belgian Revolution of 1830, his parents as a result of hard work were in easy circumstances. But an exaggerated patriotism induced our workman's father perhaps too fully to perform the military duties instituted at that time. As a result the family was impoverished, so that at the age of 9 our workman was obliged to leave the school for the shop in order to help the household, which at 14 years of age he supported almost entirely. The wife comes from an honorable family whose interests had been greatly injured by the unwise management of her father and by many domestic troubles. Several members of the family have good positions as notaries, doctors, and merchants. Our workman is the only one in his family who has kept in touch with any of them. Though obliged to depend entirely on his work, and in spite of the hard times he has gone through, he has never asked aid either from charitable institutions or from private individuals. This fact, of which he is justly very proud, has greatly helped him to retain his independence. On the part of our workman, who is gifted with fine moral qualities, the difference of condition 33I THE STANDARD OF LIVING between employers and employees creates neither hate nor envy, which is not the case with many other type-setters of Brussels. MEANS OF SUBSISTENCE OF THE FAMILY 6. PROPERTY. (Furniture and Clothes not Included.) Real Estate...........................................oo fr. The family does not own any real estate, and has no income from the dwelling which is a part of the inheritance left by the wife's father. This house is what remains from a former prosperous time and the widow has the exclusive use of it until her death. M oney....................................... 51.71 fr. This sum, deposited in the Savings Bank, at 3% interest, represents wages paid for clerical work. It was originally 1oo francs, and was increased to I6o francs, interest included. Several family expenses, such as those caused by the first communion of two of the children, obliged our workman to break into it several times. On the other hand, the hard times which have oppressed the laboring classes for several years, especially the high price of food, have not yet made it possible for him to make good the amount. Special equipment for work and industry................ 66 fr. Tools.-Two iron composing sticks, io fr.; 2 wooden composing sticks, I fr.; printers' tweezers, 2.25 fr.; I copy holder, I fr.; i knife, 0.50 fr.; total, I4.75 fr. Special Books and Office Supplies Necessary for the Correction of Proofs at Home and for Book-keeping.-i dictionary of the French Academy with supplement (bound), 40 fr.; i Flemish-French dictionary, 5 fr.; i grammar, 0.75 fr.; i French Latin grammar, 2 fr.; i table of French verbs, o.50 fr.; ink-wells, pens, penholders, pencils, ruler and paper, 3 fr.; total, 51.25 fr. Total value of property............................. 17.71 fr. 7. SUBSIDIARY CONTRIBUTIONS TO REAL INCOME. The only assistance received by the family is the free tuition given in the city school attended by the three boys up to last August. At that time the oldest, having won the highest prize, 332 A WORKINGMAN'S BUDGET had to leave, according to the rules of the school. The other two stayed the rest of the year. Had they been in a private school, the cost would have been 4 francs a month for each child; that is, 88 francs for the two children for the school year of I I months, and 28 francs for the oldest child for seven months-in all, i I6 francs. To that must be added 15 francs, the cost of the tuition for the oldest boy, who for 3 months attended the Academy of Fine Arts. In the course of the year 1857 the Government gave our workman 300 francs to help him publish a book written for the working class. Nearly the whole amount of this subsidy, granted in exchange for 500 copies of this work, served to pay the publishing expenses. Under the head of subventions may be mentioned books given from time to time to our workman by his employer and by the authors, as well as some pieces of bric-a-brac presented by his fellow-workmen on his patron saint's day. These may be found in the list of the pieces of furniture under Section to. Their annual value amounts to 20 or 25 francs. 8. WORK AND INDUSTRY. The Type-setter's Work.-The work is done by the hour in the shop, as well as at home, for an employer. It consists of typesetting, paging, proof-reading, book-keeping, and the management of the shop where the type-setters work. He is paid half a franc an hour and works on an average of eleven hours a day. When business is not pressing, he finishes work on Monday at 4 P. M., and he works regularly a few hours at home on Sunday. The shop is closed on Sunday and holidays, except three or four times a year when there is a rush of business. Wages are paid very regularly every fortnight on Saturday evening, and pay-day is never an occasion for unnecessary expense. The Wife's Work.-The wife devotes all her time to household duties, sewing, repairing and washing the family linen. She excels in all kinds of sewing. Before her marriage she was a dressmaker and was at the head of the last dressmaking establishment in which she worked. In the first years of her married life she worked for several customers, but for the last ten years household cares have kept her busy. She is active and industrious, and her 333 THE STANDARD OF LIVING home is pointed to as a model of cleanliness, in spite of the work inevitably occasioned by children. The Children's Work.-The oldest son has just become an apprentice in the shop where his father works; he earns ten francs a month. The other children do no work. Industries Pursued by the Family.-The workman has the management of the printing shop. In case of pressure, he supplements his wages by reading proof at home, which may add about 6.50 francs a fortnight to his income. The wife's chief work is the sewing and washing of the family linen and clothes. MODE OF LIVING OF THE FAMILY 9. FOOD AND MEALS. The family take three meals a day: in the morning, at noon, and in the evening. During the summer the husband has a second breakfast in the shop and a luncheon at half past four every day. The breakfast consists invariably of coffee with or without milk and bread and butter. The bread is of the first quality. The dinner consists of meat soup or vegetable soup, potatoes or other vegetables according to the season, boiled or roasted beef or veal. From time to time, poultry, rabbit, or dressed pork takes the place of other meat. Dinner is often followed by a dessert of fruit: nuts, cherries, apples, pears, apricots, grapes (from their own vines), and always by a cup of coffee. On Friday, instead of meat, fish (cod, herrings, eels) or eggs are served. In the summer, salads of different sorts are the main food. When the children return from school, they have a luncheon of coffee and bread with the mother. The husband's luncheon consists of bread, meat or cheese, and beer. The supper taken on our workman's return from the shop consists of cold meat or Holland cheese with bread and butter and beer, or more often coffee, which is the favorite drink of the family. They live well and lack nothing so far as food is concerned. However, except on New Year's Day, or on some great occasion, no wine or liquor is drunk and beer is drunk but rarely. Away 334 A WORKINGMAN'S BUDGET from home, our workman drinks beer in moderate quantity, for example, on Sunday or in some of the meetings of the societies of which he is a member. The family do not buy food on credit as most workmen do, and in consequence they buy more cheaply. Io. HOUSE, FURNITURE, AND CLOTHING. The family have lived for four years in a little dwelling, one of the walls of which is covered with a vine about 13 yards in length. This house consists of four rooms, two of which are on the first floor and two on the second floor, of a cellar, a garret, and a yard with an area of about 9oo sq. ft. The rooms on the first floor are about 9 ft. high, those on the next floor are 6 ft. IO in. high. The average height of the garret with slanting roof is about 7 ft. and that of the cellar about 6 ft. 3 in. Though the rooms are rather small, the dwelling is comfortable, and the workman is willing to make all the sacrifices compatible with his position to preserve what he calls "his luxury and quiet," for he has occupied many lodgings composed of sometimes one large room and sometimes several rooms where he has experienced all sorts of discomforts. The rent is 18 francs a month or 216 francs a year; the owner pays the taxes. A well, used by several families of the neighborhood, is near the house and furnishes very pure water. There is no cistern, but rain-water is caught in large tubs. Except for some articles given to our workman by his comrades on his patron saint's day, the furniture is very simple, but it is well cared for. It may be valued as follows: Furniture........................................ 904.50 fr. I. Beds and Bedding.-2 bedsteads, beechwood, slats and crossbars of oak, 35 fr.; i mattress, woolen, 25 fr.; i mattress, seaweed, 14 fr.; 3 mattresses, straw, 21 fr.; i bolster, feathers, 8 fr.; 3 pillows, 8 fr.; i blanket, woolen, 15 fr.; 3 blankets, cotton, I8 fr.; i cradle with bedding, 15 fr.; total, 159 fr. II. Living-room Furniture (ground-floor).-I bureau, elm, I8 fr.; i table with oil cloth and cover, io.5o fr.; i clock, gilded frame, 48 fr.; 2 vases, china, with artificial flowers, 20 fr.; 2 large frames with colored pictures, 20 fr.; 4 small frames, with portraits, 8 fr.; i frame, reward won by workman, 5 fr.; i small mirror, 3 fr.; 2 medallions, plaster, religious subjects, 2 fr.; 2 statuettes, Saxon china, 9 fr.; i St. Joseph, imitation alabaster, 2 fr.; 6 chairs, cherry, 20 fr.; i arm-chair, beech, 335 THE STANDARD OF LIVING 8 fr.; i jardiniere, with natural flowers, io fr.; I screen, i fr.; 3 framed medals, i silver gilt, 2 bronze, 30 fr.; total, 214.50 fr. III. Kitchen Furniture.-i large cupboard, white wood, 8 fr.; i table, beech, 5 fr.; 5 chairs and I armchair, beech, straw-bottomed, I8 fr.; i child's chair, 5 fr.; I kitchen stove, with pipe, 14 fr.; i statuette (Gutenberg), 4 fr.; I bird cage, 2 fr.; total, 56 fr. IV. Workroom Furniture.-i large desk, with bookshelf, 28 fr.; 2 tables, beech, 6 fr.; i cupboard, elm, 3 fr.; I small cupboard, cherry, 5 fr.; i small stove, with pipe, 7 fr.; 4 chairs, beech, straw-bottomed, 8 fr.; I mirror, 1.50 fr.; total, 58.50 fr. V. Bedroom and Attic Furniture.-i small table, beech, 3 fr.; 2 chairs, beech, straw-bottomed, 4 fr.; i picture of Christ in frame, 2 fr.; i crucifix and several religious pictures, near children's bed, 1.50 fr.; several pieces of old furniture not in use, 6 fr.; total, i6.5o fr. VI. Books.-Our workman owns a small library composed of about 300 books and pamphlets. Some of these, which he helped to print or of which he read the proof, he owes to the generosity of his employer, or of the authors. Others, among which are several scientific and literary works, he bought for himself. The remaining 25 volumes are classical works given as school prizes to the children. Approximate value, 400 fr. Utensils.-In sufficient quantity and well cared for.... 235.25 fr. I. For the Fire.-2 fire shovels, i fr.; 2 fire hooks, 1.50 fr.; i grate, i fr.; 2 coal scuttles, 2 fr.; i charcoal basket,.25 fr.; total, 5.75 fr. II. For the Table and the Preparation of Food.-i glass carafe and 6 tumblers, 10 fr.; i coffee set and i tea set, china, 25 fr.; i liquor set on tin stand, 15 fr.; i pint bottle in fine gilded ware, 5 fr.; 6 plates, 6 fr.; 15 plates, common white earthenware, 4.50 fr.; 2 china bowls, 2.50 fr.; 6 bowls, white earthenware, i fr.; i salad bowl, i pepper box and 6 glasses, 2 fr.; i pot, earthenware, 1.50 fr; i butter dish and 2 earthenware egg-cups, I.50 fr.; 5 vases, varnished, earthenware, 2.50 fr.; i water jug, i fr.; 6 spoons, 6 forks and I ladle, silver-plated, 25 fr.; i ladle, tin, 1.25 fr.; knives, spoons and forks, 5 fr.; pots and bottles, 4 fr.; 3 pails, zinc, i fr., i saucepan, wrought iron, 5 fr.; i frying pan, wrought iron, 1.25 fr.; I kettle and i copper teakettle, i2 fr.; i coffee pot and i tin teakettle, 5 fr.; i coffee mill, 3 fr.; i strainer, tin, i fr.; i market basket, tin, 3 fr.; i basket, tin, 2.50 fr.; i basket, wicker, i fr.; 2 vegetable baskets, 2 fr.; other small articles, I.50 fr.; total, i6i fr. 111. For Cleaning Purposes.-2 big brushes and 2 brooms, 5 fr.; i clothes brush and 2 shoe brushes, 2 fr.; 2 flatirons, 2 fr.; 2 water jugs, 1.50 fr.; i wash basin, earthenware, 2 fr.; 3 razors, with accessories, 4.50 fr.; I shaving mirror, i.50 fr.; total, I8.50 fr. IV. For Various Uses.-i astral lamp, 20 fr.; i lamp, copper, 5 fr.; 2 candlesticks, copper, 5 fr.; i large barrel for catching rain-water, 6 fr.; 2 small barrels, 7 fr.; 3 clothes pegs, 2 fr.; i tailor's goose, with accessories, 3 fr.; i pair snuffers and i extinguisher, i fr.; small articles, i fr.; total, 50 fr. Household linen (in good order, but meager supply).......81 fr. Linen.-2 sheets, linen, 12 fr.; 6 sheets, cotton, 21 fr.; 12 sheets, small, for children, 12 fr.; 2 napkins, 5 fr.; 5 window curtains, muslin, 15 fr.; 4 window curtains, cotton, 4 fr.; 12 hand towels, 8 fr.; 4 hand towels, hemp, 2fr.; 6 dusters and dish cloths, 2 fr.; total, 8i fr. Clothing........................................ 730 fr. (Parents' clothing is very simple; though small in quantity, is in good condition.) Man's Clothing (317.50 fr.). Of the style worn by the middle class. I. Sunday Clothes.-i overcoat, blue cloth, 65 fr.; i frock coat, black cloth, 336 A WORKINGMAN'S BUDGET 30 fr.; i vest, black satin, 12 fr.; i pair trousers, black cloth, I8 fr.; i silk hat, 12 fr.; i scarf, black satin, 8 fr.; i pair boots, 15 fr.; total, x60 fr. II. Everyday Clothes. — overcoat, black cloth, 25 fr.; I coat, black cloth, 15 fr.; i pair trousers, woolen, 13 fr.; i pair trousers, woolen, 13 fr.; I pair trousers, cotton, 3 fr.; 2 waistcoats, woolen, with sleeves, 8 fr.; 2 work blouses, blue linen, 9 fr.; 6 shirts, cotton (2 of good quality), I8 fr.; 3 neckties, cotton and linen, I.50 fr.; i necktie, merino, 2 fr.; 2 pairs knit drawers, cotton, 4 fr.; 2 knit undershirts, cotton, 4 fr.; 2 pairs stockings, woolen, 4 fr.; 4 pairs stockings, cotton, 6 fr.; i pair boots, io fr.; i pair slippers, 5 fr.; i cap, 2 fr.; small articles, 3 fr.; total, 132.50 fr. III. Jewelry. — watch, silver, 25 fr. Wife's Clothing (171.50 fr.). Like that of her class. I. Sunday Clothes.-i dress, brown woolen, I6 fr.; I shawl, woolen, 15 fr.; i dress skirt, muslin, 8.50 fr.; i waist, black silk, 6 fr.; i apron, black silk, 5 fr.; I cloak, black silk, 6 fr.; i bonnet, trimmed, 6 fr.; i skirt, white dimity, 4 fr.; 3 chemisettes, fine quality, 5 fr.; 6 handkerchiefs, fine linen, 4 fr.; 2 pairs undersleeves, embroidered muslin, 4 fr.; 3 pairs stockings, white, 5.50 fr.; i pair shoes, 5 fr.; total, go fr. II. Everyday Clothes.-i skirt, wool and cotton, 8 fr.; i skirt, black merino, 2 fr.; I cloak, cotton goods, 3 fr.; 2 jackets, cotton, 5 fr.; 2 aprons, cotton, 3 fr.; i apron, blue linen, 2 fr.; I cap, black tulle, 3.50 fr.; 4 night caps, 4 fr.; 6 chemises, cotton, 15 fr.; i pair stockings, black woolen, 3 fr.; 2 pairs stockings, cotton, 4 fr.; 3 neckerchiefs, 3 fr.; 2 pairs gloves, 2.50 fr.; i pair shoes, 5 fr.; i pair slippers, 2.50 fr.; total, 65.50 fr. III. Jewelry.-i gold ring, 7 fr.; i pin, gold enameled, 6 fr.; i pair earrings, 3 fr.; total, i6 fr. Children's Clothing (24.oo00 fr.). Well taken care of. I. Clothes of the Three Boys.-2 blouses, black velvet, 20 fr.; I blouse, black merino, 6 fr.; 6 blouses, cotton, I8 fr.; 2 coats, black cloth, I8 fr.; 2 coats, black merino, io fr.; 3 pairs trousers, cloth, I8 fr.; 3 pairs trousers, cotton, 7 fr.; 3 waistcoats, woolen, 6 fr.; 6 caps, cloth, 9 fr.; 9 shirts, cotton, 17 fr.; 6 pairs stockings, 6 fr.; 6 collars, white percale, 3 fr.; 3 neckties, cotton, 2 fr.; 9 handkerchiefs, cotton, 4.50 fr.; 3 scarfs, woolen, 3 fr.; 3 night caps, I.50 fr.; 6 pairs of boots and shoes, 25 fr.; total, I74 fr. II. Girl's Clothes.-i coat, quilted black silk, 6 fr.; 5 dresses, woolen, 20 fr.; 6 slips, white dimity, 6 fr.; 6 chemises, white cotton, 4 fr.; 5 aprons, white muslin, 5 fr.; 2 hats, silk, 8 fr.; 3 caps, trimmed, 4 fr.; 6 caps, white percale, 3 fr.; 3 caps, muslin, 3 fr.; 4 neckerchiefs, 2 fr.; 2 pairs stockings, woolen, 2 fr.; 4 pairs stockings, cotton, 2.50 fr.; i pair shoes, cloth, I.50 fr,; total, 67 fr. NOTE.-A great part of the children's clothing is made from the parents' cast-off clothing, and is generally made by the wife. Total value of furniture and clothing...............,950.75 fr. ii. RECREATION. For some years the husband and wife have been perfectly contented with such family recreations as might be within their means. In the summer they go regularly to the country on Sundays and holidays. Sometimes they visit one of the towns situated on the railroad in the neighborhood of Brussels, such as Vilvorde, Baitsfort, and Ruisbrank. It is a great pleasure to 22 337 THE STANDARD OF LIVING the children to return by train. In winter the family generally stays at home on Sundays; except the father, who goes in the evening to play dominoes with some of his friends who live in a neighboring suburb and who are at least twice as old as he. Sometimes he takes his family to the opera, vaudeville, or circus; but more often to musical entertainments arranged by members of his firm, in a hall rented for that purpose. These are real family gatherings, where all licentious songs are strictly forbidden. At these meetings there are also readings on subjects of general interest to the working classes in Belgium, especially to the typesetters, but political subjects are always forbidden. The family derives some pleasure, also, from its intercourse with relatives. Each family event, such as a birth, a marriage, or a patron saint's day, is occasion for an informal dinner party, when the sincerest cordiality reigns. As a rule, our workman goes each year to Louvain at the time of the annual fair, to visit his wife's relatives. Sometimes he is accompanied by his wife or one of the children. Two or three of these relatives return the visit in September, at the time of the national holiday, which is celebrated with a certain amount of pomp at Brussels. Among recreations, and in addition to the annual banquet which most of the type-setters attend, must be mentioned a dinner given yearly by our workman to his friends, on the occasion of his patron saint's day (St. Joseph). This dinner is given in return for a present made him by his friends. But his greatest pleasure is derived from study, to which he would willingly devote all his spare time, were it not for the demands of health, and his family's need of diversion. It is with the greatest difficulty that he can be torn from his literary work for any kind of pleasure. By such inclination, rather than by habits of thrift, does he resemble the middle class. HISTORY OF THE FAMILY 12. PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF THE FAMILY. Our workman was born at Brussels in 1824. His father, who was a bootmaker, had many workmen under him and did a good 338 A WORKINGMAN'S BUDGET business. He was in easy circumstances, owing chiefly to hard work, but this condition was greatly changed by the Belgian Revolution of 1830, which took away the majority of his customers, and obliged him to perform civic duties, to which he sacrificed personal interests. Two years later his family was reduced to a state of great poverty. In 1833 they were in such want that the son, then only 9 years of age, was obliged suddenly to leave school, where he had learned only the rudiments of reading and writing, and to work as an apprentice in one of the city book stores. Here he ran errands, and later made newspaper wrappers. After fifteen months of stubborn work, he succeeded in acquiring a fairly good elementary education; but the small wages he earned (7 francs a month) induced his mother to seek more lucrative employment for him. A new daily paper had just been established in Brussels; by it he was engaged as an apprentice at type-setting and at gathering the sheets as they came from the press. On account of his double duties he was obliged to work eighteen hours a day, interrupted only by the running of errands. Even in winter he had to be in the shop from 5 A. M. to I P. M. And on Sunday this murderous work, for which he received five francs a week, was not interrupted. At the end of a year, finding no improvement in his position, he decided to make a change, in spite of having acquired but little skill in type-setting. He was not successful at first, but after a second change he entered a shop in which he was able to perfect himself in the business. After fifteen months be went back to his first employer on a salary of fifteen francs a week, working eight and a half hours a day. He visited successively several shops, to perfect his business knowledge, and finally, in I840, he entered the printing establishment where he is at present. The struggles that he had to make during the hard times that we have just mentioned so seriously weakened his constitution that he was exempted from military service. After several disputes with his parents, occasioned by his relations with his future wife, at nineteen years of age he married, with no other resources than the sum of one hundred francs, which his employer kindly advanced him, and which served to buy furniture and indispensable household articles. Unfortunately, the young couple 339 THE STANDARD OF LIVING suffered from several attacks of sickness, in their early married life. The confinements of the wife, together with her inexperience, caused her to live beyond her means, and without her husband's knowledge she was soon in a whirlpool of debt. A thousand petty domestic annoyances almost separated the young couple, but the husband did not lose courage. Fully aware of the danger of his position, he changed his manner of living, and forbade all unnecessary expense. At the end of three years he saw his efforts crowned with success: his debts paid, his furniture increased, and the general welfare of his family greatly augmented. A radical change in the wife's manner of living, and a courageous effort on her part to join her husband in his undertaking, saved the family which had been so severely tried. To-day they are contented and happy. Catherine B. was born in Brussels in 1822. Her father, a locksmith by profession, and a master tradesman, carried on his business at home. He had a talent for invention, which he used with doubtful advantage to a family of twelve children. He had besides a passion for fishing, to which he often devoted his working time. He soon found himself therefore in a critical position. As a result Catherine was entrusted with the care of the younger children, to the detriment of her education. Later she was taught dressmaking, so that she might help the family in a more efficacious manner. As her wages were habitually taken for family use, she had no savings when she married, and as a dowry only a few articles of small value. To sum up: thanks to the good conduct and perseverance of the husband and wife, thanks also to their watchful care over their children, the position of the family is a comparatively happy one. 13. PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS INSURING THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL WELFARE OF THE FAMILY. The family described in this monograph is assured of a certain degree of well-being, because of the remarkably good qualities which our workman possesses. However, these traits are not those 340 A WORKINGMAN S BUDGET which, under a regime of industrial liberty, would enable him to rise to the position of employer. Although being, as we have seen, in sufficiently easy circumstances to lay aside a part of his income without curtailing necessary expenses, he shows no tendency to save. From this very lack of foresight one must conclude that he feels himself destined to remain always in the position of workman, and that he never thinks of attaining a more secure or more independent position. For fourteen years he has been a member of the Type-setters' Mutual Aid Society, which, in return for a monthly due of 1.50 fr., assures to its members, in case of sickness, pecuniary aid, medicine, and medical attendance. He is also a member of another society, which has the double aim of maintaining salaries and of providing assistance in case of enforced idleness. These societies can give relief in emergencies, and can assure the peace of mind on the part of the workman necessary for prosecuting studies on social economy. However, they ought not to release him from the efforts that a higher degree of foresight would demand; for the family would be left without resources, were it to lose its head. Since the abolition of the old manufacturing corporations, which crowded into the cities, workmen are often forced to face a condition of destitution. Even those who honestly perform the duties of their position are never free from danger unless they submit rigorously to the privations which foresight demands. The causes of the great change which has come about in this respect, in the position of the working classes, are often pointed out in this work. For Belgium a summary is to be found farther on. The history of our workman, given in the present monograph, proves the accuracy of this picture. Born of a family of artisans who had reached a position of well-being through their work, but were suddenly ruined by the Revolution of 1830, he found himself from early childhood in a condition of total destitution. Endowed with excellent qualities, which would permit him to occupy an honorable position in the bourgeois class, he has no inclination whatever to provide for the future. He spends his entire salary in obtaining material comforts for himself and his family, together with mental and moral recreations. It is true 341 THE STANDARD OF LIVING that, in the present state of urban communities, the ruin of the father's business does not always bring ruin to the rising generation, as happened in the family here described; but it brings the loss of an assured future. This lack of security is especially striking in the social constitution of Belgium, and in the other countries which are continually upset by the compulsory division of estates. This hard servitude imposed by the law and perpetuated by the apparent interest of the state treasury, and by the interested zeal of numerous public officers in each generation, destroys the homes and shops created by the work and fortitude of heads of families. In this incessant work of destruction, that which has remained for a time, thanks to the wisdom of individuals, is soon destroyed by the universal subjection of the family. 342 I4. BUDGET OF ANNUAL RECEIPTS. APPROXIMATE SOURCES OF INCOME. VALUE OF RECEIPTS. AMOUNT OF RE VARIOUS CEIPTS. ASSETS. SECTION I. Property Owned by the Family. i. Real estate. (The family owns no property of this nature.) 2. Personal property. Special working equipment: Equipment required in type-setting and proofreading.... Money: Deposited in Savings Bank........................... 3. Insurance. i Mutual Benefit Society, 300 members; capital, 7000 fr.; share............................................... Society for insurance against unemployment, 300 members; capital, o0,000 fr.; share............................ Total value of property............................. Value of Property. Francs. 66.oo 51.7I 23.33 33-33 174.37 SECTION I. Revenues from Property. i. Revenue from real estate. (The family enjoys no revenue from this source.) 2. Revenue from personal property. Interest (5 per cent.) on the value of the working equipment...................................... Interest (3 per cent.) on money deposited in Savings Bank............................................. 3. Insurance. Value of the claim, equal to the annual contribution....................................24.50 fr. Value of the claim, equal to the annual contribution................................ 8.oo fr. (As these amounts balance equal sums expended by the family, both are omitted.) Total revenue from property........................ SECTION II. Proceeds of Value of Subsidiary Contributions. J. Proceeds from property received in usufruct. (The family receives no income from this source.) 2. Benefits from right to use neighboring property. (The family receives no benefits of this nature.) 3. Goods and services granted. Free instruction for the children in the city school....... Free attendance at the Academy of Fine Arts, for the oldest boy........................................... Total profits from subsidiary contributions.......... Value of Goods Received in Kind. Francs. 3.30 3.30 116.00 xi.oo 15.00 13I.00 Receipts in Money. Francs. 1.55 1.55 SECTION II. Subsidiary Contributions to Real Income. i. Property received in usufruct. (The family receives no property in usufruct.) 2. The right to use neighboring property. (The family enjoys no privileges of this nature.) 3. Grants of goods and of service. Provision for education......................................... SOURCES OF INCOME (continued). RECEIPTS (continued). QUANTITY OF WORK DONE. AMOUNT OF DAILY WAGES. AMOUNT OF RECEIPTS. DESCRIPTION OF WORK Value of Receipts AND TIME EMPLOYED. Father. Mother. Oldest Father. Mother. Oldest Goods in Boy. Boy. in Kind. Money. SECTION III. Days. Days. Days. Fras. Francs. Francs SECTION III. Francs. Francs. Work Done by the Family. Wages. Work done by the day for employer: Regular work; type-setting (II Total wages according to the hour day)................ 333.3.. 45 number of days' work... I499.85 Extra work: proofreading and writing................... 23.1.... 4.50.. Total wages for this work..... 103.95 Apprentice work by the month (IO.oo fr.) for employer......... o..33 Total wages for this work... 30.00 Housework; purchase and preparation of food; care of the children; care of the dwelling.......0........... 22(Wages cannot be calculated.) Making and mending the Total wages that an employe family clothing and house- would receive for performhold linen................50.... ing the same work.......... 55.00 Washing clothing and linen43... 4 Total wages that an employe would receive............ 43.00 Total days employed...... 356.4 313 go.... Total earnings of family.... 98.00 1,633.80 SECTION IV. SECTION IV. Average Industries Undertaken by the Family. Profits from Family Industries. Daily (On their own account.) Wage. Employment connected with the typographical work performed for Francs. employer........................................... Average wage of ordinary type-setter, in 333.3 days............4.50 Supervisory work in the composition room......................Additional wage allowed for this work...................... I66.55 Average daily wage........................... 5.00 Independent enterprises of the family Proofreading and bookkeeping.................................Returns yielded by this work............. (16 A 6x.55 Making of clothing and household linen.......................... Expense avoided by this work(6 B 7.5 Washing and mending of linen................................Expense avoided by this work..................... 6 C 58.25 Total quasi-returns from these industries..................... 28.75 228.20 NoTE.-Besides the receipts shown in the above account, the industries yield a profit of 60.o6 fr., which is reinvested in the same enterprises. This amount. and the expenditures which balance it, have been omitted from both budgets. Total receipts for the year (balancing the expenditures).. (2224.60 fr.) 361.05 i863.55 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~86.5. A WORKINGMAN'S BUDGET I5. BUDGET OF ANNUAL EXPENDITURES. QUANTITY AND COST AMONTs EXOF FOOD MATERIALS. PENDED. EXPENDITURES FOR COMMODITIES Value AND SERVICES. Qf MaQuanti- Costper terials Expendities Con- Kilogram. Con- tures in sumed. sumed Money. in Kind. SECTION I. Kilograms. Frans. Fancs. F rancs. Expenditures for Food. I. Food consumed at home. (By the workman, his wife, and their four children, during 365 days.) Cereals: Bread, loaves of i k., first quality (white bread)............................. 836. 0.390.. 36.04 Rolls, for soup, weighing 0.120 k. each, and costing 0.05 fr., IO................... 12.0 0.4I7. 5.00 Fancy rolls, for special celebrations, weighing o.Ioo k. each, and costing o.o5 fr., 50. 5.0 0.500 2.50 Wheat flour, first quality, for cooking and pastry........................ 12.0 0.700.. 8.40 Rice, for soup and various dishes....... 1 12.0 I.ooo.. I2.00 Vermicelli and semolina................. 8.o 0.960 7.68 Macaroni............................. 5.0 0.960.. 4.8 Total quantity and average cost..... 890.0 0.412 Fats: Butter for cooking...................... 54.8 3.000 i 64.40 Beef and pork tallow, extracted at home, used for cooking...................... 2.0 2.000.. 4.00 Total quantity and average cost...... 56.8 2.965 Milk-foods and eggs: Skim milk for coffee and porridge........ 0.250 0.250 White cheese........................... 26. 0.400 10.40 Brussels cheese, called Letekecs.............0 2.000.. 22.00 Holland cheese......................... o0.0 2.160.. 2.6 Eggs, used for various dishes, 380 0o.o6 fr. 22.0 I.036.. 22.80 Total quantity and average cost...... 79.0.004 Meats and fish: Beef, 52 k. @ 1.20 fr. (deducting i k. for fat) 52.0.200. 62.40 Veal........................ 56. 1.200.. 67.20 Pork, 6 k. @ i.80 fr. (deducting i k. for fat) I6.o 2.025. 32.40 Poultry: 6 chickens..................... 6.0.500 9.00 Game: 12 rabbits..................... o..0. 8.oo Fish: stockfish, cod, eel, and herring....... 26..800 20.80 Total quantity and average cost...... 74.0.2o6 345 THE STANDARD OF LIVING QUANTITY AND COST AMOUNTS EXOF FOOD MATERIALS. FENDED. EXPENDITURES FOR COMMODITIES AND Value SERVICES. of Ma- Quanti- Cost per terials ExpenditiesCon- Kilogram. Con- tures in sumed. sumed Money. in Kind. -~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~...... Vegetables and fruits: Potatoes, white and sweet................ Dried vegetables: white beans........... Fresh vegetables for cooking: French beans, 12 k. @ 0.450 fr., 5.40 fr.; green peas, 20 k. @ o.480 fr., 9.60 fr.; cauliflower, 5 k. @ 0.400 fr., 2.00 fr.; red cabbage and kale 30 k. @ o0.50 fr., 4.50 fr.; asparagus, 6 k. @ 0.400 fr., 2.40 fr.; chicory, 5 k. ( o.I50 fr., 4.50 fr.; sorrel, I k. @ 0.200 fr., 0.20 fr.............................. Root vegetables: carrots, 30 k. ( 0.350 fr., Io.50 fr.; beets, 6 k. @ 0.360 fr., 2.16 fr.; turnips, 4.50 k. @ 0.250 fr., I.12 fr.; salsify, i k. @ 0.240 fr., 0.24 fr......... Savory vegetables: onions, 25 k. @ 0.400 fr., Io.oo fr.; shallot, I k. @ 1.o5o fr., I.05 fr. Salad vegetables...................... Cucumbers: gherkins................... Fruits: cherries, i8 k. ( 0.220 fr., 3.96 fr.; apples, used chiefly for apple stew, 130 k. @ 0.440 fr., 57.07 fr.; pears, 26 k.@ 0.600 fr., I5.60 fr.; strawberries, 4.4 k. @ 0.700 fr., 3.08 fr.; currants, 1.5 k. @ 0.750 fr., I.12 fr.; peaches and apricots, 2 k. @ 2.90 fr., 5.80 fr.; nuts, 9 k. @ 0.300 fr., 2.70 fr.; raisins, from own grape-vines, 5.5 k. @ I.oo fr., 5.50 fr...... Total quantity and average cost...... Condiments and beverages: White salt............................. Pepper, cloves and nutmeg............... Vinegar for salad and cooking............ Sugars: white, 20 k. @ I.50 fr., 30.00 fr.; syrup, 9 k. @ i.i8 fr., 10.62 fr......... Aromatic drinks: coffee, purchased in the bean, roasted, not ground, 21 k. @ 2.75 fr., 57-75 fr.; chicory, 8 k. @ 0.35 fr., 2.80 fr.............................. Total quantity and average cost..... Kilograms. 400.0 10.0 79.o 41.5 26.0 51.O 0.5 I96.4 804.4 20.0 0.9 20.0 29.0 Francs. O.I0 0.500 0-315 0.337 0.425 0.380 I.000 0.483 0.26i 0.300 2.000 0.200 1.400 Francs. Francs. 40.00 5.00 24.85 14.02 I I.0 I9.38 o.5c 94.83 6.oo I.8o 4.00 40.62 6o.55 I 29.0 2.088 98.9 1.I42 I 346 A WORKINGMAN'S BUDGET QUANTITY AND COST AMOUNTS EXOF FOOD MATERIALS. PENDED. EXPENDITURES FOR COMMODITIES AND Value SERVICES. of MaQuanti- Cost per terials Expendities Con- Kilogram. Con- tures in sumed. sumed Money. in Kind. Kilograms. Francs. Francs. Francs. Fermented drinks: Beer (Faro) purchased by the litre........ 25.0 0.240.. 6.oo W ine.................................. I.o.0.o I.00 i I Total quantity and average cost...... 26.0 0.270 II. Food prepared and eaten away from home. Meals taken occasionally at restaurants by the workman and his family........... 2I.o Drinks: Beer, especially for the father..... 22.84 Total expenditure for food..... II97.36 AMOUNTS EXPENDED. EXPENDITURES FOR COMMODITIES AND SERVICES. Value of Materials Expenditures Consumed in Money. in Kind. SECTION II. Francs. Francs. Expenditures for Housing. Dwelling house: Rent of the house occupied by the family (I8.00 fr. per month), with deduction of the value of the raisins produced by a vine (I5, Section I)................... 2I.50 Repairs and maintenance............................ 8.00 Furniture: Maintenance, and mending of chairs................. 0o.o0 Fuel: Pit coal, 2000 k. @ 24 fr. per iooo k................. 48.00 Charcoal and wood................................. 8.00 Light: Candles, 24 k. (I 1.66 fr., 39.84 fr.; oil, 4 lit. @ I.o5 fr., 4.20 fr.; night-lights, 3 boxes @ o.I8 fr., 0.54 fr.; matches, 26 boxes ( 0.05 fr., 1.30 fr.; large matches, I.50 fr.......................................... 47.38 Total expenditure for housing................... 3488 347 THE STANDARD OF LIVING AxoUNTS EXPENDED. EXPENDITURES OR COMMODITIES AND SERVICES. Value of Materials Expenditures Consumed in Money. in Kind. SECTION III.Frcs Fran cs. Expenditures for Clothing. Clothing: Of the father; cost of materials purchased and homelabor (I6 E).................................... 20.00 62.25 Of the mother; cost of materials purchased and homelabor (I6 E).............................. Of the children; cost of materials purchased and homelabor (i6 E).................................... Repair of household linen and clothing (i6 B)........ 8.50 0.25 Washing: Washing of household linen and clothing(I6 C)........ 11.25 49.50 Total expenditure for clothing................... 226.75 214.00 SECTION IV. Expenditures for Education, for Recreation, and for Health. Religion: Annual expenses: sittings in church................... 5.12 Education of the children: School expenses paid by the city, II6.oo fr.; free attendance in the courses of the Academy of Fine Arts for the oldest boy, for 3 months at 5.00 fr. per month, 15.00 fr.; books, stationery, pens, pencils, ink, 12.50 fr.............................................. I31.00 12.50 For charitable assistance: Relief to fellow-workmen, or to their widows and orphans, various contributions, 8.oo fr.; subscription to the Mutual Benefit Society, for the widows and orphans of deceased members, 4.50 fr. (See Sec. V).. 8.oo Recreation: Dinner given by the workman on his patron saint's day, 28.00 fr.; annual banquet of the Association, 5.50 fr.; expenses for excursions, Io.oo fr.; theatre, 6.oo fr.; tobacco and cigars for the workman, 12.60 fr.; binding of books, 9.09 fr.............................. 7I.I9 Health: Services of physician, 8.oo fr.; medicine, 5.50 fr.; subscription to Mutual Benefit Society, contributions and assessments, 20.00 fr (See Section V)............... 3.50 Total expenditure for culture, recreation, and health. 131.00 I10.31 348 A WORKINGMAN'S BUDGET AMOUNTS EXPENDED. EXPENDITUES FOR COMMODITIES AND SERVICES. Value of Materials Expenditures Consumed in Money. in Kind. I SECTION V. Francs. Francs. Expenditures for the Family Industries, for Interest on Debts, for Taxes, and Insurance. For industries: Interest on the value of the type-setter's working equipment........................................... 3.30 NoTE.-The other expenses connected with the industries amount to.............................. 262.01 fr. They are offset by the returns from these industries: Namely, money and materials used for household needs, or considered as part of the savings and placed under that title in the present budget............201.95 fr. Money reinvested in the indus- 262.01 fr. tries (I4, Section IV), which cannot, therefore, figure among the household expenses....... 60.o6 fr. Interest on debts: (The family has no debts, nor any goods in pawn.) Taxes: (The family pays no direct tax.) Insurance, to safeguard the physical and moral welfare of the family: Contribution of the workman to the Typographers' Mutual Benefit Society, I2 months at I.50 fr., I8.oo fr.; fines for absence from meetings, 2.00 fr.; contribution for relief of widows of deceased members, 4.50 fr. (These expenditures, and the receipts which balance them, are omitted from the budget.) Contribution of the workman to the association for the maintenance of wages, 12 months @ 0.50 fr., 6.oo fr.; fines for absence from meetings, o. (Expenditures omitted, as are receipts which balance them.) Total expenditures for industries, for interest on debts, for taxes and insurance........................... 3.30 Annual savings: The family accumulated no savings; all earnings went to promote their present well-being. Total annual expenditure (balancing the income) (2,224.60 fr.) 36.0o5 I863.55 349 THE STANDARD OF LIVING X6. ACCOUNTS APPENDED TO THE BUDGET. VALUE. In Kind. In Money. I. ACCOUNT OF EARNINGS FROM WORK CAR- Francs. Francs. RIED ON BY THE FAMILY ON ITS OWN ACCOUNT. A. CORRECTION OF PROOF. Receipts. Compensation paid by employer...7................ 7.o6 Expenditures. Candles, 2.3 kilo at 1.66 fr................... 3.81 Paper, pens, and ink............................ 1.75 Labor of man, 23.I days, at 4.50 fr................. I03.95 Profits from the industry.......................... 61.55 Total......................................... 17.06 B. MAKING AND REPAIRING GARMENTS OF THE FAMILY. Receipts. Amount that would be paid for these purposes......... I25.50 5.oo Expenditures. Cost of cloth and sewing materials................. 5.oo Labor of mother, 50 days at I.Io fr.............. 55.00 Quasi-gain resulting from this work................ 70.50 Total....................................... 255.00 C. WASHING. Receipts. Receipts. Amount that would be paid for this purpose......... 101.25 49.50 Expenditures. Soft soap, 24.96 fr.; hard soap, 6.oo fr.; bluing, 10.40 fr............................................. Starch, 1.30 fr.; sal-soda, when rain-water is lacking, 3.84 fr................................ 46.50 Coal for ironing.............................. 3.00 Labor of woman, 43 days at.00o fr............... 43.00 Quasi-gain resulting from this work................ 58.25 IoI.25 49.50 D. SUMMARY OF THE ABOVE (A-C). Total Receipts. Labor and materials used upon clothing [including washing]...................................... 226.75 54.50 Money received and expended in connection with operation........................................... 60.o6 Money received and applied to family expenditures.. I II.oo Total...................................... 226.75 225.56 350 A WORKINGMAN'S BUDGET VALUE. In Kind. In Money. Total Expenditures. Francs. Francs. Wages chargeable to these operations............... 98.00 103.95 Money expenditures requiring reimbursement from the profits of these industries.................... 60.o6 Total expenditures....................(262.01 fr.) 98.00 164.01 Total gain resulting from supplementary activities......................... 0.30 fr.) I28.75 6r.5 5 226.75 225.56 II. ACCOUNT OF SUBSIDIARY CONTRIBUTIONS TO REAL INCOME. (Omitted for this family because included in the budget itself.) PURCHASE PRICE. III. SUNDRY ACCOUNTS. Francs. E. ACCOUNT OF ANNUAL EXPENDITURES FOR CLOTHING. I. Clothing of Man. Sunday-clothes: i blue overcoat, velvet collar..... 68.00. 4.00 I black coat...................... 00 4.00 i waistcoat, black satin........... 12.00. 2.00 i pair black pantaloons............ 20.00.. 2.00 I silk hat......................... 3.50 50 I scarf, black satin..............00 - 1.00 i pair boots............o........... 8.oo Working-clothes (some worn on Sunday, while new): I winter-overcoat, green cloth....... 66.00..3.00 i black coat...................... 30.00. 2.00 i pair pantaloons, woolen.......... 13.50 2.50 2.oo I pair pantaloons, cotton...... 6.oo 2.00 1.00 2 woolen jackets.................. 9.00 1.50 3.oo 2 work-blouses, blue............... 10.5 1.50 2.00 6 shirts, white cotton (including 2 fine shirts)...................... 22.50 6.oo 3.00oo 3 cravats, cotton and woolen..... 2.00 1.50 0.50 I cravat, black merino.......... 3.00 0. 5 0 2 pair drawers, cotton............. 4.50 I.00 2.00 2 undershirts, cotton............... 5.00 1.oo 1.50 4 pair stockings, cotton........... 6.oo 1.50 1.50 2 pair stockings, woolen............ 4.50 I.00 2.00 i pair slippers................... 5.50.. 55o i pair boots, often repaired......... I5.00.. 7.5 I cap............................ 2.75.. 2.75 Total.................... 385.25 20.00 62.25 351 THE STANDARD OF LIVING PURCHASE VALUE. PRICE. In Kind. In Money. 2. Clothing of Woman. Francs. Francs. Francs. Sunday-clothes: i dress, brown woolen..2......... 20.00 I.00 1.50 i shawl, woolen................... 8.oo.. 3.00 i skirt, muslin.................... 0.50 1.50 2.00 I waist, black silk................ 10.50.oo0 2.50 i apron, black silk................ 6.00 0.50 0.50 I cloak, black silk............... I2.25 0.50 1.25 I bonnet, trimmed.......... 6.00.. 3.00 skirt, dimity.................... 5.00 I.oo 1.50 3 chemisettes, embroidered....... 6.oo 1.50.50 6 handkerchiefs, Scotch linen....... 5.00 0.50 0.50 3 pair stockings, cotton............ 6.00.. 2 pair undersleeves, embroidered muslin........................ 5.00 0.50 0.50 I pair shoes...................... 5.00.. 2.50 Working-clothes: I skirt, cotton and wool mixture.... 9.00 1.50 3.00 I skirt, black merino......... 9.00 0.50 i.oo 2 jackets, colored cotton......... 6.oo 0.50 2.50 I wrapper, cotton................. 500.25 0.75 2 aprons, cotton................... 4.00 0.50 1.50 i apron, blue stuff.......... 2.50 I.00 1.50 i bonnet, white tulle, silk ribbons... 5.oo 2.00 3.0o 4 caps, white cotton, trimmed with lace............................ 6.oo 1.75 2.25 6 chemises, cotton................. 8.o 300 3.00 Handkerchiefs, gloves and stockings I7.50 2.50 6.25 Foot-wear, i pair shoes, I pair slippers.......................... 9.oo00 4.50 Total........................ 206.25 22.50 50.50 3. Clothing of Children. Clothing for Sunday and working-days.... 74-5~ 51.50 Following the details of the budget are descriptions of institutions and discussions of the family-type represented by the given family. In the present instance the titles of the remaining sections, grouped under the general head "Elements of the Social Constitution," are as follows: 17. Successive stages of stability and instability (of the family relation) in Belgium. 18. Mutual benefit societies of the typographers of Brussels. 19. Increase of wages of type-setters in 1857. 20. Banquets or annual reunions of typographers. 352 APPENDIX VIII Partial Bibliography of Works on the Standard of Living BY ROBERT C. CHAPIN, PH.D. This bibliography is not exhaustive, and includes only general works on the standard of living and workingmen's budgets I. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND CRITICISM Bauer, Stephan: Article "Konsumtionsbudget" in Conrad's Handw6rterbuch der Staatswissenschaften. (II. Auflage, V: 316-333.) A succinct critical account of the methods and results of the successive attempts to study workingmen's budgets, with bibliographical references. BiUcher, Karl: Haushaltungsrechnungen oder Wirtschaftsrechnungen. Zeitschrift fir die gesamte Staatswissenschaft. 1906. S. 686, ff. Introduces a ten-years' household account. Cheysson et Toqug: Les Budgets Compares des cent Monographies de Families. Bulletin de I Institut Internationale de Statistique, VI, p. I (1891). Contains a description and defense of Le Play's method, a bibliography, and a synopsis of Ioo budgets gathered by Le Play and members of his school. Engel, Ernst: Lebenskosten Belgischer Arbeiterfamilien. Bulletin de l'Institut Intemationale de Statistique, IX: (1895) p. 1. Engel discusses in the opening sections the problem of method in the light of his own labors of 40 years. His proposed "quet" is here described. Higgs, Henry: Workingmen's Budgets. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, I893; pp. 255-285. Contains, besides the discussion of method, specimen budgets extracted from Davies, Eden, Le Play and more recent sources. Landolt, Carl (Karl): Directions Sur la Maniere de dresser les Budgets d'Ouvriers Industrielles et d'Artisans. Bulletin de l'Institut Internationale de Statistique, VI: 289 ff. (1891). Bibliography, pp. 301-304. A severe critic of Le Play and an advocate of the account-book method. 23 353 THE STANDARD OF LIVING Landolt, Karl: Mode und Technik der Haushaltsstatistik. Freiburg, 1894. Le Play, Fr6d6ric: La Methode Sociale. Les Ouvriers Europeens. Vol. I, of the definitive edition. Paris, 1879. Contains Le Play's charming description of his own purpose and method. Lexis, Wilhelm: Die Haushaltungsbudget. In Schonberg's Handbuch der Politischen Oekonomie, I, 814-816. Mayo-Smith, Richmond: Statistics and Economics, Chapter II. New York, I897. Discusses methods and sociological significance of statistics of family consumption, with bibliographical note. Price, L. L.: Article "Comfort, Standard of," in Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy. 1, 387. London, I890. Traces briefly the discussion of the standard of comfort by the British economists. United States Bureau of Labor: Third Special Report. (Revised, 1902.) Index of reports issued by Bureaus of Labor Statistics in the United States. Contains references to all investigations into cost of living carried on by the state labor bureaus down to I902. 2. ESTIMATES AND INVESTIGATIONS PRIOR TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Petty, Sir William: Political Arithmetic, Chapter VII. Written I671-76, published 1690. Political Anatomy of Ireland, Chapter XI. Written 1672, published I691. Vanderlint, Jacob: Money Answers All Things. 1734. Inquiry into the Melancholy Circumstances of Great Britain, circa '735; p. 29. Thierry: Monuments inedits de l'Histoire du Tiers Etat. I. Series T. IV, p. 545. (Contains budget of a weaver of Abbeville, 1764.) Smith, Adam: Wealth of Nations. 1776. Part I, Chapter VIII, contains an exposition of the advantage to the community of a rising standard of living among the laboring classes. 354 PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY Davies, David: The Case of the Laborers in Husbandry, stated and considered in three parts. Part I: A view of their distressed condition. Part II: The principal causes of their growing distress and number and of the consequent increase of the poor-rate. Part III: Means of relief proposed, with an appendix containing a collection of accounts, showing the earnings and expenses of labouring families, in different parts of the kingdom. Bath and London, 1795. Eden, Sir Frederick Morton: The State of the Poor. Three volumes, London, 1797. Fifty-four family budgets are grouped in the appendix (Vol. III), but others are scattered through the text of Volumes II and III. References to other eighteenth-century estimates are appended to the article of Bauer, already referred to. 3. WORKS OF MORE RECENT TIMES Berlin: Statistisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Berlin. Successive volumes contain synopses of budget-investigations as follows: i879. Jahrgang 7; S. I37. 15 budgets, secured by schedule-inquiry. i880. Jahrgang 8; S. I64. 2 budgets, from account-books. 1901. Jahrgang 27; S. 269. I42 budgets, from schedule-inquiry. 1903. Jahrgang 28; S. 200. 908 budgets, from schedule-inquiry. The detailed report of the last investigation was published separately under the title which follows: Berliner Statistik: Heft 3. Lohnermittlungen und Haushaltungsrechnungen der minder bemittelten Bevolkerung im Jahre 1903. Statistisches Amt der Stadt Berlin, 1904. Blanqui, A. J.: Les Classes Ouvrieres en France pendant l'annee 1848, p. 736. (Budget of a family in Lille.) Booth, Charles: Life and Labor of the People in London. London, 1889-1892. Vol. I, Part V and VI. Vol. IX, Part III, Chapter 13. The budgets of 30 families are given in Vol. I, pp. I36-I39. Bosanquet, Mrs. Bernard: (Helen Dandy.) The Standard of Life and other Studies. London, I898. A discussion of the conception of the standard of living and its relation to wages. Devine, Edward T.: Principles of Relief. New York, 1905. Chapter I I I, The Standard of Living. 355 THE STANDARD OF LIVING Ducpetiaux, Edouard: Budgets Fconomiques des Classes Ouvrieres en Belgique. Bulletin de la Commission Centrale de la Statistique (Belgium), Vol. VI (1855): 261-440. Economic Club, London: Family Budgets: Being the Income and Expenses of Twenty-eight British Households, 189 -94. London, I896. Charles Booth, Ernest Aves, Henry Higgs, were the committee of the Club in charge of the inquiry. Emminghaus: Zum Kapital der Haushaltskosten. Jahrbicher fiir National-okonomie und Statistik, Nov., 19o4, S. 650 -66i. The household accounts of a German official covering the period I862-1903. Engel, Ernst: Productions-und Konsumtionsverhaltnisse des Konigreichs Sachsen. Zeitschrift des Statistischen Bureaus des Koniglichen Sachsischen Ministeriums des Innern, 1857, S. 153 ff. (Reprinted also in the Bulletin de l'Institut Internationale de Statistique, Vol. IX. I895.) This is the epoch-making work of Engel, who continued to work upon the general subject until his death in 1896. The titles of his contributions to the statistical journals may be found in detail in the German bibliographies. The "Lebenskosten" contains the summing up of his life-work in this field. The three shorter books named below are among the most significant of his minor works. Engel, Ernst: Lebenskosten Belgischer Arbeiterfamilien. Bulletin de 1'Institut Internationale de Statistique, IX: (i895) p. I. Der Preis der Arbeit. Berlin, I866. Das Rechnungsbuch der Hausfrau. Berlin, 1882. Der Werth des Menschen. Berlin, 1883. Forman, S. E.: Conditions of Living Among the Poor. Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor, No. 64, May, 19o6. Expenditures in detail for 5 weeks for I9 families in the District of Columbia. Cost of Industrial Insurance in the District of Columbia. Bulletin No. 67, United States Bureau of Labor, Nov., I9o6. Gerloff, Wilhelm: Verbrauch und Verbrauchsbelastung kleiner und mittlerer Einkommen in Deutschland. Jahrbiicher fur National-6konomie und Statistik, 3te Folge, Band 35, S. i und 145. A study of the tendency of indirect taxes to bear most heavily on families with small incomes. Recent German studies of family budgets are cited, in addition to the Berlin inquiry of I904, as follows: Berichte der bayrischen Fabrik-und Gewerbeinspektoren, 900oo-905. 356 PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY Haushaltungsrechnungen Niirnberger Lohnarbeiter. Arbeitersekretariat Nurnberg, 1901. Haushaltungsrechnungen. Hamburgischer Volksschullehrer, Hamburg, 1906. Der Haushalt der Postassistenten. Deutsche Postzeitung, I903. Fuchs. Die Verhiiltnisse der Industriearbeiter in I7 Landgemeinden bei Karlsruhe, 1904. Fuchs. Sociale,age der Pforzheimer Bijouteriearbeiter. Karlsruhe, 190I. Haushaltungsrechnungen zweier Fabrikarbeiter. J. H. Salomon, Altona, 1906. Abelsdorf. Beitrige zur Socialstatistik deutscher Buchdrucker, I897. Feuerstein. Lohn und Haushalt der Uhrenfabrikarbeiter der badischen Schwarzwald, 1905. Enquete zur Verbreitung der Kunftigen Handelsvertrage von der Schweizerischen Bauernsekretariat, I902. Goodyear, Caroline: Household Budgets of the Poor. "Charities and the Commons," May 5, 19o6, pp. 191-197. Gould, E. R. L.: Social Condition of Labor. Johns Hopkins University Studies, vol. xi, No. I. Baltimore, 1893. A comparison of family budgets of workers in coal, iron, and steel in the United States and in Europe, based on the sixth and seventh annual reports of the United States Bureau of Labor. Great Britain, Board of Trade: British and Foreign Trade and Industry, 1903, Series I. 209-258. Consumption of Food and Cost of Living. (Cd. 1761.) Contains (i) estimates regarding quantity and cost of food for a typical family; (2) itemized returns of expenditures for food from 286 urban families. Great Britain Board of Trade: Memoranda on British and foreign trade and industrial conditions, 1904, Series 2. (Cd. 2337.) Embraces deductions from reports received from I80o families with reference to weekly expenditure for food and for housing together with calculations of the variations in cost of all the principal items bf household expenditures since I88o. Great Britain, Board of Trade: Cost of Living of the Working Classes. Report of an enquiry into working-class rents, housing, and retail prices, with the standard rates of wages in the principal industrial towns of the United Kingdom. London, 1908. (Cd. 3864.) Compares by index-numbers rents in 89 towns with rents in London, with data regarding cost of food and fuel. Great Britain, Board of Trade: Cost of Living in German Towns. London, 1908. (Cd. 4032.) A comparison of housing and retail prices of food and fuel in 33 German towns with conditions in the United Kingdom. The total number of family reports obtained is 5,046. 357 THE STANDARD OF LIVING Herzfeld, Elsa G.: Family Monographs, New York, 1905. Twenty-four families on the West Side of New York City are studied, primarily from the sociological rather than the economic point of view. Hirschberg, E.: Die Sociale Lage der arbeitenden Klassen in Berlin, 1896. (13 budgets.) Knauer: Budgets Ouvriers en Frankfort, 1890. Landolt, Karl: Dix Menages Ouvriers Balois, I891. The two foregoing exemplify the account-book method. Le Play, Frederic: Les Ouvriers Europeens. Paris, 1855-1879. Contains in 5 volumes monographs descriptive of 57 families, in many countries. The work of Le Play is the authoritative exemplification of the intensive method. His followers continued the series in ten volumes of additional monographs, entitled, "Les Ouvriers des Deux Mondes." More, Louise Bolard: Wage-Earners' Budgets. A Study of Standards and Cost of Living in New York City. New York, 1907. A study of 200 family budgets, obtained in the South-western section of New York. Patten, S. N.: The New Basis of Civilization. New York, I907. A suggestive interpretation of the meaning of an ample standard of living in its effect upon the welfare of mankind. Pelloutier, Fernand et Maurice: La Vie Ouvriere en France. Paris, I900. Chapter VI contains ten representative budgets. Richards, Ellen H.: The Cost of Living. New York, 1899. Suggestions as to economy in expenditures, especially for families with incomes between $5Ioo and $2500. Rowntree, B. Seebohm: Poverty, a Study of Town Life. London, 1901. A study of the city of York. Chapter III deals with the standard of life of various income-classes; Chapter VI with housing; Chapter VII with health; Chapter VIII contains analyses of i8 family budgets with discussion of dietary standard. Ryan, John A.: A Living Wage; its Ethical and Economic Aspects. New York, 1906. A vindication of the right to a living wage, with an estimate of its actual content. Shadwell, Arthur: Industrial Efficiency; a Comparative Study of 'Industrial Life in England, Germany and America. London, 1906. In Vol. II, Chapter XI treats of Housing; XII, of Cost of Living; XIII, of Social Conditions. 358 PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY Sherwell and Million: Report of Edinburgh Charity Organization Society on the Physical Condition of Fourteen Hundred School Children. Edinburgh, 1906. Reports of I389 children from 781 families. Complete budgets of the families are not given, but interesting data as to habits, income, housing, etc., are included. W6rishofer, F.: Die Sociale Lage der Fabrikarbeiter in Mannheim. Karlsruhe, 189I. Part VII includes a tabulation of 28 family budgets, and discussion of nutrition. 4. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL AND STATE GOVERNMENIS IN THE UNITED STATES United States Bureau of Labor: Sixth annual report, 189o. Cost of Production: Iron, Steel, Coal. Compilation of returns from 3260 families in these industries, including 770 families in Europe, engaged in the same occupations. Seventh annual report, I891. Cost of Production: the Textiles and Glass (with returns from 5284 families). Eighth Special report, 1895. The Housing of the Working People. Ninth Special report, 1897. The Italians in Chicago. Pages 44-50, food-expenditures of 742 families. Eighteenth annual report, 1903. Cost of Living and Retail Prices of Food. Returns from 25,440 families in all occupations in 33 states. The data regarding prices have been continued for each succeeding year in the Bulletins of the Department, Nos. 54, 59, 65, 7I, 77. United States Bureau of Labor Bulletins. The movement of wages and prices, following the lines of the work done by the Bureau for the Aldrich Report, is given at intervals, covering the period from I890 to 1907 inclusive, in Bulletins Nos. 59, 65, 7I, 77. No. 53 contains a summary of the Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau on Cost of Living. Nos. 64 and 67 contain the studies of Mr. Forman, already referred to. Other investigations more or less germane to the standard of living may be found in the list of titles of leading articles for the whole series, printed at the end of each number of the Bulletin. United States Bureau of Statistics: Industrial Education and Industrial Conditions in Germany. Special Consular Reports, Vol. 33, 1905, pp. 220-229. Cost of Living. The budgets of five Prussian and five Saxon families. United States Senate Reports: First Session, Fifty-Second Congress; Vol. VI (The "Aldrich Report"). Contains discussion and summary of twelve studies of family budgets in the United States (Part I, xl-lv), and details of 232 budgets collected for use in the weighing of averages to be used in the body of the report (Part II, 2040-2096). 359 THE STANDARD OF LIVING Young, Edward: Labor in Europe and America. United States Bureau of Statistics, 1875. Includes reports of family budgets designed to show differences in cost of living between Europe and America. REPORTS OF STATE LABOR BUREAUS The complete list of reports of the State Bureaus that contain material bearing upon our subject will be found in the index issued by the United States Bureau of Labor, already referred to (Third Special Report, revised 1902). Among the more valuable are the following, which are arranged by States and the dates of the year of publication: Connecticut, 1885. i888, pp. 87-135. Reports from 102 families made out by members of the family. Illinois, I884. Iowa, 1884-85, pp. 246-259. Budgets of School-teachers. I888-89. Kansas, 1886. 1887. Massachusetts, I875. The first investigation of family budgets published by Carroll D. Wright, including 397 families. 1881. 1884. 1901, pp. 239-314. 1904, pp. 81-130. The Cost of High Prices. New Jersey, I899. 1900. New York, 1892. Maryland, 1906. Ohio, 1893. Wisconsin, i885-86. Washington, 1905-06. 360 Index Index Accuracy of the returns, 32-33 "Adequate relief," Appendix I (p. 255) Albany, N. Y.Investigation in, Appendix IV (pp. 300-304).-Tables I29-I30 (pp. 305 -306) Alcoholic drinksExpenditure for, 31, 133-I35, 221. -Tables 71-74 (pp. I47-I49) Aldrich Report on cost of living, 5 Allen, Wm. H.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii American familiesSources of income, 58, 59; housing and.rent, 76, 77-78, 79, 8i; fuel and light, 1I5; diet of, 124, I54-I56; under-fed families among, 128; meals away from home, 132; expenditure for alcoholic drinks, 134, 221; grade of milk used, 135; food budgets of, 154-156; expenditure for health, 182; carrying insurance, 19I-I94, Diagrams I5-I6 (pp. 191-192); taxes, dues, and contributions, 206, 207; recreation and amusement, 2 1; education and reading, 214; reporting surplus and deficit, 230, 23I; conclusions on standards of, 247. See also Tables under the various headings American Federation of LaborCo6peration of, in the investigation, 27, Appendix II (p. 269) "American standard," I94, 230, 247, Appendix I (p. 257) Amusement. See Recreation "Anatomy of Ireland," by Sir William Petty, 4 Atkinson, EdwardReport of, to Aldrich Committee, 5 Atwater, W. 0.Investigation of dietary requirements, I5 (table), 18-19, Appendix II (p. 265) Austrian families (including Hungarian and other southeastern Europeans)Sources of income, 58, 59; housing and rent, 76, 77-78, 79, 8i; fuel and light, II5; diet of, 124, I58, Appendix II (p. 275); under-fed families among, I28; food budget of, 158; clothing, I62, 163, I65, i68; carrying insurance, 191-194, Diagrams I5-I6 (pp. 19I-I92); taxes, dues and contributions, 206, 207; recreation and amusement, 2I0; education and reading, 214, 215; tobacco, 220; reporting surplus and deficit, 230, 231; conclusions on standards of, 247. See also Tables under the various headings Averages and percentagesMethod of calculating, 42, Appendices II (p. 263, note), V (p. 312, note) BakeryDependence of families on, 132 Barber's servicesUse of, 221-222, 222 (note) Analysis of returns received, 35-250 Bath-rooms. See Housing 363 INDEX Bauer, StephanEstimates of costs of living cited by, 5 Belgian Statistical BureauEngel's account of investigations by, 9- I; schedule adopted by, Io BelgiumBudgets collected in, 12 Benefit societiesContributions to, 206, 207.-Tables I05-Io6 (pp. 208-209). See also Insurance Bigelow, Mrs. Lewis, Appendix IV (p. 300, note) Bohemian familiesSources of income, 57, 58, 59; housing and rent, 76, 77-78, 79, 8i; fuel and light, 115; relation of foodexpenditure to rent, I23; under-fed families among, I28; expenditure for alcoholic drinks, I34; clothing, 162, I63, i65, i68; expenditure for health, 182; carrying insurance, 191-I94, Diagrams I5-I6 (pp. 19I192); taxes, dues, and contributions, 206, 207; education and reading, 214; reporting surplus and deficit, 230, 231; conclusions on standards of, 247. See also Tables under the various headings Booth, Charles"Life and Labor of the People in London," 17, 17 (note), I8 Borrowing and pawning, 233-234, Appendix II (p. 277).-Table 128 (p. 244) Brandt, Miss Lilian, viii Brodsky, Dr. Rasum, viii Bronx boroughHousing, rent, and car-fare in, 81, III.-Tables 19, 24, 52 (pp. 87, 90, II3). For other items, see Tables under the various headings BrooklynHousing, rent, and car-fare in, 77, 78, 8I, III.-Tables 19, 24, 51-52 (pp. 87, 90, 113). For other items, see Tables under the various headings Brussels Statistical CongressInvestigations conducted by, 9-II Budgets, workingmen'sImportance of, in determining the standard of living, 3; in statistical literature, 3-21; collections of, see Standard of Living Investigations "Budgets Economiques," by Ducpetiaux, ii Buffalo, N. Y.Report on Investigation in, Appendix V (pp. 307-317); nutrition report for, Appendix VI (pp. 324-325).Table I31 (p. 3i8) "Bulletin de l'Institut Internationale de Statistique," 17 Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Labor, 19 BurialInsurance, I91, 192, 207, 245-246; expenses, 222. See also Industrial insurance Cantillon, on costs of living (1750), 5 Car-fare, 68, Diagrams 6-7 (pp. 68 -69), III-II2, Appendix II (pp. 268, 276); expenditures in Buffalo, Appendix V (p. 313).-Tables 15, 51-53 (pp. 70, I 3- 114) "Case of the Laborers in Husbandry," by David Davies, 6 Causes of PovertyA new classification of, Appendix I (pp- 253-255) ChildrenEarnings of, 57-58. See also Earnings; Income, sources of ClothingRelative expenditure for, 68, Diagrams 6-7 (pp. 68-69); details of expenditure in New York, I62-171, Appendix II (pp. 267, 275-276, 278, 281); in Buffalo, Appendix V (p. 313 ff.); comparison of nationalities with respect to, 162, I63; relation of occupations to expenditure, 162, Ap - 364 INDEX pendix IV (p. 303); families reporting gifts, I63-I64, Appendix II (pp. 275 -276); estimate of clothing required and its cost, I65-I67, Appendix II (pp. 275-276); under-clad families, i67-i69, Diagrams 13-14 (pp. I67 -I68); expense for washing, I70-17I, Appendix II (p. 275).-Tables I5-I6, 79-90 (PP. 70-74, I72-181) Colored familiesSources of income, 59; housing and rent, 76, 77, 79, 8I; fuel and light, II5; food-expenditure in relation to rent, I23; under-fed families among, 128; reliance on baker, I32; meals away from home, I32; clothing, I63, I68; carrying insurance, 191-I94, Diagrams I5-r6 (pp. I91 -192); low expenditure for furniture, 200; taxes, dues, and contributions, 206, 207; reporting surplus and deficit, 230, 231; conclusions on standards of, 247. See also Tables under the various headings Committee on Standard of LivingFormation and membership of, vii, Appendix II (p. 263) CompensationStandards of, Appendix I (pp. 254, 255, 260-26I) Conclusions as to results of the New York City investigation, 245-250, Appendix II (p. 263 ff.) Consuming-power. See Dietary requirements; Food-consumption; Unit of Consumption Contributions. See Taxes, Dues, and Contributions Cost of livingObjects of inquiries into, vii, 3, 4, 5, 20-21, Appendices I (pp. 253 -262), II (p. 263); investigations of, see Standard of Living Investigations Cost of the New York investigation. See Expenses Court suggested, to try new social crimes, Appendix I (p. 260) "Culture-wants," I98 Davies, DavidInvestigations by, 6, 7, 2r; "Case of the Laborers in Husbandry," 6 Deficit. See Surplus and Deficit Dentistry, I84, 245, Appendix II (pp. 276, 279).-Tables 94-95 (PP- I89 -I90). See also Health Devine, Dr. Edward T.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii, viii; note from Presidential address at National Conference, I906, Appendix I (p. 253); estimate on cost of living, Appendix I (pp. 256-257) Dietary requirements, 15, 15 (notes), I6, i6 (note), I8-I9; Dr. Underhill's analysis of, Appendix VI (pp. 319 -325). See also Food; Engel; Atwater; Underhill; U. S. Bureau of Labor, etc. Difficulties of the investigation, 30 -3x; Appendix II (pp. 269-270) Drescher, Wm. Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii Ducp6tiaux, EdouardBelgian investigations conducted by, 9, II, 12, I3; "Budgets Economiques," II; his "normal family," 14 Dues. See Taxes, Dues and Contributions Earnings, of father and othersAmounts and relative proportions of, 54-60, Diagrams 4-5 (pp. 54, 56); relation of occupations to, 55-56; from lodgers, 58-59; source of, with respect to surplus and deficit, 231, Appendix II (p. 264); of families in Buffalo, Appendix V (p. 309).Tables 3-6, 7-14, 121-I23 (pp. 46 -52, 61-67, 237-239). See also Income, sources of Earp, Professor E. L., Appendix IV (p. 300, note) 365 INDEX Economic Club of London"Twenty-eight British Households," i8 Eden, Sir Frederick MortonInvestigations by, 6-7, 20; "State of the Poor," 6, 7, 7 (note) Education and Reading, 21I, 214 -215, Appendix II (pp. 268, 276-277); of families in Buffalo, Appendix V (p. 314).-Tables o09-III (pp. 216 -218) Einstein, Mrs. Wm.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii Elmira, N. Y.Investigation in, Appendix IV (pp. 300-304).-Tables I29-130 (pp. 305-306) Engel, ErnstInvestigations by, 9, Ii-I6, 20; "Lebenskosten Belgischer Arbeiterfamilien," 9 (note), I3; his famous Laws, II —I2; establishes unit of consumption (the "quet"), 14, 15, i6 (note); director Saxon Statistical Bureau, II; variations from Engel's Laws in New York City, 123 Enumeration of families, 37-43.Tables I-2 (pp. 44-45) Enumerators, vii-viii, 26-28 Essentials of a normal standard of living, Appendix I (p. 256) EstimatesMethod of, in standard of living investigations, 3-5; by various writers on costs of living, Appendix I (p. 257) Excursions. See Recreation ExpenditureObjects of, 68-228, Appendices II (pp. 279-282), V (pp. 309-317); apportionment of (averages and percentages), 68-69, Diagrams 6-7 (pp. 68-69).-Tables 15-16 (pp. 70-74). See also Housing; Food, etc.; Income; Surplus and Deficit; and Tables under the various headings Expenses of the investigation, vii, 26, 27, 28, 33. See also Russell Sage Foundation Exploitation of labor, a cause of poverty, Appendix I (pp. 254, 261) Families, "normal" or "typical," 8, 9, I4, I7, 28, 37, 37 (note) Families interviewed, in the New York City investigation, 28-29, Appendix II (pp. 269-270); dependent excluded, 28; how far typical of the working population, 29; attitude of, 30-3I; in the Buffalo investigation, Appendix V (p. 307 ff.) Family budgets. See Budgets; Standard of Living Investigations Father, earnings of. See Earnings; Income, sources of Fitzgerald, John J.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii Folks, HomerMember Committee on Standard of Living, vii FoodMethod of reckoning expenditure, 26, 30, 32, Appendix II (pp. 264-265); relative expenditure for, 68, Diagrams 6-7 (pp. 68-69); details of expenditure in New York, I23-I36, Appendix II (pp. 264-266, 271, 274-275, 279, 281); in Buffalo, Appendix V (pp. 3II-312, 314 ff.); comparison of nationalities with respect to, 123, 124, 128, 129, 132, 134, Appendix II (p. 275); relation of expenditure to rent, I23; expenditures for certain food materials, 124, 135, I54-I6i; scale of units of food consumption, Engel's, I6 (note), U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, I25; Dr. Underhill's analysis of nutritive values, I25-128, I54, Appendices II (pp. 265-266, 271), V (p. 3i6), VI (pp. 319-325); items of detail, I31-I36; note on food budgets of six typical families, 154-I16.-Tables I 5-6, 59-78 (pp. 70-74, I37-I53) 366 INDEX Food-consumption, measurement of. See Dietary Requirements; Unit of Consumption Forman, Dr. S. E.Collection of budgets by, i9, article on "industrial" insurance, 194 (note) Frankel, Dr. Lee K.Chairman Committee on Standard of Living, vii, viii; report of, Appendix II (pp. 263-282) Fuel and light, II5-117, Appendix II (pp. 264, 273, 279).-Tables I5, 54-58 (pp. 70, ii8-I22) Funeral expenses, how met, I91, I93, I93 (note), 194, 2I9, 222, 245 -246, Appendix II (pp. 266, 277) Furniture and furnishings, 200-20I, 245, 246, Appendices II (pp. 267, 274, 278, 281); of families in Buffalo, Appendix V (p. 310).-Tables ioI104 (pp. 202-205) Gas, use of. See Fuel and Light "Going Wages," Appendix I (p. 260) Government supervisionDefects in, a cause of poverty, Appendix I (p. 254) Greer, Rt. Rev. David H.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii Guggenheim, Wm.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii Guttmann, Rev. AdolphMember Committee on Standard of Living, vii HealthRelative expenditure for, 68, Diagrams 6-7 (pp. 68-69); details of expenditure for, I82-I85, Appendix II (pp. 267, 276, 279, 280); expenditures in Buffalo, Appendix V (p. 3I3). -Tables I5-I5A, 9I-95 (pp. 70-71, 186-190) Hickey, Rt. Rev. Thos. F.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii Higgs, HenryWriter on budget investigations, 7 (note), I8 Hill, Robert W., Appendix IV (p. 300, note) Honeoye Falls, N. Y.Investigation in, Appendix IV (pp. 300-304).-Tables I29-I30 (pp. 305-306) Housing and rent, 75-310, Appendix II (pp. 264, 273, 278-279, 280, 28i); proportion of rent to annual income, 75; rent in various localities, 75-76, Appendices II (pp. 273, 281), IV (p. 302), V (pp. 309, 314); number of rooms, dark rooms,[over-crowding, etc., 76-83, Diagrams 8-io, (pp. 78, 8o, 82), Appendices II (p. 273), IV (p. 303); comparison of nationalities with respect to, 76, 77, 8i, Diagram io (p. 82); bath-rooms and toilets, 79, Appendices II (pp. 273, 280), IV (p. 303); relation of lodgers to rent and over-crowding, 83, Appendix II (p. 278); increases in rent, 83 -84, 84 (note); in Buffalo, Appendix V (pp. 309-3o1).-Tables I5-I6, I7 -50 (pp. 70-7I, 85-I1O) Howard, John R., Jr.Report on investigation in Buffalo, Appendix V (pp. 3o7-3I7).-Table I3I (p. 318) Ice and refrigerators, 135-136.Tables 77-78 (pp. 152-153) Ignorance, as a cause of poverty, Appendix I (p. 254) IncomeGrouping of families according to, 38, 40, Diagram 2 (p. 40), Appendix 367 INDEX II (p 271); sources of, 54-60, Diagrams 4-5 (pp. 54, 56); relation to expenditure, 229-234; amount required to maintain a normal standard, 230-232, 234, 245-250, Appendices II (pp. 278, 279, 28I), V (pp. 316 ff.); of families in Buffalo investigation, Appendix V (pp. 308 -309).-Tables 7-14, 119-I28, I31 (pp. 6I-67, 235-244, 318) Industrial inefficiency, a cause of poverty, Appendix I (p. 254) "Industrial" insurance, 191, 194 (note), 245, Appendix II (p. 266) Inefficiency, industrial. See Industrial inefficiency Instalment planPurchase of furniture by, 200 (note), Appendix II (p. 267) InsuranceRelative expenditure for, 68, Diagrams 6-7 (pp. 68-69); details of expenditure in New York, I9I-I94, Diagrams i5-I6 (pp. I9I-192), 232 -233, 245, Appendix II (pp. 266, 277); in Buffalo, Appendix V (p. 310); "industrial," I9I, 194 (note), 245, Appendix II (p. 266); burial, I9I, I92, 207, 245, 246, Appendix II (pp. 266, 277); in fraternal organizations, etc., I93, 207, 245, 246.Tables I5-i5A, 96-99, I27 (pp. 70 -7I, 195-197, 243) Irish familiesSources of income, 58, 59; housing and rent, 76, 77-78, 79, 8i; fuel and light, II5; under-fed families among, I28; expenditure for alcoholic drinks, 134; clothing, I62, 163, I65, i68; expenditure for health, 182; carrying insurance, I9I-I94, Diagrams I5-I6 (pp. 191-I92); taxes, dues, etc., 207; reporting surplus and deficit, 230, 231; conclusions on standards of, 247. See also Tables under the various headings among, 128; reliance on baker, 132; meals away from home, 132; expenditure for alcoholic drinks, I34, 22I; grade of milk used, I35; foodbudgets of, 159-160; clothing, i62 163, i65, I68, I7o; expenditure for health, I82; carrying insurance, I91 -194, Diagrams I5-I6 (pp. I91-I92); taxes, dues, etc., 206, 207; recreation and amusement, 210, 2II; education and reading, 214, 215; reporting surplus and deficit, 230, 23I; conclusions on standards of, 247; in BuffaIo investigation, Appendix V (p. 309). See also Tables under various headings Jewish familiesDiet of, 124; carrying insurance, 191-I94, Diagrams I5-I6 (pp. I9I192); taxes, dues, etc., 207 (note). See also Austrian; Russian Katz, Abram J.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii Kerosene, use of. See Fuel and Light Kruesi, Walter E.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii Labor organizationsCo6peration of, in New York investigation, viii, 27, 34, Appendix II (p. 269); families contributing to, 206.-Tables o05-Io6 (pp. 208-209). See also Taxes, Dues, etc. "La Methode Sociale," by Le Play, 8 (note) Landolt, KarlMethod of investigation, 17 Lattimore, Miss Alida, Appendix IV (p. 300, note) ",Lebenskosten Belgischer Arbeiterfamilien," by Engel, 9 (note), I3 58 I Italian familiesSources of income, 58, 59; housing and rent, 76, 77-78, 79, 8i; fuel and light, 115; relation of foodexpenditure to rent, 123; diet of, 124, i59-160; under-fed families 3 I( INDEX Le Play, Fr6d6ricWork and methods of, 7-, 7 (note), 20; "Les Ouvriers Europeens," 8; "La Methode Sociale," 8 (note); aims of, 20; family monograph by (translation), Appendix VII (pp. 326 -352) "Les Ouvriers des Deux Mondes," 9 "Les Ouvriers Europeens," by Le Play, 9; translation of a workingman's budget from, Appendix VII (pp. 326-352) Letter from a workingman, 34 "Life and Labor of the People in London," by Booth, I7, 17 (note) Light, expenditures for. See Fuel and Light LodgersRelation to income and to overcrowding, 56, 58-59, 8i, 83, Appendix II (pp. 273, 278-279, 280).-Tables 12, 43, 46-48 (pp. 65, o07, I09- IO) LodgesContributions to, 206, 207, Appendix II (pp. 268, 276).-Tables I05 -io6 (pp. 208-209) Lundberg, Miss Emma O.Investigator in Buffalo, Appendix V (P. 307) ManhattanHousing, rent, and car-fare in, 75 -76, 83-84, III-I12.-Tables 8, 20-22, 26, 71-53 (pp. 86, 88-89, 91, 113-114). For other items, see Tables under the various headings Maryland, N. Y.Investigation in, Appendix IV (pp. 300-304).-Tables I29-I30 (pp. 305-306) Massachusetts Labor Report, i6 Massie, on costs of living (I756), 5 Material used and method of treatment, 37-43.-Tables i-6A (pp. 44-53) 24 31 11 MilkExpenditures for and quality of, I35.-Tables 75-76 (pp. I50-151) Miscellaneous expenditures, 219 -223.-Tables 112-II8 (pp. 224-228). See also Tobacco; Alcoholic Drinks; Barber's services; Spending money Mitchell, JohnEstimate of minimum wage, Appendix II (p. 257) More, Mrs. Louise Bolard"Wage-earners' Budgets," 20, 20 (note) Mother, earnings of. See Earnings; Income, sources of National Conference of Charities and Correction, Appendix I (p. 253) NationalitiesGrouping of families by, 39 39 (note), Diagram i (p. 38); selection of, for investigation, Appendices II (pp. 281-282), V (p. 308); comparison of dietary standards, Appendix VI (pp. 320, 322, 325). See also details and Tables under the various headings NewspapersUse of, 211, 214, 214 (note), 2I5.Table III (p. 218) New York CityStandard of living investigation in, 23-250; expenses of, vii, 26, 27, 28, 33; method of, 25-34; difficulties of, 30-31; material used and method of treatment, 37-43; analysis of returns received, 35-244; conclusions, 245-250; preliminary report on, Appendix II (pp. 263-282); report on nutrition investigation, Appendix VI (pp. 319-323) New York StateInvestigations in nine cities and towns of, Appendix IV (pp. 300-304). -Tables I29-I30 (pp. 305-306) New York State Conference of Charities and CorrectionInvestigations instituted by, vii, 23-250, Appendices I (p. 253), II (p. 263), IV (p. 300), V (p. 307) 39 INDEX "Normal" families. See Families Number of persons per family, 37.Table 6A (p. 53). See also Tables under various headings Nutrition investigation. See Underhill, Dr. Frank P. OccupationsGrouping of families by, 40-4I, Diagram 3 (p. 41); selected in Buffalo investigation, Appendix V (p. 308).-Tables 3-6 (pp. 46-52) Over-crowding, 80-89, Diagrams 9-o0 (pp. 80, 82), 232, 245, 246, Appendix II (p. 273; in Buffalo, Appendix V (P. 3o1).-Tables 39-45, 124-I26 (pp. 103-108, 240-242). See also Housing Parks, use of. See Recreation Queens boroughHousing and rent in, 8I.-Table 19 (p. 87). For other items, see Tables under the various headings "Quet," theEngel's unit of consumption, 13, 15-20 Quetelet, Director Belgian Statistical Bureau, 9, 15 Reading. See Education Recreation and amusement, 210-2II, 245, 246, Appendix II (pp. 268, 276, 278, 281); of Buffalo families, Appendix V (pp. 3I3, 3I6).-Tables 107-108 (pp. 212-213) Religious organizations. See Taxes, Dues, and Contributions RentProportion of total expenditure, 68, 75; in various localities, 75-76, Appendix IV (p. 302); in relation to lodgers, 83; increase of, since 1905, 83-84; relation of food-expenditure to, 123; in Buffalo, Appendix V (pp. 309, 3I0, 314-317).-For Tables, see under Housing Richfield Springs, N. Y.Investigation in, Appendix IV, (pp. 300-304).-Tables 129-130 (pp. 305-306) Robinson, HermanAmerican Federation of Labor, 27, Appendix II (p. 269) Rochester, N. Y.Investigation in, Appendix IV (pp. 300-304).-Tables 129-I30 (pp. 305 -306) Rooms. See Housing Rowntree, B. S."Poverty: A Study of Town Life," 15, IS (note 4), 17, 17 (note 2) Russell Sage Foundation, vii, 26, 33 Russian familiesSources of income, 58, 59; housing Pawning and Appendix II (p. 244) borrowing, 233-234, (p. 277).-Table I28 Petty, Sir Wm.Investigations by, 3-5; "Anatomy of Ireland," 4; "Political Arithmetic," 4; "Writings of," Hull edition, 5 (note) PianoPossession of, a sign of higher standard, 20I, 201 (note) "Political Arithmetic," by Petty, 4 PovertyCauses of, a new classification of, Appendix I (pp. 253-255) "Poverty: A Study of Town Life," by Rowntree, I7, 17 (note) Pratt, Miss Anna B., Appendix IV (p. 300, note) "Principles of Relief," by Edward T. Devine, Appendix I (p. 256) 370 INDEX and rent, 76, 77-78, 79, 8i; fuel and light, II5; food-expenditure in relation to rent, 123; diet of, 124, I56 -I57; under-fed families among, 128; reliance on baker, I32; expenditure for alcoholic drinks, 134; grade of milk used, I35; food-budget of, I56 -157; clothing, I62, I63, I65, I68; carrying insurance, 191-194, Diagrams I5-i6 (pp. I9I-I92); expenditure for furniture, 200; taxes, dues, etc., 206, 207; recreation and amusement, 2o0; education and reading, 214, 215; tobacco, 220; reporting surplus and deficit, 230, 23I; conclusions on standards of, 247. See also Tables under the various headings Savings, 232-233, 247, Appendix II (pp. 266, 277, 279), III (p. 286).Table 127 (p. 243) Saxon Statistical Bureau, 11 SaxonyBudgets collected in, I3 ScheduleThe preparation of, vii, 25; distribution, vii-viii, 26, 27, Appendix II (p. 269); number returned and tabulated, 27, 37, Appendices II (pp. 270-27I), III (pp. 283-299). See also Belgian Statistical Bureau Sickness, expenditure for. See Health Small, Professor Albion W.Estimate of minimum wage, Appendix I (p. 257) Sources of Income. See Income; Earnings South-European groupOver-crowding among, 81; conclusions on standards of, 230, 247 Spending money, I34, 220, 222, 223 Standard of Living, Committee on, vii Standard of LivingNormal, vii, 229, 230, Appendices I (pp. 256ff.), II (p. 263); income required to maintain in New York, 230-232, 234, 245-250, Appendices I (pp. 256ff.), II (pp. 263ff.); in Buffalo, V (p. 317); definitions of, Appendix I (pp. 255-256); essentials of, Appendix I (p. 256) Standard of living investigationsObjects of, vii, 3, 4, 5, 20-2I, 253 -262; by Petty, 3-5; by Davies, 6; by Eden, 6-7; by Le Play, 7-9; by Engel, 9, II-I6; by Ducpetiaux and others, 9-ii; by U. S. Bur. of Labor, 14, I6-I7, 19; by Landolt, I7; by Booth, 17, 17 (note), I8; by Rown-, tree, I7, I7 (note), i8; by Economic Club of London, I8; by Forman, i9; by Mrs. More, 20; in New York City, 23-250; in nine cities and towns of New York, Appendix IV (pp. 300 -306); in Buffalo, Appendix V (pp. 307-318). See also New York City; Buffalo "State of the Poor," by Eden, 6, 7 (note) Statistical treatmentMethod used and objects of, 42 Sulzberger, Cyrus L.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii Sundry minor items of expenditure, I98-228.-Tables 0oo-ii8 (pp. I99 -228). See also Furniture; Taxes, Dues, and Contributions; Recreation and Amusement; Education and Reading; Miscellaneous Expenditures Surplus and deficit, 81-82, 229-234, 246, 247.-Tables 44-45, II9-I23 (pp. I08, 235-239) Syracuse, N. Y.Investigation in, Appendix IV (pp. 300-304).-Tables 129-130 (pp. 305-306) Taxes, dues and contributions, 206 -207, 245, 246, 247, Appendix I (pp. 268, 276); paid by Buffalo families, Appendix V (p. 313).-Tables 105 -io6 (pp. 208-209) Teeth, care of. See Dentistry 371 INDEX Teutonic familiesSources of income, 58, 59; housing and rent, 76, 77-78, 79, 8i; fuel and light, Ii5; under-fed families among, 128; expenditure for alcoholic drinks, 134; clothing, i62, 163, i68, i69; carrying insurance, 19I1-194, Diagrams I5-1i6 (pp. 1911-I92); taxes, dues, etc., 207; recreation and amusement, 211; education and reading. 214; reporting surplus and deficit, 230-231; conclusions on standards Of, 247.- See also Tables under the various headings Theatre, use of. See Recreation Tobacco, 220-221.-Tables II7-II8 (pp. 227-228) Toilets. See Housing Towne, Arthur W., Appendix IV (p. 300, note) Trade unionsCo~peration of, in New York investigation, Viii, 27, 34, Appendix II (P. 269) Tucker, FrankResolution on appointment of Committee on Standard of Living introduced by, vii; report of, Appendix I (pp. 253-262) "Twenty-eight British Households" -Economic Club of London, i8 "Typical" families. See Families Under-clad families, i67-i69, 232, 245, 247, Diagrams I3-14 (PP. i67 -i68).-Tables 84-87, 124-I26 (pp. I77-179, 240-242). See also Clothing Under-fed families, I25-I3r, 232, 245, 246, Diagrams II-I2 (pp. 127 -128).-Tables 63-67, 124-112 6 (pp. 14I-144, 240-242). See also Food Underhill, Dr. Frank P.On nutritive values of foods, -25 -128, Appendices II (pp. 265, 271), V (P. 316); report of, Appendix VI (PP. 319-325) Unit of consumptionVarious standards used, I4-15; established by Engel (the "quet"), 15; adopted by U. S. Dept. of Agric., 125, Appendix II (P. 265). See also Dietary requirements; Underhill; Food, etc. U. S. Bureau of Labor, 14, i6, 19 U. S. Dept. of AgriculturePublications, 15 (note), i8 (note), Appendices II (P. 265), VI (PP. 319, 320, 324); scale of units of food consumption, 125 Vanderlint, Jacob, on costs of living ('1735), 5 Victor, N. Y.Investigation in, Appendix IV (pp. 300-304).-Tables 129-I30 (PP. 305 -306) Visitors, volunteer and paid. Enumerators Visschers, Belgian MinisterReports of, 9, 10 See Wage-earners. See Earnings; Income "Wage-earners' Budgets"-by Mrs. Louise Bolard More, 20, 20 (note) Wages, "going," Appendix I (P. 260) White, Rev. Win. J.Member Committee on Standard of Living, vii Whitehall, N. Y.Investigation in, Appendix IV (PP. 300-304). —Tables 129-I30 (PP. 305-306) Workinginan's letter on the schedtile, 34 "Workingmen's Budgets in Statistic~al Literature," viii, i-2i Wright, Col. Carroll D.U. S. Bureau of Labor 14, i6 372 I I I --- FM= THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN DATE DUE - 0 DO NOT REMOVE OR MUTILATE CARD