l~L- As -- I no~~~~~~~~~~~I THE VOLUME OF THE WORLD: EMBRACING THE GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, AND STATISTICS, OF THE NATIONS OF THE EARTH: THEIR GOVERNMENTS, INSTITUTIONS, FINANCES, POPULATION, INDUSTRY, PRODUCTIONS, ARTS, SCIENCES, EDUCATION, RELIGION, LAWS, AND CUSTOMS; WITH COMPLETE STATISTICAL TABLES, FROM THE LATEST AUTHENTIC SOURCES, AND ONE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS OF WORKS OF ART AND NATURE, VIEWS OF CITIES, PUBLIC BUILDINGS, IMPORTANT LOCALITIES, PROMINENT OBJECTS IN NATURAL HISTORY, AND DELINEATIONS OF CIVILIZED AND SAVAGE LIFE; ALSO EMBELLISHED WITH A MAP OF THE WORLD, ON MERCATOR'S PROJECTION, WITH ITS DETAILS BROUGHT DOWN TO THE LATEST DATE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY, AND DELINEATING THE PRINCIPAL VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY SINCE THE TIME OF COLUMBUS. BY THOMAS H. PRESCOTT, A. M. COLUMBUS: PUBLISHED AND SOLD EXCLUSIVELY BY SUBSCRIPTION, BY J. & H. MILLER. 1855. ENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1851, BY WILLIAM 0. BLAKE, IN THE CLERK S OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT OF THE UNITED STATES, FOR TRE DISTRICT OF OHIO. PREFACE, THE design of this work is to afford the reader, in a condensed form, a statistical and descriptive view of the several nations of the earth,-to describe their governments, institutions, population, commerce, agriculture, manufactures, arts, sciences, education, religion, laws, manners and customs, and to briefly notice the prominent events of their history. Knowledge of this kind has become a necessary qualification for the pursuits of commerce and industry, and much of the ordinary and current business of life. The details have been brought down to as late a date as possible, in order to exhibit as nearly as can be accomplished, a contemporaneous view of the nations at the close of the first half of the nineteenth century. In a work involving such an infinite variety of details, some errors and imperfections will unavoidably occur. Balbi observes, with reference to works of this description, that they are necessarily a compound of things which are, with things which have ceased to be. "How," he asks, "can one be informed of all the changes that take place in the course of a few years in the capitals of Europe, still more in those of Asia, Africa and America? To compose a work which should exhibit a complete picture of the globe at a particular period, it would be necessary to have authentic documents, all of the same date, and that a recent one; which never has been, and never can be." All the merit the compiler of this volume can claim, is that of being laborious, and of endeavoring to be faithful. In the prosecution of his task he has made great exertions to avail himself of recent and reliable sources of information, and has had at nis disposal a large and valuable library. VIII PREFACE. An attempt to give credit in the pages to the various works to which he is indebted, would have uselessly encumbered the book with notes and references of very little consequence to the general reader. A book of this kind must necessarily be a compilation, —and the compiler has availed himself of the labors of his predecessors, so far as they could be made useful to his purpose. "As well might a traveler presume to claim the fee-simple of all the country which he has surveyed, as a historian or geographer expect to preclude those who come after him from making a proper use of his labors. If the former writers have seen accurately and related faithfully, the latter ought to have the privilege of declaring the same facts." Those who have preceded him have availed themselves of the observations of their predecessors, and this work in its turn may save some future compiler a portion of his toil. Every nation of the earth, civilized or savage; every rock of the ocean large enough for a sea gull to rest upon, has been made the subject of a volume; and as such works become multiplied, detailed and diffuse, it becomes a useful labor to abridge, and present in synoptical views all that is really valuable of their contents. In this way the compiler has endeavored to irrigate his pages, not only with. rills and rivulets from those great reservoirs of geographical and statistical knowledge, the works of Balbi, Hassel, Malte Brun, McCulloch, Murray and his talented collaborators of the Encyclopaedia of Geography, but he has also drawn freely from the fountains of scientific observation contained in the journals of enlightened travelers and voyagers to distant regions. His statistics of civilized nations are derived from authentic documents. The engravings in the volume are not introduced for any purpose of mere embellishment; and it was for some time a question, whether the plan of a work of this kind would admit of their introduction; — but as they are now very generally used in descriptive works, both in this country and England, we have inserted such as will be found of more utility in conveying a clearei idea of the objects than can be accomplished by elaborate description. The drawings are believed to PREFACE. ix be generally correct, and to many readers they will be acceptable, although some of them may present familiar views, which have been delineated repeatedly by the demand for embellished works. They may at least serve to call the attention of the young to the contents of the work, by arresting their curiosity, —an incentive that often proves the source of valuable attainments. Believing the kind of information contained in this work to be of importance to all classes of society,- that none are so exalted as to rise above, and none so humble as to sink below, the common want of a knowledge of the world they live in, —and believing, also, that but few of our busy population have the leisure to search through a multitude of volumes to obtain the information condensed in this, the compiler respectfully tenders the result of his labors, in the hope that it may afford to the young a useful auxiliary in the pursuit of knowledge,-to the old, a work of authentic reference, —and to all a better knowledge of the World's vast Volume. TABLE OF CONTENTS. THE WORLD -Population, Races, Religions, Langtages............................................. 17 AMERICA — Geography Discovery.................................................................. 2 NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA-Extent, Mountains. Bays, Lakes, Rivers, Plains, Volcanoes, Animals, Climate, Vegetation, Minerals, Population, Aboriginal Inhabitants, History................... Z DANISH POSSESSIONSGreenland, Iceland, Jan Mayen's Land, Spitzbergen....................................... 43 FRENCH POSSESSIONS - St. Pierre, Miquelon................................................................... 47 RUSSLAN POSSESSIONS — Aleutian Islands, &c................................................................... 47 BRITISH POSSESSIONS — New Britain, or Territories of the Hudson's Bay Company................................. 51 The Canadas their Geography, Geology, Zoology, Botany, Mineralogy, Population, Agriculture, Manufactures, Commerce, Religion, Education, Government, History, Principal Cities.. 54 New Brunswick........................................ 61 Nova Scotia............................................................................ 62 Prince Edward's Island......................................................... 64 Newfoundland.6.............................................. 64 Honduras............................................................................. 67 Bermuda Islands..................................................................... 67 WNITED STATES OF AMERICABoundaries, Areas of States, Treaties..................................................... 69 Mountains, Rivers, Lakes.............................................................. 70 Soil, Products. Minerals............................................................... 71 Commerce and Navigation.................................................... 72 Table of Imports.................................... 73 Breadstuffs exported for 30 years...................................... 75 Table of Exports of Produce and Manufactures.................................... 76 Domestic Exports and Imports for 1850................................................... 76 Commerce with all Nations.............................................................. 77 Imports, Exports, Consumption and Tonnage............................................ 78 Imports and Exports of each State.................................................. 78 Lake Trade-Productive Industry........................................ 79 Agriculture, Manufactures, Fisheries, Coal.............................................. 80 Population, Immigrant Statistics...1.................................................... 81 Census Tables from 1790 to 1850, Slave Population from 1790 to 1860........................ 88 Aboriginal Population.................................................... 84 Religi on in the United States- Ecclesiastical Statistics..................................... 84 Baptists-Regular, Anti-Mission, Minor Sects...................................... 85 Old School Presbyterians, New School Presbyterians, other Presbyterian Churches..... 86 Congregationalists- Orthodox, Unitarian, &c....................................... 88 Methodist Episcopal Church-Methodist Episcopal Church South, Wesleyan, & c...... 89 Protestant Episcopal, or Anglican Church.......................................... 90 Roman Catholics................................................................. 91 German Reformed Church..................................... 91 Reformed Dutch Church.......................................................... 92 Evangelical Lutheran Church..................................... 93 Quakers or Friends, Unitarian Quakers............................................. 94 Universalists..................................................................... 95 Protestant, Reformed, German and Albright Methodists, Moravians....................... 95 Ecclesiastical Seminaries of the Roman Catholic Church............................. 96 Protestant Theological Schools in the United States.................................. 96 Education —Colleges in the United States, Free School System..................... 96 Law Schools, Literature and Science...............................................99 Medical Schools, Fine Arts, F terary and Scientific Societies................ 100 Internal Communication - Table of Railroads in the'United States......................... 101 Canals, Telegraphs............................................... 103 Government of the United States, Constitution..................... 103 Presidents and Vice Presidents since 1789............................................ 104 Congress - Speakers from 1789 to 1850............................................. 105 Judiciary- Chief Justices of the Supreme Court................................... 106 State Department- Secretaries of State............................................ 106 Treasury Department- Secretaries of Treasury.................................... 107 War Department - Secretaries of War............................................. 107 Navy Department- Secretaries of Navy........................................ 108 Department of Interior - Secretaries of Interior.................................... 108 Post Office Department-Postmasters General...................................... 108 Attorneys General............................................ 108 Army of the United States, Militia Force of each State............................... 109 Navy of the United States........................................................ 110 Revenues, Public Debt, Public Lands.............................................. 111 Post Office Statistics.............................................................. 112 Banks and Currency, Statistics of the Mint.............................. 113 Progress.................................. 113 History-Principal Battlei sf the Revolution, Formation of the Constitution, Territorial Increase, 115 Antiquities........................................................................... 121 Xii TABLE OF CONTENTS. STATES OF THE AMERICAN UNION. Each State is described in relation to its area, boundaries, mountains, lakes, rivers, minerals, zoology, botany climate, soil, agriculture, manufactures, commerce2 population, colleges, common schools, religious denominations, banks, finances, railroads, canals, principal cities and towns, constitution and history. WIAINE....................................... 122 FLORIDA.............................. 211 NEW HAMPSHIRE............................... 126 OIO........................................ 214 VERMONT....................................... 131 INDIANA....................................... 223 MASSACHUSETTS................................ 135 ILLINOIS....................................... 228 RHODE ISLAND................................. 141 MICHIGAN...................................... 232 CONNECTICUT................................... 145 WISCONSIN.................................... 236 NEW YORE................................... 154 KENTUCKY...................................... 240 NEW J RSEY................................... 168 MISOURI...................................... 244 PENNSYLVANIA................................. 11 2 IOWA........................................ 250 DELAWARE................................... 178 TENNESSEE.................................... 255 MIARYLAND.................................... 181 ALABAMA..................... 2 57 DISTRICT OF COLUBLA............... 185 MIssIssIPPI.................................... 261 VIRGINIA...................................... 190 ARKANSAS.................................... 264 NORTH CAROLINA............................... 197 LOUISIANA...................................... 267 SOUTH CAROLINA............... 202 TEXAS............................. 273 GEORGIA....................................... 206 CALIFORNIA.27......7............ 277 TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. INDIAN TERRITORY.............................. 283 TERRITORY OF UTAH............................ 286 TERRITORY OF MINNESOTA........................ 284 TERRITORY OF OREGON..................... 288 TERRITORY OF NEW MEXIC O.................. 285 MEXICO -States and Population.................................................. 290 Physical Aspect -Mountains, Volcanoes, Lakes, Rivers, Climate, Zoology................... 291 Agriculture, Mining Industry, Manufactures, Commerce.. 293 Government, Finances.................................................................. 299 Religion, Education, Population......................................................... 02 History, Antiquities................................................................... 304 City of Mexico, Vera Cruz, Jalapa, Guadalaxara, Puebla, Cholula, Perote, Queretaro, Zacatecas, Chihuahua, Monterey, Saltillo, Yucatan, Lower California................ 306-313 CENTRAL AMERICA — Republics of Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, San Salvador, Nicaragua................... 314-317 Ship Canal across the Isthmus............................................................... 318 WEST INDIA ISLANDSHayti, Hispaniola or St. Domingo................................... 320 BRITISH WEST INDIES — Jamaica....................................................... 324 Caymans, Trinidad............................................................... 326 Tobago, Grenada................................................................. 328 St. Vincent, Barbadoes, St. Lucia, Dominica.329 Antigua, Barbuda, Montserrat, St. Christopher's.................................... 330 Anguilla, Virgin Islands, Bahamas...........331 SWEDISH ~WEST INDIES — St. Bartholomew................................................................ 381 SPANISH WEST INDIESCuba —Eavana, Santiago, Matanas............................... Puerto Rico......................................................................335 FRENCH AWEST INDIES — Guadaloupe, Martinique, St. Martin's........................................... 336 DUTCH VWEST INDIES — Curacoa, St. Eustatius, Saba....................................................... 387 DANISH WEST INDIESSanta Cruz, St. Thomas, St. John's............................................ 38 SOUTII AMERICA- States, Capitals, Area. Population........................ 339 REPUBLICS OF NEW GRENADA, EQUAIDOR, AND VENEZUELA.................................. 339 CHItF CITIES - Bogota, Popayan, Cartagena1 Panama, Quito, Guayaquil, Caracas, La Guayra, 345 REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIADEPARTMENTS - Potosi1 Cuquisaca, Cqchabamba, La Paz, Tarija, Santa Cruz de la Sierra.. 3.0 CHIEF CITIES - Chuqusaca, Potosi, La Paz, &c..,........................................ 351 REPUBLIC OF PERUDEPARTMENTS- Truxillo, Ivinin, Lima, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cuzco, Puno....... 355 CHIEF CITIES -Lima, Callao, Truxillo, Cuzco, Humanaca, &c.............................. 356 REPUBLIC OF CHILEDEPARTMENTS - Santiago, Aconcagua, Coquimbo, Conchagua, Maule, Concepcion, Chiloe...... 366 CHIEF CITIEs — Santiago, Valparaiso, Concepcion, &c...................................... 367 LA PLATA, OR ARGENTINE REPUBLIC — PROVINCES- Buenos Ayres, Santa Fe, Entre Rios, Corrientes, Cordova, Santiago, Tucuman, Salta, Catamarca, Rioja, San Luis, Mendoza, San Juan, Gran Chaco (Indian Territory), 371 CHIEF CITIES -Buenos Ayres, Corrientes, Cordova, &c...................................... 372 DICTATORSHIP OF PARAGUAY —Ascen~ibn..................................................... 3#3 REPUBLIC OF URUGUAYMonte Video, La Colonia, Maldonado.................................................. 376 E3IPIRE OF BRAZILRio de Janeiro, San Catarina, Pernambuco, Bahia, &c..................................... 383 GUIANA - BRITISH GUIANA -Esequibo, Demarara, Berbice.......................................... 385 FREINCH GUIANA —Cayenne............................................................. 386 DUTCH GUIANA —Surinam............................................................... 386 PATAGONIA - Terra del Fuego.................................................................... 387 SOUTH AMERICAN ISLANDS - Gallapagos, Joannes, Fernando Santa Catharina, St. Felix, Juan Fernandez, Chiloe, Falkland Islands, South Georgia, Sandwich Land, &c., &c.................................... 388 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xll EUROPE —Area Population, Civilization, Races, Governments, &c..................................... 389 THE UNITED RIINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND — ENGLAND AND WALES - Physical Aspect, Soil, Climate, Productions, Population, Nationaland Intellectual Character, History, Chief Cities, London, &c................394-432 SCOTLAN D- Edinburg, &c.................................................... 433-450 IRELAND -Dublin, &c.................................................... 450-473 STATISTICs OF THE UNITED KINGDOM - Government, Finances, National Debt, Army, Navy, Steam Navigation, Church of England, Roman Catholic Church, Religion in Ireland, in Scotland, Education in the three Kingdoms, Manufactures, Commerce, Imports, Exports, Tonnage, Internal Trade, Banking, Canals, Railroads, Bridges, Historical Epochs, &c. 473-493 TRENCH REPUBLIC-Area, Population, Religion, Physical Aspect, Climate, Soil, Agriculture, Mines, Manufactures, Commerce, Banks, Internal Communication, National Character, Literature and Scienoe Fine Arts, Dress, Education, Constitution, Public Force, Revenues, Finances, Chief Cities, Paris, &c., &c.................................................... 494 SPAIN-Physical Aspect, Climate, Soil, Mineralogy, Agriculture, Manufactures, Commerce, Population, Education, Religion, Finances, Army, Navy, Internal Communication, National Character, Literature, Fine Arts, Amusements, Chief Cities, History, &c................................. 519 PORTUGAL —Geography, Statistics, National Character, Chief Cities, History........................... 535 Azores, or Western Islands, Madeira..................................................... 640 SWITZERLAND -Physical Aspect, Climate, Zoology, Productive Industry, Government, Religion, Education, National Character, History, Cities, &c., &o......................................... 542 BELGIUM - Territory, Civil and Social State, History, Chief Cities, &c................................. 552 HOLLAND - Physical Aspect, Dykes, Canals, Commerce, Manufactures, Government, Cities, &c.......... 560 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION —Boundaries, Physical Aspect, Minerals, Agricultural Productions, Commerce, Manufactures, Education, History, Civil Divisions, &c......................... 566 Kingdom of Bavaria................................................................... 570 Kingdom of Wurtemberg, Grand Duchy of Baden........................................ 572 Principalities of Hohenzollern, Hessian States............................................. 573 Duchy of Nassau, Principality of Waldeck............................................... 574 Principalities of Lippe, Kingdom of Saxony.............................................. 575 Duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Weimar.............. 576 Principalities of Reuss, Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, and Rudolstadt, Duchies of Ahalt and Brunswick, and Kingdom of Hanover.............................................. 577 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, Principalities of Mechlenburg and Leichenstein................ 581 Free Cities of Lubec, Frankfort, Hamburg and Bremen.................................... 582 EMKPIRE OF AUSTRIA-Physical Geography, History, Civil and Social State, Illyria, Bohemia, Galicia, Hungaryr, Transylvania, Military Frontier, Dalmatia, Chief Cities........................... 583 PRUSSIA-Physical Aspect, Climate, Government, Finances, Army, Productive Industry, Population, Education, Chief Cities, &c.............5....... 595 DENMARK - Government, History, Statistics, Chief Cities, &c......................................... 002 SWEDEN AND NORWAY-Physical Aspect, History, Civil and Social State, Chief Cities, Lapland...... 606 EMPIRE OF RUSSIA - Extent, Mountains, Lakes, Rivers, Plains, Minerals, Zoology, Climate, Agriculture, Manufactures, Commerce, Population, Religion, Finances, Army, Navy, History, Territorial Divisions, Principal Cities, &c........................................................... 614 ITALY -Physical Aspect History, Agriculture, Commerce, Manufactures, Political State, National Character, Religion, Literature, Science, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Music, &c., &c.. 632 ECCLESIASTICAL STATES -Rome, its Antiquities, the Capitol, Forum, Coliseum, Pantheon, Baths, Columns, Paintings, Statues, Arches, Aqueducts, Tombs, Modern Edifices, St. Peter's, Basilica, Lateran &c., the Vatican, Environs of Rome, Villas, Tivoli, Falls of the Anio, Temple of the Sybil, &c., &c............................................. 643 SAN MARINO - Government and Population.............................................. 652 TursANY -Chief Cities, Florence, Leghorn, Pisa........................................ 652 LuIAu, PARMA, MODENA, &C............................................................. 653 AUnsTIIAN ITALY-Milan, the Duomo, Amphitheatre, Triumphal Arch, Della Scala, Brera, Paintings - Venice, its Palaces, Islands, Canals, Church of St. Mark, Rialto —Padua, Vicenz,. Mantua, &c., &c........................................................ 656 SARDINIAN SIATES-Turin- Genoa, its Palaces, Churches, &c.-Savoy, Islands, &c........ 658 KINGDOM OF NAPLES - Chief Cities, Naples, its Bay, Islands, Environs, Inhabitants, Vesuvius, Herculaneum, Pompeii - Salerno, Campagna, Capua, Gaeta, the Abruzzi, Magna Greecia, Calabria- Sicily, Palermo, Messina, Ruins of Ancient Cities, Syracuse, Mt. Etna, Lipari Islands, Malta, Knights of St. John................................................ 660 TURKEY IN EUROPE - Boundaries, Extent, Natural Features, Historical.Sketch, Political System, Military Power, National Character, Religion, Learning, Condition of the Female Sex, Amusements, Dress, Chief Cities, Constantinople, &c., Bulgaria, Wallachia, Moldavia, Servia, Bosnia, Albania, 671 REECE -Extent, Physical Aspect, Climate, Scenery, Products, People, Government, Education, Religion, Chief Cities, Athens, &c., Antiquities, Temples, Architecture, Sculpture, &c., &c., Attica, Corinth, Argolis, Mycense, Napoli, Arcadia, Messenia, Marina, Laconia, Elis and Olympia, Boeotia and Phocis, Delphi, Western Hellas, Thessaly, Olympus, Thermopylse, Greek Islands, Candia, ThQ Cyclades, Negropont, Historical Sketch....................................... 687 IONIAN ISLANDS -Corfu, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cephalonia, &c..................................... 707 ASIA —Area and Population, Mountains, Lakes, Rivers, Islands, Zoology, Races, Hindoos, Chinese, Tartars, Arabs, Persians, &c., History, Social and Political State, Oriental Manners, Languages, &c.... 708 URBKEY IN ASIA —Divisions, Physical Aspect, History, Principles and Mode of Government, Commerce, Manufactures, Social State, Turcomans, Arabs, Maronites, Druses, Armenians, Kurds,&c. 717 PALESTINE- Gaza, Jaffa, Rama, Jerusalem, The Dead Sea, Jordan, Jericho, Bethlehem, Samaria, Csesaria Mt. Carmel, Acre, Nazareth, Mt Tabor, Galilee, Tiberias, Saphet, &c...... 728 SYIA -History, Chief Cities, Tyre, Sidon, Mt. Lebanon, Druses, Gibele, Tripoli, Ruins of Baalbec, Damascus, Palmyra, Aleppo, Antioch, &c.................................. 737 ASIA MINOR - Geographical and Historical Sketch, Celecia, Tarsus, Pamphylia, Macri, Melasso, Boodroon, Magnesia, Laodicea, Hierapolis, Ephesus, Smyrna, The Troad, Boursa, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Kostamboul, Pontus, Keresoun, Treboli, Trebisond-Interior Asia Minor, Kutaiah, Kara Hissar, Akshehr, Iconium, Agora, Tokat, Ooscat - Islands, Cyprus, Rhodes, Scio, Mytilem — Provinces on the Euphrates, Armenia, Koordistan, Algezira, Bagdad, Ruins of Babylon, Bassora.......................... 749 ARABIA -Natural Features History, Mahomet, Wahab, Civil and Social State of the Arabians, Sheiks, Encampments, Culture, National Characteristics, Customs, Religion, Language, Literature, Horeb and Sinai Mecca, Pilgrimages, Medina, Jedda, Yenon, Mocha, Muscat, Petra.......... 769 PERSIA - Physical Aspect, Climate, Soil, Productions, National Character, Religion, Government...... 786 AFFIANISTAN, BELOOCISTAN........................................................... 789 XlV TABLE OF CONTENTS. HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA - Geographical Features, Zoology, History, Government of British India Popu lation, Characteristics of the Hindoos, Religion, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, Inferior Deities, Temples, Juggernaut, Self-Immolation, Fakirs, ideas of a Future State, Castes, Architecture, Habitations, Dress, Food, Vegetable Productions, Animals, Agriculture, Manufactures, Trade, Chief Cities, Calcutta, &c., Antiquities.................................................. 792 FURTHER INDIA -Physical Features, Races, Governments, Progress in the Arts, Commerce, States and Population, Birmah7 Siam, Anam, Laos, British Provinces, Malacca........................ 817 CHINA-Area, Population, Divisions, Rivers, Lakes, Mountains, Historical Sketch Government, System of Administration, Mandarins, Laws, Punishments, Revenue, Military Force, Industry Agriculture, The Tea Plant, Manufactures, Commerce Fisheries, Floating Islands, Public *orks, Great Canal, The Great Wall, National Character, Religion, Learning, Language, Amusements, Fine Arts, Clothing, Food, Chief Cities, Pekin, &c........................................ 824 TURKESTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY - Physical Aspect, Races, States, Governments, Industry, Commerce, &c........................................................................ 842 JAPAN -Extent, Geographical Position, Historical Sketch, Christian Missionaries, Government, Ecclesias. tical and Military Potentates, Laws, Punishments, Agriculture, Manufactures, Trade, Population, National Character and Customs, Religion, Rites, Temples, Arts, Costume, Pilgrimagss, Chief Cities, Islands, &c................................................................ 85 AFRICA-General Description, Physical Features, Mountains, Rivers, Deserts, Historical Sketch, Explorations, Caravans, Traffic, Races, Moors, Arabs, Negroes................................... 856 EGYPT-Natural Features, The Nile, Deserts, Historical Sketch, Government, Revenues, Army, Agriculture, Irrigation, Productions, Industry, Commerce, Population, Races, Religion, Dress, Habits, Local Survey, Alexandria, Pompey's Pillar, Cleopatra's Needles, Rosetta, Tanta, Grand Cairo, The Pyramids, The Sphynx, Fayoum, Ruins of Antinoe and Hermopolis Magna, The Thebald, Siout, Abydos, Ruins of Tentyra, Thebes, Ruins of Karnac and Luxor, The Memnonium, Tombs, Mummies. Temple of Typhon, Esneh, Edfou, The Cataracts, the Deserts, Oases...... 860 NUBIA —Ancient Ethiopia, Modern Inhabitants, their government, agriculture, and oopnmeree, Antiquities, Temple of lbsambul, Deserts of Nubia............................................... 886 ABYSSINIA -Physical Features, History, Productions, Inhabitants, Manners, Customs, Religion, The Galla, Shangalla, Axum................................................................ 891 STATES OF BARBARY —Face of the Country, Atlas Mountains, Deserts, Animals, Historical Sketch, Governments, Civil and Social State, Population, Moors, Arabs Berbers, Religion, Learning and Amusements, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli....................................... 896 WESTERN AFRICA -Extent, Physical Aspect, Zology, History, Inhabitants, Civil and Social State, Commerce, Slave Trade, Character of the Natives, Religion Amusements, Dwellings, Dress, Ornaments, Local Survey, Senegambia, The Foulahs, MZaningoes and Jalofs, Sierra Leone, Republic of Liberia, its geographical position, climate, productions, The Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Natives, The Ashantees, Dahomey, Benin eongo, Loango, Angola.................... 915 SOUTHERN AFRICA-Cape of Good Hope, Mountains, Rivers Zoology, History, Inhabitants, Cape Colony, Dutch Settlers, Hottentots, Territory of the daffres, Boshuanas............... 9 EASTERN AFRICA -Inhabitants, Setlements, &c.................................................. 94 CEQNTRAL AFRICA - Extent and Physical Aspect, Mountains of the Moon, The Niger Lake Tshad, Historical Sketch, Bornou, Inhabitants, Customs, Mandara, Loggun, Houssa, Acatoo, Timbuctoo, &c................................................................................ 944 THE SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT-Area, Aspect, Oases, Inhabitants............................. 94 AFRICAN ISLANDS - The Canaries, Peak of Teneriffe, Cape' de Verds, St. Helena, Madagascar, Bourbon, Mauritius, Tristan d'Acunha............................................................. 9B8 OCEANICA..................................................................................... 963 AUSTRALASIA -New Holland, Natural Features, Zoology, New South Wales, Government, Transportation of Convicts, Emigrants, Culture, Commerce, Native Population, Convict Population- Van Dieman's Land, New Zealand, New Guinea, New Britain, New Hebrides, New Caledonia...... 963 POLYNESIA — Historical Sketch - Society Islands, Otaheite, Natives, Missionary Labors, Climate and Productions - Low Islands, Coral Formations-Pitcairn Island, Mutiny of the Bounty-Easter Island - Sandwich Islands, Volcano of Peli, Population, Social State, Missionaries - Marqaesas and Washington Islands, Natives-Friendly Islands-Fejee Islands-The CarolinesLadrones................................................................................. 977 IALAYASIA -Historical Sketch, Civil and Social State, Soil, Climate, Productions, Population, Religion, Amusements, Dress-Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Borneo, The Moluccas, the Philippines....... 987 ISLANDS OF THE POLAR SEAS.................................................................100 VOLUME OF THE WORLD. VOLUME OF THE WORLD. THEE WORLD, To an observer whose view is not obstructed, the earth presents itself as a vast circular plain, on the circumference of which the heavens appear to rest. Accordingly, in remote antiquity the earth was regarded as a flat circular body, floating on the water, But the great distance which men were enabled to travel soon refuted this limited idea as an optical illusion; and even in remote antiquity the spherical form of the earth began to be suspected. On this supposition alone can all the phenomena relating to it be explained. How could the earth appear, from every possible position, as a surface bounded by the -firmament, if it were not a sphere encircled by it? How else can the fact be explained, that we see the tops of towers and of mountains at a distance, before the bases are visible; and the masts of ships at sea before the hulls are above the horizon? How otherwise account for its circular shadow on the moon during an eclipse, — the gradual appearance and disappearance of the sun, —the inequality of day and night, —the changes in the position and course of the stars, and the gradual disappearance of some, and appearance of others, as we go from the equator to the poles. Finally, if the earth were not spherical, it would be impossible to sail round it, which is frequently done. The earth, however, is not an exact sphere, but is flattened at the poles. Philosophers were first led to observe this, by the variations in the vibrations of the pendulum under the equator and near the poles. It was found that the pendulum performed its vibrations slower, the nearer it approached the equator, and hence was inferred the variableness of the force of gravity. This was easily explained; because the circle of daily revolution being greatest at the equator, all bodies revolve proportionally faster there than at. the poles, so that the centrifugal force is greater and the force of gravity less, than at other parts of the earth's surface; and because, at the equator, the, centrifugal force is exactly opposed to that of gravity; but towards the poles, being oblique to it, produces less effect. From these observations, it is justly inferred, that the earth is a sphere flattened at the poles; and this form is satisfactorily accounted for, by the fact, that the particles of a yielding mass, which revolves on its own axis, depart from the poles and tend to the centre, by which the poles are, of course, flattened, and the middle elevated. Another important desideratum for a more intimate acquaintance with the earth, was, to ascertain its magnitude. The labors of the ancients in this respect, were all fruitless, owing to their want of suitable instruments. Accurate results were first obtained in 1615. Willibrord Snellius, a Dutch2 18 THE wORLD. man, first struck into the only true way, and measured an are of a meridian from Alcmaar to Leyden and Bergen op Zoom, by means of triangles. After him the measurements of Picard, and the later ones of Maupertius, approximated nearer the truth. These made the circumference of a great circle of the earth 25,000 miles. In this calculation the earth is regarded as a perfect sphere. Further measurements of all parts of the surface of the earth will be necessary to determine, rigidly and accurately, its true magnitude. If we take a view of the earth in its relation to the solar system, astron omy teaches us that it is an opaque body revolving around the sun, and receiving from it light and heat; that it completes its revolution in about 365 days and 6 hours. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse, with the sun in one of its foci. Hence the earth is not equally distant from the sun in all parts of the year;-its least distance is estimated at 93,336,000 miles; and its greatest at 95,484,572; making a difference of more than I 2,000,000 of miles. In winter we are nearest the sun, and in summer farthest from it; for the difference of the seasons is not occasioned by the greater or less distance of the earth from the sun, but by the more or less oblique direction of the sun's rays. The length of the path traveled over by the earth is estimated at 568,000,000 of miles, and as this immense distance is passed over in a year, the earth must move 17 miles a second. Besides this annual motion around the sun, the earth has also a daily motion on its own axis. This diurnal revolution is the occasion of the alternation of day and night; but as the axis of the earth forms an angle of 23- degrees, with its orbit, the sun ascends from March 21 to June 21, about 232 degrees above the equator towards the north pole, and descends again towards the equator from June 21 to September 23; it then sinks till December 21, about 23& degrees below the equator, towards the south pole, and returns again to the equator by March 21. This arrangement is the cause of the seasons, and the inequality of day and night attending them. To the physical knowledge of the earth belongs especially the consideration of its surface and its interior. The surface of the earth contains over 196,000,000 square miles, scarcely one-third of which is dry land; the remaining two-thirds are water. Of the surface of the earth, Europe comprises about one 54th part; Asia, one 14th; Africa a 17th, and America a 16th. The islands of the Pacific, taken together, are somewhat larger than Europe. The interior of the earth is entirely unknown to us, as the depth to which we have been able to penetrate is nothing in comparison with its diameter. Some modern speculators are of opinion that the interior is composed of a metallic mass. Respecting the origin and gradual formation of the earth. there are various hypotheses. POPULATION OF THE WORLD.* Africa, variously estimated from 60,000,000 to............................ 101,000,000 North America............... 33.981,054 South America.................. 16,326,000 West Indies................................ 3,688,762 53,995,816 Asia, including Islands................................................ 429,600,000 Australia and Australian group of Islands......................... 1,368,000 Europe............................................. 25........ 2,589,972 Polynesia (no data) estimated................. 1,500000 Total population of the Globe..................... 840,053,788 *American Almaneac, 1851. THE WORLD. 19 COMPARATIVE ESTIMATES OF THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD. Wiemar. Balbi. Hassel. Grabery. Volney. Malte.Brun America..... 43,800,120 39,000,000 30,483,500 24,000,000 20,000,000 40,000 Europe...... 232,200,646 227,700,000 179,808,000 180,000,000 142,000,000 190,000,000 Africa....... 101,313,478 60,000,000 102,412,000 99,000,000 30,000,000 70,000,000 Asia........ 654,610,049 390,000,000 392,575,500 366,000,000 240,000,000 340,000,000 Oceanica.... 1,473,955 20,300,000 2,000,000 17,000,000,000,000 0,000,000 Total..... 1,033,398,251 737,000,000 707,279,000 686,000,000 437,000,000 660,000,000 According to Blumenbach, mankind are divided into five classes or families. His system is founded on the different formations of the skull. To these races he has given the names of1. The CAUCASIAN, comprising the inhabitants of Europe, with their descendants in America, and those of Western Asia and Northern Africa. 2. The MONGOLIAN, comprising the inhabitants of Central and Eastern Asia; the Fins and Laplanders of Europe, the Esquimaux, and other Arctic tribes of America. 3. The ETHIOPIC, or inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa, Australia, and some of the oceanic islands. 4. The AMERICAN, or natives of North and South America and the West India Islands. This family resembles the Mongolian. 5. The MALAYASIAN, inhabiting Malay, Java, Sumatra, and some of the islands of the Pacific. By some naturalists the Malay is considered a sub-variety of the Caucasian. ENUMERATION, ACCORDING TO HASSEL. Caucasian Race......................................................... 436,625,000 Mongolian "........................................................ 389,310,000 Malayasian......................................................... 32,000,000 Ethiopic......................................................... 69,633,300 American "................................................. 10,287,000 ASCERTAINED NUMBER OF LANGUAGES. In America.................1,214 Europe................................................................... 545 Asia and Oceanica....................... 991 Africa......................................................... 276 Total of Languages and Dialects........................................ 3,026 RELIGIONS, ACCORDING TO MALTE BRUN. Christians - Catholics.1.................. 16,000,000 Greek Church........................... 70,000,000 Protestants........................... 42,000,000 228,000,000 Jews....................................................... 4,000,000 Mahomedans.....................................................103,000,000 Brahmins..........................................................60,000,000 Shamans................................................................. 50,000,000 Buddhists..............................................................100,000.000 Fetichists.........' 100,000,000 Having taken a general survey of the earth as a whole, in its astrononncal and physical relations, the extent of its population and religious divisions, we shall now proceed to view its various subdivisions into empires, kingdoms, states, cities, &c. AMERICA. THIS great double continent forms one of the grand divisions of the world, and surpasses all others in magnitude, with the exception of Asia, to which, however, it is but little inferior. It stretches, fiom north to south, a distance of 10,000 miles. Where broadest, North America is not less than 3,500 miles, and South America 3,200. It is very irregularly shaped; being divided, by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, into two enormous peninsulas, united by the Isthmus of Darien, or Panama, which in one place is only eighteen miles across. The following estimate of its area is given in the new edition of the Encyclopoedia Britannica: Sq. Eng. miles. North America.......................... 7,400,000 South America.................................... 6,500,000 Islands........................................ 150,000 Greenland, and the islands connected with it north of Hudson's Straits........................................ 900,000 Total........................................ 14,950,000 This vast continent lies between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Arctic and Antarctic Seas. All the distinguishing features of the American continent seem to be formed on the most gigantic scale. The chain of the Andes, which runs the whole length of South America, and is prolonged through North America under different names, is, in point of length, unparalleled in the world, and is far superior, in respect of altitude, to the Alps and every other mountain system with which we are acquainted, — the Himmalaya only excepted. The plains, rivers, bays, lakes, cataracts and forests of America, are of unrivaled extent and grandeur. Her mineral riches are also superior to those of any other continent; and she possesses every variety of climate, from the extreme heat of the toririd zone to the eternal winter of the arctic circle. There is no rational ground for supposing that the ancients had the slightest idea of the existence of the American continent. Their ignorance of the compass, and the form of their vessels, allowed them to move only at a short distance from land. Their voyages, therefore, although extensive, were always along the coasts of the great continents; nor is there the slightest record of any one having turned his daring keel into the vast abysses of ocean. Some speculative writers would have us believe that America has, from remote antiquity, been a sort of refuge to the nations of the Old World, —to the Trojans, Syrians, Carthaginians, Canaanites, and Jews; and they have endeavored to trace the origin of the natives of this continent to these sources, from some supposed similarity in customs or language; forgetful of the fact that man has, every where, many things in common with his fellows. Recent attempts have also been made to identify the style of Mexican architecture with that of ancient Egypt, but with small success. NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 21 The Welsh put in a claim to the discovery of America in 1170 by Madoc, a prince of North Wales; but the probability is, that that respectable navigator reached some part of Spain. The claim of discovery by the Northmen has been more generally received, and the Scandinavian writers have supported it as a point of national honor. One of the voyages, however, to the new country, which they called Vinland, was stated to have been performed in twenty-four hours! Vinland was, probably, the southern part of Greenland. Other futile attempts have been made to fix the discovery of America at a period anterior to the time of Columbus. Perhaps no individual ever stood so much alone as this navigator, in making a discovery that changed the face of the world. He conceived the design, and singly achieved it. Yet, like every other great revolution, it was doubtless prepared by previous circumstances. The invention of the compass, and improved celestial observations, rendered it no longer impossible to steer through an unknown ocean. On the morning of the 12th of October, 1492, the natives of the Old and the New World found themselves, for the first time, in sight of each other! NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. THE COASTS of NORTH AMERICA are more indented with immense gulfs and arms of the sea than any other division of the globe. One of the principal of these, in the north-east part of the continent, consists of what Balbi has not unaptly termed the Sea of the Esquimaux, from its coasts being everywhere occupied by tribes belonging to this peculiar race: it consists of two great divisions, Davis' Straits and Baffin's Bay, separating Greenland from the main land, and Hudson's Bay, lying more to the south and west, but connected with the former by numerous channels, some of which have been only recently discovered. The navigation of these seas and inlets, even in the most favorable seasons, is extremely difficult, from their being constantly encumbered with ice; and it is only during a short period of the year that it can be attempted. The next great inlet of the sea is the Gulf of St. Lawrence, so called from the great river of the same name which falls into its south-west extremity. Passing over the numerous inlets and noble bays on the coast of the United States, we come to the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. This vast Mediterranean is separated from the Atlantic by the Peninsula of Florida and the islands of the West Indies. The latter are, as it were, a continuation of Florida, and are, it is probable, the only remaining points of what was once a broad belt of land, which has been broken to pieces qnd partly submerged in some of those tremendous convulsions to which the earth has been subject.' But however this may be, this great inland sea is divided into two portions by the Peninsula of Yucatan, and Cape San Antonia, at the western extremity of the Island of Cuba, which approach within a comparatively short * McCulloch'. Geo. Dict. 22 NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. distance of each other; that to the north being called the Gulf of Mexico, and that to the south the Caribbean Sea. The Gulf of California, separating the peninsula of that name from the main land, is the most important inlet of the sea on the west coast of North America. SOUTH AMERICA bears a striking resemblance in the form of its COASTS to Africa. It is much more compact than North America, and comparatively little indented by arms of the sea. The great rivers, Amazon, La Plata, Oronoco, may, however, be looked upon as a species of inland seas; and are, in some respects, more serviceable than the latter. The west coast of America, from the proximity of the Andes, has but few gulfs, and is, in a great part, almost destitute of harbors. The southern extremity of South America, or the country of Terra del Fuego, is properly an archipelago, being separated from the continent by the winding strait of Magellan. MOUNTAINS. -Humboldt has shown that all the high elevations of the New World belong to that great chain which, under different denominations, extends from one of its extremities to the other, along its western coast, over a space of no less than 10,000 miles! The American mountains may, however, be divided into EIGHT SYSTEMS, or principal groups, three of which belong to North, and three to South America; and one each to the West Indian and Arctic archipelagoes. 1st. Of these systems, that of the ANDES, or PERUVIAN SYSTEM, is by far the most gigantic. This vast chain of mountains commnences at Cape Horn, in about the 56th deg. of south latitude, and following pretty closely the line of the west coast of the continent, to which it forms, as it were, a huge bulwark, stretches north to the bay of Panama, in about the 9th deg. of north latitude. But at Popayan, in about 21 deg. north latitude, the chain is divided into three great ridges, of which the most westerly takes the direction above mentioned. The name iordillera, sometimes given to the entire chain, belongs properly only to the highest ridge. In parts the chain consists only of one ridge, and in others of two or three, enclosing Alpine valleys of vast height, and sometimes of great extent. It has, next to the Himmalaya chain, the highest summits known to exist; and its mean elevation may be taken at from 10,000 to 12,000 feet. Chimborazo, near Quito, 21,400 feet above the level of the sea, was formerly supposed to be the highest summit of the Andes, but the researches of Mr. Pentland have shown that it is far surpassed in altitude by Zorata and Ilimani, near lake Titicaca, which respectively rise to the prodigious elevation of 25,250 feet (nearly 10,000 feet higher than Mont Blanc) and 24,000 feet. 2d. The SYSTEM OF LA PARIME, or Guyana, embraces the mountains scattered over the immense island formed by the Orinoco, Cassiquiari, Rio Negro, and Amazon. It consists of an irregular group of mountains, separated from each other by plains, savannas, and immense forests. The Sierra de Parime may be regarded as its principal chain. The peak of Duida, 8,312 feet in height, is the culminating point of the chain and of the whole system. 3d. The BRAZILIAN SYSTEM, embracing the mountains that lie between Amazon, Paraguay, and Rio de la Plata. The Sierra de Espinhazo is its NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 2a most eJ -ated chain. It traverses, under different denominations, the province, of Bahia, Minas-Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, San Paulo, and the northern extremity of the province of San Pedro. Its culminating points are Itambe and the Sierra da Piedade, nearly 6,000 feet high, in the province of Minas-Gera&s. 4th. In North America, the principal mountain system is that of the MEXICAN ALPS and ROCKY MOUNTAINS, which may be regarded as a continuation of the Andes. In Mexico, it is divided into three distinct ridges; within which, between the parallels of 19 deg. and 24 deg. north latitude, are immense plateaus, elevated to the height of between 6,000 and 9,000 feet. The central cordillera of Mexico stretches from the 25th to the 38th deg. of latitude, separating the waters of the Rio del Norte, flowing southeast, from those of the Colorado, flowing south-west. The highest peaks in the ridge in Mexico, are the volcanoes of Pocatepetl, 17,060 feet, and Orosaba, 16,365 feet. From about the 38th deg. the ridge, which then begins to be called the Rocky Mountains, stretches north 28 deg. west, till it terminates near the mouth of the Mackenzie River, on the Arctic Sea, in about the 69th deg. of latitude, and 138th deg. of west longitude. Some peaks in this chain, between 52~ and 53~, are said to be nearly 16,000 feet above the level of the sea; and others, between 370 and 39~, have been ascertained to be from 10,000 to 12,000 feet in height. We have no accurate information respecting the height of the passes of the Rocky Mountains, nor of the altitude of their base above the sea; but on their east side is a very extensive tract, dry, sandy, and almost a desert. 5th. Parallel to the Rocky Mountains, and at no great distance from the sea, a chain of mountains runs north from the peninsula of California, till it is lost in Russian America. This chain, which has been called by Humboldt the CALIFORNIAN MARITIME ALPS, increases in altitude as it gets farther north. Mount Hood, near the 45th deg., on the south side of the Columbia or Oregon River, is said to be about 16,0)0 feet high; and Mount St. Helen's, about a degree farther north, on the north side of the Columbia, has an elevation of 14,000 feet. Mount Fairweather, in the 59th deg., is also 14,000 feet high, and Mount St. Elias, the loftiest in the chain, attains to an elevation of about 17,000 feet. The last two are volcanoes. Between the Rocky Mountains and the Maritime Alps is an extensive prairie tract, 700 miles in length, by from 100 to 200 miles in breadth. The Rocky Mountains and the Maritime Alps are connected by a ridge in about the 42d deg. of'latitude, dividing the waters which now flow north to the Columbia from those which flow south to the Colorado. 6th. The mountamns east of the Mississippi do not at all approach the Rocky Mountains in magnitude. They are included in what is called the ALLEGHANY OR APPALACHIAN SYSTEM, extending in a north-eastern by northern direction from Alabama, on the northern confines of Georgia, to the banks of the St. Lawrence, being about 1,200 miles in length, with a mean breadth of 100 miles. The White Mountains of New Hampshire, 7,300 feet above the level of the sea, are the highest in this range, which is crossed by the tidal waters of the Hudson River. The immense valley of the Mississippi lies between the Rocky and the Alleghany chains. 7th. Balbi proposes to embrace, under the denomination of ARCTIC 24 GE1NERAL DESCRIPTION OF SYiSTEM, all the mountains that are already, or that may hereafter be, dis covered within the Arctic archipelago. The culminating points of that system, in so far as they are at present known, are the Corn du Cerf, in Greenland, the height of which has been much, exaggerated, but which is probably above 8,000 feet, and the Aeraefi Taekull, in Iceland, 6,649 feeti'8th. The SYSTEM OF THE ANTILLES embraces the! mountains in the archipelago of that name. Its culminating points are, the Anton-Sepo, in -Hayti, nearly 9,000 feet in height; and the Sierra de Cobre, in Cuba, the raost elevated summits of which attain about the same height. PLATEAUS. -America has a great variety of- plateaus, some remarkable for their prodigious elevation, and others for their immense extent. Under the former are included the plateau of Titicaca, divided between Bolivia and Peru, comprising an area of about 18,000 square miles, with a mean elevation of above 13,000 feet.: The populous and well-cultivated plateau of Quito is elevated about 9,600 feet-; and the extensive plateau or tableland of Anahuac, in Mexico, from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. VOLCANOES. -'America has a great number of volcanoes, and -some of the most elevated volcanic mountains in the world:The State of Equador and the department of Cauca in New Grenada, the States of Nicaragua, San Salvador, and Guatemala in Central America, Chili, Russian America, and Iceland in Danish America, contain a great number of volcanoes. The most remarkable volcanic mountains are, Cotopaxi, Sanguay, and Pichincha, in the Columbian State of Equador; Pasto, Sotara, and Purace, in that of Cauca; Guagua-Plitina, or the volcano of Arequipa, and Sehama, in Peru; the volcanoes of Copiapo, Chilan, Antoco, and Peteroa, in Chili; those of Socomusco, Guatemala, or Fuego, Agua, Pacaya, San Salvador, Granada, and Telica, near St. Leon, of Nicaragua, in Central America; Popocatapetl, or the volcano of Puebla, Citlatepetl, or the volcano of Orizaba, the volcano of Colima, and that of Xorullo, in the Mexican confederation; St. Elias and'Fairweather, in the Californian Alps; the two volcanoes of the peninsula of Alashka, and those of the Aleutian islands; with Hekla, and others in Iceland. PLAINS. — In no other part of the world are the plains so vast. The immense space from the outlet of the Mackenzie river to the Delta of the Mississippi, and between the central chain of the Mexican system and Rocky Mountains, and the Alleghany, forms the largest plain, not of America only, but of the world; it embraces the basins' of: the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, Churchill or Nelson, almost the whole basin of the Missouri, nearly the whole basins of the Suskatchawan and Mackenzie River, and the entirevbasin of the Coppermine River. Four-fifths of that portion of this vast plain, which lies beyond the 50th: deg. of latitude, is a bleak and barren waste overspread with innumerable Takes, and bearing a striking resemblance to northern Asia; but its more southerly portion, orthat lying west of the Alleghany chain, and north from the Gulf of Mexico, differs widely in character from the other, being well wooded and: fertile on the east side, bare but not infertile in the middle, and becoming almost a desert in the extreme west. The second great plain of the New Continent is that Vf the Amazon:- it embraces the whole central part of South America, NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 25 comprising more than half Brazil, with south-west Columbia, the eastern part of the republic of Peru, and the northern part of Bolivia; its limits are nearly identical with those of the middle and lower parts of the immense basin of the Amazon and Tocantin. The plain of the Rio de la Plata extends between the Andes and their principal branches, and the mountains of Brazil, to the Atlantic ocean and the straits of Magellan. It embraces the south-west part of Brazil, Paraguay, the country of the Chiquitos, Chaco, with the greater part of the confederation of the Rio de la Plata, the State of Uruguay, and Patagonia. A large portion of it is known by the name of the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, or Rio de la Plata. The plain of the Orinoco, embracing the Llanos of New Granada and Venezuela, extends from Caqueta to the mouth of the Orinoco, along the Guaviare, Meta, and lower Oronoco. In some of the flat parts of America large tracts of territory are met with, which, in respect of aridity of soil, and of the sand by which they are covered, may be compared to the deserts of Asia and Africa. The most remarkable and most extensive of these tracts, are the deserts of Pernambuco, occupying a great part of the north-east plateau of Brazil; the desert of Atacama, extending, with some interruptions, along the coast of the Pacific from Tarapaca, in Peru, to Copiapo, in Chili; and the desert of Nuttal, at the east foot of the Rocky Mountains, between the upper Arkansas and Paduka, forming part of thecentral plain of North America. THE RIVERS OF AMERICA are on a much larger scale than those of any other portion of the globe, affording facilities of internal communication of vast importance, and quite unequalled anywhere else. The principal are the Amazon, Mississippi, Plata, St. Lawrence, and Orinoco. The Amazon flows east through the broadest part of South America, having. its emr bouchure under the equator. Its entire course is estimated at about 4,700 miles, and it has several large tributaries. Uninterrupted by either rocks or shallows, it is navigable for vessels of considerable burden to the east foot of the Andes, a distance, in a direct line, of above 2,000 miles from the sea; and though civilization has as yet made little or no progress in the vast and fertile regions through which it flows, there can be no doubt that it is destined to become as it were a great highway for many powerful nations; and to have its banks thickly set with populous towns and emporiums. The Mississippi drains one of the largest and finest basins in the world. It has its sources in the brooks which form the small lake Itaska, about 470 10' north latitude, on a high table-land, 1,500 feet above the level of the sea, and 3,200 miles from the mouth of the river, following the windings of the stream, but only 1,250 in a straight line. Rising in a region of swamps and wild rice lakes, it flows at first through low prairies, and then in a broken course through forests of elm, maple, birch, oak, and ash, till, at the Falls of St. Anthony, 1,100 miles from its source, it tumbles over a limestone ridge, with a fall of 17 feet. The river is here 600 yards wide. Below this point it is bounded by limestone bluffs, from 100 to 400 feet high, and first begins to exhibit islands, drift-wood and sand-bars. Its current is slightly broken by the Rock River and Desmoines Rapids, which, however, present no very considerable interruption to navigation; and 850 miles below the Falls of St. Anthony, it receives from the west the stream 26 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF of the Missouri. Between the mouth of the Missouri and the sea, a distance of 1,220 miles, it receives its principal tributaries; —the Ohio from the east, and the Arkansas and Red River from the west, and immediately below the mouth of the latter, it gives off, in times of flood, a portion of its surplus waters to the Atchafalaya. Below the Atchafalaya it discharges a portion of its waters by the Lafourche and the Iberville; but the greater part of itscontents flows on in the main channel, which passes through a flat tract, and reaches the Gulf of Mexico at the end of a long projecting tongue of mud, formed by.the deposites of the current. Near the sea it divides into several channels, here called passes, with bars at their mouths, on which are from 12 to 14 feet of water. Before the introduction of steam vessels, the river was navigated by keel-boats, which, in going upward, were rowed along the eddies of the stream, or drawn by ropes along the shore; and by this tedious process more than three months were consumed in ascending from New Orleans to the Falls of the Ohio; a passage which is now made in five or six days. The first steamboat was introduced in 1811; there are now upwards of 1,000 on the river. The boldest flights of imagination can hardly figure what the Mississippi will be, when the rich and fruitful countries on its banks, and those of its affluents, are all fully peopled, and making use of its waters to send abroad their surplus products, and to import those of other countries and climates. The M3issouri, is navigable to the foot of the great falls, and steamboats have gone up the stream 2,200 miles from its junction with the Mississippi. It rises in the Rocky Mountains, and some of its sources are within a mile of those of the Columbia. The falls in several parts of this river are only inferior to those of Niagara. In a course of 17 miles it has a descent of 360 feet, and in that space, besides the Great Falls, of 90 feet perpendicular and 300 yards wide, and a fine fall of 50 feet, there are several others of from 12 to 20 feet. The Missouri thence flows through vast prairies, and soon after receiving the Yellow Stone, a large, navigable stream, takes a south and south-east course to the Mississippi. The Ohio is, next to the Missouri, the most important of the tributaries of the Mississippi. This river is formed by the union of the Alleghany, 850 miles long, and the Monongahela, 300 miles, at Pittsburg, from which place to the Mississippi it has a course of 950 miles, receiving, in its progress, numerous navigable streams from both sides; from the north, the Muskingum, the Big Beaver, Scioto, Miami and Wabash; and from the south, the Kanhawa, Big Sandy, Kentucky, Greene, Cumberland and Tennessee. The whole region drained by this fine river includes an area of 200,000 square miles, rich in the most useful natural productions, and enjoying a mild and healthful climate. The breadth of the stream varies from 400 to 1,400 yards, and the annual range between mean water and flood is more than 50 feet. The floods occur in December and on the melting of the snow in spring. The navigation is usually impeded by ice in the winter, and, in the upper part of the river, by drouth in summer; but during the other seasons the stream is covered with steamers and river craft, carrying on an active trade. The Arkansas exceeds the Ohio in size, but its course is generally through an almost desert country, which diminishes its importance. The navigation is insecure, and in summer, in many parts, the stream is dried NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 27 up. Steamboats ply only from its mouth to Fort Gibson, 420 miles, while its whole length is estimated to be 2,500 miles. The Red River rises in the Mexican Cordillera, and hence pursues a course south and east to the Mississippi, forming in part the north boundary of the State of Texas. The obstructions which formerly impeded navigation have been partly removed; steamboats ply on its bosom the whole length of its navigable course. The 1linois is formed in the north part of the State of the same name, by the junction of the Kankakee from Indiana and the Des-Plaines from Wisconsin, from which it flows 200 miles to the Mississippi. It is navigable to the Falls of Ottawa. In some places the river expands to such a width as to have the appearance of a lake; and one expanse of this kind, 20 miles long, has received the name of Lake Peoria. The Kankakee rises within two miles of the St. Joseph, which falls into Lake Michigan, and in the wet season boats may pass from one to the other. The Plata, which runs south, with a slight inclination to the east, is the grand channel of communication to a very large portion of South America. Its course may be estimated at about 2,500 miles; and its basin is inferior only to that of the Amazon or the Mississippi. The St. Lawrence, with its connected lakes, or rather great inland seas, is the grand outlet of the largest fresh water system in the world. Including the lakes, its course exceeds 2,000 miles. It is remarkable for the equality of its current, which is nearly uniform throughout the year. The Orinoco has a course of about 1,800 miles, and carries to the sea an immense body of water. There is a water communication between one of its affluents, the Cassiquiari, and the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon. Owing to the circumstance of the Andes, and their prolongation in North America, being generally within a comparatively short distance of the western coast, there is not, in most parts, room in the intervening space for the formation of any great river. Hence, notwithstanding the prodigious length of the western coast, it only receives two large rivers, and these not of the first class; the Rio Colorado, falling into the bottom of the Gulf of California, and the Columbia or Oregon. Their course may be estimated at about 1,100 miles each. The Mackenzie is the only great river flowing into the Arctic Sea. It has a north north-west course; it is connected by a series of lakes and tributary streams with Lake Superior, and consequently with the St, Lawrence. LAKs. — No part of the world has so many lakes as North America, especially that portion between 42~ and 670 of latitude, which might be justly called the lake region. It presents not only the greatest masses of fresh water on the surface of the globe, but so many smaller lakes and morasses, that their enumeration is almost impossible. These lakes form a most important feature in the physical geography of the New World. In the rainy season several of them overflow their banks; and temporary communications are then established between rivers whose embouchures are frequently at immense distances from each other. The great lakes of 28 GENERAL DESCRMLTION OF North America are, Lake Superior, Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, Erie, and Ontario. These, which are all connected together, discharge their superfluous waters by the St. Lawrence, and form the vast reservoir of fresh water, sometimes called the Sea of Canada. Lake Superior has a length of 420 miles, and an extreme breadth of 165 miles; its circuit is about 1,750, and its area has been estimated at 32,000 square miles. Its surface is 596 feet above the level of the sea; but as its depth varies fiom 500 to 900 feet, and is even supposed to be in some places, 1,200 feet; its bottom lies far below the level of the ocean. The basin which is drained by this great lake is estimated at 100,000 square miles, and has 220 rivers and streamlets to convey the waters deposited within it. The water is very pure and cold; the bottom consists of adhesive clay. The shore on the north consists of lofty rocks, from 300 to i,500 feet high, and is lined with numerous islands; the southern shore is chiefly low and sandy, interrupted here and there by limestone rocks, and is wholly destitute of bays or any other shelter. Lake Huron receives the waters of Lake Superior through the river St. Mary's, which is about 30 miles in length, with falls of 30 feet, 221 of which occur at the Sault or Rapids of St. Mary's, extending over a space of two miles. Greatest length 250, and breadth 220 miles; its circuit is 1,200 miles, and its area about 20,000 square miles. The surface of this lake is 578 feet above the level of the sea, and its average depth is 1,000 feet. The shores are much similar to those of Lake Superior; high and rocky on the north, and low and swampy on the south. On the west side of the lake is a large inlet called Saginaw Bay. Lake Afichigan lies in the same level with Huron, and indeed is properly a part of it, the two being connected by the Straits of Michilimackinac, which is four miles wide at the narrowest part. Length 300, and breadth from 80 to 90 miles; area 22,000 square miles, and the greatest depth 900 feet. Green Bay, on its west side, is nearly detached from the lake by a long, narrow peninsula, and several islands. Lake Erie is 265 miles long and 63 in breadth in the middle. Its surface is 565 feet above the level of the sea, and has an area of 9,600 square miles. The shores are low, but in a few places interrupted by rocky cliffs: towards the west there are extensive marshes on both sides. The want of sheltered bays has rendered it necessary to resort to pier harbors; the mouths of the rivers are also obstructed by sand-bars. The river Niagara, 33 miles in length, forms the outlet of Lake Erie, and has a descent of 334 feet to Lake Ontario. Of this, 165 feet form one perpendicular fall, and 51 feet the descent of the rapids in the half mile immediately above the falls. Below the falls, the Niagara flows through a deep, rock-bound chasm, the sides of which are formed by mural precipices, nearly 300 feet high, as far as Queenstown, where the ground sinks down almost to the level of the river. The great fall, 20 miles from Lake Erie, is divided by Goat Island into two portions, one of which, named the Horse Shoe Falls, from its semi-circular form, has a lineal extent of 600 yards on the Canadian side; the other, an extent of 300 yards on the American side. For grandeur and sublimity the FALLS OF NIAGARA are unequaled and unsurpassed by any other natural scene in the world. President NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 29 Dwight estimated the quantity of water precipitated over the falls at 11,524,375 tons an hour; Darby at 1,672,704,000 cubic feet per hour; and Pickens at 113,510,000 gallons, or 18,524,000 cubic feet a minute. Lake Ontario is about 200 miles in length; its greatest breadth is 60; its circuit 470; its area 6,300 square miles; its surface 232 feet above the level of the sea, and its depth from 300 to 600 feet. The shores are generally low, but between Toronto and the Bay of Quinte they are higher. The next in size and importance are Lakes Winnipeg, Athabasco, Great Slave Lake, and Great Bear Lake, stretching north north-west from Lake Superior to near the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and forming as it were a continuation of the Canadian lakes. There are some considerable lakes in the Mexican States; and the comparatively small lakes of Tezeaco, Xochimilco, &c., in the valleys of Mexico, are remarkable for their elevated situation, their vicinity to the capital, and the superb works undertaken to prevent the damage caused by their frequent overflowing. The Lake Nicaragua, in Central America, is remarkable for its size, the beauty of its scenery, its volcanoes, and from its forming the basis of the works projected for uniting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The limited size of the principal lakes of South America, strikingly contrasts with the dimensions of those of North America. The Lake of Titicaca, the largest and most celebrated of the South American lakes, is situated near the north-west frontier of Bolivia, or Upper Peru, in an Alpine valley surrounded by ridges of the Andes. It covers an area of above 4,000 square miles, and is elevated 12,795 feet above the level of the sea! Manco Capac made his first appearance on the banks of this lake. The basins of the Rio Colorado, or MIendoza, and Rio Negro, present several very extensive lakes; but these are really rather vast morasses, than lakes properly so called. ISLANDS. -A multitude of islands belong to America. We shall briefly notice the principal, in the order of the seas in which they are situated. In the Atlantic Ocean are, the archipelago of St. Lawrence, or of Newfoundland, at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The great Columbian archipelago, or Antilles, commonly called the West Indies, comprises a great number of islands and secondary groups, lying between the peninsula of Florida and the delta of the Orinoco. The Lucayos, or Bahama Islands, a vast secondary group, are situated to the north of Cuba. Towards the southern extremity of the New Continent, are the Falkland, or Malouine Islands, which have no fixed inhabitants; in the southern ocean is the archipelago of Magellan and Terra del Fuego, the most southerly inhabited part of the world. The Antarctic archipelago, or Antarctic lands, under which denomination we include all the islands situated beyond 56~ south latitude, next claim attention. The greater part of these islands have been recently discovered; they are all uninhabited, are mostly covered with ice, and are important only to whale and seal fishers. In Behring's Sea are the group of Pribylof and Nounivok, belonging to Russia. The Arctic Ocean presents a vast number of islands, the majority of which, previously to a late voyage of discovery, were regarded as parts of the American continent. The CLIMATE of America is nearly as celebrated for the predominance of cold, as that of Africa for the predominance of heat. With the excep 30 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF tion of the limited space along its western shore, between the Andes in th'e south, and the maritime Alps in the north, the temperature of the New World, in the same latitude, is everywhere inferior to that of the Old. Countries which, from their geographical position, we should suppose to be mild and temperate, are exposed to long and severe winters, during which they are wholly covered with snow; and in point of fact, the entire continent of North America above the 50th deg. of latitude is all but uninhabitable. Even in the 45th parallel, on the north side of the Canadian lakes, frost is continuous for more than six months. Occasional frosts occur as low down the Atlantic coast as the confines of Florida, near the 30th deg. of latitude, in the parallel of Morocco, Cairo, and Suez. This predominance of cold is no doubt ascribable to a great variety of causes; among the most prominent of which may be placed the extraordinary elevation of the soil. Not only is the continent traversed from one extremity to the other by immense chains of mountains covered with perpetual snow, but in many parts, as in Mexico and Columbia, very extensive plains are found at an elevation of from 6,000 to 10,000 feet above the level of the sea! Thus the plain of Quito, immediately under the equator, has an elevation of above 9,600 feet, and its mean temperature is said not to exceed 530 Fahr. In some parts, where the plateaus rise rapidly, there is often, within a few leagues, an extraordinary change of temperature. At Vera Cruz and Guayaquil, for example, on the borders of the plains of Mexico and Quito, and nearly on a level with the sea, the heat is often quite oppressive. These different climates have different vegetable productions. " Hence the traveler journeying down the deep descent of one of these magnificent ravines (leading from the plateau of Mexico), through forests of birches, oaks, and pines, finds himself suddenly on the level shores of the Rio Alvarado, surrounded by palms, and has an opportunity of seeing the animal products of the north and south, of the Alpine regions and tropics, nay of the eastern and western hemispheres, mingled together. Wolves of northern aspect dwelling in the vicinity of monkeys; hummingbirds returning periodically from the borders of the frozen zone, with the northern bunting and soft-feathered titmice, to nestle near parrots; and the common European whistling-ducks and teal, swimming in lakes which swarm with syrens and Brazilian parras and boatbills." Another cause of the inferior temperature of the New World may be partly ascribed to the great indentation of the sea between North and South America, and the absence of those extensive sandy deserts in the tropical regions, which, by reflecting the rays of the sun, render Africa so uncommonly heated. The place of these is supplied by dense forests, and traversed by the largest rivers of the world, which powerfully diminish the influence of the solar beams. A strong and abundant vegetation is, in fact, the distinguishing characteristic of North as well as South America, and to this fact may be attributed much of the difference which distinguishes the Old from the New World. And with respect to North America, we may add, that while but a small portion of it is within the torrid zone, it reaches far within the Arctic circle, where it also attains to a great breadth. The north-west wind prevails in the winter. This wind, sweeping over a desolate country, over* Richardson's Zoology of North America NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 31 spread with marshes, forests, frozen lakes, and mountains buried under eternal snow, contracts an intense degree of cold, and in its progress southward, passing over a wilderness, where the forests shade the earth from the sun, its original character is in no respect changed. It slowly yields to the dominion of latitude, and retains its boreal character long after it has penetrated into the natural regions of heat. Throughout North America the north wind is accordingly felt to be keen and piercing. It increases the rigor of the seasons, and extends the influence of winter far into those latitudes, which, in the other hemisphere, are blessed with perpetual spring. The countries lying within the tropics are exposed to the inroads of the northern blasts; and the great heats felt at Vera Cruz and other seaboard cities, are often suddenly reduced by strata of cold air brought by the north winds from the polar regions. These winds blow from October to March, frequently bursting forth in tremendous hurricanes —" northers," and cooling the air to such a degree, that at Vera Cruz the thermometer very frequently falls to 600 Fahr. In the basin of Mexico, the temperature has sometimes marked the freezing point and thin ice has been formed on stagnant pools. To the prevalence of these north winds, therefore, combined with the extraordinary elevation of the surface and the yet uncultivated state of the country, overspread with vast forests, the inferior temperature of North America seems ascribable. But with this great inconvenience, the climate of' the continent is healthy, and the rate of mortality not greater, in the more elevated regions, than that of the Old World, and in some of the middle districts longevity is a distinguishing feature in its vital statistics. In South America nearly the same causes operate. The country is even more desolate: the climate is more inclined to moisture, and liable, beyond the 40th parallel, to dreadful tempests; while immense mountain ranges, rising far above the limit of perpetual snow, aid' these effects, and greatly increase the rigor of the seasons. To these causes may be added the form of the American continent, which, being greatly contracted in breadth as it approaches the south, is, in consequence, exposed on every side, except towards the north, to the surrounding oceanic winds. To the south of Cape Horn is the great Antarctic Ocean, where cold prevails even to a much greater degree than in the north, so that the winds coming from those inhospitable seas bring to the American continent all the unmitigated rigor of the polar regions. The Andes and maritime Alps protect the strip of territory between them and the Pacific Ocean from the freezing influence of the north-west wind; and to this its greater mildness is partly, at least, if not wholly, owing. VEGETATION. -— Stretching, as America does, from the eternal snows of the Arctic to those of the Antarctic circle, and possessing soils of every elevation and quality, her vegetable products are necessarily of the most diversified description. Owing to the prevalent humidity and coolness of the climate, and the richness of the soil, her forests and pastures are unrivalled for extent, luxuriance, and magnificence. The forests consist generally of very heavy timber, including many species of pines and larches unknown in Europe, with an endless variety of oaks, maples, cypresses, tulip trees, mahogany trees, logwood, Brazil-wood, &c., &c. The Old — r- r-ii.~~~~~W AMERICAN ZOOLOGY -BISON.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~-i~ /`4),3:~ ~-i ci/'jSr, isn pj"-`; -` —"4~ __..__ -,I t ~3, I- --- - I (i -=likiF\ Y -- -— ~.~ -= —— s- ——;l — —; —---------— — — L —--- =--I;L-E =L= —-— 1-1 - ---?'-" srJ — --,;bl~ya —rLBFCGL3isSwsl, cCPSPZSiib I =~iT -II —LC7; i —- ---— =;_- T —I-,-;iO=L i :C-L~-c-7 Y=5;-C1 =-L " f —3ir-? lbG Ir ru3-"; — ------— —- —i_ NATURAL HISTORP —PRAIRIE DOGS —BURROING 07L3. 34 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF World is indebted to the New for some of its most useful and widely-diffused vegetable productions. Potatoes, though probably not introduced into Europe for more than a century after the discovery of America, al ready form a most important part of the food of most European nations; and tobacco, though it also be of American origin, has been diffused from one extremity of the Old World to the other, and is, perhaps, the most universally esteemed of all luxuries. Maize, or Indian corn, millet, cocoa, vanilla, pimento, copaiba, cinchona or bark, so important in medicine, jalap, sassafras, nux vomica, &c., are also American. The Cactus cochinilifer, which furnishes the cochineal, is also peculiar to America. On the other hand, America is indebted to the Old World for a great variety of cereal grasses, trees, and fruits. At the head of the former may be placed wheat, barley, oats, and rice, all of which succeed admirably well in large portions of America. It seems pretty well established that the sugar-cane is indigenous to some of the West Indian islands; but it is abundantly certain, not merely that the art of making sugar, but that the cane, now most generally cultivated in the islands and in continental America, was brought to them either from the East Indies or from Madeira. America is also indebted to the Old World for the coffee plant, now one of her staple products; and for oranges, lemons, peaches, and most descriptions of fruit trees. American apples, though now very superior to any produced in that country, are derived from plants brought from England. The vine is raised in America, and an excellent quality of wine manufactured from a native grape. The tea-plant has been tried in Brazil; but, owing to the dearness of labor, there is no chance of its being profitably cultivated there, or anywhere else in America. The ZOOLOGY of America differs in many important respects from that of the Old World. With few exceptions, she is singularly ill provided with the useful animals. Neither the horse, ox, sheep, nor hog, were found in America on her discovery by Columbus; and the want of them must, no doubt, have been a considerable obstacle to the advancement of the natives in the career of civilization. The elephant and the camel are also unknown in America; but she was not entirely destitute of useful animals. In Peru they had the llama, guanaco, paco, and vicunna-animals that bear a considerable resemblance to each other, if they be not of the same species. The first has a considerable analogy to the camel, though it is neither so large nor strong, and wants the hump. It was, and still is, employed to carry loads, and, being docile and sure-footed, makes its way over the most dangerous paths. Its pace is slow, seldom exceeding twelve or fifteen miles a day, and it usually carries about eighty pounds. Its wool, or, rather, hair, which is generally, but not always, white, is spun and made into articles of clothing. The guanacos and pacos are not so serviceable asbeasts of burden as the llamas, and are comparatively little used. The vicunna, the smallest of them all, inhabits the least accessible parts of the Andes; it is chiefly prized on account of its wool, which is of a very superior quality. The flesh of these animals, though dry and coarse, is used as food. They are almost the only animals that the native inhabitants of America had been able to subdue, and to render subservient to their purposes. The bison, or American ox, (Bos Americanus), the largest native quadruped of the New World, is principally found on the NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 35 prairie lands of the Rocky Mountains, in North America. It is rarely, if ever, seen to the south of the Mississippi; and it is doubtful whether it was ever found on the Atlantic coast. The Bos mosehatus, or musk ox, is found only in the most northern parts of America to the west of Hudson's Bay, from 66~ to 730 north latitude. Its horns, which cover all the forehead, are often of great weight. The Rocky Mountain goat, remarkable for the fineness of its wool, inhabits the Rocky Mountains from Mexico to the extremity of the range. Several species of deer are found both in North and South America. The rein-deer is the most northern ruminating animal, being found in Greenland and the remotest of the Arctic islands. On the western coast it descends as low as the Columbia River. America possesses several peculiar species of the genus Canis, or dog. The physiognomy of the American wolf, when contrasted with that of its European namesake, is very distinct. There is a great variety of foxes. The fur of the Canis lagopus, or arctic fox, and of some other varieties of the same genus, is of considerable value. The best known variety of the American dog is the Canis familiaris, found in Newfoundland. This animal is now very common, and is deservedly a great favorite. It is strong and active, has long, fine glossy hair, a curved bushy tail, and webbed toes, by means of which it swims admirably well. The color of the back and sides is generally black, with a white belly and legs, and frequently a white spot at the tip of the tail. It is naturally fitted, by its thick covering of hair, for a cold climate, and is more active and in better health in winter than in summer. The beaver (Castor) is more abundant, perhaps, in the north-west parts of North America than in any other parts of the world. But the great demand for, and high price of its fur, has led to a great diminution of its numbers, and to its nearly total extirpation in the more accessible parts of the country. The coypou, known in commerce by the name of nutria, and the chinchilla, are found in South America. They yield a highly esteemed fur, and immense quantities of their skins are now exported. America has but few beasts of prey. The most formidable, the Pelis onca, or jaguar, is found only in South America. It is larger and stronger than the panther, but is inferior in size and ferocity to the Bengal tiger, with which it is generally compared. The Pelis discolor, or puma, is found in both South and North America: though denominated the American lion, it is neither so large nor fierce as the jaguar. A number of bears, some of them of the largest and most formidable description, are found in Arctic America: two are peculiar to it. Tropical America has a great variety of apes, but none of them approach so nearly to the human form as the orang outang, or chimpanzee, and none of them have the ferocity of the baboon. Many, however, have prehensile tails, endowed with so great delicacy of touch that they have been compared to the trunk of the elephant. This fits them admirably for traveling from tree to tree. The vampyre bat, frequent in South America, is very dangerous. It attacks the larger animals, and even man himself, when asleep; and as its bite is not sufficiently painful to awaken the victim, the bleeding it occasions sometimes proves fatal. America is infested by an immense number of reptiles. Of these pests the rattlesnake is one of the most common, and also the most dangerous: ci~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.':'-'-~'i~:"-'~?.....'~"~'~'' ~'.'~",~>'' "~ itii'~J'~"i:~,"''''.... ~ —— ~-_L_:~ui~rli ~ ir..~~~~~~~~~~~)~5~ _.ii j, iiI I rLJ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. i~~~9iid)!i~~~~~~jbf~:~~ ~ ~~~~, l~.-.- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I!lt ~ Pi u::-.~_ ~.__ -"'~ ~ ~ C; ~"V.L'~~~~~ - ---------, --- --------'' r Cl;'"?"? i _ _ -~ ~!! EAG~LE AND EAGLETS. 38 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF but there are others little less venomous. The true boa constrictor is found of an enormous size in the marshes and swamps of tropical America. Centipedes, sometimes a yard in length, with enormous spiders, scorpions, &c., abound in these regions. According to Humboldt, the white ants and termites are even more destructive here than their congeners in the Old World. The birds of America are exceedingly numerous. The condor, which inhabits the most inaccessible parts of the Andes, though of less dimensions than was formerly supposed, is the largest and most powerful of all the feathered tribes. There are also a great many eagles, vultures, falcons, and other birds of prey. A species of ostrich, but smaller than the African, inhabits the Pampas; and the woods of both Americas are the resort of vast flocks of wild turkeys, pigeons, &c. The waters of America are well supplied with fish; and the rivers in the tropical regions produce also enormous lizards and alligators. In the lakes of the Caraccas is found the electric eel. Nothing, however, is so worthy of remark, in relation to the zoology of America, as the wonderful increase of the horses and cattle brought here from Europe. Had we not been fully aware of all the circumstances in regard to their immigration, it would certainly have been supposed that they were indigenous to America, and that it, in fact, was their native country. They here rove about in immense herds in a state of pristine freedom; and so numerous have they become that the slaughter of oxen, not for the carcass, but merely for the hide, is the principal business of many extensive provinces. In a single year above 800,000 hides have been exported from Brazil only, exclusive of those exported from Buenos Ayres, Montevideo, and other ports! In consequence, too, of the extraordinary increase of horses, the mode of existence of the natives in several parts has been wholly changed; they have become expert horsemen, and pass a considerable part of their time on horseback, approaching in this respect to the Tartars and Arabs of the ancient world. Sheep have not succeeded so well in America as cattle and horses; and their wool, in most parts, is generally of an inferior description. MINERALS.-The mineral riches of America are probably superior to those of any other of the grand divisions of the globe. The discovery of the mines of Mexico and Peru effected an entire revolution in the value of the precious metals; and those regions still continue to be the grand sources whence supplies of gold and silver are derived. The annexed tables will answer the purpose of a general review of the principal mining districts. MINERALOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF NORTH AMERICA. GOLD. -Mexico, (North-western Provinces;) United States, (California, North and South Carolina, and Georgia;, Central America. SILveR. - Mexico, (Central Provinces;) Central America; United States, (in the Lead Districts of Lake Superior, &c.) TLN. - Mexico; United States, (California.) MERCURY. — Mexico. COPPER. - Mexico; United States, (New Jersey, New York, and the region of Lake Superior, &c.) LEAD. - Mexico; United States, (Illinois, Missouri, New York, &c.) lRON. —United States, (New Jersey. I'ennsylvania, Mas.sahusetts, Connecticut, South Carolina, New York Marylanl, Ohio, &c.:) Mexico; Canada. (mines at St. Mlaurice, &c.;) and Central America. COAL. - Cape LBreton; Nova Scotia; United States, (Pennsylvania, &c.) SALT. - United States, (New York, Mlassachusetts, Kentucky, Illinois, Ohio, Missouri, and California;) Central America, (Iounduras, &c.;) M1exico, (Oaxaa, &ac.;) &c. NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 39 MINERALOGICAL PRODUCTIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA. DIANONDS. - Brazil, (Minas-Geraes, &c.) OTHER PRECIOUS STONES.- Brazil, (Minas-Geraes, &c.;) New Grenada, (Cundinamarca, &c.;) Chili, and Peru. GOLD. -New Grenada, (San Juan, Cauca, Choco, &c.;) Equador; Peru; Bolivia; Chili, (in the region of the Cordilleras, &c.:) Brazil, (Minas-Geraes, Goyas, and Matta-Grasso;) and the Argentine Republic, (region of the Andes, &c.) SILVER. - Bolivia; Peru; Chili, and Argentine Republic. TIN. - Peru. MERCURY. - Peru, (Huancavelica, mines of Santa Barbara.) COPPER.- Peru and Chili. IRON. -Brazil, (Minas-Geraes, St. Paul's, &c.;) Peru. COAL.- Peru; Chili, and several other States. SALT.- Argentine Republic; Brazil, (Rio Grande de Norte, Parsa, &c.;) Venezuela; New Grenada; Bolivia; Peru, &c. SALTPETRE. -Peru, (abundant.) RACES OF MEN. -The native inhabitants of America differ in physical form, in language, and perhaps in intellectual character, from every other variety of the human race. Probably, however, the general agreement which exists among themselves is even more remarkable than their disagreement from other races. The Red men, as the Americans call themselves, in contradistinction to the European and African races (that is, to the Whites and Blacks, the only two they have any knowledge of), exhibit surprisingly little difference, although extending over 70~ on the north side, and 540 on the south side of the equator. Heat or cold, drouth or moisture, elevation or depression of surface, have certainly no effect in the production even of the small variations occasionally discoverable among them. "The Indians of New Spain," says Humboldt, "bear a close resemblance to those who inhabit Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. Over 1,500,000 square leagues, from Cape Horn to the St. Lawrence and Behring's Straits, we are struck at the first glance with the general resemblance in the features of the inhabitants. We think we perceive them all to be descended from the same stock, notwithstanding the prodigious diver sity of their languages. In the portrait drawn by Volney of the Canadian Indians, we recognize the tribes scattered over the savannahs of the Apure and the Carony. The same style of feature exists in both Americas." The general physical form is as follows: Skin dark, having more or less of a red tinge, usually called copper color, but thought to be more correctly characterized by that of cinnamon; hair of the head black, coarse, lank, shining, long, but not very abundant; hair on other parts of the body very deficient. The beard is seldom altogether wanting, but iq so uniformly scanty, as often to present the appearance of its being so. Forehead long; eyes deep sunk, small, and black; face broad across the cheeks, which are round and prominent; nose well raised, and round at the apex; mouth large and lips thick; chest high, thighs massy, legs arched, feet large, hands and wrists small. The height is nearly the mean stature of the European race, but the body is usually more squat and thick set. The countenance is hard-favored, and the look stern, yet with a certain sweetness in the expression of the mouth, which is a contrast to the rest of the features. It will appear, from this statement, that the races which the American most nearly resembles, are the Mongul, Malayan, and IndoChinese. The features of the face are, however, more amply chiseled than in any of these; the frontal bone is more flattened than in any of them, and the stature is greater than it is, at least, in the Malayan race. Although in the tropical regions of America there are no black men, as in Africa and Asia, nor in the temperate regions any whites, as in Europe, still varieties do exist in an inferior degree, which may be compared to 40 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF those which exist among Europeans and among negroes. The most striking of these are found in the short, squat and tallow-colored Esquimaux, about the polar regions of the north, and the tall Patagonians, in the extreme south of the southern continent. The first of these differ in no respect, as far as physical form is concerned, from the people of the same name in Asia and Europe. In point of height, the several Indian nations differ materially even on the same continent; and, upon the whole, it may be remarked, that the American race exhibits a wider difference in stature than any other family of mankind, while this difference, at the same time, would not seem to be productive of any essential variation in either physical or intellectual capacity. In point of color, there is no material difference, except in shade. The probability is, after all, that the number of races of men in America is at least as great as in any other part of the world, but still, throughout the whole, the contour of a distinct family is perceptible, and the same features are alike recognized from the north to to the south, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The intellectual faculties of this great family are decidedly inferior. They are not only averse to the restraints of education, but are incapable of abstract reasoning. Their minds seize on simple truths, but reject all investigation and analysis. Their long proximity to Europeans has caused but little change in their mode of thinking or their manner of life, and their social condition is not far removed from the primitive barbarism in which they existed on the first visits of civilized man. The Indian is truly the man of the woods, and, like the wild animals he lives upon, he is destined to disappear before the advancing tide of civilization, which falls upon him like a blight, because it supplies new food to nourish his vices, while it demands intellectual and moral faculties, in which he is deficient, and renders useless those qualities which predominate in his character. Neither is there any thing in the extinction of these people by natural means which humanity should mourn over. In every state of life man has but a brief span of existence allotted to him. Successive generations fall like the leaves of the forest; and the extinction of a race of men by natural causes, means merely the suspension of those circumstances which enabled it to continue its existence. POPULATION. -Besides the original inhabitants, vast numbers of Europeans, of all nations, have emigrated to America since its discovery by Columbus, tempted originally, for the most part, by the auri sacra fames. It was this same passion, taking it in its most literal and degrading sense, that has made them fill the Antilles, and part also of the continent, with millions of negroes brought from Africa, and reduced, with their descendants, to a state of slavery. But at a later period America furnished an asylum for the victims of political and religious persecution in the Old World; and for these many years she has offered an all but inexhaustible field for the profitable employment of its redundant capital, skill, and labor; and thousands upon thousands, who could hardly contrive to exist on that side of the Atlantic, have attained, if not to opulence, at least to comfort and independence, in America. Hence she has long been, and still continues to be, the promised land of the poor but industrious man; and a city of refuge to all who happen to be discontented with the policy, or who have given offence to the rulers of the Old World. NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 41 ESTIMATE OF THE AREA AND POPULATION OF THE AMERICAN STATES IN 1850: GOVERNMENTS OF NORTH AMERICA. States. Form of Govern- Area in Sq. Population Capitaes. Population. states. Csmentpitals. Miles. Danish America, (Greenlnd, &c.).... Province..... Rekiavik.......... 80,000 65,000 French Possessions, (St. PIielTre. &c.). Province..... St. Pierre......... 18 100 Russian America.................... Province......... N. Archangel.. 394,000,000 New Britain............. ritish Province.............. Y ork Factory.. 2,000,000 162686 Canada.................. British Province.. 147,000 723,0S7 Canada East........................ British Province.. oronto 209,690 68.334 New BrunsL ick..... British Province.. Frederickton....... 27,700 220,000 Nova Scotia. &c. British Province.. Halifax............ 19,630 278,905 Prince Edward's Island.............. British Province.. Charlottetown..... 2,134 62.678 Newfoundland...................... British Province.. St. John's........... 57,000 911264 United States of America............. Republic......... lVWashington....... 3260,073 23,6i4.4607 United States of Mexico.............. Republic......... Mexco............. 1,1000 7.200000 Guateala...... epubic......... New Guatemala.... 28,000' 35.000 San Salvador. Central......... Republic San Salvador..... 24,000 3638,00( Nicaragua.....L..o.. 40,000 40000 IartinirlIe.R epublio.n Ca....rtago... 23,000 198,000 Costa Rica.. Aepublic......... Cartage........... 23,000 1938,000 Honduras............. Republic......... Chiquimala...... 81,000 308,000 Mosquitia...............Bew.. Blefields........ 23,000 4,000 Balize............................. British Province.. Balize............ 62,740 3,000 Total............................................................. 7,898,985 35,123,661 VEST INDIAN GOVERNMENTS. States. Form of Govern- Capitals. Areain. Population. Hayti-.... ESa D in, Empire....... Cape Haytien...... 11,000 00,000 Dominca............. Republic......... San Domingo...... 18,000 200,000 Cuba.. Spanish Province. avana........... 43,380 1,315,796 Porto Rico.......................... Spanish Province. San Juan......... 3,865 359,086 Jamaica.............. British Province. Spanish Town. 5,468 360.000 Trinidad............................. British Province Puerta d'Espagne.. 2,400 47,000 Tobago.............. British Province Scarboro' 187 15.000 Grenada.................. British Province St. George's....... [55 49,000 St. Vincent's, &c.............. British Province Kingston.......... 181 28,500 Barbadoes.......................... British Province Bridgetown....... 166 115.000 St. Lucia..................... British Province Castries 2........... 25 16.000 Dominica............ British Province Roseau........... 275 20,000 Antiua....................British Province........ ohn's.. 168 56.980 St. Christopher's and Virgin Islands.. British Province Basseterre......... 378 38,000 Bahamas........................... British Province. Nassau........... 4,440 20,000 Turk's Island....................... British Province 14 700 Bermuda Islands.................... British Province. IHamilton......... 47 14,000 Guadaloupe, &c..................... French Province. Basseterre..3...... 3 09 135 000 Martinique......................... French Province. Port Royal........ 290 119,700 Curacoa, &c......................... Dutch Province.. Wilhelmstadt...... 375 14,000 Santa Cruz, &c...................... Danish Province. Christinstadt...... 200 44,000 St. Bartholomew's................... Swedish Province La Carenage....... 25 15,000 Total................................................................. 91,398 3,680.762 GOVERNMENTS OF SOUTH AMERICA. States. Form of Govern- Ctal Area in Sq. ment. Capils. Miles. Population. Venezuela........................... Republic......... Caraccas.......... 1,450,000 1,000,000 New Granada....................... Republic......... Santa Fe de Bogota 380,000 1,687,000 Equador............................. Republic......... Quito............. 325,000 600,000 Bolivia............................. Republic......... Chuquisaca....... 318,000 1,700,000 Peru................................ Republic........ Lima............. 524,000 1,373,000 Chili.............................. Republic......... Santiago.......... 144,000 1,200,000 Argentine Republic.................. Republic......... Buenos Ayres..... 726,000 675,000 Uruguay............................ Republic......... Montevideo........ 120,000 140,000 Paraguay........................... Republic......... Acencion.......... 74,000 250,000 Brazil Empire.......... Rio de Janeiro..... 2,300,000 7,500,000 British Guiana...................... Province......... Georgetown....... 76,000 96,500 Dutch Guiana....................... Province......... Paramaribo....... 38,500 6,500 French Guiana...................... Province.. Cayenne.......... 21,648 18,000 Patagonia........................... Native Chiefs.. 8 0,000 80,000 Total............................................................. 6,577,148 1 16.326,000 42 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF HISTORY.-The history of America, prior to its discovery by Europeans, can be the subject of little more than conjecture. It appeared long a mystery how this continent, separated from the Old World by oceans of such vast breadth, should have been found peopled from one extremity to the other. The difficulty has vanished, however, since the modern discovery, that, at its north-western extremity, it is separated from Asia only by a narrow strait, and connected by chains of islands; and even the imperfect traditions that have been collected seem to confirm that it was irn this channel that the tide of migration flowed. It is barely possible, that some vessels may have been driven by stress of weather across the Atlantic; and it has even been supposed that a country, in which the Norwegians from Iceland formed a settlement, was part of America; but, after examining the details upon this last subject, we consider the inference extremely doubtful. The discovery by Europeans forms the real commencement, for us, of American history. This naval achievement, the most splendid in modern times, was performed not by the power of any of the great nations, but by one high-minded individual, with difficulty collecting the scanty means requisite. In 1492, Christopher Columbus, sailing in search of a shorter passage to the East Indies, landed at San Salvador, one of the Bahamas, and, sailing onwards, discovered the greater islands of Hispaniola and Cuba. Ihis next voyage, in the following year, enabled him to discover others of the West Indian group; and his third, in 1498, brought him in view of the continent of America, at the mouth of the Orinoco. Meantime, in 1497-8, John and Sebastian Cabot, employed by Henry VII. of England, not only discovered Newfoundland, but navigated along a considerable extent of the coast of North America. Cortereal, a Portuguese nobleman, in 1501 discovered the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and sailed along the coast of Labrador, as far, seemingly, as the entrance of Hudson's Bay. In 1500, Alvaraz Cabral, when sailing to India, came unexpectedly in view of the coast of Brazil. Vesputio and Ojeda had by this time explored nearly the entire circuit of the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Thus, in ten years after Columbus had set foot on American ground, nearly the whole of the vast length of the continent from north to south had been traced by European navigators. In twenty years more, the South Sea had been discovered by Balboa; and the conquests of Cortez and Pizarro had made Europeans acquainted with a large portion of the western coast. In 1519, the grand and first circumnavigation by Magellan ascertained the southern boundaries of the continent; but its northern limit, and the communication on that side between the Atlantic and the Pacific, though a subject of eager interest, with a view to the hoped-for north-west passage, long defied the most strenuous efforts made by Europeans, and particularly by British navigators; and the discovery was reserved for the present age. The conquest and colonization by Europeans acted most powerfully on the destiny of both worlds, and particularly of the new one. It was attended, in the first instance, with a series of cruelty and iniquity, of which there is, perhaps, no similar example in history. The natives of the West India islands, where the Spaniards first landed, were entirely exterminated, and there remains scarcely a trace of their existence. The people of Mexico and Peru, though their lot was not quite so dreadful, were exposed to remorseless cruelty, and reduced to degrading bondage. Even in North NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. 43 America, where the settlers were actuated by more just and humane principles, the fierce temper of the natives themselves, with the introduction of pestilential diseases, and of ardent spirits, to which they soon became passionately addicted, has extirpated them almost as completely as a war of extermination. The steps taken for filling up the blank thus occasioned in the population of the New World have been almost as inhuman as those by which it was produced. The unfortunate natives of Africa were in vast numbers purchased, seized, crammed into the holds of slave-ships, and conveyed across the Atlantic; so that the negro population of the New World amounts now to several millions. The emancipation of the European colonists from the dominion of, and from all dependence upon, the mother country, was a grand event, which gave the world a new aspect. This great movement originated with the British colonies of North America; and, after a protracted war, their independence was recognized by Great Britain in 1783. The states subject to Spain and Portugal had ample grounds of discontent, which fermented in the minds of the people; who, however, inured to the yoke, would have been long, probably, in attempting to shake it off, had not, in 1808, the family of Napoleon usurped the throne of Spain. The colonies, secured by British maritime ascendency, repelled this claim, and, while they professed allegiance to Ferdinand, declined to acknowledge the provisional government established in the mother country. The Cortes, however, claimed the same supremacy as before; and as they were supported by all the Americans of Spanish origin, a long and desperate struggle was maintained. It issued, however, in the complete independence of all the great states on the continent of America, Spain retaining only her insular possessions. Even Brazil has been separated from Portugal on the condition of being governed by a different branch of the house of Braganza. Thus Europe retains her dominion only over the West India islands, over the Guianas in South America, over a large extent of North America still held by Britain, and a smaller one claimed by Russia. All the rest is held by people of European origin, indeed, but who, born and educated in America, consider themselves as entirely belonging to this continent. DANISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA, GREENLAND, Iceland, Jan Mayen's Land, &c., are the possessions of Denmark. Number of square miles, 380,000. Population, 65,000. Chief places, Uppernavic, Rekiavik. Greenland was discovered in 911; Iceland in 874. GREENLAND was formerly supposed to join the continent, but recent discoveries render it probable that it is an island, lying between long. 20~ and 75~ west, and extending north from lat. 59~ 49'. It is high and rocky, its surface presenting a chaotic assemblage of sterile mountains, bare or covered with ice, which also occupies a great portion of the valleys. The -~~~~~~~~~ -.~~~~~~~~- — _~~* --- ~ —---—' —~ ICE,__NI —ATA AO OF FO —c~VOLI_, iT.~, Z- 7.... I-l~TCELANDE!S. 46 DANISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. centre is traversed by lofty mountains, dividing the country into East and West Greenland. Of the former, little is known; but it is said to consist of one extensive glacier, exhibiting only a few patches of vegetation. Among the animals, are the rein-deer in the south, and the polar bear in the north; white hares, foxes of various colors, and dogs; seals abound on the southern coasts, where also the walrus is met with. In the north seas are whales of several species; and in the sea, rivers and fiords, an abundance of fish. Fishing and sealing are the principal occupations of the natives. Sea-fowl, eagles, ravens, and other birds of prey, are very numerous. The climate is intensely cold. The sun has considerable power, however, during the summer, but fine weather never continues long. The aurora-borealis has sometimes a light equal to that of the full moon. In these latitudes there is no night in summer and no day in winter. There are in West Greenland thirteen colonies, fifteen minor commercial and ten missionary establishments; the most northerly of these is Upper navic, in lat. 720~ 0'. The commerce of Greenland is, of course, very limited. The trade gives employment to five or six vessels. Whale oil, seal, bear, and reindeer skins, eider-down, &c., form the catalogue of its exports; the imports consist of such manufactures as are required by the peculiarities of the country, among which are woollens, blankets, coffee, spirits, &c., &c. ICELAND is a large island on the confines of the Arctic circle. It has an area of 30,000 square miles, and a population of 50,000. The land appears to owe its existence to submarine volcanic agency. It is traversed by ranges of mountains, and the coast is indented with fiords. In the south-east there is an extensive tract of level country, covered with vegetation; but two-thirds of the island is buried under lava and snow. The general aspect of the country is desolate in the extreme. Some of the yokuls, or ice mountains, have an elevation of 7,000 feet. Mt. Hecla is remarkable for the frequency and violence of its eruptions; and there are about 30 other volcanoes, which occasionally spread frightful desolation over the land. The intermitting hot springs form the greatest wonder of these polar regions, and are used by the natives in cooking their food. In some parts of the island vast cauldrons of boiling mud send up their cob umns of dense vapor, and obscure the atmosphere. The sun is visible at midnight, at the summer solstice, from the hills; but the summers are very short, and are succeeded by a cold, dark and dreary winter, not enlivened by the sun's rays. Agriculture is on a limited scale, confined chiefly to the growing of grass for the herds of black cattle. There are about 500,000 sheep, 50,000 head of cattle, and from 50 to 60,000 head of horses, on the island. The population are employed in feeding cattle and fishing. There are no manufactures, except of a domestic nature, carried on. As little or no money is used, barter is the prevailing system. The Icelanders are chiefly of Norwegian origin, and have a frank, open countenance, florid complexion, and flaxen hair. Domestic education is universal, and the people are very attentive to their religious and moral duties. They are fond of their sagas, or ancient traditional tales, which are read aloud in their families during the long winter evenings. FRENCH AND RUSSIAN POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 47 The affairs of the island are presided over by a governor. It also constitutes a bishopric, with about 300 clergy, who are very poor. In tha principal schools are taught the classics, theology, and the Danish language. Iceland was discovered by a Norwegian pirate, in 860, and a settlement effected in 874. In 928 a republic was established, with a general assembly. They maintained their independence 400 years; but in the 13th century became subject to Norway, and it is now a colonial dependence of Denmark. SPITZBERGEN is the most northerly land hitherto discovered, and lies between the 76th and 81st deg. north latitude, and about midway between Nova Zembla and Greenland. The coasts are iron-bound, presenting but few harbors; and the surface of the land mostly destitute of vegetable or animal life. It was once a station for the whale fishery, but the whales are now scarce in the surrounding seas, and the place but seldom visited. These lands were discovered in 1533, and surveyed by Capt. Phipps in 1773. The sovereignty is in Denmark, but is also claimed by Russia. There is no stationary population. JAN MAYEN'S LAND, in lat. 710, is a small island, nominally belonging to Denmark, and lies generally about 7,000 feet above the ocean. It was discovered in 1611; and is now sometimes used as a harbor for whale ships. FRENCH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. THE once vast possessions of France in North America have now dwindled down to the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, containing an area of 18 square miles, and a population of about 100. They lie on the south of Newfoundland, and are used only as fishing stations for French vessels. A treaty exists between the United States and the French government in regard to these dependencies. The governor resides at St. Pierre. RUSSIAN POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA, THns territory contains an area of 394,000 square miles, and the population is variously estimated from 50 to 60,000, including aborigines. It comprehends the north-western portion of North America, from 540 40' to Behring's Straits. The possessions of Russia on the continent are mountainous, and along .....'',i i~~~~~~it~ ~ ~~i ~<~~~~~Z ARCTIC ZOOLOGY —-POLAR BEARS -~'~~~~~~~k POLAR REGIONS-ICE MOUNTAINTS-WALRUS. I. ~'i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'I L'OLAtt 1%E IONS -- ICE MOUNTAInTS — V~APItUS. 50 RUSSIAN POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. the coasts several culminations attain great elevation, and are perpetually covered with snow. Mt. St. Elias is elevated 17,900 feet above the level of the ocean. Very little is known of the interior. There are several extensive islands along the coasts, which are included in the Russian territory. The climate is very severe, and the country subject to sudden changes. The Russian American company had, formerly, possession of the whole territories, and established posts. In 1824 a treaty was formed between Russia and the United States, defining the boundary of the former, and limiting them to the country north of 540 40'. The British have since obtained a twenty years' lease of the continental portion of these territories, and the Russians only occupy the islands off the coast. New Archangel, the capital, is situated on the coast of the island of Sitka, and contains about 1,000 inhabitants. Here are the boards and warehouses of the company. The Aleutian Islands, stretching from the Peninsula of Kamskatka, in Asia, to Cape Alaska, in North America, though comprised in the government of Irkutsk, may be considered as belonging to this region. These are very numerous, occupying a circular arc, extending from 165~ to 195~ east longitude. Apparently, this insular chain consists of the summits of a range of submarine mountains. They are of volcanic origin, and at the present day are subject to eruptions. Earthquakes are common, and frequently violent. Behring's Island, Attoo and Oonalashka are the largest, the first being 104 miles in length; but many are only inconsiderable rocks, intersected by channels, varying in width and safety, and generally exhibit a barren aspect; high conical mountains, covered with snow, being their most prominent features. Vegetation is scanty; there are no trees or plants surpassing the dimensions of low shrubs and bushes, but abundance of fine grass is observed in the more sheltered valleys, and different roots, indigenous or transplanted, are there found. Oonimack, one of the islands, contains enormous volcanoes, one of which, Chichaldinsk, is about 8,083 feet above the level of the sea. The seas abound in fish, and wild birds are plentiful. The hunting of the sea-otter, the skin of which affords a fur of the finest quality, was formerly carried on to a great extent, but an indiscriminate destruction has greatly reduced the number, and comparatively few are now taken. The seal is also a valuable animal, affording the inhabitants a constant supply of food and clothing: the thin membrane of the entrails is also used in the place of glass. Foxes are the principal quadrupeds. The natives, a grade between the North American Indian and Mongol Tartar, are indolent, but peaceable and extremely charitable, and at the same time stubborn and revengeful. Tattooing is practised among them; but the young ladies, finding the Russians do not approve of these disfigurations, are gradually abolishing the custom. The laws of matrimony are very loose: a man may have as many wives as he can maintain, and a woman may have two husbands; it is not an uncommon affair, indeed, for men to exchange their wives with each other. The principal subsistence of the Aleutians is derived from fishing and hunting their habitations are spacious excavations in the earth, roofed over with turf, and sometimes as many as 100 to 150 persons occupy an apartment. Only a few of these islands are inhabited, and it is stated that bhe popular. tion has decreased since the Russians possessed the country: at the present time it is variously estimated at from a few hundred to 6,000. The ~oRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 51 islands were partially discovered by Behring, in 1741, and were afterwards visited by a number of explorers. There is, however, as yet, but little known concerning them, further than their existence. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. THE colonial dependencies of Great Britain in North America cover a vast extent of territory, computed at over 2,500,000 square miles. They have each a separate local government, and the following table will exhibit their names, extent, population &c. NAMES, EXTENT, &C., OF THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. Names. Sq. Miles. Population. Capitals. New Britain.2,000,000 162,686 York Factory. Canada West......................... 147,000 723,087 Toronto Canada East...................................... 209,690 768,34 Toronto. New Brunswick......................................... 27,700 220,000 Frederickton. Nova Scotia, &c......................................... 19,630 278,905 Halifax. Prince Edward's Island............................... 2,134 62,678 Charlottetown. Newfoundland...................................... 57,000 91,264 St. John's. Balize................................62,740 3 000 Balize. Bermuda................................................ 47 14,000 Hamilton. NEW BRITAIN, OR TERRITORIES OF HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY. In 1670 a charter was granted by Charles II. to an association styled the "Hudson's Bay Company," who enjoyed the trade of the vast territory of New Britain, without opposition, until 1787; at which period a powerful rival was organized under the title of the " North American Fur Company," composed chiefly of Canadians. The conflicting interests of the two companies led to the most barbarous battles, and the sacking and burnmug each other's posts. This state of things arrested the attention of parliament, and in 1821 the two companies were consolidated, under the name of the "Hudson's Bay Company." This association is now in possession of all that tract of country extending from Baffin's Bay and Davis' Straits on the east, to the Russian Possessions and Pacific Ocean on the west; and from the northern line of Canada to the Arctic Sea. They have also leased for a period of 20 years, commencing in 1840, all of Russian America, except the post of Sitka. Into this region of ice and eternal snow the beams of the sun scarcely ever penetrate. The winters are severe in the extreme; brandy freezes, i a w iW i IN,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\ ESQUHMUX-"- GREENLY. ______ ~7VF:iJ43 *///'. / 54 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. and rocks split with the intense cold. The aurora borealis, sometimes mild and serene, sometimes dazzling and agitated, equals the light of the full moon. These imposing scenes serve only to augment the solemn melancholy of the desert. Nothing can be more frightful than the environs of Hudson's Bay. The precipitous rocks, rising to the clouds and yawning into deep ravines and barren valleys, are rendered inaccessible by masses of snow and ice, which never melt. That sea-like bay is only open from July to September, and even then is much obstructed by icebergs. Hudson's Bay affords only small quantities of fish; but the lakes abound in pike, sturgeon and trout, and the banks are inhabited by aquatic birds, such as swans, geese, and ducks. The Coppermine and other northern rivers swarm with vast shoals of fish. The principal quadrupeds are the buffalo, musk-ox, moose, deer, beaver, wolf, foxes of different colors, the lynx, white, black, and brown bears, the wolverine, otter, ermine, pinemarten, muskrat, squirrel, &c. The world of vegetation almost terminates in these northern solitudes, and the trees present but few species, —the pine, dwarf larch, poplar, willow, and dwarf birch complete the catalogue. For the convenience of transactions the country has been divided into 22 districts. Mr. Farnham, in his work on Oregon, says: " An annual Council, composed of the Governor-general, chief factors, and chief traders, is held at York Factory. Before this body are brought the reports of the trade of each district; propositions for new enterprises, and modifications of old ones; and all these, and other matters deemed important, bein'g acted upon, the proceedings had thereon and the reports from the several districts are forwarded to the Board of Directors in London, and subjected to its final order. " This shrewd company never allow their territory to be overtrapped. If the annual return from any well trapped district be less in any year than formerly, they order a less number still to be taken, until the beaver and other fur-bearing animals have time to increase. The income of the company is thus rendered uniform, and their business perpetual. " Some idea may be formed of the net profit of their business, from the facts that the shares of the company's stock, which originally cost ~100, are 100 per cent. premium, and that the dividends range from ten per cent. upward, and this, too, while they are creating, out of the net proceeds, an immense reserve fund, to be expended in keeping other persons out of the trade." Several settlements have been established in the eastern sections by the Moravian brethren, and they have taught the Eskimaux many of the useful arts of life. THE CANADA.S. This territory lies principally in a north-east and south-east direction along the north side of the St. Lawrence, and the north and east sides of lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior, between 57~ 50' and 90~ west long., and 420 and 52~ north lat. The other portion of Canada, or that on the south side of the St. Lawrence, is of comparatively limited dimensions: it stretches along the river from near Montreal to Point Gasp6, BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 55 at its embouchure, having on the south the territory of the United States and New Brunswick. On the north, Canada has Labrador and the inhospitable territories belonging to the Hudson's Bay Company, the boundary in this direction being the elevated grounds, or water-sheds, separating the rivers which run south to the St. Lawrence and the great lakes from those which run north to Davis's Straits and Hudson's Bay. The length of Canada, from Amherstburg, on Detroit River, the extreme south-west limit of the province, to Sablon Harbor, on the strait of Belleisle, its extreme north-east limit, is about 1,450 miles; its breadth may vary from 200 to 400 miles. Its area has been estimated at about 350,000 square miles; and its population is at present (1851) probably one and a half millions. It is wholly within the basin of the St. Lawrence, of which it includes the entire north, and a small part of the south division. In 1791 it was divided into the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, but was again united for legislative purposes in 1841. The Ottawa, or Grand River, forms, nearly in its whole extent, the line of demarcation between the provinces. Canada is intersected by a number of chains or ridges of mountains, extending from the coast far into the interior, and between these lie extensive and fertile valleys, equal in soil and productiveness to any lands in the New World. North of the St. Lawrence, and near the eastern extremity of Lower Canada, rises a ridge of heights, and which stretches close to the river for upwards of a hundred miles, and forms its rugged banks as far as Cape Tourment. Here the ridge, taking a direction westsouth-west, terminates on the River Ottawa, after extending from Cape Tourment along the course of the river about 300 miles. The country between it and the St. Lawrence, from 15 to 30 miles in breadth, is beautifully picturesque, well-watered and level; towards the west especially, this tract may be considered as the choicest part of the province. North of this ridge, and between the Ottawa River and the 81st meridian and the 52d parallel, the country is intersected by another and higher range of mountains, which runs into the interior in a north-west direction, at about the distance of 200 miles from the former ridge, and which forms the water-shed between the St. Lawrence and Hudson's Bay. This is an immense wilderness, and, as far as known, is covered with dense forests, whose solitudes are only disturbed by the native hunters. South of the St. Lawrence a ridge commences about 100 miles below Quebec, which takes a south-west course, and opposite that city is about ten leagues distant from the river. The intervening country is fertile and well-wooded, and capable of a high state of cultivation. Continuing in the same direction, this chain crosses the boundary line between the Canadas and the United States, and proceeds on the same course until it meets with the Hudson River. The level tract from the St. Lawrence northward, rich in soil and with a climate favorable to health and plenty, forms the site of the most flourishing and populous settlements in the country. The country which lies between lakes Ottawa and Erie, and which extends around the western extremity of Lake Ontario, is rich and fertile, and contains a number of settlements. The northern shores of lakes Superior and Huron are yet but the home of the trapper, and little settled. The climate of Canada is subject to great extremes of heat and cold, the thermometer ranging between 102~ above, and 30~ below, the zero of i - (~ ii I Xiy;a:l;"'` I:;r:p hr'~ r ~!~i1. .. r'I,, ,,~:I:i~ i~ ~i: 1.:,._ __ \? c —:- - r \\;Tm-+;~Fhlu,~'R;Y \,';FYfi- )XYW\,\\\\\\\\X\\YI\,LR ____=_UMY iii(lPP-&EIJP%~k3Qir==-iTjl - B %r h?;;.C~: -z "-;~l\.iaalps-;Wb7-pIL~b'M s~L-l.twsaur6EEa!tes::~:''ii? 1;\ r~ 1 ~ — I — I`i' i /~'3~)*;~~ " -" 2 r T —-L _JbsLr -RBBPiYgT6CI I I Cf 3 ct =P~~P"%iiC:'e""a;PranZ;_\I:! i'``- rc-~r-sr —t~;ii~iiPr if*J4%bi.J in,j C r- ~-i ~~'1L::~:'$,:~ rU ~t -;;:: ~ ~- c ZOOLOGY —BL~AC AND GRAY SGUIRRELS. t ZOOLOGY-LYNX. 58 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. Fahr. In such an extensive region there is, of course, some difference in this respect; still, the Canadian climate, as a whole, may be considered as very severe: all the streams are locked up by ice, and the ground is deeply covered with snow, for four and sometimes five months every year. Frosts commence in October, and in November a succession of snow storms and tempests. The snow begins to melt in April, and in May vegetation begins to resume its suspended powers; the fields are soon clothed with verdure, and spring can scarcely be said to exist before summer arrives. In the upper province the winter is shorter than in the lower; nor is the cold so intense. Most of the causes that contribute to make the climate of America more severe, and subject to greater extremes than that of Europe, in the same parallel, bear with esp6cial force on the Canadian regions. The greater portion of these provinces is covered with dense forests; the trees composing which, especially on the more northern and eastern parts, do not, generally speaking, attain the same lofty size as those of the United States, nor flourish with the same exuberant vitality. The pine family, and various species of evergreens, are the most numerous and predominant. Among various other kinds of trees, are the silver and American firs, Weymouth and Canadian pines, white cedar, maple, birch, American ash, bass-wood, hickory, two or three species of wild cherry, and numerous varieties of oak. The sugar maple is abundant. Among the wild animals ranging through the unreclaimed regions, are the American elk, fallow deer, bear, wolf, fox, wild-cat, raccoon, marten, otter, and various species of viverrce and mustelce; the beaver, hare, grey and red squirrel, and in the more southern parts, the buffalo and roe-buck. The bears usually hybernate, if the season has enabled them to get sufficiently fat for the purpose; if not, they migrate to a warmer climate. Among the birds may be mentioned the wild-pigeon, quail, partridge, and different kinds of grouse; water birds are very numerous, as might be inferred from the general character of the region. Fish in great abundance swarm in the rivers; and the race of reptiles is well represented. Tobacco, hemp, flax, and the different kinds of grain and pulse, are successfully cultivated, as are all the common fruits and vegetables of England and the United States. Western, or Upper Canada, is distinguished, in an agricultural point of view, for the production of a superior quality of wheat. Winter and spring wheats are grown in about equal proportions, and the annual exports of this article range from five to ten millions of bushels. The country lying north of Toronto, and west of Hamilton, produces a quality of wheat that is as highly prized, in the Rochester and Oswego markets, as that produced in the far-famed Genessee valley; and the imports in 1850, at those points, from that source, were upwards of three millions of bushels. The yield of this crop averages from 25 to 35 bushels per acre. Peas are cultivated extensively, as a preparation crop for wheat, and some millions of bushels are grown, annually, and are used for feeding hogs, and large quantities are exported to Europe. The yield of this crop averages about 35 bushels, but in many instances as high as 50 bushels are grown per acre. Barley is a very common crop, and is used principally for the production of malt liquors, which are drank as a beverage, to a great extent, by the citizens of Canada. From 35 to 50 Dushels of barley are grown per acre, and it is generally considered a BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 59 highly remunerating crop. The oat crop seems to flourish better than any other in Canada, and consequently is extensively cultivated. The yield averages from 50 to 80 bushels per acre. Canada does not appear to be rich in minerals, but iron abounds in some districts, and coal, salt and sulphur are known to exist in the country. Veins of silver-lead have been met with in St. Paul's Bay; and a great excitement was at one time produced by the discovery of some gold mines near Quebec. No volcanoes have ever been discovered, but authentic accounts are preserved of violent earthquakes; and the shores, both of the gulf and river St. Lawrence, according to Lyell, present proofs of former convulsions. The area and population of the Canadas are given in the table. In 1847, 170,000 emigrants landed in the several districts, besides many who passed through the United States. Lower Canada is divided into the four districts of Quebec, Montreal, Three Rivers, and Gaspi; Upper Canada is divided into twenty districts, named Home, Gore, Niagara, London, Western, Eastern, Johnston, Ottawa, Bathurst, Newcastle, Midland, Huron, Talbot, Brock, Simcoe, Victoria, Wellington, and Colborne. These are subdivided into counties, townships, seignories, parishes, &c. The people of Lower Canada are chiefly of French extraction, but those of the upper province are British, many of whom are from Scotland: comparatively small numbers of the Irish emigrate to this country. The French population cling to old customs and prejudices, but they are honest, industrious and hospitable. They retain, indeed, all the characteristics of the old French, and present the spectacle of an old, uneducated and stationary society, in the midst of a new and rapidly advancing country. A few families possess large properties, but among the mass of the habitans there is an almost uniform equality of condition, property and ignorance. The rest of the population is chiefly British, and to them is owing the development of the productive resources of the country. The aboriginal inhabitants still occupy some regions northward of lakes Huron and Superior, but their numbers are diminishing. Canada was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498..Some years after the French navigator Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence to Montreal, upon which voyage the French founded their claim to Canada. In 1525 the country was taken possession of by France, and in 1608 a colony was founded under the title of New France. By the events of the war of 1756-63, Canada was transferred to Britain. In 1836 an attempt was made by the people of Upper Canada to establish their independence of the mother country, which proved unsuccessful. The government of the provinces is vested in a Governor General, appointed by the crown, and assisted by a Council. The Legislative Assembly has the exclusive right of raising revenues for the internal expenses of the colonies. The French colonists are nearly all Catholics; their clergy are numerous, and nunneries are established in different sections. There is an English Bishop appointed by the crown, but Episcopacy is not the prevalent form of church government, as there are a great many dissenters. Roman Catholics.............................. 670,000 Baptists........................... 8,600 Church of England............... 42,000 Methodist Episcopalian.................. 7,400 Wesleyan Methodists........................., 20,000 Universalists............................ 1,200 Since 1841, the year that the mother country ceded to the colonists the principles of constitutional government, as understood in Great Britain, and 60 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. the power of local self-government, great changes have been effected in the general prosperity of the country, and also in the tone of public political sentiment. A general school system is in full and successful operation, and from the public treasury of the province the sum of $400,000 is annually appropriated for the support of common schools. In connection with this system are two normal schools, both of which have been some years in successful operation, and the number of students to each range from 200 to 300, including both sexes, who are taught in all the higher branches of English literature, and also in the practical sciences, free of cost. The universities, colleges and academies are now well sustained, most of which are liberally endowed by large grants of lands from the public domain; the most distinguished of which is King's College, Toronto. In each district, and indeed in nearly all of the counties, are from one to two grammar schools, which receive each four hundred dollars per annum to sustain the teachers. The funds to support this department of the school system are derived from the rents and interests of the grammar school lands of the colony, appropriated for that purpose during the reign of George the Third. Internal improvements are yet in their infancy, and consist chiefly of a few canals. The Rideau is 135 miles long, and was executed by the British government at a cost of about $6,000,000. The Welland is 42 miles long, and cost $2,500,000. It was built to avoid the Falls of Niagara, and is navigable for vessels of 150 tons burthen. There are few railroads, but an enterprising spirit is abroad, and several lines are projected, and some progressing, to connect with lines firom the United States, and others with. those of the interior. A suspension bridge over the Niagara has been recently completed. The great highways of Canada are its lakes and rivers. KINGSTON is advantageously situated at the head of the Cataraqui river and the Rideau canal. The harbor is well sheltered, and accessible to ships of 18 feet draught, and contains the royal naval station of the lakes. The entrance is strongly fortified. Churches of every denomination are found in the place, and many fine stores. Population about 14,000. TORONTO, the capital of the Canadas, contains about 30,000 inhabitants, and occupies a good situation in a fine bay on Lake Ontario. QUEBEc, the former capital of Lower Canada, is situated partly on a bold headland rising 350 feet above the bank of the St. Lawrence, between it and the river St. Charles, and partly on the narrow margin of the river below the rock. The principal part of the upper town is enclosed with fortifications, which are considered to be impregnable, and the summit of Cape Diamond is crowned by the citadel, a very strong fortress. Population in 1850, 40,000. The Hotel Dieu or General Hospital, the Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal Cathedrals, the Jesuits' Barracks, the Parliament House, and the Obelisk, erected to the memory of Wolfe and Montcalm, are the principal objects of interest. Lat. 46~ 48' N. Long. 70~ 72' W. It is situated 420 miles from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is accessible to the largest ships. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 61 MONTREAL, on an island of the same name, is situated at the mouth of the Ottawa, and at the foot of a hill which commands a delightful prospect. Population in 1850, 45,000. Though 600 miles from the gulf, it is accessible for large ships, and its trade is very extensive. The Roman Catholic Cathedral is a very fine building, capable of containing 12,000 persons; and some of the convents and hospitals are striking objects. The island is a beautiful oval-shaped tract, 32 miles long by 10 broad, with an almost level surface, there being only ozie hill of considerable elevation, and one or two of smaller dimensions. It forms one seignory belonging to the Catholic clergy. Montreal was the capital until October, 1849. The commerce of the Canadas is of some consideration, and under the fostering care of the mother country has steadily increased in importance. It is principally carried on through the ports of Quebec, Montreal, St. John's, Coteau du Lac, and Stanfield. From the United Kingdom, the Canadas import metals, cordage, East India produce, and the manufactures of Britain; from the West Indies, sugar, molasses, coffee, &c.; and from the United States, beef, pork, flour, rice and tobacco. Timber is, by far, the principal export of the colony; then follow grain, aslies, furs, fish, and other raw products. The commerce between Canada and the United States, is steadily increasing, and has now a promising aspect; and her internal trade is one of the most prominent symptoms of her prosperity. NEW BRUNSWICK. The Province of New Brunswick consists of an extensive tract, of about 27,000 square miles, and lies contiguous to the State of Maine and Lower Canada. The greater part is still covered with dense forests, but the land is considered fertile. The face of the country is moderately undulating; there are some groups of hills, particularly in the northern part. Streams and rivers intersect it, suitable for navigation and manufacturing purposes, the largest of which is the St. Johns. The climate resembles that of Canada. The natural products are numerous and valuable; wild animals are plentiful, and the rivers and lakes abound in fish. As yet, New Brunswick has a small population of about 220,000, and the principal settlements are along the river St. Johns, and its lakes. The town of St. Johns is the largest in the province, and the seat of an extensive trade. Frederickton is situated 90 miles above St. Johns, on the same river. The cutting and export of timber form the principal trade of the district. The province is divided into eleven counties. Agriculture, notwithstanding the rich tracts of alluvial soil skirting the rivers and large indentations of the sea, is considerably less advanced than in Nova Scotia and the Canadas. This is owing, in part, to the later settlement of the province, but chiefly to the people preferring the more profitable but far more laborious occupation of lumbering. Wheat, corn, barley and oats, are the principal grain crops, but by far the most important article is the produce in potatoes, the crop of which may be annually estimated at not less than 3,000,000 bushels. Pasturage is followed to some extent, and it is estimated that the live stock of the province is not less than 130,000 horses, 100,000 cattle, 150,000 sheep, and 60,000 hogs. 62 ERITIS"i POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. The felling and conveyance of timber constitutes, however, as before ob served, the great employment of the laboring classes. Many of the trees, especially the yellow pine, attain great size, and furnish timber of good quality, though inferior to that of Norway and the Baltic. It is principally conveyed to Great Britain in the log, and some is manufactured into deals, boards, staves, &c. Ship-building is extensively carried on, especially at St. Johns. The number of ships built in 1846, was 164,:of the aggregate burden of 45,864 tons. These are generally, however, of the class called "slop-built," and do not enjoy a high character for solidity or endurance. The form of government is much similar to that of the other British possessions. The parliament consists of 26 members, and sits at Frederickton. The revenues are raised from sales of land, taxes and other imposts; they are small, and only capable of defraying the civil expenditures. The army is paid by Great Britain, but every man is subject to military duty. The charge of religion is vested in the Bishop of Frederickton. The people are pretty equally divided among the different sects in religion; and in regard to education, a tolerable number of establishments exist. There is a college at the capital. This tract of country suffered by one of the most terrible conflagrations on record, in 1825. The flames kindled by accident at several points, and;mpelled by a violent wind laid waste about one hundred miles of territory, involving it in smoke and flame, and reduced to ashes the towns of Douglas and Newcastle. Nearly 200 persons are said to have perished, and more than 2000 to have been reduced to entire destitution. This country was formerly comprised by the French in the province of New France. In 1763 it was ceded to Great Britain. NOVA SCOTIA. Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, together, form one of the British provinces of North America, and are separated by the Gut of Canseau. It is bounded north by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, west by the Bay of Fundy, which separates it from New Brunswick, and south and south east by the Atlantic ocean. It lies between 43~ and 46~ north latitude, and 610 and 670 west longitude, and contains 19,630 square miles. The land varies much in respect to fertility; the coast presenting a barren aspect, but in the interior there are large tracts of land of the first quality. There are no elevations deserving the name of mountains, but about one third of its superfices is occupied by lakes of various sizes. The rocks and islands which fringe the Atlantic coast, are exceedingly picturesque, and deep water is found close to the shores. The great coal fields of Nova Scotia are near Pictou, as are also several brine springs. Iron is abundant in the coal strata, and some varieties of lead and copper ore. The climate of Nova Scotia, with respect to temperature, bears a general resemblance to that of Lower Canada, and is subject to the same great and sudden variations. The difference of temperature within 24 hours often exceeds 500. The snow-storms are very heavy, some having been known to continue 60 or 70 hours without intermission. The severity of BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 63 winter ends late in March. A very warm summer occupies three months, dating from the early part of June. Rheumatic and inflammatory complaints are frequent; and considerable mortality occurs from pulmonary consumption, but on the whole, Nova Scotia may be considered a healthy country. The government of Nova Scotia is vested in a Lieutenant Governor, subordinate to the Governor-General of British North America; a Council appointed by the Crown, and a Legislative Assembly, elected by the freeholders. The state religion is Protestant Episcopal, but other sects have large congregations, the Presbyterians being the most numerous. There is a royal college at Windsor, and ample schools and academies for the education of the people. There are 10 counties and 52 parishes. The chief towns are Halifax, Truro, Londonderry, &c. The capital, Halifax, is pleasantly situated on the slope of a rising ground, facing a fine spacious bay. It contains a population of 25,000, and is the centre of the foreign commerce of the colony, and the depot for the British naval forces. The Cunardsteamships which ply between Boston and Liverpool, have a station here. The population of the province amounts to 278,000. Among these are about 6,000 Acadians, the descendants of the old French settlers, who congregate in settlements of their own, mixing little with the other classes of inhabitants. The fruits produced in the country are numerous. Besides a great variety of wild fruits, gooseberries, strawberries, cherries, and raspberries, there are pears of various kinds, and all the varieties of English plums, apples of a very superior quality, and some other fruits. The other vegetable products are cucumbers, potatoes, artichokes, cauliflowers, cabbage, beans, and peas. Hops are an invariable and sure crop, and may he raised in great abundance. Pumpkins and Indian corn are cultivated to a great extent. Carrots, onions, parsnips, beets, celery, and most other kitchen herbs, are produced with ease. The grains cultivated by the farmers are summer and winter wheat, rye, buckwheat, barley and oats. The natural forests are elm, cherry, white, black, yellow and gray birch, red oak, beech, white and yellow pine, white, red and black spruce, maples, &c. The forests of Nova Scotia abound in good timber; pine and birch, oak, beech, ash and maple, are the most common trees; and many of the inhabitants have, for years, been supported by the timber trade. The principal wild animals in the province are the moose, deer, carribboo, bear, loupcervier, fox, martin, otter, mink and squirrel. Hunting and trapping were once extensively pursued; but the decrease of animals has obliterated these employments from the industrial means of Nova Scotia. The fisheries employ many families, but the chief and most profitable pursuit is mining; the value of coal alone amounts annually to near $200,000. Gypsum, which abounds in the western districts, is highly prized in the United States as a manure; and a stone, which is extremely well adapted for grindstones, and is celebrated all over America under the appellation of " Nova Scotia blue grits," is found in many parts. The exports of these articles alone have been estimated at the value of $100,000. The manufactures are unimportant, and as a general thing come under the denomination of "home spun." Grist and saw mills are numerous besides which there are several breweries and tan-yards. 64 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. The geographical position of Nova Scotia gives it great commercial ad vantages, and its trade, especially with the United States, has been foz some years steadily on the increase. The exports, chiefly to Canada, Great Britain and the United States, consist of fish-oil, timber, coals, &c. The trade principally centres in Halifax. The means of internal communication are on a respectable footing, and improvements in this respect are being rapidly made. Water communication is also on a good scale, the natural facilities being augmented by canals in one or two locations. Nova Scotia was discovered by Cabot in 1497, and was first settled by the French, who named it Acadia. It subsequently fell under the English, and in 1627 it was granted to Sir W. Alexander, and named Nova Scotia. In 1632 it was restored to France; but it several times subsequently changed hands, and was finally established in possession of the British in 1758. PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND. This Island is situated in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and measures 140 miles in length by 35 in breadth. The soil is generally fertile, yielding good crops of wheat and other grains; a surplus being exported to Nova Scotia. Flax, of excellent quality, is raised and manufactured into linen for domestic use. It is stated, that had the natural advantages of this island been turned to proper account, it might have been, at this time, the granary of the British colonies. Of about 1,300,000 acres fit for the plow, only 150,000 are cultivated. Charlottetown is the capital of the island, and contains 4,000 inhabitants. The whole population of the island is reckoned at 62,678, made up chiefly of English settlers and some few Acadians. The chief exports are timber, deals, fish, &c. The constitution is similar to that of Nova Scotia. This island was taken from the French in 1756, and annexed to Nova Scotia in 1763. Since 1768 it has formed a separate colony. NEWFOUNDLAND. This large and valuable island lies near the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and off the east coast of Labrador, from which it is separated by the narrow strait of Belleisle, between 46~ 30' and 51~ 40' north latitude, and 52~ 15 and 590 10' west longitude. Greatest length from north to south 350 ma and average breadth 130 miles. Area 57,000 square miles. Fixed population about 90,000, exclusive of those who visit the different stations during the fishing season. It may be generally described as of a triangular form, but is broken and indented with broad and deep bays, harbors, coves, rivers, and lagoons, which, besides numerous capes and projecting points of land, form two peninsulas, on one of which, called Avalon, at the south east corner of the island, is the town and harbor of Avalon. Its BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 65 surface is wild and rugged, and its aspect from the sea far from prepossessing. The interior, which till within the last twenty five years was almost junknown, is much broken with water; and lakes, marshes, and scrubby trees, form its general character. The only large and navigable streams are the Humber and that called the river of Exploits. Its prevalent geological constitution is of granite, on which are superimposed in some parts porphyry, quartz, gneiss, mica, and clay slate, with secondary formations; coal and iron also occur in a few places. The east half of the interior is generally a low, picturesque country, traversed by hills and lakes, the whole being diversified by trees of humble growth. The country westward is more rugged and mountainous, with little wood, except near the shore. Spruce, birch, and larch, are the principal forest trees. Pine seldom occurs, and never attains a large size; indeed there is but little wood of any value, except for fuel and the building of small boats. Whortleberry bush and wisha capucha (Indian tea) are the principal plants on high unwooded grounds. The best soil is along the rivers and at the head of the bays fringing the island; but both the soil and climate generally are unfavorable to the raising of grain, though well adapted to pasturage and the cultivation of potatoes and other green crops. Vast herds of caribboo deer graze in the plains and woods of the interior, and their flesh constitutes nearly the whole food of the Mic-Mac Indians. Beavers are much scarcer than formerly; but foxes are still numerous along the rivers and seacoast. Among the other wild animals are wolves and bears, hunted by the Indians from Labrador. Insects are numerous in swampy places, especially in hot weather. The best known and most celebrated of the animals belonging to Newfoundland are its dogs, famed for docility, obedience and attachment to their masters. They are remarkably voracious, and are usually fed on salted fish; but like the aborigines of the country, they endure huncrer for a very lengthy period. The true web-footed breed has become very scarce, the animal so called in this country, though equally sagacious, hardy, and fond of the water, being a breed crossed with the mastiff, or some other species. The east and south coasts, where the winds blow from the sea, are very humid; and during winter the cold is intense. During the summer months, the days and nights are commonly serene and pleasant; the temperature is very hot during summer, and in winter frequently falls as [aw as 300 below the freezing point. The island, however, on the whole, is very healthy; and the inhabitants often attain a great age, attended with more than ordinary bodily as well as mental vigor. Agriculture is progressively increasing; but very few give it their exclusive attention, the population being principally employed in the fisheries. Almost every family, however, has a small quantity of land in cultivation, though tillage is very imperfectly understood. Newfoundland has long been celebrated for its fisheries, on which, indeed, the inhabitants principally depend. The great bank, on the east side of the island, is in some places about 200 miles in breadth, and 600 miles in length, the soundings being from 25 to 95 fathoms. Fogs prevail almost without interruption on these banks, occasioned by the meeting of the waters brought thither by the Gulf Stream from the tropics, with the waters carried by the influence of the winds from the polar regions. A counter-current from the north sweeps, also, along the shore of Labrador, 5 66 BRITISH1 POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. bringing with it large ice-bergs, and rendering navigation dangerous, especially during foggy weather. The best fishing grounds on the great bank are between the 42d and 46th parallels; and the principal English settlements, besides St. Johns the capital, are Conception bay, Carbonier, Grace harbor, Trinity harbor, and Placentia, all on the east side of the island. The cod-fishery commences early in June; and as the English have for some years abandoned the bank shoals to the Americans and French, it is principally carried on close to the shore, in small boats, manned by two or four persons. Every fisherman is provided with two lines, each with two hooks, baited with herrings, mackerel, and fish entrails. In some cases, jiggers, or artificial fish, are used, provided with two strong hooks, which the cod swallows with the bait. Seines are also used, by which multitudes of cod are hauled ashore in coves on the coast of Labrador. So abundant are the fish occasionally, that a couple of cod are hooked on each line before it reaches the bottom; and while one line is running out, the fisherman has only to turn round and pull in the other, with a fish on each hook. The seal fishery is conducted in vessels varying from 80 to 120 tons, with crews of 20 or 30 men. The season commences early in April; it is principally conducted close to the shore of Labrador. The cod fishery on the west coast has been given up to the French; but there is still a small whale-fishery conducted in boats on the south side of the island. There is likewise a pretty extensive salmon fishery. The trade of Newfoundland consists in the exportation of the products of its fisheries, (valued at $5,000,000,) in exchange for manufactured goods, colonial produce, corn, ship-biscuits, and a variety of articles for the consumption of the inhabitants. The government of Newfoundland was long administered by naval commanders appointed to cruise on the fishing station, who returned to Britain in winter. Within the last century, however, it has been deemed more eligible to have a resident governor. In 1832, in consequence of a petition from the inhabitants, a representative government was granted, the election being by almost universal suffrage. An education act was passed in 1836, which has been the means of bringing within the reach'of all, the benefits of elementary instruction. The population, however, are extremely unlettered and ignorant. There is no church establishment; but a titular Roman Catholic bishop, as well as a Protestant prelate, reside at St. Johns. The inhabitants are honest and industrious, but often addicted to drunkenness, and superstitious to a degree almost beyond belief. The people, consisting chiefly of Irish, Scotch, and th6 inhabitants of Jersey and Guernsey, or their descendants, (the Indian aborigines having been long all but extinct,) are employed either wholly or occasionally in the fisheries. The pasture of cattle and sheep, and the cultivation of small spots of land, are likewise partial sources of occupation. The women, besides assisting the men in catching and curing the fish, are engaged either in rural occupations, or spinning and knitting worsted stockings, mittens and socks. In winter, much time is occupied in bringing home fuel, building boats, and making or repairing the fishing implements. Marriages and christenings are commonly celebrated at the close of the fishing season, or in winter, and are always times of great festivity and merriment. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 67 Newfoundland was probably first discovered by John Cabot, in the summer of 1497, who gave it its present name. As early as the year 1500 an extensive fishery was carried on, by the Portuguese and French, on the neighboring banks. HONDURAS This settlement is on the eastern coast of Central America, and lies in 180 north latitude. It has an area of 62,000 square miles, but the population is very sparse. The coast is low and flat, but proceeding inland, the surface rises into an elevated region, covered with primeval forests. The rivers are numerous, and some of them large; the Balize being navigable 200 miles. The climate is hot and humid, but the heat is moderated by the sea breezes, which blow at regular intervals. It has an average temperature of 80 degrees. The rains are so heavy that the Sibun river sometimes rises 50 feet in a few hours. The shores and banks of the rivers are covered with a deep and rich alluvial soil. The forests abound with the finest timbers, mahogany, logwood, &c., which are the staple products of the country, and their cutting the chief employment of the settlers. Cassava, yams, arrow-root, maize, &c., are grown for home consumption; the sugar cane, coffee, and cotton, succeed well, but are little cultivated; cocoa and indigo are indigenous. The American tiger, the tapir, armadillo, raccoons, foxes, deer, and large numbers of monkeys, inhabit the country; birds and fish are in great variety, and sea turtles are plenty on the coast. Honduras is governed by a superintendent appointed by the British crown, and seven elective magistrates. Balize is the only town in the settlement, and contains about 500 houses. The streets are regular, and the whole town shaded by cocoa-nut and tamarind trees. The coast was discovered by Columbus in 1502, but the date of its settlement is not known. In 1670, Spain transferred it to England by treaty, but its occupation was long contested by the Spaniards. Since 1798, the sovereignty of the country has remained quietly in the hands of the British. THE BERMUDA ISLANDS. This group of islands is situated in latitude 32~ north, and longitude 650 west, 600 miles distant from the coast of South Carolina, and when viewed from the ocean, they present a very picturesque appearance, being about 300 in all. They are estimated to contain 47 square miles, and a population, equally of blacks and Europeans, of about 14,000. The climate of the Bermudas is delightful in summer, neither suffering the rigors of the north, nor the fervid heat of tropical regions. Nor in winter is much cold experienced; but the north-west snows which rage in those latitudes in that season, are awful, and lay waste the farms, and strew the shores with wrecks. 68 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. St. George's and St. David's, with other islands of minor importance, form several bays; and the harbor of St. George is large enough to con tain the whole British navy, but is difficult of ingress and egress, in consequence of the smallness of its entrance. The principal island or main land as it is called, is about 20 miles in length, but it rarely exceeds one and a half in width. In the centre of the island, and on the north side of a beautiful bay, is the town of Hamilton, now the seat of government. The only places fortified are Ireland and St. George's islands, where forts have been lately built, which render the islands almost impregnable. At the former of these is the naval dock-yard, off which there is good anchorage and moorings laid down for 15 or 20 ships of war, though the breakwater is extensive enough to contain a large fleet of the line. There are two other moorings for the navy, viz: Murray's anchorage, near the ferry, and Five Fathom's Hole, off the mouth of St. George's harbor. With the exception of two or three small detachments, the chief military force is stationed at St. George's. The legislature of the Bermudas consists of a council of eight members and an assembly of thirty six members, each parish electing four of the latter. The executive is vested in a governor, who, with the council, is appointed by the crown. The parliaments are septennial, but are always newly elected on the accession of a new sovereign. The church establishment is under the surveillance of the bishop of Nova Scotia. Churches and Sunday schools are well endowed, and the attendance of the congregations and scholars are respectable. The school system, adopted by late enactments, is expected to work beneficially on the educational interests of the people, but at present few of the inhabitants can read or write, and a general ignorance and superstition prevail. The condition of the people has been much improved, however, by the establishment of friendly societies which have greatly sustained the welfare of the blacks since their emancipation. The principal exports from the Bermudas, (the produce and manufactires of the islands,) are arrow root, potatoes, onions, and palmetto and straw hats, in producing which the people excel. They possess some 100 vessels, of from 120 to 150 tons, which are chiefly employed in the trade between the northern colonies and the West Indies. The whale fishery off the islands employs some of the people, and might be profitably carried on by suitable capital; at present it yields little more than 1,000 or 1,200 barrels of oil a year. The waters about the islands and reefs abound in a great variety of fish, but none are cured for exportation. Cattle and sheep are plentiful, and large quantities of poultry are fed for supplying the shipping that call at these islands. All the ordinary products of tropical climates, both animal and vegetable, are produced in abundance. The fruits are various and excellent. But eight of these islands possess any importance; the others are mere rocks. They began to be settled in 1612, and drew for some time greater attention than their natural advantages justified. During the internal 1toubles which soon after took place in Great Britain, they became the asylum of many distinguished personages, and among others of the poet Waller, who, by celebrating the felicity of their climate, has spread around them. a poetic lustre. Recently they were made the prison of the Irish patriot, Mitchell. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 69 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, THE United States of America constitute the most celebrated Republic of the world. Among the nations of the earth, it ranks as second only to the greatest powers of Europe. It occupies the most valuable portion of North America, and lies between the parallels' of 24~ and 49~ north latitude, and the meridians of 67~ and 125~ west longitude. Its greatest width, from east to west, is nearly 3,000 miles, and its greatest depth, from north to south, about 1,700 miles, containing 3,252,684 square miles, including California, Texas, &c. The frontier line of this vast republic extends 10,000 miles; of which 3,500 is sea coast, 1,600 gulf coast, and 1,500 lake coast, as shown in the following authentic table: M/ies. Length of the Atlantic coast, from the month of the St. Croix to the St. Mary's river,............. 1,450 Length of the Atlantic coast from St. Mary's river to Cape of Florida,...................0..........460 Length of Gulf coast from Cape of Florida to the mouth of the Sabine river,......................... 1,200 Length of Gulf coast acquired by the annexation of Texas from the Sabine to the Rio Grande............ 400 Length of Pacific coast — in California, 970 -in Oregon, 50- Straits of Juan de Fuca, 150,... 1,620 otal............. i....................................................................... The areas of the several States of the Union are given in the annexed table, in square miles and acres: STATES Square Acres. LAVE STATE. Square Acres. rBEE TBTES. Miles.. -Miles. Maine,.. 85,000 22,400,000 Delaware, 2,120 1,356,800 Vermont,. 8,000 6,120,000 Maryland,. 11,000 7,040,000 New Hampshire, 8,030 5,139,200 Virginia,.. 61,352 39,265,280 Massachusetts, 7,250 4,640,000 North Carolina, 45,500 29,120,000 Rhode Island,. 1,200 768,000 South Carolina,.. 28,000 17,920,000 Connecticut,. 4,750 8,040,000 Georgia,. 58,000 37,120,000 New York,. 46,000 29,440,000 Kentucky, 37,680 24,115,200 New Jersey,. 6,851 4,384,640 Tennessee,. 44,000 28,160,000 Pennsylvania,. 47,000 30,080,000 Louisiana, 46,431 29,715,840 Ohio,.. 39,964 25,576,960 Mississippi,. 47,147 30,174,080 Indiana,. 33,809 21,637,760 Alabama,.. 50,722 32,462,080 Illinois,.... 55,405 35,459,200 Missouri,. 67,380 43,123,200 Michigan... 6,243 35,995,520 Arkansas, 62,198 33,406,720 Iowa,.. 50,914 32,584,960 Florida,... 59,268 87,931,520 W'isconsin,. 63.924 34,511,360 Texas,. 325520 208,332,800 California,. 448,691 287,162,240 District of Columbia, 50 32,000 Tot,.... 903,081 677,939,840 Total,... 6,368 599,275,520 The boundary lines are settled by the following treaties: Treaties. Date. Treaties. Date 1. Treaty of Paris,................. 1783. 7. Treaty with Mexico.. 1828. 2. " " London,................. 1794. 8. "..................... 1828. 3. Louisiana Treaty,................. 1803. 9. Ashburton Treaty...................... 184 4. Treaty of Ghent................. 1814. 10. Texas Annexation Resolution..1845. 5. Convention of London,............1818 & 1828. 11. Oregon Treaty......................... 1846. 6. Florida Treaty,................. 1819. 12. Treaty of Guadalupe,.................... 1848. The great features of the country have been described in the preceding pages, under the head of America. The United States are intersected by two principal ranges of mountains, the Alleghany and the Rocky mountains. The Alleghany mountains in 70 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. the east, run nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast, from Georgia, throug. Tennessee, Virginia, and Pennsylvania to New York. The Rocky mountains in the west, run across the territory nearly parallel with the coast of the Pacific ocean, at the distance from it of several hundred miles. The Alleghany mountains run in separate, and somewhat parallel ridges, with a breadth of from 60 to 120 miles, and at a distance from the sea coast of from 80 to 250 miles, and terminate in the Catskill mountains east of Hudson river, though some would extend them to the White mountains in New Hampshire. The general height of the Alleghany mountains is nowhere above 2,000 or 3,000 feet above the level of the ocean, and not more than one half of that above the adjacent country. The highest peak in this range is Black mountain, in the west part of North Carolina, which is 6,476 feet high. Round Top, the highest peak in the Catskill mountains, is 3,804 feet. The Rocky mountains may be regarded as a part of the great chain of the Cordilleras, and extend from Mexico to the 700 north latitude, running at an average distance of 600 miles from the Pacific ocean, with a general height of about 8,000 or 9,000 feet above the level of the sea, but not more than 5,000 feet above the level of their base. Some of their elevated peaks rise to the height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet. The Green mountains, a minor range, commence near New Haven, in Connecticut, and run through that state, Massachusetts, and Vermont, to the borders of Canada. Mansfield mountain, the highest peak in the chain, in a township of the same name in Vermont, is 4,280 feet high. The White mountains in New Hampshire are very elevated, the highest peak, Mount Washington, is 6,428 feet high. West of lake Champlain, in the State of New York, are the Adirondack mountains, the highest peak of which, Mount Marcy, is 5,460 feet high. West of the Rocky mountains, the rivers generally flow west to the Pacific, the principal of which is the Columbia. The rivers between the Rocky and Alleghany mountains, are the Mississippi and its numerous tributaries, which flow into the gulf of Mexico, with the exception of a few of the smaller class which flow into the northern lakes. East of the Alleghany mountains the rivers flow into the Atlantic. The following are the principal rivers which flow into the Atlantic, with about their length in miles: Penobscot, 250; Kennebec, 200; Androscoggin, 170; Saco, 160; Merrimac, 200; Connecticut, 410; Hudson, 324; Delaware, 300; Susquehanna, 450; Potomac, 500; James, 500; Roanoke, 400; Cape Fear, 350; Pedee, 450; Santee, 450; Savannah, 500; Alatamaha, 400; St. Johns, 300. The following rivers flow into the gulf of Mexico: Appalachicola, 500; Alabama, 600; Tombigbee, 450; Mississippi, 3,000. The following are tributaries of the Mississippi: Red, 1,500; Arkansas, 2,150; White, 1,200; Missouri, before its junction, 3,180; Kansas, 1,100; Platte, 1,600; Osage, 500; Yellowstone, 1,100; Ohio, 1,350; Illinois, 500; Des Moines, 800; Tennessee, 900; Cumberland, 600; Wabash, 500. The following rivers are west of the Rocky mountains: Columbia, 1,500; Multnomah, 900; Lewis, 900; Clarks, 600; Sacramento, Bueneventura, Colorado, and Gila. The above mostly include their remote sources. The two largest lakes, that lie wholly within the United States, are Michigan and Champlain. But the great lakes, Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, are one half in the United States, the boundary between the United States and Canada passing through the middle of them. The fol UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 71 lowing is an authentic tabular statement of the extent of these fresh water seas, as represented in a report of the State Geologist of Michigan: Lakes. Mdean Length. Mean Breadth. Mean Depth. Elevation. Area in sq. ms. Superior,....... 400 miles. 80 miles. 900 feet. 596 feet. 32,000 Michigan,...... 220 70 1,000 578 15,000 Huron,....... 240 80 1.000 578 20,000 Green Bay,.... 100 20 600 578 2,000 Erie,..........40 40 84 565 9,600 Ontario,....... 180 85 500 232 6,300 St. Clair,....... 20 14 20 570 280 Lake Champlain, lying between Vermont and New York, is 128 miles long, and from 1 to 16 miles wide, and discharges its4vaters through the Sorel into the St. Lawrence. It is computed that the lakes contain above 14,000 cubic miles of water; a quantity more than five-sevenths of all the fresh water on the earth. The extent of country drained by the lakes, from the northwestern angle of Superior to the St. Lawrence, (including also the area of the lakes themselves, 85,180,) is estimated at 335,515 square miles. The gulf of Mexico, on the south of the United States, is a large branch )f the Atlantic ocean, and receives the waters of the Mississippi valley. The soil of New England is generally rocky and rough, better adapted o grazing than to grain. The valley of the Connecticut, and some parts of Mlaine are exceptions to this remark. The low country on the Atlantic %oast is generally light and sandy, not very fertile except on the margins,f the rivers. The hilly country back of this is generally fertile. The:,oil generally in the valley of the Mississippi has great fertility. But toward the Rocky mountains it becomes sterile. The country beyond the Rocky mountains, with some exceptions, is but moderately fertile. Beef, pork, butter, and cheese, are the principal productions of the eastern states, though a great amount of wool is raised, and various grains for home consumption. Wheat is the staple for the middle states. In the northern portion of the southern states, wheat and tobacco are chiefly cultivated; and in the low country at the south, cotton, rice, and sugar are extensively raised.'Tlne western states are the granary of the United States, and indeed of the world, and it is scarcely possible to set bounds to the bread stuffs which they are capable of producing. Among the mineral treasures of the United States, iron ore, coal, and limestone are very extensive. The anthracite coal of Pennsylvania is inexhaustible, and the bituminous coal farther west is equally abundant. The lead region of Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa, is probably the finest in the world. Gold is found in large quantities in California, and to a considerable extent in Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia, and marble and gypsum are very abundant. Copper abounds in the northwestern states and along the shores of lake Superior; vast boulders of copper, some tons in weight, have been found in the Wisconsin region; and such has been the activity of mining operations of late years, that the market has been almost entirely supplied from the west. The lake Superior copper mines are represented as being in a flourishing state: Amount of ore raised since 1847,.........................................10.,244,2)0 Ib do. shipped....................................................................1,693805 Balance to be smelted,.....................................................8,56,395 72 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The climate of the United States has great variety, extending as it does through more than 20 degree of latitude, with a great variety in the elevation of its surface. In the northern part it is subject to great extremes of heat and cold, but is generally healthy. The Atlantic coast south of New Jersey, and the borders of the gulf of Mexico, have an unhealthy climate from July to November. Back from the sea coast, the elevated country is generally healthy, as are the western states, with the exception of some low and marshy portions. COMMERCE. -- In its commerce, the United States is the second country on the globe, being inferior only to Great Britain. It has attained an amazing magnitude; there is no part of the world that is not visited by American vessels; and the foreign and coasting trade, and the inland trade carried on over an unequaled extent of natural and artificial lines of communication, are all on an equal scale. The domestic commerce may be divided into three branches: 1. That which is carried on coastwise, up the bays and large rivers, and on the great lakes, by schooners, sloops and steamboats. 2. That which is carried on chiefly in steamboats, but partly in rude flat-bottom boats on the affluents of the Mississippi. 3. The overland trade between the Western and Atlantic States, in hogs, horses, cattle and mules, amounts to several millions of dollars annually. The four maritime States of New England and the States of New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland, are the most devoted to navigation, foreign and coastwise. In endurance, management, and skill in naval architecture, the Americans may challenge the world. No part of the world presents such an extensive river commerce. Steam vessels, a grand improvement first introduced in America, ply on all the principal lakes and rivers. Neither the States nor individuals have been slow in improving and extending the natural advantages of the country; and the spirit with which they have undertaken, and the perseverance they have shown in executing the most magnificent plans, have shed a lustre on the American name. The great land-locked bays of the coast have been connected by canals, and the eastern and western waters have been united by several channels, which either turn the Alleghanies, or surmount their summits. The waters of the great lakes and the Mississippi have been connected at various points, and the obstacles in the navigation of the most important rivers have been overcome by removing the bars, ledges, and rafts, which obstructed their channels, or by side-cuts, locks and dams. These great works give life to manufactures; invigorate and create internal trade; promote agriculture, and develop the mining industry of the country. The amount of capital employed in foreign and domestic commerce is estimated at 500,000,000 dollars. COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION. Whole number of American vessels entered during the year ending June 30th, 1849.................. 11,208 Whole number of foreign vessels entered...............89............................................ 8,992 Total of American and foreign vessels entered........................................... 20.2N() Whole number of American vessels cleared....................................................... 11,466 Whole number of foreign vessels cleared.......................................................... 8,847 Total of American and foreign vessels cleared........................................... 20,313 Crews of American vessels entered.................M........ Ien, 105,718; Boys, 3,329; Total, 109,047 Crews of foreign vessels entered........................... Men, 87.033; Boys, 2,651; Total, 89,684 Crews of American vessels cleared............................. Men, 109,'349; Boys, 3,422; Total, 112,771 Cerws of foreign vessels cleared...........:.................... Men, 89,579; Boys, 2,704; Total, 92,283 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. 73 EXPORTS OF THE PRODUCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Value of the Exports of the Growth, Produce and Manufacture of the United States, for the year ending June 30, 1849. Articles Exported. Value. Articles Exported. Value. THE SEA. Fisheries - SA. ats.............................. 64,967 Dried fish, or cod fisheries......... $419,092 Saddlery.......................... 37,276 Pickled fish, or river fisheries (her- Wax.............................. 121,720 ring, shad, salmon, mackerel).... 93,085 Spirits from grain..................67,129 Whale and other fish oil........... 965,697 Beer, ale, porter and cider.......... 51,320' Spermaceti oil.................... 572,763 Snuff and tobacco.................. 613,044 Whalebone...................... 337,714 Linseed oil and spirits of turpentine.. 148,056 Spermaceti candles............... 159,403 Cordage........................... 41,636 Iron - Total fisheries............... 2,547,654 Pig, bar and nails................ 149,358 Castings......................... 60,175 THE FOREST. All manufactures of.............. 886,639 Skins and furs...................... 656,228 Spirits from molasses................ 288,452 Ginseng........................... 182,966 Sugar refined..................... 129,001 Products of Wood — Chocolate.......................... 1,941 Staves, shinglesboards, hewn timber 1,776,749 Gunpowder......13.................. 1,297 Other lumber.................... 60,344 Copper and brass................... 66,203 Masts and spars.................. 87,720 Medicinal drugs.................... 220,894 Oak bark and other dye........... 95,392 Cotton Piece Goods — All manufactures of wood..... 1,697,828 Printed and colored.............. 466,574 Naval stores, tar, pitch, rosin and White........................... 8,955,117 turpentine......... 845,164 Nankeen........................ 8,203 Ashes, pot and pearl.............. 815,603 Twist, yarn and thread............ 92,555 All other manufactures of....... 415,680 Total products of wood....... 5,078,800 Total of cotton goods........ 4,933,129 AGRICULTURE. Flax and Hemp — Products of Animals - Cloth and thread................ 1,009 Beef, tallow, hides, horned cattle... 2,058,958 Bags and all manufactures of..... 4,549 Butter and cheese................ 1,654,157 Wearing apparel................... 75,945 Pork (pickled), bacon, lard, live hogs, 9,245,885 Combs and buttons................ 38,136 Horses and mules................. 96,982 Brushes.......................... 2,924 Sheep............................ 16,305 Billiard tables...................... 701 Wool............................ 81,015 Umbrellas and parasols.............. 5,800 Leather and morocco skins not sold Total products of animals.... 18,153,302 per pound....................... 9,427 Vegetable Food - Fire engines and apparatus.......... 458 Wheat......................... 1,756,848 Printing presses and type........... 28,031 Flour.......................... 11,280,582 Musical instruments................ 23,713 Indian corn...................... 7,966,369 Books and maps.................... 94,427 Indian meal..................... 1,169,625 Paper and stationery................ 86,827 Rye meal........................ 218,248 Paints and varnish................. 55,145 Rye, oats, and other small grain and Vinegar........................... 14,036 pulse........................ 139,793 Earthen and stone ware............ 10632 Biscuit, or ship bread....... 364,318 Manufactures of Potatoes........................ 83,313 Glass........................... 101.419 Apples.......................... 93,904 Tin..................... 13,143 Rice............................ 2,569,362 Pewter and lead.................. 13,196 Marble and stone................. 20,282 Total vegetable food.......... 25,642,362 Gold and silver, and gold-leaf..... 4,502 Tobacco...........................,804,207 Gold and silver coin................. 956,874 Cotton............................ 66,396,967 Artificial flowers and jewelry........ 8,557 Hemp............................. 8,458 Molasses........................... 7,442 All other Agricultural Products - Trunks........................... 5,099 Flax-seed........................ 4 Brick and lime..................... 8,671 Hops............................ 29,123 Salt.............................. 82,972 Brown sugar.................... 24,606 Coal.............................. 40,396 Indigo........................... 49 Lead.............................. 30,198 Ice............ 95,027 54,082 Articles not enumerated - MANuFAcTEuRs.' Manufactured................... 1,408,278 Soap and tallow candles............ 627,280 Other articles.................... 769,557 Leather, boots and shoes............. 11,774 Household furniture................ 237,342 Total...................... $132,666,955 Coaches and other carriages....... 95,923 DOMESTIC EXPORTS AND IMPORTS FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1850. Products of the sea.................... $2,824,888 Cotton..............................71,984,616 Lumber and naval stores............... 3,739,728 Allother agricultural products.......... 15,402 Manufactures of wool.................. 1,948,752 Manuf. of cotton, iron, &c., enumerated, 11,327,380 Pot and pearl ashes.................... 572,870 Manufactures not enumerated.......... 3,869,071 Products of the forest.................. 1,181,153 Coal, ice, and all other articles but coin.. 953,664 Pork, bacon, lard and live hogs......... 7,550,287 Other animal products................ 1,783,638 Total domestic merchandise....$134,900,232 Butter, cheese, wheat and wheat flour... 8,957,778 Exports of foreign merchandise........ 9,475,493 All other grain, meal and ship-bread.... 5,324,194 Potatoes and apples....................124,307 Total exports of the United States...... $144,375, 725 Rice and tobacco............ 12,585,280 Imports, exclusive of specie..........$173,507,521 ~~.... 74 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. VALUE OF DIFFERENT ARTICLES IMPORTED. Value of Goods, Wares, and Merchandise, imported into the United States for the year ending Tune 30, 1849. Species of Merchandise. Value. Species of Merchandise. Value. FREE O.F DUTY. Manufactures of FlaxAnimals for breed..................... $72,845 Linens, bleached or unbleached...... $5,156,924 Bullion - Hosiery and articles made on frames.. 1,485 Gold............................... 297,570 Articles tamboured or embroidered... 30,686 Silver............................. 154,688 Manufactures, not specified.......... 718,147 Specie - Manufactures of Hemp - Gold............................... 3,771,077 Sheetings, brown and white.......... 52,3.53 Goldr...3.. 71,077 Sheetings, brown and white... 52,353 Silver............................. 2,427,905 Ticklenburgs, osnaburgs, and burlaps. 119,217 Cabinets of coins, medals, and other col- Articles not specified 101,053 lections of antiquities............... 331 Russia sail-duck.................... 74,101 Models of inventions and improvements Holland 5,566 in the arts......................... 29,012 Ravensduck........................ 46,116 Teas............................... 4,071,789 Cotton bagging.121,368 Coffee............................... 9,058,352 Clothing - Copper- RReady-made....................... 87283 In plates........................... 1,044,755 Articles of wear..................... 500,307 In ore............................. 177,736 Laces, thread, and insertings...... 176,375 Cotton, unmanufactured............... 8,255 Cotton insertings, trimmings, &c.... 663,991 Adhesive felt, for sheathing........... 11,215 Floor-cloth, patent, painted, &c. 2,884 Paintings and statuary................ 147,946 Oil-cloth of all kinds.................. 34,286 Specimens of natural history, &c....... 56,198 Hair-cloth and hair-seating............ 145,292 Sheathing metal................. 220,936 Lasting and mohair-cloth for shoes, &c.. 103,677 Platina, unmanufactured.............10,285 y cloth. 140,472 Plaster, unground.................... 71,567 Matting Chinese, and others of flags, &c. 92,100 Personal effects of immigrants......... 120,679 Hats, (aps, Bonnets, 4c.- Personal and household effects of citizens Leghorn, straw, grass, chip, &c. 1150,964 dying abroad....................... 8,154 Palm-leaf, rattan, willow, &c......... 18,977 Old junk......................... 45,897 Manufactures of Iron and Steel — Oakum.............................. 5,972 Muskets and rifles................... 205 Oakum.5,972 Muskets and rifles. 205 Garden-seeds, trees, &c................ 76,368 Fire-arms, not specified... 231,905 Products of United States brought back. 369,463 Side-arms....................4,082 Guano............................... 102,274 Drawing and cutting knives. 8,421 Philosophical apparatus, &c............ 15,732 Hatchets, axes, and adzes.3,148 Books, maps, and charts............... 14,151 Socket chisels.............. 8,895 Paintings, drawings, &c.. 621 Steelyards and scale-beams.. 18,681 All other articles...................... 37,852 Vices................24,656 Sickles and reaping-hooks.. 1:909 Total............................ 22,377,665 Scythes....8................... 14,892 Wood screws........................ 515 PAYINaG DUTY. Spades and shovels.................. 3,168 Manufactures of WVool, 4-c.- Squares............................ 2,557 Cloths and cassimeres......... 4,995,957 Needles, sewing, darning, &c... 167,664 Merino shawls of wool...... 1,196,376 Cast-iron butts and hinges.......... 18,012 Blankets........................... 1,161,429 Cutlery not specified. 1,086,408 Hosiery and articles on frames........ 718,794 Manufactures of, not specified........ 2,946,873 Worsted stuff goods................. 4,070,185 Sad-irons, hatters' and tailors' irons.. 1,477 Woollen and worsted yarn............ 113,463 Bonnet-wire.......................... 22,888 Woollen and worsted, embroidered and Wire not above No. 14............... 34,414 tamboured................. 18,919 Wire above No. 14................... 1,951 Manufactures of, not specified........ 837,577 Tacks, not above 16 oz. per thousand 61 Flannels............................ 52,339 Tacks above 16 oz. per thousand...... 28 Baizes............................. 51,518 Nails............................ 68,294 Carpeting - Spikes...................1,996 Wilton. Saxony, and Ambusson 18,067 Chain-cables. 277,289 Brusseis, Turkey, and treble ingrained, 849,908 Mill cross-cut, and pit saws..... 6,878 Venetian and other ingrained.......... 96,433 Anchors, and parts thereof........ 8,097 Not specified........................ 28,650 Anvils, and parts thereof............ 74,250 Manufactueres of Cotton — Smiths' hammers and sledges 3,444 Printed, stained, or colored......... 10,286,894 Castings, vessels of................. 15,883 White or uncolored................. 1,438,635 All other castings.. 18,937 Tamboured or embroidered........... 702,631 Braziers' rods, from 3.16 to 10.16 inches, 24,563 Velvets wholly of cotton............. 99,220 Nail-rods, slit, rolled, or hammered.. 11,114 Cotton and silk..................... 14,076 Band or scroll, as casement rods hamCords, gimps, and galloons........... 185,964 mered............................ 19,137 Hosiery and articles made on frames.. 1,315,783 Hoop iron........................ 148,126 Twist, yarn, and thread............ 770,509 Sheet iron.. 395,130 Hatters' plush of silk and cotton..... 170 Pig iron............................ 1,405,613 Manufactures of, not specified........ 940,959 Old and scrap....................... 144,424 lanufactures of Silk - Bar, manufactured by rolling. 6,060,068 Piece goods......................... 7,588,822 Bar, manufactured otherwise. 525,770 Hosiery and articles made on frames.. 468,393 Steel — Sewing-silk......................... 551,840 Cast, shear, and German....... 1.... 1014,773 Articles tamboured or embroidered... 1,045,216 All other........................... 212,365 Hats and bonnets............... 48,162 Copper, and Manufactures ofManufactures, not specified....... 4,053,871 In pigs, bars, and old................ 988,683 Floss.............................. 18,297 Wire............................... 857 Raw.............................. 366,238 Copper bottoms..................... 11,792 Bolting cloths......................... 34,928 Manufactures of, not specified........ 219,369 Silk and worsted goods................ 2,452,289 Rods and bolts...................... 1,553 Camlets of goats' hair and mohair...... 35,016 Nails and spikes..................... 570 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. 75 Species of Merchandise. Value. Species of Merchandise. Value. Brass, and Marlufactures of- Wares - In pigs, bars, and old......... $7,504 China, porcelain, earthen, and stone.. $2,261,331 Wire............... 4,872 Plated or gilt....................... 159,619 Sheet and rolled..................... 8,105 Japanned.......................... 62,269 Manufactures of, not specified........ 154,540 Britannia........................... 17,272 Tin, and Manufactures of- Silver or plated ware................ 5,440' In pigs and bars. 575,762 Saddlery - In plates and sheets. 2,292,428 Common, tinned, or japanned........ 67,749 Foil................................11,208 Plated, brass, or polished steel 117,726 Manufactures of, not specified....... 23,042 Furs - Lead, and Manufactures of- Undressed, on the skin.............. 249,156 Pig, bar, sheet, and old.............. 85,367 Hatters' furs, dressed or undressed, not Shot................................ 86 on the skin.. 256,656 Manufactures of, not specified 854 Dressed, on the skin................ 84,976 Pewter - Hats, caps, muffs, and tippets........ 3,842 Old............................... 2,453 Manufactures of, not specified. 6,842 Manufactures of..................... 1,503 Wood, Manufactures ofManufactures of Gold and Silver- Cabinet and household furniture. 52,195 Laces, galloons, tassels, &c........... 40,290 Cedar, mahogany, rose, satin 32,695 Epaulettes and wings................ 566 Other manufactures of....165,850 Gold and silver leaf................. 263 Wood, unmanufacturedJewelry, real, or imitations of........ 281,335 Cedar, grenadilla, mahogany, rose, and Gems, diamonds, pearls, &c., set 3,242 satin.324,620 Gems, diamonds, pearls, &c., set..... 8,242 satin............................. 324,620 cc " 4 g" otherwise 106,014 Fire-wood, and other, not specified. 227,716 Manufactures of, not specified........ 29,043 Dye-wood, in sticks.................. 549,149 Glaziers' diamonds................... 2,374 Bark of the Cork-tree — Clocks............................... 51,543 Corks.............................. 120,413 Chronometers......................... 13,046 Unmanufactured................. 14,573 Watches, and parts of............. 1,676,606 Other manufactures.... 11 Metallic pens.. 74,050 Marble - Square wire for umbrellas.. 26,108 Manufactures of.................. 23,883 Pins in packs and otherwise. 8,184 Unmanufactured...... 110,963 Buttons, metal............3;.......... 35,239 Quicksilver........................... 26,974 Otr buttns and button moulds......365937 Brushes and brooms................... 146,063 Gls — Black-lead pencils..................... 32,187 Silvered and in frames............... 150,587 Slates of all kinds.. 152,030 Paintings on glass, &c............... 14,488 Raw hides and skins................... 3,507,3800 Polished plate...................... 282,101 Manufactured articles - Manufactures of, not specified........ 88,231 Boots and bootees of silk or satin 100 Cut............................. 45,563 Shoes and slippers, " 305 Plain.............................. 37,303 " prunella, lasting, &c. 4 Watch-crystals...................... 6,646 " India-rubber....... 52,335 Gl asses or pebbles for spectacles..... 4,236 Grass-cloth.......................... 17,474 Apothecaries' vials, N. by A., 16 oz. each 441 Gunny-bags......................... 270,700 Bottles not above two quarts......... 61,677 Umbrellas, parasols, &c., silk........ 33,934 Demijohns.......................... 16,881 & all other................. 1 Window-glass, 8 by 10, or less........ 2,946 Unmanufactured articles - " 10 by 12, "........ 112,176 Flaxseed or linseed. 273,084 " above 10 by 12......... 24,217 Angora, Thibet, and other goats' hair Paper, and Manufactures of — or mohair.................. 105 Antiquarian, imperial, super-royal, &c. 278 Wool............................... 1,177,347 Medium, cap, demy, and other writing, 52,110 Wines, in casks — Folio and quarto post................ 64,624 Burgundy. 4.866 Bank and bank-note paper........... 33,858 Madeira.. 105,302 Binders' boards, box, pressing, and Sherry and San Lucar............ 128,510 paste boards...................... 104 Port... 272,700 Copperplate printing and drawing.... 6,165 Claret..................... 263,836 Sheathing paper.................... 3 Teneriffe and other Canary........ 22,643 Playing cards....................... 7,722 Fayal and other Azores........... 5;108 Papier mache, articles and wares of... 31,710 Sicily and other Mediterranean....... 2,231 Paper hangings..................... 76,525 Austrian and other German.......... 2,832 Paper boxes and fancy boxes........ 65,030 Red wines, not enumerated...... 221,177 Manufactures of, not specified....... 51,994 White wines,......... 210,139 Blank books........................ 56800 Wines, in bottles - Books, printed — Burgundy.......................... 8,184 In Hebrew.......................... 126 Champagne......................... 439,508 In Latin and Greek................ 2,925 Madeir. 759 In English......................... 284,935 Sherry................... 803 In other languages.......109,91 Port............................... 1,281 Periodicals and illustrated newspapers, 936 Claret................... 68,636 Periodicals and other works in course All other.......................... 32,642 of publication.................... 1,943 Foreign Distilled SpiritsLeather- Brandy.................... 1,347,514 Tanned, bend, and sole............. 807 From grain......................... 327,957 Tanned and dressed upper........... 12,096 From other materials................145,784 Skins, tanned and dressed........... 410,504 Cordials............................ 25,328 Skins, tanned, not dressed........... 11,358 Beer, Ale, and PorterManufactures of Leather — In casks........................... 16,110 Skivers............................ 55,903 In bottles................ 134,431 Boots and bootees, for men and women, 9,613 Vinegar. 4,065 Shoes and pumps, for men and women, 9,659 Molasses................. 2,778,174 Boots, bootees, and shoes for children. 4,826 Oil of Foreign Fisheries — Gloves for men, women, and children.. 772,217 Spermaceti.......................... 8 Manufactures of, not specified....... 173,143 Whale and other fish..... 12,864 76 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Species of Merchandise. Value. Species of Merchandise. Value. Whalebone................ $20 Copperas.............. $10,131 Oil - Sulphate of quinine......... 7,069 Olive, in casks...................... 55,787 Vitriol, blue or Roman................. 9,628 Castor............................. 3,5841 Oil of................................ 61 Linseed............................ 78,2 Linseed..,,,,,,,.. 1 487.922 ChlorIde of lime or bleaching powder... 78,062 Rapeseed.................b9j Soda ash............................. 637,965 Spirits of turpentine................ 1 Sulphate of barytes................... 5,983 ~~~~~~~~Tea.., r29,863 Tobacco - Coffee.2,091................... 2091 Unmanufactured..26........ 276,674 Cocoa................................ 123,946 Snuff............................... 358 Chocolate............................ 1,43 Cigars.........1,4397......6. Sugar - Manufactured, other than snuff and Brown............................. 7,793,616 cigars............................ 3,509 White, clayed, or powdered.......... 221,206 Paints - Loaf and other, refined.............. 4,078 Dry ochre.......................... 33725 Candy...........461 Ochre, in oil....................... 4.131 Syrup of sugar-cane....378 Red and white lead............. 19;703 FruitsW- Whiting and Paris white............. 2,755 Almonds........................... 152,979 Litharge............................ 249 Currants...... 99,576 Sugar of lead....................... 858 Prunes and plums.................. 48,719 CordageFigs................................ 62,410 Tarred and cables................... 129,120 Dates.............................. 7,112 Untarred......................... 17,290 Raisins.......622,906 Twin............................... 4,378 Nuts.................71,331.... 71.31 Seines........................... 182 Spices - Hemp, unmanufactured............ 491,633 Mace.............................. 22,090 Manilla, sun, and other hemp of India.. 196,634 Nutmegs............................ 219,349 Jute, sisal-grass, coir, &c.............. 356,406 Cinnamon....................... 8,593 Cordila, or tow of hemp or flax........ 156,498 Cloves.............................. 56,594 Flax, unmanufactured................ 127,859 Peper, black..................... 65, Rags of all kinds..................... 524,755 red..... Arm,,,,, 11,556 Salt................................... 1,438,981 Pimento................. 191,197 Coal.................................. 409,282 Cassia............... 74,198 B!read-stuffs - Ginger, in root...................... 73,198 Wheat............................. 20,I.2 Camphor - Barley........................ 1,641 Crude............~................ 39,817 Rye.....162 Refined............................. 16 Oats............................... 27,067 Candles - Wheat-flour........................ 76,272 Wax and spermaceti................. 1,245 Oat-meal................. 1,315 Tallow............................. 31 Potatoes...'........" 20,602 Cheese............................... 22,895 Fish - Soap, other than perfumed............. 74,370 Dried or smoked.................... 43,709 Tallow............................... 1,825 Salmon............................. 81,200 Starch............................... 1,629 Mackerel........................... 465,286 Pearl barley.......................... 598 Herrings and shad.................. 29,761 Butter.................20...4...... 29,8 All other........................... 13,097 Lard................................ 14 Merchandise not enumeratedBeef and pork. 1,515 At 5 percent................. 1,702,012 Hams and other bacon................ 2,268 At 10................ 1,030,131 Bristles.............................. 88,265 At 15 "....................... 286,078 Saltpetre - At 20 ".............. 2,893,652 Crude.......... 436,250 At 25 ".. 155,090 Refined, or partly refined............ 25,815 At 30....................... 1,641,737 Indigo............................... 805,863 At 40 "....................... 141,741 Woad or pastel.8,136 -- Ivory and bone black...........1,481 Value of Merchandise paying Duties ad Opium............190,316 valorem....................... 125,479,774 Glue........................... 12,543 Free of Duty................... 22,377,665 Gunpowder............... 43 Alum................................ 2,004 Total..... 147,857,439 VALUE OF BREADSTUFFS, ETC., EXPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES. The aggregate value of Breadstuffs and Provisions exported annually from 1821 to 1850, inclusive. Years. Value. Years Value. Years. Value. 1821........... $12,341,901 1831.......... $17,538,227 1841. $17,196,102 1822........... 13,886,856 1832.......... 12,424,703 1842........ 16,902,876 1823.......... 13,767,847 1833.......... 14,209,128 1843*......... 11,204,123 1824........... 15,059,848 1834.......... 11,524,024 1844.......... 17,970,135 1825........... 11,634,449 1835.......... 12,099.399 1845.......... 16,743,421 1826........... 11,303,496 1836.......... 10,614,130 1846.......... 27,701,121 1827........ 11,685,556 1837.......... 9,588,359 1847.......... 68,701,921 1828........... 11,461,144 1838.......... 9,63*,650 1848.......... 37,472,751 1829........... 13,131,858 1839.......... 14,147.779 1849......... 39,155J,507 1880........... 12,075,030 1840.......... 19,067,535 1850.......... 2;,051,373 Total.........................O-:':........ 535207.25 *For nine months ending June 30th, 184.8. COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH ALL NATIONS. Imports from and Exports to Foreign Countries, during the /ear ending June 30, 1849. Value of Exports. Value of ImCountries. ports. Domestic Foreign Total. Produce. Produce.; Russia,.840,288 $837,557 6197,947 $1,185,504 Prussia,17,687 34,703 9,516 44,219 Sweden and Norway;'71,846 725.281 88,506 763,787 Swedish West Indies, 15,982 95,128 787 95,865 Denmark,.. 19,204 55,138 55,138 Danish West Indies,..839,141 727,197 54,149 781,346 Hanse Towns,.7,742,864 2,710,248 604,682 8,314,930 Hanover,.8,496 85 8,581 Holland,.. 1,501,643 2,155,328 242,027 2,397,355 Dutch East Indies.. 854,528 280,823 54,118 334,941 Dutch West Inde s ~ ~' Dutch West Indies,. 453,099 817,066 50,252 367,318 Dutch Guiana, 58,281 104,013 52 104,065 Belgium,.... 1,844,293 2,443,064 288,243 2,731,307 England, 58,818,425 69,161,992 1,880,878 71,042.870 Scotland,..1,959,320 8,549,960 58,472 3,308432 Ireland,. 876,793 8,916,342 22,526 3,938,868 Gibraltar, 1,193 723,819 78,467 802,286 Malta.rts a Jg,.8,405 51,233 62,734 113,967 British EastIn. 2,086,254 832,962 76,562 409,524 Cape of Good Hope,.71,298 94,422 - 94,422 Mauritius, - 21,731 5,000 26,731 Honduras, 262..1' ~~~~~Honduras,...... 262,417 191,347 84,620 225,967 British Guiana, 25,520 662,815 3,759 666,074 British West Indies,..997,865 8,935,834 203,097 4,138,931 ~~Canada,....1,481,082 2,320,328 1,914,401 4,234,724 British American Colonies, 1,845,798 8,611,788 257,760 8,869,53 Other British Colonies, 8,,6 13 - - - France on the Atlantic, 23,209,878 11,646,612 2,818,808 14,464,915 France on the Mediterranean,.1,158905 877,147 16821 1,045,668 French West Indies.71,469 180,731 14,267 194,998 Miquelon and French Fseries,.- 20,870 - 20,370 French Guiana,.28,417 46,161 46,161 Bourbon (French Easlt Indies,). - 9,47 - 9,473 spain on the Atlantic,.313,490 169,.0 31479 200,550 Spain on the Mediterranean, 1,005,687 1,619,428 19,827 1,639,250 Teneriffe and other Canaries, 38,919 17,840 654 18,494 Manilla and Phillippine Islands,. 1,127,114 137,868 8,669 146,537 eCuba, n10,659,956 4,641,145 668068 5.309,213 Other Spanish West Indies, 1,964,861 523,292 3234 556,526 Portugala, h822,220 16971 67 75,994 ~Madeira~,.78,759 117,8,78 759 118,637 Feyale and other Aares.17,052 14,204 1,839 16,043 Cape den aVerdhie Islands,.1853 62,647 8,815 66, 462 Italy, ~1,55,896 811,1450 293,419 1,104,869 Sicily,...'.80,244 24169 4,854 29,213 Sardinia, 42,538 460,950 21,414 482,364 Tuscany, - 80,076 - 30,076 Trieste and other Austrian Ports;, 409,178 942,489 464,376 1,406,865 Turkey..874,064 193,876 85,120 278,996 Ionian slands,291 - - -7, Hayti,..901,724 52,577 70,015 602,592 Mexico,.2,216,719 1,047,999 1,042869 2,090,868 Central Republics of America, 50,017 112,480 23,739 136,219 New Granada,...158,960 244,460 53,324 297,784 Venezuela,. 1,413,096 431,421 106,213 537,634 Brazil,.... 8,494,368 2,838,380 264,597 3,102,977 Clsplatine Republic, 79,924 134,638 13,089 147,727 Argentine Republ,.1,709,827 595,518 172,076 7167,594 chill, 1817,72 1,722,4. 7 294,648 2,017,100 Peru,.....446,953 93,195 18,041 111.236 ~Chijna~. ~.... 5,5i13,785 1,460,945 122,29 1,583;224 wesilnn die s generflyn - 106,829 2,395 108,724 South America generally... 16,159 85,21d 8,019 93,234 Europe generally,.- 18,588 - 18,588 Asia generally,..... 209,669 844,486 19,875 363,811 Africa generally,.. 495,752 676,769 S1,642 708,411 South Seas and Pacifie Ocean,... 85,318 836,660 68,068 399,728 Sandwich Islands. 48,875 - - - Total,... 147,857,49 182,666,955 1 8,088,865 145,755,820 L Exported in 1850. Value. I Imported in 1850. Value. Cotton Manufactures,. 4,784,42 Manufactures of Iron, $16,22,013 Cotton,.. 71,984616 I Iron, 9,254,542 Tobacco,...9,951,028 Cotton Goods... 19,685,436 Rice... 2,61,557 Woollen Goods,.. 16,900,916 COMIMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. IMPORTS, EXPORTS, CONSUMPTION, AND TONNAGE OF TIlE UNITED STATES. A Statement exhibiting the total Value of Imports, and Imports consumed in the United States, during acrh fiscal year, from 1821 to 1850: showing, also, the Value of the Domestic and Foreign Exports, exclusiv* of Specie, and the Tonnage employed during the same period: derived from a Statement made up at th6 Register's Ofice. Treasury Department, November 12th, 1850. Years. Total Imports. suned, exclusive duce exported, dise exported, Total exports. Tonnage. oears. Total Imports. co Domedexlstive clsv pof p- Forexcuign merchan- Tota.l exports. Tonnage. exclusive of spe- exclusive of spe~of specie. ~ cie. cie. 1821 $62,585,724 $43,696,405 $43,671,394 $10,824,429 $64,974,382 1,298,958 1822 83,241,541 68,367,425 49,879,079 11,504,270! 72,160,281 1,324,699 1823 77.579,267 51.308,936 47,155,408 21,172,435 74,699,030 1,336,566 18241 80,549,007 53,846,567 50,649,500 18,321,605 75,986,657 1,389,163 1825 96,340,075 66,395,722 66,944,745 23,793:,588 99,535,388 1,423,112 1826 84,974,477[ 57,652,577 52,449,855 20,440,934 77,595,322 1,534,191 1827 79.484,063 54,901,108 57,878,117 16,431,880 82,324,827 1,620,608 1828 88,509,824 66,975,475 49,976,632 14,044,648 72,264,686 1,741,392 1829 74,492,527 54,741,571 55,087,307 12,347,344 72,358,671 1:,260,798 1830 70,876,920 49,575,099 58,524,878 12,145,857 73,849,508 1,191,776 1831 103,191,124 82,808,110 59,218,583 13,077,069 81,300,583 1,267.847 1832 101,029,266 / 75,327,688 61,726,529 19,794,074 87,176,943 1,439;450 1833 108,118,311 83.470,067 69,950,856 17,577,876 90,140,433 1,606,151 1834 126,521,332 86973,147 80,623,662 21,033,553 104,336,973 1,758,907 1835 149,895,742 122,007,974 100,459,481 14,756,321 121,693,577 1,824,940 1836 189,980,035 158,811,392 106,570,912 17,767,762 128,663,040 1,882,103 1837 140-989,217/ 113,310,571 94,280,825 17,162:232 117,419,376 1,896,686 1838 113,717,404 86,552,598 95,560,880 9,417,690' 708.486,616 1,995,640 1839 162,1092,132 145,870,816 101,625,533 10,626,140 121;028,416 2,096,380 1840 107,141,519 86.250,335 111,660,561 12,:008,371 132,085,946 2,180,774 181 127,146,177 114,776309 103,636,236 8,181,235 121,851,503 2.130,744 1842 100,162,087 87,996,818 91,799,242 8,078,753 104,691,534 2,092,391 1843* 64,753,799 37,294,129 77,686,354 5,139,335 84,346,480 2,158,603 108,435:035 | 96,39O4 99,531,774 6,214,058 111:200,046 2,280,695 117,254564 05,59541 98,455,330 7,584,781 114,646,606 2,417,002 1846 121,691,797 110,048,859 101,718,042 7,865,206 113,488,516 2,562,085 1847 146,545.638 116.257,595 150,574,844 9,160,754 152,648,622 2:839,046 1848 154,998,928 140,651,902 130,203,709 7 985,802 154,032,131 3,154,042 1849 147,857,439 132,565,108 131,710,081 8,641,091 145,755,820 3,534,015 1850 178,136,318 1 64,032,033 134,:900,232 9,475,493 151,898,720 3,535,4i54 * During nine months ending June 30th, 1843. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF EACH STATE, DURING THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1849. Value of Exports. Value of Imports. States. -_ _ _ _ _ —_ _ _ _ Sae. Domestic Foreign In American In Foreign Total Produce. Produce. Total. Vessels. - Vessels. Maine............. $1,279,393 $7,288 $1,286,681 $577,403 $144,006 $721,409 New Hampshire.... 5,852 26 5,878 51.029 13,322 64,351 Vermont........... 299,938 388.931 688.869 147,721 147,721 Massachusetts...... 8,174,667 2,090195 10,264.862 18,367,959 6,377,958 24,745,917 Rhode Island....... 172,691 5,461 178,152 230,147 7,331 237,478 Connecticut........ 264 000.264,000 220,350 14,393 234,743 New York......... 36,738,215 9,224,885 45,963:100 76,148,308 16,419,061 92,567,369 New Jersey........ 355 8 363 3,360 893 4,253 ~~~Pennsylvania. 4,850,872 492,549 5,343,421 10,008,073 637,427 10,645,500 Pennsylvania...... 6 92,54 7: Delaware.......... 37,850 379 38,229 898 502 1,400 Maryland.......... 7,786.695 213,965 8,000,660 4,613,219' 363,512 4,976,731 District of Columbia, 111,607...... 111 607 35,668.. 35,668 Virginia.......... 3,369,422 4316 3,373,738 223,218 18,717 241,935 North Carolina..... 270,076...... 270,076 105,975 7,171 113,146 South Carolina.... 9,699,875 1301 9,701,176 996168 479,527 1,475,695 Georgia............ 6,857,806......... 6,857,806 176,437 194,587 371024 Florida......... 2518,027.. 2,518,027 42,811' 20,400 63,211 Alabama.......... 12:824,725.218233,725 108'913 548,234 657,147 ~~Louisianan~..36,957,118 654,549 37,611,667 7,853,664 2,197,033 10,050,697 Mississippi........................................ 2,433.. 2433 Tennessee.......................................... 15,145..... 15,145 Missouri......... 130,382........... 130,382 i Ohio.......... 149,724............ 149,724 137,552 12,287 149,839 Kentucky......................................... 79,788.. 79,738 Michigan.......... 127,844 5,007 132:851 98,141 9..8... 141 [ Illinois............ 88,412 5 88,417 5,173 4,593 9,766 Texas............. 82,891........ 82,791 2,267 14,333 16,600 Total......... $132,666,955 $13,088,865 $145,755,820 $120,382,152 $27,475,287 $147,857,439 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 79 The magnitude of a portion of the internal trade of the United States is exhibited in the official aggregate valuation of the lake trade for 1848. The imports and exports amounted to $186,484,905. The aggregate tonnage employed on the lakes is equal to 203,041 tons; of which 167,137 is American, and 35,904 British. The commerce of lakes Erie, Huron, Michigan, Ontario, Champlain, and St. Clair, is as follows: Erie, Huron Michigan Ontario, Champlain, St. Clair, $115,785,048. $848,152. $24,20,481. $28,141,00. $16,750,700. $639,524. The passenger trade of the lakes is estimated at $1,000,000. The aggregate value of the tonnage of Lake Erie is $5,308,085; of Lake Huron, $75,000; and of Lake Michigan, $564,435. PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. — The United States have made an astonishing progress in industry and wealth; but the present is insignificant in comparison with the future greatness they are destined to attain from their unparalleled resources. An intelligent, enterprising, and free population, possessing the useful arts of the most improved society, with an extent of fertile territory unequaled in the Old World, and penetrated throughout by such immense lines of navigable communication, and railroad facilities, cannot fail, at no very distant period, to leave every other nation behind them. Agriculture has ever been the staple pursuit of the North Americans, and agricultural products have always constituted their principal articles of export. The first exports of the early colonists were the natural products of the forest: firs, lumber, pitch and tar; pot and pearl ashes, with some cattle and provisions, constituted the chief articles of trade from the northern provinces in the early part of the eighteenth century; but rice and tobacco had even then become important items of exportation from the southern colonies. At a late period, wheat became the great staple of the middle and western States, and cotton that of the more tropical sections of the country. Flax and hemp thrive, particularly in the rich soil of Kentucky and Missouri. Maize being suited to a great variety of soils and situations, is so universally cultivated, as to have received the name of " corn," as a distinctive appellation. Oats for horses, and rye for distillation, are the prevalent species of grain in the northern States, while in the extreme south the sugar cane is found to flourish, and to supply almost all the demand for this article for home consumption. Grapes for wine and beets for sugar are articles of prospective culture, regarding the value of which sanguine expectations are entertained. Cotton, the great staple of the United States, is raised in small quantities in Virginia and Kentucky, but is chiefly produced in the country further south. It is the produce of the herbaceous or annual cotton plant, and is of two kinds, the Sea Island or long staple, and the Upland or short staple. The former, which is of a superior quality, is grown chiefly in the Carolinas and Georgia, on the Atlantic, and in some parts of the State of Texas. Cotton was first sown in the United States in or about 1787, and was first exported in small quantities in 1790: since then its culture has become enormous. Tobacco has been the staple of Virginia and Maryland since their first settlement, and is also extensively grown in Kentucky, Ohio, Missouri, and other States; beside the quantities required for domestic use, large amounts are exported. The sugar-cane is cultivated with success in Louisiana, 80 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Florida, and Texas. Rice was first cultivated in South Carolina in 1694, since which time its culture has been so successful, that, in addition to supplying the home consumption, it affords an annual surplus for the purposes of commerce. Indigo was formerly produced in large quantities in the Carolinas and Georgia, but since the introduction of cotton, the cultivation of this plant has almost ceased. The following will afford a general view of the agricultural wealth of the United States: LIVE STOCK -Estimated for 1850, Corn. Pat. Buckwheat....... 12,538,000 bushels Horses and Mules............. 6,000,000 head. Indian Corn................. 588,150,000 Neat Cattle.................. 19,000,000 " VARIOUS CROPS - Sheep............ 30,000,000 " Potatoes.......114,475,000 " Swine......................... 35,000,000 " Hay....................... 15,735,000 tons. CEREAL GRAINS -Estimate for 1848, Com. Pat. Hemp...................... 20,330 Wheat..1..................... 126,364,600 bushels. Tobacco...................... 218,909,000 lbs. Barley...................... 6222050 " otton......................1,066,000,000 Oats.......................... 185,500,000 Rice......................... 119,199,500 " Rye..................8...... 2,952,500 Sugar............. 200,000,000 " Nearly three-fourths of the labor and capital of the country are employed in agriculture. During the war of the Revolution some manufactures sprung up in the States; and on the adoption of the Constitution, provision was immediately made for the support of the manufacturing industry of the country, by protecting duties. Under that provision these interests have flourished, and the United States will, no doubt, soon outstrip all other countries in the march to distinction in this branch of industry. From the endless variety of soil and climate, which produce in abundance every species of raw material, the cheap and inexhaustible supply of moving power furnished by the rivers and torrents, combined with the improvements which are daily taking place in machinery, this result is indicated as an unerring destiny. At present, however, the industry of the country is chiefly applied to agriculture, but the progress of manufactures obtains footing day by day, and extend their limits to every part of the country. The first cotton mill was erected at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1790, and power-looms were introduced at Waltham in 1815. The American cotton stuffs are said to be more substantial and durable than the English, and they are, in consequence, preferred in foreign markets to which they have been carried. They include shirtings, sheetings, and printed calicoes, jeans, carpetings, sail-cloth, &c. The exports of 1850 amounted to $4,734,424. The manufacture of woolens has been carried on in families for domestic use, from an early period; but' it is only recently that large establishments have been formed for this purpose, most of which are supplied with the most improved machinery. A new branch of industry has been recently introduced, and is making rapid advances. The various manufactures of gutta percha and caoutchouc embrace some of the most useful and important improvements in the arts and conveniences of life. The Fisheries have been pursued by the New Englanders with a rare spirit of hardy enterprise, from an early period of the settlement of the country. The whale fishery is prosecuted in the Atlantic Ocean, chiefly to the south of the line, for the black whale, and in the Southern, Indian and Pacific Oceans, for the spermaceti whale. It is estimated that about 45,000 men are employed in the various fisheries, and that the amount of capital employed is 20,000,000 dollars. The vessels engaged in the Pacific UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 81 whale fishery are often absent two or three years. Seal oil and furs are also obtained in the Arctic and Antarctic seas; the annual product of which exceeds five million dollars. The cod fishery employs 60,000 tons of small craft, and the produce is estimated at $1,500,000 yearly. The mackerel fishery is valued at $2,000,000 annually. The very general substitution of coal for wood as fuel, and its employment in the manufacture of iron, and in the production of steam and gas, have of late years given an amazing impulse to the trade in this article. Thirty years ago the coal trade of the United States was limited to 365 tons of anthracite, carried from the Lehigh mines to the city of Philadelphia; now the annual production of anthracite exceeds three millions of tons. Indeed, so great and various have the uses of coal become, that, in connection with iron, it may now be considered one of the most important elements of a nation's commercial and manufacturing prosperity. In the distribution of coal the United States are highly favored. Exclusive of Texas, New Mexico, California, and Oregon, all of which are known to contain coal, the area of coal formations in the United States is estimated to be 133,132 square miles. Nearly the whole of this vast area is occupied by bituminous coal. The total area of the anthracite region of Pennsylvania is estimated at about 400 square miles, yet more tons of fuel are now annually produced from that small area, than from the boundless fields of bituminous coal scattered over twelve States. The annual produce of the coal mines of the United States now amounts to about $7,000,000, valued at the places of production. POPULATION.-Although collected from several nations of Europe, and in many cases retaining much of the original stamp, the Americans have a strong national feeling; and with some few exceptions the immigrants soon lose their national peculiarities and character by intermarriages and a common education. In 1847 half a million foreigners landed at the various ports of the Union; but the English language and literature are universally pursued, and the Anglo-Saxon spirit preponderates throughout the heterogeneous mass. IMMIGRANT STATISTICS FOR 1850. States. Males. Females. Sex not sta- Total. Maine............. 2,437 1,577 235 4,248 New Hampshire..........53 >...... 6 13... 66 Massachusetts....................................... 14,520 12,077 838 26,835 Rhode Island.................................... 00 6...... 6 166 New Yorkl............................................ 107,866 77,016... 184,882 Pennsylvania...................................... 5,259 5,256... 10,515 Maryland........................................ 4,406 3,178... 7,584 irginia............................................ 27 7... 34 South Carolina...................................... 1,177 440... 1,617 Georgia............................................... 90 61.. 151 Alabama.................................... 278 53 282 613 Louisiana........................................... 22,101 11,979 4.. 34,080 Florida....................................... 7 63... 133 Texas.............................. 893 118 283 794 Total..... 158,776 111,954 1,033 271,718 " The United States," says an eminent English writer," were colonized a century later than Spanish America; but their brilliant and rapid progress shows, in a striking light, how much more the prosperity of nations depends on moral than on physical advantages. The North Americans 6 82 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. had no gold mines, and a territory of only indifferent fertility, covered with impenetrable woods: but they brought with them intelligence, industry, a love of freedom, habits of order, and a pure and severe morality. Armed with these gifts of the soul, they have converted the wilderness into a land teeming with life, and smiling with plenty; and they have built up a social system, so preeminently calculated to promote the happiness and moral improvement of mankind, that it has truly become the envy of nations. The characteristic facts in their condition are the non-existence of titles, of privileged classes, of corporations in our sense of the term, of a landed aristocracy, of mendicity except to a very limited extent, and of an endowed church: tile cheapness and efficiency of the government, the universality of education, the omnipresence of its periodical press, the high feeling of self-respect which exists in the very humblest classes, and the boundless spirit of enterprise which pervades society from top to bottom. The higher classes are less polished than in England, the middle are, perhaps, less carefully instructed; but the American people, taken collectively, are better educated, and have more intelligence and manliness of character, than any other nation in the world." The total population of the states and territories is now ascertained to be 23,268,555; and when we consider that this civilized and industrious multitude exists in a region which, only two centuries ago, supported only a few hundred thousands of half-clad and half-fed savages, and look at tile rapid and steady increase which has marked its progress, we see a new and most striking phenomena in the history of the human race. Though there has been a great accession of numbers by immigration from Europe, ever since the first settlement of the country, yet there is no reason to doubt that the growth of the population is chiefly owing to the natural increase of a community, multiplying itself without any check from difficulty of subsistence or want of unoccupied lands. Nor is it a less interesting consideration, that this same facility of self-multiplication will continue to exist for an indefinite period; and that should no external or accidental cause interfere, the United States will, before the end of the present century, form the most numerous Christian community, speaking one language, in the world. The first census was taken in 1790; since Twhich period there have been six decennial enumerations; their results are stated in the table. The colored population of the United States, in which are included not only the negro, but also the mulatto and mixed races, forms about one-seventh of the total population. The free blacks are not generally admitted to political equality with the whites; in some states, indeed, their testimony is not admitted against a white man, and they are subject to some other civil disabilities. Slavery has been abolished in all the north-eastern states, and prospectively in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and its establishment was forbidden, by the ordinance of 1787, in all the states north-west of the Ohio, and subsequently in those north of 360 30' beyond the Mississippi, except the state of Missouri. Maritime slave-trade has been declared piracy; but a great and active inland trade is carried on from the Atlantic slave states to the new states in the south and west, and it is believed that the number clandestinely introduced from Africa has also been considerable, even since the trade was declared illegal. The free colored popula tion amounts to about half a million. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 83 PROGRESSIVE POPULATION OF TILE UNITED) STATES. States. 1790. 1800. 1810. 1820. 1830. 1840. 1850. nMaine,............ 96,540 151,719 228,705 298,335 399,955 501,793 582.0206 New IIampshire.... 141,899 183,762 214,360 244,161 269,328 284,574 317,999 Vermont...... 85,416 154,465 217,713 235,764 280,652 291,948 315,346 Massachusetts 378,717 423,245 472,040 523,287 610,408 737.699 994,724 Rhode Island.. 69,110 69,122 77,031 83,059 97,199 108,830 147,549 Connecticut.. 238,141 251,002 262.042 275,202 297,665 309.978 371,982 New York.......... 340,120 586,756 959'949 1,372,812 1,918,608 2,428,921 3,099,249 New Jersey........ 184,139 211,949 249,555 277,575 320,823 373,306 49).673 Pennsylvania..... 434,373 602,365 810,091 1,049,458 1,348,233 1,724033 2,311;204 Delaware........... 59,098 J64.273 72,674 72,749 76,74p8 78.085 90,407 Maryland.......... 819.728 341,548 380,546 407,350 447,040 470',019 583,056 Virginia........... 748308 880,200 974,642 1,065,379 1,211,405 1,239,797 1,421,863 North Carolina. 393,751 478,103 555,500 638,829 737,987 753,419 870.509 South Carolina... 249,073 345,591 415,715 502,741 581,185 594,398 668.099 Georgia............ 82,548 162,101 252,433 340,987 516,823 691,392 9J6, 000 Florida........................................................ 34,730 54,477 87,000 Alabama........................... 20,845 127,901 309,527 590,756 770,000 Mississippi..... 8,850 40,352 75,448 136,621 375,651 606,577 Louisiana....................... 76,556 153,407 215,739 352,411 511,000 Arkansas........14,273 30,388 97,574 208,776 Tennessee.30,791 105,602 261,727 422,813 681,904 829,210 1,002000 Kentucky......... 73,077 220,955 406,511 564,317 687,917 779,828 9P3,344 Ohio.......................... 45,365 230,760 581,434 937,903 1,519,467 1,983,140 Michigan........................4,762 8,896 31,639 212,267 397.576 Indiana... 4,875[ 24,520 147,178 343,031 585,866 990,258 Illinois................................. 12,282 55,211 157,455 476,183 850,000 Missouri........20,845 66,586 140,445 383,702 681,547 District of Columbia,. 14,093 24,023 33,039 39,834 43,712 54,000 Wisconsin........................................................ 30,945 305,538 Iowa.................................12 192,974 Teras....... 165,000 Texas......................................,000 California~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J.......165,00 Total..... 3,929,827 5,305,925 7,239,814 1 9638,131 12,865,920 17,063,353 23,103,416 SLAVES IN THE UNITED STATES. States. 1790. 1800. 1810. 1820. 1830. 1840. 1850. Maine............. 0 0 0 0 0 New Hampshire.... 18 8 0 0 0 1 0 Vermont. 17 0 O 0 0 0 0 Massachusetts....0 0 0 0 0 0 Rhode Island....... 952 881 103 48 17 5 0 Connecticut........ 2,759 951 310 97 25 17 0 New York.. 21,324 20,343 15,017 10,088 74 0 New Jersey........ 11,423 12.422 10,851 7,657 2.254 674 52 Pennsylvania....... 37 1;706 795 211 403 64.......... Denslvaware. 6 134,177 Delaware........ 8,887 6,153 4,177 4,509 3,292 2,605 2,332 Maryland.......... 103,036 105,635 111,502 107,398 102,294 89,737 90,35 Virginia..203,427 345,796 892,518 425,153 469,757 448,987 475,972 168,8~~244 24:! 817 ~i 0t North Carolina.... 10,572 133,296 168,824 295,017 235,01 245,817 280,00 South Carolina.. 107,094 146,151 196.365 258,475 31,401 327,038 350,000 Georgia.......... 29,264 59,404 106,218 149,656 217,531 280,944 365,000 Alabama............... 41,879 117,549 253,532 880,000 Mississippi..... 8,489 17,088 32,814 65,659 195,211 320,000 Louisiana............................. 34,660 69,064 109,588 168,452 200,000 Arkansas................... 1,617 4,576 19,935 45,000 Tennessee.4..... 8417 13,584 44,535 80,107 141,603 183,059 250,000 Kentucky..... 830 40,343 80,581 126,732 165,213 182,258 211,237 Ohio...............0. Michigan.......................... 24......... i2 0........... Miobigan..' 24....... 32 0 Indiana...................... 35 237 190 0 3........... Illinois....................... 168 117 747 331........... Missouri..................3....,011 10,222 25,081 58,240 87,617 District of Columbia, 3,244 5,395 6,377 6,119 4,694 1,000 Florida............................................. 15,501 25,717 22,000 Wisconsin..............1........................ 11.. Iowa....................................................... California........................... Texas......................... I...............0,000 Total.......... 697,897 893,041R 1,191,364 1,588,064 2,009,031 2,487,355 3,070,566 84 UNITED STATES OF AA1itziA. It will be seen by reference to the table that the non-slaveholding states are: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and California. The slaveholding states are: Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Texas. In the District of Columbia slavery is tolerated. New Mexico and Oregon are free from this institution. The slaves form rather more than one-third part of the population of the slaveholding states, but they are unequally distributed, and the whites generally preponderate. The aboriginal races, or Indians, resident within the territories of the United States, are not included in any of the enumerations. Their total number is unknown, but is estimated at 192,341, of which 23,659 reside in the states east of the Mississippi, and 168,681 west of that river to the Rocky Mountains; on the Pacific coast, in Oregon, California, and New Mexico, however, there are others, the number of which, though unknown, cannot be less than 150,000,-making a.grand total of Indians in the Union, of 342,341. In most of the states east of the Mississippi, the aboriginal inhabitants have become quite extinct. The numerous tribes that once occupied the openings in the great primitive American forests, have disappeared before the advancing tide of civilization. From the Roanoke to the St. Lawrence, the only surviving remnant of the proud and warlike Iroquois tribes, and of the once powerful Algonquins, is but a few thousand men, women, and children, in New England and New York, and a small number in Virginia; but how unlike to their untamed and untameable progenitors. Further south, a stricken few are yet permitted to linger for a while in the land of their birth. R'ELIGION.- The constitution of the United States forbids the establishment of religion by law; but every person who does not interrupt the peace of society, is protected in the exercise of his religion. The voluntary principle, as it is sometimes called, has been found to be more efficient than any legal enactment for the support of religious institutions. The union of church and state is generally regarded with aversion by the people, as that which is calculated to corrupt religion, and to afford no benefit to the state; while no people are more deeply sensible of the fact, that the stability, and even the existence, of a free government depends upon the prosperity of religious institutions, and their moral influence upon the principles and habits of the people. This is the great secret of the success of the American experiment, which has presented an example of a free government that has furnished great encouragement to the friends of freedom throughout the world, and already exerts a salutary influence on every civilized nation of the earth. The puritan fathers of New England came to this country to found a religious and intelligent community, they planted the church and the schoolhouse side by side, and the influence of their character, and the principles and habits which they formed and cherished, are now felt to the remotest ends of the nation, and form the surest basis for political and religious freedom. In accordance with the errors of the age in which they lived, they entertained some narrow and bigoted no UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 85 tions, which the advancing light of civilization, and a more correct estimate of things, have removed from the minds of their descendants; but they had noble redeeming qualities, and it is among the encouraging signs of the times, that their memory is held in increasing veneration. The Americans are decidedly a religious people; and although some fa.. natical sects have sprung up in the United States, it may be affirmed with truth, that they are equally removed from the excesses of fanaticism and irreligion. Travelers from foreign countries bear testimony to the sound spirit of morals which prevails in the country, and to the respect paid everywhere to the public services of religion. The religious societies of America have done much towards the establishment and consolidation of the Sunday School system. All have united in the work, and there is now scarcely a child who has not the benefit of these institutions; and the amount of good they are influential in effecting, will no doubt be exhibited in the future well being of the people. The relative importance of the various sects are set forth, and full details of the present condition of the churches are given in the tables of Ecclesiastical Statistics. It will be seen that the voluntary principle is very efficient in the United States in the support of religious institutions. The general equality of sects is found to abate religious animosity without relaxing zeal. In the populous parts of the country the clergy are sufficiently numerous and well provided for, but in many of the remote districts there is a deficiency of spiritual teachers, although the travelling missionaries of the various sects penetrate to the confines of civilization, to impart the blessings of religion to the log-cabin dwellers of the western frontier. The following exhibit of the present condition of the various churches is derived mainly from the official returns of 1850. The Regular Baptists have 17 colleges, with 1,642 students; 7 theological schools, with 139 students, besides numerous academies. In connexion with this denomination are several societies, viz: The American Baptist Missionary Union, sustains missions in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. Summary: 17 missions, embracing 63 star tions, and 135 out stations; 54 missionaries, of whom 49 are preachers; 55 female assistant missionaries; 194 native preachers and assistants; 148 churches, with 11,534 members; 50 schools, with 1,472 pupils. The American Baptist Home Mission Society, employs missionaries in 18 States, and in Oregon, California, and Canada. In 1850, it employed 134 missionaries and agents, supplying 453 stations. Since its organiza, tion -in 1832, it has constituted 673 churches, and ordained 312 ministers. The American and Foreign Bible Society, organized in 1836. Receipts for 1849, $39,840 86. Issued 13,538 bibles, and 26,590 testaments. The Bible Union, organized in 1850. The American Baptist Publication Society, organized in 1849. Receipts for 1849-50, $25,416 38. Southern Baptist Convention, engaged in foreign and home missions, Receipts for 1849, $14,042. Periodicals, 22 weekly, 1 semi-monthly, 16 monthly, 1 bi-monthly, and 1 quarterly. 86 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. BAPTIST DENOMINATIONS. RzGuLAr. I A ATI-MOsIoN. States. 2vi.0 w mpshire.......... 7 96 73 14 8,. Vermont......8................. 8 112 n io 8,692 ~~~~...' I CoMainecticut...................... 7 113 201 2013 19,91657 1 6 4 1 178 New YoHampshir e....................... 41 79 705 132 8243 Pennsylvania.rmont.......... 1 1 2 71 10 8,092 2 16 12 2 639 Delassachusetts.................... 12 238 246 7 29,876. 251 Rhode Island..................... 22 18 2 2,004 2 18 9 393 DisConnectict of Columbia............ 4 5 13 15,916 Virginiew....................... 794 70 132 84,243 2'i9 j'49"3 North Carolinae................... 20 4 89 88 14 6,730 10 158 7 4 1 238 PennSouth Carolinylv a................... 16 306 213 49 27,678 2 20 1 3 1 483 Delawaregia......................... 887 157 65,156 21 54 148 26 11,704 FloDistridact of Columbia...8 1 25 8 2,115 17 9 2 655 Virgnab......2...4............. 53 272 8 69 81,3421 221 68 6 7, 582 North Carolina. 20 448 2.36 75 36,730 10 15 8 8 5,692 South Carolina...........14 408 188 72 41,638 2 20 13 1 483 _Georgia.30............ 719 887 157 55,155 21 354 148:26 1,0 Florida..............3 5125 8 215 17 9 265 Alabama..............18 516 233 69 30,421 16 221 68i 5 7,582 Mississippi........................ 16 382 181 42 22,718 7 48 20 2 1,560 Louisiana........................ 6 96 40 12 8749 1 4 2 83 Texas............................ 3 36 27 6 1 1 8 4 1 172 Arkansas........................ 6 78 39 10 2,509 2 26 10 2 480 Tennessee........... 18 455 283 79 84,097 17 268 129 16 9,843 Kentucky........................ 40 713 5,54 127 62,598 15 176 73 10 6,972 Ohio................ 27 464 294 70 24,561 9 128 47 5 3,341 Indiana.......................... 24 392 191 47 18,311 12 143 62 10 4,783 Illinois.......................... 22 320 210 53 13,441 14 161 79 5 83,905 Missouri........... 22 370 194 62 19,523 11 126 58 8 4,031 Michigan........................ 10 176 105 14 8,175 Wisconsin........................ 4 55 40 9 2,560 Iowa............................. 2 87 22 3 1,142 i'i 238 Minnesota Territory............... 1 2... 12 Indian Territory.................. 23 20 7 1,946...... Oregon.......................... 5 4... 63 California....2....................... 4 28 Tota~ls.521~ 8................ 52'' 8,206 5,142 1,302 686,807 157 2,035 907 113 67,845 Toas................... 2 8207 The statistics of the minor sects of Baptists are, as near as can be ascertained, as follows: MINOR SECTS OF BAPTISTS. Names. Churches. Ministers. Members. i Free-Will Baptists................................ 1,252 1,082 56,452 Six Principle.................................................. 21 25 3,586 Seventh Day...................................... ~5......62 43 6,243 Church of God, (Winebrennerians)........................97 12 10,102 Brethren, (Tunkers)........................................... 152 160 7,849 Disciples, (Campbellites).............................. 1,898 848 118,618 Christian Connexion........................................... 607 498 33,640 The Old School Presbyterians have under their supervision several of tile oldest and most respectable colleges, especially in the southern and western states; also, theological schools at Princeton, N. J., Alleghany City, Pa., Prince Edward County, Va., Columbia, S. C., New Albany, Ia., and a large number of parochial and Sunday Schools. They support missions to the United States Indians, and in Western Africa, India, Siam, China and Papal Europe, and domestic missions throughout the States. [he number of periodicals devoted to old Presbyterianism, is one annual, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 87 one quarterly, two monthly, and seven weekly newspapers. The annual amount contributed for religious purposes, is not far from $400,000. OLD SCHOOL PRESBYTERIANS. Names of Synods.,. 3 Names of Synods. Albany, N. Y......... 5 55 86 8,420 Missouri............. 6 78 46 4,237 Buffalo, "......... 5 49 52 4018 Kentucky.......... 5 144 80 9,586 New York............ 9 98 131 1,408 Virginia............... 155 123 11,255 New Jersey..... 8 155 174 19,353 North Carolina....... 3 146 88 9,910 Philadelphia.......... 8 230 193 27,657 South Carolina....... 4 105 74 8138 Pittsburgh. 7 208 141 22,230 Georgia............... 5 108 71 4,674 Wheeling....... 4 111 64 10699 Alabama.............. 96 51 5062 Ohio.. 151 88 11,150 Mississippi............ 4 104 75 4,980 Cincinnati.6 127 91 9,765 Nashville............ 5 43 35 3,809 Indiana............. 6 105 6 5,657 Memphis............. 6 89 49 5,053 Northern Indiana. 5 97 44 3,746 _ Illinois............... 7 83 4,435 Total...........124 1, 1,906 2,589 207,144 NEW SCHOOL PRESBYTERIANS. of Names of Synods. i A_~~ ~ mu t d Names of Synods. Genessee.......N. Y. 6 145 136 16,046 Illinois.............. 5 62 53 3,4)7 Albany..... " 7 106 124 13,409 Peoria.... Ill. 46 52 2,230 Utica... " 5 98 90 9,780 |Missouri............. 4 50 33 1,832 Geneva.......... c" 10 195 197 20,790 Michiga.... 7 106 84 6,591 N. York and N. Jersey, 9 118 158 21,971 Kentucky.. 3 21 14 954 Pennsylvania......... 5 68 66 10,889 Virginia.............. 3 39 39 3,6.59 Western Pennsylvania, 3 35 19 2.3f66 I Tennesee. 5 73 40 56, L4 Western Reserve, Ohio, 8 146 130 9,625 1 W'uest Tennessee. 3 34 28 2,021 Ohio................ 5 70 54 5,218 Mississippi.. 3.......... 19 13 8;57 Cincinnati..... " 8 49 40 3,889 Indiana.............. 7 1)1 60, 4,460 0 Total.............105 1,581 1,430 145,416 The Cumberland Presbyterian church, in the aggregate, consists of 570 congregations, 350 ministers, and about 60,000 communicants. Its operations are chiefly confined to the western states, where it took its rise a few years past. Its doctrines are substantially those of the new school, with which, as with all the other Presbyterian sects, it holds friendly correspondence. The Associate Presbyterian church numbers 19 presbyteries, 231 congregations, 134 ministers, and 17,834 communicants. The Associate Reformed Presbyterian church consists of 314 chluches. 215 ministers, and 26,250 communicants. The Reformed Presbyterian is a small church under a general synod. It consists of 5 presbyteries, 33 ministers, 7 licensed preachers, 15 theological students, 56 congregations, and about 6,000 communicants. It has a theological seminary at Philadelphia, and supports a mission in Northern India. There are several other denominations of Presbyterians, but so insignificant are they in extent and influence, that it has been impossible to find any one acquainted with their statistics. 88 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. MINOR SECTS OF PRESBYTERIANS. ABBSSOCTE. ASsocIATE REFORMED. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~W 0 Names of Presbyteries. Nam o Names of Synods., P,. ~~~~~~ Cambridge........ 11 7 367 887 Synod of New York... 6 40 44 4,600 Ohio.............! 15 7 603 1,260 Chartiers....... 17 11 1,007 2,246 First Synod of the Miami....... 22 9 404 854 West-(Pennsylva- 5 111 67 9,660 Philadelphia.... 16 6 237 790 nia and Ohio).... T Alleghany........ 23 10 649 1,892 Muskingum...... 22 11 720 1,670 Second Synod of the c Albany........ 7 3 244 633 West-(Ohio and 8 118 69 6,490 Chenango......... 3 10 1,005 2,180 Indiana)... Stamford......... 6 3 35 521 Indiana.......... 14 5 250 850 Synod of the SouthIllinois........... 13 2 139 311 (North and South 6 45 85 5,500 Richland......... 16 4 295 661 Carolina)......... Iowa............. 9 4 99 329 Itinerating....... 26.... Total............. 214 118 6,054 14,984 Cambridge....... 3 6 177 419 New York........ 8 6 576 1,788 I Vermont.......... 3 2 133 345 Illinois.......... 4 2 124 302 Total......... 18 16 1,010 2,850 Grand total....... 231 134 7,064 17,834 Total...... 24 314 21526,250 1~~. Toa.............. CONGREGATIONALISTS. ORTHODOX. UNAITARAN. W2~~~~~~~~~' F.L ~ j 0 d,......... Ca~ ~ ~ General Associations. States..b c Massachusetts............ 478 473 56,103 Maine................... 15 Maine..................... 217 166 17,504 New Hampshire........... 24 Connecticut.............. 256 239 36,380 Vermont.................. 6 Rhode Island.20 16 2,770 Massachusetts............ 162 rNew 1hampshire...... 188 181 22,790 Connecticut.............. 4 Vermont..... 194 190 20,209 Rhode Island... 3 New York................ 138 123 6,719 New York................ 13 Iennsylvania............ 9 456 Pennsylvania............. 1 60 Ohi..................... 94 15 5,506 Maryland.. Indiana............. 9 6 District of Columbia...... 1 i Illinois............. 75 60 3,471 South Carolina............ 1 lichigan........ 70 50 2,114 Georgia.................. 2 Wisconsin........... 86 68 2,736 Louisiana................ Iowa..................... 34 26 910................ I Iowa. ~~~34 26 910 Kentucky.1....... I Ohio..................... 1 Indiana.................. 2 Illinois........ 8 Missouri. 1 Missouri................. 1 Wisconsin................ 1 Alabama................. 1 Total............... 1,867 1,612 177,668 Total.......... 251 The Congregationalists rank next to the Presbyterians in point of numbers. The churches planted by the pilgrims were all of this denomination. Prior to the present century they were confined chiefly to the New England states, but are spreading extensively through the middle and western UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 89 states. They have under their charge, 18 colleges, and a number of theological seminaries, besides missions, bible and publication societies in every part of the Union. METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCI. PREACHERS. CHURCH MEMBERS. SUNDAY-SCHOOLS. CONFERENCES. Tray. Sup. Local. Whites. Col.&lIn. Total. Schools. Teachers. Scholars.'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Shos'leces Ir t Iuu Baltimore.......... 253 25 303 53,053 15,802 68,855 539 7,112 33,805 Philadelphia.............. 147 319 41,736 8,938 50,674 380 5,145 81,799 New Jersey.............. 161 7 193 33,184 628 33,812 400 4,777 26,491 New York............... 169 8 131 26,868..... 26,868 268 i2,631 15,221 New York, East...137 16. 109 21,428 21,428 193 2,933 15,557 Providence............... 112 19 86 14,070 14,070 136 1,855 10,729 New England............ 112 27 80 13,929 13,929 102 1.682 10,069 Maine... 89 18 80 10,585 10,585 99 1,308 5,796 East Maine........... 70 14 62 1,022 1,022 115 1128 5,721 New Hampshire.. 82 19 60 9,330 9,330 109 1,182 6,917 Vermont H............. 63 13 68 7,849..... 7,849 101 878 5,001 Troy............197 16 140 25,636 25,636 327 3,305 15,100 Black River, N. Y........ 130 12 141 18,404 18,404 214 1,964 8,537 Oneida................ 172 30 182 27,069 27,069 387 3,689 17,524 Genesee............... 82 7 113 10,697... 10,697 188 1,881 8,367 East Genesee....... 115 21 148 18,133 | 3 18,166 255 2,444 11,075 Erie, Pa................ 139 16 207 1,459 48 21,507 834 3,591 16,607 Pittsburgh............... 155 15 213 35,293 118 85,411 349 4,173 20,126 West Virginia............ 55 119 13,799 382 14,181 109 925 4,232 orhOhio.......280 11 502 63,279 402 68,681 693 7,521 39,166 North Ohio........ 141 9 254 26,816 24 26,840 317 3,559 18,843 Michigan......... 118 12 185 15,637 596 16.233 227 2'024 9,665 Indiana. 13.3 4 280 35,337 144 35,481 840 3,154 16,329 North Indiana.122 12 269 28,292 32 28,324 350 2,974 16,667 Rock River.91 13 219 14,346 14 14,360 204 1,848 8,664 Iowa...57 1 121 9,788 30 9,818 138 1,090 5,596 Illinois................... 139 9 463 29,867 86 29,903 417 3,146 15,696 Wisconsin........... 72 4 152 6,884 181 7,065 108 864 3,289 Missouri................. 4161 3,179 412 3,591 Oregon............12 18 404 404 9 43 261 Liberia Mission........... 14 14. 1,117 1,117 20 114 810 Total..............3,660 364 5,292 687,373 28,937 - 666,310 7,428 78,840 403,653 METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCIH, SOUTH. PREACHERS. CHURCH MEMBERS. SUNDAY-SCHOOLS. CONFERENCES. -. Tray. I Sup. Local. Whites. Col. & In. Total. Schools. T'chers.: Scholars. Kentucky................. 106 7 235 23,581 5,325 28,906 83 640 4,097..... ~~~~~~2351 5,,528,90 4,097',1 St. Louis............... 64 2 145 13,272 1,012 14,284 63 527 3,116 Missouri.................. 57 5 87 11,193 1,303 12,496.. Louisville................ 66 5 181 16,852 3,172 20,024..... Hoiston....87 8 324 34,733 3 8,525 38,258 li4 690 5,305 Indian Missions........... 41 39 159 8,599 3,758 Tennessee,,.... 142 7 390 34,922 7,924 42,846 19 855 5,106 ~Virginia.~~ 115 2 184 30,938 5,891 36,829 147 781 5,784 Arkansas 60 4 153 10,332 1,819 12,151 23 54 642 Memphis...... 108 5 870 28,352 6,954 35,306 94 722 3,506 North Carolina............ 70 12 145 21,113 6,519 27,632 134 892 4,614 Mississippi................ 70 8 182 12,960 8,655 21,615 60 424 2,345 South Carolina............ 124 16 271 34,206 41,617 313 1,261 6,803 EastTexas.8..... 32.. 85 6,347 503 5,850 4 25 166 Texas. 40 2 59 8,315 959 4,274 16 80 416 Louisiana................ 49 4 83 4,257 4,405 8,662..... Georgia. 143 13 520 48,521 16,847 60,368 Gerga..................... Alabama............ 121 7 445 32,745 15,346 48,091 72 458 2,00 Florida.............. 3 1 69 4,784 2,573 7,357..... Total........5..... 1,5' 104 8,977 366,582 137,948 504,530 1,262 7,409- 44,500 WESLEYAN METHODIST CHURCH. CONFERENCES. Ministers. Members. CONFERENCES. Ministers. Members. New York........... 26 945 Alleghany. 40 3,278 New England............. 40 1,991 Miami............. 5511 Champlain............... 25 1,300 Michigan................ 50 1,566 St. Lawrence............. 35 1,150 Illinois................ 8 8 Rochester................ 83 2,716 Wisconsin.......... 8 250 L~... 90 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.. The Episcopal Methodists are more generally diffused throughout the states than any other denomination. They are least numerous in Louisiana, and most numerous in the middle states. The church is divided into north and south, being disagreed on the subject of slavery. They have 8 colleges and 38 seminaries and high schools. Missions are supported in Liberia, Oregon, South America, China, Germany, India, Sweden, and throughout the new states and among the Indians. They also support numerous periodicals and newspapers. The first Methodist society was founded in America in 1766, by Philip Embury, a local preacher, from Ireland, in the city of New York; and the first church was erected in the same place two years afterwards. The Protestant Episcopal, or Anglican church, which sprang from the old English church, as established by law, previous to the revolution, is the wealthiest of all other denominations, and is constituted of the older classes of American society; but in point of numbers it is far inferior to the Baptists, Congregationalists, Methodists, &c. It is more stationary than any other denomination; being more exclusive and less given to proselytism than any other; and while other churches are recruited by constant immigrations, this has no such accessions, the people of England proper, who would adhere to this church, being but a small portion of those leaving the old countries. They have eight colleges under their charge, and numerous theological seminaries and high schools. Their provisions for missions, bible societies, Sunday schools, &c., are ample. The dioceses are 31 in number, being co-extensive with the states, except in the State of New York, which has two bishops. Missionary bishops superintend the ecclesiastical affairs in the territories, which comprise two divisions-the northern and the southern-which are seperated by the compromise line of Missouri, viz: 36~ 30' north latitude. In the new states it sometimes happens that the same bishop presides over one, two or more dioceses. The first Episcopal church in America was founded in New York, on the site of the present church of the Holy Trinity, and it is still the most wealthy of all the American churches. PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL - Anglican. Dioceses. Dioceses. _0!.., 5' Maine.... 1847 12 704 Kentucky............ 1832 28 1,005 New Hampshire............ 1844 8 552 Tennessee................ 1834 17 653 Vermont................ 1832 23 Mississippi..... 17 405 Massachusetts............ 1797 80 5,142 Louisiana................ 1844 25 847 Rhode Island.............. 1843 25 2,064 Michigan................. 1836 34 1.545 Connecticut............... 1784 106 9,360 Alabama. 1844 23'718 New York................ 1787 264..... Illinois................... 183 30 1,393 Western New York........ 1839 118 7,010 Florida.............. 8 264 New Jersey......... 1815 59 3,054 Indiana................1825 21 549 Pennsylvania............. 1787 144 9,937 Missouri............... 1825 15 600 Delaware................. 1841 16 537 Wisconsi n........ 24 2,140 Maryland................ 1792 123 7,138 Texas................ 1846 8 Virginia.................. 1790 114 5,347 Iowa Mission................. 2,000 North Carolina............ 1823 39 2,137 Arkansas 1838 4 South Carolina............ 1795 a71 4,916 Ohio..................... 1819 75 4,025 Georgia................. 1841 25 862 Total........................ 1,595 89,359 MUITED STATES OF AMERICA. 91 The Roman Catholics are rapidly increasing, in consequence of the great influx of immigrants from Ireland and other Catholic countries. They are most numerous in the Atlantic cities. In Maryland, which was first settled by Catholics, they still form a majority of the people. They have many congregations in Misssouri, Illinois, &c., and predominate in Louisiana. The accession of New Mexico and California adds largely to the Catholic strength. The present condition of Catholicity in the United States is fully exhibited in the Catholic Almanac for 1851, and from which we gather our statistics. There are eleven weekly newspapers and one quarterly review supported by the Catholics of the United States. They have 28 colleges; 35 male religious institutions; 65 female religious institutions; 36 literary institutions for young men; 87 female academies, and 108 charitable institutions. Official returns of the Catholic population, 1,334,500; additional estimate for Boston, St. Louis, Oregon, &c., 280,000; total, 1,614,500. ROMAN CATHOLICS. ~8 m ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ Dioceses.. r - C)Q 0C Baltimore, Arch........ 70 10 57 46 6 98 7 5 8 7 23 100,000 Philadelphia....... 88. 93 1 30 1 4 8 6 7 170,000 Charleston................. 17 40 16 1 5 1 1 2 5,000 Richmond....... 10.. 8.. 2 2 3 7,000 Pittsburgh......67.. 67 26 2 3 2 45,000 Wheeling................... 4 6 1 6 1 1 2.. 6,000 avannah................. 13 0 12 1 1 1 i 6,600 NewYork, Arch........... 70 60 91 18 1 81 2 3 3 6 14 202,000 Boston................... 63.. 54 7..1 1 3 Albany... 70 40 61..4 80,000 Buffalo.. 5.. 12...............'i 4 70,000 Hartford...........12.. 14 7.. 20, 000 NewOrleans,Arch...64.. 71 8 8 170,000 Mobile...... 9 1 12 10 1 5 2 2 2 1 3 11,000 Natchez.................... 82 11 1 1 1 1 10,000 Little Rock................ 7 12 6 i i...... Galveston.................. 20 50 18 "i 2 Cncinnati, Arch............ 75 30 68 12 4 3 10 6 6 85,000 Louisville...- 46 76 38 17 2 4 3 3 4 10 6 35,000 Detroit...... 40 25 30 1.. 3 3 2 85,000 Vincennes......... 77.. 38 1 1 2 6 2 50 000 Cleveland.... 45.. 40 1 14 1 2 3 1 30,000 St. Louis, Arch... 6 25 60 1 4 24 2 6 9 8...... Dubuque...............1 17 11 25... 1 1 1 2 8,000 St. Paul's............ Nashville.................. 6 20 9 1 1 1 2 4,000 Chicago................... 74 61 49 5 1 9 3 3 5 54,000 Mllwaukle.............. 72 88 54 1 2 1 1 1 8 65,000 Oregon City, Arch........ Nesqualy............ Walla Walla......... 12 7 15... 1 1 2 Fort Hall.............. Colville................. Monterey Arch............. 80..85... New Mexico Ap. Vie... 40.... 404....... Indian Tometory.... 2....... 5...... Totals.................124 585 1146 157 28 322 35 36 87 108 1,334,500 The German Reformed Church* in the United States, was formed from the first emigrants from Germany, who settled in the eastern portion of the State of Pennsylvania. A large number of these emigrants came in the early part of the last century from the Palitinate, in Germany, where * Communicated by Rev. J. Willard, of Columbus, Ohio 92 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. the German Reformed Church took its rise. The first ecclesiastical organ izations were formed between the years 1730 and 1740. The first congre gations which were organized were in the eastern part of Pennsylvania, although congregations were established at an early period in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, &c. Many congregations were established by the zealous and indefatigable labors of the Rev. Michael Schlatter, one of the earliest missionaries sent to this country. Many difficulties of no ordinary character, which need not here be referred to, have greatly retarded the growth and extension of this portion of the kingdom of Christ; yet notwithstanding all these difficulties, the German Reformed Church has always preserved its system of doctrine and form of worship, together with what has ever been its peculiar spirit and genius, so that it may be said still to occupy the important position which was boldly and fearlessly taken in dependence upon God, at the time of the reformation in the sixteenth century, to which period it traces its origin. Congregations are now found scattered over the states of Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, New York, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and other states. The whole church is divided into two synods, the eastern and western. The former includes that portion of the church east of the Alleghany mountains. The latter comprises that portion of the church west of the Alleghany mountains. These synods maintain a regular correspondence, and act with great harmony in furthering the interests of the church as a whole. The German Reformed Church has as yet done but little in the work of foreign missions. The energies of the church have been mostly directed to the foreign German emigrant population, which is found scattered over nearly all the western states, many of whom are destitute of the regular means of grace. There are two literary institutions, and two theological seminaries under the auspices of this denomination, located at Mercersburg, Pa., and Tiffin, Ohio, which are in a prosperous condition. The statistics of the German Reformed Church, as nearly as can be ascertained, are as follows: Ministers, 800. Congregations, 800. Members, about 90 000. The Reformed Dutch Church in North America, derives its origin from the Reformed Church of Holland, which still preserves its doctrinal standards and form of church government. The first churches were planted during the Dutch colonial government. Churches were afterwards formed in the range of the Dutch settlements on Long Island, along the Hudson and Mohawk rivers, and in the northern and middle counties of New Jersey. Of late, the number of churches has considerably increased; and, through missionary effort, several have been organized in Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, &c. These churches are under the care of a general synod, the two particular synods of New York and Albany, and twentyfour classes, twelve of them attached to the particular synod of New York, and twelve to the particular synod of Albany. The latest statistical returns we have been able to procure, show the following results: Churches. Ministers. Families. Congregation. Communicants. 291. 802. 26,141. 120,506. 42,251. Of the above churches, 215 are in the State of New York. Rutger's College, a literary institution, founded under the auspices of the Reformed UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 93 Dutch Church, and the Theological Seminary, are both located at New Brunswick, New Jersey. The Evangelical Lutheran Church' in North America, was first organized in the year 1637, among the Swedes and Finns who composed the colony established by the Swedes upon the Delaware, in the present states of Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Not long after, (1656,) a church was established at New Amsterdam, (the present New York,) among the emigrants from Holland. But their first minister, Rev. Gaatwater, was compelled to leave the colony, and the church was long persecuted by the state and church authorities of the colony, although toleration was already a fixed principle of policy in the mother country, and was repeatedly enjoined by the directors of the Dutch,West India Company, upon their agents and the governors of the New Netherlands. The great body of the Lutheran Church, in the United States, however, is descended from the German emigrants, who, beginning to settle in New York and Pennsylvania, towards the close of the 17th century, have ever since continued, with but slight intermissions, to flow into this country in still increasing numbers. The first Lutheran church organized among the Germans, was in Falkner's swamp, in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, for which Rev. Justus Falkner was, in 1703, ordained as pastor, by the Swedish ministers assembled in the Wiccacoa church, in Philadelphia. Other churches were soon after organized in New York. In 1732, the Saltzburgers, driven by persecution from their native mountains, settled in Georgia, and collected their churches in Ebenezer and Savannah. In 1742, the Rev. Henry Melchior Muehlenberg arrived as a missionary in Pennsylvania, and in 1747, the first Lutheran synod, that of Pennsylvania, &c., was organized in Philadelphia, being composed of the German and Swedish ministers and delegates from their congregations in that region. At that time there were not over twelve ministers, and perhaps double that number of congregations connected with the Lutheran church in North America, although its members were found in considerable numbers in the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. Congregations of the Lutheran church are now found in Nova Scotia and Canada, Maine and Massachusetts, (but one in each of these states,) New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Texas, Tennessee, Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana and Ohio. It is most firmly established, and its greatest numerical strength lies in the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, New York, and Maryland, although its numbers are considerable in Virginia, the Carolinas, and in some of the north-western states already enumerated. In the Atlantic states, and throughout western Pennsylvania and Ohio generally, the Lutheran population is fast becoming anglicised, although there are many districts in eastern Pennsylvania, where the religious services are still conducted in German exclusively, even among a people whose ancestors settled in those regions more than a century since. In most of our Atlantic seaports, and in many large towns there are numerous congregations, formed chiefly of emigrants, employing the German language exclusively. Such, also, is the case in all the larger western * Cominloated by Prof. Reynolds, of Capital University, Columbus, Ohio. 94 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. towns, and in the great body of the churches west of Ohio. In Illinois and Wisconsin there is a considerable Norwegian and Swedish population, among whom churches are rapidly organizing, in which the services are generally conducted in the Danish or Swedish language. The Augsburg Confession, and Luther's Shorter Catechism, as is well known, are the distinguishing symbols of the Lutheran church, in all parts of the world, though in most parts of Germany and in Sweden, the Form of Concord, &c., have been added to these. In the United States, no synod calling itself Lutheran, except the Franckean, has adopted any confession diffbrent from the Augustan, although a number adopt this only "fobr substance of doctrine." Those, however, of Ohio, (joint,) Tennessee and Missouri, receive the whole confessional system, as settled in the 16th century. ihe form of church government is a mixture of Congregationalism and Presbyterianism; the congregations generally managing their own affairs, the calling and dismissal of ministers, and the discipline of members, but being united in synods, by which ministers are licensed and ordained, library and theological institutions established and managed, &c. There are thirty-four such synods, sixteen of which are united in what is called a " general synod;" the others, though generally maintaining a friendly intercourse, are independent of each other, except the three synods of Ohio, which form what is called " the joint synod of Ohio." The number of ministers is about 750, congregations 1600, and 160,000 communicants. EVANGELICAL LUTHERANS. S|ynods. |no.'s New York..................... 6 40 7,500 Ohio.................... 30 111 5,000 IIart, k............... N Y. 20 29 2,800 Miami...................... 23 37 2,100 Franckean...... " 13 33 2,500 Wittenberg................. 16 54 2,300 Buffalo...... " 6 15 Eastern Ohio.. Pennsylvania................. 69 224 31,181 Western Ohio.. 80 245 30000 West Pennsylvania........... 53 133 13,000 English Synod, Ohio...... East Pennsylvania............ 26 50 5,700 Illinois.................... 10 12 700 Alleghany....... Pa. 23 82 6,700 Indiana................... 8'5 2,500 Pittsburgh....... " 23 75,000 Olive Branch............... 6 14 275 Maryland.................... 35 74 9,000 Indiana, 2d........ 8 Virginia.................... 23 39 1,700 Indianapolis, (Ger.)......... 9 18 1,600 Western Virginia.. 10 21 1,500 Michigan.10 20 1,700 North Carolina............... 12 24 2,000 Norwegian............ 12 1,200 South Carolina............... 46 7 3,500 Wisconsin........ 6 Tennessee....... 22 40 5,000 Independent................ 12..... issouri..................... 75 98 12,000.. South-west. 7 10 500 Total................... 707......100,781 The Society of Quakers or Friends has eight yearly meetings, viz: New England, held at Newport, R. I.; New York, held in the city of New York; Pennsylvania and New Jersey, held at Philadelphia; Maryland, held at Baltimore; Virginia, held at Cedar Creek and Summerton, alternately; North Carolina, held at New Garden; Ohio, held at Mount Pleasant, and Indiana, held at Richmond, in Wayne county; these include from 120,000 to 150,000 members. The HIicksites, or Unitarian section of the Quakers, seceded from the original body in 1827. Their doctrines are certain opinions promulgated UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 95 by Elias Hicks, of Long Island, denying or invalidating the miraculous conception, divinity and atonement of Christ, and also the authenticity and divine authority of the Holy Scriptures. In this secession some members in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Ohio and Indiana yearly meetings, went off from the original society. They number altogether, from 20,000 to 30,000. UNIVERISALISTS. 0 0 STATES. STATES. 5 8 d u _0. i i'a Maine........... 8 127 45 103 70 Wisconsin........I 1 7.. 1 14 New Hampshire.. 6 96 13 53 38 Iowa............. 1 4.... 4 Vermont........ 102.. 76 60 Missouri.... 1 5.. 1 8 Massachusetts.... 5 145 64 124 132 Tennessee........... 6 Rhode Island..... 1 10.. 4 5 Maryland........ 1 3.. 2 3 Connecticut...... 3 31.. 2 19 Virginia.........1 3.. 3 4 New York........ 16 252 163.. 144 North Carolina... 1 1 17 1 New Jersey... 4.. 2 3 South Carolina... 1 4. 9 6 Pennsylvania..... 33.. 15 29 Georgia.......... 1.. 4 3 Ohio............ 12 131.. 73 70 Alabama........ 1 3.. 2 3 Michigan......... 2 1.. 6 24 Mississippi............ 1 1 Indiana.... 53 9 63. 12 29 Louisiana. 1 Illinois.........5 35. 3 22.. entucky........ 17.. 13 20 Total..... 89 1097 123 708 708 The Protestant Methodists have 770 stationed ministers, 798 churches, and 60,000 communicants. The Reformed Methodists have 75 ministers, and 3,000 members. The German Methodists number 15,000 members, with 800 churches and 500 ministers. The Albright Methodists have 600 churches and 13,000 members. The Moravians, or United Brethren, in the United States, are said to number about 6,000; these are all considered as missionaries, and are liable to be sent to any part of the world to preach the Gospel. The above comprise the principal Christian sects. There are a number of other minor denominations, chiefly of local drigin and influence. The statistics of the Ecclesiastical Seminaries of the Roman Catholic church, and of the Protestant Theological Schools, are given in the annexed tables: CATHOLIC ECCLESIASTICAL SEMINARIES. In- Under cane Names. Location. struct- Pupils of the St. Mary's Theological Seminary.. Baltimore............ Md. 20 Sulpitiaus. Mount St. Mary's Theological Seminary......... Near Emmetsburg.... 3 10 Theological Seminary of St. Charles Borromeo... Philadelphia.......... Penn. 5 39 Lazarists. Ecclesiastical Seminary........................ Fordham..... N. Y. 7 31 Jesuits. Theological Seminary of St. Francis de Sales..... Milwaukie............ Wis. 2 6 St. Louis Theological Seminary................. St. Louis.............. Mo. 5 24 Lazarists. St. Mary's Ecclesiastical Seminary.............. Perry Co.............. ".... St. Michael's Theological Seminary.............. Near Birmingham...Penn. 1 12.... Theological Seminary of St. Athanasius......... Nashville..... Tenn. 8 10.. Ecclesiastical Seminary................ Spring Hill............Ala... Jesuits. Ecclesiastical Seminary of St. Vincent of Paul... Assumption........... La. 6 11 Lazarists. j Ecclesiastical Seminary of Bardstown..........rdstown. 5 St. Mary's Theological Seminary................ Lebanon...... 4 St. Mary's Ecclesiastical Seminary.............. Chicago....II.......... ll. Ecclesiastical Seminary of St. Francis Xavier.... Cincinnati............ Ohio. 2 Jesuits. Ecclesiastical Seminary........................ Huron Co............ St. Mary's Ecclesiastical Seminary.............. Cleveland....... 14 Seminary of St. Thomas........................ Detroit..........:Mich. 7 Theological Seminary.......................... Vincennes............ Ia. 2 96 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. PROTESTANT THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. rName. Place. Deomnfln Bangor Theological Seminary Bangor. Me. Congregational..... 1816 8 87 202 7,000 Methodist G ~n. Biblical Institute. Concord....N. H. Methodist. 1847 8 40.. 2,000 Gilmanton Theological Seminary Gimanton. " Congregational.... 1885 3 23 69 4,800 New Hampton Theol. Seminary.. New Hampton, " Baptist...... 1825 2 86... 2,000 Theological Seminary............Andover......Mass. Congregational.... 1807 6 87 1,006 21259 Divinity School, Harv. University, Cambridge.... c Cong. Unitarian... 1816 2 28 288 8,000 Theological Institution......... Newton. Baptist.......... 1825 3 88 201 5,00 Theol. Deparment Yale College New Haven... Conn. Congregational.... 1822 4 52 596 900 Theol. Inst of Connecticut. East Windsor...... 1884 3 17 151 5,000 Theol. Inst. Episcopal Church.. New York...N. Y. Pint. Episcopal.. 1817 5 64 886 10,000 Union Theological Seminary.....Presbyterian... 1886 5 106 211 18,00 Theol. Seminary of Auburn......Auburn....... 1821 4 0 580 6,000 Hamilton Lit. and Theo]. Inst.. Hamilton. " Bptst1820 4 82 188 4,000 HarwckSeminary......t ask. CnLutheran.... 1816 2 5 52 1,25 IiiiyShosHart.i U niSersinyamridge..........n. Uniartian.... 1816022 3 Theol. Sem. Ass. Ref. Church.... Newburg...... Ass. Ref. Church.. 1886 1 11 148 8,200 Theol. Sem. Dutch Ref. Church.. N. Brunswick.. N. J. Dutch Reformed.. 1784 8 179 Theol. Sem. Presbyt. Church. Princeton.... Presbyterian..... 1812 5 153 1,626 11000 Seminary, Lutheran Church..... Gettysburg... Penn. Evang. Lutheran.. 1826 2 26 200 9,000 German Reformed............... Mercersburg. Germ. Ref. Church 1825 2 18 121 6,000 Western Theological Seminary... Aleghany T... " Presbyterian...... 1828 2 48 252 6,000 Theological School........Canonsburg..." Asso. Church....1792 2, 88 147 2,000 Theological Seminary. Pittsburgh..... Asso. Reformed... 1828 8 85 85 1,500 Western Theological School...... Meadville.."... Cong. Unitarian... 1844 4 40 9 8,000 Theological Seminary.......Philadelphia. " Ref. Presbyterian... 8 13 Epis. Theol. School of Virginia.. Fairfax Co Va. Prot. Episcopal... 1822 4 88 229 5,000 Union Theological Seminary -—. Prince Ed. Co., "4 Presbyterian....1824 8 20 175 4,000 Virginia Baptist Seminary. Richmond..... " Baptist........... 182 38 67 1.000 Southern Theological Seminary..Columbia....S. C. Presbyterian......1831 8 24 12M,0 Theological Seminary............ Lexington..... " Lutheran......... 185 2 10 20 Furman Theological Seminary. ChuFairfield Dist.. " Baptists.......... 1826 2 80 13 0 Mercer Theological Seminary. Penfleld. Ga. u. h18 3 4. 1,000 Howard Theological Institution.. Marion.......Ala.. 1843 2 19..... 1,00 Western ap. Theol. Institution. Covington....Ky. cc P........1840 4 18 9 2,000 Southwest Theological Seminary, Maryville. t tenn. Presbyterian.. 1821 2 24 90 6,000 Lane Seminary............... Cincinnati..., Ohio. R 1829 8 80 257 10,500 Theol. Dep. Kenyon College....Gambler..... Prot. Episcopal... 1828 4 4 3() 4,500 Theol. Dep. Wes. Res. College Hudson.. " Presbyterian...... 180 8 22 48 80 Granville Theological Department, Granville. " Baptist.......1882 2 8 500 6 Oberlin Theological Department Oberlin....... Congregational.... 1884 8 20 124 250 Theol. Sem. Ass. Ref. Church Oxford..... Asso. Reformed... 1839 1 12 81 1,50 Indiana Theological Seminary....S. Hanover.... Ind. Presbyterian... 14 910 Alton Theological Seminary. Upper Alton..111. Baptist. 18....... EDUCATION. - The people of the United States from the the first settle. ment of the country, have been very attentive to the cause of populaz education, and this cause is continually gaining a stronger hold on the community. It is recommended by all the governors of the states, in their annual messages to their respective legislatures. Most of the older states have respectable funds devoted to the support of common schools, and in the new states the general government has provided funds for the support of schools, by setting apart one 36th section in each township, containing each 1 sq. mile, for the purposes of common education. The amount of land already set apart for educational purposes east of the Mississippi is computed to a-mount to 8,000,000 of acres. The same spirit is also extend0 ing west of the Mississippi, and has penetrated even to the Indian tribes; and the Choctaw nation applied $18,000 per annum out of the moneys wbich they receive from the United States, to the support of schools. Knowledge and virtue are regarded as the main pillars of the republic. In less than 20 years from the landing of the pilgrims on the rock of Plymouth, Cambridge college was founded, and numerous similar institutions (perhaps too many,) have been successively established from that day to the pres ent time. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 97 COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES.,, I ~ ~~~~~~Found- In- No. of Vols. in Naine. Place. trcted. suct- Alumni. Libraries. )rs___ Bowdoin............................ Brunswick............ Me. 1802 8 997 2[.590 Waterville*...............Waterville............. " 1820 5 267 $100 Dartmouth........................... Hanover..............N. H. 1769 9 2,558 16.500 University of Vermont............... Burlington............ Vt. 1791 7 416 10-300 Mliddlebury.......................... Mideuy......4 80 6 87 6-0 MZiddlebury... Middlebury. " 1800 6 877 6,C)0i Norwich University.................. Norwich....... " 1834 6 100 1,700 Harvard University.................. Cambridge............Mass. 1836 20 6,203 84,200 Williams.W..,...................,, Williamstown......... " 1793 9 1,317 12,412 Amherst........................... Amherst.............. " 1821 12 870 16,000 Holy Cross~.......................... Worcester............. 1843 14 9 4,220 Brown University*................... Providence............RI. I 1764 9 1,725 31,003 Yale................................. Hew Haven...........Conn. 1700 23 5,932 49,00) Trinityt............................. Hartford.............. " 1824 9 256 9,00( Wesleyan Uni versityl.... lMiddletown............ " 1831 8 327 11,12E Columbiatf...New York.............N.Y. 1754 8 1,409 17,00C Union............................... Schenectady.......... " 1795 12 3,026 15,000 lHamilton....................... Clinton............... " 1812 10 658 10,300 Madison University*............... IIamilton............. I 1819 9 200 7,000 Genevat.................. Geneva.............. " 1823 5 131 5,400 University of New York.............. New York.......... " 1831 11 320 4,000 St. John's~.......................... Fordham............." 1841 16 35 12,000 St. Paul'st.......................... College Point.......... 1837 11 380 2,800 College of New Jerse................ Princeton............N. J. 1746 15 3,031 16,000 Rutgers.............................. New Brunswick....... "9 513 1,500 Burlingtont..........Burlingtonin............ " 1846 29.... 1,200 University of Pennsylvania........... Philadelphia.......Penn. 1755 7,142 5,000 Dickinsont.......................... Carlisle............... " 1783 10 59 12,000 Jefferson............................. Canonsburg...... " 1802 8 1,000 10,000 IWashington.W. ashington. ". 1806 5 441 8,300 Allegheny.......................... Meadville............. " 1817 6 131 8,200 Pennsylvania..........Gettysburg....1832 6 146 4,000 Lafayette.. Easton............... " 1832 7 101 5,000 Marshall..........................Mercersburg 1836 11 94 1,300 Western University of PennsyLvania... Pittsburgh............ " 1819 9 11 Delaware............................ Newark.............. Del. 1833 6 71 5,500 St. John's........................... Annapolis............ Md. 1784 6 150 3,292 St. Mary's~.B....... altimore........ 1799 20 187 19,600 Mount St. Mary's~..... Emmetsburg.......... " 1830 24 137 4,000 St. James'st......................... NerH grtw... 41 14 0 1,0 St. Jatmese8t,.,...,. Near Hagerstown.. 1844 10 10 4,500 Washington.......................... Chestertown.......... " 1783 1,200 Georgetown~......................... Georgetown...........D. C. 1792 11 23 250 Columbian*......................... Washington........... " 1821 10 200 6,000 William and Maryt................... Williamsburg......... Va. 1692 6... 5,000 Hampden-Sidney..................... Prince Edward Co.... 1783 6 500 8,000 Washington.......................... Lexington............ 1812 6 600 5,000 University of Virginia................ Charlottesville.... 1819 10 1.236 1,70; Randolph-MaconS.................... Boydton.............. 1832 11' 124 6,000 Emory and Henry................... Glade Spring...... 1839 4.... 6,640 Rector*............................. Taylor Co............. 1839 3 2500 Bethany College..................... Bethany............." 1840 6 16. Richmond*.......................... Richmond............" 1832 6 1,200 Virginia Military institute............. Lexington....... 1839 6 107 2,00C University of North Carolina.. Chapel Hill...........N.C. 1789 9 919 12,347 Davidson............................ Mecklenburg Co....... " 1838 3 31 1,150 Wake Forest*........................ Wake Forest....... c 1838 3 11 4,700 Charleston.......................... Charleston............ S.C. 1785 6 124 2,000 South Carolina..........Columbia.............. 1804 8.... 1,700 Erakine.............................. Abbeville District... i Franklin............................. Athens..... Ga. 1785'8 593 11,000 Oglethorpe...............Milledgeville.......... 1836 5 53 3,000 Emory............................. Oxford............... 1837 7 112 3,000 Mercer University*................. Penfield.... " 1838 6 16 3,000 Christ College and Episcopal Instituter Montpelier............' 1839 4 University of Alabama.T......... uscaloosa.... Ala. 1831 9 ii 7,123 La Grange.. La Grange............ 1831 6 130 3,000 Spring Hill.Sprngg Hill 1830 12 i 4,000 Howard*.Marion... 1841 6... 1 Oakland..........................Oakland....... Miss. 1830 6 83 6,000 University of Mississippi.......Oxford.............. 1844 6.. 760 Mississippi College.................... Clinton............... entenaryk....J..................... Jackson.. 18 L. 3,000 St. Charles~......................,OGrand Coteau.... " 1838 21 2 4,000 Baton Rsouge..............o....... Batonouge......... 1838 4 7 300 Frankllin,,.. ~~~~ ~ Opelousa..1839 4 Greenville.g. reenville..........Tenn. 1794 2 110 3,000 Washington......Washington Co.... 1794 2 110 1,000 University of Nashville.. Nashville. 1806 7 398 9,456 Franklin............................. Near Nashville. 1845 6 15 2,000 East Tennessee............... Knoxvill............' 1792 122 4,500 Cumberland University............... Lebanon'......... 1844 9 22 4,100 Jackson............................. Olua............. " 1833 6 46 2,500 7. 98 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Found- - No. of Vols. in Name. Place. ed. struct- mni. Libraries. ~d, Alumni. Libraries. ors. Union*.............................. Murfreesboro'.........Tenn. 1848 5 6 800 Transylvania......................... Lexington............ Ky. 1798 7 610 14,000 St. Joseph'sl........................ Bardstown............ " 1819 17 150 7,000 The Centre....................... Danville.............. " 1819 5 307 5,500 Augusta............................ Augusta.............. " 1825 4 60 2,500 Georgetown........................ Georgetown........... 1840 7 75 6,500 Bacon...............................Irrodsburg.........." 1836 4 1,800 Western Military Institute............ Blue Lick Springs..... 1847 9 Shelby. Shelbyville................ 4 4,000 Ohio University..................... Athens.. Ohio 1804 6 145 5,500 Miami University.................... Oxford............ " 1809 6 343 8,000 Franklin............................ New Athens..... 1825 4 90 2,200 Western Reserve.................... Hudson.............. 1826 8 164 8,000 Kenyont............................ Gambier.............. " 1827 5 160 7,000 Granville*....................... Granville.............. " 1832 5 50 6,000 Marietta............................ Marietta.............. 1835 6 113 6,400 Oberlin College...................... Oberlin........ " 1834 12 199 4,200 Cincinnati................... Cincinnati...... " 1819 8...... St. Xavier........Cincinnati............. 1840 18 220 6,300 Woodward.......................... Cincinnati.:......... " 1881 5 17 1,400 Ohio Wesleyan UniversityS........... Delaware............. " 1842 6 30 2,800 Indiana State Universityt............. Bloomington.......... Ind. 1816 4 108 8,000 Hanover College..................... South I-anover 1829.6 100 2,200 Wabash............................. Crawfordsville......... 1833 6 59 6,000 Indiana Asbury University!........... Greencastle........... " 1839 7 64 2,700 St. Gabriel's~........................ incennes............. 1843 7... Franklin............................ Franklin.............. " 1837 4 1,000 Illinois......................... Jacksonville.......... Ill. 1829 7 93 3,000 Shurtleff........................... Upper Alton.......... " 1835 6 3 1,600 McKendreeS......................... Lebanon.............. " 1835 4 33 1,700 Knox................................ Galesburg. " 1837 5 16 3,000 University of St. Louis........ St. Louis~.............. St. o. 1832 17 i 25 12,000 St. Vincent's......................... Cape Girardeau....... " 1843 12 5,000 Masonic............................. Marion Co............. " 1831...... Missouri University. Colunbia.............. "L 1840 12 26 St. CharlesS....................... St. Charles... " 1837 3 20 390 Fayette... Fayette........................ College of Arts and Sciences in University of Michigan............. Ann Arbor...........ich. 1837 7 78 5,316 St. Philip's~...................... Nea.... Detroit........ " 1839 4. 3,000 Wisconsin University.Madison.............. Wise. 1849.......... The Colleges marked thus (*) are under the direction of the Baptists: thus (t), Episcopalians; thus (i. MfCetholdists; thus (~), Catholics. With respect to the Colleges which are unmarked, the prevailing religiono influence of those that are in the New England States is Cotngregationalism; of most of the others, Presbyterianisnm. Perhaps if fewer institutions had been chartered, and they had been more liberally endowed, the beneficial results would have been greater, although the number educated would probably have been less. In the academies the ancient and modern languages, grammar, history, logic, rhetoric, natural and moral philosophy, &c., are taught. Many of the common schools are extensively provided with libraries, and appropriate apparatus for illustrating the sciences taught in them. With the exception of Prussia there is no country where the mass of the people is so well educated as in some parts of the Union. The New England system of free schools is one of the most remarkable features of that section of the country. The principle on which it is founded, is, that elementary instruction should be so free as to exclude none from its benefits, and the schools should be so numerous as to be within the easy reach of all; at the same time that their management should be left chiefly to the people themselves in small districts, so as to excite a general interest in them. The tax for the support of these schools is levied on property, in order that the poorer classes may not be too heavily burdened with it; every individual in the community may not only learn to read and write, but may become acquainted with arithmetic, geography and history, and in the larger towns with the principles of natural science and the learned languages, free of expense. Some of the states have school funds, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 99 the income of which is distributed among the towns, in proportion to the number of children in the schools. Public aid is also given to the higher schools, called academies, and to the colleges, for the purpose of rendering the course of study more extensive and lessening the expense of attendance at them. In New York a similar system has been introduced, and in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Maryland, Virginia, South Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, and some other states, effectual measures have also been taken for the encouragement and support of free schools, and in several of these states they already afford ample means of primary instruction. The Smithsonian Institute, located at Washington City, is the only educational institution under the supervision of the general government. The funds for its support, $500,000, were bequeathed by the late Mr. James Smithson, of England, to the people of the United States, "' for the diffusion of knowledge among mankind." The establishment is controlled by a board of 15 regents, appointed by Congress. It has a library and scientific apparatus; is to give lectures, and issue books of a scientific and useful character. There are 13 law schools in various parts of the country. The earliest institution of this kind was founded in 1798, by the Hon. Tapping Reeve, and taught afterward by him in connexion with the Hon. James Gould, both judges of the supreme court of Connecticut. At this institution many of the principal civilians in the United States have been educated It is now discontinued. LAW SCHOOLS. Name. Place. Professors. Students. Harvard University.................. Cambridge...........Mass. 3 98 Yale College................... New Haven......................Con. 2 33 College of New Jersey........... Princeton........J.. N.J. 3 8 Dickinson College........ Carlisle..........................Pa. 1 9 William and Mary College............ Williamsburg.va.1.8.........Va... 32 University of Virginia............. Charlottesville.................... 1 72 North Carolina University........... Chapel Hill......................N. C. 10 Alabama University.................. Tuscaloosa 1................. Transylvania University............ Lexington.......................Ky. 3 5 University of Louisville.............. Louisville........................ 3 0 Cumberland University...........Lebanon.................. Tenn. 3 56 Cincinnati College................... Cincinnati.......... Ohio 25 Indiana State University.............. Bloomington.....................Ind. 2 29 Literature and science are of but recent origin, yet they have already made rapid progress, and America has already produced some works that take their place among the classic compositions of the old world. The reputation of Irving, Channing, Prescott and Cooper is not confined by the Atlantic, and several other writers have produced works of merit in the different branches of elegant literature. Some valuable contributions have also been made by the Americans to theology, jurisprudence, medicine and natural science. Learned societies have been instituted, and some of them have published several volumes of their transactions. Numerous monthly and quarterly journals are supported in the country, and the best English periodicals are regularly re-published. The current English literature of the day is also immediately distributed throughout the United States in various forms and at an amazingly cheap rate, and there are numerous American reprints of the most valuable English classics. One of the characteristics of the United States is the astonishing number of 100 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. newspapers, representing almost every political, social, industrial, moral and religious interest that occupies the attention of the community. We may mention in this connection, that both the federal government and the states have made some important additions to geographical science, through the agency of several exploring and surveying expeditions, got up at the public cost. There are 36 medical schools, some of them connected with colleges. The following table exhibits their names, location, &c. MEDICAL SCHOOLS. Name. Place. Found-Prof. Students Gradued. ates. Maine Mec.cal School.................... Brunswick........... Me. 18 5 74 596 New Hampshire Medical School..........Hanover..............N. 1, 1797 7 52 758 Castleton Medical College................ Castleton............. Vt. 1818 7 104 555 Vermont Medical College................ Woodstock....... " 1835 7 90 332 Medical School, Harvard University...... Cambridge............Mass. 1782 6 117 575 Berkshire Medical School................ Pittsfield....... " 1823 5 103 473 Medical Institute, Yale College........... New Haven............Conn. 1810 6 41 864 College of Physic and Surgery, N. Y...... New York.............N. Y. 1807 6 219 852 Medical Institute, Geneva College......... Geneva................ " 1835 6 60 98 Medical Faculty, University of N. York... New York............. " 1837 6 421 597 Albany Medical College. Albany.............. " 1839 8 114 58 Medical Department Univerity of Pa. Philadelphia.........Penn. 1765 7 438 5,130 Jefferson Medical College................ 1....8....... " 1824 7 516 1,809 Medical Department Pennsylvania Col.... cc........ 1839 7 106 36 Philadelphia College of Medicine......... ".......... 7 69 220 Medical School, University of Maryland. Baltimore........ Md. 1807 6 100 909 Washington Medical College...................... " 1827 6 25 Medical School, Columbia College......... Washington........... D. C. 1825 6 40 81 Medical School, University of Virginia.... Charlottesville........Va. 1825 3 45 Richmond Medical College............... Richmond........ " 1838 6 75 14 Winchester Medical College.............. Winchester......... 5 Medical College State of South Carolina... Charleston........... S. C. 1833 8 158 Medical College of Georgia............... Augusta....... Ga. 1830 7 115 124 Medical College of Louisiana.New Orleans............La. 1835 30 Memphis Medical College................ Memphis....... Tenn. 7 Medical Department Transylvania niv... Lexington...... Ky. 1818 7 214 1,351 Medical Department Univ. Louisville..... Louisville. 1837 7 376 53 Western Reserve Medical College......... Cleveland............. Ohio. 1844 6 256 35o Medical College of Ohio.................. Cincinnati........ 6..1819 8 130 331 Starling Medical College................. Columbus......... " 1848 6 140 300 Indiana Medical College................. Laporte.............. Ind.. 7 104 19 Indiana Central Medical College.......... Indianapolis.......... " 1849 9 59 10 Rush Medical College................ Chicago............... Ill. 1842 6 70 16 University of Michigan.................. Ann Arbor....... Mich. 1849 5 Medical Department of St. Louis Univ.... St. Louis.............. Mo. 1836 9 112 Medical Department of Missouri Univ..... Columbia........ " 1840 7 92 In the fine arts the Americans have shown a very strong natural genius for painting, though our artists have been obliged to resort to the old world for study and sometimes for patronage; institutions for the encouragement of the art, are now, however, formed in the principal cities of the Union. The names of Copley, West, Stuart, Newton, Allston, Brown, and Leslie, as painters, and Power and Greenough as sculptors, adorn the annals of American art. The literary and scientific societies of the United States are established not only in large communities, but are co-extensive with the limits of the country. In the most remote village or settlement, lyceums, lecture-rooms, debating societies, &c., are as common for the improvement of the grown, as elementary schools are for children. Libraries and museums of natural history, medical, legal and general scientific associations, mechanics' institutes, &c., are universally a part of the organization of American society, and their effects on the people are fully exhibited in their inventive genius, their facility of appliance, and their peculiar aptness ir accommodating UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 101 themselves to circumstances; all the legitimate result of a preexisting knowledge, acquired at these institutions, and without which the comforts and conveniences of life, in many of its phases, and especially in the newer regions, would be materially curtailed, and, perhaps, be altogether wanting. Apart, however, from the immediate and more practical benefits derived from these societies, who can compute their amount and value in enlarging the mind and elevating the character of a people? The societies of a more miscellaneous, but no less worthy, useful and benevolent description, are the various " Prison Societies," the " Immigrant Societies" of thee larger cities, and a host of others, even to mention which would occupy volumes. These names fully denote their several objects, and indicate the benevolent provisions for which they have been instituted. The numerous temperance societies are not only a blessing to individuals and families, but to the community at large, and are a means of saving, in a pecuniary point of view, immense sums, which, before their institution, were annually disbursed in all that was destructive to social order and the moral discipline of the nation. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION in the United States is munificently provided for. Besides numerous roads of the ordinary construction, which are generally as well made as those in other settled countries, lakes and rivers, &c., there are in the several States a series of railroads and canals, which, in length and workmanship, are equal to any in the world. No sooner had the subject of railroads evidenced a practicability in England, than their importance as a means of travel and conveyance recommended them to the people of this country, and measures were at once taken to give their advantages to our internal traffic. Since that period they have extended from every important point, and now bring together, as a focus, the most distant parts, which nature apparently had destined to remain forever separate. Such, indeed, has been the rapid progress of railroad making, that at the present day all the great cities of the Atlantic communicate by this means, not only with each other, but also with the most distant west. The " iron-band" traverses every State, and it is now in contemplation to extend the lines into the British Possessions on the north, and to Oregon on the Pacific. The comparative cost of railroads in Europe and the United States, per mile, including right of way, is as follows: In Massachusetts, $36,000; in the other Eastern States, $24,000; in New York, $26,000; in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, $40,000; and in the Western States, $11,000-but the small cost in these districts is owing to the natural facilities of the country, and the mode of construction; in England, $175,000; in France, $107,500; in Belgium, $80,000; in Germany, $40,000 (owing to the low price of labor and land); and in Prussia, $47,000. These statistics exhibit a fact highly favorable to the extension of railways in this Union. RAILROADS IN OPERATION IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1854. MAINE. Miles. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Miles. Miles. Androscoggin................ 20 Atlantic and St. Lawrence.... 52 Great Falls and Conway...... 123 Androscoggin and Kennebec.. 55 Ashuelot.................... 23 Manchester and Lawrence.... 24 Atlantic and St. Lawrence... 82 Boston and Maine *..........3 873/4Nashua and Lowell........... 5% Bangor and Piscataquis...... 12 Boston, Concord and Montreal. 92 INew Hampshire Central...... 25% Buckfield Branch............ 13 Cheshire.................... 43 Northern *................... 81:4 Calais and Baring*.......... 11 Cocheco.................... 281/4 Peterboro' and Shirley....... 10% Franklin.................. 9 Concord.................... 34k Portsmouth and Concord..... 47 Kennebec and Portland*..... 69 iConcord and Claremont...... 2934 Sullivan.................... 24 Portland, Saco & Portsmouth. 51'Contoocook Valley.......... 1431 White Mountains............ 10 York and Cumberland........ 18.Eastern................. 16X Wilton...................... 15% ~Including DBr-noea. 102 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Miles Miles. Miles Worcester and Nashua....... 6 Canandaigua & Niagara Falls. 97 Schuylkill Valley *...........25 VERMONT, Cayuga and Susquehanna.... 35 Strasburg.................. 7 Atlantic and St. Lawrence....31 Chemung................... 17%, Sunbury and Erie............20 Connect. and Passump. River 61 Eighth Avenue (N. York City) 5 Tioga................... 26 Rutland and Burlington....119 Hudson River...............144 Trevorton and Mahonoy......15 Rutland and Washington.... 18' Hudson and Berkshire........ 31X Whitehaven and Wilkesbarre 20 Rutland and Whitehall....... 17 Lewiston................... 3 Williamsport and Elmira.....25 St. Lawrence and Atlantic.... 16 Long Island................ 974 York and Cumberland........25 Vermont and Canada........47 New York and Erie *.........464, York and Wrightsville....13 Vermont Central.............117 New York and IIarlem.......1804 M.ARYLAND. Vermont and Massachusetts.. 5 New York and New Haven.... 17 Annapolis and Elkridge......21 Vermont Valley............24 Northern (Ogdensburg*)......119 Baltimore and Ohio..........140 Western Vermunt............53 Oswego and Syracuse......... 36?4 Baltimore and Susquehanna.. 57 MASSACHUSETTS. Plattsburg and Montreal. 23) Frederick Branch............ 3 Amherst and Belchertown.... 20 Rensselaer and Saratoga*..... 25% Phila., Wilming. & Baltimore 56 Berkshire.................... 21V4 Roch., Lockport & Niag. Falls. 76% Washington Branch..........31 Boston and Lowell*.......... 27a:4 Rochester and Syracuse......104 Westminster Branch......... 17 Boston and Maine *.......... 83 Rochester and Syracuse (direct) 81 ohio. Boston and Providence*...... 53 Rochester and Lake Ontario... 13 Bellefontaine and Indiana.... 118 Boston and Worcester...... 683/ Saratoga and Schenectady*... 23 Central Ohio...8........ 84 Cape Cod Branch............ 28/2 Saratoga and Washington *... 54%,4 Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton 60 Charles River Branch....... 12 Syracuse and Utica..........53 Cincinnati, Cleve. & Columbus.135 Cheshi-e......... 10Y Schenectady and Troy...... 22 Cin., IHillsboro' & Parkersburg 37 Connecticut River........... 50 Sacketts HIarbor and Ellishurg 18 Cin, Wilmington & Zanesville 20 Dorchester and Milton Branch. 3~, Sixth Avenue (New York City) 5 Cleve., Painesville & Ashtabula 71 Eastern *.................... 55 Skaneateles and Jordan. 3 Clove., Zanesville Cincinnati 28 Essex...................... 21% Third Avenue (New York City) 5 Cleveland and Pittsburg......100 Fall Itiver..................42% Troy and Greenbush......... 6 Cleveland & Toledo (S. divis.)..112 Fitchburg*................. 67% Troy and lBennington........ 5% Cleveland & Toledo (N. divis.).. 60 Fitchburg and Worcester..... 14 Troy and Boston............ 26 Columbus and Xenia....... 55 Grand Junction.......... Troy and Rutland............32 Columbus, Piqua and Indiana.102 Hartford and New HIaven. 6 Utica and Schenectady.......78 Dayton and Michigan........20 HIarvard Branch............. 3 Watertown and Rome........96 Dayton and Western........36 Lexiugton and W. Cambridge. 6%Y NEW JERSEY. Dayton and Springfield......24 Lowell and Lawrence........ 12% Belvidere Delaware..........41 Finlay Br.nch..............16 Medway Branch............. 3% Burlington and Mount Holly.. 6 Greenville and Miami........27 Nashua and Lowell........... 14 Camden and Amboy *........ 65 hIamilton, Eaton & Richmond 45 New Bedford and Taunton*... 21 Morris and Essex............45 Hanover Branch.............13 Newburyport................ 14%1/ New Brunswick and Trenton.. 28 Iron.........................13 N. London, WVillim. &5 Palmar. 9 New Jersey.................31 Little Miami.............84 Norfolk County.............26 New Jersey Central..........63 Mad River and Lake Erie...134 Norwich and Worcester....... 18 Trenton Branch............. 6 Mansfield and Sandusky......56 Old Colony.................45 Union......................33 Newark and Mansfield........61 Peterboro' and Shirley.......14 Woodbury Branch........... 9 Ohio and Pennsylvania......143 Pittsfield and North Adams... 183 PENNSYLVANIAM. Ohio and Mississippi......12 Providence and Worcester.... 25%/ Alleghany Portage...........36 Sandusky and Indiana........32 Salem and Lowell............ 17 Beaver Meadow*............38 Scioto and Hocking Valley.... 44 Saugus Branch........8..... 8,Blairsville Branch........... 3 Springfield and Xenia........ 19 South Rleading Branch*...... 81 Carbondale and IIonesdale.... 24 INDIA N1. South Shore................. 11 Catawissa, Williamsp't &, Erie. 25 Columbus and Shelbyville.... 21 Stockbridge and Pittsfield.... 22 Chestnut IIill and l)oyleston.. 15 Evansville and Crawfordsville 34 Stony Brook................. 134 Chester Valley...............21 Indiana Central..............72 Stoughton Branch........... 4 Columbia Branch............18 Indianapolis and Bellefontaine 84 Taunton Branch............ 114 Cumberland Valley..........56 Indianapolis and Cincinnati.. 94 Vermont and Massachusetts*...72 Danville and Pottsville.......44 Jeffersonville...............107'Wootern....................155% Dauphin and Susquehanna... 16 Lafayette and Indianapolis....54 West Stockbridge............ 2 Delaware, Lackawanna & West. 50 Madison and Indianapolis.... 84 Worcester and Nashua....... 45% Erie and North-East..........19 Martinsville................27 RHODE ISLAND. Franklin Canal..............26 New Albany and Salem......257 Providence and Stonington... 50 Franklin....................22 Newcastle and Richmond.... 12 Providence and Worcester.... 18 Germantown Branch......... 6 Northern Indiana............82 CONNECTICUT. Harrisburg and Lancaster.... 38 Ohio and Mississippi........32 Collinsville Branch...........11 Hazleton and Lehigh.........10 Peru and Indianapolis...... I72 Danbury and Norwalk........24 Iron........................5 Shelbyville and Knightstown.. 27 Ilartford,Providence & Yishkill 50 Lehigh and Susquehaunna.... 20 Shelbyville Lateral..........16 IHousatonic.. 74 Little Schuylkill.............20 Shelbyville and Rushville.... 20 Mididletown Branch......10 Lit. Schuylkill & Susquehanna 28 Terra Hlaute and Richmond.. 73 Nangatuack..................62 Lykens Valley..............16 MIcHiOAN. N. laven, IHart. & Springfield 62 Mlahonoy and Wisconisco.... 17 Constantine Branch..........4.New Itaven and Northampton 45 Mauch Chunk & Summit hill. 8 Detroit and Pontiac8.... 25 New Haven and New London. 50 Mill Creek.................. 9 Erie and Kalamazoo.......... 5 N. London, Willi1. & Palmer. 57 Mine Hill...................12 Michigan Central...........226 New London and Stonington.. 10 Mount Carbon.............. 7 Michigan Southern.........131 New York and New IIaven.... 44 Nesquehoning............... 5 Tecumseh Branch............ 10 Norwich and XWorcester...48 Pennsylvania................256 ILLINOIS. NE'sW Y~Oe. Pennsylvania Coal Company's 47 Aurora Branch..............13 Albany and Schencctady.... 20 Philadelphia City............ 6 Aurora Extension............86 Albany and XWest Stockbridge. 38,14 Philadelphia and Colunmbia.. 80 Belleville and llinoistown.... 14 Albany.Northern............ 32 Philadelphia and Readiing.... 43 Beloit and Madison..........20 Buffalflo and ilochester*....... 82 Phila., Germant'n & Norrist'n 17 Chicago and Mississippi......131 Biuffalo. (Corning & Nsew York. 90 Philadelphia and Trenton.... 29 Chicago and Rock Island......83 Buffatio andl New York City.... 91 Philadelphia and W. Chester.. 9 Galena and Chicago Union.... 120 lutfalo and Niagara Falls.... 22 Phila., Wilming. & Baltimore 20 Great Western Illinois...... 81 Bluffialo and State Line *...... 74 Pine Grove..................4 Illinois Central, sixth division 60 Bolt loaldc Lockport........25%[ Room Run................6 111..Central. Chicago Branch.. 56 Canand;uchia and Elmnira..... 4$% Schuylkill..................13 O'Falion's Coal Bluff........ 8 ~Iuladinig Branches. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 1%'is ari are ".. ls. 50 so'r AROL. olbs Opelika le. s...... 30 NSt.a svle anch t oua....e..... A il7 Sout h Side...........1....... 231 In Noi RMXc. Anen portions 0rane h k a.. 5,, La Grane.........n..... 4381 AppoNIN iia tto................. m n'7:Miie and hio r..........10....13 Mailvaulie and Miioippi.......... 40 i harlginia and Tennessee.r135 MIlledtoeville and Eatoiton.... 3S ISSOesUeR Wl sienton Branch............................. s67 osIssc50r aChest(ficl x. e.................... 7 inclestrl d Potomac... 32 one......... S~NTTCKY- NOaRTi CABOLiNA 1;aoudhPWrsteh...e........ ) Coverton and Lexl no.... 38 Gaston aind ih..........a..2 2 St. Fracis a.oovle....asn rc... 487 Greeviltoe and.kortoke f 9 Green ad-oake......n n oak.... 21;Wistern and Atlatkson...... 10 LouisDille and i..skl.rt.. 4 South Carolina.........i......137 LORSIA. Maysvlle,,.; lA;tl; ll a i...... 7 V........lio...... 98!lintol n ort uson....Pn l... 24 Orane ilningon ande:alli...... 1L2 oA;AMA. exi, uf 2 Easort talennessee and -orgia.. Athens iiro anch ester.. 4 Alirn d enes....... e............ er 40 Petersb a3nur (...s....orlt-.... 3...... 51 NeCAA olueaus and rOpelika o........ 6 ihmoll a nld D vilv le lltof...... 1 Ber AbbeviOre, o e. Wsrc.19 Gi1r. Ora.d Mobile..... 3 i RhGoN, r Adersone Pooa anch. eral.................nd Charleton.... 4391 2 RcIApponm'an'ttoxl2................. En.. tontou-and o....................20 3 e-boar d.oaule........... 80 st eessee and Georgi.. 16 arrisburg and lrzos........... 6 Canals in he Uni ted Saates a4 Greeville comparativ elyfe, and, with the excep tion of the Erie, Ohio, and somne others, have been constructed more for the Clmprove ment of.1re xist King avenues of comme rce, th an with a oodvilew of287 GreenTVille and'Iloanoke. 18.. Lawrens li'Vickshurg sod Jackson....10 ope ning new ones. There arolie many, however, highly importan in their. local bearings,..a38 and have provenn advantageous to the States 2hrough 4hic Orthey pa ss. Thne agdregate lexangth of all the canals is upwards of 5,20027 Port Waithal Il.,anch.....3 Athens Branch........40 MilLiboing. 6 Petmiles, one-half of which am ounty is in51 N ew Yo rk, Pennsylvania and Ohio, alone. i iondhe large cianv ties and owns are in constant comunication by m. es an. iof rhe magn eti c tl egraph; that most use ful as w ell as w onde rful ofspri n g fRichmiond and Petersburg...enius. 22The Eatotal leng. of all the lies in the UnitedEXAS. Sate s, now consa-board and oake. East Tennessee and Geo be 16,000 milearrbur ad razos. OfCanals in the grUnited States formed by comparativelyrs afed lakes ofwith the nitedxcep States, wof the haverie, already spoken. Thers, have beis en countructed more for the wih internal water ommuf prxisting avenues of comman ierc be thsaid witha ay view of opening new ones. There are many, however, highly important in their local bearings, and have proven advantageous to the States through which they pass. The aggregate length of all the canals is upwards of 5,200 miles, one-half of which amount is in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, alone. Allof rivers has equal facilities andfor steamboats, ships or bowns are in constant communication by fean.of the magnetic telegraph that most useful as well as wonderful offspring1 1 -if American genius. The total length of all the linies in the Uniteod States, now constructed, is stated to be 16,000 nules. Of the great highways formed by the rivers and lakes of the United States, we have already spoken. There is no country so well sup~plied with internal water communication, nor can it be said that any system of rivers has equal facilities for steamboats, ships or barges, with that of this country. It is almost surrounded by navigable waters, and is intersected centrally and transversely with deep and capacious rivers, which have been improved in a variety of ways, and on which the daily traffic is imense. All that is now wanted is an acceleration of those mechanical applances which have already done so much to annihilate time and space. The GOVERNMENT Of the United States, a~s established by the Constitution, is that of a federal representative demoeracy. The whole country is subj.ect to the national or general government, consisting of three branches, theexeutielegislative and judicial. The executive power is lodg(ed in, the hands of the president, who is appointed for four years, by electors choscn. for that purpose by the people, generally by districts. Each state'is allowed as many electors as it has membfrs of Congress. These are chosen differently in different states; but if by districts, each district chooses one elector, for the sole purpose of electing a president and vice poresident. 104 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The latter presides over the senate; and in case of the death of the president, he immediately occupies his place. In this case his office, otherwise almost nominal, becomes exceedingly important. The person who has a majority of all the votes is president; and if no one has such a majority, the house of representatives chooses a president from three candidates having the greatest number of votes. In the election of president the votes are given by states. The vice president is chosen at the same time and in the same manner. The president appoints the secretary of state, and the ministers of the various departments of the administration, as the treasury, navy, war, and the post-master general, and, directly or indirectly, he appoints to all the offices in the general government; in the more important ones, with the advice and consent of the senate. No person can be elected president who is less than 35 years of age, who is not a native born citizen of the United States, or was not a citizen at the time of the adoption of the constitution of the United States, and who has not been a resident in the United States for 14 years. He is the commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia when in the actual service of the United States. With the advice and consent of the senate, he makes treaties, appoints ambassadors, judges of the supreme court, and other officers of the national government, whose appointment is not otherwise provided for by the constitution. He takes care that the laws be executed, and commissions all officers. He has power to grant reprieves and pardons for all offences against the United States, except in case of impeachments. In making treaties, the concurrence of two-thirds of the senate is necessary. He has a veto on all laws passed by Congress; but so qualified, that, notwithstanding his disapproval, any bill becomes a law on its being afterwards approved of by two-thirds of both houses of Congress. He has a salary of $25,000 per annum, and the presidential mansion for his residence during his official term. The vice president is, ex-officio, president of the senate; and in case of the death, resignation, or other disability of the president, the powers and duties of the office devolve upon him for the remainder of the term for which the president had been elected. In case of the disability of the vice president, the president of the senate, pro tempore, takes his place. The offices of president and vice president have been occupied by the following gentlemen since the adoption of the constitution: PRESIDENTS AND VICE PRESIDENTS. PRESIDENTS. VICE PRESIDENTS. TERM OF OFFICE George Washington (Va.),..... John Adams............. 1789 to 1797 John Adams (Mass.),.... Thomas Jefferson........... 1797 to 1801 Thomas Jefferson (Va.),....... Aaron Burr, George Clinton,........ 1801 to 1809 James Madison (Va.),..... George Clinton,* Elbridge Gerry,*..... 1809 to 1817 James Monroe (Va.)......... Daniel D. Tompkins,.. 1817 to 1826 John Quincy Adams (Mass.)..... John C. Calhoun,........... 1825 to 1829 Andrew Jackson (Tenn.),....... John C. Calhoun, Martin Van Buren,.... 1829 to 1837 Martin Van Buren (N. York),..... Richard M. Johnson........... 1837 to 1841 William Henry Hlarrison (Ohio),*.... John Tyler.............. 1841 John Tyler (Va.),................ 1841 to 1845 James K. Polk (Tenn.)....... CGeorge M. Dallas........... 1845 to 1849 Zachary Taylor (La.),*........ illard Fillmore,........... 1849 to 1850 Millard Fillmore (N. York),...................... 1850 to 1853 * Died in office. The national legislature consists of a senate and house of representatives. The senate is composed of two persons from each state in the Union, and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 105 chosen by the legislatures of the states respectively, for the term of six years. One third of the senate is chosen biennially. The house of representatives consists of members chosen for two years by districts. The number of representatives is proportioned to the number of the inhabitants, and the ratio under the new census will be about one for every 93,000 inhabitants, tw:)-fifths of the slaves being omitted in the enumeration. The house of representatives represents the people, the senate represents the states. A senator must be at least 35 years of age, and have been a citizen of the United States for nine years. It belongs to the senate to try all cases of impeachment. A representative must be at least 25 years of age, and have been a citizen of the United States for seven years. Congress has power to lay and collect taxes; to provide for the common defence and general welfare; to borrow money; to regulate foreign and domestic commerce; to establish uniform laws of naturalization and bankruptcy; to coin money and regulate its value; to fix the standard of weights and measures; to establish postoffices and post-roads; to grant patent and copy rights; to constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court; to define and punish piracies and offences on the high seas, and against the laws of nations; to declare war, and grant letters of marque and reprisal; make rules respecting captures; raise and support armies; provide and maintain a navy; provide for the calling out of the militia, to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; and to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the district of Columbia. No member of Congress is allowed to hold any office under the government of the United States while he continues such. All bills for raising money must originate in the house of representatives. Since the 4th of March, 1807, the compensation of each member of the senate and house of representatives has been eight dollars per day, during his attendance on Congress; and eight dollars for every 20 miles travel, in the usual road, in going to or returning from the seat of government. The compensation of the speaker of the house and president of the senate, is sixteen dollars per day, respectively. SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. CONGRESS. NAMES. DATE. CONGRESS. NAMES. DATZ. 1st. F. A. Muhlenburg, - 1789 17th. Philip P. Barbour, -.. 1821 2& Jonathan Trumbull, - 1791 18th. Henry Clay, 1823 3d. F. A. Muhlenburg, - 1793 19th. John W. Taylor, 1825 4th. Jonathan Dayton, - - 1795 20th. Andrew Stevenson,. - 1827 5th. Do - 1797 21st. Do -. - - 182J 6th. Theodore Sedgwick, - - 1799 22d. Do - - 1831 7th. Nathaniel Macon, - 1801 23d Do 33 - 8th. Do 1803 John Bell, 9th. Do - 1805 24th. James K. Polk, 1835 10th. Joseph B. Varnum, - - 1807 25th. Do 1837 11th. Do. 1809 26th. Robert M. T. Hunter, - - 1839 12th. Henryo Clay, 1811 27th. John White, 1841 3t Do - - -' 1813 28th. John W. Jones, - 1843 th ILangdon Cheves, - 29th. John W. Damis, - 1845 14th. Henry Clay, 1815 30th. RobertC. Winthrop, - - - 1847 16th. Do - 1817 31st. Howell Cobb, D 141 16th I Do _1 _- 1819 32d. 181 16th John W. Taylor, - - - - - 33d. - - - - - - - - The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, consisting at present of nine judges, appointed by the president, with the consent of the senate. They can be removed by impeachment before the senate, aud they hold a 106 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. yearly winter session in Washington, the capital of the United States. When not thus united, they hold circuit courts in different parts of the countryv. The whole country is divided into districts, each having a judge appointed by the president, with the consent of the senate, for the decision of causes that fall within the cognizance of the United States' courts, and from whose decisions an appeal lies to the supreme court. This last court decides on the constitutionality of the laws passed by the national congress, and also by the several state legislatures, and on all questions between individual states, or between the United States and an individual state, and questions arising between a foreigner and either the United States or any of the states. Although the supreme court has at times decided that the laws of particular states have been unconstitutional, and of course void, their decisions have never yet been permanently resisted. The judges hold theiVoffices during good behaviour, and their salaries cannot be diminished during their continuance in office. CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE SUPREME COURT. John Jay,.. Sept. 26, 1789 John Jay, - - - Dec. 19, 185R John Rutledge, - - Feb'y 1, 1795 John Marshall, - o - Jan. 27, 1801 William Cushing, - - Jan. 27, 1796 Roger B. Taney, - - - Dec. 28, 1835 Oliver Ellsworth, - - March 4, 1796 The Executive business of the United States is conducted by several officers, with the title of Secretaries, and who form the "Cabinet." These are termed the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, tho Postmaster General, and the Attorney General. The "State Department" was created in 1789. The Secretary conducts all trcaties between the United States and foreign powers, and corresponds officially, with the ministers of the United States at foreign courts, and with the ministers of foreign powers resident in the United States. He is entrusted with the publication and distribution of all the acts and resolutions of Congress, and of all treaties with foreign powers and Indian tribes; preserves the originals of all laws and treaties, and of the public correspondence growing out of the intercourse between the United States and foreign nations; is required to procure and preserve copies of the several statutes of the several states; and grants passports to American citizens visiting foreign countries. He has the charge of the Seal of the United States, but cannot affix it to any commission until signed by the President, nor to any instrument or act without the especial authority of the President. SECRETARIES OF STATE, Thomas Jefferson, - - - Sept. 26, 1789 Louis McLane, -. - March 7, 1833 Edmund Randolph, - - Jan. 2, 1794 John Forsyth, -.. 1834 Timothy Pickering, - - Feb. 4, 1795 Daniel Webster, - March 5. 1841 John Marshall, - - May 13, 1800 Hugh S. Legare,. - May 9, 1843 James Madison, - - - March 5, 1801 Abel P. Upshur, - - June 24, 1843 Robert Smith, - - - March 6, 1809 John Nelson, - - - Feb. 29, 1844 James Monroe, - - Nov. 25, 1811 John C. Calhoun, - March 6, 1844 John Quincy Adams, - - March 5, 1817 James Buchanan, - - - arch 5, 1845 Henry Clay, - - - - March 8, 1825 John M. Clayton, - - March 6, 1849 Martin Van Buren, - - March 6, 1829 Daniel Webster, - uly 20, 1850 Ed. P. Livingston, -.. 1831 The " Treasury Department" was created by an act of Congress of the 2d of September, 1789. The Secretary of the Treasury superintends all UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 107 the fiscal concerns of the government, and upon his own responsibility, recommends to Congress measures for improving the condition of the revenue. All the accounts of the government are finally settled at the Treasury Department; and for this purpose it is divided into the office of the Secretary, who has a general superintendence of the whole, the offices of two Comptrollers, six Auditors, a Treasurer, six Assistant Treasurers, a Register, and a Solicitor. The Secretary has also superintendence of the United States coast survey. The auditors of the public accounts are empowered to administer oaths or affirmations to witnesses in any case in which they may deem it necessary for the due examination of the accounts with which they are charged. The latest statistics of this important department will be found in other parts of this volume. SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY. Alexander Hamilton,. - - Sept. 12, 1789 William J. Duane,.. 1833 Oliver Wolcott, - - Feb. 4, 1795 Roger B. Taney, 1833 Samuel Dexter, - - Dee. 31, 1800 Levi Woodbury, - - - March 7, 1833 Albert Gallatin, -. Jan. 26, 1802 Thomas Ewing, - - March 5, 1841 George W. Campbell -. - Feb. 9, 1814 Walter Forward, - - Sept. 13, 1841 Alexander J. Dallas, - Oct. 6, 1814 John C. Spencer, - - March 3, 1843 William H. Crawford, - - March 5, 1817 George M. Bibb, - - June 15, 1844 Richard Rush, - - March 7, 1825 Robert J. Walker, - - March 5, 1845 Samruel D. Inghan, - - March 6, 1829 William M. Meredith, - - March 6, 1849 Louts McLane,... 1831 Thomas Corwin, - - July 20, 185 The "War Department" was created by an act of Congress of the 7th of August, 1789, and at first embraced not only military, but also naval affairs. The Secretary of War superintends every branch of military affairs, and has under his immediate direction, the Adjutant's General bureau; the Quartermaster's bureau; the Pay bureau; the Subsistence bureau; the Medical and Surgical bureau; the Engineer bureau; the Topographical bureau, and the Ordnance bureau. This department has the superintendence of the erection of fortifications, of making topographical surveys, and other important services. SECRETARIES OF WAR. Henry Knox, S- ept. 12, 1789 Peter B. Porter, - - - May 26, 1828 Timothy Pickering, - Jan. 2, 1795 John H. Eaton, - March 9, 1829 James McHenry, - Jan. 27, 1796 Lewis Cass, - 1831 Samuel Dexter, - - May 18,1800 Joel R. Poinsett, - - - March 7, 1837 Roger Griswold, - - Feb. 3,1801 John Bell, - - - March 5, 1841 Henry Dearborn, -. - March 5, 1801 John McLean, - - - Sept. 13, 1841 William Eustis,.-. March 7,1809 John C. Spencer, - - Oct. 12,1841 John Armstrong, - - - Jan. 13, 1813 James W. Porter, - - March 8, 1843 James Monroe,.. Sept. 27,1814 William Wilkins, - - Feb. 15, 1844 William H. Crawford, - March 2, 1815 William L. Marcy - - March 5, 1845 Isaac Shelby, - - - - March 5, 1817 George W. Crawford, - - March 6, 1849 John C. Calhoun, - Dec. 16, 1817 Charles M. Conrad, - - Aug. 14,1850 James Barbour, -. - March 7, 1825 The " Navy Department" was created by an act of Congress of the 30th of April, 1798. The Secretary issues all orders to the navy of the United States, and superintends the affairs of the department generally. Attached to the office of the Secretary, are the bureau of Docks and Navy Yards; the bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography; the bureau of Construction, Repairs and Equipment; the bureau of Provisions and Clothing, and the bureau of Medical and Surgical affairs. The ministerial duties of these several bureaus were formerly exercised by a "Board of Navy Commissioners," established by an act of Congress of February 7, 1815. 108 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. SECRETARIES OF THE NAVY. George Cabot,. - May 3, 1798 Mahlon Dickerson, - - - 1834 Benjamin Stoddard, - - May 21, 1798 James K. Paulding, - - - June 30, 1838 Robert Smith, - - - - Jan. 26, 1802 George P. Badger, - - March 5, 1841 J. Crowninshield,. - March 2, 1805 Abel P. Upshur, - - - Sept. 13, 1841 Paul Hamilton,- - - - March 7,1809 David lenshaw, - - July 24,1848 William Jones, - - - Jan. 12, 1813 Thomas W. Gilmer, - - Feb. 15, 1844 Benj. W. Crowninshield, - - Dec. 19, 1814 John Y. Mason, - - - March 14, 1844 Smith Thompson, - - - Nov. 30, 1818 George Bancroft, - - March 10, 1845 Samuel L. Southard, - - - Dec. 9, 1823 John Y. Mason, - - - 1846 John Branch, - - - - March 9, 1829 William B. Preston, - - - March 6, 1849 Levi Woodbury, - - - - 1831 William A. Graham, - - July 20, 1850 The " Department of the Interior " was created by an act of Congress passed March 3, 1849. The Secretary has under his supervision the bureau of the Commissioner of Patents; the General Land Office; the accounts of Marshals, Clerks, and other officers of the Courts of Law; the acts of the Commissioner of Indian affairs, and the Commissioner of Pensions; the acts of Marshals, &c., when taking the census; the Mineral lands; the Commissioner of Public Buildings; and the Board of Inspectors and Warden of the Penitentiary of the District of Columbia. SECRETARIES OF THE INTERIOR. Thos. Ewing, - - 1849 I A. H. H. Stuart, - - - 1881 The " Post Office Department" is under the Postmaster General, and three Assistants, The Postmaster General has the chief direction of all postal arrangements with foreign countries, as well as those of the home department. The Assistants preside over the Contract office, Appoint-nent office, &c. Their acts, however, require the endorsement of the thief. The revenue, arising from the General Post Office, is expended ensirely upon the extension and improvement of the establishment, by which means the regular conveyance of the mail has been extended to the inhab-.tants of every part of the Union. POSTMASTERS GENERAL. Samuel Osgood, - - - Sept. 26, 1789 Amos Kendall, - - - May 1, 183 Timothy Pickering, - - - Nov. 7, 1791 John M. Niles, - - - - May 25, 1840 Joseph Habersham, - - Jan. 2, 1795 Francis Granger, - - - March 6, 1841 Gideon Granger, - - March 17, 1802 Charles A. Wickliffe, - - - Sept. 13, 1841 Return J. Meigs, - - - March 17, 1814 Cave Johnson, - March 5, 134 John McLean, - - - Dec. 9, 1823 Jacob Collamer, - - - March 6, 1849 William T. Barry, - - March 9,1829 Nathan K. Hall, - - July 20, 1860 The "Attorneys General," who are considered as forming members of the Cabinet, and who are the constitutional advisers and defendants of the government, are generally men of the greatest acquirements in their profession. The gentlemen who have held this office, are enumerated in the annexed list. ATTORNEYS GENERAL. Edmund Randolph, - - - Sept. 26,1789 Benj. F. Butler, - Dec. 25, 1835 William Bradford, - - Jan. 27, 1794 Felix Grundy, - - - - Sept. 1, 1888 Charles Lee, - - Dec. 10, 1795 Henry D. Gilpin, - - Jan. 11, 1840 Levi Lincoln,. M - March 5, 1801 John J. Crittenden - - - March 5, 1841 Robert Smith, - - - March 2, 1805 IIugh S. Legatre, - - Sept. 13, 1841 John Breckenridge,. - Dec. 23, 1806 John Nelson, - July 1, 1848 Csesar A. Rodney, - - Jan. 21, 1807 John Y. Mason - March 5, 1845 William Pinckney, - - Dec. 11, 1811 Nathan Clifford, - - 1847 Richard Rush, - - - Feb. 10,1814 Isaac Toucey, -- 1848 William Wirt, - - - Dec. 16, 1817 Reverdy Johnson, - - - March 6 1849 John McPherson Berrien, March 9, 1829 John J. Crittenden, - - July 20, 1850 Roger B. Taney, - - - 1831 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 109 The Army of the United States is under the command of a Major General, who is styled General-in-Chief, and resides at Washington, except when called to take the field. The President is, ex-officio, Commander-inChief of the army of the United States. The states are divided into three military divisions, under command of two brigadiers general, who are commonly majors-general by brevet. These are subdivided into eleven departments. The army consists of three distinct classes, viz: the regular force, the volunteers, and the militia. The first, styled the Army of the United States, comprises the engineers, the topographical engineers, and the ordnance department, and 16 regiments of dragoons, mounted riflemen, artillery and infantry. The volunteers are only called into service during a state of hostility or insurrection, and are merely a substitute for enforcing the services of the militia. The militia is, properly, the force of the state in which it resides, and is composed of all, with some legal exceptions, within the ages of 18 and 45. There can be no doubt of the efficiency of the United States' military; the fields of the revolution, the hard-fought battles of the last war with Britain, and the bloody plains and ravines of Mexico, fully attest their superiority of morale and organization, and the science and skill of the officers. There is a Military Academy at West Point, on the Hudson river, foi the education of youth intended for the army. The branches taught art engineering and fortifications, mathematics, natural and experimental phi losophy, ethics, drawing, sword exercise, &c. The cadets are appointee by the President, on presentation by the Senators of the several states and a certain number only is allowed to each state. MILITIA FORCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Non-cornStates and Territories. OfichatGeneral Staff Officers, ny sin cers, Musi- ggre yeafr. (f.Ofcers. &c. Officersgate. Stfieersd Officers. cians, Privates, &c. Maine - o - 1845 26 95 540 1,659 2,320 42,345 44,665 New Hampshire, 1849 12 54 339 1,118 1,523 26,344 27,867 Massachusetts, - - - 1849 7 35 78 357 477 101304 101,781 Vermont,.. 1843 12 1 224 801,088 22,827 23,915 Rhode Island, - - 1847 6 21 42 9 78 14,068 14,146 Connecticut,. 1846 11 38 292 983 1,324 56,395 57,719 New York, - - 1849 127 875 1,756 5,525 7,783 193,669 201,542 New Jersey, - - 1829 19 58 435 1,576 1,988 37,183 39,171 Pennsylvania, 1847 55 164 1,245 6,054 7,518 268 552 276,070 Delaware, - - - 1827 4 8 71 364 447 8,782 9,229 Maryland,- -. 1838 22 67 544 1,763 2,297 44,467 46,864 Virginia,. 1849 28 62 1,396 5,260 6,746 117,456 124,202 North Carolina, 1845 28 133 657 3,449 4,267 75,181 79,448 South Carolina, - - 1848 19 96 452 2,024 2,591 52 618 55,209 Georgia, - - 1839 36 98 746 2,212 3,092 54,220 57,312 Alabama,. 1848 80 187 564 1,382 2 163 42,168 44,331 Louisiaa, - 1847 10 65 159 7,768 1,392 42,431 43,823 Mississippi, - 1838 15 70 392 348 825 35,259 36,084 Tennessee, - 1840 25 79 859 2,644 3,607 67,645 71,252 Kentucky, - 1849 43 155 1,136 3,459 4,793 83,836 88,629 Ohio, -. 1845 91 217 462 7,287 2,051 174,404 176,455 Indiana,% -. _ 1832 81 110 566 2,854 2,861 51,052 53,913 Illinois,.1841 - - - - - - 83'234 Missouri,- 1844 46 94 790 2,990 3,919 57,081 61'000 Arkansas, / 1843 8 29 310 762 1,109 16,028 17,137 Michigan, - - - 1849 27 146 378 2,720 2,671 57,346 60,017 Florida, - 1845 8 14 95 508 620 11,502 12,122 Texas, - - 1847 15 45 248 940 1,248 18,518 19,766 Iowa, -- - - Wisconsin, 1848 9 31 212 1,552 1,804 30,399 32,203 Oregon Territory, - - - - - - - - Minesota Territory, - - District of Columbia, - - 1832 1 3 24 68 96 1,153 1,249 Total,. -. 765 2,591 5l,012 54,430 72,798 1,804,233 1,960,265 110 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The Navy is divided into the Home squadron, the Brazil squadron, the Pacific squadron, the Mediterranean squadron, and the coast of Africa squadron. There are seven navy yards. The naval asylum at Philadelphia, and the naval school at Annapolis, are of great benefit to this arm of the service. The marine corps is organized as a brigade, and is subject to the laws and regulations of the navy, except when detached for service with the military. The navy acquired great reputation during the last war with Great Britain, and the great powers of Europe acknowledged its superiority in both talent and force. The United States are in a position to raise a larger navy from her commercial marine, in twelve months, than any that has yet swept the seas. Several large mail steamers are capable of being converted into war ships, and liable to be called into service whenever required. NAVAL FORCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Name and Rate. Where and when built. Name and Rate. Where and when built. SHIPS OF THE LINE — 11. Decatur.............16 New York.........1839 Guns. Preble..............16 Portsmouth........1839 Pennsylvania.......120 Philadelphia......1837 Yorktown...........16 Norfolk...........1839 Franklin............ 74 Philadelphia......1815 Marion.............16 Boston...........1839 Columbus...........74 Washington.......1819 Dale................16 Philadelphia.......1839 Ohio................ 74 New York........1820 North Carolina...... 74 Philadelphia......1820 Bras —S. Delaware......... 74 Gosport, Va.......1820 Boxer10 Boston1831 Boxer.,......10 Boston......1831 Alabama............ 74 Portsmouth. Dlhn1 NeYok83 7rr~nla........ (. 4 Boston.Dolphin.............10 New York.........1836 Virginia........74 Boston. New York. 7 $4 Norfolk. Porpoise..10 Boston 1836 [New York........... 74 Norfolk. Popos............. 1 otn...........13 New Orleans.. 74 Sacket's Harbor. Bainbridge. 10 Do......... 1842 Vermont............... Charlestown.....1819 Perry..10 Norfolk...1843 Independence, Razee 54 Boston..........1814 ScHoo:ERs-8 FRIGATES, 1st Class -12. Flirt.Transferred from r............ Transferred from War Wave............... United States.......44 Philadelphia......1797 eDepartmentix.............. Constitution....44 Boston...........1797 On-ka-hy-e........... Purchased. Potomac............ 44 Washington... 1821 Bonito............... 1 Do............1846 Brandywine.........44 Do.........1825 Reefer..........1 Do18.1846 Columbia..........44 Do...........1836 Petrel................ 1 Do............1846 Congress.............44 Portsmouth......1841 Cumberland........44 Boston...........1842 BOMB VESSE Ls —5 Savannah.......44 New York.........1842 Raritan.............44 Philadelphia......1843 Stromboli....... 1 Purchased........1846 Santee.............44 Portsmouth. Vesuvius............. 1 Do....... 1846 Sabine..............44 New York. 2Etna................ 1 Do...........1846 St. Lawrence........-44 Norfolk. Hecla................ 1 Do............1846 Electra, Ordnance trans. FRIGATEs, 2d Class -2. port. Constellation........36 Baltimore.........1797 ST.AMERS —13. acedonian........ 36 Captured 1812, rebuilt Macedonian 36... I in 1836. Mississippi, Paixan..10 Philadelphia....1841 Fulton............... 4 New York.........1837 SLOOPS OF WAR - 22. Union................ 4 Norfolk...........1842 Princeton............ 9 Philadelphia.......1843 Saratoga...... 20 Portsmouth.......1842 Michigan............1 Erie, Pa...........1844 Charleston, S. C., 1790, Alleghany............... Pittsburgh, Pa. John Adams. 20 rebuilt in 1820. Spitfire.............. 3 Purchased.........1846 Vincennes..........20 New York........1826 Vixen..............8 Do...........1846 Warren...,.........20 Boston...........1826 Scorpion............... Do............1846 Falmouth...........20 Do............1827 Scourge..... Do............1846 F'airfield............ 20 New York........1828 General Taylor......... Transfd from War Dep. Vandalia............20 Philadelphia.....1828 Water Witch....... Washington.......1845 St. Louis...........20 Washington......1828 Engineer................ Purchased. Cyane...... 20 Boston...........1837 Levant.............20 New York........1837 STORE SHIPS AND BReIas —6. Portsmouth........20 Portsmouth......1843 Plymouth..........20 Boston...........1843 Relief6 Philadelphia.......1836 St. Mary's..........20 Washington.......1844 Erie................. 8 Baltimore.........1813 Jamestown.........20 Norfolk..........1844 Lexington............ 8 New York.........1825 Albany.............20 New York........1846 Southampton........ 6 Norfolk.........1845 Germantown.......20 Philadelphia.....1846 Supply.............. Purchased.........1846 Ontario............ 18 Baltimore.........1813 Fredonia............. Do...........1846 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 111 It is evident that the defensive means of the United States are equal to those of any country in the world. Every ship could be converted into a ship of war; every man liable to do military duty, and the pecuniary means of the government are sufficient for all purposes. The policy of the United States is against the maintainance of a standing army, as dangerous to the public weal. Besides the vast expense, it has ever lended to coerce and tyrannize over the people, and is considered a cause rather than a preventive of war. The ~'_erties of 1ie country are entrusted to its citizens. The Revenues of the country are drawn from customs, sales of public lands, and some miscellaneous sources. There is no direct tax. By means of these, the old debt, incurred during the revolutionary war and the last war with Great Britain, was totally expunged in 1837, and after reserving a large sum for contingencies, a surplus amounting to $28,000,000 was distributed among the several states. Several causes have since conspired to render the creation of a new debt necessary; but the amount is insignificant when compared with the resources of the government, and the increasing tide of prosperity which is flowing over the country. RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1850. Receipts from customs................39,668,686 42 Add bal. in the Treasury, July 1, 1849.. $ 2,184,964 28 Receipts from public lands............ 1859,89,4 25 Receipts from miscellaneous sources... 1,847,218 23 Total...........................$49,606,713 18 Receipts from avails of stock issued for The expenditures for the same fiscal year specie deposited.................... 399,050 00 were in cash......... $39,355,268 69 Receipts from avails of Treasury notes Treasury notes funded.. 3,646,900 00 funded.......................... 3,646,900 00 43,002,168 69 Total............................$47,421,748 90 Leaving a bal. in Treasury, July 1.....$ 6,604,544 49 PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES. Funded and unfunded debt, payable on Six per ct. Loan, red'mable Dec. 1862, $ 8.198,686 C3 presentation........................$ 119,585 98 Six per ct. Loan....do... Jan. 1,'68, 27,135,122 00 Debt of Cities in the District, assumed by Six per ct. Loan....do....Jan. 28,'68, 154,328 00 Congress........................... 900,000 00 Six per ct. Loan....do....July,'68, 15,740,000 00 Five per ct. Stock, redeemable Aug. 1851, 303,573 92 Treasury Notes.....do....July,'68, 209,561 64 Five per ct. Loan...... do....July'53, 6,468,231 35 Six per ct. Loan.......do....Nov.'56, 4,999,149 45 Total amount of Public Debt... $64,228,238 37 The Public Lands belonging to the general government are situated: 1lst. Within the limits of the United States, as defined by the treaty of 1783, and are embraced by the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and that part of Minesota east of the Mississippi river, all of which have been formed out of the Northwestern Territory, as conveyed with certain reservations to the United States by New York in 1781, by Virginia in 1784, by Massachusetts in 1785, and by Connecticut in 1786; also the lands within the boundaries of the states of Alabama and Mississippi north of 31~ north latitude, as conveyed to the United States by Georgia in 1802. 2d. Within the territories of Orleans and Louisiana, as acquired from France by the treaty of 1803, including the portion of the states of Alabama and Mississippi south of 31~; the whole of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, and that portion of Minesota west of the Mississippi river; the Indian territory; the district called Nebraska; the territory of Oregon, and the region lying between Oregon and Minesota, north of 420 and south of 49~ north latitude. 3d. Within the state of Flcrida, as obtained from Spain by the treaty of 1819. 4th. In New Mexico and California, as acquired from Mexico, by the treaty of 1848. 112 UNIT ED STATES OF AMERICA. Within the limits recognized by these treaties and cessions, the public lands covered an estimated area of 1,584,000,000 acres. To the 30th of September, 1849, 146,000,000 acres had been sold, leaving unsold an area of 1,438,000,000 acres, which land, in large bodies or detached tracts, is found in the several states and territories above mentioned. The system for surveying and disposing of the public lands was established by the act of the 20th of May, 1785, and has continued to the present time with but slight modifications. All public lands, before they are offered for sale, are surveyed in ranges of townships of six miles square, which townships are subdivided into thirty six sections of one mile square, each section generally containing 640 acres. This subdivision is made by lines crossing each other at right angles, and running to the cardinal points of the compass. The sections are numbered from 1 to 36, beginning at the northeastern corner of the township, and counting alternately from east to west and from west to east, and are subdivided into quarters or 160 acres, eighths or 80 acres, and sixteenths or 40 acres. The corners of townships, sections, and quarter sections, are designated by monuments, established by surveyors in the field. After the lands have been thus surveyed, they are proclaimed by the President for sale at public auction, at not less than $1,25 per acre; and such as thereafter remain unsold may be purchased at private sale at that rate. The security of tit'. under this system is nearly perfect, as is shown by the fact, that, notwithstanding the extent of the sales of land, and the number and variety of pu:chasers, there has been but little litigation as to boundaries; and most of this has been caused by fraud, and not by any defect in the system of operations. For the benefit of education, the sixteenth section in each township, or one thirty-sixth part of the public lands, has been set apart for the support of schools. Besides this, large donations have been made by Congress, from time to time, for colleges, county seats, seats of government, and internal improvements. The number of Post Offices in the United States, for the year ending June 30, 1849, was 16,747; of mail contractors, 4,190; and of post routes, 4,943. The length of mail routes was 167,703 miles, and the annual transportation amounted to 42,544,069 miles, at a cost of $2,428,515. The length of routes connecting this with foreign countries, covered by regular United States mail conveyance, and including the distance from New York to Chagres, and from San Francisco to Panama, was 11,169 miles, at an annual cost, chargeable to the Post Office Department, of $255,692. The gross revenue for the year amounted to $4,905,176; the expendi tures to $4,479,049. By the act of March 3, 1851, the letter postage of the United States was reduced to the following standard: for single letters, or not to exceed half an ounce in weight, for any distance within the United States under 3,000 miles, if pre-paid, 3 cents; if not pre-paid, 5 cents; and for every additional weight of half an ounce or less, an additional single postage. By the same act it was made lawful to coin, at the Mint of the United States, a piece of the denomination or legal value of 3 cents; to be composed of three-fourths of silver and one-fourth copper. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 113 No Banking institutions of a national character are established. The banks of the Union are generally joint stock companies, with fixed capitals, incorporated by the respective states. They are all banks of issue, and their notes form the general circulating medium. The specie currency consists of gold, silver, and copper coins. The gold is in pieces of the denominations of double eagles or $20, eagles, $10, half eagles, quarter eagles, and dollar pieces. The silver is in dollars, half dollars, quarters, dimes and half dimes. The copper coins are cents and half cents. The great bulk of the specie currency is in foreign coin. The Mint of the United States is located at Philadelphia. There are branches at New Orleans, La., Dahlonega, Ga., and at Charlotte, N. C. It is lawful for any person or persons to bring to the mint gold and silver bullion to be coined; and the bullion so brought is there assayed and coined as speedily as may be after the receipt thereof, and, if of the standard of the United States, free of expense to the person or persons by whom it has been brought. But the Treasurer of the mint is not obliged to receive, for the purpose of refining and coining, any deposit of less value than one hundred dollars, nor any bullion so base as to be unsuitable for minting. And there must be retained from every deposit of bullion below the standard, such sum as shall be equivalent to the expense incurred in refining, toughening and alloying the same; an accurate account of which expense, on every deposit, is kept, and of the sums retained on account of the same, which are accounted for by the Treasurer of the mint with the Treasurer of the United States. The coinage of the mint for 1850, amounted to $27,756,445 in gold, and $28,166,045 in silver. The total gold deposits were $33,150,000, of which $31,500,000 were from California. COINAGE OF THE MINT OF TIlE UNITED STATES, FROMI 1792 TO 1849. Years. Talue. Years. Value. I Years. Value. Years. Value. 1792-95 $ 453,541 80 1809 $ 884,752 53 1823.i 967.975 00 1887 81,2 9o,898 i) 1796 192,129 40 1810 1,155,868 50 1824 1,858,297 00 1838 4.206.540 00 1797 125,524 29 1811 1,108,740 95 1825 1,735,894 00 1839 1 3576;467 G61 1798 545,698 00 1812 1,115,219 50 1826 2,110,679 25 1840 3'4265632 50( 1799 645,906 68 1813 1,102,275 50 1827 3,024,342 32 1841 2,240.21 17 1800 571,335 40 1814 642,535 80 1828 1,741.381 24 1842 4,190,754 40 1801 510,956 37 1815 20,483 00 1829 2,306,875 50 1843 11,967,830 70 1802 516,075 83 1816 56,785 57 1830 3,155,620 00 1844 7, 87,767 52 1803 370,698 53 1817 647,267 50 1831 3,923,473 60 1845 5,668,595 54 1804 371,827 94 1818 1,345,064 50 1832 3.401.055 00 1846 6,633,965 00 X 1805 833,239 48 1819 1,425,325 00 1833 3,765;710 00 1847 22,657671 69 1806 801,084 00 1820 1,864,786 20 1834 7,388,423 00 1848 5.879,720 49 1807 1,044,595 96 1821 1,018,977 45 1835 5,668,667 00 1849 11,164,695 82 1808 982,055 00 1822 915,509 89 1836 7;764,900 00 Total.......................................................................... 162182,4 92 PROGRESS.- Scarcely twenty-five decades have passed since the first feeble colonies were planted on the soil, where now exists this great confederacy, which is presented to the world as the abode of liberty, and the seat of a mighty empire of freemen. In the few short years of its existence, it seems to have accomplished the work of ages. In estimating this progress for the last fifty years, we find that in 1800 the population of the United States was 5,300,000; it is now upwards of 23,000,000; the number of states, then composing the Union, was 16; it is now 31; the territory then was 1,000,000 square miles; it is now 3,250,000; all of the present domain west of the Mississippi then belonged to France and 8 114 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Spain, and was an unbroken wilderness. Florida was owned by Spain, and there was not a single state on the Gulf of Mexico. In the West, there were no states but Kentucky and Tennessee, and these had spent most of their'feeble energies in bloody strife with a savage foe. Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and the western half of the state of New York were yet but hunting grounds, where the Indian roamed unmolested. Every branch of industry has made an advance corresponding to that in population. Agriculture has more than kept pace with the increased enlargement of territory, and we now not only supply the wants of our own large population, but have an immense surplus to ship to foreign lands. In 1800, the total value of all kinds of manufactures and products of industry, in the United States, hardly exceeded a hundred millions of dollars; in 1850, it amounted to full six hundred millions. In 1800, the domestic exports amounted to $31,840,000; in 1850, they amounted to $181,000,000. The exportation of cotton alone has increased from $5,000,000 to $70,000,000. The inland lake trade has increased from an amount too insignificant to be estimated, to the enormous value of $200,000,000 annually. The foreign marine is now barely inferior in extent and value to that of Great Britain. Fifty years ago, scarcely one of the present 5,000 miles of canal existed; and not one of the present 9,000 miles of rail-road and 16,000 miles of telegraph, was either known or dreamed of. In short, the rapid progress of this country, during the last half century, stands unparalleled in the world's history. Each individual state has a government for the regulation of its local and internal concerns, consisting of a governor, senate, and house of representatives, to which are reserved all the powers not expressly granted by the constitution to the general government. Without this provision a republican government could not probably be maintained over a country so widely extended. The states, though bearing a close general resemblance, differ in many of the details of their constitutions, as in the term during which the governor holds office, and the extent of his power, the terms for which the senators and representatives are elected, and for which the judges of the several courts are appointed, their salaries, &c. The territory of all the states is divided into counties, having courts of justice attached to gach, and officers for many local purposes, as maintaining the roads, providing for the poor, &c. In South Carolina and Louisiana, parishes answer to counties. In New England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and most of the states in the valley of the Mississippi, the counties are divided into townships, averaging 6 or 8 miles square, which form important civil districts and corporations: the inhabitants meet once a year or oftener for local purposes — the appointment of local officers and committees. In these primary assemblies, the inhabitants acquire habits of transacting public business, fitting them for legislation and government in national and local affairs. In these assemblies the affairs of the American revolution were frequently d.cussed and matured, by which the cause of freedom was extensively promoted. In Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, Kentucky and Tennessee, the counties form the smallest territorial division. The larger towns are incorporated as cities and boroughs, which have municipal governments. No country can hope successfully to maintain a government like that of the United States, unless the inhabitants have been prepared and educated UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 115 for freemen; and it is no slight preparation that is required. Without this, all attempts of the kind will be likely to result in anarchy or despotism. HISTORY. -The discovery of North America closely followed that of the Western Hemisphere in general. It was in 1492 that Columbus first landed in Hispaniola; and the century had not closed, when the two Cabots had explored the whole coast as high as Labrador.' The Spaniards, however, were the first who formed a settlement upon it, which was in Florida, in 1513, under Juan de Ponce, and they retained it till 1763, notwithstanding some bloody contests with the natives, and the rival efforts made by the French and English. It was in Virginia, and under the reign of Elizabeth, that the first effort was made by the English to establish colonies on these shores. Spain had already drawn all the brilliant prizes; but the active reign of Elizabeth, and the romantic enterprise of Sir Walter Raleigh (1584,) impelled the English towards Virginia; under which name, conferred by the virgin queen in allusion to her chosen state of life, was for a long time comprehended nearly all the Atlantic coast now held by the United States. But though Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh made or sent expeditions hither, and the latter actually planted a colony on the Roanoke, yet these earlier attempts proved unsuccessful, and there was no final settlement till the reign of James I., when, according to the custom of the age, two companies were formed, having a different sphere attached to each. To the one, called the London Company, which was composed of several persons of rank and officers of distinction, was granted the country lying between 340 and 410~ N. latitude; and to the other, called the Plymouth Company, the country lying between 38~ and 450 N. latitude. The colonies were to be managed by colonial councils, appointed by and under the direction of a general council at home. The first company accordingly despatched three small vessels, with 105 persons, by whom a settlement was made at a place which they called Jamestown, on the river Powhatan, or James river of the English colonists, on the 13th of May, 1607. They were soon involved, as usual, in deadly contest with the natives; Captain Smith the most efficient leader of the colony, was even taken prisoner and about to be put to death by King Powhatan, when his daughter, Pocahontas, with the humanity characteristic of her sex, interceded, and obtained for him life and liberty. The hand of the amiable Pocahontas was afterwards bestowed on a young English officer; and the two nations were placed on an amicable footing. This did not prevent many future contests and vicissitudes; but the colonies were continually augmented by new detachments, particularly of young females to serve as wives to the settlers; and notwithstanding many instances of misgovernment, their numbers rapidly increased. In 1621, the system of representative government was first established in America, by the new constitution then given to Virginia, providing for a governor and council appointed by the company, and a house of burgesses chosen by the freemen of the colony. But about that very time the Pilgrims were founding their little democracy on the rock of Plymouth. A party of Independents, who had fled to Holland to enjoy that religious liberty which was denied them in England, determined to settle themselves in the New World. By the treachery or a blunder of the master, their frail bark was steered to the inhospitable shores 116 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. of Cape Cod, where without charter or patent, from king or company, the emigrants organized themselves into a body politic, and having landed at New Plymouth, on the 11th of December, 1620, to the number of 105 men, women and children, established the first colony in New England. A new and more powerful colony was planted at Salem in 1628, and the charter having been transferred to this country in the year following, the constitution of a trading company was thus converted into the constitution of the little.republic of Massachusetts, which elected its own governors and made its own laws. Settlements were made in New IIampshire in 1623, at Providence in 1635, on Rhode Island in 1638, in Connecticut in 1636, at New Haven in 1638, and at a much earlier period on the coasts of Maine. The other states were successively founded on various occasions. Maryland owes its establishment to protestant persecution, after the Puritan party had gained the ascendancy. In 1632, Lord Baltimore, one of the leading Catholic noblemen, obtained for himself and his followers the grant of an extensive tract, which, after Queen Henrietta 5MIaria, he called Marylmnd. In 1663, soon after the restoration, a charter was obtained by Earl Granville, and several other English noblemen, for the settlement in a more southern territory, which, after the king, was called Carolina, and its capital Charleston. Locke was even employed to draw up the form of the constitution, which did not, however, succeed very well in practice. Carolina was divided, in 1728, into two governments, called North and South Carolina. In 1664 the English sway was extended over New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, which had been settled by the Dutch in 1614. Some Swedish settlements had been made on the Delaware in 1624; but New Sweden had been incorporated with the New Netherlands in 1655. In 1682, a colony of Quakers was brought over to Pennsylvania by Wm. Penn, a son of Admiral Penn, and a man whose beneficence has obtained for him the veneration of posterity. The wise and humane principle upon which this colony was founded, soon rendered it very flourishing. Lastly, Georgia was settled in 1732, by a number of public-spirited individuals, with the view of finding employment for multitudes of the distressed laboring classes. It suffered considerably by dissension until 1752, when it was taken under the immediate care of government, and placed on the same footing with the Carolinas. These settlements continued to flourish under the English sway. The native Indians were driven to a distance; the charters which had been wrested from the states by Charles II. and James II., were restored; and they advanced rapidly in culture and population. The war of 1756-63 was attended with signal triumphs of the British arms, and its issue added Florida and Canada to the empire, which thus comprised in one united mass all settlements of any value formed by Europeans in North America, with the exception of Mexico. But the pride of Britain, thus raised to its utmost height, was soon destined to experience a severe humiliation. The national existence of this country commenced July 4th, 1776, when the delegates from the states, in congress assembled at Philadelphia, declared that "the United States are, and of right ought to be, free and independent;" but long and arduous was the struggle by which they made good the declaration. With a population of about 3,000,000, nothing but stout hearts, indomitable perseverance, and a devoted patriotism, could have UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 117 enabled them-unprovided with the means of carrying on a war with one of the most powerful nations of the earth-to conduct the contest to a successful issue. The world has never produced but one Washington. He learned the art of war in the best possible school, that of leading the colonial militia against the French, particularly at Fort Du Quesne, (now Pittsburgh,) and displayed his youthful prowess in conducting the retreat of the shattered forces after the defeat of Braddock, which resulted from his neglect of the advice of Washington. The colonial militia were trained to the art of war in the protracted contest with the French in Canada, and the American officers often fought side by side with the British officers, to whom they were afterwards opposed in mortal combat. The latter were well acquainted with the prowess of many of the officers of the revolution. A British officer once asked Gen. Putnam, immediately before the commencement of the revolution, whether he did not think that 5000 veteran British forces were able to overrun the country. The reply was characteristic. He said "that he would say nothing of the men, but the women would beat all their brains out with their ladles and broomsticks before they had got half through the country." It was happy that Washington was made commander-in-chief of the American forces. Without the prudence, skill, and courage of this American Fabius, the contest would not probably have been conducted to a successful issue. Washington refused all compensation for his arduous services in the revolutionary war, excepting his expenses, of which he kept an accurate account. THE PRINCIPAL BATTLES FOUGHT DURING THE REVOLUTION, WITH THE RESULTS OF EACH, Are shown in the annexed Tabular Statement: Battles. Dates. Amer. Commanders. Loss. British Commanders. Loss. Lexington......... April 19th, 1775....... 84 Pitcairn.......... 24 Bunker Hill... June 17th, ". Prescott......... 453 Howe. 1,054 Flatbush......... Aug. 12th, 1776. Putnam............. 2,000 " 400 White Plains....... Oct. 28th, "....... Washington........00 " 00 Trenton....... Dec. 25th, "......... 9 Rahli... 1,000 Princeton....... Jan'y 3d, 1777......... 100 Mawhood........... 400 Bennington......... Aug. 16th, "....... Stark.............. 100 Baum.............. 600 Brandywine........ Sept. 11th, "....... Washington........ 1,200 Howe............. 00 Saratoga........... Oct. 17th, "....... Gates.............. 350 Burgoyne.......... 600 Monmouth......... June 25th, 1778....... Washington........ 230 Clinton........... 400 Rhode Island....... Aug. 29th, "...... Sullivan............ 211 Pigot. 260 Briar Creek........ Mar. 30th, 1779...... Ash................ 300 Prevost............. 16 Stoney Point....... July 15th, ". Wayne............. 100 Johnson.......... 600 Camden............ Aug. 16th, 1780.... Gates.............. 72 Cornwallis...... 375 Cowpens........... Jan. 17th, 1781.. Morgan............. 72 Tarleton........ 800 Guilford............ Mar. 15th, "....... Greene............. 400 Cornwallis.......... 623 Eutaw Springs..... Sept. 8th, ".............. 55 Stewart.............1,000 Yorktown.........: Oct. 19th, ". Washington......... Cornwallis......... t. This table is, of course, made independent of numerous skirmishes and battles of less importance. * 5,752 prisoners. t 7,073 prisoners. The war closed by the surrender of Cornwallis, at Yorktown, October 19, 1781. The whole amount of the expenses of the war, estimated in specie, was $135,193,703. The following table will show what proportion of the war was borne by the several states, to which the population, in round numbers, in 1790, is subjoined. It appears that Massachusetts and Connecticut, in proportion to their population, bore the largest share of the war. Vermont, not then ad mitted to the Union, bore her full proportion. 118 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. States. Continentals. Militia. Pop. in 1790. New IHamphire............................................... 12,197 2,093 141,000 lassachusetts (including Maine)............................ 67,907 15,155 475,000 Rhode Island.5,908 4,284 68,000 Connecticut.................................................. 31,959 7,792 235,000 New York................................................... 17,781 3,304 319,000 New Jersey................................................ 10,726 6,055 173,000 Pennsylvania............................................... 25,678 7,357 431,000 Delaware............................................ 2,386 367 51,000 Maryland.................................................... 13,912 4,127 216,000 Virginia..................................................... 26,678 5,620 455,000 North Carolina............................................... 7,263 293,000 South Carolina................................................ 6,417..... 133,000 Georgia..................................................... 2,679..... 53,000 Total................................................... 231,971 56,163 3,043,000 Provisional articles of peace, acknowledging the independence of the United States, were signed in Paris, November 30th, 1782, by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and Henry Laurens, on the part of the United States, and Mr. Fitzherbert and Mr. Oswald, on the part of Great Britain. The definitive treaty was signed September 30th, 1783. The confederation of the states,.which in time of the war had given to the resolves of Congress the force of law, now that the danger was passed, evinced that it was inadequate to the purposes of an efficient government, to meet the claims against the United States, and provide for the public debt, to raise a revenue, and to harmonize the jarring interests of the states. The difficulties which attended the formation of a new govern ment, though different in kind, were not less than those of achieving independence. But by a happy concurrence of circumstances, a constitution was at length formed and ratified, which has secured the unexampled prosperity and happiness of the people, and stands as an illustrious proof of the wisdom of the fathers of the revolution, and a model for other nations in the pursuit of freedom. On the second Monday of May, 1787, delegates from the several states assembled at Philadelphia, for the purpose of forming a constitution for the United States, and George Washington, who had led the American army, was called to preside over them. On the 17th of September, after a debate of four months, a constitution was adopted, and sent to the several states for their approval. It was provided that the ratification of nine states should be sufficient for its establishment. It was warmly debated by the state conventions, but finally adopted by them all. In several states amendments were recommended. The people were entering on an untried experiment, and they proceeded with extreme circumspection and caution. From the moment the proceedings of the general convention at Philadelphia transpired, the public mind was exceedingly agitated, and suspended between hope and fear, until nine states had ratified the plan of the federal government. Indeed the anxiety continued until Virginia and New York had acceded to the system. But this did not prevent the demonstration of their joy on the accession of each state. On the ratification in Massachusetts, the citizens of Boston, in the elevation of their joy, formed a procession in honor of the happy event. which was novel, splendid, and magnificent. This example was afterwards followed, and in some instan/ces improved upon, in Baltimore, Charleston, Philadelphia, New Haven, Portsmouth, and New York successively. Nothing could equal the beauty and grandeur of these exhibitions. A UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 119 ship was mounted on wheels, and drawn through the streets; mechanics erected stages, and exhibited specimens of labor in their several occupations as they moved along the road; flags with emblems, descriptive of all the arts and of the federal union, were invented and displayed, in honor of the government; multitudes in all ranks in life assembled to view the majestic scenes; while sobriety, joy and harmony, marked the brilliant exhibitions by which the Americans celebrated the establishment of their empire. It was equal to a second declaration of independence. The constitution was finally ratified by Congress, July 14th, 1788. On the first Wednesday of January, 1789, electors of president and vice president were appointed. The electors met on the first Wednesday of February, 1789, and General George Washington, "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen," was unanimously chosen president, and John Adams was chosen vice president. Gen. Washington was inaugurated as first president on the 30th of April, 1789, in the open gallery of the old Federal hall, in New York, where the Custom-house now stands; and never did a heartier shout proceed from the assembled multitude of freemen, than that which greeted the conclusioni of the ceremony with "' long live George Washington." And now, after an experiment of more than 62 years, after having seen how completely this constitution secures all the purposes of a good government, and at how cheap a rate, the fear and trembling which marked its commencement, are exchanged for steadfast confidence and unbounded hope; it stands like a light-house on the shore of the sea of liberty to direct the political voyager in his perilous course to the port of freedom. The authority and the boundaries of the several departments of the government are becoming daily better settled and understood, and it is striking a deeper root in the sentiments of the people. Every fourth of July gives increasing proof of the attachment of the citizens to their excellent form of government, and affords increasing evidence of its stability and perpetuity; and the citizen cannot be found who would be willing to exchange it for any other government on the earth. General Washington died suddenly, at his residence at Mount Vernon, December 14th, 1799, of an inflammation of the throat, aged 68 years; and the nation everywhere mourned for him as for a father, with a sincere and profound grief. She had but one such man to lose. Funeral orations were delivered in every considerable place in the country; and the respect of the world has added its sanction to the nation's tears. The thirteen colonies which achieved their independence by the seven years' war of the revolution, were situated on the eastern declivity of the Alleghanies, but the settlement of the rich country between the mountains and the Mississippi, formed a wonderful addition to the power and resources of the American confederacy. Kentucky first received a permanent colony in 1775, and in 1792 it was detached from the mother-state, and became an independent member of the Union. Tennessee soon after followed the example of Kentucky, and having been separated from North Carlina, was admitted into the Union in 1796. Meanwhile Vermont, who had long asserted her independence of New York, finally obtained a recognition of her claims in 1791. The country lying north of the Ohio having received a territorial government by the ordinance of 1787, began to be settled by a party of emigrants from New England in the following year; and in the course of fourteen 120 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. years, such was the the rapidity of its growth, the new state of Ohio was added (1802,) to the confederation. Indiana followed in 1816; Illinois in 1818; and Michigan in 1837; at which time the new territory of Wisconsin, embracing the country between Lake Michigan and the Missouri, was also constituted, and now forms the states of Wisconsin and Iowa. The western part of Georgia had already been divided into the two territories of Alabama and Mississippi, which, the former in 1819, and the latter in 1817, became independent states. The cession of Florida to the United States in 1820, gave this part of the country a frontier line on the sea, and facilitated and secured the intercommunication between the different sections of the republic. Maine having been detached from Massachusetts in 1820, the whole country east of the Mississippi is now organized into twenty-five states. The vast region beyond the Mississippi drew the attention of the Americans, as soon as their settlements began to press against that river. Here, as the old territory was peopled, an unbounded scope was afforded for fresh emigration and settlements. The purchase of Louisiana in 1804, from Bonaparte, who had taken it from Spain in exchange for a paltry principality in Italy, removed all obstacles to their views. The expeditions of Captains Lewis and Clark, (1804-6,) and that of Major Long, explored this territory as far as the Rocky Mountains, and even to a point on the Pacific, where the Columbia had already been discovered and named by American navigators in 1792; and Spain and Russia acquiesced in the whole being laid down as American. On the 4th of June, 1812, war was declared with Great Britain by the American Congress, by a vote in the House of Representative of 79 to 49; and in the Senate by a vote of 19 to 13. This war continued with varied success, until peace was concluded at Ghent, December 24th, 1814. A war between the United States and Mexico commenced in 1846. A rapid succession of brilliant victories, soon placed the capital and all the strongholds of Mexico in the hands of the Americans; but the power to dictate the terms of a peace was used with moderation. The government of the United States agreed to assume the payment of all the claims of its own citizens against lMexico, and to pay $15,000,000 for a boundary line beginning at the mouth of the Rio Grande, then up that stream to the southern boundary of New Mexico, then across to the river Gila and down to its mouth, with free navigation to the gulf of California, and thence across to the Pacific. The treaty was concluded May 30, 1848. The progressive increase of the dimensions of this country by conquest and cession, has been rapid. At the termination of the revolution, in 1783, it was confined to the territories east of the Mississippi and south of the Canadas. In 1803, it was augmented by the purchase from France, of Louisiana, a country now occupied by the thriving states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri and Iowa, and several territories, extending over many hundred of thousands of square miles. Florida was purchased of Spain in 1819, and at the same time the Spanish claim to Oregon, was transferred to the Republic. In 1845, Texas voluntarily annexed itself to the Union; and by the treaty of 1848, on the conclusion of the Mexican war, the extensive territories of New Mexico and Alta California were ceded to the United States. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. i21 ANTIQUITIES. - It is remarked by Volney, that North America, with the exception of Mexico, presents no vestiges of antiquity, no structure of hewn or sculptured stone, that attests the ancient existence of art among its inhabitants. The only apparent exception to this observation is the numerous works known under the name of mounds and fortifications, which are found scattered over the great Mississippi valley, from the St. Peter's to the delta of the Mississippi, and from the Mohawk and the Kenawlia to the plains of the Missouri. The former consist of conical elevations, from a few feet to 20, 30, or 50 feet high, sometimes solitary, sometimes clustered together in great numbers. The latter are oval, circular, square, or polygonal enclosures, often connected by long parallel embankments, and in some instances comprising an extent of from 20 to 30 acres. In general the walls of circumvallation are composed wholly of earth, but sometimes consist partly of stone loosely thrown together, and traces of cement and brick also appear to have been met with in some places. The mounds appear to have been used as places of burial; the enclosures for purposes of defence. The question as to the authors, origin, and objects of these works has, however, given rise to much speculation, and while some look upon them as proofs of the former existence of a more civilized population in this part of the world, others see in them nothing beyond what might have been executed by the savages who have possessed these regions ever since they have been known to Europeans, and some geological writers have denied that the mounds were artificial works. We would merely observe that the Indian tribes known to the whites had no traditions concerning the history or uses of these constructions. A gentlemen, long officially connected with the aborigines, observes in reference to these mounds: " We have no doubt that they were erected by the forefathers of the present Indians, as places of refuge against the ineursions of their enemies, and of security for their women and children, when they were compelled to leave them for the duties of the chase. And much of the mystery in which this subject has been involved, owes its origin to a want of due consideration of the circumstances and condition of the Indians. We do not reflect on their almost infinite division into petty tribes, and on their hereditary and exterminating hostilities. Nor have we reflected that the stone tomahawk is a very inefficient instrument for cutting timber into palisades, nor that if fire be adopted as a substitute, the process is tedious and laborious. These circumstances render it probable that the erection of the earthern parapet was the most economical and desarable mode in which the Indians could provide for the security of themselves, and of those who were most dear to them. And their migratory habits will sufficiently account for the number of these works, without resorting to the existence of a dense population, utterly irreconcileable with the habits of a people who have not yet passed the hunter state of life." The first publication of the " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," is devoted to the ancient monuments of the Mississippi Valley. The reader is referred to this elaborate work, as the result of extensive surveys and explorations; and embodying all the existing information in regard to the numbers, location and extent of these mysterious works. 122 STATE OF MAINE MAINE. AREA, 35,000 SQUARE RILES. POPULATION IN 1850, 582,026. The State of Maine is bounded on the northwest and north by Canada, east by New Brunswick and west by New Hampshire; and south by the Atlantic ocean. It is 236 miles long by 140 broad, and contains an area of 35.000 square miles. Maine is diversified, and has an uneven surface, but is not generally mountainous. On the western side of the State, east of the White moun tains in New Hampshire, an irregular chain of high lands commences, and passing north of the sources of the Kennebec and Penobscot, and south of the sources of Aroostook rivers, extends eastwardly to the eastern boundary of the United States, and terminates at an isolated peak denominated Mars Hill, 1683 feet high. Katahdin, between the east and west branches of the Penobscot, 5300 feet above tide water, is much the highest land in the State, and constitutes a part of the above range, if such it can be called. The rest of Maine is hilly, though the hills are not very elevated. The land on the sea coast, for the distance from it of from ten to twenty miles, is not generally very fertile; but further inland, its quality is greatly improved. In the north-western and south-eastern parts, the soil is light. Between the Penobscot and Kennebec rivers, is a tract of land not exceeded in fertility by the best portions of the United States. The prin cipal productions are grass, Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye, oats and flax The uncleared lands are of great extent, and furnish a vast amount of pine and other lumber, which in the form of masts, plank, boards and timber, is exported to a great extent. Lumber cut and sawed may be regarded as the staple production of the State, and is exported to the amount of about $10,000,000 annually. The State is well adapted to grazing, and the wool produced is estimated at $2,000,000 annually. Lime is manufactured, particularly at Thomaston and the vicinity, to the annual amount of $100,000. A fine building granite is found at Hallowell, and is extensively exported. The Hall of Justice in the city of New York, is constructed of it. Previously to the year 1807, the wars in Europe gave to the United States much of the carrying trade of the world, and Maine engaged largely in commerce, and neglected her lands for this superior source of wealth. But when the embargo, non inter course, and war crippled her commerce, her agricultural resources were developed. Cattle and sheep are raised in great perfection. Maine produces much and good wheat. The crop of Indian corn sometimes suffers from the shortness of the season. Among the fruits, apples, pears, plums and melons succeed well. Maine has a sea-coast of over 230 miles, indented by numerous bays, and protected by numerous islands; and has more good harbors than any other State in the Union. Ships are extensively built, not only for their own use, but for a foreign market. The fisheries employ many of the inhabitants, and are not only a source of wealth, but are a nursery of seamen. Maine, in point of shipping, is the fourth State in the Union. STATE OF MAINE. 123 The climate of Maine, though subject to great extremes of heat and cold, is generally healthy. The cold of winter, though severe, is steady, and much less trying to health than sudden changes. Near the sea-shore, the heat of summer is greatly tempered by the sea breezes. The season of vegetation, at its greatest length, extends from April 21st, to October 16th; though it does not continue in its vigor for more than three months and a half. Maine has a number of fine rivers. The Penobscot is 250 miles long, and is navigable for large ships to Hampden, 46 miles from the ocean. The tide here rises 7 or 8 feet, and greatly facilitates the entrance and departure of vessels. The Kennebec is 250 miles long, and is navigable for large ships 12 miles to Bath, for sloops of 150 tons, 40 miles to Hal lowell, and 2 miles farther to Augusta for vessels of 100 tons, and for boats to Waterville, 18 miles above Augusta. The Androscoggin rises in New Hampshire, but runs chiefly in Maine. Its numerous falls afford great water power. It enters the Kennebec, 20 miles from the ocean. It is computed that one-tenth of the surface of the State is covered with water. In the interior are many ponds and lakes. The largest, Moosehead, is 50 miles long and 10 or 12 broad. Umbagog, which lies on the border of New Hampshire, is 18 miles long and 10 broad. The largest island of Maine is Mount Desert, in Frenchman's bay, and is 15 miles long and 12 broad. Long island, Deer island, and Fox island, are on the east side of Penobscot bay. There are many others. Penobscot bay is large and open, being 30 miles long and 18 wide, at its mouth. Casco bay extends for 20 miles between Cape Elizabeth and Cape Small Point. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850, BY COUNTIES. York.............60,094 Washington.......88,711 Somerset..........35,591 Piscataquis....... 14,735 Cumberland....... 79,547 Kennebec........62,524 Penobscot..........63 094 Franklin......... 20,027 Lincoln.......... 74,803 Oxford............ 89,766 Waldo.............47,229 Aroostook.........12,533 Hancock...........34,372 The most commercial places in the State, are Portland, (city,) on Casco bay, the third or fourth in commercial importance in New England; Bangor (city) on the Penobscot, Bath, Hallowell and Augusta on the Kennebec, Thomaston on St. George river, Belfast on a branch of Penobscot bay, Wiscasset on a bay at the mouth of the Sheepscot, Wells, Gardiner, Brunswick, Frankfort, Prospect, Bucksport, Camden, Castine and Eastport. The value of domestic exports for 1850, was $1,279,393; of imports, $721,000. The principal colleges are Bowdoin college at Brunswick, named in honor of its principal benefactor, Hon. James Bowdoin, founded in 1794, and went into operation in 1802; Waterville college, under the direction of the Baptists, founded at Waterville in 1820; Bangor theological seminary, at Bangor, founded in 1816; the Wesleyan seminary, under the direction of the Methodists, founded at Readfield in 1822. Common Schools, for the year ending April 1, 1850: Number of persons in districts returned, (about ~ of the towns,) between 4 and 21, 194,095; average attendance in summer, 110,609; in winter, 102,485. Number of school districts returned, 3,350; of school houses, 3,063; average length of schools for the year, 19.2 weeks. Whole number of teachers, 5,989, (2,454 males, 3,535 females; ) average wages of males, 124 STATE OF MAINE. $16.66 a month; of females, $5.84. Amount raised by taxes for sup port of schools, $221,923.55, being $52,384.23 more than the lowest amount required by law. School fund, $350,000. The principal religious denominations are the Methodists, Congregation-'alists and Baptists. There are also Episcopalians, Catholics, Unitarians and Urniversalists. The Catholics have 31 churches in the State. The militia of the State amounts to 44,665; the Governor is Command er-in-chief. Shakers, Quakers, Judges of the Supreme Court, and minis ters of the gospel, are exempt from bearing arms. The finances of the State are in a flourishing condition. The lasi annual report of the State Treasurer gives the following exhibit: Receipto for the year ending April 30, 1850, $525,688; expenditures, $478,802. PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE. Agricultural societies,... 2,202 90 Pay of the Legislature,.. $41,690 00 County taxes,.. 24,479 92 Expenes of the Executive,...,007 93 Furniture and repairs,... 1,100 00 Salaries,. 25,163 02 Contingent fund of Treasurer, 1,000 00 Clerks 2,800 00 State Prison,. 3,300 00 Roll of accounts,.....13,044 30 Public debt paid,.... 124,2.50 00 Printing, binding, and stationery, 2,500 00 Interest on debt,. 61,574 29 Costs in criminal prosecutions,..23,578 66 Temporary loan, 2,35. 820 GO Officers of the State Prison, 4,756 26 Insane Hospital,. 1,519 60 CHIEF SOURCE OF INCOME. Deaf, dumb, and blind,... 9,750 09 Direct taxes,. 190,976 60 School fund, No. 16,. 24435 56 Land-office, 132.340 95 Teachers' Institute,.... 2,600 00 Permanent school fund,. 2009 30 Board of Education,. 785 00 School fund, No. 17, 27,230 27 Penobscot Indians fund,. 4,187 33 County taxes,.14,508 14 Agricultural products to Indians, 219 80 Interest on U. S. loan,.8,100 00 Indian annuities,. 1,500 00 Premium on U. S. stock sold, 7,725 00 State roads and bridges,... 1.800 00 Interest, 3,678 08 Militia pensions,..... 2,123 00 Bank dividends,.700 00 Maine Reports,.1,560 00 Duties on commission. 2,170 00 Eastman's Digest of do.,... 1,875 00 The resources of the State are estimated at $819,267; whole amount of public debt, $854,750; interest on the same, about $55,000. In November, 1849, there were 32 banks in operation, with a capital stock of $3,148,000; circulation, $2,136,394; deposits, $1,076,288; profits undivided, $216,913; loans, $5,044,906; due from other banks, $678,355; foreign bills, $171,614; specie, $388,219. Average rate of dividends, 8 per cent. Average expenses per bank, exclusive of rents, $1,950. The works of internal improvement which have been executed in this state, are of some extent. The Cumberland and Oxford Canal, which was completed in 1829, connects Portland with Sebago Lake, 202 miles; and by a lock on Songo river, the navigation is extended to Brandy and Long ponds, a further distance of 31 miles. The whole distance is 512 miles. The canal is 34 feet wide at the surface and 18 at the bottom, with 26 wooden locks; its construction cost $250,000. The Bangor,' Orono, and Oldtown Railroad, completed in 1836, is 12 miles long, and connects the three places. The Portland, Saco, and Portsmouth Railroad was incorporated in 1837, and with the Eastern Railroad, connects with Boston. Its length is 52 miles, and was completed at the cost of $1,250,279. Several other lines have been constructed, and there have been projected lines to connect the British provinces with the eastern coast of New England. See list of Railroads in United States, on page 101. The government consists of a Governor, Senate, and House of Representatives. The Governor is elected by the people, and holds his office STATE OF MAINE. 125 for one year from the second Wednesday in May. He has a qualified veto, overcome by two-thirds of each house. A council of seven persons to advise the governor, is elected annually by the joint ballot of the legislature. The senate consists of 31 members, elected annually by the people. The house of representatives consists of 151 members, elected annually by the people. The right of suffrage is possessed by every male citizen of the United States, of 21 years of age and upwards, excepting paupers, persons under guardianship, and Indians not taxed, who have resided in the state for three months next preceding an election, The election must be by written ballot. The judiciary is vested in a supreme judicial court, and such other courts as the legislature shall from time to time establish. The judges are appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the council, and hoid their offices for 7 years. In a similar manner are appointed the attorney general, the sheriffs, coroners, registers of probate, and notaries public. The first permanent settlement in Maine was made in Bristol, as early as 1625, at Pemaquid Point. In an old fort, once called William Henry, and afterwards Frederick George, built of stone in 1692, and taken by the French in 1696, "are found gravestones of a very early date, and streets regularly laid out and paved, in the vicinity of the fort. On the side of Pemaquid river, opposite to the fort, tan pits have been discovered, the planks of which remain in tolerable preservation, and in other places coffins have been dug up, which bear indubitable evidence of a remote antiquity." In 1635, the district was granted by the British crown to Sir Ferdinando Gorges, and he appointed a governor and council. In 1647, a government was established by the settlers. In 1652, the state of Massachusetts purchased the territory of the heirs of Gorges for $5,334. Ii 1691, it was incorporated with Massachusetts, by a charter of William and Mary, and continued under its jurisdiction until it became an independent state. It had long a sufficient population to become a state, and efforts were made for this purpose in 1785, 1786, and 1802. The inhabitants were averse to a separation. But in 1819, a constitution was formed and adopted, and in 1820, it was admitted into the Union as a sovereign state. AUGUSTA, the capital of the state, lies on both sides of the Kennebec river, 43 miles from its mouth, and at the head of sloop navigation; latitude 440 19' north, and longitude 69~ 47' west. Population 10,000. The two portions of the town are united by a handsome stone bridge. The city is regularly laid out, and has many elegant dwellings. It contains the state house, court house, jail, United States arsenal, and several hospitals and churches. The state house is situated on an eminence, a little south of the city, on the west side of the river. Its central part is 84 feet long and 56 feet deep, with two wings, each 34 feet long by 54 deep. It has a Doric portico of eight granite columns, one stone each, 21 feet high, and weighing 10 tons. The dome and cupola are handsome structures. Before it is a spacious park, ornamented with walks and trees. The United States arsenal, on the east side of the river, is a large and elegant stone edifice, and the Lunatic Asylum is a fine granite building, with wings, and is surrounded with 70 acres of ground. It is also on the east side of the river. The High School is a brick edifice, 65 by 50 feet, two stories high. Half a mile above the city is a splendid dam across the river, with locks 126 STATE OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. to facilitate navigation. The cost, of this great work was between $300, 000 and $400,000. The growth of the place has been rapid since it be. came the seat of government. The city of Portland, which is the largest and most important town of the state, is finely situated on an elevated peninsula, projecting into Casco bay. It is well laid out and neatly built. The harbor is deep, safe, spacious, easily accessible, and always open. The shipping belonging to the port amounts to about 140,000 tons. Population 26,819. The city of Bangor, at the head of the navigation of the Penobscot river, 60 miles from the sea, communicates with an extensive interior country by means of the wide-spreading branches of the Penobscot, and possesses on the falls, immediately above the town, every facility for manufacturing purposes. Population, 14,441. It is the seat of a Theological Seminary, and, as a whole, is one of the pleasantest situated and most elegantly built cities in the Union. Its commerce is extensive, and its coasting trade superior to most of the northern ports. NEW HAMPSHIRE. AREA, 8,030 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION IN 1850, 318,000. This state is bounded on the north by Lower Canada; east by Maine; south-east by the Atlantic ocean; south by Massachusetts; and west by Vermont, the Connecticut river separating the two states. It has a seacoast of 18 miles. It is 168 miles long, and from 19 to 90 miles broad; having an area of 8,030 square miles. The Atlantic shores of New Hampshire are in most places but a sandy beach, and bordering upon them are extensive salt marshes. They are penetrated by numerous creeks and coves which accommodate vessels of small size, but with the exception of Portsmouth, at the mouth of the Piscataqua, there is no harbor sufficient for merchantmen. For twenty or thirty miles from the coast the country is either level or variegated with small hills and vallies. Beyond this the hills increase in size, and in many parts of the state swell into lofty mountains, particularly in the north and along the height of land between the Merrimack and the Connecticut. The highest summits between these rivers are Grand Monadnock, near the southwest corner of the state, which is 2,354 feet above the level of the sea; Sunapee mountain, near the lake of the same name, and Mooseheloc, still further north, the height of which is estimated at 4,636 feet. But the White mountains are more celebrated than either of these. They lie about thirty miles north of lake Winnipiseogee, and with the exception of the Rocky mountains, are the loftiest in the United States. Mount Washington, the highest summit, is 6,428 feet high. The mountains, lakes, vallie6 and cataracts of New Hampshire abound with sublime and beautiful scenery, and have acquired for the state the title of " the Switzerland of America." The White mountains, though not an uninterrupted range, are sometimes regarded as a continuation of the Alleghanies. The "Notch" in these STATE OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 127 mountains is regarded as a great natural curiosity, being in some places not more than 22 feet wide, with lofty precipices on both sides, and affording some of the wildest and grandest scenery in nature. A road passes through this " Notch," being the only place in which the mountains can be passed. By this road the products of northern New Hamphire and the north-east part of Vermont find a market at Portland, in the state of Maine; and so important is this communication regarded by the state, that its legislature has frequently made grants for its improvement. The other more elevated peaks in this state are Mount Adams, 5,960 feet high; Mount Jefferson, 5,860; Mount Madison, 5,620; Mount Monroe, 5,510; Mount Franklin, 5,050; Mount Pleasant, 4,920; andthe Kearsarge mountains, 2,460 feet above the level of the sea. The soil of New Hamspire is generally fertile. The intervales on the large rivers the richest and best fitted for tillage, but the uplands having a warm moist soil, are best fitted for grazing and pasturage. Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats and flax are produced, and the pork, beef, mutton, cheese and butter are largely exported. The natural growths are the oak, elm, birch, maple, pine and hemlock. Sugar is extensively made from the hard maple trees: the amount, as estimated by the Commissioner of Patents for 1847, was 2,225,000 pounds. New Hampshire enjoys a very healthy climate, and the weather is generally serene. In summer the heat is great, sometimes rising to 95~, and the winters, during which the thermometer sometimes marks 15~ below zero, are often very severe. These extremes, however, seldom occur, and are of short duration. In the neighborhood of the White Mountains, the peaks of which are almost always covered with snow, the winters are excessively cold, but they temper the air and render summer delightful and cool. Longevity of the inhabitants is notorious in this state, and it is not unfrequent to find persons enjoying good health at the age of 100 years and upwards. The cold weather sets in about the middle of September and continues till May; the severity of winter, however, does not set in before November, from which to the opening of spring, the country is clothed in a thick mantle of snow, and the rivers frozen up from their sources. Among the beautiful lakes of this state are Lake Umbagog, on the eastern state line, and Winnipiseogee, near the centre, which is a highly picturesque body of water, twenty-two miles long, and contains a number of romantic islets. The country around is mountainous, and abounds in the most exquisite scenery. Squam Lake lies a little northward, and Lake Sinapee to the south-west, running between the Merrimack and Connecticut. The Androscoggin River rises in Lake Umbagog, and after a northerly course of twenty miles, turns to the east and passes into Maine. The Piscataqua is the boundary between this state and Maine from its source to its mouth, and in the first part of its course is called Salmon Fall River. The Merrimack rises in the White Mountains, near the sources of the Saco, and running south through the centre of the state, passes into Massachusetts, where it turns and runs in a north-easterly direction and falls into the Atlantic. The Connecticut rises in the highlands which separate this state from Canada, and passing through the lake of the same name, and running south between Vermont and New Hampshire, passes into Massachusetts. The principal tributaries of the Connecticut, commencing at the 128 STATE OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. south, are Ashuelot, which empties itself near the south-west corner of the state; Sugar River, which is the outlet of the Sunapee Lake; Lower Ammonoosuck, which rises in the White Mountains, near the sources of the Merrimack, and falls into the river near Bath, and Upper Ammonoosuck, which empties itself at Northumberland. The principal tributaries to the Merrimack from the west, are the Nashua, which comes from Massachusetts and empties itself near the southern boundary of the state; the Cootoocook, which empties itself at Concord; and Baker's River, which rises in Mooseheloc mountain, and empties itself at Plymouth. The tributaries from the east, are Winnipiseogee River, the outlet of the lake, and Squam River, which is the outlet of Squam'ake. The principal branches of the Piscataqua are the Swamscot or Exeter and Cocheco rivers, both of' which join it near its mouth. The Isle of Shoals, eight in number, lie in the ocean eleven miles southeast of Portsmouth. A part belong to Maine, and part to New Hampshire. They consist of barren rocks, and are inhabited by a few fishermen. The State of New Hampshire possesses many remarkable peculiarities, which are considered as natural curiosities. The "Notch" has been adverted to before. Bellows' Falls are in the Connecticut river, at Walpole. The whole descent of the river in the space of a hundred yards, is fortyfour feet. There are several pitches, one above another, at the highest of which a large rock divides the stream into two channels, each about ninety feet wide. When the water is low, the eastern channel is dry, being crossed by a bar of solid rock, and the whole stream falls into the western channel, where it is contracted to the breadth of 16 feet, and flows with astonishing force and rapidity. The White mountains are frequently visited by travellers. Mount Washington is usually ascended from the south east. After climbing the sides of the mountain for some distance, the forest trees begin to diminish in height, till at the elevation of about 4,000 feet, a region of dwarfish evergreens surrounds the mountain with a formidable hedge a quarter of a mile in thickness. After this, the bald part of the mountain, which is very steep, and consists of naked rocks, presents a scene of desolation; but the labors of the aspirant are recompensed, if the sky be serene, by a most noble and extensive prospect. On the south east there is a view of the Atlantic, the nearest part of which is distant 65 miles in a right line; on the south, Winnipiseogee lake lies in full view; on the south west the lofty summit of Mooseheloc, and far away in the verge of the horizon is the Grand Monadnock. The barren rocks, which extend a great distance in every direction from the summit, add a melancholy cast to the grandeur of the scene. The geological survey of this state resulted in the discovery of extensive copper and iron mines. A copper mine in Coos county, yields an ore of 33 per cent. of pure copper. New Hampshire also abounds in granite and marble, with many other mineral substances of equal value. POPULATION-CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. Rockingham........ 49,215 Cheshire.......3.. 0,141 Belknap.......... 17,722 Grafton...........42,348 erria 40,346 Sulivan..........19376 Carroll............20164 Coos..............11,868 Hillsborough......57,480 Strafford..........29,859 The principal literary institution in the state is Dartmouth college, at Hanover, founded in 1769, and named after one of its earliest and most STATE OF NEW ABMPSHIE. 129 generous benefactors, the Earl of Dartmouth. It has a medical school attached. The library contains 16,500 volumes. The college has good chemical and philosophical apparatus, and a valuable anatomical museum. The Gilmanton Theological Seminary was founded in 1835, under the direction of the Congregationalists, and the Baptists have a Theological school at New Hampton, founded in 1825. In the latter, there are two professors, and the library contains about 2,000 volumes. In New Hamp shire, the interest of a State Literary Fund of $64,000, and $19,000 derived from a tax on banks, are appropriated to the support of schools; besides these, about $90,000 are annually raised by a direct tax for the same object. In 1850, there were in the state 73 academies, with 6,000 students, and 2,167 common and primary schools, with 78,863 scholars. The Baptists, Congregationalists, and Methodists are the prevailing religious denominations. Sunday schools, attached to the several churches, are very numerous and well conducted. State of the Finances, from the Treasurer's report: Total receipts for the year ending June 5, 1850,;172,056 55; total expenditures for the same period, $167,011 63; balance in the treasury, $5,044 92. CHIEF SOURCES OF INCOME. Pay of Council..........................$ 885 40 Balance in Treasury, June 6, 1849.........$ 6,126 80 Pay of Senate............................ 1,078 60 Railroad tax............................ 49,414 98 Pay of Representatives................... 20,127 40 Money borrowed......................... 51,400 00 For money borrowed..................... 58,145 83 civil commissions, (fees)................. 175 00 State Printers......2..9......... 2,961 50 State tax for 1849, and previous years.....59,547 21 Publishing laws.......................... 380 50 Allowance by U. States of Indian Stream N. H. Asylum for Insane, (building)....... 15,000 00 claim................................ 5,362 56 Perkins Institution — Education of Blind.. 750 00 American Asylum - Education of Deaf and PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF XPENDITURE. Dumb.......................... 2,075 00 lSaaries, Executive and Judiciary........ $19,018 85 Officers' School of Instruction............. 7,731 20 The condition of the banks in June, 1850, was as follows: Capital actually paid in, $2,228,950; real estate, $47,388 01; debts due the banks,,$3,796,496 38; debts due from directors, $44,877 28; specie, $128,686 61; bills of other banks, $56,141 24; deposits in the banks, $381,528 00; deposits in other banks for the redemption of bills, $333,622 58; circulation, $1,628,105. The whole number of banks in the state is twenty two. There are some works of internal improvement in New Hampshire, which are important to the interests of the state. The Eastern railroad extends from the Massachusetts line to Portsmouth, 16 miles, where it passes into Maine, and is continued to Portland; and the Nashua and Concord railroad extends between the two places 35 miles, and connects with the Boston and Lowell line. The former was built at a cost of $494,000, and the latter at $1,042,718. Several other important lines are in operation. The navigation of the Merrimack has been improved by dams, locks, and short canals. By means of the Middlesex canal, there is a boatable communication between Boston and Concord. Several magnetic telegraphs traverse the state. The constitution of New Hampshire was adopted in February, 1792. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives, elected annually. With a few exceptions, all the male adult population has a right to vote. There are twelve senators, elected from districts set off in proportion to public taxes paid. Each town of 150 rateable polls elects a representative, and every 300 additional polls entitle the town to another 9 130 STATE OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. representative. The executive is exercised by a governor, also chosen annually. He is assisted by a council of five members. The governor, with the consent of this council, appoints all judicial and other state officers, except county treasurers and registers, which are elected by the people. The judiciary consists of the superior court of judicature, circuit courts, court of common pleas, and courts of probate; the latter two are county courts, but must be presided over by a justice of the superior court. The principal public institutions are the state prison and lunatic asylum, at Concord. The state's prison supports itself by convict labor. The militia of the state numbers 28,762. The expenses of the government are light, and the inhabitants, as a consequence, do not suffer from taxation. New Hampshire was granted in 1622 to John Mason and Ferdinando Gorges, and the first settlements were begun in 1623, at Dover and Portsmouth. In 1641, it was annexed to Massachusetts, but in 1679 it again became a separate province. New Hampshire, with the other New England states, in 1686, was placed under the government of Sir Edmund Andros; the union with Massachusetts was revived in 1689, and continued until 1692. From 1699 to 1702, it was united to Massachusetts and New York. In the latter year it was wholly under Massachusetts, but in 1741 a final separation took place. After the revolutionary war, to which it raised a subsidy of 12,409 men, it formed a constitution, and has since been an independent member of the Union. The English authority was extinguished in 1775, and in 1776, a temporary government was established, which continued during the war, a president being annually elected. CONCORD, the capital, lies on both sides of the Merrimack, which is span ned by two bridges. Latitude 43~ 12' 20" north, and longitude 71~ 29 west. The city lies chiefly on two streets, one of which extends nearly two miles. Population 8,584. The public buildings are a state house, a court house, jail, state prison, &c.; there are also numerous churches and many elegant private buildings. The state house is a beautiful structure of hewn granite, 126 feet long, and 49 feet wide, with a projection of four feet on each front, and cost over $80,000. It is surmounted by a fine cupola. The hall of the representatives, and senate chamber, are spacious and elegant rooms. By locks and canals around the falls of the Merrimack, and the Middlesex canal, a valuable communication exists with Boston; there is also a communication by railroad. Turkey pond, containing an area of 700 acres, and Long pond, 500 acres, are in the immediate vicinity on the west side of the city. Portsmouth, near the mouth of the Piscataqua, is the largest and most commercial town in the state. Its harbor is unsurpassed in the world, being safe, easily defended, and having forty feet of water at the lowest tides. It is completely land locked, and protected, by several large islands, from the winds. The town is neatly built, and has a population of 9,739, who carry on the coasting trade and fisheries with some activity, and prosecute some branches of manufactures. The navy station of Kittery, is on the opposite shore of the river. Portsmouth was first settled in 1623, under the auspices of Mason and Gorges. It has several times been destroyed by fire. The other principal places are Dover, Nashua, Keene, Exeter, Manchester, Peterborough, Walpole, Claremont, Gilmanton, Meredith, Hanover, and Haverhill. STATE OF VERMONT. 131 VERMONT. AREA 8,000 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION IN 1850, 315,346. This state is bounded north by Lower Canada; east by the Connecticut river; south by Massachusetts; and west by New York, from which it is separated by lake Champlain. It is 158 miles long, and 61 wide, and contains an area of 8,000 square miles. The surface of Vermont is hilly or mountainous. A few townships along the margin of lake Champlain may be regarded as level, extending from 5to 10 miles from it; but otherwise the surface is generally uneven, consisting of hills and valleys, alluvial flats, gentle acclivites, elevated plains, and lofty mountains. The range of the Green mountains, so named by the French from the evergreens which cover them, and which have given name to the state, extend quite through it from north to south. From the line of Massachusetts to the southern part of Washington county, it constitutes a lofty and unbroken range, keeping nearly a middle course between Connecticut river on the east and lake Champlain on the west, and dividing the waters which fall into each. Though the passage across the mountains in this part is arduous, yet, by the construction of good roads, and a judicious location of them, it is much less so than formerly. In the southern part of Washington county, the Green mountains are separated into two ranges. The highest of these ranges passes west of the middle of the state to Canada line. The highest peaks lie in this range, which are Camel's Hump, generally called Camel's Rump, 4,188 feet high, and the Chin, or Mansfield mountain, 4,279 feet high; and it is remarkable that the whole is cloven down to its base, admitting a passage for Winooski or Onion river through it, the mountain approaching oftentimes so near the river as scarcely to admit a road along its banks, and affording much sublime and romantic scenery. The other range strikes off much more to the east, extending also to near the Canada line. It is called the height of land, dividing the waters which fall into Connecticut river from those which, in the north part of the state, flow into lake Champlain and lake Memphremagog. Though having no peaks as high as those of the western range, it is more uniformly elevated, yet with so gentle an acclivity as to admit of easy roads over it in various places; while the western range admits of roads across it chiefly where it is penetrated by the Winooski, Lamoile, and Missisque rivers, though in its northern part it becomes less formidable. The climate is healthy, though the winters are severe. The ordinary extreme range of the thermometer, is from 920 above to 22~ below zero of Fahrenheit, though in some instances it has risen above and fallen below this. Snow generally lies from December to March, and is often 4 feet deep upon the mountains. It is, on an average, several degrees colder on the eastern than on the western side of the mountains. Lake Champlain is generally not wholly frozen over, until about the first of February. The most considerable rivers are on the west side of the mountains, and flow into lake Champlain. They are, Otter creek, 85 miles long, and 132 STATE OF VERMONT. navigable for sloops 6 miles, to Vergennes; Onion, or Winooski river, which is 80 miles long, and enters the lake 4 miles north of the village of Burlington; Lamoile, which is 70 miles long; and Missisque, which is about the same length. Small boats may penetrate these rivers to their lower falls; and they have all fine sets of falls, which afford extensive water power. The principal rivers on the east side of the mountains flow into Connecticut river; they are Deerfield, West, White, Black, and Pasumsic. Lake Champlain lies partly in New York, but more than half of it is within the limits of Vermont. It extends, in a straight line, 102 miles, from Whitehall to the 45th degree of north latitude, and thence about 24 miles to St. John's, in Canada. This lake is connected by a canal, 64 miles long, to the Hudson river, near Albany, which also forms a junction with the Erie canal. This lake contains about 567 square miles, two thirds of which lie within the limits of Vermont. Lake Memphremagog is 40 miles long, and 7 or 8 in width, lies on the north line of the state, one third being in Vermont and about two thirds in Canada. Lake Bombazine on the west border of Castleton, and lake Dunmore in Salisbury, are considerable bodies of water. The islands of lake Champlain are considerably numerous, and some of them are large, fertile and populous. The principal of these islands, with the peninsula of Alburgh, constitute Grand Isle county. There are various harbors in Vermont, on lake Champlain, the principal of which are St. Albans, Burlington, Vergennes, and some others. POPULATION - CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. Bennington...... 18,587 Addison........26,552 Caledonia..........23,599 Lamoille.......10,955 Windhbm........28,972 Orange... 27,285 Franklin..........28.705 Essex............. 4,6% Windsor........... 38,6521 Chittenden.......29,053 Orleans.......... 15,707 Grand Isle......... 4140 Rutland..... 83,071 Washington.,...... a,649 The soil of Vermont is generally fertile, but better adapted to grazing than to grain. Throughout the western border of the state, near lake Champlain, the soil is well adapted to wheat, and spring wheat succeeds well in most parts of the state. Indian corn is produced most extensively on the margins of the streams, but does well in other parts. Even on the Green mountains are fine grazing farms. The productions of the state are wheat, rye, Indian corn, barley, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, peas, and flax. The natural growth of the soil east of the mountains is birch, beech, maple, a8h, elm, and butternut; and west of the mountains the growth of hardwood is intermixed with pine and other evergreens. The state is capable of raising sufficient grain for home consumption, but is particularly distinguished for its excellent pasturage, giving subsistence to numerous flocks of sheep and herds of cattle. Vermont is more of an agricultural than a manufacturing or commercial state. The foreign commerce is very limited. The exports for 1849, of domestic produce, amounted to $300,000; the foreign imports, to $147,000. A capital of about $64,000,000 is employed in manufacturing industry. The ordinary crops may be estimated at 700,000 bushels of wheat; 2,000,000 bushels of Indian corn; 4,000,000 bushels of oats; 8,000,000 bushels of potatoes; 350,000 bushels each of rye and buckwheat. Her miscellaneous products are 4,000,000 lbs. of wool; 5,000,000 lbs. of maple sugar; besides large quantities of hay and hops, and Some silk, hemp, and flax. Her dairy products are valued at $2,000,000 annualuy. STATE OF VERMONT. 133 The exports consist of beef, pork, butter, cheese, live cattle, and pot and pearl ashes. The trade east of the mountains is chiefly with Boston and Hartford; and west of the mountains, to New York, Montreal and Quebec, to which it has a ready access through lake Champlain, the Champlain canal, and the Hudson and St. Lawrence rivers. Several extensive lines of railroads are being carried out, in this state, to communicate with other New England states, and the British provinces, For the names and extent of these, the reader is referred to the table of railroads in the United States. The length of post roads in this state is 2,600 miles. The principal religious denominations are Baptists, Congregationalists, and Methodists. The Baptists had in 1850, 112 churches, and 8,000 members; the orthodox Congregationalists, 194 churches and 20,000 members; the Episcopal Methodists number about 8,000. There are three colleges in the state. In 1850, the number of school districts was 2,647; number of scholars, 95,616; average of wages paid male teachers per month, $13 78; average of wages paid female teachers per month, $5 60; whole wages for males, $65,896 54; for females, $58,475 29; number of weeks of school by males, 19,125; by females, 41,721; whole wages to teachers, $124,371 83; cost for wages, board, and fuel, $204,695 27; public money divided for the support of schools, $74,180 15. The school fund was abolished in 1845, to pay the state debt. The number of banks in 1850, was 23; capital paid in, $1,829,395: circulation, $2,321,808. Vermont has no state debt. Receipts into the treasury, in 1849, was $119,286; expenditures, $111,056. PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE.: Financial disbursements..................$ 3,118 10 Expenses of the Legislature.............. $27651 32 PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF REVENUE. Executive expenses — Salaries............. 2,759 77 In Triasury, Sept. 1, 1848................ 3,S: 40 Judiciary, and prosecuting crime......... 51,634 08 Fom taxes....................... 87,13Ai 46 Military expenses................. 1,299 03 Safety and School Funds.......... 2,864 89 Infirm poor, insane, and deaf and dumb... 8,289 78 Pedlers', &e., licenses........... 3,165 00 Common Schools.. 3,698............................. 2 L700 00 Geological Survey..........., 133 33 State Attorneys................ 4,178 86 Agricultural Societies, &c................ 1,938 68 Court fees by Clerks...................... 4,580 05 The first constitution of this state was formed in 1777. The present constitution was formed July 4th, 1793, and has since been amended. The governor is elected annually by the people. He must be a citizen of the United States, and have resided in the state for four years next preceding his election. The lieutenant-governor is elected in the same manner, and must have the same qualifications; and in case of the absence of the governor, or his inability to serve, succeeds to the office. As lieutenantgovernor, he is president of the senate. The supreme executive council consists of the governor, lieutenant-governor, and 12 persons chosen by the people. The senate consists of 30 members, each county choosing at least one. Some are entitled to more, according to their population. The house of representatives consists of 231 members, elected annually by the people. Every representative must be a citizen of the tUnited States, must have resided in the state for two years, the latter of which must be in the town for which he is elected. The supreme court consists of six 134 STATE OF VERMONT. judges, elected annually by the legislature. The supreme court sits once a year, and the county courts twice, in each county. There is a court of chancery, which holds a session in each county, each judge of the supreme court being chancellor of a circuit. The secretary of state is elected annually by the joint vote of both houses of the legislature, and the treasurer is chosen annually by the people. The right of suffrage is enjoyed by every person who is full 21 years of age, a citizen of the United States, of quiet and peaceable behavior, and who has resided in the state for one year next preceding an election. A council of censors is appointed once in seven years, whose duty it is to inquire whether the constitution has been preserved inviolate, and whether the legislature and executive branches have performed their duty as guardians of the commonwealth; whether the taxes have been justly laid and collected, and the public moneys have been properly disposed of, and the laws have been duly executed. The first settlement of the state was at fort Dummer, in the south-east part of the state, by emigrants from Massachusetts. New Hampshire claimed the territory from 1741 to 1764, and granted many townships in the state to proprietors, which were thence called the " New Hampshire grants," which comprise many of the best towns in the state. New York also claimed the territory, and obtained a grant of it from the British parliament in 1764. These conflicting claims exceedingly harassed the inhab itants. At the commencement of the revolutionary war, Congress dared not admit Vermont into the Union, though the state proclaimed itself independent, for fear of offending New Hampshire and New York, especially the latter. Vermont had a difficult part to act, and it conducted itself with great wisdom and patriotism. The British hoped to be able to detach it from the American confederacy; and its leaders, without committing themselves, flattered these hopes, and saved its exposed frontiers from attacks, while no portion of the Union showed a more devoted patriotism, or contributed more, according to its'means, to the common cause. The " green mountain boys " were characterized by daring bravery in the revolutionary struggle. In 1790, New York was induced, by the payment of $30,000, to withdraw her claims to the territory; and in 1791, Vermont was admitted to the Union, whose independence she had extensively contributed to acquire. MONTPELIER, the state capital, is situated at the union of the branches of the Onion or Winooski river, in latitude 44~ 16' north, and longitude 71~ 32' west. Its site is a plain of moderate extent, surrounded by elevated hills. The great road fiom Boston to Burlington, passes through the town and makes it a great thoroughfare. It contains a beautiful state-house built of granite, 72 feet wide in the centre, with two wings, and is each 39 feet, making a whole length of 130 feet. It has a projecting portico in the centre, of six Doric columns, 6 feet in diameter and 36 feet high. The centre building is 100 feet deep, and the wings 50 feet deep. The whole is surmounted by a fine dome, 100 feet from the ground to the top. In the interior are rooms for various offices, and elegant halls for the senate and representatives. Its architecture is much admired. Burlington, on Lake Champlain, is the largest city within the State. It is built on a fine bay, which sets up between two points on the east side of the lake and forms a regular curve. Near the centre of the town is the STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS. 135 public square, on which the court-house is built, and which is surrounded by brick stores and the principal hotels. It contains many neat and some splendid dwellings, surrounded with shrubbery, and generally having fine gardens in the rear. Some of the public buildings are spacious and elegant, the churches especially are beautiful specimens of architecture. The harbor of Burlington is the best on the lake, and is of easy access. It has been much improved by the government, which has erected a noble breakwater to protect it from the west winds. Steamboats stop here daily on their way from Whitehall to St. John's. A steam ferry-boat crosses at this place to Fort Kent, on the opposite side of the lake, and to Plattsburg. The university of Vermont is located here. About a mile and a half northeast is the flourishing manufacturing village of Winooski, on Onion river. The river here has a fall of 20 feet, nearly perpendicular, which affords a great water power, easily available. The first settlement in Burlington, was made after the peace of 1783, and it was first organized in 1787. The other principal towns are St. Albans, Swanton, Vergennes, in the lake; Middlebury, the seat of a college; Pittsford, Rutland, Manchester, Bennington, Newbury, Brattleboro', which contains the state lunatic asylum; Rockingham, Windsor, Woodstock, Norwich, the seat of a university, and Danville. MASSACHUSETTS, AEA, 7,250 squARE MILEs. POPULATION IN 1850, 994,724. Massachusetts, one of the eastern United States, is bounded north by Vermont and New Hampshire; east by the Atlantic; south by the Atlantic, Rhode Island and Connecticut; and west by New York. It is about 190 miles long, with an average breadth of 90 miles. The face of the country is diversified. The south-eastern part is mostly level. There are also level districts of small extent, in the vicinity of the Merrimac river in the north-east. Salt marshes are numerous, but not very extensive, in the maritime parts. Most of that part bordering on the sea and extending into the interior as far as the county of Worcester, may be regarded as level, with slight undulations, but no high hills. Worcester countv, which extends across the state, and the three counties west of it present an elevated and various surface diversified with gentle swells, with plains and valleys, and with several mountain ranges, and a strong soil, adapted to grazing and most of the purposes of agriculture, and well watered with clear and beautiful streams. Through Berkshire, the western county, pass two mountain ranges, the Taghkannic, on the western border of the state; and between the Houstonic and Connecticut rivers, the Green mountain range, here called Hoosick mountains. To the east of Connecticut are several mountains with elevated summits. Mount Holyoke, near Northampton is more than 1200 feet above the level of the sea, and Wachusett mountain in Princeton is an isolated summit, from 2000 to 3000 feet high. Saddle mountain, in thq Taghkannic range, in the north-west corner of the state, is 4000 feet high, and mount Washington, in the same 136 STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS. range, in the south-west corner of the state is about 3000 feet high. The valleys of the Connecticut are fertile, as are those of Housatonic. In no state of the Union has agriculture been more improved than in Massachusetts. The principal productions are grass, Indian corn, rye, wheat, oats, and potatoes. Beef, pork, butter and cheese, of an excellent quality, are produced. Apples are found in great abundance, and pears, peaches, plums and cherries are cultivated with success. Marble is produced in various parts of Berkshire county, granite in Chelmsford and Quincy, and iron ore in the south east parts of the state. The climate is favorable to health; the extremes of temperature at Cam bridge in 1843, were 940 above, and ~T below zero, of Fahrenheit; but such extremes are of short continuance. The principal rivers are the Connecticut, a noble stream, winding for 50 miles across the state, receiving Deerfield and Westfield rivers from the west, and Miller's and Chickapee rivers from the east; Housatonic, which rises in Berkshire county, and flows through the west part of the state; and Merrimac, which rises in New Hampshire, and has a course of 50 miles in the north-east part of the state, and enters the ocean below Newburyport. It is navigable for large vessels 15 miles to Haverhill. Besides these, there are Nashua, Concord, Ipswich, Charles, Taunton, and Black stone rivers. Massachusetts bay, that gives the name to the state, which was formerly called the Bay State, extends from Cape Ann on the north, 40 miles to Cape Cod on the south, and includes Boston and Cape Cod bays. Buzzard's bay on the south shore, is 30 miles in length. Boston harbor is one of the finest in the world; capacious, safe, easy of entrance, and easily defended. New Bedford on Buzzard's bay, has a fine harbor. There are several important islands off the south shore of Massachusetts, belonging to the state. The largest is Nantucket, 15 miles long, and 11 broad, and which constitutes a county of its own name. Martha's Vineyard lies west of Nantucket, is 20 miles long, and from 2 to 10 broad, and with other small islands, constitutes Duke's county. POPULATION-CENSUS OF 1850, BY COUNTIES Suffolk............143,670 Hampshire........40,105 Bristol...........80 230 Dukes....... 5,109 Essex............ 125,500 Hampden........ 48,060 Plymouth........56,125 Nantucket....... 12,160 Middlesex..... 141,280 Franklin....... 36,110 Barnstable.......41,070 Norfolk......... 74,46 Worcester....... 137,820 Berkshire........53,025 The manufacturing industry of Massachusetts is pre-eminently a feature in its condition. In no state of the same size, are the various branches so largely engaged in, or prosecuted with more zeal and industry. The capital employed in manufactures is estimated at $70,000,000, affording employment to 175,000 persons. In the manufacture of cotton, there are upwards of 300 mills engaged, making annually 175,000,000 yards of cloth. The woollen manufactures are also extensive. There are 180 mills engaged in the manufacture of cassimeres, broadcloths, sattinets, Kentuckyjeans, flannels, blankets, and woolen yarns; consuming, annually, about 18,000,000 lbs of wool. There are 20 carpet mills, which produce 1,500,000 yards of carpeting annually. There are also a number of mills for the manufacture of worsted and mixed goods, and hosiery; three linen factories, and eight silk mills. Besides the above, there are large establishments engaged in the mechanic arts, and in producing vast quantities STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS. 137 of articles for domestic use and export. Boots and shoes are annually manufactured to the amount of $15,000,000, giving employment to 30,000 men and 20,000 women. About 20,000 females are also employed in the manufacture of palm leaf hats. The commerce of Massachusetts is on a scale commensurate with the magnitude of its manufactures. During the year ending June 30, 1849, the exports of domestic produce were $8,174,667, and of foreign, $2,090,195; total, $10,264,862. The imports were, in American vessels, $18,367,959, and in foreign, $6,377,958: total, $24,745,917. The whale fisheries employ 500 vessels. The ordinary products amount to $5,000,000, employing 12,000 hands. The mackerel and cod fisheries employ about 1,000 small vessels, with 8,000 hands, producing annually $1,500,000. The internal improvements of the state are very extensive. The Quincy railroad was the first built in the United States. There are now about 40 traversing the state, with a combined distance of over 1,000 miles. She has no general system of canals. The Middlesex canal was the first of any length, completed in the United States. The total length of the canals in the state, is about 100 miles. The number of miles of post roads is about 3,250, and telegraph wires traverse the state in all directions. The educational conveniences of this state are ample, and all the institutions are flourishing, and in great repute for learning and science. Harvard University, at Cambridge, is the oldest and best endowed seminary in the country. It was founded in 1638, about 18 years after the first landing of the Pilgrims. It has lately been endowed largely by Mr. Lawrence of Boston, for the purpose of establishing a school of practical science. William's College, at Williamstown, in the north-western corner of the state, was founded in 1793, and is in a flourishing condition. Amherst College was founded in 1831, and has had an unexampled growth, and now ranks with the first colleges in New England. The Congregationalists have a seminary at Andover, the Baptists at Newton, the Catholics at Worcester, and the Methodists at Wilbraham. There are Divinity and Law schools at Harvard University, and some other establishments in the higher branches of learning. The great mass of the people are congregationalists, but there are numerous other religious denominations. The towns raise by taxation for the support of common schools, annually, $830,577. Besides this, $5,483, income of the " Surplus Revenue," is so appropriated. Total, $836,060. Add $35,281, contributed as board and fuel. In 1849, the number of children in the state from 4 to 16 years of age, was 215,926. Number that attended school under 4 years, 3,326; over 16 years, 10,452. Number of public schools in the state, 8,749. Number of male teachers, 2,426. Number of female teachers, 5,737. Number of scholars in summer schools, 173,659. Number in winter schools, 191,712. Average wages per month, inclusive of board, paid to male teachers, $34,02. Do. to female teachers, $14,19. Amount of school fund, Dec. 1, 1849, $876,082; increase during the year, $27,816. There are 64 incorporated academies in the state, with 3,864 pupils and an aggregate of $61,694 paid for tuition; also 1,047 unincorporated academies and private schools, &c., with 27,583 scholars, and an aggregate 138 STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS. of $240,780 paid for tuition. There are also local funds for the support of academies, &c., to the amount of $354,620, yielding an income of $21,584. Number of volumes in school libraries, 91,539. Value, $42,707. Value of apparatus, $23,826. The value of the public school houses in the state in 1848 was $2,750,000, of which $2,200,000 had been expended since 1839. There are three Normal schools supported by the state, at an annual cost of about $6,500, — one at Westfield, one at West Neiwton, and one at Bridgewater,- averaging annually, in all, 225 pupils. There are in the state, 119 banks; capital stock $34,630,000; circulation $15,000,000. The finances, Jan. 1, 1850, were as follows: the receipts of all kinds, including loans, $1,078,340; expenditures, $1,057,406. The public debt of the state, at the same period, was $1,085,508, and the credit of the commonwealth lent to railroads $5,049,555, making a total indebtedness of $6,135,064. As security for the redemption of the scrip lent to railroads, the state holds a mfortgage on all the roads, and also 3,000 shares in the Eastern, 4,000 in the Norwich and Worcester, and 1,000 in the Andover and Haverhill. The school fund amounts to $904,340; other productive property of the state, $10,728,217. PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE. Bounty to Militia, 19,714 04 Councillors, - - $3,79 00 State Prison, - 4,200 00 Legislature, 81,146 50 Prevention of counterfeiting, - - 1,489 15 Salaries, -72,157 69 Pensions, - 1,387 00 Adjutant and Q. M. General's Department, 5,500 00 State Reform School, - 5,648 94 Fuel, &c., for State-House, - - - 1,071 08 Life boats and preservers, - - - 2,500 00 Repairs of do. 5,469 70 Miscellaneous, - 18,804 14 Furniture for do. 1,265 40 Stationery for do. 2,135 26 Total ordinary expenditure, - 512,409 23 State printing,.. 16,717 50 Newspapers and advertising, - - - 3,537 80 CHIEF SOURCES OF INCOME. Term reports,.. 962 50 Auction tax, 38,579 04 County Treasurers, 63,358 60 Bank 338 264 55 State paupers, -..91,867 23 Attorney for Suffolk county, - - - 11,217 84 Interest on temporary loans, - 5,881 38 Alien passengers, - 10,306 08 Railroad do. - - 6,306 08 Alien estates, 1678 90 W" estern Railroad scrip, - 50,150 00 Hawkers and peddlers' licenses, - 1,842 30 Agricultural Societies, -6,242 00 Interest on deposits, 461 66 American Institute of Instruction, - 300 00 Lands in Maine, 995 83 Asylum for the Blind, 9,000 00 Western railroad dividends, * - 87,136 00 " Deaf and Dumb, - - 8,155 08 Miscellaneous, 419 91 Eye and Ear Irfirmary, - - - 7,00 State Lunatic Asylum, -.. - 11,606 34 Total ordinary revenue, - $490,903 71 School for Idiots, 2,500 00 The government of Massachusetts consists of a governor, lieutenant governor, senate and house of representatives. They are elected annually by the people. The governor must have resided seven years in the state, and be worth a freehold of ~1,000 and declare his belief in the Christian religion. The lieutenant governor must possess the same qualifications. A council of nine persons besides the lieutenant governor, are elected annually by the joint ballot of the legislature, and not more than two can be chosen in one congressional district. They rank next to the lieutenant-governor. The senate contains 40 members, who must possess a freehold of ~300, and a personal estate of ~600, and must have resided in the state for five years immediately preceding the election. The house of representatives contains 356 members, who must possess a freehold of ~100 in the town for which he is chosen, or rateable estate to the value of ~200. The judges and various other officers, as STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS. 139 attorney general, &c., are appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the council. The judges hold their offices during good behavior. The secretary, treasurer and receiver-general are appointed annually, by the joint ballot of both houses of the legislature. Every male citizen over 21 years of age, excepting paupers and persons under guardianship, who has resided in the state one year, and in the town or district in which he may claim to vote, six months next preceding an election, and shall have paid a tax in the commonwealth within two years, or shall have been exempted from taxation, enjoys the right of suffrage. Plymouth colony was settled by the Puritans, a part of Mr. Robinson's congregation under Carver and Bradford, December 22d, 1620. In 1628, the foundation of the Massachusetts colony was laid, and Salem and Charlestown were settled, and Boston in 1630. In 1634, the charter of Plymouth colony was surrendered to the crown, and an attempt was made the same year, and again in 1638, to procure the surrender of the charter of Massachusetts without effect. The patent of the Plymouth colony, was, in 1641, transferred to the freemen. In 1643, the four colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven, entered into articles of union, styling themselves the United Colonies of New England. Rhode Island petitioned to be admitted to the confederacy, but was refused. In 1675 the colony engaged in Philip's war, which issued after much suffering, in the defeat and extermination of the hostile tribe of the Pequods. In 1645, the troops of Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Hampshire sailed for Cape Breton, and captured Louisburg from the French. In 1765, the colony proposed a general congress, which met at New York, to resist the encroachments of parliament, and sent letters to all the provinces in 1768 to excite them to insist on a redress of grievances. In 1692, the colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts and Maine were united by a charter, under the name of Massachusetts. In 1773, the destruction of tea in the harbor of Boston occurred, which was followed the next year, by the shutting up of the port of Boston. The revolution opened by the battle of Lexington, April 19th, 1775; and of Breed's hill, generally called Bunker Hill, June 17th, 1775. Boston was the cradle of American independence, and Massachusetts bore an honorable part in securing it. On the 17th of March, 1776, the British were compelled to evacuate Boston. In 1780, a convention of delegates formed a state constitution. In 1786, Shay's rebellion occurred in the western counties, and was quelled the following year. The state voted in convention, Feb. 6th, 1788, to adopt the constitution of the United States-yeas 187, nays 168, majority 19. BOSTON is the principal seaport and capital of the state. It is celebrated, in history as being the scene of the first regular battle fought during the American Revolution, and the first point of resistance to British authority. Latitude 42~ 21' 23" north, and longitude 710 4' 9" west. It is beautifully situated, principally on a peninsula at the head of Massachusetts bay, and had in 1850, a population of 138,788. The city consists of three parts, namely, Old Boston, on the peninsula; South Boston, which was formerly a part of Dorchester; and East Boston, formerly Noddles' Island. The isthmus, which connects the peninsula with the main land, is about a mile in length, and was originally, in some parts, very narrow, but has been much improved, and forms the main avenue from the city towards the south, 140 STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS. leading direct to Roxbury. Various bridges now lead to the beautiful towns in the environs, as Charlestown, Cambridge, &c., and a solid cause way of earth, 1 miles in length, leads to Brookline on the west. In Charlestown, on the summit of Bunker Hill, stands a monument is commemoration of the battle fought at that place. The structure is built entirely of granite, in a most substantial manner, to a height of 220 fees from its base; it is a plain obelisk. At the top, under the apex, is a room of about 18 feet in diameter, in which is deposited two of the only six can non owned by the Continental Congress at the opening of the revolutionary war. They are of the calibre of three pounders, made of brass, and one of them has been burst near the muzzle. The place where these relics are deposited, is attained by a circular stone stair-case, and the windows, at that elevation, command a beautiful panorama of the country, for many miles around. The state-house, which is the principal public building, is located on Beacon hill, the highest point of the city, and fronts on the "Common," a public park, covering an area of 75 acres of beautiful undulating land, and surrounded with an iron fence about two miles in length. The state house is 173 feet long and 61 feet wide. The most imposing building, perhaps, on account of its' associations, is Faneuil Hall, celebrated in history, as the spot where the orators of the revolution stimulated the people to a resistance of British oppression. It is appropriately called the " Cradle of Lib erty," and is held in almost sacred veneration. The building is 100 feet long by 80 feet wide, and three stories high. The great hall is on the second story; it has a spacious gallery on three sides, and is exceedingly well adapted for popular demonstrations. The city hall, or old state-house, is 110 feet long, 38 feet wide, and three stories high. It is at the head of state-street, and contains the offices of the city government. Besides these, there are the Merchants' Exchange, the Faneuil Hall market, (585 feet long,) the court house, custom house, Athenaeum, hospital, &c.; all buildings which would do honor to the most magnificent of European cities. Boston has contributed much towards the elevation of native literature. It has a large number of literary and philosophical institutions, and furnishes some of the best periodicals and newspapers in the country. As a commercial town, Boston is second only to New York. It is the centre of the railroad system of New England, and from it the iron band diverges to all parts. It is also accommodated with canals and roads, and every facility is given for inter-communication. The city of Boston, indeed, might be considered as a little world within itself, and would occupy many volumes in the description of its parts. Cambridge is the seat of Harvard University, which is only about four miles from Boston city, and has a permanent fund of $60,000 in property, and a yearly income of about $22,000, besides students' fees. About a mile further is the beautiful cemetery of Mount Auburn, in a lovely and picturesque situation, and in which rest many of the great and virtuous sons of New England. Population in 1849, 15,665. Salem, 15 miles north east of Boston, is a considerable town of 21,220 inhabitants, who have always been distinguished for their commercial enterprise, frugality and industry. Newburyport, a prettily situated and neatly STATE OF RHODE ISLAND. 141 built town at the mouth of the Merrimack, carries on a considerable trade, especially in the cod, mackerel, and whale fisheries. Fall River Village, at the mouth of the Taunton river, 45 miles south of Boston, is largely engaged in the cotton manufactures; and further up the river, at the head of sloop navigation, is Taunton, also a manufacturing town. Plymouth, on the coast, 36 miles south east of Boston, is memorable as the spot where the exiled Independents of Yorkshire, usually called "The Pilgrim Fathers," founded the first settlement in New England, December 22, 1620. Worcester is a rapidly increasing town, 45 miles west of Boston. The city of Lowell, which is justly entitled to the appellation of the " Manchester of America," employs in its factories 10,000 females, many of whom devote their leisure hours to literature and the fine arts, and publish a highly creditable monthly periodical, entitled the "Lowell Offering," which is supplied with matter from their own pens. In 1820, the popular tion of the township of Lowell was less than 200; in 1850, it had increased to 32,000. The city is situated on the south side of the Merrimack, below Pawtucket Falls, and the mills are supplied with water from that river, through a canal 1 miles long, 60 feet wide and 8 deep; from the main canal the water is conveyed through lateral canals to the various mills. All children under 15 years of age, engaged in these factories, are required by law to have three months' schooling in each year. The annual consumption of cotton at these factories, is about 35,000,000 pounds. There are manufactured 80,000,000 yards of cotton cloth, 20,000,000 yards calico, 15,000,000 yards bleached and dyed goods, 1,000,000 yards broad cloth and cassimere, and 500,000 yards of carpeting. Such is the'ast extent of the manufacturing operations in Lowell, where, previous to the year 1820, the Merrimack flowed through an almost unbroken forest. Springfield is another large manufacturing town; population 20,000. At this place is located the United States' Armory, the machinery of which is driven by water power; 18 water wheels keep in active operation 11 trip-hammers and 28 forges, and from the workshops are produced in one year, in the article of muskets alone, the value of $154,000. Besides the armory, there are several extensive cotton and other factories, employing a large capital and a commensurate number of hands. Other places, noted for their manufactories, chiefly cotton, are Northampton, Pittsfield, Adams, and Lawrence. RHODE ISLAND, Am&A, 1,200 sagQ anKs. POPWLATION IN 1850,147,49. Rhode Island is the smallest state, in its territory, iD the Union; being about 49 miles long and 29 miles broad. It is the only state in the Union in which the number employed in manufactures and trades exceeds those employed in agriculture. About one-third part of the state in the west and north-west, is hilly and rocky; but there is nothing which properly deserves the name of a 142 STATE OF RHODE ISLAND. mountain or high hill in the state. On Narragansett bay and the Atlantic ocean, and in some places on the streams, the surface is level. In the western and north-western parts the soil is thin, and has no great fertility. But near Narragansett bay, and on the islands in it, the soil has great fertility. It is generally distinguished for the excellence of its cattle and sheep, butter and cheese; and produces Indian corn, rye, barley, oats, and, in some places, wheat; though it is better adapted to grazing than to grain. Grass, fruits, and culinary vegetables are produced in great perfection. Shell and other fish are found in the rivers and bays, of an excellent quality. The exports of the state consist chiefly of flaxseed, lumber, horses, cattle, beef, pork, fish, poultry, onions, butter, cheese, barley, and especially cotton goods. The climate is healthy, and on the islands more mild than in other pasts of New England. The heat of summer is tempered by the sea-breezes, and the severity of winter is moderated by the proximity of the ocean. Newport is celebrated as a delightful summer residence, and is much resorted to, particularly from the southern states. The rivers, though not large, furnish many fine mill-seats, which have been extensively used for manufacturing purposes. The principal are Pawtucket, Providence, Pawtuxet, Pawcatuck, and Wood rivers. Narragansett bay is a fine body of water, extending 30 miles into the state, and containing a number of beautiful and fertile islands. Among them are Rhode Island, which gives name to the state, 15 miles long, and on an average 2i miles broad. The harbor at Newport, on the south-west part of Rhode Island, is one of the best in the United States, being spacious, safe, easily accessible, and with a sufficient depth of water for the largest vessels. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850 BY TOWNS. Barrington......... 795 Exeter............ 1,635 Newport......... 9,563 Scituate........... 4,582 Bristol.............2,892 Foster............1,932 North Kingston... 2,971 South Kingston.....,802 Burrelville..........3,538 Glocester.......... 2,872 North Providence. 7,680 Tiverton...........4,699 Cumberland....... 6,662 Hopkinton.........2,478 New Shoreham.... 1,262 West Greenwich.....1,350 Charlestown........ 994 Jamestown........ 358 Providence.......41,513 Warwick........... 7,740 Cranston........4,312 Johnston..........2,937 Portsmouth....... 1,833 Warren........... 3.103 Coventry.....3..3,620 Little Compton.....1,462 Richmond........ 1,784 Westerly...........2,766 East Greenwich.....2,358 I Middletown....... 832 Smithfield...... 11,500 Brown university, at Providence, was founded at Warwick in 1764, aid permanently located in Providence in 1770, is the only college in the state, and is a flourishing institution. The president, and a majority of the trustees, are required to be of the Baptist denomination. The common schools of this state, formerly less attended to than in the other New England states, have latterly received much attention, and are improving. The state has a school fund, invested in bank stock, of $51,300. By an act passed in 1836, the interest of the state's part of the United States surplus revenue (commonly called the deposit fund) was set apart for public schools. $35,000 is annually paid from the state treasury for schools. By an act passed in June, 1848, the proceeds of the militia commutation tax in each town are to be applied hereafter to the support of public schools. The whole number of school districts in the state is 332, of which 231 own school-houses. There has been expended for schoolhouses, during the last six years, $148,254. Number of persons in the state under 15, 38,052. Number of scholars registered, 22,477,-11,867 STATE OF RHODE ISLAND. 143 males, and 10,610 females; average attendance, 16,590. Number of male teachers, 235; of female, 237. Amount received from the state, $25,330 63; amount raised by towns, $54,843 94; total, $80,174 57. Expended for schools, $86,554 12. The principal religious denominations are Baptists, Congregationalists, Episcopalians, and Methodists. Besides these there are some Friends, Unitarians, Universalists, Christians, and Roman Catholics. The foreign commerce of Rhode Island employs about 50,000 tons. Exports of domestic produce in 1849, $172,691; imports, $237,478. Rhode Island has no state debt; her ordinary annual expenditure, exclusive of schools, is about $50,000. PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE. CHIEF SOURCES OF INCOME. Salaries. $5 354 State tax,. $17,084 Senate,..407 Bank tax, 33,669 House of Representatives,.4,653 Tax on increase of bank capital,. 2,626 Expenses of Supreme Court and Common Pleas, 16,274 From courts,.5,076 Schools,. 32,836 Insurance companies,. 1. 1,163 State Prison,... 5087 Interest on public deposits,.. 16,375 Accounts allowed by General Assembly,.. 16,586 Dividend on school fund,. 3,334 Governor's orders. 252 Auctions,. 1,234 Deaf, dumb, and blind,.. 1,883 Peddlers, 6,070 Prnting,.... 87 Pawtucket turnpike,... 1,000 Interest,. 675 Town councils,... 1,262 Teachers' Institute,... 250 Public deposits,. 34,326 In April, 1850, there were 61 banks in the state; capital stock paid in, $11,257,552; circulation, $2,525,549. Providence and Newport are the principal seats of government, but the legislature sometimes meets at South Kingston, Bristol, and East Greenwich. PROVIDENCE is one of the capitals, and had a population, in 1850, of 41,513. The city contains an area of about nine square miles, which: is divided by the Providence river; the two parts being connected by convenient bridges. Among the principal buildings are a state house, city hall, court house, custom house, Brown University, the Athenaeum, six public schools, a hospital, and a number of churches. The Athenvaum is a beautiful structure of the Grecian Doric order, 40 feet front by 78 feet deep. The cost of the building was $20,000, and it has a library that cost about the same sum. Its harbor is at the head of Narragansett bay, and is of very considerable commercial importance. Latitude 41~ 49' 22" north, and longitude 710 24' 48" west. Newport, the next city of importance, and one of the capitals, had a population of 9,563 in 1850. Its harbor is one of the best in the United States, and it has some, but no considerable foreign commerce, its capital being principally invested in manufactures and the whale fisheries. The site of the town is beautiful; rising gently from the shore, it presents from the bay a most pleasing aspect. The state house is located in Washington square; the houses of the town are neatly and regularly built, and the place has, of late years, become a fashionable summer resort. The Redwood library, which was founded in 1747, has a neat building, and a select collection of about 4,000 volumes. The principal public buildings are the state house and churches, including one Jews' synagogue. Bristol, on Warren river, a creek of Providence bay, a neat and busy commercial town, is distinguished for the enterprise of its inhabitants, whb 144 STATE OF RHODE ISLAND. are actively engaged in foreign commerce, the coasting trade, and the whale and seal fisheries in the Pacific ocean. Population about 3,000. Kingston, East Greenwich, both towns of some distinction, and several others of minor note, complete the catalogue of Rhode Island towns. Rhode Island was first settled in 1636, by Roger Williams, who located with a small colony at Providence. He had been banished from Salem, Mass., for his religious opinions. In 1638 he purchased the territory from the Narragansett Indians, and in the same year was joined by William Coddington and 17 -others, who also had fled from religious persecution. In 1647 a code of laws and civil government was established by permission from England, and an assembly of six persons, as representatives from each town, was created. Some difficulties having arisen in regard to the grant to Williams and Coddington, upon an application to king Charles II., a charter was granted, incorporating " Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." It was provided that no person should be molested or called in question for differences in matters of religion, and the supreme power was vested in a governor, deputy-governor, ten assistants, and representatives of the several towns chosen by the freemen. Until the year 1841 this charter was the only constitution of the state, though for more than 20 years past efforts had been made to form a constitution under the sanction of the general assembly, but without effect. In the spring of 1840 an association was formed with a view of extending the right of suffrage to every white male citizen of the United States residing in the state, and in the spring of 1841 this association took the responsibility of calling a convention for the purpose of forming a constitution according to their peculiar views. Such convention was held, and such constitution formed and submitted to the people; but on account of the informality under which it was prepared, only a portion of the people recognized or voted on the question. Those who did vote being in favor of the constitution, it was declared to be adopted as the supreme law of the land. The government, however, refused to recognize it, and, in the meantime, had taken legal measures for the calling of a convention for a similar object. Another constitution was prepared by that convention, and submitted to the people, who adopted it with a majority of more than two to one. Two separate forms of government were now recognized by two different portions of the people; the "suffrage party" proceeded to elect their governor and public officers under their constitution, and claiming them as the legitimate officers, they were organized at Providence, under the protection of an armed force, on the 3d of May, 1841. Owing to the public excitement, the government, under the legitimate constitution, had not been able to organize, and the charter government organized as usual at Newport, on the 4th May, 1842. On the 18th the governor elected by the " suffrage party" attempted to capure the state arsenal at Providence, but failed in the attempt. Desirous of meeting the views of all parties, the general assembly provided fox another convention to form another constitution, and about the same time another attempt was made to overthrow, by force of arms, the charter government of the state. The insurgents, led by their governor, took up a position at Chepachet, from which, however, they were easily driven by the state troops, and completely dispersed.'The convention last provided for by the charter government, met in September of the same year, and STATE Of CONNECTICUT. 145 framed another constitution, which, on being submitted to the people, was adopted almost unanimously, the "suffrage party" protesting against it, yet subsequently voting under it. By the present constitution the government is vested in a governor, senate, and assembly, elected annually by the people. The lieutenantgovernor is also a member of the senate, and the governor presides over that body. The senate otherwise consists of one member from each town or city. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, and such other courts as the general assembly may ordain. Every citizen of the United States, 21 years of age, one year a resident in the state, and six months in the town or city where he offers his vote, owning real estate to the amount of $134, or renting for seven dollars above all incumbrances, is entitled to the rights of suffrage. The name of each voter must be enrolled one year previous to his ability to vote, and he must have paid a tax of one dollar, and performed military duty. A residence at any garrison or naval station is not considered as a legal residence. CONNECTICUT. AREA, 4,750 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION IN 1850, 371,982. Connecticut is bounded north by Massachusetts; east by Rhode Island; south by Long Island sound; and west by New York. The surface is hilly, but not mountainous. In passing across the state from east to west, the hills occur very frequently; but much less so in passing from south to north. One elevated range of hills passes 8 or 10 miles east of Connecticut river, which it crosses at Chatham, and terminates near East Haven. In some parts it has an elevation of 800 or 900 feet. Another higher range commences at a bluff 370 feet high, denominated East Rock, a little north-east of New Haven, and proceeds northwardly through the state into Massachusetts. On the west of Hartford it is called Talcott niountain, and the whole is denominated the Mount Tom range. The Blue hills in Southington, in this range, have an elevation of 1,000 feet; said to be the highest land in the state. At a bluff, 400 feet high, called West Rock, two miles north-west of New Haven, commences a considerable range, and proceeds north through the state into Massachusetts and Vermont. This constitutes the southern portion of the Green mountain range; and, in the northern part of the state, produces a very broken country, though perhaps no single peak is so elevated as the Blue bills in Southington. The Taghkannic range runs on the west side of Housatonic river, on the western border of the state, and terminates at Ridgefield. The soil is generally fertile, but better adapted to grazing than to tillage. The lands in Fairfield county and on Connecticut river are the most fertile in the state. The interval land on Connecticut river is very productive, and easily tilled, and is the most valuable in the state. The soil is generally well cultivated, and it well rewards the labor of the husbandman. The principal productions are Indian corn, rye, wheat in many parts, oats, 10 146 STATE OF CONNECTICUT. buckwheat, flax in large quantities, some hemp, potatoes, pumpkins, turnips, peas, beans, &c. Orchards are very numerous, and cider is produced for exportation. Some other fruits, as peaches, cherries, and plums, and, in some parts, an excellent wild grape, both purple and white, are found. Neat cattle, horses, and sheep are extensively raised; and butter and cheese of an excellent quality are largely produced, particularly in the county of Litchfield. In some parts of the state the soil is comparatively thin and barren. Though exposed to great extremes of heat and cold, and to sudden changes of temperature, the climate is generally healthful. Near the coast, the weather is particularly variable, changing as the wind blows from the water or the land. In the interior, the temperature is more steady. The north-west winds in the winter season are cold and piercing, while those which blow from the south are more mild; and a great change in the weather generally occurs with the change of the wind. The shore of Connecticut is penetrated by numerous bays and creeks, which afford many harbors. The principal sea-ports are New London, New Haven, Stonington, and Bridgeport, on the coast, and Middleton in the interior. The harbor of New London is the best in the state, and one of the best in the United States. It is spacious and safe, has a depth of 30 feet of water, and is not obstructed by ice in the winter season. Stonington has a good harbor, protected by a breakwater erected by the United States government, at an expense of $50,000. The harbor of Bridgeport has a depth of thirteen feet of water on the bar at high tide, but within this it is deeper. Connecticut river is navigable to Middletown for vessels requiring ten feet of water, but it is obstructed by ice in the winter season. Long Island sound, which borders thle state on the south, is a fine body of water, 140 miles long and 25 broad in its widest part. It is narrower at its entrance on the east, and is quite narrow at its west part, where it unites with the strait called the East river, which leads into the harbor of New York. It has all the advantages of an inland sea, in regard to a protection from the storms of the ocean; and along its shores it presents a delightful water view. The principal trade of this state is with the West Indies. New London is extensively engaged in the whale fishery; and Stonington has considerable navigation employed in the whaling and sealing business. The coasting trade is extensively carried on from Middletown, which has also some foreign trade, and from various other places. The three principal rivers in Connecticut are, the Connecticut, from which the state derives its name; the Housatonic, and the Thames. The Connecticut is the finest river in the eastern states. Its whole course is 410 miles, 70 of which are in Connecticut. The Housatonic river, in the western part of the state, rises in Massachusetts, and flows entirely across Connecticut, is 150 miles long, and navigable for sloops to the Lower falls at Derby, 12 miles from its mouth. It affords, in its course, extensive water-power, and between Canaan and Salisbury it has a fall of 60 feet perpendicular, which is the largest fall in the state. The state is abundantly supplied with smaller streams, which afford extensive water-power, and is everywhere well watered by brooks and springs of the purest water. Iron ore, of a superior quality, is found in Salisbury and Kent. The Salisbury iron has an uncommon tenacity, which peculiarly fits it for the manufacture of wire and of anchors. At Stafford is bog-iron ore, from STATE OF CONNECTICUT. 147 which excellent castings and hollow ware are made. Fine marble is found in Milford, some of which is of the beautifully variegated kind denominated " verd antique." In Chatham and Hadham a reddish brown freestone is largely quarried, which is easily wrought, and is in high estimation, particularly in New York, Brooklyn, and other cities, for basements, lintels, steps, &c. A copper mine exists in Simsbury. At Stafford and Suffield are mineral springs of considerable celebrity. The former are much frequented. There are two springs of different qualities: one of them is a chalybeate, and the other a sulphur spring. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES Hartford........... 69,928 New London....... 51,816 I Windham. 31,104 Middlese..........27,219 New Haven.......65,613 Fairfield......,.59,815 Litchfield.........45,249 Tolland...........20,179 This state has three colleges. Yale college, at New Haven, is one of the oldest institutions in the United States, and in regard to the number of scholars, and the general influence which it exerts, is the first institution of the kind in the country. It was founded at Saylrook in 1701, and was removed to New Haven, a very desirable location, in 1717. It was long the only college in the state, and its graduates are found filling the most important stations, in church and in state, in all parts of the country. Washington college, at Hartford, is under the direction of the Episcopa, lians, and is a more recent, but a flourishing, institution. It was founded in 1826. The Wesleyan university, at Middletown, is under the direction of the Methodists, and is a respectable and growing institution, and was founded in 1831. It had previously existed as a military and scientific academy, under the superintendence of Capt. Partridge. The asylum for the deaf and dumb, at Hartford, is the oldest and most respectable institution of the kind in the United States, and may be regarded as the parent of all others of the kind in the country. The retreat for the insane, at Hartford, opened in 1824, is admirably conducted, and eminently useful. The state general hospital, in New Haven, founded in 1832, has a fine edifice, and promises to be extensively useful. The common schools of Connecticut were long preeminent; but latterly Massachusetts and New York have become its successful rivals. This state has the largest school fund, in proportion to its population, of any state in the Union. This large sum has principally arisen from the sale of the Western Reserve, containing nearly 3,000,000 of acres in the north-eastern part of Ohio, included;-itfa itt o igmina ctharter, and, by -way of compromise, ceded to it bia*, United States. This land was sold by the state of Connecticut, in 1796, to the " Connecticut Land Company," for $1,200,000, considerably less than 50 cents per acre. But the reserve was then an unsurveyed wilderness. The number of towns is 146; of school societies, 217; of school districts, 1,649; of children between four and sixteen, 92,055. The amount of the school fund, September 2, 1849, as appears from the biennial exhibit, was $2,076,602 75, and the amount of dividends for 1850 was $137,449 51; which gives $1 50 to every enumerated child. The legislature, at the session of 1849, appropriated $10,000 for the establishment of a state normal school, " for the training of teachers in the art of instructing and governing the common schools of the state." The principal religious denominations are congregationalists, baptists, and methodists. The tables in the preceding part of this work, exhibit the statistics of the various churches. 148 STATE OF CONNECTICUT. The banking capital of the state, in 1850, was $9,907,503, and the circulation $5,253,884. The finances, for the same year, exhibit an expenditure of $118,392, and an income of $122,346. rrEMS OF EXPENDITURE. JExpense of managing school fund, - $ 34 00 Debenture and contingent expenses of General Assembly,..-.,986 28 118,392 09 ~eral Assembly, -~$25,986 28 CHIEF SOURCES OF INCOME. Salaries of officers of government, - 14,150 00 From taxes O M 3,55 5 Contingent expenses of government, 15,399 $73,557 54 Judicial expenses, 40,001 67 avails of Courts, - - 1,517 91 Expense of supporting State paupers, 2,291 66 " State pribn-dSulus 4,4e6 30 Expense of superintendence of common " forfeited bonds &c., - - 4,476 70 schools-,*- ---- 813 49 " dividends on bank stock, - - - 37,053 00 Salary of Directors of State Prison, - - 300 00 "licenses to pedlers, - - 247 00 Quartermaster General's Department, 1,806 07 miscellaneous sources, -2,94 58 Public buildings and institutions, - 8,609 60 122,346 73 Connecticut, like the other New England states, has done much in the way of internal improvements, but without burthening herself with a public debt. The Norwich and Worcester railroad is 584 miles long, and extends between the two places, uniting at the latter with the Boston road. From Norwich it connects with New York by a line of splendid steamers. It cost the sum of $2,178,788. The New Haven and Hartford Railroad is 36 miles long; cost $1,100,000. The Hartford and Springfield, which is a continuation of the last, 26 miles long, 6 miles of which are in Massa,chusetts; cost $540,000. The Bridgeport and West Stockbridge (Housatonic,) Railroad, a portion of which is also in Massachusetts, extehds 73 miles between Bridgeport and North Canaan, on the state line, and is con tinued to West Stockbridge, Mass., where it connects with the Boston and Albany, and the Hudson and Berkshire Railroad. The railroad from New Haven to New York, is 76 miles long, of which 45 are within this state. With these facilities, Connecticut has four or five communications through the state, from north to south, and one transverse line which will connect the city of New York with all the coast towns. The annual products of agriculture average 125,000 bushels of wheat; 1,200,000 bushels of rye; 30,000 bushels of barley; 3,000,000 bushels of Indian corn; 500,000 bushels of buck-wheat; 2,000,000 bushels of oats, and 3,000,000 bushels of potatoes. The miscellaneous products are wool, hemp, flax, silk, tobacco, hay, maple sugar, &c. Manufacturing industry is carried on to a large extent, in all its various departments, employing a capital of $20,000,000. In point of commercial importance, Connecticut stands third among the states of New England. The principal exports are horses, mules, and dairy and farm produce. The foreign trade is carried on principally with the West Indies; and an extensive coasting trade with the southern states. The value of exports to foreign countries in 1849, was $264,000; of imports, $234,743. An act providing for the registration of births, marriages and deaths, was passed in 1848. The returns made under this act for the year 1849, are complete in all but six towns, and exhibit the following results: births, 7,239; marriages, 2,920; deaths, 5,049. The government of the state is vested in a governor, a lieutenant-governor, who is president of the senate, and in a senate and house of representatives. The senate consists of not less than eighteen, nor more than twenty-eight members. Most of the towns choose two representatives; some, of a less population, but one. The Legislature, called the General Assembly, holds its session annually, alternately at Hartford and New STATE OF CONNECTICUT. 149 Haven; in the years containing an even number at New Haven, and in those containing an odd number at Hartford. All white citizens of twentyone years of age, who have resided in the town where they vote, six months previous to the election, who have a freehold estate of the annual value of seven dollars, or who have performed military duty for one year next preceding an election, are entitled to the right of suffrage. The governor, lieutenant-governor, senate and representatives, are elected annually by the people, on the first Monday of April. The supreme court consists of five judges, appointed by the legislature, and hold their offices during good behaviour, or until they are seventy years of age. In 1630, the Plymouth company in England granted to the Earl of Warwick the territory which now constitutes the present state of Connecticut; and, in 1631, the earl assigned it to Viscount Say-and-Seal, Lord Brook, and others. Among the assignees were Rich, Fiennes, Pym, and Hampden, distinguished Puritans, and active friends of civil liberty, in the contest between King Charles I. and the Parliament. About the same time an Indian chief visited Plymouth and Boston, and urged their governors to make a settlement on the country on Connecticut river, which he owned, and which he represented as exceedingly fertile, making them liberal offers. The Dutch at New York having notice of this design, despatched a party, who erected a house and fort at Hartford. In September, 1633, a company from Plymouth having prepared the frame of a house, put it on board of a vessel, and sailing up Connecticut river, passed the Dutch fort at Hartford, in defiance, to the place previously selected in Windsor; and in October, raised and covered it, and fortified it with palisades. In 1634, the Dutch sent a band of seventy men to dispossess them, but finding them strongly posted, they relinquished the design. In the autumn of 1635, the settlements of Wethersfield, and Windsor, and Hartford, were commenced by persons from Dorchester, Newtown, and Watertown, Mass. In the same year, a company under Mr John Winthrop, son of the governor of Massachusetts, was sent to take possession of the mouth of Connecticut river, at Saybrook, where he built a fort and mounted two cannon in it. With this he deterred the Dutch from New York from attempting to take possession of the same spot, who had received orders to occupy the place. In April, 1636, the first court assembled at Hartford, and passed a variety of laws for the safety and extension of the settlements. In June of this year, the Rev. Thomas Hooker, of Cambridge, " the light of the western churches," and about 100 men, women and children belonging to his congregation, left their homes to establish themselves on Connecticut river. Their route lay through an unexplored wilderness. They traveled on foot, drove their cattle before them, and subsisted on the milk of their cows. Mrs. Hooker was borne on a litter. They were nearly a fortnight on their journey, traveling but 10 miles a day; and after suffering great hardships, they seated themselves at Hartford, on land which they purchased of the Indians. In 1637, all the settlements in New England were involved in a war with the Pequods, who had killed many of the inhabitants of Connecticut, by torturing them to death. An expedition under Capt. Mason resulted in their defeat, the destruction of their towns, and their dispersion. The English received assistance from some friendly native tribes. In 1639, the constitution of the Connecticut colony was formed. In 1637, the foundation of the New Haven colony was laid by a 150 STATE OF CONNECTICUT. respectable company of emigrants from England, under Mr. Theophilus Eaton and Rev. John Davenport. They purchased large tracts of land of the natives, and laid out the present regular and elegant city of New Haven. In 1639, they formed their civil and religious polity, on the model of the Jewish laws, so far as they were of general application, and resolved in all things to be governed by the Word of God. In 1642, the criminal code of Connecticut was completed, and in the statutes the scriptures were quoted, on which they were founded. In 1647, it was ordered that no person under twenty years of age, nor any person not accustomed to it, should use tobacco, without a certificate from a physician that it was necessary to his health, nor without a license from the court, on penalty of sixpence for each offence, which was ordered to be paid without gainsaying. In 1650, a treaty of amity and partition was concluded at Hartford, between the English and the Dutch, in which the latter relinquished all claim to the territory of Connecticut, excepting the lands which they actually occupied. After Charles II. was restored to the throne, Connecticut applied to him for a royal charter. Her agent, Mr. Winthrop, had in his possession a remarkable ring, which was given to his grandmother by Charles I., and presented it to his son, which so conciliated this capricious monarch, that he granted the charter in 1662, on the most favorable terms, including in it the colony of New Haven, to which the latter, however, did not accede until 1665,-when the colonies became permanently united. In 1675, the war with the sachem, King Philip, commenced, in which Connecticut furnished aid in full proportion to her strength; many of her officers and soldiers were killed in the attack on the fort at Narraganset. In 1664, Charles II. granted the New Netherlands (New York) to the Duke of York, including Connecticut in the patent. In 1675, Major Andros, who had been appointed governor of the former, appeared at Saybrook, and demanded possession of the fort; but when attempting to read his commission, Capt. Bull resolutely commanded him to desist, and read a protest from the assembly of Connecticut; and such was his resolution that the governor desisted, and returned to New York, saying that the horns of this bull ought to be tipped with gold. In 1686, James II. attemped to annul the charters of the New England colonies, and Sir Edmund Andros appeared at Hartford, and demanded the charter. The subject was debated by the general assembly in the evening, when the candles were suddenly extinguished, and the charter was taken away and hid in the hollow of an oak tree, since famous as the CHARTER OAK. When James II. was driven from the throne, King William confirmed the charter, which thenceforth became the basis of the government, until the formation of the new constitution in 1818. In 1692, Col. Fletcher was appointed governor of New York, and authorized to command the militia of Con necticut. He proceeded to Hartford and ordered the train-bands to be assembled, and attempted to read to them his commission; Capt. Wadsworth, the senior officer of the militia, ordered the drums to beat; Fletcher commanded silence, and again attempted to read, when Wadsworth exclaimed, " Drum, drum, I say;" and turning to Fletcher he said, " If it is attempted again, I will make the sun shine through you in a moment." Fletcher desisted, and returned the following night to New York. Here was something of the spirit of the American Revolution. The king of England afterward gave the command of the militia to the governor of STATE OF CONNECTICUT. 151 Connecticut, with the reservation, that in time of war a certain number should be placed under the orders of Fletcher. Connecticut took an active part in the American Revolution; and Governor Trumbull deserves the appellation of the right-hand-man of General Washington. He often assisted him by his counsel; and such was the spirit of the people, that he was able to supply the commander-in-chief with his most efficient troops in the early part of the war. Connecticut is one of the parent colonies of the country. Emigrants from it early settled in the east part of Long Island, and in a part of New Jersey, and of Pennsylvania. About the period of the American Revolution and subsequently, it contributed largely to the settlement of Vermont; and more recently, it has sent out great numbers of emigrants to western New York, Ohio, and all the states of the West. The Western Reserve in Ohio, containing a large and intelligent portion of the state, was settled chiefly by emigrants from Connecticut, though many were also from the other New England states. Her sons will be found as enterprising cultivators of the soil, as civilians, and in the higher departments of magistracy, as teachers of youth, as ministers of the gospel, and as presidents and professors in colleges over the country. An important portion of the enterprising men of business in the city of New York were from this state. There are six cities in the state, viz: New Haven, Hartford, New London, Middletown, Norwich and Bridgeport. NEW HAVEN and HARTFORD are the capitals of the state. The former had, in 1850, a population of 22,539. It lies on the sea-coast, and is a place of considerable commercial and manufacturing importance, and one of the most beautiful cities of the Union. It is laid out in two parts: the old town and the new township. The streets being so arranged as to form regular squares, and in those parts appropriated exclusively to residences, almost every house has a garden in front, with flowers, vines, and overhanging trees. It has a number of beautiful public edifices, among which are the state-house, Yale college, the state general hospital, and a number of others. There are also about 20 churches, most of which are built with strict regard to taste and elegance. Hartford is situated on the Connecticut river, 50 miles from its mouth. The city is beautifully located, but not very regularly laid out. Although inland, Hartford has considerable commerce. The people are also engaged to some extent in manufactures. The population, in 1850, was 17,851. The state-house is a beautiful building of the Doric order, surrounded in a large public square, by an expensive iron railing: the legislature meets here every alternate year. The city hall is a large building also of the Doric style. Washington college is another handsome building, on an elevated and commanding position. The asylum for the deaf and dumb, the first established in the United States, furnishes another imposing public edifice. The asylum for the insane, and the Athenseum, are both elegant structures. The latter is designed for the "Historical Society," the Young Men's Institute, and a gallery of paintings. Besides the above, Hartford has 13 churches of beautiful construction. The " Old Charter Oak," so celebrated in history, is still standing, and affords an object of interest to the traveler. The trunk of this venerable relic now measu;-res 21 feet in circumference. , — - -" —- - --------------— I —-- --------------- - - ------— ~ —------------------- -----— c ----------— ~ —------------------------- -C-r-I —-- _ —-2 5 —-=5 ---- --—; — — —— =--_-i-5i- -— J=~ ----— i —- "' t= -YE= —— CI-== -------;;-. r; —— — i_ —s —-;_L;-;C=-; — =1 5 -i-_________3i--—.=i'=== —-r===;F-=3 — - I- — —r= —=_-=-.3-L r —-----— L-" —-1;= —- --— _-F.1 —-L-i — I =-i--s2 --- ~c-F 1..8eea s ~rr R _ — i- —----- i, --2=-_ —-=-_rcfLsPr I'YIBsYm~t'iKFi - -slr I -ClsWlsdbl;WIR&I 1 -i~r s crc — rr+is~ — HUDSON RIVER XCENERY. VAL LEY- OF WVYOMIING - PE NNSYLATANIA. 0 _ _ f 1 54 STATE OF NEW YORK, INEW YORK. AREA, 46,000 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION IN 1850, 3,099,249. New York is the most populous State in the Union. It is bounded north by Lake Ontario, the river St. Lawrence and Lower Canada; east by Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut; south by the Atlantic, New Jersey and Pennsylvania; west by Niagara river, Lake Erie and Pennsylvania. It lies between 40~ 30' and 45~ north latitude, and between 71~ 56' and 790 56' west longitude. Exclusive of Long Island, it is 340 miles long and 310 broad, containing in the whole State, 46,000 square miles, or 29,440,000 acres. The surface of the State is various. The south-eastern angle of the State is mountainous, being traversed by several ridges proceeding from the State of New Jersey, one of which crosses the Hudson River at the Highlands, presenting a bold and lofty face along both margins of the river, and abounding in the most magnificent scenery. The Catskill Mountains, as a range, are the most elevated, and have several culminations, as Round Top, (3,084 feet high,) of considerable size; but the greatest elevation in the State is Mount Marcy, in the Adirondack group, which rises 5,467 feet above the level of the ocean. The country of Lake Champlain is hilly, and becomes mountainous on approaching the highlands which divide the waters of the lake from those which flow into the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario. The western part of the State lying between Lake Ontario and Pennsylvania is principally level, except near the State line, where it becomes more broken and abrupt. From Genessee river, near its mouth, to Jamestown, on the Niagara, there is a remarkable ridge, running almost the whole distance, which is 78 miles long, and in a direction from east to west. Its general altitude above the neighboring land, is 30 feet, and its width in some places is not more than 120 feet. The elevation of this ridge is 160 feet above the level of Lake Ontario, to which it descends by a gradual slope, and its distance from that water is from six to ten miles. There is every reason to suppose that this ridge was once the margin of the lake. About 20 miles south and parallel to the above, there is another ridge, which runs from Genessee River to Black Rock,-the country between being called the Tonawanda valley, and there is the same reason to believe that it was formerly the bed of the waters of Lake Erie. The soil is generally good, and in some parts exceedingly fertile. The eastern part is best adapted to grazing, and the western part to grain. The climate of New York is various. In the south part the winters are mild, but changeable. In the north-east part they are severe, but more uniform. In the level country west of the mountains, the climate is more mild than in the same latitude in the east part. The extremes of temperature at Albany, are 16~ below and 93~ above zero of Farenheit; at Flatbush, Long Island, 40 below and 870 above zero; at Canandaigua, 8~ below and 870 degrees above zero. These may be regarded as representing the northern, southern and western divisions of the State, with some ex ceptions. STATE OF NEW YORK. 155 The principal river is the Hudson, 324 miles long, which enters New York bay, and is navigable for sloops 151 miles to Troy, and for large ships, 130 miles to Hudson. The picturesque beauty of its banks, forming gentle grassy slopes, covered with forest to the water's edge, or crowned by neat and thriving towns; now overshadowing the water with tall cliffs, and now rising in mural precipices; and the legendary and historical interest associated with numerous spots, combine to render the Hudson the classic stream of the United States. Next in importance are the Mohawk, 135 miles long, which enters the' Hudson a little above Troy; the Genessee, 125 miles long, which enters Lake Ontario, with falls at Rochester of 226 feet in three miles, having three perpendicular falls of 96, 76, and 20 feet, affording a vast water power; Black river, 120 miles long, which flows into Lake Ontario; Saranac, 65 miles long, which enters Lake Champlain at Plattsburg; the Ausable, which, after a course of 75 miles, enters Lake Champlain; the Oswegatchie, which flows 100 miles, and enters the St. Lawrence; The Oswego which proceeds from Oneida Lake, 40 miles to Lake Ontario. The St. Lawrence forms a part of its northwest boundary. Lakes Erie, Ontario and Champlain lie partly within the State. Of the lakes which lie wholly within it, are Lake George, 33 miles long, with an average breadth of two miles, having its outlet into Lake Champlain, and surrounded by much picturesque scenery; Oneida lake, 20 miles long and 3& wide; Skaneatles lake, 15 miles long, and from 1 to 1i miles broad; Owasco lake, 11 miles long, and from 1 to 2 in width; Cayuga lake, 38 miles long, and from 1 to 4 broad; Seneca lake, 35 miles in length, and from 2 to 4 broad; Crooked lake, 18 miles long, and from 1 to 1 miles broad; Canandaigua lake, 14 miles long, and one broad. All these small lakes discharge their waters into lake Ontario. Lake George empties its waters into lake Champlain, which has an outlet three miles in length, and a descent of two hundred feet. Its waters are clear and pure and its bosom is adorned with upwards of 300 islands. Surrounded by lofty mountains, some rising boldly from its shores, and others occupying a distant back ground; overhung in many places with a thick dark forest, which contrasts strongly with its pure bright waters, and infinitely diversified with retreating bays, projecting headlands, and rocky, or fertile and well-wooded shores, Lake George offers great attractions to lovers of the picturesque and beautiful in nature. In the extreme western part of the State is Chautauque lake, 18 miles long, and from 1 to 3 broad, situated within a few miles of Lake Erie, but discharging its waters south into Alleghany river. There are several important islands in New York. Long Island is 120 miles long from east to west, with an average breadth of 10 miles, and contains the counties of Kings, Queens and& Suffolk; Staten Island south-west of New York harbor, is 18 miles long and 8 wide, and contains the county of Richmond; Manhattan or New York island, is 15 miles long, with an average breadth of 12 miles, and contains the city and county of New York. At the east end of Long Island are Fisher's island, Shelter island, and Robbins's island, all, excepting the first, small. Grand island in Niagara river, is 12 miles long, and from 2 to 7 wide, and extends within 19 miles of Niagara falls. 156 STATE OF NEW YORK. The harbours are New York, one of the finest in the United States, which extends eight miles above the Narrows, and is 25 miles in circumference, which is safe, spacious, well defended, and accessible at all seasons of the year and has 21 to 27 feet of water on the bar at its entrance. Brooklyn, on the west end of Long Island, has a good harbour, as has Sag Harbour, at its east end. Sackett's Harbour, on Lake Ontario, is a good natural harbour, and Oswego Harbour has been made good by artificial means. Buffalo and Dunkirk have good harbours on Lake Erie. POPULATION-CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. Albany............ 93,297 Franklin........ 25,115 Oneida...........99,818 Schoharie....... 33,537 Allegany......... 37,600 Fulton....... 20,158 Onondaga........85,900 Seneca........ 25,442 Broome.......... 30,660 Genessee........ 28,538 Ontario........ 43,978 Steuben........ 63,785 Cattaraugus...... 38,910 Greene.......... 33,124 Orange...........57,164 Suffolk........ 36,826 Cayuga............ 55.489 Hamilton........ 2,188 Orleans.........28,464 Sullivan........ 25,090 Chatauque....... 50,624 Herkimer........ 38,257 Oswego...........62,150 Tioga......... 25,384 Chemung...... 28,964 Jefferson...... 68,156 Otsego...........48,740 Tompkins.........38,749 Chenango........ 40,319 Kings...........138,899 Putnam.........14,134 Ulster.............59,959 Clinton............ 40.000 Lewis........... 24,570 Queens........ 37,043 Warren.......... 17,158 Columbia........ 43,014 Livingston........ 40,887 Rensselaer....... 73,434 Washington.......44,761 Cortland......... 25,058 Madison......... 43,081 Richmond........ 15,066 Wayne........ 44,967 Delaware....... 39,872 Monroe......... 87,338 Rockland.........16,965 Westchester....... 58,267 Dutchess......... 58,994 Montgomery..... 81,913 St. Lawrence......68,634 Wyoming........ 32,123 Erie.........101,112 New York.......515,390 Saratoga........45,620 Yates.............20,590 Essex............ 31,203 Niagara......... 42,224 Schenectady.....20,057 The commerce of the State of New York greatly surpasses that of any other State in the Union. Besides supplying her own wants, she imports a large share of the foreign articles consumed in the neighboring Atlantic States, as well as in many of the Western States, to which her great natural and artificial channels of communication give her access; and her great commercial emporium is the outlet for the produce of the same regions. The stock and productions of agricultural industry, are also extensive. Wheat is the great agricultural staple, and large quantities of Indian corn, oats, rye, buckwheat, barley and potatoes, are raised; maple sugar is extensively manufactured, and fruit, lumber, pot and pearl ashes, tar, pitch and turpentine are items of some consideration to the farmer. The manufactures are equally extensive with its other departments of industry. The annual produce of the cotton factories may be estimated at three million, and that of the woollen and wool and cotton factories, at four million dollars. There are about 70 incorporated silk factories. The manufactures of iron, glass, hemp, paper, leather, &c., are also extensive. About $60,000,000 are invested in the various manufactures of the State. New York took the lead in the United States in works of internal improvement. The Erie Canal is one of the most magnificent works of the kind ever constructed. Its course is east and west-from Albany, on the Hudson, to Lake Erie, thus uniting the great west with the chief outlet of commerce on the Atlantic coast. Lateral canals, some of great length, diverge north and south, and concentrate the commerce of large and distant districts to a focus. This great work was commenced in 1817, and completed in 1825, but has since been enlarged and improved, at a total cost of $20,133,641: it is 364 miles long, exclusive of the lateral works, which have an aggregate length of nearly 500 miles, and cost about $10,750,000. The railroads of the State connect many important sections, and when completed, as now proposed, will add greatly to the facilities now enjoyed STATE OF.NEW YORK. 157 by the people. One of the most extensive lines completed is that connecting the capital with the British Provinces. Its general direction is east and west, passing nearly over the same country as the great canal. The railroads, which centre at Albany, diverge north and south, east and west, thus connecting every section of the country, and concentrating on the Hudson the commerce of all. From New York City, the various lines connect with those of the New England, Southern and Western States, and from Piermont the New York and Erie Railroad penetrates through the southwestern part of this State and northern Pennsylvania, until it terminates at Dunkirk, on Lake Erie. This work was completed in May, 1851. This state has several important literary institutions, for the condition of which, and also that of the religious denominations of the state, the reader is referred to the statistical tables in the general description of the United States. Statistics of the common schools for the year ending July 1, 1849: Number of whole districts in the 878 towns and 81 wards of cities of the state, 11,191. Number of parts of districts, 2,780. Returns were received from 10,928 districts. Average length of schools in all the districts, 8 months. Volumes in district libraries, 1,409,154. 778,309 children were taught during the year. 739,655 were returned between 5 and 16 years of age. 269,638 pupils attended school less than two months; 508,671 attended two months and upwards; 315,430, four.and upwards; 165,968, six and upwards; 70,378, eight and upwards; 21,793, ten and upwards; and 6,687, attended school for twelve months. There are about 11,000 colored children, between 5 and 16, in the state, and 4,006 in the 35 colored schools. $5,016.57 of public money was appropriated to these schools. 75,000 children are probably taught annually in private schools. There are, besides, schools for the instruction of Indian children in the several reservations. 641 Indian children are reported between 5 and 16 years of age, and 500 as having attended school. A large and commodious edifice has been erected for the use of the normal school. Between four and five hundred pupils attend this school annually, from all sections of the state. The capital, and annual revenue of the several funds devoted to the purposes of education, is as follows: Commaon School Fund, -..Capital, $2,243,563 -revenue, $108,236 United States Deposit Fund, " 4,014,520 " 255,200 Literature Fund, " 265,966 " 17,089 There has also been paid from the general fund, for the instruction of the deaf and dumb, $25,778.34; and to the institution for the blind, $18,476.89; making the whole sum paid during the year, for the purposes of education, $424,784.68. To the Common School Fund belong about 307,759 acres of land, and to the Literature Fund about 10,880 acres. Of the funds devoted to education as above, what is exclusively the Common School Fund may be stated as follows: Productive capital of the School Fund as above, $2,243,563 36 Amount from United States Deposit Fund which will produce $165,000, the sum annually appropriated therefrom, for the support of common schools, at six per cent. interest, - - 2,750,000 00 Sum reserved by the constitution to be added annually to the capital of the School Fund, - 25,000 00 Making a total of -...$5,018,563 36 The annual interest on this sum, at six per cent., is $301,113.80. The balance of the income of the United States Deposit Fund is appropriated 108 STATE OF NEW fYORK. to the support of colleges, academies, the normal school, Indian schools, teachers' institutes, &c. The income of the Literature Fund must, by the constitution, be applied to the support of academies. The whole amount of public money received from all sources by the Commissioners of cities, and town Superintendents, during the year ending July 1, 1849, was $846,710.45. Apportioned for teachers' wages, $625,456.69; for libraries, $93,104.82. Leaving a balance unapportioned, of $128,148.94. The amount paid on rate bills for teachers' wages, besides public money, was $489,696.93. The financial affairs of the State, at the close of the fiscal year, September, 1849, were as follows: The general fund and railroad debt at the close of the fiscal year, was $6,389,693.32, and the canal debt at the same period was $16,414,523.67. Making an aggregate of $22,804,216.99,-on which accrues, annually, nearly $1,259,036 interest. There is also a contingent debt, consisting of State stock and comptroller's bonds, of $1,233,905.60, upon which the State does not pay interest. This will make the total indebtedness of the State $24,038,122.59. The property of the State, in addition to the educational funds mentioned above, consists of the works of internal improvement, which, at their cost valuation, (i. e. the amount expended upon them to date,) are worth $33,214,158.62. But the whole amount of tolls derived from them dur ing the year, is 3,442,906.62, —which gave, after deducting expenses, the net income of $2,757,102.71. This is 6 per cent interest upon $45,951,711.83, which may be taken as the worth of the works of the State. The average net annual income for the last five years, is $2,370.78, which is equal to a capital of $39,515,279.66, at six per cent interest. The amount of debt incurred for their construction, and yet unpaid, is, as stated above, $16,414,523.67. The taxable property of New York, in 1848, was $666,089,526, being $536,162,901 of real estate, and $129,926,625 of personal estate. The State and county taxes were $4,174,277.54; the town taxes, $1,374,703.74. Total taxation, $5,548,981.28,-making the rate of State, county, and town tax 8.3 mills on a $1.00 valuation. The general revenue for the year was $992,688, and the expenditures for the same period amounted to $842,316. CHIEF SOURCES OF INCOME. PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE. Auction duty, -$93,025 46 Executive, - -. $38,954 92 Salt duty, 51,598 98 Judiciary,..109,909 86 Register and clerk fees, - - 1,534 60 Legislature,.89,886 95 Fees of Secretary s office, 1,550 30 State printing,.75,448 37 Peddlers' licenses, - 1445 00 Deaf and dumb, - 40,778 34 Foreign insurance companies, 5,052 16 Blind, 33,476 89 Interest on arrears of county taxes, - 16,797 17 Agricultural societies, - - - 6,563 00 Treasury deposits, 14,428 12 Onondaga salt springs, - - 29,754 05 Surplus revenue of canals, annual appro- State prisons, 84,394 71 priation, 200,000 00 State Library, 7,901 37 State tax, -278,843 10 Hospital, New York, - 22,500 00 Sales of lands, 1,310 00 House of Refuge, for western New York, 19,300 30 Sales of land for taxes, - - - 203,341 55 Foreign poor, 5.000 00 Arrears of county taxes, - - 53,359 20 Orphan Asylums in State, - - - 5,000 00 Scoharie county, for enforcing law, - 1,000 00' New York Arsenal, - - 22,657 49 Miscellaneous and temporary receipts, - 4684 33 Geological survey, 13,724 26 Normal school building, - - - 28,500 00 Miscellaneous and temporary, - - - 35,477 54 There are 77 incorporated safety-fund banks in operation, and 2 branches, whose aggregate capital amounts to $28,960,860. Circulation to which they are entitled, $23,282,400. Actuat circulation, $21,406,861. STATE OF NEW YORK. 159 The Bank Fund was made up by annual contributions from the incorporated safety-fund banks, of one-half of one per cent on their respective capitals, and was by law appropriated to the payment of debts of such banks liable to contribute the same, as should become insolvent. The fund has been exhausted, and there are $779,696.02 of six per cent stock now outstanding, to meet the wants of the fund,-which stock, except $106,331.62, now in the treasury, or invested, is to be provided for out of the future contribution by the banks to the fund. The whole circulation redeemed for insolvent banks, is $1,503,366; debts paid, $1,010,625; making a total of $2,513,991, that has been charged upon the bank fund. The notes of every insolvent safety-fund bank which has failed, have been redeemed. The Free Bank Fund consists of bonds and mortgages, and stocks deposited with the Comptroller, and moneys received on the same and held by him, for the redemption of the circulating notes issued by banks and individual bankers, under the general banking law. The whole number of associations is 58; of individual banks, 55; in all, 113, whose aggregate circulation, Dec. 1, 1849, was $11,180,675, and whose whole amount of securities deposited, was $11,916,806.39. The Constitution under which the State is now organized, was adopted in convention on the 9th October, 1846, and ratified by the people on the 2d November of the same year. Every male citizen of 21 years of age, is eligible to vote, but he must have been such ten days previous to the election, and have been an inhabitant of the State one year, of the county four months, and of the district where he offers his vote, thirty days next preceding. Colored persons must have resided three years and own a freehold of $250 value, and have paid a tax. Convicts and persons betting or interested in a bet on the result of an election, are by law deprived of suffrage. The State is divided into 32 districts, each of which choose a senator to serve two years-the whole to constitute the SENATE. The members of the ASSEMBLY, which, together with the senate, constitute the legislature, are 128 in number, and are distributed according to population, but each county, except Hamilton, is entitled to one Assemblyman. The pay of Senators and Assemblymen is alike, —$3 per diem. The Speaker, however, receives $4. The elections aire held on the Tuesday succeeding the first Monday in November, and the legislature assembles at Albany on the first Tuesday in January.. The governor and lieutenant-governor are elected for two years, by a plurality of all the votes. In case there are two candidates having the highest and equal number of votes, the election is decided by joint ballot of the two houses. Each must be at least 30 years of age, citizens of the United States, and have resided in the State five years next preceding. The lieutenant-governor is ex-officio president of the Senate, but has only a casting vote. The governor has a veto on all acts of the legislature; but all acts afterwards receiving a two-thirds vote, are constitutionally valid without his signature. The secretary of state, comptroller, treasurer, attorney general, state engineer and surveyor, are elected for two years, at the general election, and canal commissioners are elected for three years, one being elected each year. The judiciary is vested in a number of courts. The Court for the Trial of Impeachments, consists of the Senate and Justices of the Court of 160 STATE OF NEW YORK. Appeals. The Court of Appeals consists of eight judges, who are elected for eight years, and so classified that two are elected every second year. The state is divided into eight judicial districts, of which the city of New York is one, and in this city the number of justices is fixed by a special law. In each of the other districts, four Justices of the Supreme Court are elected to serve eight years. The Justices have general jurisdiction in law and equity. Each county, except New York, elects one county judge for four years, who also acts as surrogate; but counties having more than 40,000 inhabitants, may elect a separate surrogate. Towns elect justices of the peace to serve four years. Cities may have inferior local courts, of civil and criminal jurisdiction. Tribunals of conciliation may be established, whose decisions shall be binding only upon parties who voluntarily submit their matters in dispute, and agree to abide the result. The clerk of the Court of Appeals is ex-officio clerk of the Supreme Court, and is chosen by the people for three years. The old practice of the courts has been abolished, and a new code of practice, which simplifies and abbreviates proceedings, has been instituted. The constitution is very concise on the financial movements of the state. It provides for the payment of the public debt by a sinking fund, &c.; forbids the state to give its credit to any individual or corporation, and denies the further accumulation of indebtedness, except for casual deficits, or in case of insurrection or invasion, until the present debt is extinguished. No corporation nor banks are to be constituted by a special law, but general laws are to be enacted. If a bank becomes insolvent, bill-holders shall be preferred creditors. The school fund is to be preserved inviolate; persons having conscientious scruples are exempt from military duty; no religion has a preference; truth may be advanced in libel cases; all feudal tenures are abolished; leases not to be for more than twelve years, &c. &c. The constitution may be revised every twenty years, but not without the consent of the majority of the people. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the service of the Dutch East India Company, discovered Hudson river, and Manhattan island, in 1609. He entered the river, and sailed with his ship above the highlands, and sent a party of men in a boat to explore the river farther, who ascended above Albany. The Dutch merchants sent a company to trade with the natives, who in 1614 built a fort on Manhattan island, and another called fort Orange, on an island just below Albany. These establishments were made for the purpose of trade with the Indians. In 1621 the Dutch West India Company was incorporated, and directed their attention to forming. settlements for the purpose of trade, and they laid claim to the country from Delaware to Connecticut river, on both of which they built foits, which involved them in controversy with the Swedes and English. They also had severe contests with the Indians. Peter Stuyvesant, the most intelligent of the Dutch governors, established, in 1650, with commissioners of the New England colonies, the boundaries between the Dutch and English colonies. The former relinquished all claim to Connecticut, excepting the lands which they actually occupied, and the latter retained the eastern part of Long Island. In 1664, Charles II. granted the country to his brother, the Duke of York, and the English, under Col. Robert Nichols, took possession of the country. Manhattan assumed the name of New York, and fort Orange that of Albany, in honor of James, Duke of York and Albany STATE OF NEW YORK. 161 In 1673, an expedition from Holland captured the country from the English, but it was restored in 1674, by the treaty of Westphalia. From this time to the American Revolution, it was under governors appointed by the crown of Great Britain, with whom the people were often in controversy, and whose measures, when arbitrary, they were prepared to resist. The inhabitants bore an important part in the French and Revolutionary Wars. In September, 1776, after the disastrous battle of Flatbush on Long Island, the city fell into the hands of the British, who held it until the peace of 1783, when Washington marched the American army into it, in triumph. On the 26th of July, 1788, this state in convention adopted the Constitution of the United States,-yeas 30, nays 25, majority 5. NEW YORK CITY, the principal city of the state of New York, and in population wealth and commerce, the largest city in the United States, deserves to be denominated the London of America. The City Hall is in 40~ 42' 40" N. lat., and 700 1' 8" W. long. from Greenwich, and 3~ 0' 16" E. long. from Washington. The compact part of the city is situated on the south end of New York or Manhattan island, at the confluence of Hudson or North river, with a strait called East river, which connects Long Island sound with the harbour of New York. The chartered limits of the city embrace the whole island, which is of the same extent with the county. The island extends from the Battery on the south point of the island, 139 miles to Kingsbridge, in its north part; and has an average breadth of 1 mile and three-fifths. The greatest breadth is on the line of 88th street, where its breadth is about 2* miles, and it contains about 14,000 acres. It is connected with the main land on the north by three bridges, Harlem bridge, Macomb's bridge, and King's bridge. It is connected with Long Island by six ferries, four of which proceed to Brooklyn, and three to Williamsburg. The bay and harbor of New York is one of the most beautiful and safest in the world, and gives free ingress and egress to vessels of the largest class at all seasons of the year. On the Long Island side, east, lies the city of Brooklyn; at a distance of eight miles from the battery; south is Staten Island, with its highlands and neat villages; and on the west the Jersey shore, with Jersey City, Hoboken, and Weehawken in sight, presenting a view of unsurpassed beauty and magnificence. The battery is a public promenade, embowered in trees, and laid out in grass with gravel walks. It is at the extreme southern point of the city, and overlooks the bay, the Hudson and the East River. Castle Garden is built at the mouth of the Hudson, and is connected with the western point of the battery by a bridge of about 100 yards long. For several years past it has been used as a place of public resort. At the entrance of the harbor are the narrows formed by the approximation of Staten and Long Islands. This pass is about three-quarters of a mile wide, and is strongly fortified. Fort Diamond is built on a reef, 200 yards from the eastern shore, and is covered by Fort Hamilton, which stands on an elevated site directly in its rear. Fort Tompkins and Richmond, both strong works, defend the pass on the western side. In the bay are three islands, Governor's, Bedlow's, and Ellis's, all of which are well fortified, and together afford a safe protection from their respective directions; while at Throg's Neck, about 14 miles east, the eastern passage is protected by fortifications, upon the very guns 1*1 162 STATE OF NEW YORK. of which the vessels of an enemy must pass before entering the harbor. Shipping from every maritime nation, and merchantmen of every size, line the wharves of the city on both sides, for the distance of three miles, presenting a continuous forest of spars and cordage, mingled with the chimneys of numerous steamboats. Upwards of 1000 sail vessels, 80 steamboats and steamships, 70 or 80 tow-boats and 200 canal boats may usually be found in the harbor of New York during the business season. In the coldest weather this harbor is never obstructed by ice, so that vessels bound out or in are never delayed on that account. The dense and populous part of the city has a circumference of about nine or ten miles. The lower part, or that originally built, is irregularly laid out, but the upper portion has been laid out in a rectangular form. The public buildings, which are generally of a costly nature, are numerous, including many magnificent churches and places of popular amusement. The City Hall stands in the park, three quarters of a mile from the battery. It is built on three sides of white marble, and in the rear of red free-stone. The building is entered from the front by twelve marble steps. A double circular stair-case, also of marble, leads to the second story, through tile centre of the building; at the top of the stairway is a circular gallery, with marble floor, from which rise ten marble columns of the Corinthian order, supporting a splendid dome and sky-light. On this floor are the chambers of the two boards of the common council; the governor's room, hung with national portraits; and the chambers occupied by the city courts. The rooms on the first floor are occupied by the mayor and other officers of the corporation, and the basement is appropriated as a AMechanics' Institution, the grand jury rooms, and other public offices. The building is surmounted by a cupola, in which is placed a clock; there is also a room, constantly occupied, night and day, by a watchman, whose duty it is to keep a constant look-out for fires, and give notice of their occurrence and location by a given number of strokes on an immense bell which hangs in a belfry in the rear of the cupola, and which is used for no other purpose. Its sound may be heard from one end of the city to the other, and is immediately responded to by a hundred others in every direction. This building was commenced in 1803, and completed in 1812, at a cost of $583,734. The Merchants' Exchange is located in Wall street, extending through to Exchange street, and from William to Hanover streets. It is built of Quincy granite, and is 200 feet long, by 171 to 144 wide, 77 feet high to the top of the cornice, and 124 feet to the top of the dome. The front has a recessed portico with eighteen Grecian Ionic columns, 38 feet high, and four feet four inches thick, each one solid block of stone weighing 43 tons. The building occupies the site of the exchange destroyed in the great fire of 1835. It is entirely fire-proof, having no wood-work in its construction, except the doors and window frames. The cost of the present building was $1,800,000. The Custom House is situated on the corner of Nassau and Wall streets, and extends through to Pine street. It is 200 feet long and 90 feet wide, and 80 feet high, and is built in the most substantial manner, of white marble. The entrance to the portico, on Wall street, is reached by eighteen marble steps, and the portico is embellished with eight Grecian Doric columns, of the same material, 32 feet high, and 5 feet 8 inches thick. STATE OF NEW YORK. 163 The rear portico, on Pine street, is similarly ornamented, but in consequence of the rise of land from Wall to Pine street, the ascent is only by three steps. The great business hall is a rotunda, 60 feet in diameter, with recesses and galleries; it is surmounted by an elaborate stuccoed dome, supported by sixteen elegant Corinthian columns, 30 feet high. The cost of the building and ground was $1,175,000; of the building alone, $950,000. This building is also perfectly fire-proof, and stands on the site of the old city hall, on the steps of which General Washington was inaugurated first president of the United States. The Halls of Justice occupy the square bounded by Centre, Franklin, Elm and Leonard streets. It is 253 feet long, by 200 wide, and is built in the massive and purely Egyptian style of architecture, from granite quarried at Hallowell, in Maine. The heavy style of architecture, coupled with the sombre color of the stone, gives the building a gloomy aspect quite in keeping with its purpose as a prison, and which has obtained for it the name of the " Tombs." In this building is held) the Court of Sessions, and the principal police court; it contains also the city prison or house of detention, with 148 cells for different classes of prisoners. The front of the building on Centre street is entered by eight steps, leading to a portico with four immense Egyptian columns; from this there is another ascent of 12 steps, between massive columns, to an area of 50 feet square, the ceiling of which is supported by eight large columns. The above are only a few of the principal buildings appropriated to public business. There are numerous others, as the University, the Lyceum of Natural History, Columbia College, the City Hospital, several asylums, the Astor House, and other hotels, the new post office, the revenue office, and a great number of splendid private mansions. Of the churches, many of which are superb specimens of architectural taste, the Church of the Holy Trinity is the most magnificent. It stands on Broadway, opposite the head of Wall street, and having a large open space about it, presents its symmetrical and elaborate structure to advan tage on every side. It is built of brown free stone to the very pinnacles of the spire, which is surmounted by a gilded cross, at the height of 264 feet. The building is of Gothic structure, ornamented with elaborate and costly sculpture. The effect of the interior is grand and imposing, the windows being of stained glass, admitting only a subdued light; but the convenience of the worshippers has in some degree been sacrificed to t X symmetry of the building, the location of the pulpit and the massive pillars which extend to the fretted roof, shutting the speaker from the view of great numbers of the congregation. The new Grace Church is the next in point of magnificence. It is built of white marble, in the Gothic style, and while the exterior will not compete with that of Trinity in costliness or beauty, the interior is arranged with more elegance and taste. It is located on the east side of Broadway, nearly three miles from the battery. St. Thomas is a beautiful structure of rough stone. The Reformed Dutch Church, on Washington square, is a beautiful building in the Gothic style. The new Unitarian Church, on Broadway, near Prince street, is also a fine specimen of taste; as also many others of the various denominations. The whole number of churches is 172; of which 23 are Baptist, 33 Protestant Episcopal, 30 Presbyterian, 6 Congregational, 30 Methodist, 13 164 STATE OP NEW YORK. Roman Catholic, 23 Reformed Dutch, 3 Universalist, 1 Unitarian, 6 Jewish, and 4 Quaker. New York has few public grounds, but those are beautiful and well appreciated by the public. They are the Battery, Bowling Green, the Park, St. John's Park, Washington Square, Tompkins' Square, Gramercy Park, and Union Place; all these are beautified with ornamental trees, and some with splendid fountains. These are the principal resort of the citizens during the cool evenings and mornings of the summer months, and are truly the lungs of the city. The city is supplied with an abundance of pure and wholesome water, through an aqueduct of stone masonry, laid in hydraulic cement, under ground, from Croton river, a distance of. 40 miles, to the receiving reservoir (which is five miles north of the City Hall), from which the water is conveyed through two lines of pipes to the distributing reservoir, 3 miles from the City Hall, and thence through iron pipes throughout the city. These pipes extend in all directions, a distance of 183 miles. The cost of this work has been a little less than $16,000,000. The receiving reservoir covers an area of 35 acres, and will contain water sufficient to supply the present wants of the city, without waste, for a period of five or six weeks. The water is almost perfectly pure, and notwithstanding the immense cost of obtaining it, the convenience, health, and safety from fire, of the citizens, are so far enhanced by its use, that none hesitate to contribute their proportion to the expense. New York has numerous literary, scientific and benevolent institutions, each of which is of great utility in its peculiar modes of doing good. It has also several swell regulated theatres and operas, the principal of which are the Park, Bowery, Broadway, Astor, Chatham, with the Castle Garden, and some others of minor importance. New York, in short, may be considered as a world within itself. People of every nation, kindred and tongue, and exercising every art and profession known to man, are its inhabitants. Churches of every persuasion. people of all creeds, institutions of every imaginary shade, and man in all his phases, and in every condition, are all agglomerated within the circuit of this, the Empire City of the western world, and form a most heterogeneous compound of all that is extreme. New York has suffered much from fire. The great fires of 1835 and 1845 are matters of'history. Brooklyn is the next city in point of population, and may be considered as a suburb of New York, with which it has constant and rapid communication, by means of 5 ferries. The population, in 1850, was 96,850. The East river, between the two cities, is only about three-quarters of a mile wide, and, as a consequence, their business is much blended. Brooklyn, however, has considerable commerce of its own, and good wharfage for vessels of the largest class. The Atlantic dock in South Brooklyn, is a work of some magnitude, and will eventually become of great advantage to the place. At the upper or northern part of the city is the Wallabout, at which the British prison ships were moored during the revolution, and where ELEVEN THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED American prisoners died from starvation, confinement, and other inhuman cruelties practised upon them by their captors. At that place is one of the United States' Navy Yards, from which some of the largest ships in the service have been launched. Greenwood Cemetery, one of the most beautiful burying places in the STATE OF NEW YORK. 165 country, is situated in the south section of the city, a short distance from the bay, and contains 200 acres, diversified with hill and dale, wood, plain and lake. Brooklyn has 42 churches; but, although the city is beautifully situated and exceedingly well built, there are no public buildings except the new City Hall (now being erected) to vary the monotony of its long lines of private mansions. Some of the churches are handsome structures, and unique in external appearance. There are, in Brooklyn, some of the most magnificent and costly private mansions, the residences chiefly of the merchant-princes of the commercial emporium. ALBANY is the capital of the state. It is situated on the west bank of the Hudson, 145 miles from its mouth. It is handsomely located upon a gentle rise of land, and with its gilded domes, presents an imposing appearance from the river. The capitol is the principal public edifice; it is built of stone, in a square surrounded by an iron railing, and occupies a commanding and elevated position at the head of State street. The building is 115 feet long by 90 feet in width, and contains elegant and richly fur nished apartments for the senate and assembly, and other state officers. The City Hall is a superb building of white marble, and is surmounted with a large gilded dome. Albany enjoys a large commerce, being the entrep~t between the north-west and New York city, and its manufactures are considerable, amounting to upwards of $2,000,000 per annum. Two ferries cross the river to Greenbush, and numerous steamboats, some of the most splendid and largest in the world, with an endless number of towboats, ply between this city, New York, and the intermediate places. The Erie canal and the Champlain branch terminate at Albany, producing a large forwarding and commission business. Railroads also connect it with Boston and Buffalo; and a similar connection is now completed to New York, by means of the Hudson river and the Harlem roads. A tremendous fire, which consumed one-eighth part of the city, broke out on the 17th of August, 1848. The property burnt covered 200 acres, and is variously estimated at the value of from $3,000,000 to $5,000,000. Many vessels and boats, and large quantities of merchandise, were also destroyed by the devouring element. This catastrophe has done more damage than the great fire of 1845 in New York. Troy is on the east side of the Hudson, 10 miles above Albany. It is a thriving city, and even now a rival to Albany in business and enterprise. Manufactures of various descriptions occupy one-third of the people. The population according to the census of 1845, was 21,709, and is rapidly increasing. Rochester, on the line of the Erie canal, has a population of 36,600. It is connected with the cities in every direction, by means of railroads or canals, and with the lakes through Genesee river, on which it is built. Buffalo, on lake Erie, is the western terminus of the Erie canal and the great chain of railroads which connect with Albany. It is a place of great activity and considerable commercial importance. The population in 1850 was 42,266. Among the larger towns may be mentioned Williamsburg, adjoining Brooklyn on the east; Jamaica, Sag Harbor, Sing-Sing, Newburg, Poughkeepsie, Waterford, Herkimer, Lyons, Palmyra, Batavia, Lockport, &c.; all flourishing places. 166 STATE OF NEW YORK. NIAGARA FALLS. —Below the termination of Grand and Navy islands, the Niagara river is compressed to the breadth of two and a half miles, and proceeds -with an accelerated motion. Three fourths of a mile above the falls commnence the rapids, which have a descent of from 52 to 57 feet, the greatest descent being on the British side, more than a mile in width, with white crested breakers, and a dashing and foaming torrent, tossing from 10 to 30 feet above the main current, until they come to the tremendous cataract of Niagara falls. Woe will be to the man or animal who falls into these rapids, by which numbers have been hurried to destruction; while a few almost by a miracle have escaped. The falls of Niagara, are about 21 miles below lake Erie, and 14 miles above lake Ontario, and are generally regarded as the greatest natural curiosity in the world. The river, which constitutes the great outlet of the upper lakes, is here precipitated over a precipice 160 feet high, with a solemn and tremendous roar, which is ordinarily heard from 5 to 20 miles. And yet, at the village on the American shore, near the cataract, there is little to give notice of its awful proximity. In consequence of a bend in the river, the principal weight of the water, supposed to be seven eighths of the whole, is thrown on the Canadian side, down what is called the Horse-shoe fall, which name has become inappropriate, as the edge of the precipice has ceased to be a curve, and forms a moderately acute angle. Near the middle of the fall, Goat island, containing 75 acres, extends to the brow and bottom of the precipice, dividing the river into two parts; and Luna island, at a little distance from Goat island, again divides the cataract on the American side. Goat island at its lower extremity, presents a mass of perpendicular rock, reaching from the bottom to the top of the precipice, and creating two distinct falls. A bridge has been constructed to Bath island. This island is 24 rods in length, and contains about two acres. The bridge to Bath island is 28 rods long from the shore, and another bridge of 16 rods long extends to Goat island. The view of the rapids, foaming and tossing among the rocks, is fearfully beautiful, as seen from these bridges. On Bath island is a toll-house, where travelers enter their names, pay a small fee, can see curiosities, and frequently obtain walking canes, cut on the island, which they often retain as memorials of their visit to the falls. From the west part of Goat island, a bridge has been constructed, 300 feet long; and near the termination of this bridge, in the water and on the rocks, at the very verge of the precipice, a stone tower. has been erected, 45 feet high, ascended by winding steps on the inside, and an iron balustrade around its open gallery at the top. It requires some strength of nerve, and a little reflection to feel safe, in looking down into this awful abyss, and to survey the tumbling confusion and tremendous roar of the mass of waters, from a situation so near the brow of the precipice. But the unnumbered initials of names, inscribed on every part of the building will evince to the spectator, that thousands have been there before him. Table rock, a shelving projection on the Canadian side, at the edge of the precipice, is 150 feet high. This last place is thought to present the finest view of the fall; and taken as a whole this is doubtless true. But if the spectator wishes to view the crescent or Horse-shoe fall, in all its grandeur, and will visit the stone tower on Goat island, a little after sunrise, when the whole cavity is illuminated by the full strength of the solar rays poured into it, discovering it nearly to the bottom, and spanning it with a STATE OF NEW YORK. 167 perfect rainbow, it will leave him nothing further to desire, in regard to this part of the fall. At the lower end of Goat island, about one third across it, is the Biddle stair-case, named from the gentleman who erected it in 1829, to.afford visiters an opportunity of descending to the bottom of the fall, and passing for a considerable distance behind the two main sheets of water. The descent from the top of the island to the margin of the river is 185 feet. A flight of common steps leads down 40 feet, to the perpendicular spiral steps, 90 in number, enclosed in a hexagon, resting on a firm foundation at the bottom. There is another staircase, about six rods below the falls, leading down the bank on the American side, to the ferry, where is a fine view of the American fall, and a safe passage by the ferry boat to the Canada side, where many fine views of the falls are obtained. The American fall, though sublime, inclines to the beautiful; while the Cana dian fall, though beautiful, is characterized by an overpowering sublimity. It is computed that over 100 millions of tons of water are discharged over the precipice every hour. The river at the falls is a little over three fourths of a mile wide, but below, it is immediately compressed to less than one fourth of a mile wide, and, as ascertained by sounding, is about 150 feet deep. One of the best general views of the falls is from a projecting rock, 200 feet high above the river, about a mile below the village. About two miles below the falls the river is comparatively smooth, and thence to Lewistown it flows with amazing velocity. While the river makes a constant descent, the banks have a gradual ascent for six miles, and some have supposed that the falls have receded from Queenstown to their present situation; but they are known now to occupy the same situation that they did 200 years since. About two miles below the falls on the American side, is a mineral spring, containing sulphuric and muriatic acids, lime and magnesia, useful in scrofulous, rheumatic and cutaneous complaints. One mile further down is a terrific whirlpool, almost as tremendous as the Maelstrom of Norway, where the logs and trees are whirled round for days in its outer circles, and finally drawn down perpendicularly with great force, and shot out again at the distance of many rods. A mile below the whirlpool is an excavation from the side of the bank, containing about two acres, and 150 feet deep, called the Devil's hole. The number of visiters at the falls is from 12 to 15 thousand annually, and the number is increasing. While curiosity constitutes an attribute of the human character, these falls will be frequented by admiring and delighted visiters, as one of the grandest exhibitions in nature. The fashionable, the opulent, and the learned here congregate, in the summer season, from the principal cities of the country; from the southern and western states, South America, the West Indies, the Canadas, and various parts of Europe, and indeed from all parts of the civilized world. An American poetess has well said of Niagara: "Flow on forever, in thy glorious robe Of terror and of beauty! God hath set His rainbow on thy forehead, and the cloud Mantles round thy feet. And he doth give Thy voice of thunder, power to speak of Him Eternally —bidding the lips of man Keep silence, and upon the rocky altar pour lacense of awe-stricken praise." 168 STATE OF NEW JERSEY NEW JERSEY AREA, 6,851 SQUARE MILES. PoPuLaroi0 is l150, 190,673. The State of New Jersey is bounded north by New York; east by the Hudson river, and the Atlantic; south by the Atlantic, and west by Delaware bay and river, separating it from Delaware and Pennsylvania. It is 164 miles long, and from 40 to 75 miles wide. The southern part of the state is level and sandy, and naturally barren, excepting where it is fertilized by the use of marl, which is extensively found. The natural growth is shrub oaks and yellow pine; and the extensive use of the latter for steam boats and glass houses, has contributed to raise the value of this land, formerly considered of little value. In the swamps the white cedar is found, which is valuable for fencing. The central portion of the state has an undulating surface and a fertile soil, which produces wheat, rye, Indian corn, barley, oats and potatoes, and excellent fruit, as apples, pears, peaches, plums and cherries. The northern parts of the state are hilly, and even mountainous; the Blue ridge, and other ranges crossing it. It is well adapted to grazing, and has a fertile soil. The mountainous region abounds with iron ore. The cities of New York and Philadelphia, on its eastern and western borders, furnish an extensive market for its agricultural productions, and its fruits. The state exports wheat, flour, horses, cattle, hams, cider, lumber, flax seed, leather and iron. A large part of the state is open to the influence of the sea, and has a mild climate; but in the mountainous region in the north part, the cold in the winter is severe. The extreme range of the thermometer at Trenton, in 1842, was from 130 to 87~ above zero of Fahrenheit. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. Atlantic.......... 8,965 Essex............ 73,998 Mercer............27,791 Passaic........... 22,577 Bergen........ 14,749 Gloucester....... 14,659 Middlesex........ 28,671 Salem............. 19,500 Burlington........43,204 Camden.......... 25,569 Monmouth.......30,311 Somerset..... 19,699 Cape May....... 6,434 Hudson..........21,877 Ocean........... 10,043 Sussex........... 22,991 Cumberland....... 17,191 Hunterdon.......29,064 Morris...........30,189 Warren............22,390 Hudson river flows on the east side of the state, and Delaware river on the west side. Besides these, the Raritan enters Raritan bay at Perth Amboy, and is navigable 15 miles to New Brunswick; the Passaic enters Newark bay, and is navigable 15 miles to the port of Acquackanock. It has several important falls, affording great water-power, particularly at Paterson. The Hackensack river is from 35 to 40 miles long, affords good water-power, and is navigable 15 miles from its mouth, in Newark bay, to Hackensack, where it meets the tide-water. Great Egg Harbor river enters the Atlantic, and is navigable 20 miles for small vessels. The principal bays in the state. are Newark bay, north of Staten Island, 7 miles long and 2 wide; and Raritan bay, between Staten Island and Sandy Hook, 14 miles long, and 2 miles wide at Amboy point, but increases in width below. The principal entrance has from 24 to 28 feet of water. Perth Amboy, at the head of this bay, is the principal seaport in the state. The principal towns are Newark, New Brunswick, Paterson, Trenton, Burlington, Bordentown, Elizabethtown, and Perth Amboy. STATE OF NEW JERSEY. 169 The commerce of the state is principally carried on through the two great cities on its borders. Keeping in view the size and population of the state, New Jersey is one of the greatest manufacturing districts of the Union. Newark, Paterson, &c., are considerable manufacturing cities, and have of late years developed extraordinary capacities for large operations. The woollen and other manufactories are next to those of New York in amount. The tanneries and leather factories are immense establishments and produce the best saddlery in the world, and supply several markets with boots and shoes. In the production of glass and earthenware, New Jersey is preeminent, and may claim one-fifth of all the manufactories of this description in the Union. Paper is made in large quantities, and there are very extensive establishments for carriage and locomotive building. The manufacture of jewelry amounts to $2,000,000 annually. Mining operations are also on an extended scale; and the mines of the state are rich in the best descriptions of iron. In the northern parts of the state a large capital is invested in these operations. The geographical position of the state has favored the development of internal improvements. The great lines of railroad between New York and Philadelphia pass through it. The Morris Canal forms the most prominent artificial water communication in the state. The common roads are in excellent condition. The ecclesiastical statistics of New Jersey, and the colleges, and other literary institutions, are given in the general tables. The college at Princeton is one of the oldest and most distinguished in the country, and has educated many eminent men. The condition of the common schools during the year 1850 was as follows: Number of townships making returns, 166; number of districts in those townships, 1,561; returns received from 1,465. Children between 5 and 16, 118,992; children attending school less than four months, 7,525, less than eight months, 8,319; less than twelve, 8,107; colored children taught, 1,135; whole number of children taught, 70,053. Average length of schools in months, 9; average price of tuition per quarter to each pupil, $2.06; appropriated or received for school purposes, $119,351.39; expended for same, $75,029.80. The financial statement for the same year is as follows: Receipts, in eluding balance of $16,000 on hand, $136,513; expenditures, $126,552. PRINCIPAL ITEMS OP EXPENDITURE. CHIEF SOURCES OF INCOME. Building, furnishing, and expenses of Lu- Transit duties on railroads and canals, - 866.298 56 natic Asylum, - - $34,407 93 Dividends on stock of railroads and canals, 24,000 00 Support of deaf and dumb and blind, 4,956 90 Taxes on railroad stock, - - - 6,590 00 Salaries of Executive and Judiciary, - 15,106 99 Interest on bonds of Catmden and Amboy State Prison,.-.-.- 7,108 45 Railroad, 1,458 78 Transportation of prisoners and costs, 6,986 69 Special loan, 22,000 00 Legislature, - 16,354 98 State Prison, 4.750 00 Courts of Errors and Appeals, - 2,507 60 Incidental, 683 48 Printing, -... 5,219 39 Pensions,... 1,978 78 $125:690 82 Various incidental expenses, 31,925 04 $126,552 75 The whole amount of the absolute debt of the state is $67,595.82; annual interest on absolute debt, $4,075.84; the value of the productive property owned by the state, in 1850, was $262,397.53; the value of the 170 STATE OF NEW JERSEY. state property not now productive, consisting of the Surplus Revenue lent to the counties without interest, $764,670.60. Whole amount of school fund owned by the state, $388,582.86. In 1850 there were 24 banks in the state: Capital, $3,596,720; circulation, $2,548,352; deposits, $1,886,595; due other banks, $298,570; surplus, $543,776; bills receivable, $6,192,575; due from other banks, $1,452,057; specie, $630,734; real estate, $300,037; bonds and mortgages, &c., $257,568. Suspense account, $21,889. The constitution under which this state is now organized, went into operation on the 2d day of September, 1844. The governor is elected by the people for three years, but is ineligible for reelection for the ensuing term. He must be thirty years of age, and must have been a citizen of the United States for twenty years, and a resident for seven years previous to his election. The legislative power is vested in a Senate and General Assembly. The Senate is composed of nineteen members, or one from each county, elected for three years, one-third of their numbers being elected annually. Senators must have attained the age of thirty years, and have been citizens of the state four years, and inhabitants of the county for one year next preceding election. The General Assembly consists of fifty-eight members, elected by the people of the counties, according to their ratio of population. Members must have attained the age of twenty-one years, and must have been citizens of the state four years, and residents one year, and must also be entitled to the right of suffrage. The judicial power belongs to a court of appeals, a court of chancery, a supreme court, circuit courts, and other inferior courts. The judges of the court of errors and appeals are appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the Senate, and hold their offices for six years; the judges of the supreme court, and the chancellor are, appointed for seven years; and the judges of the courts of common pleas are appointed by the Senate and General Assembly, unitedly, and hold their offices for five years. The secretary and the attorney-general are appointed by the governor, with consent, for five years; but the state treasurer is appointed annually by the Senate and General Assembly, in joint meeting. The right of suffrage is enjoyed by every white male citizen of the United States, of the age of twenty-one years, who has resided in the state one year, and in the county in which he votes five months next preceding the election. Paupers, idiots, insane persons, and persons convicted of crimes which preclude them from giving evidence in judicial proceedings, are not permitted to vote. Colored persons are also incapable.'The elections take place, annually, on the second Tuesday of October, and the legislature meets at Trenton on the second Tuesday of January. The settlement of New Jersey was commenced by the Dutch from New York between 1617 and 1620, in Bergen county. In 1638, a colony of Swedes and Finns settled on the Delaware, and purchased of the Indians the land on both sides of the river to the falls. In 1664, Charles II. granted to his brother, the Duke of York, all the territory between Connecticut and Delaware rivers, which included New Jersey; and the same year sent a squadron, which conquered it from the Dutch, and the duke conveyed the territory of New Jersey to Lord Berkely and Sir George STATE OF NEW JERSEY. 171 Carteret. The two proprietors formed a constitution of government, and appointed Philip Carteret, Esq., governor, who came over in 1665, and fixed the seat of his government at Elizabethtown. In 1672 the people assumed the government, and appointed James Carteret, a son of Philip, their governor. In 1675 Lord Berkely disposed of his property, and shortly after the territory was divided by the proprietors into East and West Jersey, and the eastern portion was assigned to Carteret. In 1681 the governor of West Jersey summoned a general assembly, and several laws were established, securing the rights of the people, and defining the power of rulers. In 1682, East Jersey passed from Carteret to William Penn and twenty-three associates, mostly Friends; and Robert Barclay, author of the " Apology for the Quakers," was appointed governor. Active measures were taken to promote emigration, and many people came over, particularly from Scotland. Many disputes arose between the settlers and the proprietors, and in 1702 the government was surrendered to the crown, and East and West Jersey were united; and the governor of New York was appointed governor of New York and New Jersey. In 1708 the inhabitants, by petition, requested of the English government that they might have a separate government, which was granted, and a governor was soon after appointed. The constitution of this state was formed in 1776. The state for several years, during the Revolutionary war, was occupied by the American and British armies, and several important battles were fought in its territory, particularly those of Trenton, of Princeton, and of Monmouth, and the inhabitants bore their full share of toil and suffering during that memorable period. On the 19th of December, 1787, this state, in convention, adopted the constitution of the United States by a unanimous vote. TRENTON, the capital of the state, is situated on the east shore of the Delaware, at the head of steamboat navigation; lat. 740 39' north, and long. 4~ 58' 36" west. The city is regularly laid out, and has many fine stores and private dwellings. - The state-house is a handsome stone building, 100 feet long and 60 feet broad; it is beautifully situated on the Delaware, and commands a fine view of the surrounding river scenery. The Delaware is crossed by an elegant covered bridge, 1,100 feet long and 36 feet wide, being supported by five arches resting on stone piers. This is one of the finest specimens of bridge architecture in the United States, and is much admired by men of science as a work of consummate skill. The -railroad passes over it. The Delaware and Raritan Canal passes through Trenton to the river at Bordentown. The trains for Philadelphia and New York pass through the city twice a- day. The population is 6,466. Trenton is celebrated in history as the site of a battle between the British allies and the Americans, December 25, 1776, in which the former were almost entirely captured. Newark, on the west bank of the Passaic, is the most populous city of the state, and celebrated for its manufacture of leather and some other articles. Its population is 38,893. The city, which is elevated 30 or 40 feet above the level of the river, is regularly laid out and well built. There are numerous public buildings and churches, which render its appearance lively, and, at a distance, somewhat imposing. - The court-house is a handsome stone building in the Egyptian style, and stands on the north 172 STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. side of the city. Newark is well supplied with pure water from a neverfailing spring about a mile distant. Steamboats ply daily between this city and New York, and it is also connected with that city and Philadelphia by a fine line of railroad. The commerce of Newark is considerable, and a number of small craft is owned by its inhabitants. Jersey City, nine miles east of Newark, on the Hudson River, opposite'New York, is the commencing point of southern travel from that city, and is connected therewith by two ferries. It is the dock station of the Cunard line of steamships. Population, 6,856. Hoboken, a pleasant village three miles north, also on the Hudson, is a favorite summer resort of the citizens of New York. New Brunswick, at the head of navigation on the Raritan, is the seat of Rutger's College, one of the most flourishing institutions in the United States. Population, 10,020. It is an old town, and badly laid out; but in the newer portions the buildings are neat and elegant, being surrounded with beautiful gardens. The prospect from the college is extensive, and the scenery, comprising a view of the mountains in the north, and Raritan Bay, is very impressive. It is connected with the Delaware River by a canal to Bordentown, forty-two miles long. Paterson, at the falls of the Passaic, is a flourishing city, and is chiefly engaged in manufactures, being highly favored with water-power and other advantages in location. The Morris Canal passes south of the city, and railroads communicate with New York, and also connect northward with the New York and Erie Railroad. The latter work will form a new, convenient, and direct route through Jersey City to New York, and divert much of the business which is now inconvenienced by a transhipment at Piermont, the terminus of the New York and Erie Railroad on the Hudson. Paterson contains a number of beautiful churches, and in the suburbs are many elegant and well located private residences, surrounded by gardens and shrubbery. Population, 11,341. PENNSYLVANIA, AREA, 47,000 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, IN 1850, 2,311,504. Pennsylvania is a part of that extensive country granted to William Penn, and is bounded north by the State of New York and Lake Erie; east by New York and New Jersey, from which it is separated by the Delaware river; south by Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, and west by Virginia and Ohio: It is 310 miles in extreme length, and 162 miles broad. The surface of Pennsylvania is greatly diversified. There are few large tracts of level land in the state. The southeastern counties, though they can scarcely be denominated hilly, have an undulating and variable surface. South mountain extends from the Delaware below Easton in a southwest direction through the State, to the borders of Maryland in Adams county. Next to this, Kittatiny, or Blue mountain, extends from the Delaware Water Gap, and proceeds southwest with a regular elevation of from STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. 173 700 to 1200 feet above the level of the streams at its base, and terminates at Parnell's knob, an elevated and picturesque summit in Franklin county, near the south border of the state. North of the Blue mountain, and between the Lehigh and Susquehanna, is a wild, mountainous region, where the anthracite coal is found. This region is interspersed with high and barren ridges in close succession, interlocking with each other, and enclosing long and pointed valleys between them. The Second and Sharp mountains are between Kittatiny and the first coal basin. Next comes Broad mountain, an irregular elevation, with a broad and barren table land at its top. East of the Susquehanna are several ridges with various names. The valley of Wyoming is enclosed by a chain of lofty mountains, known by many local names. Between Kittatiny, or Blue mountain, and the Alleghany, is what has been called the Appalachian chain, which consists of high and nearly parallel ridges, sometimes approaching near to each other, and at other times with valleys between them of 20 miles in breadth, frequently divided by smaller ridges. The elevated range, called the great Alleghany, extends nearly across the whole State, presenting on its southeastern side a steep ascent, but extending north and west with a gentle descent, and consists of an elevated and undulating table land. Beyond the Alleghany are Laurel hill and Chesnut ridge, which are high ridges running parallel with the Alleghany ridge. Most of the country west of the Alleghany mountains is a hilly country, with many irregular and abrupt elevations, not disposed in chains. The soil of the State is generally good, and much of it is of a superior quality; the richest tract is on the southeast, on both sides of Susquehanna river. This part of the state has been long settled, and is under excellent cultivation. In the country west of the Alleghany mountains there is much fertile land. For some distance from the mountain, the country is hilly and rough. The more level tracts, particularly along the streams, are highly fertile. Between the Alleghany river and Lake Erie, and the western bor der of the State, the soil is excellent. By far the most important production of the state is wheat, and next in value to that is Indian corn. Rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, hemp and flax, are also extensively cultivated. Apples, cherries and peaches are abundant, and much cider is made. Although the state, as a whole, is better adapted to grain than to grazing, yet in many parts there are large dairies; and fine horses and cattle are raised. The mineral wealth of Pennsylvania is very great, consisting of coal, iron and salt, which are abundant. The immense coal regions form the most interesting feature of the mineral resources of the state. Bituminous coal of an excellent quality, and inexhaustible in quantity, is almost every where found west of the Alleghany mountains, and in the south part of the state, to the east of them. In Pittsburg and the vicinity, it is extensively used for manufacturing purposes. In this region salt springs occur, which afford a very strong brine. The anthracite coal region, with some few exceptions, is bounded on the northwest by the north branch of Susquehanna river, extending in a northeast direction for over 60 miles, and divided into the southern, middle and northern coal-fields. The southern coal-field is divided into four mining districts; the Lehigh, Schuylkill, Swatara, and Susquehanna. The middle coal-field includes the Beaver Meadow, Hazelton, Mahanoy, and Shamokin districts. Towards the 174 STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. eastern part, both the southern and middle coal-fields afford a hard, shining and very compact coal, difficult of ignition, but affording an intense heat; while, farther west, the coal is less dense and more easy of ignition, and yielding both white and red ashes. The northern coal-field is, like the others, about 65 miles long and 5 or 6 broad, and from 1 to 30 feet in thickness, and includes the Wyoming and Lackawanna coal. The latter is sent by the Delaware and Hudson canal to Hudson river, and thence to New York, Albany, &c. This coal is lighter than most of the other kinds of anthracite coal, and more easy of ignition, and yields a good heat, though less intense than the Lehigh, and some others. The three great deposites of anthracite coal, have been calculated to contain 400 square miles, in some places 60 to 70 feet deep; and as each cubic yard in the ground is calculated to yield a ton of coal, it is easy to conceive that the quantity must be immensely great. The bituminous coal region of Pennsylvania has been estimated at 21,000 square miles, over which it is scattered. It has been computed that nearly 8,000,000 bushels, or 260,000 tons of this coal are annually consumed at Pittsburg alone. The coal constitutes a great resource for the steamboats on the western waters. The climate of Pennsylvania, though healthy and temperate, is variable and inconstant. The extremes of temperature are from 20~ below zero of Fahrenheit to 980 degrees above; but such extremes are of short continuance. The mean temperature is from 44 to 52 degrees. The greatest heat usually occurs in July, and the greatest cold in January. In the southern and southwestern parts, winter sets in in severity in the latter part of December, and snow disappears in the latter part of February or the first of March. In the northern or more elevated parts, winter commences early in December, snows are deep, and generally cover the ground until the latter part of March. The heat of summer during the day is as intense here as in the less elevated parts of the State, but the mornings and evenings are much cooler. Frosts often appear in September. The autumn is usually a delightful season in all parts of the state. The Delaware river washes the eastern part of the state, and is naviga ble for ships of the line to Philadelphia. The Lehigh, after a course of 75 miles, enters it at Easton. The Schuylkill is about 130 miles tong,. and unites with the Delaware 6 miles below Philadelphia. The Susquehanna river rises in the state of New York, and flows south through this state, and enters Chesapeake bay in Maryland. It is much obstructed by rapids and falls, but furnishes a descending navigation for boats and rafts in time of high water. The Juniata rises among the Alleghany mountains, and, after a course of 180 miles, enters the Susquehanna, 11 miles above Harrisburg. The Alleghany river, 400 miles long, from the northwest; and the Monongahela, 300 miles long, from the south, unite at Pittsburg to form the Ohio river, which latter flows a short distance in this state. Pennsylvania is the great mining district of the United States, and is also rich in agriculture, commerce and manufactures. Next to England, she produces a greater amount of coal and iron than any other section of like size in the world. The iron is of good quality, and in some parts the metal is found to equal that of Sweden. Agriculture flourishes to an extent in proportion to the other great interests of the state. The annual crops of the principal articles may be estimated at 15,000,000 bushels of STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. 175 wheat; 150,000 of barley; 18,000,000 of oats; 12,000,000 of rye; 4,000,000 of buck-wheat; 20,000,000 of Indian corn, and 8,000,000 of potatoes. The produce of hay, tobacco, silk, wool, flax, maple sugar and hops, is also large. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850, BY COUNTIES. Adams........... 25,988 Clinton..........11,250 Lancaster....... 99,760 Pike.............. 5,876 Alleghanv........138,064 Columbia........17,191 Lawrence....... 21,080 Potter........... 6,000 Armstrong....... 32,431 Crawford........9,581 Lebanon........ 26,135 Schuylkill.........62,212 Beaver........... 26,663 Cumberland..3.....6,000 Lehigh.......... 32,940 Somerset..2.......24,345 Bedford.......... 23,31.2 Dauphin.........36,741 Luzerne......... 50,000 Susquehanna... 26,691 Berks..............77,179 Delaware........ 24640 Lycoming...... 25,319 Sullivan........ 2,669 Blair............ 21,780 Elk............. 8,539 McKean......... 5,254 Tioga..............23,936 Bradford......... 42,805 Erie............ 40,000 Mercer........... 33,084 Union............ 26,3-22 Bucks............ 56,609 Fayette..........39,177 Mifflin........... 14,974 Y enango..........18,381 Butler............ 30,339 Franklin......... 39,905 Monroe......... 13,263 Warren......... 13,670 Cambria......... 18,008 Fulton........... 7,564 Montgomery..... 58,360 Washington.......48,818 Carbon........... 15,693 Greene..........12,241 Montour........ 13,943 Wayne......... 21,911 Centre........... 23,376 IIuutingdon......24,096 Northampton.... 40,942 Westmoreland.....51,783 Chester.......... 67,000 Indiana..........27,335 Northumberland.. 23,258 Wyomingr.........10,702 Clarion........... 23.567 Jefferson.........12,967 Perry........... 20,109 York............ 58,000 Clearfield......... 12,558 Juniata..........13,113 Philadelphia.....409,045 Her manufactures of hard-ware, machinery, cutlery and fire-arms are extensive; she is also largely engaged in the various manufactures of cotton, wool, leather, paper, cordage, carriages, &c. Ship building is a prominent feature of her industry. The products of the forest are only exceeded by those of Maine and New York. Lumber is the largest item. The annual value of her exports is about $5,000,000; and that of imports is $8,000,000. In this business about 10,000 tons are shipping are employed. Railroads and canals intersect the state in every direction. Early in the annals of internal improvement, Pennsylvania embarked largely by constructmg some of the most magnificent works in the country, by which means she contracted an immense debt. But the resources of the state are ample, and the amount is diminishing year by year. A list of the rail roads of this state may be seen in the preceding pages. For the statistics of the various religious denominations, the reader is referred to the general description of the United States. In the higher branches of education, Pennsylvania enjoys institutions whose celebrity is co-extensive with the Union. The principal colleges are the University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia; Dickinson College, at Carlisle; Jefferson College, at Canonsburg; Washington College; Alleghany College, and those of Pennsylvania, Lafayette and Marshall. There are also several medical schools and theological seminaries. The statistics of the above are exhibited in the foregoing pages. The whole number of school districts reported, exclusive of the city and county of Philadelphia, for the year ending June 5, 1849, was 1,870. The whole number of schools was 8,287. The average number of months that schools were taught was 4.26. Whole number of teachers, 10,050. Averace wages per month of male teachers, $17.47; of female teachers, $10.32. The average number of scholars in each school was 43; and the cost of teaching each scholar per quarter, $1.4292. The amount of tax levied in the accepting districts was $583,187; received from the state appropriation, $156,487. The cost of instruction, fuel, and contingencies was $562,930; of school houses, repairs &c., $146,144. The report of the financial affairs of the state at the close of the year 1849, estimates the state debt at $40,511,173. The value of the productive 176 STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. property owned by the state was $32,152,754. The receipts, including a balance of $577,000, into the treasury for the year were $5,010, 978; total expenditures, $4,084,771. PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE. CHIEF SOURCES OF INCOME. Public improvements................... $951,249 Tax on real and personal estate...........1,293,921 Expenses of government................ 237,105 Canal and rail road tolls. 1,628,860 Militia expenses......................... 23,860 Loans............................ 391,628 Pensions and gratuities.................. 19,704 Collateral inheritance tax.. 190,812 Charitable institution.................... 55,900 Tax on bank dividends... 164,838 Common Schools............;........... 179,360 Tax on corporation stocks.. 151,282 Commissioners of Sinklng Fund.......... 100,001 Retailers' licenses.155,594 Loans,................................. 279,227 Tax on loans.121,089 Interest on loans (and guaranteed interest) 2,040,116 Tavern licenses.......................... 83,660 Domestic creditors....................... 9,315 Premiums on charters.. 37,397 Cancelled relief notes.................... 76,000 Auction duties.46,980 Damages on public works................ 21,557 Tax on writs, wills, deeds, &c.. 35,067 Penitentiaries........................... 23,058 Auction commissions.21,125 Abatement of State tax......... 45,508 Tax on certain offices.. 12,821 Counsel fees and commissions......... 4,738 Milita fines.. 11,112 House of Refuge........................ 4,000 Lands. 17,198 Spark arrester........................... 3,000 Brokers' licenses.10,882 Weigh-lock, Beach IIasen................ 4,480 Other licenses........................... 27,808 Miscellaneous........................... 7509 Tax on enrolment of laws.. 10,365 The banking capital of Pennsylvania for the year 1850, was $17,675,484. There are 51 banks in the state. The governor is chosen by the people for three years, but cannot hold the office more than six years in nine. He must be 30 years of age, and have resided in the state for seven years. The senate consists of 33 members, elected by the people for three years, one third being chosen annually. A member must be 25 years of age, and have resided four years in the state, and the last year in the district for which he is chosen. The house of representatives consists of 100 members elected annually by the people. A member must be 21 years of age, have resided in the state three years next preceding his election, and the last year in the district for which he is chosen. All judicial officers are appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the senate. The judges of the supreme court hold their offices for 15 years. The president judges of the court of common pleas hold their offices for 10 years. The associate judges of the court of common pleas hold their offices for 5 years. The secretary of state is appointed by the governor, and holds office during his pleasure. The treasurer is elected annually, by the joint ballot of both houses of the legislature. Every white person of the age of 21 years, who has resided in the state for one year next preceding an election, and ten days in the district where he offers his vote, and has paid a state or county tax, enjoys the right of suffrage. The legislature meets annually at Harrisburg, on the first Tuesday of January. In 1638, Pennsylvania was first settled by the Swedes, who purchased from the natives the land upon the western shore of Delaware bay and river, from cape Henlopen to the falls opposite the present city of Trenton. In 1642, the Swedish governor erected a handsome house for himself on an island just below the mouth of the Schuylkill, and caused a church to be built, which was consecrated in 1646. The Dutch government at New Netherlands conquered the Swedes in 1654. When the English conquered New Netherlands in 1664, the Dutch possessions on Delaware river fell into their hands, and for several years remained subject to the governors of New York. In 1681 Pennslyvania was granted by Charles II. to William Penn, a member of the society of Friends, in consideration of the services of his father as a British admiral. Four years from the grant of the STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. 177 charter, the province contained 22 settlements, and Philadelphia had 2,000 inhabitants. In 1684 Penn returned to England, and appointed five commissioners, with a president, to administer the government during his absence. He returned to the state in 1699, having been confirmed in his proprietary rights. In 1768 Mason and Dixon's line was drawn, to mark the boundary between this state and Maryland. Penn died in 1718, leaving his interest in Pennsylvania as an inheritance to his children, who continued to possess it until the revolutionary war, when their claim was purchased by the commonwealth for ~130,000 sterling, or $580,000. In 1784 the last remaining portion of the state, not previously purchased, was bought from the Indians, lying in its north-western part. In 1776 a state constitution was formed, which continued in operation until 1790, when another constitution was adopted, which remained until 1838, when the present constitution was adopted. The United States constitution was adopted in convention, December 13th, 1787; yeas 46, nays 23; majority, 23. Philadelphia remained the seat of the United States government until 1800, when it was removed to Washington. HARRISBURG is the capital of Pennsylvania. It is situated in Dauphin county, on the east bank of the Susquehannah. Lat. 400 2' 36" N., and long. 760 20' 33" W. The town is handsomely laid out, with the streets crossing each other at right-angles. The state-house is an elegant building, situated on an elevation fronting the river. There is also the county courthouse, a large and commodious building. The Lancasterian school-house, the Masonic hall, and the jail, are solid public buildings. These constitute the principal of note; besides which there are ten churches. Considerable manufactures are carried on, and trade is, in general, brisk and profitable. Philadelphia, including the five districts of Northern Liberties, Kensington, Spring Garden, Southwark and Moyamensing, with the city proper, is second only in population to the city of New York. It is situated between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, extending from river to river. It is the principal seaport of the state, and employs in foreign trade a capital of $20,000,000, and in manufactures about $12,000,000. The city is regularly laid out, with substantial buildings, and many public edifices of great cost and elegance. It has several fine squares, ornamented with trees and shrubbery, and many of the streets are lined with magnificent trees, which give to the city a rural aspect of surpassing beauty. The most prominent public buildings are the old state-house, held in veneration as the place where the Declaration of Independence was signed. It fronts on Chestnut street, and occupies the north side of Independence Square. The United States Bank is a splendid building of white marble, and is built in the Greco-Doric style. The Bank, of Pepnsylvania and the Girard Bank buildings are also superb. The Merchants' Exchange is a noble monument of architecture. The Girard College, founded by the late Stephen Girard, for the education of orphans, is a structure worthy the munificence of the founder. It was opened for the reception of children on the 1st January, 1848..Several of the churches-of which, in 1840, there were 44exhibit specimens of the most beautiful design, and in every style of architecture. The most conspicuous are St. Stephen's, (Episcopal,) on Tenth street; the First Presbyterian, fronting on Washington Square; the 12 178 STATE OF DELAWARE. Fifth Presbyterian in Arch street, and others equally magnificent in several parts of the city. Philadelphia has several valuable literary, scientific, and benevolent institutions, among the foremost of which is the " Literary and Philosophical Society," founded mainly by Dr. Franklin, in 1743. Dr. Franklin also founded the " Philadelphia Library," in 1731; it now contains upwards of 30,000 volumes. The United States Mint was founded in 1790, and occupies a fine building on Chestnut street. The city is supplied with pure water from the Schu3lkill. The water is raised to a reservoir head of 102 feet, by means of water-power machinery at Fairmount. The reservoir occupies an area of six acres, from which the water is distributed through the city in iron pipes. The city proper and Kensington have for several years been lighted with gas. The assessed valuation of property in the city and county of Philadelphia, in 1848, was $130,134,162, of which $105,457,871 was on real estate. Philadelphia is said to be the handsomest city on the continent. Population, including county, 406,353. Pittsburgh, the "Birmingham of America," is situated on the head waters of the Ohio, at the confluence of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers. In 1840, it had a population of 24,115; and with the adjoining cities and boroughs of Alleghany, Manchester, Birmingham, Lawrenceville, and other suburbs, the population of the manufacturing district was 40,000, and may now be set down at 120,000 by the least estimate. In Pittsburgh proper, there are 25 furnaces, and 5 forges and rolling mills; besides which, there are woollen and cotton factories, tanneries, machine shops, hardware, cutlery, &c., manufactories in abundance. The city is supplied with water from the Alleghany river. The water is raised to a reservoir by means of steam-power, and thence distributed through iron pipes. Since 1836, the principal parts of the city have been lighted with gas, produced from bituminous coal, which emits a brilliant light. In 1845, Pittsburgh suffered the calamity of a conflagration, which consumed a large portion of the city, including about 1200 houses; but, through the enterprise of the citizens, the "burnt district" has been entirely rebuilt in a substantial manner, and the appearance of the city much improved. Lancaster, Easton, Carlisle, Greensburg, Washington, Hollidaysburg, York, Bloomfield, and other places, are towns of considerable note, but the extent of this work is too limited to notice them individually. DELAWARE, Amn, 2,120 s8WU UM. PoPurmlTxIO n 1850, 407. Delaware is, next to Rhode Island, the least state in the Union, and in population the smallest. It is bounded by Pennsylvania on the north; east by the Delaware river and bay, and south and west by Maryland. It is 92 miles long and 23 broad. The surface is generally level; in the southern part it is marshy, and in the northern slightly undulating, and in its extreme north parts are some STATE OF DELAWARE. 179 commanding elevations. A somewhat elevated table-land passes through a portion of the state from north to south, dividing the waters which fall into Chesapeake bay from those which flow into Delaware bay. This table-land contains a chain of swamps in the western part of this state, from which its principal streams originate. The soil in the north is a strong clay. Along Delaware river and for about 10 miles west of it, the soil is generally a rich clay, well adapted to agriculture; but between this and the swamps the soil is light and sandy, and of an inferior quality. Proceeding toward the south the soil becomes more sandy; and in Sussex, the south county, sand greatly predominates. The principal productions are wheat of a superior quality, Indian corn, rye, barley, oats, flax, buckwheat, and potatoes. Sussex county contains fine grazing lands, and exports large quantities of timber, obtained from Cypress swamp on Indian river, which is 12 miles long and 6 broad. The staple production of the state is wheat; and the flour manufactured at the Brandywine mills is particularly distinguished for its whiteness and general excellency; though some wheat manufactured at these mills is produced in the adjoining districts of Pennsylvania and Maryland. The climate is generally mild, and healthy; but the winters in the north are considerably cold, though not severe. There are no extensive rivers. Brandywine creek rises in Pennsylvania, is about 45 miles long, and uniting with Christiana creek, forms the harbor of Wilmington. There is no good natural harbor south of Wilmington (and this does not admit of vessels of a large size) excepting that formed by the break-water, within cape Henlopen. The manufactures are comparatively extensive, and employ a capital of about $2,000,000. A considerable portion of the inhabitants are engaged in commerce and the fisheries. The exports, direct, amount to about 150,000; and the imports to $10,000. The principal trade, however, is carried on through other states. The capital invested in the fisheries is about $1,000,000. Several important works of internal improvement have been completed. The Chesapeake and Delaware canal commences at Delaware city, on Delaware river, and extends 14 miles, to Back creek, a tributary of Elk river. It is 66 feet wide at top, 10 feet deep; has two lift and two tide locks, 100 by 22 feet in the chamber; completed in 1829, and cost $'2,750,000. It is navigable for sloops and steamboats. A part of it lies in Maryland. The New Castle and Frenchtown railroad extends from New Castle on the Delaware, 35 miles below Philadelphia, to Frenchtown, on Elk river, which enters Chesapeake bay. It is 164 miles long, was completed in 1832, and cost $400,000. This road connects with steamboats on the Delaware and Chesapeake. Newark college is the only institution of the kind in the state. The great bulk of the people are Presbyterians and Methodists. In 1850, there were in the state, 209 free schools; 13,288 scholars; amount paid for tuition, $44,209; amount received from school fund, $27,507; from contribution and tax, $17,089. There are nine banks in the state, with a total capital of $1,390,000. Delaware has no public debt, but possesses funds to a considerable amount, exclusive of the school funds, yielding an annual income of $20,000 180 STATE OF DELAWARE. PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE. cHI sOURCES OF NCOME. Executive, $ 2,8358 88 Bank tax, -$ 6,280 4Legislature, 16,048 41 Railroad tax, - 2,500 0, Judiciary, 5,500 00 Interest on loans, 5,147 62 School fund, - 15,947 62 Bank dividends, 15,245 00 Sundries, 387 95 Retailers' licenses, &c., 8,067 74 Fines, * ---- 2042 vacant land, - - - - 57 85 The present constitution of the state was adopted in 1831. The governor is chosen for four years, and is ever afterward ineligible. The senate consists of three members chosen for each county, for the term of four years. The representatives consist of seven for each couity, chosen for the term of two years. The legislature meets once in two years, on the first Tuesday in January. The elections are held on the second Tuesday of November. Every male citizen over twenty-two years of age, who has resided one year in the state, and the last month in the county in which he offers his vote, and has paid a tax, has the right of suffrage; and if he be between twenty-one and twenty-two years, and is otherwise qualified, he may vote without the payment of a tax. The state treasurer is chosen biennially by the legislature; and in case of his death, resignation, &c., the governor fills the office until the next session of the legislature. The judicial power of the state is exercised by four common law judges and a chancellor. The judges are appointed by the governor, during good behavior. Of the four law judges, one is chief justice and the others are associates. The constitution provides that no act of incorporation shall be passed without a vote of two-thirds of the legislature, unless it be the renewal of an existing incorporation; and all acts are to contain a power of revocation by the legislature. No act hereafter passed shall be in force for more than twenty years, without a reenactment by the legislature. Delaware was first settled by the Swedes and Finns, under the patronage of Gustaphus Adolphus, and received the name of New Swedeland. In 1630 they built a fort at Lewiston, and the year after, another at Wilmington. But they were too weak, and too far removed from the protection of the mother country, successfully to resist the Dutch, who subdued them in 1665. In 1664 this territory was included in the country taken from the Dutch by the English, which was granted by Charles II. to the Duke of York, who, in 1682, granted it to William Penn. Delaware remained. nominally, under the proprietary government of Pennsylvania until 1775. They in fact had a separate government before, denominated the Three Lower'counties of the Delaware, and as such were represented in the first congress in New York, in 1765. This state suffered severely in the Revoluqtionary war, in which it took an active, and bore an honorable part. In convention, December 3, 1787, they adopted the constitution of the United States, by a unanimous vote. In June 12, 1792, a convention adopted the state constitution, which was revised and amended in 1831. DOVER, the capital of the state and seat of government, is situated on Jones' creek, about five miles from its mouth. Lat. 39~ 10' N., and long. 750 30' W. It is a well laid out town, and has a vicinity highly picturesque. The state-house is a fine building, situated on a large public square in the centre of the place. Wilmingto,, is the principal seaport, and the largest city in the state. It is situated between the Brandywine and Christiana creeks, about one mile STATE OF MARYLAND. 181 from their confluence. The principal part of the town is laid out in a rectangular plan, and on the south-west side of a hill, which rises 109 feet above the tide. On the north-east side of the hill, at a village on the Brandywine, which forms a beautiful appendage to the town, is the finest collection of flouring mills in the Union. The principal buildings of Wilmington are the City Hall, and some few others. It contains also 16 churches, of various denominations. The Christiana admits vessels drawing 14 feet of water to the town, and those drawing only eight feet can ascend several miles further up. The Brandywine has seven feet of water to the mills. The shipping belonging to Wilmington is between 7,000 and 8,000 tons. A fair amount of commerce is attracted to this port, but the main business depends on the coastwise trade. The fisheries are in some degree attended to. MARYLAND. AIA, 11,000 SQUARI MnU. POPULATION I 1860, 688,056 Maryland, the most southern of the middle United States, is bounded north by Pennsylvania; east by IDelaware and the Atlantic; south and west by Virginia. It is separated from Virginia by the Potomac river, which pursues a winding course along its south-east border. Its shape is very irregular, and may be considered as 196 miles long and 120 miles broad. The Chesapeake bay runs nearly through the state from south to north, dividing it into two parts. East of Chesapeake bay, it is called the Eastern shore, and west of it, the Western shore. The land on the eastern shore, with the exception of a small tract at the north, is generally level and low, and in many places, covered with stagnant waters, in the summer and fall, which occasion agues and intermittent fevers, and many of the inhabitants have a sickly appearance. The soil is tolerably fertile, and produces a beautiful white wheat, said to be peculiar to this region, Indian corn, sweet potatoes, and tobacco. Above the falls in the north-west, the country gradually becomes uneven, and in the western part of the state, it is mountainous. Several branches of the Alleghany chain cross it from Pennsylvania and Virginia. Between these ranges of mountains are many fertile valleys. Wheat and tobacco are the staple productions, cotton of an inferior quality is raised, chiefly for domestic use, and south of Baltimore a bright tobacco, denominated kitesfoot. The soil of the state is generally a red clay or loam, and much of it is excellent. Hemp and flax are raised. There are fine orchards, and apples, pears, peaches, plums, and cherries are abundant. The forests abound in nut-bearing trees, which feed great numbers of swine. Beef and mutton are plentiful. The climate in the western part of the State is particularly salubrious. Iron ore is found in various parts of the state; the bog ore is found in the south part of the eastern shore, and is extensively wrought. Bituminous coal abounds between the mountain ranges in the western part of the state, particularly near Cumberland. The Cumberland coal field, extending 182 STATE OF MARYLAND. from Wills' creek to the head branch of the Potomac, is 60 miles long, and from five to seven miles wide, and from 3 to 15 feet thick, and covers an area of 400 square miles, and is of an excellent quality. Beyond the main ridge of the Alleghany mountains, the Youghiogheny coal field has beds of 20 ft. in thickness. Surphuret of copper is found in the Monoccy valley, and is easy of reduction. Porcelain clay occurs in the north-east corner, and excellent clays for stone ware pottery, &c., are extensively found. Red and yellow ochre and chrome ores, alum-earth, and copperas ores are found, in the eastern part of the state. The state carries on an extensive trade with the other states, the West Indies, and with Europe, principally from Baltimore. The exports consist of flour, tobacco, iron, lumber, Indian corn, pork, flaxseed, beans and fish, particularly shell-fish, with the latter of which Chesapeake bay abounds. Potomac river, which divides this state from Virginia is 500 miles long, and navigable about 295 miles from the mouth of Chesapeake bay to Washington city. It is 7T miles wide at its mouth in the Chesapeake bay, and 11 miles at Alexandria. Susquehanna river enters the head of Chesapeake bay in this state, is 11 miles wide at its mouth, and navigable only 5 miles; above which, it is obstructed by falls and rapids. The Patapsco, though a small river, is navigable 14 miles for large ships to Baltimore, and affords above much water power. The Patuxent is 110 miles long, and navigable for 50 miles for vessels of 250 tons burthen. The other rivers are Elk, Sassafras, Chester, Choptank, Nantichoke, aud Pocomoke, which flow by broad mouths into the east side of Chesapeake bay. POPULATION-CENSUS OF 1850, BY COUNTIES. Whites. Free Col'd. Slaves. Whites. Free Col'd. Slaves. Alleghany........., 21,643...... 412....., 724 Hartford............. 14,414.. 2,778...... 2,166 Anne Arundel........ 16,542. 4,... 4,0... 11,249 Kent................. 5,615..... 2,627 Baltimore City.......141,440...24,668...'... 2,946 Montgomery......... 9,435. 1,311...... 5,114 Baltimore Co.. 34,354...... 3,474...... 8,771 Prince George......... 8,902...1,138.....11,510 Carroll..... 18,676...... 963...... 976 Queen Anne........... 7040.. 3,174.... 4,270 Caroline............ 6,096...... 2,788...... 808 St. Mary...6,226...... 1,630..... 5,842 Calvert............. 3,630...... 1530.... 4,486 Somerset..1..........3,417. 3,455. 5,588 Cecl........~~~~~~~~,15,482.....2. 61254..... 848 Talbot................. 7085......2,502... 4,134 Charles............. 5,665... 913.. 9,584 Washington...26,888......1,852...... 2,090 Dorchester........... 10,788..... 3,803...... 4,281 Worcester.. 12,401..3012. 3,434 Frederick............ 3300...... 3,771..... 3,912 St. John's college at Annapolis was founded in 1784. St. Mary's college at Baltimore was founded by the Roman Catholics in 1799. Baltimore Medical school was founded in 1807; and in 1812, there were added to it the faculties of general science, law and divinity, and it received the name of the University of Maryland. Mount St. Mary's college was established near Emmetsburg in 1830, by the Roman Catholics. The first settlers of this state were Roman Catholics, and they are still numerous. They have an archbishop, who is metropolitan of the United States, and 70 churches. The Episcopalians have 123 ministers; the Baltimore Methodist Conference has 253 traveling, and 300 local preachers; the Regular Baptists have 22 churches, and the Anti-Mission, 18. The Lutheran Synod of Maryland numbers 35 ministers. In agriculture the cereal crops exhibit a fair average and indicate the soil of Maryland to be equally productive with the most favored portions of the land. About 5,000,000 bushels of wheat, 2,000,000 bushels of oats, and 8,000,000 bushels of corn are raised annually. The annual tobacco crop may be put down at 25,000,000 lbs. This state is reckoned STATE OF MAaYLAND. 183 fourth in the list of tobacco growing states, and is highly favored for the excellent quaility of this staple. Maryland has some considerable manufacturing establishments. Those of wool and cotton, yet only in their infancy, are now being rapidly pressed forward, and factories are building in several districts on a large scale. The same may be observed of the mills for silk, flax and mixed goods. Tanneries and other leather manufacturing establishments are numerous, and employ a considerable capital. Sugar refining is extensively engaged in, and paper and cordage is made to some extent. Flouring, perhaps, is the most extensive of employments. The wheat is celebrated in the markets as a superior brand, and sells at a comparatively high price. Ship building, chiefly carried on at Baltimore, is also one of the most extensive operations in which the people of this state are engaged. The foreign commerce of Maryland is extensive. The domestic exports for 1849, amounted to $7,786,695; foreign articles, exported, $213,965. The imports for the same year, in American vessels, were $4,613,219; in foreign vessels, $363,512. The internal trade is also extensive, and a large number of coasting vessels carry on a lucrative business with the other Atlantic ports. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, are two of the most magnificent works ever undertaken. The canal extends from Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, to Pittsburg, 342 miles, and the railroad from Baltimore to Wheeling. These works are incorporated by the states, Maryland, Virginia and Pennsylvania. When completed, they will open a vast outlet for the products of the country through which they pass, and be especially useful to the coal mines of Pennsylvania and the northern counties of Maryland and Virginia. The great chain of southern railroads traverses this state in a south-west direction. The Baltimore and Susquehanna railroad extends 75 miles. The Delaware and Chesapeake bays and connected by a railroad, and also by a canal 42 miles long, affording a passage for vessels requiring 10 feet of water - cost $2,750,000. The state debt of Maryland, at the close of 1849, amounted to $10,549,291. The sinking fund amounts to 2,000,000; the productive property of the state is valued at $5,292,525, and the unproductive property at $15,500,000. The receipts into the treasury for 1849 were $1,315,439; expenditures, $1,136,492. PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF ErPENDITURE. Bank dividends and bonus, - - - $35,936 32 Annapolis and Elk Ridge Railroad, - $ 3,935 56 Fines and forfeitures, 3,033 38 Civil officers, 10,008 47 Licenses by county clerks,.- - 135.834 50 Colleges, academies, and schools, 20,099 00 Road stock dividends, - - 33,227 50 Indigent deaf and dumb, 1,906 97 Stamps, 43,821 83 Judiciary,.... 38,313 50 Lotteries and stamps on lottery tickets, - 6,150 16 Legislature, - - - 3,237 75 Canal companies, - 101,550 CA0 Militia, 1,083 87 Direct tax, 531598 37 Penitentiary, - 3,750 00 Taxes on State and city of Baltimore stocks, 40.408 16) Pensions, 5,420 65 collataral inheritances, - - 1132 3; Surplus revenue, - - 34,069 36 commissions of executors and adState colonization, 10,000 00 ministrators, - - - 21,250 995 Interest on public debt,. - - - 715,555 95 commissions of trustees, - 5,072 88 Funded arrears of interest, - 20,07 81 foreign insurances, - 7,385 44 State tobacco inspection and warehouse, - 24,263 91 " policies of insurance, - - 3,707 CO Contingent expenses, - 7,026 17 " protests, 4,957 97 Miscellaneous expenses, -. 4,357 86 certain officers, - - - 11,634 34 " civil commissions, - - - 976 f CMEF SOURCES OF INCOMR. " incorporated institutions, - - 26.416 02 Auction duties and licenses, - - - $ 24,049 48 Tax for colonization, ---. 1.5. 71 Railroads, 127,019 77 State tobacco inspector in Baltimore, - - 3iC,9 184 STATE OF MARYLAND. There are eleven banks in Baltimore, with a capital of $8,980, and seven country banks, with a capital of $1,267,000. The constitution was formed in 1776, but has been frequently amended since that time. The state is divided into three districts, the Eastern, Southern and North Western. The governor is elected for three years, by the people from the districts alternately, so that each district is represented in the gubernatorial chair for one term, in each period of nine years. He must have resided in the district for which he is elected for three years next preceding the election. The senate consists of 21 members elected for six years, by the people; one third of the number being elected every two years; and the senators must have resided in the city or county for which they are chosen for three years, next preceding the election. The house of delegates consists of 79 members elected annually by the people, and must have resided in the county for which they are chosen for one year next preceding the election. All judges are appointed by the governor, with advice and consent of the senate, and hold their offices during good behaviour. Every white male citizen over 21 years of age, who has resided in the state one year next preceding an election, and for six months in the city or county where he offers his vote, enjoys the right of suffrage. A new constitution is about to be submitted to the people. Maryland was considered as included in the patent of the South Virginia company, until June 20th, 1632, when it was granted to Cecilius Calvert, lord of Baltimore in Ireland, and it received the name of Maryland, in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I., of England. The proprietor offered 50 acres of land in fee to every emigrant, and gave equal privileges to every denomination of Christians. In 1634 the first colony, consisting of 200 Roman catholics, planted itself on the north side of Potomac river, at a place called St. Mary's. In 1639 the first legislature was convened at St. Mary's, which divided the territory into baronies and manors, and passed a variety of laws. The next year the legislature passed a law establishing a house of assembly. In 1645 Claiborne, who was the head of a colony, instigated the Indians against the colony of Calvert, and drove him from the province. In 1650 the constitution of Maryland was settled, the legislature was divided into two houses, and the province included three counties. In 1652 parliament violently assumed the government and intrusted it to commissioners. In 1662 the government reverted to lord Baltimore, who assumed the administration. Annapolis was made the seat of government in 1699, and has ever since retained it. In 1775 the people were forward to resist the encroachments of parliament, and took an active part ini the Revolution. The constitution was formed in August, 1776, but they did not join the confederation till 1781. In convention, April 28th, 1788, they adopted the constitution of the United States, yeas 63, nays 12; majority 51. ANNAPOLIS, a small city on the Severn river, two miles from its embrochure into Chesapeake bay, is the capital of the state. Lat. 38~ 58' 35" N., and long. 76~ 33' W. This city derives its chief claim to notice from the fact that it contains the state buildings. There are some interesting scenes connected with Annapolis, however, and it was several times occupied by the old Congress during the revolution. Here Washington resigned hismcommission to that august body DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 185 Baltimore is the largest city in the state, and in point of population is the third city of the Union. It is situated on the bay that sets up from the Patapsco river, 14 miles from its entrance into the Chesapeake bay. This is the city of monuments. The Washington Monument, which stands on an elevation of 150 feet, is a most imposing structure. It is a column, 200 feet high, including the base, surmounted by a colossal statue of Washington, 13 feet high. The momument is built of white marble; the base is 50 feet square, and the column 20 feet in diameter, with a spiral staircase in its interior. The Battle Monument is also constructed of white marble, with a base of Egyptian architecture. The column is in the form of a Roman fascis, on the bands of which are encircled the names of those who fell in defending the city whey attacked by the British, in 1814. The entire height of the monument is fifty feet. Baltimore has several public buildings and churches of much beauty; among which are the City Hall, Court-House and Penitentiary. The Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the Unitarian church, corner of Charles and Franklin streets, are both elegant specimens of architecture. The commerce of Baltimore is extensive, embracing, as it does, besides that of Maryland, a large portion of the trade of western Pennsylvania and other interior states. It is the greatest flour market in the Union, and has a large export trade in tobacco. Its manufactures have, however, become as important as its commerce. The products are chiefly flour, tobacco, cigars, cotton and woollen goods, powder, paper, iron and copper ware, glass, machinery, &c. The city was chiefly laid out in 1729, and as it was settled principally by Catholics, that denomination is still the most numerous. The population in 1850, was 169,125. Frederick is a city of some importance, and ranks as second in the state. Hagerstown, Williamsport, Bladensburg, Westminster, Cumberland &c., are all places of some consideration, and important as entrep~ts of commerce. The ports of entry, besides Baltimore and Annapolis, are St. Mary's on the Potomac; Nottingham, on the Pawtuxent; Havre de Grace, at the mouth of the Susquehannah; Chestertown, on the Chester river; Oxford, on Treadhaven Creek, which flows into the Choptank, near its mouth; Vienna, on the Nanticoke; and Snowhill, on the Pocomoke. Considerable shipping is owned at all these places. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. AREm, 50 SQUARz MuaE. POPULATION in 1850, 51,684. The District of Columbia, as originally laid out, occupied an area of 10 miles square, on both sides of the Potomac, 129 miles from its mouth, and was ceded to the United States by Virginia and Maryland in 1789. In 1846 a portion of the Virginia shore was retroceded to Virginia. At present the District comprehends but one county, in which are the two cities of Washington and Georgetown. 186 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. The site'of the District was chosen by Washington, and the healthy atmosphere which surrounds it renders it highly appreciated for the special purpose of the seat of government. The government of the District is vested in Congress; and the citizens are subject to the immediate control of the federal government. A circuit court, consisting of a chief justice and two associate judges, is established. Appeals and writs of error go from this court directly to the supreme court of the United States. An orphans' court is also instituted. The CITY OF WASHINGTON, the capital of the United States, is situated on the east bank of the Potomac, in latitude 38~ 52' 43" north, and longitude 760 55' 30" west. The population in 1850 was 40,000. The city is encompassed by a fine range of bills, forming a natural amphitheatre, and covered in part with trees and underwood, and presenting to the eye verdant and cultivated slopes. These elevations form beautiful sites for villas and private residences, and command an extensive and varied prospect of the city, of the surrounding country, and of the meanderings of the noble Potomac, as far as the eye can reach. These things doubtless attracted the eye of the father of his country, at whose suggestion this spot was early fixed on as the future capital of the nation; and though its growth has been less than was once anticipated, it has been considerable, and is increasing. The bustle of a large city would not much improve it as the seat of the national government. It enjoys two important requisites for health, pure air and good water; and there is sufficient refined and elegant society, particularly during the session of congress in the winter season, to render it a pleasant place of residence. The city is laid out on a magmnificent plan, but it is but very partially built on; but posterity may reap the advantages of it. The general elevation of the ground on which the city is built is about 40 feet above the level of the river, and there are some moderate elevations, on two of which the capitol and president's house are built. It is regularly laid out, with streets runing north and south, and crossed at right angles by others running east and west. But the different parts of the city are connected by broad avenues, which traverse the rectangular divisions diagonally. This would be very inconvenient, if ground were scarce. But where the intersection of these avenues with each other and with the streets would form many acute angles, considerable rectangular or circular open grounds are left, which, when the city shall be built up, will give it an open appearance. The avenues and streets leading to important public points, are from 120 to 160 feet wide, and the other streets are from 70 to 110 feet wide. The avenues are named after the states of the Union, and the other streets, beginning at the capitol, are denoted by the letters of the alphabet; and east and west they are designated by numbers. Pennsylvania avenue, from the capitol to the president's house, contains the most dense population, is Macadamized, has a fine flagged side walk on one side, and is much the handsomest street in the city. Five avenues radiate from the capitol and five others from the president's house, giving these prominent places the most ready communication with all parts of the city. The buildings of Washington consist mostly of scattered clusters; nor is it probable that the magnificent plan of the city will soon be built up. The public buildings of Washington have a magnificence becoming a great nation. The capitol is the finest building in the United States, and DISTRICT'OF COLUMBIA. 187 not inferior to any senate-house in the world. It is every way suitable that the representatives of the sovereign people should be accommodated in a building which would do honor to royalty, and be worthy of the most august legislative assembly in the world. The capitol is universally regarded as an honor to the nation. It is elevated 73 feet above tide water, and affords a commanding view of the different parts of the city, and of the surrounding country. The building is of freestone, and covers an area of more than an acre and a half; the length of the firont is 352 feet, including the wings; the depth of the wings is 121 feet. The projection on the east or main front, including the steps, is 62 feet wide; and another on the west front, with the steps, is 83 feet wide. In the projection on the east front there is a splendid portico of 122 lofty Corinthian columns, 38 feet high; and in the west front there is a portico of 10 Corinthian columns. The height of the building to the top of the dome is 120 feet. Under the dome, in the middle of the building, is the rotunda, a circular room, 95 feet in diameter, and of the same height, adorned with sculptures in stone pannels in bold relief, containing groups of figures representing Smith delivered by the interposition of Pocahontas; the landing of the pilgrims on Plymouth rock; the conflict of Boone with the Indians; and four magnificent paintings by Trumbull, with figures as large as life, representing the presentation to congress of the Declaration of Independence, in which all the figures, 47 in number, in that august assembly, which William Pitt in the British parliament pronounced superior in wisdom to any body of men whom he had ever heard or read of, are correct likenesses; the surrender of Burgoyne to General Gates; the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown; and Washington resigning his commission to congress at Annapolis. To these have been added the baptism of Pocahontas by Chapman, and the embarkation of the pilgrims by Weir. These paintings possess great merit as works of art, in addition to their commemoration of important events in American history. The grounds have recently received a splendid additional ornament in Greenough's statue of Washington, a colossal figure in a sitting posture, twice as large as life. On the west of the rotunda is the library room of congress, 92 by 34 feet, and is 36 feet in height, containing, in arched alcoves, over 28,000 volumes. The foundation of this library, after the burning of the capitol and its library by the British in the last war, was laid by the purchase of the entire private library of Mr. Jefferson, consisting of about 7,000 volumes, and many of them rare and valuable, for $23,000. This library has been enlarged from time to time by an annual appropriation by congress of $5,000 for the purpose. In the second story of the south wing of the capitol is the hall of the house of representatives, of a semi-circular form, 96 feet long and 60 feet high, with a dome supported by 24 beautiful columns of variegated marble from the Potomac, with capitals of Italian marble, of the Corinthian order. The circular wall opposite the speaker is surrounded by a gallery for men, and the chord of the arc, back of the speaker's chair, has a gallery for ladies. The room is ornamented with some fine statuary and paintings, and the whole furniture is elegant. The senate chamber is in the second story of the north wing of the capitol, and is semi-circular, like that of the representatives, but smaller 188 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. being 78 feet long and 45 feet high. The vice president's chair is canopied with a rich crimson drapery, held by the talons of a hovering eagle. A light gallery of bronze, running round the arc in front of the vice president's chair, is mainly appropriated to the ladies. There is another gallery above and behind the chair, supported by fine JIonic columns of variegated marble. A magnificent chandelier hangs in the centre of the room, and the whole appearance of the furniture of the room is splendid. Below the senate chamber, and nearly of the same form and dimensions, though much less elegant, is the room of the supreme court of the United States; and there are in the building 70 rooms for the accommodation of committees and officers of congress. The grounds around the capitol are spacious, containing 22 acres, highly ornamented with graveled walks, shrubbery and trees; a naval monument ornamented with statuary, erected in honor of the youthful officers who fell in the battle of Tripoli, and fountains; and the whole is enclosed by a handsome iron fence. The president's house is an elegant edifice of freestone, two lofty stories high, at the intersection of Pennsylvania, Virginia, New York, Connecticut and Vermont avenues, and stands near the centre of a plat of ground of 20 acres, at an elevation of 44 feet above high tide-water. The entrance front faces north upon Lafayette square, and the southern front toward the garden presents a fine view of the improved part of the city, of the Potomac river and bridge, and of the opposite shores of Maryland and Virginia. The building is 170 feet front, and 86 feet deep. The north front is ornamented with a fine Ionic portico of four lofty columns, projecting with three columns. The outer intercolumniation is for carriages to drive into, to place the company under shelter. The middle space is the entrance for those visiters who come on foot; the steps from both lead to a broad platform in front of the door of entrance. The garden front is varied by having a rusticated basement, and by a semi-circular projecting colonnade of six Ionic columns, with two flights of steps leading from the ground to the level of the principal story. The apartments within are admirably fitted to their purpose, and splendidly furnished, and every way fitted for the residence of the' chief of a great nation, and for the reception of his various company. Near the president's house are four large buildings for the departments of state, of the treasury, of war, and of the navy. The general post office and the patent office are also extensive buildings. The new treasury building contains 250 rooms, and has a splendid colonnade, 457 feet in length. The general post office contains about 80 rooms, and is of the Corinthian order, with columns and pilasters, on a rustic base. The patent office, in addition to other spacious apartments, has one room in the upper story, 275 feet long and 65 feet wide. It is regarded as one of the most splendid rooms in the United States, and is devoted to the grand and increasing collections of the national institution. The portico of this building is of the same extent as that of the Parthenon at Athens, consisting of 16 columns, in double rows, 50 feet high. In the war office was formerly kept the fine collection of Indian portraits, painted from the original heads by King. These valuable pictures are now in the custody, and adorn the collections of the national institution in the building of the patent office. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 189 The navy yard is on the eastern branch, about three-fourths of a mile south-east of the capitol, and contains 27 acres of ground. It has houses for the officers, and shops and warehouses, two large ship houses, a neat armory, and every kind of naval stores. The navy magazine is a substantial brick edifice, on 70 acres of ground, belonging to the United States, and a wharf, for the convenience of receiving and carrying off the powder, extends from the shore a short distance into the river. The Smithsonian Institute, when completed, will be a splendid edifice, and a lasting monument of the munificence of the man whose treasure was bequeathed for its foundation and endowment. Within the limits of the city there are 27 churches, belonging to the different denominations. The variety, skill and taste in their architectural designs are highly creditable, and conduce much to the general symmetry of the city, and its appearance from a distance. Numerous institutions of a benevolent, religious, educational and philanthropic character dignify the moral aspect of the capital. There are two orphan asylums, the Washington and St. Vincent's, which are supported, one by the ladies of the city and the other by the Sisters of Charity. The Howard Society is an establishment for supplying poor females with work at equitable prices. Among the public buildings of Washington the theatres and places of amusement are not the least important. The Washington Theatre, the National Theatre, the Assembly Rooms, King's Picture Gallery, &c., are the most conspicuous of this class.. Columbia College is an excellent institution, and the building is an ornament to the city. It is situated on an elevation, commanding a splendid view of the surrounding country. The Theological Seminary, the Columbian Institute, the American Historical Society, the Columbian Horticultural Society, the City Library, the Athenoeum, the National Institution for the promotion of science, and some others, afford to the citizens every advantage in the pursuit of knowledge, and the edifices are highly ornamented and rich in taste and design. The City Hall, intended for the use of the corporate authorities of Washington, is yet in an unfinished state, but when completed, will furnish another magnificent structure in addition to the many which now adorn the metropolis. The Congressional Cemetery is worthy of note. It occupies an area of ten acres, near the eastern branch of the Potomac, and about a mile and a half from the capitol. The grounds are surrounded by a high brick wall, and have a considerable elevation above the river, commanding an extensive prospect of the beautiful scenery which surrounds the city. They are tastefully laid out with ornamental trees and shrubbery, and many of the tombs are remarkable for taste and appropriateness. Washington is connected with the north and south by railway, and is accessible from the Atlantic for ships of the largest class. During the last war with Great Britain this city was destroyed by fire, and many of the public records and works of art either consumed or carried off by the soldiers. This wanton act was perpetrated by Gen. Ross, who soon after met a retributive death at Baltimore. Washington, however, soon recovered from the disaster, and is now advancing with rapid strides, and its population is increasing in a steady progression. 190 STATE OF VIRGINIA. Georgetown is divided from Washington by Rock Creek, and is distant from the capitol three miles. It is beautifully located, and from its elevated position commands a view of the splendid panorama of the Potomac and the surrounding country. It is a place of some consideration, enjoying a fair share of manufactures and commerce. The public buildings consist chiefly of some educational establishments, churches and public offices; the private residences are generally well built, and have a new and clean appearance. The Roman Catholic College is the most extensive building, and holds a high station for efficiency. The city is laid out regularly. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal commences at this place. The population is 8,366. VIRGINIA. AUA, 61,32 sauAR MdsS. PoP1ULATIQi na 10, 1,421,863 Virginia is the largest of the Atlantic States, and is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania and Maryland; east by the Atlantic Ocean; south by North Carolina and Tennessee, and west by Kentucky and Ohio. It is 408 miles long and 212 broad, and has an area of 39,265,280 acres. This state has a great variety of surface and soil; from the sea-coast to the termination of tide-water, which includes a tract from 110 to 120 miles in width, the country is low and flat, in some places marshy, the soil is sandy, covered with pitch pine, with a light soil of little fertility, except on the margins of the rivers, where it is often productive. This is denominated the low country, and is unhealthy from August to October. Between the head of tide-water to the Blue Ridge, thte country gradually rises and becomes uneven, and near the mountains, often abrupt and broken, though the soil is frequently fertile. The first ridge of mountains in this state, is generally about 150 miles from the ocean, beyond which the country is mountainous, traversed by various ridges of the Alleghany, which occupy a greater breadth of country in Virginia than in any other state. Between these ridges are extensive valleys of table land, composed of mould resting on a bed of limestone, and it often possesses great fertility, and is some of the most pleasant land in the state. The farms are here smaller than in the eastern parts of the state, better cultivated, and there are fewer slaves. The country beyond the Alleghany mountains is generally wild and broken, in some places fertile, but generally barren. Indian corn, wheat and tobacco are the staple productions of the state; cotton is raised for home consumption. The mineral wealth of Virginia is very great. Gold, copper, lead, iron, coal, salt, limestone, and marble are found. Mining has recently received much attention. The belt of country in which gold is found is in Spottsylvania county and the adjacent country, and extending in a southwest direction, it passes into North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. But the iron and coal are much more valuable. The coal fields are very extensive,'both anthracite and bituminous, and large quantities have been exported, particularly from the neighborhood of Richmond. STATE OF VIRGINIA. 191 Salt springs are found, and large quantities of salt are exported from the banks of the Great Kanawha. The natural bridge over Cedar Creek, in Rockbridge county, is one of the most magnificent curiosities in the world. It is a huge rock, in the form of an arch, 90 feet long, 60 wide, and from 40 to 70 feet deep, thrown over the river more than 200 feet above its surface, and supported by abutments so gracefully curved, so long and light, and springing, as to appear scarcely more heavy than the capital of a Corinthian pillar. There is another natural bridge in Scott county, of nearly the same height, but less beautiful. The falling spring, in Bath county, forms a beautiful cascade, streaming from a perpendicular precipice 200 feet high. The passage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge at Harper's Ferry, is celebrated for its grandeur and magnificence. There are many mineral springs in Virgila. The hot and warm springs of Bath county, the sweet springs of Monroe, the sulphur springs of Greenbriar, those of Montgomery, and the baths of Berkely county, are much frequented. James river is the largest in the state, being 500 miles long, flowing from the region behind the Blue Ridge. It is navigable for sloops of 125 tons 120 miles to Richmond, and for boats much above that. Appomattox is 130 miles long, enters James river 100 miles above Hampton roads, and is navigable 12 miles to Petersburg. The Rappahannock rises in the Blue Ridge, and flowing 130 miles, it enters Chesapeake bay. It is navigable 110 miles for sloops. York river enters Chesapeake bay, 40 miles below the Rappahannock, and is navigable 40 miles for ships. Potomac river separates the state from Maryland, and just before its passage through the Blue Ridge at Harper's Ferry, it is joined by the Shenandoah from the south. The Potomac is navigable for ships of the line to Washington, and enters Chesapeake bay by a broad vestuary. Great and Little Kanawha are the principal rivers west of the mountains, and enter the Ohio river. The Monongahela rises in this state, though it runs principally in Pennsylvania. Staunton and Dan rivers in the south part of the state, unite to form Roanoke river, flowing into North Carolina. The lower part of Chesapeake bay lies wholly in this state, is 15 miles wide at its mouth, and enters the Atlantic between cape Charles and cape Henry. Norfolk, 8 miles from Hampton roads, near the mouth of James river, has much the best harbor in the state; spacious, safe, and well defended, with a sufficient depth of water for the largest ships. It is the most commercial place in the state. In consequence of the great extent and varied surface of Virginia, the climate is very different in different situations. In the greater part of the country, below the head of tide-water, the summers are hot and sultry, and the winters are mild, though the cold is sometimes severe. From the head of tide-water to the mountains, the air is more elastic and pure, and both summers and winters are several degrees of temperature below that of the low country. Among the mountains, the summer weather is generally fine, though the heat is sometimes very oppressive; to the westward the climate is more mild than to the eastward. Except in the neighborhood of stagnant waters in the low country, Virginia has, upon the whole, a salubrious climate. 192 STATE OF VIRGINIA. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850, BY COUNTIES. EASTERN VIRGINIA. W hites. Free Cold. Slateq Whites. Free Col'd. Slaves. York............... 1,825...... 454......2,181 Accomack..........9,742.....8,161...... 4,987 UI BNU Albemarle............11,876... 586......13,338 WS. Appomattox.. 0.... 40 184...... 4,799 Alleghany............ 2,763..... 58...... 694 Amherst.............. 6353 393...... 5,958 Augusta...............19024. 583.5,053 A~meliha.2,794.... 157...... 6,819 Brooke................ 4,923.... 1,200 31 Alexandria............ 7,218.....1,408...... 1382 Braxton............... 4,123....... 89 Brunswick............ 4,895..... 543...... 8,456 Barbour............... 8,761...... 221. 113 Bedford...............13,556...... 463....10,061 Boone.............. 3,054...... - 183 Buckingharu........... 5,426...... 250.... 6,683 Bath.................. 2,436...... 43...... 947 Culpepper......... 5,111.... 488...... 6,329 Botetourt..........10749...... 443......3736 Cumberland......... 3,083...... 339...... 8,988 Berkley.... 9,566...... 249......1,956 Charlotte............. 4,605...... 362.....10,661 Cabell................. 5,904...... 389 Caroline............... 6,892...... 903...... 8,616 Carroll................. 6,2...... 29...... 154 Chesterfield........... 8,402..... 468...... 2,764 Clarke..... 3,615...... 123......3,614 Charles City........... 1,654...... 772......10,866 Doddridge............. 2,639...... 80...... 31 Campbell.............11,538..... 841......11,468 Fayette................ 3,782...... 17...... 156 Dinwiddie.............10,985......3,253...... 6,762 Floyd............. 6,000...... 15..... 43.3 Essex................. 3,025.. 419. 2,148 Frederick......... 12,769..........2,294 Elizabeth City......... 2,341...... 97......10,350 Gilmer................. 3,403 912. 72 Fauquier.............. 9,875...... 643...... 5,726 Greenbrier. 1549.........1,312 Franklin..............11,638...... 66......3,250 Grayson........... 6,142...... 36...... 499 Fairfax............... 6,835...... 597...... 4,737 Giles.......859. 54. 657 Fluvanna............. 4,53...... 217...... 1,699 Harrison...............11,214...... 26...... 488 Green............... 2,667...... 34...... 3,785 Hardy................. 7,950...... 353......1,260 Greensville............ 1,731...... 123...... 5,845 Hampshire..............12,389. 214. 1,433 Goochland............ 3,854...... 653...... 5,557 Highland............... 2,853.. 10...... 364 Gloucester-............ 4,290...... 680......16,042 Hancock............... 4,040. 7 3 Henrico...............23,732......3,663...... 8,393 Jackson................ 6,480...... 11...... 53 Hanover.............. 6,541...... 219......14,462 Jefferson................10,476... 540...4,341 Halifax..........11,006...... 504... 14,462 Kanawha.............. 12,002.... 211...3,140 Henry................,, 208......,34 Lewis.................. 9,621...... 368 James City............ 1,489...... 663...... 1,868 Lee.................... 9,440...... 40...... 787 Isle of Wight.......... 4,724....1,234......8,395 Logan....... 3,533.. 87 King and Queen....... 4,094.... 461...... 5,764 Marshall..10050...... 39...... 49 King George.......... 2,303...... 265...... 3,403 Marion.................10,438...... 20...... 94 King William......... 2,702...... 8346...... 5,731 Monongalia............12,092...... 119...... 176 Louisa.......... 6,423...... 404...... 9,864 Mason................. 6,843...... 49...... 647 Lunenburg........... 4,310...... 195...... 7,187 Monroe................ 9,062...... 81......1,061 Lancaster............. 1,805... 263...... 2,640 Mercer................. 4,018...... 27...... 117 Loudon................15,081......1,354...... 5,641 Montgomery 6,822...... 66. 1.....,471 Madison.............. 4,458...... 149...... 4,724 Morgan................ 3,431...... 3...... 123 Mecklenburg.......... 7,256...... 912......12,429 Nicholas................ 3,889...... 1. 73 Matthews............ 3,644...... 147...... 2,923 Ohio...................17,609...... 235...... 164 Middlesex............. 1,903...... 149...... 2,34, Preston................11,574...... 47...... 87 Northumberland...... 3,072...... 519...... 3,755 Putnam................ 4,693...... 10 632 Nansemond..........5,425......2,143...... 4,715 Pocahontas............. 3,308...... 23...... 267 Northampton......... 3,105...... 745. 3,648 Pulaski................ 3.612...... 34......1,471 New Kent............. 2,221...... 433...... 3,410 Page................... 6.332. 311.... 357 Nottoway............. 2,251. 136...... 6,050 Pendleton.............. 5,433...... 30.....322 Nelson................ 6478..... 138..... 6,142 Rockbridge............11,484...... 364......4,197 Norfolk City........... 9,113...... 912. 4,295 Russel................10,896...... 70.. 982 " County........ 4,901...... 823..... 4.354 Ritchie................ 3,886............ 16 Orange............... 3,962...... 184... 5;921 Randolph.............. 5,003...... 39...... 201 Prince Edward........ 4,177.. 188... 7,192 PRoanoke................ 5,813...... 154......2,510 Patrick............... 7,197... 88...... 2,324 Rockingham..... 171,498. 465......2,331 Pittsylvania..... 15,263...... 735.12,798 Raleigh......... 1,753... 7...... 23 Prince William........ 5,081.... 550... 2,498 Shenandoah. 12,595...... 262...... 311 Powhatan............. 2,532. 364..5.282 Scott 9,325...... 31...... 473 Prince George......... 2,670..... 518...... 4.408 Smythe................. 6,901...... 197......1,064 Princess Anne.....4,280. 259... 3;130 Taylor................. 5,456. 4..... 38 Portsmouth........... 6,345.. 530.... 1,751 Tazewell 8,808..... 75. 1,060 Richmond............. 3,462. 709. 2,277 Tyler.................. 5,130...... 69... 168 Rappahannock........ 5,642.. 296. 3,844 Wetzel................. 4,261...... 6...... 17 Spottsylvania......... 6,903..... 527. 7,481 Wood.................. 9,008...... 69...... 373 Stafford. 4,415...... 318...... 3311 Wayne................ 4564....... 7...... 189 Sussex.... 3.086.... 742...... 5,992 Washington.............12,372. 109......2,130 Southampton......... 5,971......1,795.... 5,755 Wythe................. 9,618...... 221......2,181 Surrey............... 2,215...... 984. 2,479 Warren................4,492...... 37......1,745 Warwick............... 598.. 43..... 905 Wirt................ 3 319...... 2...... 32 Westmoreland........ 3,410......1,113.... 3,557 Wyoming.............. 1,583...... 1...... 61 The manufactures of Virginia are not so extensive as those of many states inferior to it in territory and population. The wool manufactures employ about 50 fulling mills and 45 factories. There are about 40 cotton mills in the state, and manufactures of mixed goods, silk and flax. Homemade, or family goods are produced to the amount of $3,000,000. Flour ing mills are numerous, and large quantities are turned out, and glass and earthern ware are made to some extent. The chief employment of the people is in agriculture; and tobacco is STATE OF VIRGINIA. 193 the great staple. The average crops of the cereal grains are estimated at 12,000,000 bushels of wheat; 10,000,000 of oats; 1,500,000 of rye; 260,000 of buckwheat; 990,000 of barley; and 40,000,000 of Indian corn. The miscellaneous productions are hay, hops, hemp and flax. In 1850, the cotton crop amounted to 11,509 bales, being 6,000 bales less than in 1849. Virginia ranks as eighth in importance as a commercial state. The value of exports during the year 1849 was $3,373,138; and of the imports, $241,935. The works of internal improvement are numerous and extensive. The principal railroads are the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac, 76 miles long; the Petersburg, 63; and the Portsmouth and Roanoke, 78 miles long. There are others of importance. The canals are the Dismal Swamp canal, and the James River canal; both works of signal utility. The length of post roads in the state is 11,634 miles. Several lines of magnetic telegraph traverse the state. No other spot between New York and Georgia presents an equally favorable country for a line of communication across the Alleghany mountains. The length would by 425 miles. William and Mary college at Williamsburg, is the oldest in the state, and one of the oldest in the country, and was founded in 1691; Hampden Sydney college, in Prince Edward county, was founded in 1783, and is flourishing; Washington college, at Lexington, was founded in 1812; Randolph Macon college, at Boydton, was founded in 1832. There are theological schools at Richmond, in Prince Edward county, and in Fairfax county. But the most important literary institution in the state, is the university of Virginia, at Charlottesville, founded in 1819. Its plan is extensive, its endowment has been munificent, and it is a prosperous institution. Mr. Jefferson valued himself on having exerted his influence to found this institution, and left an inscription for his monument, since inscribed on it, written by himself: "Thomas Jefferson, author of the declaration of independence, and founder of the university of Virginia." Virginia has a literary fund, the permanent capital of which, for the year 1849, amounted to $1,561,160; and the revenue derived therefrom for the year amounted to $95,935. In 1850, the number of schools in 115 counties and towns, was 3,399. Number of poor children in 107 counties and towns, 59,464. Total number of poor children educated in 132 counties and towns, 30,387. Amount expended for tuition of poor children, including books, compensation to officers, and all other expenses, $68,794.39. Amount expended at district schools in the town of Portsmouth, and counties of Southampton and Washington, $1,317.08. Total for tuition and expenses, $70,111.47. Average actual attendance of each poor child at common schools, 552 days, equal to nine weeks. Average amount paid for tuition of each poor child at common and Lancastrian schools, $2.30. Average at district schools, in the town of Portsmouth, and counties of Southampton and Washington, $2.70. The Baptists are the most numerous religious denomination. They had, in 1850, 553 churches, and 81,000 members; the Methodists had 300 preachers, and 36,000 members; the Presbyterians, old school, had 155 churches, and 11,255 communicants; the new school Presbyterians had 13 194 STATE OF VIRGINIA. 39 churches, and 3,659 communicants; the Episcopalians had 114 mmisters, and 5,347 communicants; the Lutherans had 23 ministers and 1,700 communicants; the Reformed Baptists had about 12,090 communicants. In the dioceses of Richmond and Wheeling there were 14 Catholic churches. The aggregate debt of Virginia, in 1850, for internal improvements &c., was $9,387,963. The productive property of the state, amounts to $7, 379,455; the unproductive property, 84,475,359. The net receipts from taxes during the year were $606,599. CHIEF ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE. Literary Fund, (fixed and surplus quotas, General Assembly,... $170.937 02 and including $15,000 to the University Officers of government,. 94,353 87 of Va.,) $89.835 88 Interest on the public debt,... 490,357 74 Dividends to stockhlolders of old'James Criminal charges,.. 39.109 99 River Co.. 21,645 00 Penitentiary, 15,330 12 Expenses public guard at Richmond, 21,701 97 Contingent expenses of courts,. 31,816 50 Expenses or militia,. 57,188 24 CHIEF ITEMS OF RECEIPTS. Commissioners of the revenue,. 31,731 45 Ordinary revenue and taxation,. $632,756 74 Lunatic asylums. 98,260 75 Dividends on bank stocks,... 266,188 40 Deaf, dumb, and blind asylums,. 17,727 79 Bonus on bank dividends,... 45,979 61 Contingent fund,.16,925 32 Internal improvements,.86,270 91 Revolutionary half-pay claims,. 8,867 46 Interest on loans to internal improvement Public roads, (direct from treasury,). 17,233 00 companies, &c.,. 182,272 14 Subscriptions to joint stock companies, and Militia fines... 13,078 32 appropriations to roads out of loans ob- Loans obtained to pay subscriptions to joint tained, 481,172 66 stock companies, and appropriations for Expenses of surveys,.. 3,465 13 roads,. 471,016 81 Military School, Iexington,.. 9,210 00 Annuity from J. R: and'Kan Co., 21,000 00 There are 37 banks in the state, with an aggregate capital of $9,000,000. The first Constitution was adopted by a Convention which assembled June 29th 1776, and this was revised in 1829. The present Constitution was adopted in Convention, August, 1851. The right to vote is granted to every white male citizen 21 years old, resident of the State two years, and of the election district for one year next preceding an election. Votes are given openly, or viva voce; and the general election is held on the 4th Thursday in October. The General Assembly consists of the House of Delegates of 152 members, elected for two years, and the Senate of 50 members, elected for four years, one half biennially. It meets on the 2d Monday of January, biennially (even years). Delegates must be 21, and Senators 25 years of age, and both must be qualified voters in their districts. Persons holding lucrative offices, ministers of any denomination, salaried officers of banks and attorneys for the com. monwealth, are ineligible. Bills may originate and be amended in either House. Each law shall embrace only one object, and that expressed in its title, and every law amended shall be reenacted at length. The Judiciary consists of a Supreme Court of Appeals, District Courts, and Circuit Courts. The State is divided into 21 judicial circuits, 10 districts, and 5 sections. Each circuit elects one judge for eight years, who holds two Circuit Courts a year in each county and corporation therein. District Courts are held at least once a year in every district, by the Judges of the Circuits constituting the district, with the Judge of the Supreme Court of Appeals for the section, any three of whom may hold a court. The Supreme Court of Appeals consists of the five judges, elected for 12 years (each being 35 years of age). The salaries of judges shall not be less than here stated: Supreme Court, $3,000; Circuit Court, $2,000; with mileage. An Attorney for the Commonwealth is chosen for four years. Each county elects four Justices of the Peace for four years. They elect their presiding Justice of the County Court to attend each term; and the rest are duly classified. Of county officers, there are elected a surveyor, for six years; a sheriff, and commissioners of the revenue for two years; with constables and overseers of the poor, as prescribed by law. The Governor is chosen for four years, by plurality of votes; he must be 30 years of age, a native citizen of the United States, and have been a citizen of Virginia for five years next preceding his election. IIe is not eligible for successive terms, nor to any other office during his term; he must reside at the seat of government, and receives $5,000 a year. A Lieutenant-Governor, who is President of the Senate, is elected at the same time. The Administrative officers, are —Secretary of the Commonwealth, Treasurer. and Auditor of Public Accounts, each selected by joint vote of the General Assembly for two years; and a Board of Public Works. consisting of three commissioners, each elected for six years, one biennially from his respective district. The General Assembly may abolish said Board by a concurrent three-fifths vote of each House. Amon g the important provisions are these: The credit of the State shall not be pledged to any corporation; and no corporation shall be released from its liability to the State. No loans shall be contracted for a longer period than 34 years. There shall be set apart annually seven per cent. of the State debt, existing 1st January, 1852, as a sinking fund to redeem said debt. Whenever a debt is contracted, there shall be set apart annually for 34 years a sum exceeding by one per cent, the aggregate annual interest to be paid thereon, which sum shall be part of the sinking fund. Stocks held by the Commonwealth may be sold, but their STATE OF VIRGINIA. 195 proceeds must constitute part of the sinking fund. Slaves emancipated shall forfeit their freedom by remaining in the Commonwealth more than 12 months. The General Assembly shall not emancipate slaves, and may impose restrictions on their emancipation by their owners; and may also pass laws for the relief of the Commonwealth from the free negro population, by removal or otherwise. Taxation shall be uniformly assessed in proportion to value of property, as prescribed by law, except that slaves shall be taxed as follows: Slaves over 12 years of age shall be assessed with the same tax assessed on land valued at $300, and under that age shall not be subject to taxation. Capitation tax, equal to tax on land worth $200, shall be levied on every white male inhabitant 21 years old; one-half of which total proceeds shall be applied to purposes of education. Virginia has obtained the name of the ancient dominion, having been settled in April, 1607, at Jamestown on James river, and was the first white settlement in the United States, being over four years older than the settlement at Plymouth. It was named in honor of queen Elizabeth by Sir Walter Raleigh, to whom she granted the country; but the settlement of it which he attempted failed. The grant was vacated by the execution and attainder of that nobleman, under James I. The territory was then granted to two companies, the London company and the Plymouth company, and called North and South Virginia. By the former the country was settled, and Jamestown was named in honor of their royal patron. The first settlers were a different set of men from the settlers at Plymouth, and the country suffered many disasters from the contentions among the leaders, the turbulence of the citizens, the wars with the Indians, and the tyranny of the royal governors. Virginia was a very loyal province, and was attached to the royal party during the protectorate of Cromwell; and was among the first to proclaim Charles II. at the restoration. The church of England was established by law in 1662. Virginia had the high honor in 1732, of being the birth-place of George Washington, and it was as an officer of her colonial militia, when a very young man, during the French war, that he commenced his career of mili tary glory. This state was among the first to resist the aggressions of the mother country, and her sages and yeomen bore a distinguished part in the Revolutionary struggle. Her Patrick Henry as a Revolutionary orator, her Washington as the greatest and the best in the field and in the cabinet, and her Jefferson, Madison and Monroe, as presidents of the United States, and her Marshall, as chief justice, have conferred distinguished honor on their country, and given her a high place in the American confederacy. In convention, June 25th, 1788, the constitution of the United States was adopted- yeas 89, nays 79; majority 10. It will be found that the constitution was adopted with the greatest struggle and the most powerful opposition, where the spirit of liberty was most active and jealous. RICHMOND CITY is the capital of the state, and its seat of government. it is beautifully situated on the north side of James River, 150 miles from its mouth, immediately below the falls, lat. 37~ 32' 17" north, and long. 77~ 26' 28" west. It is a great commercial depot, having an extensive back country, abounding in tobacco, wheat, hemp and coal. A canal has been cut around the falls, which opens the navigation for b'ats 220 miles above the city. The fiouring mills of this city have a world- wide celebrity. These and other mills and manufacturing establishments derive their ample power from the water of the falls. The city itself has many handsome edifices, among which is the capitol, one of the greatest ornaments of the United States. Here is deposited the statue of Washington, by Houden. The city hall, the armory, the penitentiary, churches, &c., are all highly decorative to the city. The private residences are equal to any of the same description in other large cities. There is scarcely another place in the world that combines within itself such multifarious advantages as 196 STATE OF VIRGINIA. Richmond; and to these must be attributed its rapid growth in population and wealth. The population in 1850, was 30,180. Manchester, on the opposite side of the river, and which is connected with Richmond by a bridge, is a flourishing place, and is chiefly devoted to manufactures. It has about 2,000 inhabitants. A railroad connects Richmond with the great coal region of the state. Norfolk is the chief seaport. It is situated on the east branch of Elizabeth River, a few Wiles before its entrance into Hampton Roads. It has a safe and commodious harbor. The town is built on low ground, and the neighborhood is swampy. Though not much celebrated for elegance, it can boast of several fine buildings, and is especially rich in church architec ture. The Gosport navy-yard, on the opposite side of the river, is one of the most important in the United States, and contains a magnificent drydock, which cost the government nearly $1,000,000. The commerce of Norfolk is large, and about 25,000 tons of shipping are owned by the in habitants. Population about 12,500. Petersburg, on the Appomatox, below the falls, 12 miles from its mouth, is the emporium of a considerable district in North Carolina, as well as of the southern parts of Virginia. Population about 15,000. Fredericksburg, on the Rappahannock, below the falls, 100 miles from its mouth, and at the head of navigation, is a depot for the corn, flour, and tobacco of the surrounding country. Population about 5,000. The other principal towns are Charlottesville, noted as the seat of the University of Virginia. Monticello, the residence of the late Thomas Jefferson, is about three miles hence. The mansion is built on an eminence called South-west Mountain, and commands a view of the grand mountain scenery of the Alleghanies. An obelisk of granite is placed over the grave of this great man, bearing the following inscription, written by himself: — "' THOMAS JEFFERSON, AUTHOR OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, AND FOUNDER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA." Lynchburg, one of the largest tobacco markets in the world; Harper's Ferry, celebrated for the majestic scenery which surrounds it, and as an arsenal and armoy of the United States; Winchester, on the site of old Fort Loudon; Leesburg, Wheeling, a large manufacturing place, &c., &c. In this connection we may mention, that in Westmorland county, on the Potomac, is the spot where the illustrious Washington was born. The house, which stood on Pope's Creek, about half a mile up the stream, on a plantation called Wakefield, is now in ruins. A stone, with the simple inscription, "HERE ON THE 11TH FEBRUARY, 1732, GEORGE WASHINGTON WAS BORN," indicates the hallowed spot. Mount Vernon, higher up the river, was his i esidence in life and tomb in death. The house in which he resided is a simple frame building, and his tomb. a plain structure of red brick. Many a pilgrim has sought this sacred retreat, to pay a tribute of gratitude to the memory of the immortal Washington. STATE OF NORTH CAROLINA. 197 NORTH CAROLINA, AmA, 45,MY squQARE Mas. POPULATION M 1850, 870,09. North Carolina is bounded north by Virginia; east by the Atlantic ocean; south by South Carolina, and west by Tennessee. Its length is 430 miles; breadth, 198; and contains an area of 29,120,000 acrs. The whole eastern coast of North Carolina consists of a ridge of sand and low islands, separated from the main land in some parts by narrow, and in other parts by broad sounds and bays, entered by various inlets, generally shallow and of dangerous navigation. Ocracoke inlet is the only one, north of Cape Fear, through which vessels pass. For the distance of from 60 to 80 miles from the shore, the country is a dead level, the streams are sluggish and muddy, and there are many swamps and marshes. The soil is generally sandy and poor, excepting on the margins of the streams, where it is fertile. The natural growth of this region is almost universally the pitch-pine, which grows much larger than the same tree in the northern states, and yields extensively tar, pitch, turpentine, and lumber, which constitute an important portion of the exports of the state. In the swamps of this region fine rice is produced. Back of the lower country, and extending to the lower falls of the rivers, is a tract of country, 40 miles wide, which has a moderately uneven surface, of a sandy soil, in which the pitch-pine is the prevailing natural growth. Above the falls the country is uneven, the streams have a more rapid current, and the Foil is more fertile, producing wheat, rye, oats, barley, flax, tobacco, and Indian corn. The western part of the state is an elevated table-land, and in some places rises into elevated mountains. Black mountain is 6,476 feet above the level of the sea. Roan mountain is 6,038 feet high, and Grandfather mountain is 5,556 feet high. It is but recently that the elevation of these mountains has been correctly ascertained. The Blue Ridge constitutes the main range through the western part of the state; and on the extreme western part is a chain called by different names —as, Smoky mountain, Unka mountain, Bald mountain, and Stone mountain. In this range Roan mountain is situated. Between these mountain ranges the soil is fertile. Throughout the state Indian corn is raised, and in some parts considerable cotton. In the low country, grapes, plums, blackberries, and strawberries, grow spontaneously; and, on the intervals, canes grow luxuriantly, and, continuing green through the winter, furnish food for cattle. In the low country the climate is somewhat unhealthy, but in the higher regions it is salubrious. In the elevated parts, the natural growth is oak, walnut, lime, and cherry, which are often large. In the northern part, extending into Virginia, is the Great Dismal swamp, 30 miles long and 10 broad, containing 150,000 acres; and on the Virginia line is lake Drummond, 15 miles in circumference. This swamp is thickly wooded with pine, juniper, cypress, and, in its drier parts, with white and red oak. Between Albemarle and Pamlico sounds is the Alligator, or Little Dismal swamp, which also has a lake in the centre. It is computed that there are 2,500,000 198 STATE OF NORTH CAROLINA. acres of swamp within the state, which is capable of being drained, at a moderate expense, and made to produce cotton, tobacco, rice, and corn. Cape Hatteras, cape Fear, and cape Lookout, on the coast of this state, are a terror to navigators, and have caused many shipwrecks. The principal rivers are the Chowan and Roanoke, both of which rise in Virginia and flow into Albemarle sound; the Neuse, which also enters Albemarle sound; Cape Fear river, the longest which runs wholly in the state, 280 miles long, which is navigable with 11 feet of water to Wilmington, and has from 10 to 14 feet of water on the bar at its mouth; and the Yadkin, which frms the Great Pedee in South Carolina. Tle sluggishness of the rivers as they approach the sea, and the sandy character of the coast, cause them to be obstructed by sand-bars at their mouths, and the state has no good harbors. Much of its commerce is carried on through the neighboring states. The climate of the coast section is subject to great and sudden changes, and is often unhealthy in the fall, The winters are mild but boisterous; the spring, however, soon appears, and vegetation, much earlier than in the west on the same parallel. The summers are hot and sultry, but the autumns serene and beautiful. The exhalations from the swamps are very pernicious and destructive to life. The climate of the upper country is more steady, and generally colder. Among the mountains the summer is pleasant, but in winter a great degree of cold is experienced. At the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, the hottest day exhibited a temperature of 960, and the coldest 10~, and the usual average was 590 7'. Peaches blossom in February, and the first frost occurs generally in October. POPULATION -CENSUS OF 1850, BY COUNTIES. Whites. Free Col'd. Slaves. Whites. Free Col'd. Slaves Alamance... 7,815...... 382......3,197 Iredell...............10,548. 30......4,162 Alexander........ 4,655...... 22...... 585 Johnston............... 8,913...... 140......4,720) Anson.................. 6,581...... 77..6,876 Jones................... 2,152...... 137......2,838 Ashe................... 8,122...... 68.. 596 Lenoir................. 3,569...... 143......4,116 Beaufort............... 7731...... 837......5,249 Lincoln................ 5,639...... 33......2,075 ertie.....5,486...... 295. 73.....780 Martin................ 4,637...... 319......3,373 Bladen................. 5,066...... 352......4,359 McDowell.............. 4,771...... 213......1,261 Brunswick............. 63...... 308......3,302 Mecklenbunrg.........8,321.....158.5,412 Buncombe..............11,197...... 86......1,737 Montgomery. 5,081. 43.. 1,778 Burke.................. 6,480...... 160......2132 Moore......... 7,201...... 165......1,976 Cabarras............... 6,943...... 113......2,688 Macon.................. 4,608...... 232...... 549 Caldwell............. 4,994. 121......1,203 Nash............ 6,000...... 601......4,056 Camden................ 3,576...... 288......2,187 New Hanover..... 8,230. 883......8,662 Carteret................ 5,167...... 158......1,506 Northampton.... 5,998...... 826......6,511 Caswell................. 7,074...... 426......7780 Onslow................. 5,029. 167......3,116 Catawba............ 7,281...... 13. 1.....1569 Orange.................11,428...... 443......6,255 Chatham............ 12,184...... 295. 56,902 Pasquotank............ 4,627......1,219. 3,105 Chowan......... 3,005...... 102......3,797 Perquimans............. 3,571...... 507. 3.250 Cleaveland............. 8593...... 43... 1,747 Person.5,622. 271..4,893 Columbus............... 4,264...... 142......1,503 Pitt.6,677. 87. 6,63 Craven................. 7,223.. 1,536....5,914 Randolph.....13,806. 396.. 644 Cumberland............12,463..... 930......7,217 Richmond. 4,920. 194. 4,704 Currituck........... 41639...... 189. 2,488 Rowan.9,895. 111.. 3,853 Cherokee.............. 6,499. 8. 336 Robeson.7,240.1221.4,364 Duplin............7,197. 309.6,006 Rockingham............ 8,689...... 436......5,329 DavI)~~Bie.~n ~~ ~ 5,616.. 79.'2',171 Rutherford............. 10...... 217......2,905'Davidson.12,151..168.3.192 Sampson121....16..8,352....465.. 5,685 Edgecombe... 8,336.... 256. 8,557 Stokes... 7,277 14.....1,881 Fnranklin.......~,,,5,626. 40.5,507 Burry...............9..16,204.... 242..2,000 Forsythe....... 9,680.. 140... 1,38 Stanly............... 4 47 1,450, ateisn.Fry4.17...... 386......60 873 Tyrre..........1,..2..... 48......5,712 Granville..............10,529..1,114......9,986....2Union.8,026............ 29 Gareene...............3,244..... 140......3,267 Wake................ 14,236..... 260......9,419 Guilford.............15,890...... 664.....3,186 Warren............. 8,887 Gaston................ 6,035...... 211..... 4 Washington.............., 2...... 24......2,215 Hsalifax............96.... 8,960 Wilkes.................10,784...... 173.1,142 Haywood.5.... 929. 707..... 418 Watauga........... 3,243...... 28. 129 Hertford...............8,589. 833. 3,704 Wayne............. 7,15...... 65 5,0201 Guifode.................. 48900...... 244......3618 Warn.........7,617...... 441......8,8 Hyde.... 4,800.... 244......2,618 Yancey 7i39. 51..... 346 Henderson.......... 6,431. 47. 924 STATE OF NORTH CAROLINA. 199 Gold and iron are found in this state. The gold region lies on both sides of the Blue Ridge, and extends to the east of the Yadkin river. It exists in grains, in small masses and lumps, and in veins. Many persons are employed in digging for gold, and a considerable amount is sent annually to the mint of the United States. One mass was dug up which was valued at $8,000. The agricultural products of the state may be set down at 2,250,000 bushels of wheat; 3,500,000 of oats; 25,000,000 of Indian corn; 250,000 of rye, besides buckwheat and barley. The crop of cotton in 1850 was 11,861 bales. About 15,000,000 lbs. of tobacco, and 3,500,000 lbs. of rice are annually raised. These last three articles are the great staples of the state. Of turpentine, tar, and rosin, this state produces about seven-eighths of the whole produce of the Union, or about 600,000 barrels annually. Turpentine is merely the resinous sap of the pine tree, obtained by incision, and flows from the middle of March to the end of October. It is received in boxes, which are emptied five or six times during thesseason, and forty trees will yield about a barrel of turpentine. Oil or spirits of turpentine are produced by distillation, and the residuum is rosin. Large quantities are manufactured in Brooklyn and New York, from pitch imported from North Carolina. Tar is produced from billets of pitch-pine wood, burned in pits covered with sods or earth; and the tar is caused, by a slow combustion, to flow out in a trench dug in the earth. Its value depends much upon the cleanness with which it is manufactured, and that from the north of Europe is said, in this respect, to be superior to that made in the United States. Pitch is made by boiling tar down to dryness. The manufactures are small. About $6,000,000 are invested in this branch of industry. The exports of North Carolina for the year 1849, amounted to $270,076; imports, $113,146. Some fisheries are prosecuted along the coast, among the islands, and a small capital is invested in the whale fishery. Two very important railroads, lying wholly within this state, were completed some years ago, viz: — the Wilmington and Weldon railroad, 161 miles in length, extending from the former place, on Cape Fear river, to Weldon, on the Roanoke, where it connects with the Portsmouth and Roanoke railroad; and the Raleigh and Gaston railroad, which connects with the Petersburg and Roanoke road. There are also some canals in the state, and the total length of post-routes is 7,798 miles. The southern line of telegraph traverses the country from north to south. The Methodists and Baptists are the leading denominations in North Carolina. The Methodists have 70 traveling, 12 superannuated, and 145 local preachers, and 27,632 church members; the regular Baptists have 20 associations, 448 churches, 236 ordained ministers, 75 licensed preachers, and 36,730 members; the anti-mission Baptists have 10 associations, 158 churches, 98 ordained and 10 licensed preachers, and 5,692 church members; the old school Presbyterians have 88 ministers, 146 churches, and 9,910 members; the Episcopal Protestants have a bishop and 39 clergymen, several of whom are acting as missionaries. There are also some Catholics, Universalists, &c. 200 STATE OF NORTH CAROLINA. Within the last twenty or thirty years, education has received great encouragement. In 1804, there were only two academies in this state; and, in 1820, there were 50. The number at the present time is 141, with an aggregate of students amounting to 4,398. There are three col-'legiate institutions, viz, the University of North Carolina, Davidson College, and Wake Forest. There are also 800 primary and common schools, with 18,000 scholars. North Carolina has no absolute debt., Her contingent debt, arising from endorsements by the state of bonds for railroad companies, amounts to $977,000. She has no school fund. The receipts for 1847 into the state treasury amounted to $251,717; expenditures, $175,462. The chief sources of revenue are from taxes. There are 18 banks, with a capital of $3,789,000. The legislature, at a late session, imposed a tax of one cent and three quarters on every $100 worth of land, and 5~ cents on every taxable poll per annum for four years, to raise a fund for building a lunatic asylum. The tax will yield about $80,000 in the four years. The governor is elected by the qualified voters for the house of commons, once in two years, but cannot hold the office more than four years in six. He must be 35 years of age, possess a freehold estate to the value of ~1000, and have resided in the state for five years. The council consists of seven persons, elected for two years by the general assembly. The senate is composed of 50 members, elected once in two years by the people. A senator must have a residence, and possession for one year previous to the election, of 300 acres of land, in the county for which he is chosen. The house of commons consists of 120 members, chosen once in two years by the people. A member must have a residence, and possession for one year previous to the election, of land to the amount of 100 acres, in the county for which he is chosen. The general assembly, by joint ballot, appoint the judges of the supreme courts of law and equity, judges of admiralty, and the attorney general. The judges hold their offices during good behavior, and the attorney general for four years. Every person of 21 years of age or upwards, who has resided in one county one year previously to an election, and paid taxes, is entitled to vote for members of the house of commons. In addition to this, to be entitled to vote for senator, he must possess 50 acres of land. Free negroes, and persons of a mixed blood from negro ancestors, to the fourth generation, are excluded from the right of suffrage. The legislature meets once in two years at Raleigh, on the second Monday of November. The first permanent settlement in North Carolina was made on the eastern bank of Chowan river, north of Albemarle sound, and called Albemarle, by a company of emigrants who fled from religious persecution in Virginia. After several other attempts at settlement, the province was granted, in 1663, to lord Clarendon and others, who caused a constitution of government to be prepared for it by the celebrated John Locke. The chief magistrate was called " the Palatine," and there was a hereditary nobility. The legislature was called a parliament. This constitution was found to be so defective in practice, that it was abolished in 1G93. In 1729 the crown purchased the whole of the Carolinas, for ~17,500; and the king divided it into the two provinces of North and South Carolina, which has ever since continued separate. STATE OF NORTH CAROLINA. 201 In 1769, this province successfully resisted the oppression of the British ministry. Two years after, 1500 of the inhabitants, assuming the name of Regulators, rose in rebellion, but were defeated by Governor Tryon. Three hundred were killed in battle; and of those who were taken, 12 were condemned for high treason, and six were executed. During the war of the revolution, the inhabitants were the devoted friends of American freedom. A kind of congress, composed of militia officers, assembled at Charlotte, county of Mecklenburgh, of which county they were inhabitants, May 19th, 1775, and put forth a public declaration breathing the spirit, and to some extent using the language, of the subsequent Declaration of Independence by the American Congress. It is equally bold and uncompromising in its character. (See American Almanac for 1835, p. 226.) Several battles of the revolution were fought in this state, particularly the severe one of Guilford court-house, on the 25th of March, 1781. In 1776, early in the revolutionary war, this state formed a constitution, which, with some recent modifications, continues to the present time. In convention, November 27th, 1789, this state adopted the constitution of the United States; yeas 193, nays 75; majority 118. RALEIGH, the capital, is situated in the centre of the state, near the river Neuse. Lat. 350 47' N. and long. 780 43' W. It is laid out with great regularity, having at its centre Union square of 10 acres, from which extend four broad streets 90 feet wide, dividing it into four quarters. In the centre of each of these quarters are four other squares of four acres each, and the streets which intersect the quarters are 66 feet wide. The state house is a splendid granite edifice, in the centre of Union square, 166 feet long, and 90 feet wide, surrounded by massive granite columns, 5,1 feet in diameter and 30 feet high, after the model of the Parthenon at Athens. It has a fine dome, and spacious and handsome legislative halls, and cost $500,000. The corner stone of the building for the North Carolina institution for the instruction of the deaf and dumb was laid April 14, 1848. The institution is in Raleigh, near the state house. The grounds have an extent of four acres. The main building, when completed, will be 60 feet by 36, and four stories high. The two wings, each 38 by 22, run at right angles from the main edifice, and are three stories high. Newbern, on the same river, is a place of considerable business, and has a good share of commerce. Wilmington, the largest town in the state, is situated on the east side of Cape Fear river, 35 miles from the Atlantic, and is very unhealthy. It enjoys considerable coasting business. More produce is exported from this place than any other in the state. Fayetteville, the next in population, is situated near the west branch of Cape Fear river. It has some commerce, and perhaps is better situated and provided with better facilities for trade, than any other town in the state. 202 STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA. SOUTH CAROLINA. AREA 28,000 SQARE MILES. POPULATION DN 1850, 668,099. This state is bounded on the north and northeast by North Carolina; southeast by the Atlantic; and southwest by Georgia, from which it is separated by the Savannah river. It is 262 miles long and 200 broad, and has an area of 18,000,000 acres. Carolina presents a great variety of soil and surface. Along the seaboard and for 40 miles into the interior, the face of the country is flat and unpromising; covered with extensive tracts of pine barren, swamp, and savannah, or open meadow without wood; comprising the most fertile and the most sterile extremes of soil. Ascending toward the centre of the state, the country rises into hills of moderate elevation. Adv-anfcing still further in a northwesterly direction, it becomes mountainous and very picturesque. The first section, which is generally called the lower country, includes the sea-islands, famous for producing the finest kind of cotton, called the sea-island cotton, which bears a higher price than the other kinds; the tide lands are equally celebrated for their valuable, crops of rice. The high lands of this region are generally poor, interspersed with strips of great fertility. The climate is moist, very changeable, and during the summer and autumnal months, extremely unhealthy. The region which lies between the tide lands and the granite or mountain ridges, is called the middle country, less healthy in summer than the latter, but much more so than the former. In winter and spring, it may be regarded as much more healthy than either. It is well irrigated by rivers and water-courses. It possesses, amidst long and barren tracts of swamp and forest, many fine spots for culture, and produces, in considerable abundance, the kind of cotton which is called upland, or short staple. In addition to cotton and rice, which are chiefly produced in the lower and middle sections, the state produces Indian corn and potatoes; wheat, pease, rye and oats; tobacco, indigo, lumber, tar, pitch and turpentine, oils and silks. The fruits which mature and flourish are figs, apricots, cherries, nectarines, peaches, pears, melons and pomegranates. Oranges are uninjured in ordinary winters. Among the metals are found gold, iron and lead; plumbago, pyrites and asbestos; granite, oil and soap-stones. Great Pedee river, 450 miles long, rises in North Carolina, and runs through the eastern part of the state. It is navigable for sloops 130 miles. The Santee, formed by the junction of the Congaree and Warteree, rises in North Carolina, and has steamboat navigation about 200 miles. The Saluda river is a branch of the Congaree. The Edisto is navigable for boats 100 miles. The Savannah, common to this state and Georgia, washes the whole southwest border of the state, and is navigable for steamboats 250 miles, and for pole-boats 150 miles further. Among the smaller rivers are Ashley, Cooper and Combahee. Agriculture is the chief employment of the people, and cotton and rice the great staples. The annual cereal products are estimated at 1,300,000 bushels of wheat; 4,500 of barley; 1,000,000 of oats; 50,000 of rye, STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 203 and 13,000,000 of Indian corn. The crop of cotton for 1850 amounted to 384,265 bales. The average crop of rice is about 60,000,000 lbs.; of tobacco, 50,000 lbs. POPULATION-CENSUS OF 1850, BY DISTRICTS. Pree. Slaves. Total. -Free. &_aves. Total. Charleston...........23,453....19,561......43,014 Sumter.............. 10,155......23,065...... 33,220 St. Andrew's...... 3... 47... 2,996. 3,343 Williamsburg......... 3,939.. 8,393. 12,332 St. James Goose Creek, 1,857.. 2,973.. 4,830 Georgetowvn.......... 2,392...17,875...20,267 St. John's Berkley.... 859..... 8,696. 9,555 Abbeville......12,972....19,176..32,148 St. Stephen's.......... 689... 2,165. 2,854 Laurens........ 11,453....11,953... 23,406 St. James Santee...... 373..... 3,015... 3,388 Newberry...... 7,455... 12,688.. 20,143 Christ Church........ 641.. 2,681. 3,322 Fairfield............. 7,164......14,246......21.410 St. Thomas and St. 2K10 8..... Kershaw.. 4,896.. 9,578. 14,474 Dennis..,318...... 2,52 Darlington............ 6,789......10,041.. 16,830 St. John's Colleton.... 640. 10,399. 11,039 Marion.9,888. 7,520..17,408 St. George....,...4,653 orry5,824.. 2,082. 7,907 St. Paul's. 923. 4,692..5,615 Pickens..... 13,228. 3,679...16,905 St. Bartholomew. 4,329...13,913.. 18,242 Anderson......13,961...... 7,514......21.477 Prince William's...... 1755. 8,240.. 9,995 Greenville..... 13,495. 6,752.....20,246 St. Helena............ 1,124...7,655.. 8,779 Spartanburg..... 18,858...... 8,0388...26,396 St. Luke's............ 1,456. 7,427.. 8,883 Union........ 9,459......10,442......19,902 St. Peter's............ 2,193.. 9,009...11,194 York..... 11,351...... 8,008......19,359 Barnwell... 12,600..14,008..,..26,608 Chester.......... 8,156.....10,087.....18,243 Orangeburg.... 8,199.....15,425... 23,622 Lancaster. 6,974. 5,014. 10,988 Edgefield.............16,531.....22,648. 39,179 Chesterfield... 6,899...... 3,894.... 1,790 Lexington... 7,373. 5,66557..12,930 Marlborough....... 5,189. 5,948...,789 Richland.......... 7,365.....12,978...20,243 The exports to foreign countries for the year 1849, amounted to $9,699,875, of domestic produce; foreign produce exported, $1,301; imports, $1,475,695. This state has undertaken several valuable internal improvements. The South Carolina railroad extends from Charleston to Hamburg, 136 miles, where it forms a junction with the Georgia railroad. This line has been sold to the Charleston, Louisville and Cincinnati railroad company, for $2,000,000, in 20,000 shares, at $100 each. The present company contemplate forming a line to connect Charleston with Cincinnati, 718 miles long. Columbia Branch railroad, from Branchville, is 68 miles in length, and cost $2,862,654. The Camden Branch, 44 miles long; and the Greenville and Columbia, 22 miles long. The Santee canal, extending from Cooper river to the Santee, is 22 miles long, and accomplishes an uninterrupted water communication from Charleston to Columbia. The Winyaw canal extends T7 miles, from Winyaw bay to Kinlock creek, a branch of the Santee. The Catawba has been improved by several short canals, in all 11 or 12 miles in length. The length of post-roads in this state is 5,349 miles. The Methodists, Baptists and Presbyterians are the most numerous religious denominations. In 1850, the Methodists had 124 traveling and 271 local preachers, and 75,000 communicants; the Baptists had 408 churches, and 41,000 members. The Protestant Episcopalians are numerous, and had 71 clergymen and 5,000 communicants. The Old School Presbyterians had 105 churches and 8,000 communicants; the Lutherans, 46 ministers and 3,500 communicants. There are, also, some anti-mission Baptists, Universalists, &c. The college of South Carolina is the most important literary institution in the state, and.has connected with it a theological seminary, under the Presbyterians. The college of Charleston and Erksine college, are also valuable foundations. In 1848, they had together 341 students. The theological seminary at Lexington, and the Furman seminary, are also flourishing schools. The Medical institution, at Charleston, is a school of high repute. 204 STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA. Number of free schools in 1849, 1,023; number of teachers, 1,019; number of scholars, 9,122. Amount expended by the Legislature, in 1848, $40,561.53. These schools are under the superintendence of commissioners appointed by the legislature. No school fund. The public debt of the state is $2,310,896; annual interest, $138,654. Productive property of the state, $4,910,030. Receipts for 1849, $481,613; expended, $418,723. The banking capital of the state is about $13,000,000. The returns for 1848, set down the militia force of the state at 55,209. The first constitution of South Carolina was formed in 1775; the first which was formed in the Union. The present constitution was ratified at Columbia, June 3d, 1790. The governor is elected for two years by the joint vote of both houses of the legislature, and ineligible for the next four years. He must be 30 years of age, have resided in the state for ten years, and possess, within the State, property to the amount of ~1500 sterling, above his debts. The lieutenant governor is elected at the same time, in a similar manner, and with similar qualifications; and in case of' the death, removal, resignation or absence of the governor, discharges the duties of the office. The Senate consists of 45 members, elected for four years by the people. One half the number is elected biennially. A senator must be a free white citizen of the age of 30 years or upwards, and must have been a citizen and resident in the state for the five years next preceding his election, and possess a freehold estate in the district for which he is elected, of the value of ~300, clear of debt. If a non-resident within the district, he must possess within it an estate of ~1,000, clear of debt. The House of Representatives consists of 125 members, elected biennially by the people. A member must be a free citizen of the United States, twenty-one years of age or upwards, and have been a citizen of the state for at least three years next previous to his election, and possess a freehold estate of 500 acres of land, and ten negroes, or a real estate of ~150, clear of debt. If a nonresident, he must possess a freehold estate of ~400, clear of debt. The judges of the superior courts are elected by the joint ballot of the legislature. The secretary of state, treasurer, and surveyor-general are elected in the same manner and for the same period as the governor. Citizens and inhabitants of the state, who have paid taxes for the year preceding the election, and who have resided for six months in the county where they of fer their vote, are entitled to the right of suffrage. No permanent settlement was made in South Carolina by Europeans until 1670, when a small body of English emigrants, under William Sayle, arrived at Port Royal island. From this place they removed in 1679 to the present site of Charleston, at a tongue of land then called Oyster Point, at the mouth of Ashley and Cooper Rivers. In 1682, the province was divided into three counties. In 1706, the French and Spaniards made a combined attack upon Charleston and were defeated. In 1715, the war with the Yemasse Indians threatened the destruction of the colony; but the Indians were defeated by Governor Craven. In 1720, the proprietary government was thrown off, and that of the crown established. In 1740, Charleston was half destroyed by fire; and in 1741, indigo was first planted. In 1769, South Carolina was divided into seven precincts, viz: STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 205 Charleston, Georgetown, Beaufort, Orangeburg, Cheraw, Camden and Ninety-Six. In 1775, the importation of British goods was prohibited, and the first military force raised for the defence of the colony against the crown. In 1776, the British were defeated in an attack on fort Moultrie, at the entrance of Charleston harbor. In 1780, Charleston was besieged by Sir Henry Clinton, and was taken at the end of six weeks. Several important battles were fought in South Carolina during the Revolutionary war, the most important of which was that of Eutaw Springs, in 1781, which in effect terminated the war in this state. In 1782, the British evacuated Charleston. In 1785, the first Methodist church was established; and in 1791, the first Roman Catholic Church was founded. In 1794, cotton was first exported. In 1822, an insurrection of negroes in Charleston was discovered and defeated. In 1833, counter-proclamations were issued by President Jackson and Governor Hayne of South Carolina, on the subject of nullification, originating in the tariff, but the subject passed off without ultimate collision. In convention, May 23d, 1788, this state adopted the constitution of the United States; yeas 149, nays 73; majority 76; and hitherto this constitution has gained increased firmness and stability by every obstacle which it has encountered. LEsto perpetua. COLUMBIA, the capital and seat of government, is situated in Richland District, on the east bank of the Congaree river, and has a population of 6,000. Lat. 33~ 57' N., and long. 81~ 7' W. The state house is a plain wooden edifice, but the village is handsomely laid out and well built, with some elegant mansions. A steamboat plies from Columbia to Charleston, passing through the Santee Canal, and a communication is kept up by the railroad. The business of the place is in a flourishing condition. Charleston is the principal commercial city, and most populous in the state. It is situated at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers, which unite in Charleston harbor, seven miles from the ocean. The population of the city was, in 1850, 41,000. The city is pleasantly located, and the tide, which rises and flows with considerable rapidity, contributes much to the health of the location. It is, however, so low, that parts of the town have been, at different periods, overflown. The principal public buildings are the city hall, exchange, court house, custom house, and guard house, besides which there are several handsome churches. Charleston has the principal commerce of the state. The harbor is spacious and well protected by fort Moultrie and fort Sumpter, at the mouth; by Castle Pinckney, on an island in the harbor, and by fort Johnson on the south side of the harbor, nearly opposite the city. There are two arsenals in the city, and in the vicinity, about'two miles out of town, are nine fire-proof magazines. Georgetown, in Winyaw Bay, near the mouth of Pedee, is 13 miles from the ocean. It is well situated for trade, being in the neighborhood of fertile lands, and connected with an extensive back country. There is a bar at the entrance of the bay, which prevents vessels drawing more than 11 feet water from entering. The other principal towns are Cheraw, on the Pedee, which has considerable trade; Beufort, south of Charleston, on Port Royal island, in the harbor, which has a fine anchorage; Greenville, in the north, a neat town, 206 STATE OF GEORGIA. situated in a fertile and healthy district; and Hamburg, on the Savannah, opposite Augusta. This place is connected with Charleston by the South Carolina Railroad, and with Crawford, Atlanta and Harrison, by the Georgia Railroad. GEORGIA. AREA, 58,000 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION in 1850, 906,000. Georgia is bounded on the north by Tennessee and North Carolina; on the north-east by South Carolina; south-east by the Atlantic ocean; south by Florida, and west by Alabama. Length, 314 miles; breadth 248 miles; area, 37,120,000 acres. Along the Atlantic coast there is a chain of islands, of a rich, gray soil, covered in their natural state with pine, hickory and live oak, and producing by cultivation the sea-island cotton. They are separated from the main land by rivers, creeks and inlets, forming an inland navigation for vessels of 100 tons along the whole coast. The sea coast on the main land is a salt marsh, and mostly uninhabited. In the rear of this is a narrow tract of country nearly resembling that of the islands. Back of this commence the pine barrens. The rivers and creeks are everywhere bordered with swamps and marshes, which at every tide, from 15 to 20 miles from the coast, are either partially or wholly overflowed, and constitute the rice plantations. The pine barrens extend from 60 to 90 miles from the coast. Beyond this commences a country of sand hills, from 30 to 40 miles, interspersed with fertile tracts, and extending to the falls of the rivers. The part of the state above the falls of the rivers is called the upper country, and has generally a strong and fertile soil, often inclining to a red color, and in some places it is gravelly, but productive. A little further back in the country, the tint is gradually deepened till it becomes what is called the mulatto soil, consisting of black mould and red earth. This kind of land is generally strong, and produces crops of wheat, Indian corn, and other kinds of grain, and tobacco and cotton. Black walnut and mulberry trees grow abundantly on this soil. The forests of Georgia afford fine timber, chiefly oak, pine, hickory and cedar. The fruits are figs, oranges, melons, pomegranates, olives, lemons, limes, citrons, pears and peaches. The pine barrens produce grapes of a large size and of an excellent flavor. The staple production is cotton, and next to that, rice, of both of which great quantities are exported. The country on the north becomes mountainous, until it descends into the valley of the Tennessee river. The Appalachian chain crosses the north part of the state. The winters are mild and pleasant. Snow is seldom seen, and vegetation is not often injured by severe frosts; though the mercury falls every winter, almost as low as to 200 of Fahrenheit, and sometimes to 16~. Cattle subsist tolerably well through the winter, without any other food than what they obtain in the woods and the savannahs. In the upper country the air is pure and salubrious throughout the year, and the water is STATE OF GEORGIA. 207 abundant and good. In the low country the inhabitants are subject to various disorders, arising partly from the badness of the water, which is generally brackish; and partly from the noxious vapors which arise from the stagnant waters, and putrid matter in the rice swamps. The quantity of rain which falls in a year is from 42 to 47 inches. The rivers are the Savannah, 500 miles long, dividing the state from South Carolina on the north-east, navigable for ships 17 miles to Savannah, and a part of the year, for steamboats, 250 miles above, to Augusta; the Alatamaha, formed by the junction of the Oconee and Ocmulgee, 400 miles long to its sources, and navigable for large vessels 12 miles to Darien; the Ocmulgee branch is navigable for steamboats to Milledgeville, 300 miles by the course of the river from the ocean; the Oconee branch is navigable for steamboats to Alacon; the Ogeechee, 200 miles long, falls into Ossabaw sound, 17 miles south of Savannah, and is navigable for boats of 30 tons to Louisville, and for sloops 30 or 40 miles; Flint river rises in the north-west part of the state, and, after a course of 300 miles, joins the Chattahoochee to form Appalachicola river, navigable for steamboats to Bainbridge, 50 miles above its confluence; the Chattahoochee, running fbr a considerable distance on the western border of the state, is navigable 375 miles to Columbus, for steamboats, and 225 miles below Columbus, it unites with Flint river; the St. Mary's, in the south west part of the state rises in Okefinokee swamp, is navigable for sloops 30 miles, and for boats, 60 miles. Okefinokee swamp is about 30 miles long, and 17 miles broad, and abounds with alligators, snakes and swarms of insects, which render it uninhabitable by human beings. Bertram relates a tradition of the Creek Indians, that this dismal swamp contains a spot inhabited by a race, whose women, whom they call the daughters of the sun, are incomparably beautiful; some of their hunters when lost in the inextricable bogs, have been relieved by these women, but all attempts to reach the blissful island had been in vain, and those who went in search of it became involved in inextricable labyrinths, which baffled all their efforts. Copper and iron have been found in this state, but much the most valuable mineral production is gold. It occurs in the northern part of the state, on both sides of Chattahoochee river, as far north as the Blue Ridge; but mining operations have not been systematically pursued. The great agricultural staples of Georgia, are cotton and rice. The cotton crop for 1850, yielded 344,635 bales; in 1849 it was 400,000. The rice crop is estimated at 15,000,000 lbs., annually. The cereal crops may be estimated at 2,000,000 bushels of wheat; 1,500,000 of oats; 70,000 of rye, and 25,000,000 of Indian corn. The manufactures employ a capital estimated at the present time at $6,000,000. The exports of the state for the year ending June 30, 1849, were, of domestic produce, $6,857,806; the imports were $371,024. The public debt of the state consists of bonds issued for the construction of the Western and Atlantic railroad. The aggregate amount may be stated at $1,828,472. The annual interest of the debt is $110,223. 208 STATE OF GEORGIA. The annual receipts into the treasury for all purposes, average nearly $300,000; and the annual expenditures are about $290,000. This includes the payment of the interest on the public debt, and about $70,000 towards a sinking fund for the payment of the debt. The chief sources of income are the general tax and a special tax on bank stock. The principal items of expenditure are, the pay of the legislature biennially, about $65,000; the civil establishment, including the judiciary, $45,000; Deaf, Dumb, and Lunatic Asylums, $17,000; printing, an annual average of about $6,000; and miscellaneous expenditures annually, about $12,000. The banking capital of this state is about $13,000,000. The amount of the school fund is $262,300. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850, BY COUNTIES. White. Black. Total. White. Black. Total. Appling........................ 2950 Jones.............. 3,950.... 6,279........10,229 Baker................ 4,360...... 3,767... 8,;127 Jefferson............ 3,806...... 5,267...... 9,073 Baldwin............. 3,554...... 4,698...... 8,252 Laurens.... 3... 3471...... 2,974...... 6,445 Bibb................ 7,065...... 5,637......12,702 Lee................. 3,083...... 3,527...... 6,660 Bryan................ 1,180...... 2,246...... 3,426 Liberty........... 2,019...... 5,880...... 7,899 Bulloch............ 2,841...... 1,460...... 4,301 Lincoln.............. 2,218...... 3,780...... 5,998 Burke.............. 5,268......10,832......16,100 Lowndes... 5,359...... 508...... 5,867 Butts.............. 4,683...... 2,805.... 7,488 Lumpkin............ 7,992...... 941...... 8,933 Camden.............. 2,089...... 4,247...'. 6,316 Macon............... 4,102...... 2,961...... 7,063 Campbell. 55... 5,725...... 1,507...... 7,232- Madison.............. 3,770...... 1,933..... 5,703 Carroll............... 8.256..... 1,100...... 9,356 Marion.............. 6,676...... 3,604......10,280 Cass................10,292...... 3,002......13,294 McIntosh............ 1,395...... 4,629...... 6,024 Chatham............ 9,882......14,018.... 23,900 Meriwether......... 8,492...... 8,004......16,496 Chattooga............ 5,13i...... 1,680.... 6,815 Monroe............... 6,820......10,170...... 16,990 Cherokee............11,737...... 1,157...12,894 Montgomery......... 1,542...... 603...... 2,145 Clarke................ 5,412...... 5,571......10,983 Morgan.............. 3,650...... 7,793......10,743 Cobb................11,583...... 2,383.....13,966 Murray..............12,504...... 1.928......14,433 Columbia............ 3,689...... 8,272.....11,961 Muscogee............10,422..... 8,162......18,584 Coweta............... 8,220...... 5,405....13,625 Newton............... 8,109...... 5,187......13,296 Crawford............. 4,355...... 4,628...... 8,983 Oglethorpe............ 4,392...... 7,853......12,245 Clinch............... 2,355...... 129..... 2,480 Paulding............ 5,563...... 1,482...... 7,045 Dade........... 2,535...... 148.. 2,683 Pike................ 8,748...... 5,562......14,310 Decatur.......... 4,623...... 3,639.. 8,262...Pulaski.......... 4,860...... 2,840...... 7,700 De alb.............. 11,407...... 2,917.....14,324 Putnam......... 3,338...... 7,468....10,996 Dooly,.............. 5,586...... 2,776...... 8,382 Rabun............... 238...... 110...... 2,448 Early..3....... 3,711.......7,290 Randolph....... 7,909... 4,999.. 12,908 Effingham., 2,1842,010 1,848....3,864 Richmon...... 8434...... 7,812. 16,246 Ealbert......... 12,961 Sriven....crien3... 31 74......3,678...... 6,852 Emanuel 75....... 962..... 4,67 Stwart............ 8,715....... 16,096 Fayette..e... 6...... 2,055.... 8,777 Sumpter............. 6,489...... 3,835.. 10,324 Floyd................ 5,208.... 3,013 221... 78... 1. 72817...... 8,80...... 16,637 Forsyth.............. 7,8641, 01.... 1,1...... 8881 Taliaferro............102..... 3,044...... 5,146 ranklin....... 9,133.. 2,305...... 11,518 Tatnall.......2,144.. 8314.. 83......62,975 Gilmer.......... 8,32... 81...... 200......,432 Telfair........... 2.139...... 954...... 3,093 Glynn...............,01..0.... 7200 4S901 Thomas............. 4843...... 5,160.....10,003 Green............... 4,802......, 8266...... 3,068 Troup............... 7,834...... 9,049...16,883 Gwinnett............ 9,030. 2,295...... 11,25 Twiggs............ 3,590...... 4,640...... 8,230 Gordon............ 5,1598...... 824...... 5983 Union................,958..... 28...... 7,236 IIabersham....... 7,674...... 1,223...... 8897 Upson............... 4.721...... 4,704..... 9,425 Hall................ 7,377...... 1,252..... 8,629 Walker.............. 11,445...... 109 Hancock....... 4,272...... 7,508.....11,780 Walton............... 6,941...... 4,089......11,030 Harris........... 6,739..... 7,998.....14,737 Ware 3,g... 3,600......285..... 3,885 Heard............... 4,23 40 923 arren....... 6,317......6,108......12,425 Henry..............,759.... 4968......14727 Washington..... 5,98.. 5,823...11,716 Heoustonh.., 6............ 96,43...... 16,340 Wayne....... 1090.... 406...... 1,490 Irwin.............. 288..... 504...... 3,392 Wilkinson....... 5,553.. 2,746.. 8,299 Jackson................ 6,827...... 2,941.. 9,768 Wilkes........... 3,831...... 8,284...... 12,115 Jasper................ 4,352...... 7,134......11,486 Georgia has several extensive lines of railroad. The Georgia railroad continues the line westward from the South Carolina terminus at Hamburg, 170 miles, to Atlanta. The Athens branch extends from this line to Athens, 40 miles. The Western and Atlantic railroad continues the Georgia line, 102 miles, to the Tennessee river, whence it will be continued to the Ohio. The central line from Savannah to Macon, 192 miles, is continued, under the name of Macon and Western, from Macon to Atlanta, where it unites with the Western and Atlantic railroad. The Hiwasse railroad branches from the Western and Atlantic railroad, in Murray county, and is intended to connect with Knoxville, Tennessee. Several lateral STATE OF GEORGIA. 209 branches, not mentioned above, diverge from the main roads. Total miles of railroad in the state, 666. There are 6,523 miles of post routes. The Savannah and Ogeechee canal extends from Savannah to the Ogeechee river, a distance of sixteen miles, and the Brunswick canal extends from that place to Alatamaha river. The University of Georgia, located at Athens, is the principal literary institution in the state, and was designed to have an academic branch in each county. Ibwas founded in 1788, and has been well endowed. There are several other colleges of note. The Baptists, Methodists and Presbyterians are the most numerous religious donominations. See the preceding tables of ecclesiastical statistics, in the general description ofthe United States. The first constitution of Georgia was framed in 1777; a second in 1785; and the present one in 1798. Many amendments have been made. Suffrage belongs to every white adult male citizen who has resided in the state six months, and paid all taxes demanded. The general assembly consists of a senate and house of representatives. The former consists of 47 members chosen by districts, and the latter of 130 members. Both are elected biennially. The representatives are apportioned in districts every seven years, according to the result of the state census. The governor is also elected every two years. He must have attained the age of 30 years, and have been a citizen of the United States nine years, and an inhabitant of the state six years. He must also be possessed of a freehold of 500 acres, or $4,000 in other property, above all debts. Should there be no choice by the people, the election is decided by the general assembly in joint ballot. The president of the senate succeeds to the gubernatorial chair, in case of the death or disability of the Governor. A two-thirds vote disarms the governor's veto. The judiciary consists of a supreme and superior court, and circuit courts. The supreme court for the correction of errors consists of three justices, who are appointed by the general assembly, and may be removed by a two-thirds vote. The superior court has exclusive jurisdiction in criminal cases and land suits, and concurrent in all civil cases. The judges are appointed for six years. Justices of the inferior courts and justices of the peace are elected by the people. Imprisonment for debt, except in cases of fraud, is abolished. The constitution prohibits the importation of slaves from any foreign place. Georgia was the latest settled of the original thirteen United States. In 1732 the country between Savannah and Alatamaha rivers was granted by George II., to Gen. James Oglethorpe and others. He with 40 others landed at Yamacraw bluff and founded Savannah on the 1st of February, 1733. In 1736 two considerable colonies of Scotch Highlanders and of Germans were brought over by Gen. Oglethorpe, who immediately erected several fortifications. In 1742 the Spaniards in Florida invaded the colony but without success. In 1752 the trustees surrendered the province to the king, by whom governors were afterwards appointed. In 1775 Georgia acceded to the union of the colonies, and sent deputies to congress. In 1777 the first state constitution was adopted, and e parishes then existing were formed into counties. At the close of 1778.he British in the re olutionary war captured Savannah, and they continued to hold dominion 14 210 STATE OF GEORGIA. over the country until July, 1782, when they evacuated it. In convention this state adopted the constitution of the United States, Jan. 2nd, 1788, by a unanimous vote. MILLEDGEVILLE, the capital, is on Oconee river, near the centre of the state. Lat. 33~ 7' N., and long. 830 20' W. It contains a state house, penitentiary, arsenal, &c. Savannah, the largest and most important city in Georgia, has a population of 15,000. The city is built on a low sandy plain, on the south bank of the Savannah river, 18 miles from its mouth. Vessels drawing fourteen feet can come up to the wharves, but those of a larger size are obliged to anchor about three miles down the river. The streets and buildings are regular and well planned, and being decorated with trees, give to the city a rural and healthy appearance. There are several public buildings, churches, &c., and immense piles of substantial warehouses line the wharves. The trade of Georgia centres in this place. It is now connected with the west and north by lines of railroad which terminate only with the boundaries of the state; and it is in contemplation to extend these in other directions, and thereby open to the city a larger share of western business. Communication by steamboats is kept up with Charleston and other Atlantic cities, and a line of sailing vessels runs regularly to New York. Possessing a fine harbor, and with these artificial advantages, this city must eventually become a great commercial emporium, and rapidly increase in population and wealth. Augusta, on the Savannah, below the falls, 127 miles from Savannah, is an entrepSt for the produce of a large district. This is brought down the river to Savannah and exported in large quantities to foreign ports. The town is regularly laid out and handsomely built; chiefly with brick. The streets are ornamented with trees, and many of the houses are spacious and elegant. It is connected with Charleston and Milledgeville by railroads, and has an extensive trade in cotton and tobacco. A bridge crosses the river to Hamburg. Athens, the seat of the University of Ge6rgia, is a thriving village. Darien, on the Alatamaha river, 12 miles from its mouth, is a place of some considerable trade, and a dep~t for the produce of the river valley. It is rapidly increasing in population and wealth. Sunbury, Brunswick and St. Marys are small ports south of Savannah. Petersburg and Washington, in the interior, are also places of some consideration. Macon, on the Ockmulgee, and Columbus on the Chattahouchee, at the head of steam navigation, are depots of populous and productive regions. The former, in 1822, consisted of only one log cabin: it now contains about 5,000 inhabitants, and the latter was a primitive wilderness in 1828, but now contains at least 6,000 souls. Dahlonega is the seat of a branch United States mint. A number of new towns have of late sprung up along the lines of the railroads, which are rapidly increasing and becoming impor tant and wealthy. STATE OF FLORIDA. 211 FLORIDA. ARE, 59,268 SQUARE,MlS. PoPUlTIo IN 1850, 87,000. Florida is the most southerly state of the Union. It is bounded north ny Georgia and Alabama; west by Alabama; south and west by the Gulf of Mexico, and east by the Atlantic ocean. The first discoverers of Florida were allured to its shores by stories of its "Fountain of Youth," and its mysterious riches; and charmed by the brilliant hues and lively verdure of its majestic forests, and gorgeous shrubs, they called it the " Land of Flowers." Now, the mariner approaches with dread its sunken shoals, its dangerous reefs, its baffling currents and intricate channels, and associates its name with the hateful idea of wrecks and wreckers. The face of the country is uneven; but it is without mountains or high hills. The whole extent of the sea-coast is indented with bays and lagoons. A large portion of the country is covered with pine forests, the trees of which, standing at a considerable distance from each other, without brush or underwood, affords an opportunity for the grass and flowers to spread with luxuriance over the surface of the earth, during the whole year. The borders of the streams are usually skirted by hammocks of hard timber, entangled with grape and other vines. A large portion of Florida consists of what are usually denominated " pine barrens,"'and much of it exceedingly poor, though there are extensive tracts of table-land, hammock and swamp, of the richest soil, and well adapted to the cultivation of sugar, rice, cotton, Indian corn, tobacco and fruits. A considerable quantity of the pine land is equally rich, and even the barrens afford extensive ranges of grazing land, usually intersected with streams of pure water. Many parts of the state abound in yellow pine and live oak timber. The seacoast is generally healthy, and in many parts remarkably so; and the interior is equally so, unless it be in the neighborhood of extensive marshes. Some places are at times visited with epidemics, particularly the yellow fever. The seasons are mild, the mercury rarely rising to 90~ in summer, or descending to 300 below zero in winter. The peninsula, which is the southern portion of the state, presents a singular alternation of savannahs, hammocks, lagoons and grass ponds, called collectively the Everglades, which extend into the heart of the country for 200 miles north of cape Sable. They are drained on the north by the St. John's river, and on the west by Macaco or Charlotte river. A great number of small streams drain it on the east and west. There are many bays on the western side of the peninsula, some of which form good harbors. On the eastern coast there are no bays. The rivers and inlets afford harbors for coasting vessels. St. John's is the principal river on the eastern coast. Its source has never been explored; but it probably rises not more than 20 miles from the coast. It often spreads from three to five miles in width, and at other places it is not more than one-fourth of a mile wide. It is exceedingly winding, and flows through a beautiful and healthy country. A straight 212 STATE OF FLORIDA. line from its source to its mouth is not probably over 150 miles; but its actual course is more than twice that distance. Vessels requiring eight feet of water enter lakes George and Dunn's lake, 150 miles from its mouth. At its mouth it is only a mile wide, and a light-house on the south side of the river marks its entrance. St. Mary's rises in Okefanoke swamp, and enters the Atlantic between Cumberland and Amelia islands. Of the rivers which enter the gulf of Mexico, the Appalachicola is the principal. It is formed by the junction of Chattahoochee and Flint rivers, about 100 miles from the gulf of Mexico. The Chattahoochee branch of this river is navigable, for steamboats, 375 miles to Columbus, Ga. Perdido river forms the western boundary between Florida and Alabama. It is navigable about seven miles above the bay, is a fine mill-stream, and its banks are covered with superior yellow pine timber. It is common in some parts of Florida to observe pleasant streams of sweet limpid water to plunge suddenly into the earth in some wild cavern and to disappear; and equally common to see navigable streams to rise suddenly from the earth, containing fish, turtles, and alligators. There are several small lakes in Florida, some of which are remarkable for the quiet beauty of the scenery. The principal of them is Lake Okeechobee, near which General Taylor fought his decisive battle with the Seminoles, in 1837. The natural productions of Florida are live oak timber, which is unequaled in quality, and a great variety of other useful and ornamental woods. The fig, orange, date, &c., are among its fruits. Cotton is one of its most profitable staples, and sugar is extensively grown. Rice, indigo, &c., are furnished to a considerable value. The lands of Florida, however, are best suited for grazing, and vast herds of cattle and swine roam over its illimitable pastures. The cotton crop of 1850 amounted to 181,344 bales. The average crop of rice is about 700,000 lbs.; of tobacco, 300,000, and of sugar, 300,000 lbs. About 1,000,000 bushels of Indian corn are annually raised. Manufacturing industry is a small item in the economy of the state. The exports for 1849 amounted to $2,518,027 of domestic produce. The imports amounted to $63,211. The fisheries are actively carried on. Education is as yet but little attended to. No institutions of a high class exist, but the state is making provision for an extended educational system. The Catholics are the most prominent religious denomination in Florida. The general assembly of 1848-49, chartered three companies for the establishment of railroads; one, the Atlantic and Gulf railroad company, to connect the waters of the Atlantic and gulf of Mexico, upon such route as may be deemed most advisable and judicious by the company; another for the purpose of constructing a communication between the Chattahoochee river and the gulf of Mexico, at some point on St. Andrew's bay, to be called the Florida and Georgia railroad company; and another for the purpose of constructing a road from some point on the St. Mary's river to Pensacola. There are 1,876 miles of post-routes in the state. The receipts into the state treasury for the year 1849, were $60,587, expenditures, during the year, $59,259. Florida has no state debt. STATE OF FLORIDA. 213 The governor is elected, by a plurality of votes, for four years. In case of his death the president of the senate acts as governor. He may veto a bill, but a majority of both houses can repass it. No officer in a banking company is eligible for the office of governor, senator or representative. No duellist, or second, can hold any office under the state. The representatives, not more than 60 in number, are elected for one year; the senators for two years. The judges of the supreme and circuit courts are elected by the legislature, to serve for five years. No act of incorporation can be passed or altered, except by the assent of two-thirds of each house. No bank charter to be for more than thirty years, nor can it ever be extended or renewed. Stockholders individually liable, and no notes issued for less than five dollars. The credit of the state shall not be pledged in aid of any corporation. No law shall be passed to emancipate slaves; but free colored persons may be prevented from entering the state. Florida was discovered by Cabot, in 1496, and first visited by Ponce de Leon, in 1512. In 1562, we find the French and Spaniards contesting their respective rights to the country. Subsequently, the English from Georgia and Carolina attempted to gain possession, but unsuccessfully. In 1763, Florida was ceded to England in exchange for Cuba, and was divided into two provinces. Spain recovered it in 1781, and her possession was confirmed at the peace of 1783. The United States purchased the territory in 1819, and in 1845, Florida was admitted into the Union. TALLAHASSEE, the seat of government, lies on the northern part of the state, upon an elevated site, and is a place of considerable business. Lat. 300 28' N., long. 84~ 36' W. A railroad runs from this town to St. Marks, a seaport on the gulf, 22 miles distant. St. Augustine, the oldest town in Florida, as it is in the United States, is situated two miles from the Atlantic, on the south side of a peninsula, and is protected from the ocean by Anastasia island. Its climate is pure and healthy, and the town is embowered in orange groves. Like all old places, the streets are narrow, but the buildings, which are two stories high, are handsome and picturesque, having around them balconies and piazzas. The public buildings are the United States barracks, the land office, and several churches. Fort Marion, standing at the mouth of the harbor, protects the town. Pensacola is situated in Escambia county, and is the most westerly of the Florida towns. It lies on Pensacola bay, 10 miles from the gulf. The United States navy-yard at this place is one of the most useful in the Union. Population about 2,800. The harbor is accessible to vessels drawing 8 feet of water. Jacksonville, on St. John's river, is a thriving seaport and depot for a large and fertile district. Apalachicola, on the river of the same name, has a good harbor, and considerable trade in cotton. About 20 steamboats navigate the river. It is connected with St. Josephs by railroad. St. Josephs, a little west of Apalachicola, and on the bay of St. Joseph, has a deep, capacious harbor, and is well sheltered from the winds. It is connected with Iola, on the Apalachicola river, and with the town of Apalachicola by railroad. Quincy, Lancaster, Smyrna, and some other places, are rapidly progressing to importance. Smyrna, from its situation, 214 STATE OF OHIO. must eventually become the depot of an immense and fertile agricultural country. Key West, one of the islets of the southernmost extremity of the peninsula, has a fine harbor, and can accommodate the largest class of ships. It is an important naval station, and the seat of the Wrecker's Court, to which all cases of salvage are brought for adjudication. The wreckers of Key West are said to be a most daring set of men, and fully capable of aiding and recovering vessels stranded on the reefs. OHIO. AREA, 39,964 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION IN 1850, 1,983,140. The State of Ohio lies in a compact mass between Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky on the east and south, and Indiana, Michigan and Lake Erie, on the west and north. In length it is 230 miles, and its mean breadth is 210 miles, having an area of 25,576,960 acres. On the southeast and south its boundary is formed by the Ohio river through a distance of 436 miles; and on the north it has a lake coast of nearly 200 miles. The interior and northern parts of the country bordering upon lake Erie are generally level, and in some places marshy. About a quarter or a third of the eastern and southeastern part of the state bordering on the river, is hilly and broken. There is nothing in the State which deserves the name of a mountain; but the state is an elevated table land, rising from 600 to 1000 feet above the level of the sea. A ridge of slightly elevated high lands divides the waters which enter lake Erie from those which flow into the Ohio, which is situated much nearer to the lake than to Ohio river; and the waters which flow into Lake Erie are more rapid in their course, and more frequently broken by falls than those which flow in the opposite direction. The interior of the State bordering on the Scioto river, which divides the State into two nearly equal parts, and on the Great and Little Miami rivers, contains the most extensive bodies of level and fertile land in the state. On the head waters of the Muskingum and Scioto rivers, and between the sources of the two Miamis, are extensive prairies. On these prairies no timber grows, excepting occasionally a few scattering trees. Some of these prairies are low and marshy, while others are elevated and dry. The latter are frequently called barrens, but not always from their sterility; for they are often tolerably fertile. On the dry prairies the grass grows, but not luxuriantly; but the wet prairies yield spontaneously a coarse grass, from two to five feet in height, which is of a tolerably good quality. The forest trees are black walnut, oak of various species, hickory, maple of different kinds, beech, birch, poplar, sycamore, ash of several species, pawpaw, buckeye, cherry and whitewood; this last is extensively used as a substitute for pine, which is very scarce. There is very little waste land in Ohio. Nine-tenths of the surface is susceptible of cultivation, and nearly three-fourths of it is eminently fertile. The traveller is surprised on passing through the state to see so large STATE OF O11IO. 215 a portion of the original forest undisturbed. There is no doubt that the state could support three times its present population without any difficulty, and much more than that if it were necessary. The agricultural productions are wheat, rye, Indian corn, oats, buckwheat, barley, potatoes, and all kinds of garden vegetables. Considerable attention is paid to the cultivation of hemp and tobacco. The raising of horses, mules, sheep, cattle and swine, for exportation, engages the attention of a large proportion of the farmers. The amount of agricultural products of this state, including provisions, flour, wheat, &c., annually sent to other states of the Union, and exported to foreign countries, is greater than from any other part of the United States. The summers are warm and pretty uniform, but subject at times to severe drought. The winters are generally mild in the southern part, though attended with cold and piercing winds on the borders of Lake Erie. For the distance of 50 miles from Lake Erie, there are generally several weeks of good sleighing in the winter; but in the south part the quantity and duration of snow are not sufficient to produce much good sleighing. The climate is generally healthy, excepting in the neighborhood of low and marshy ground, where fevers and agues, and bilious fevers, sometimes prevail. The Ohio river which gives name to the state, is 960 miles long from Pittsburg to its junction with the Mississippi. The French gave it the name of La Belle Riviere, or the Beautiful River. The hills, from two to three hundred feet high, approach the river, and confine it on either side. Their tops have usually a rounded and graceful form, and are covered with the verdure of an almost unbroken forest. Approaching Cincinnati, the hills recede from the river, and are less elevated. Heavy forests cover the banks, exhibiting a beautiful verdure and often exuberant with blossoms. There is a rocky rapid of 22 feet descent in two miles, at Louisville. Around this is a canal sufficiently capacious for steamboats of the largest class. The lowest water in the river is generally in the months of July, August and September. The melting of snows in the spring, and heavy rains in autumn and winter, fill the river to overflowing. These rises are generally gradual and attended with no danger. As the waters rise, trade and navigation are quickened into activity. The largest steamboats now float in security. The average rise of the water from low water mark, is 50 feet. The Muskingum is the largest river which flows wholly in this state. It is formed by the junction of the Tuscarawas and Walhonding rivers, and flows into the Ohio at Marietta. Scioto, the next river in magnitude, is 200 miles long, and enters Ohio river at Portsmouth. Its largest branch is Olentangy, or Whetstone river, which enters it immediately above Columbus. The Great Miami river is a very rapid stream, 100 miles long, and enters the Ohio in the southwest corner of the state. The Little Miami is 70 miles long, and enters the Ohio 7 miles above Cincinnati. The Maumee rises in Indiana, is 100 miles long, and enters lake Erie in Maumee bay. It is navigable for steamboats 18 miles to Perrysburg, and above the rapids is boatable for a considerable distance. The Sandusky river rises in the northern part of the state, and after a course of 80 miles, enters Sandusky bay of lake Erie. The Cuyahoga river rises in the north part of the state, and after a broad curve to the south, flows north into lake Erie at 216 STATE OF O1O. Cleveland. It has a number of fine falls, and affords valuable water power. It is about 60 miles long, and forms the fine harbor of Cleveland at its mouth. Huron, Vermillion, Black, Grand, and Ashtabula rivers flow into lake Erie. Ohio is amply provided with the most useful minerals. The bituminous coal, and iron ore are found in abundance, in various parts of the state. Salt springs have been found in Jefferson, Wayne and Muskingum counties, and at various other places. Marble and freestone, well adapted to building, are also found. The Yellow Springs, in Greene County, are situated in a delightful region, and have been resorted to with advantage in cases of chronic disease. The White Sulphur Springs in Delaware, have also been found efficacious. The rapid growth of the population of Ohio has never been paralleled. In 1790 the population was but 3,000. Its fertile lands attracted emigrants not only from other states, but large bodies of Swiss and Germans, and great numbers of British emigrants have settled themselves in its smiling valleys and rich plains. POPULATION-CENSUS OF 1850, BY COUNTIES. Adams............ 18,943 Fairfield......... 30,257 Licking.......... 38,845 Preble........ 21,748 Allen............ 12,116 Fayette......... 12,736 Logan.......... 19,168 Putnam.......... 7,221 Ashland.......... 23,826 Franklin........ 42,880 Lorain.......... 26,091 Richland.......... 30,877 Ashtabula........ 28,767 Fulton.......... 7,780 Lucas......... 12,381 Ross............ 32,084 Athens....... 18,217 Gallia............ 17,064 Madison......... 10,012 Sandusky. 14,529 Auglaize......... 11,341 Geauga......... 17,823 Mahoning........ 23,733 Scioto.......... 18,729 Belmont......... 34,599 Greene........... 21,947 Marion.......... 12,554 Seneca............ 27,105 Brown........... 27,334 Guernsey....... 30,472 Medina......... 24,433 Shelby.. 13,956 Butler........... 30.794 Hamilton.......156,850 Meis............ 17,960 Stark............. 39,888 Carroll............ 17.685 Hancock......... 16,774 Mercer.......... 7,712 Summit......... 27,481 Champaign........ 19,743 Hardin.......... 8,251 Miami.......... 24,957 Trumbull........ 30,540 Clark............ 22,174 lIarrison...... 20,160 Monroe......... 28,367 Tuscarawas....... 31.7 32 Clermont......... 30,449 Henry........... 3,432 Montgomery..... 38,217 Union............ 12,205 Clinton.......... 18,837 Highland....... 25.781 Morgan......... 25,593 Van ert......... 4,'793 Columbiana..... 33,601 Hocking........ 14,119 Morrow......... 20,240 Vinton............ 9,3%53 Coshocton......... 25.671 IHolmes......... 20,458 MIuskingum...... 45,053 Warren.......... 25,560 Crawford......... 18,177 Huron:......... 26,203 Ottowa.......... 3310 Washington... 29,512 Cuyahoga........ 48,105 Jackson.......... 12,724 lPaulding......... 1,766 Wayne............ 33,045 Darke............ 20,277 Jefferson........ 29,133 Perry........... 201774 W illiams......... 8,018 Defiance...... 6,966 Knox........ 28,870 Pickaway....... 21,110 Wood............ 9.165 Delaware.......... 21,814 Lake............ 14,655 Pike............ 0.955 Wyandot.......... 11,169 Erie............. 18,578 Lawrence. 15,247 Portage......... 24,387 Ohio is emphatically an agricultural state, and its productions are as various as plentiful. The live stock in the state in 1850, was 513,652 horses, valued at $19,142,789; mules, 2,180, valued at $86,828; cattle, 1,103,811, valued at $11,315,560; sheep, 3,812,707, valued at $1,984,983; hogs, 1,672,178, valued at $1,902,029. Total value of the domestic animals, $34,432,000. The grain crops are very large. The wheat crop for 1850, is estimated at 33,000,000 bushels. The average crops of cereal grains may be estimated at 20,000,000 bushels of wheat; 300,000 of barley; 30,000,000 of oats; 1,000,000 of rye; 1,200,000 of buckwheat, and 60,000,0000 bushels of corn. The grass crop is a highly valuable item in the agricultural productions of the state. It being rated second or third in importance. The average crop of hay is calculated at 2,000,000 tons. Among the miscellaneous productions may be reckoned the tobacco crop, averaging about 10,000,000 lbs. annually. The soil and climate are adapted to the growth of wool, and sheep husbandry has been recently much extended, and has grown rapidly intc STATE OF OHIO. 217 importance; its annual value being counted by millions. Cheese is now largely exported, probably to the amount of $2,000,000 annually. Butter is another product of importance. Dairying is an extensive business in northern Ohio. Fruits of all kinds are raised in great abundance. The cultivation of the vine is carried on to some extent in the southern part of the state, and it is thought that wine may be easily added to the exports. The manufactures of the State are rapidly increasing in importance. The various manufactures of iron are extensive. Cotton and woollen stuffs, leather, glass, whiskey, salt, cabinet ware, paper, hats and shoes, are among the articles produced. Mudh lumber is cut and sawed, and steamboat building is an important branch of industry. The local position of Ohio gives it great facilities for trade. The direct foreign commerce is small; the productions of the state being almost entirely exported from ports of other states. The direct exports for 1849, amounted to $149,724; im ports, $149,839. The state has executed several important works of internal improvement. The Ohio canal extends from Cleveland on Lake Erie to Portsmouth on the Ohio river, 207 miles. It has navigable branches to Zanesville, 14 miles; to Columbus, 10 miles; to Lancaster, 9 miles; the Walhonding branch, of 25 miles; Eastport branch, of 4, and Dresden, of 2 miles. The Hocking valley canal is 56 miles long. The Miami canal extends from Cincinnati to Defiance, where it meets the Wabash and Erie, making a second line of canal from Lake Erie to the Ohio river, 265 miles long. The Sandy and Beaver canal extends from the Ohio canal at Bolivar, 86 miles to the Ohio river. The Muskingum Improvement is 91 miles long. The receipts for tolls, water rents, &c., on the state canals, for 1850, amounted to $728,085. No equal surface of the Union is likely to be so extensively traversed with a net work of Railroads as Ohio. T'lhe cause of this will be found in the local situation of the state, lying between the Eastern Atlantic States and the valley of the Mississippi; and in its being admirably adapted to the construction of railroads, firom the level nature of its surface. Four lines are in course of construction east and west, through the state; and four more lines are also completed and constructing from north to south, connecting the immense commerce of the lakes with the Ohio river. Besides these, there are several independent, lateral or branch lines. Miles in the State Cincinnati and Sandusky line, complete,...............................................218 Cincinnati, Cleveland and Columbus, complete..........................................268 Sandusky, Mansfield, Newark and Portsmouth, complete and constructing................. 220 Cleveland and Wellsville, constructing,...................................................9 Cincinnati and Belpre, and Ohio and Mississippi, constructing............................. 204 Ohio Central, Xenia and Dayton, and Western, constructing......................243 Pennsylvania and Ohio and Bellefontaine and Indiana, constructing,........ 263 Lake Shore Line, from Conneaut to Toledo, constructing,...............................180 A list of the railroads now in operation in Ohio, may be found in the Table of " Railroads in the United States." The state is amply provided with the means of education. The university of Ohio at Athens was founded in 1804; the Miami university at Oxford was founded in 18&I. These institutions have been publicly endowed with large grants of lands. Franklin college at New Athens, was founded in 1826; the Western Reserve college at Hudson, was founded in 1826; 218 STATE OF OHIO. Kenyon college, at Gambier, (Episcopal,) was founded in 1827; Granville college, at Granville, (Baptist,) was founded in 1832; Marietta college, at Marietta, was founded in 1835; the Oberlin collegiate institute, at Oberlin, was founded in 1834; Cincinnati college was founded in 1819; as was also Woodward college, at the same place, in 1831; the Wesleyan university, at Delaware, was founded in 1842, and the Capital university, at Columbus, was founded in 1850. There are Medical Colleges at Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati; and a Law School at the Cincinnati College. The amount of the School Fund owned by the State, is $615,625.59. Amount apportioned for school purposes to the several counties for the year 1849, was $293,158.86. In 1848 the number of school districts in the State was 6,826; of fractional districts, 835; of common schools, 5,062; of teachers, male, 2,799, female, 2,412; of scholars enrolled, males, 50,211, females, 44,219; average daily attendance, males, 50,442, females, 40,253. The amount of wages paid to teachers from public funds was, to males, $116,812, to females, $32,392; from other sources, males, $25,154, females, $50,442; number of months common schools have been taught, 15,745. 153 new school houses were built the past year, at a cost of $39,727. Amount of building fund raised by tax, $31,640. There are seven Protestant Theological Schools in the state: Lane Seminary, at Cincinnati, was founded in 1829. There are theological departments, in Kenyon, Western Reserve and Granville Colleges, and in the Oberlin Institute and Wesleyan University. The Theological Seminary at Oxford, was founded in 1839. There are three Catholic Ecclesiastical Seminaries. In 1850, the Methodists had 756 local and 420 travelling preachers, 90,520 members, and 59,000 scholars in the Sunday schools; the Regular Baptists had 464 churches and 24,561 members; the Evangelical Luther ans had 245 congregations, 110 ministers, and 35,000 communicants; the Old School Presbyterians had 151 churches, 88 preachers, and 11,150 communicants; the New School Presbyterians had 70 churches, 54 ministers, and 5,218 communicants; the Orthodox Congregationalists had 94 churches, and 5,506 members; the Protestant Episcopalians had 75 ministers and 4,025 communicants; the Universalists had 131 societies, and 70 preachers. In the Archdiocess of Cincinnati, there were 75 Catholic churches, and in the Diocess of Cleveland, 45. The public benevolent institutions of the State are munificently provided for by annual appropriations from the State Treasury. The Lunatic Asylum and the Institutions for the Instruction of the Blind and Deaf and Dumb, are located at the seat of government. The Public Debt; at the close of 1850, amounted to $18,744,594; annual interest, $1,134,536. This debt, however, is growing "small by degrees and beautifully less" every year, while the wealth, the improvement, and the financial resources of the state are increasing beyond the most sanguine expectations of its citizens. The total receipts into the State Treasury during the year 1850, including balance in hand, were $3,091,993; the expenditures for the same year amounted to $2,961,581. The total value of taxable property in the state was $439,876,340; the taxes assessed amounted to $4,227,708. The gross income of the public works amounted to $728,085. STATE OF OHIO. 219 At the close of 1850 there were 57 banks in the state, with an aggregate capital of $8,718,366; specie and specie funds, $2,849,000; circulation, $11,059,700. Loans and discounts, $17,059,593. By the Constitution (of 1851) the supreme executive power is vested in a Governor, elected by the people for the term of two years. He has power to grant reprieves and pardons, except in cases of impeachment and treason. The Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer and Attorney General, are elected by the people, for the term of two years. The Auditor is elected for four years. The Lieutenant Governor is President of the Senate, but entitled to a vote only when the Senate is equally divided. The Legislative power is vested in a Senate and House of Representatives. The members are elected biennially, and hold biennial sessions. They have the sole power of enacting all the state laws, the assent or signature of the Governor not being necessary, The House has the sole power of impeachment, but a majority must concur therein. Impeachments to be tried by the Senate; the concurrence of two-thirds is necessary to a conviction. The judiciary system comprises the Supreme Court, District Courts, Courts of Common Pleas, Courts of Probate and Justices' Courts. The Judges of the Supreme Court and the Courts of Common Pleas, are elected for five years. The Judges of the Probate Court and Justices of the Peace are elected for three years. An elector must be a white male citizen of the United States, not under 21 years of age, and must have resided for one year next preceding the election, in the State. No debt to be contracted by the State for the purpose of internal improvement; no special acts of incorporation to be conferred; the property of all corporations to be taxed the same as the property of individuals. No person shall be elected or appointed to any office unless he possess the qualifications of an elector; no imprisonment for debt, unless in cases of fraud; all acts conferring banking powers to be submitted to a vote of the people. The first permanent settlement in Ohio was made April 7th, 1788, at Marietta, and the first judicial court was held in September of the same year, under an act of Congress passed in 1786. The next settlement was at Columbia, 6 miles above Cincinnati, in 1789. The next was made by French emigrants, at Gallipolis, in 1791. The next was made at Cleveland and Conneaut on Lake Erie, in 1796, by emigrants from New England. In 1799, the first territorial legislature met at Cincinnati, and organized the government. Early in 1800, Connecticut relinquished her jurisdiction over the Western Reserve, and received a title to the land, which she sold, to constitute her large school fund. In 1802, Ohio formed her State Constitution, and was admitted into the Union. COLUMBUS, the capital of the State, is situated on the east bank of the Scioto, immediately below the junction of the Olentangy. It is near the centre of the State, and lies in lat. 39~ 47' N. and long 83 3' W. It is regularly laid out; the spacious streets crossing each other at right angles and ornamented by shade trees, giving a rural aspect to the place. In the centre of the city is a public square of ten acres. In the centre of the square is the State Capitol, now building. It is 304 feet long by 184 wide; the basement is elevated 16 feet, and the height to the top of the Rotunda, is to be 140 feet. When finished it will be a magnificent structure, in every way worthy of the great state, and the beautiful and ~T LH~ PJ t_ __ _ _ __ _ _______ - - - -- = IA~~~~F. _.P i i l O - T AT!_ CAPVrIOL —)1 IO. f 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~m 2tTARLTNG~N MEDICAL COLLEGEF~ -OHIO. 222 STATE OF OHIO. thriving city in which it is located. Here are situated the Public Benevo lent Institutions of the state. The state lunatic Asylum is on an elevated ground half a mile east of the State House, having 30 acres of land attached, handsomely laid out and ornamented. The Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb is 50 by 80 feet, three stories high. It has handsome porticos on each front with Doric columns. The Institution for the Blind, is also a handsome edifice. The state Penitentiary is an elegant and substantial structure; the center building is 56 feet long and 4 stories high. It has two wings, each 200 feet long and 3 stories high. The Starling Medical College is a beautiful edifice, in the Gothic style of English collegiate architecture, with octangular turrets. The County Court House is also a handsome building, with a portico of Grecian Doric columns, and a dome surmounted with a figure of Justice. The City Market House is also a spacious building, the longest for that purpose in the United States, with one exception. The numerous churches in the city are commodious buildings, and a large number of the private residences are neat and handsome. Less than forty years ago the site of this city was covered with the primitive forest. The present population numbers 18,000, and the city is rapidly increasing. The various departments of manufacturing industry are prosecuted with vigor, and the trade of the city is flourishing. The two principal lines of railroad across the state will here intersect. The National Road passes through, and a navigable feeder connects the city with the main trunk of the Ohio canal. CINCINNATI is the largest city in the west, and the sixth in population in the Union, now numbering 116,000 inhabitants. It is beautifully situated on the north bank of the Ohio, on two plains, the one elevated about fifty feet above the other; but the steep ascent has been graded down, so as to give the streets running from the river an easy ascent, and affording the city an excellent drainage. The shore of the river is substantially paved at the principal landing place, and is supplied with floating wharves, adapted to the great rise and fall of the river. The corporate limits of the city include about 4 square miles. The central part is compactly and finely built, with spacious warehouses, large stores, handsome public edifices and private dwellings. Many of the streets are well paved and extensively shaded with trees, and the house-lots are ornamented with shrubbery. In some of the public buildings there is considerable architectural display. The edifice of the Franklin and Lafayette Banks has a splendid portico of Grecian Doric columns, extending through the entire front, and is built after the model of the Parthenon at Athens. The ceiling is a panneled dome, supported by four elliptical arches. St. Peters Cathedral is one of the most beautiful structures in the country. Its architecture is of the pure Corinthian style, fully carried out in all its noble simplicity. The lot on which it stands is 192 feet front by 384 feet in depth. The building is 82 feet by 200, and built entirely of cut stone. The cross, at the top of the spire, is 200 feet high. The interior presents a scene of architectural magnificence. There are two rows of stately granite columns, eighteen in number, resting upon white pedestals and terminating in snow-white capitals. Two angels, in marble, executed by Powers, are represented as guarding the door of the sanctuary. The stained glass windows, the altar, and tabernacle, are all exquisite works of art. Among the handsome STATE OF INDIANA. 223 edifices, may be noted the Masonic Hall, the Mechanics' Institute, the Burnet House and several of the churches. There are many fine blocks of stores, and the eye is frequently arrested by many beautiful private residences. Cincinnati contains many literary and charitable institutions of a highly respectable character; the common schools are of a high order, and but few places have superior literary advantages. Cincinnati is an extensive manufacturing as well as commercial city. The iron business alone is estimated to be worth $5,000,000 per annum. The rolling mills, machine shops, founderies and factories, employ 3,500 hands. Pork-packing is another extensive branch of business; about 400,000 hogs are annually slaughtered. The tonnage of the city is set down at 16,874. Cincinnati is a port of entry; a new and splendid custom house is now being erected by the government. CLEVELAND is situated on an elevated plain at the entrance of Cuyahoga river into Lake Erie. Its harbor is one of the best on the lake, spacious and safe. The city is regularly laid out, and near its centre is a large public square. The bluff on which it is built is 80 feet above the level of the lake, from which an extensive and beautiful view is obtained, overlooking the meanderings of the Cuyahoga, and shipping in the harbor, and the passing vessels on the lake. Population in 1850,17,074. The following list of the other principal towns in the state, exhibits their population at the last decennial enumeration: Dayton, 10,976; Zanesville. 8,007; Chillicothe, 7,098; Steubenville, 6,140; Springfield, 5,108; Sandusky city, 5,088; Newark, 4,155; Portsmouth, 4,011; Toledo, 3,819. INDIANA, AREA, 33,809 SQUARE MuES. POPULATION IN 1850, 990,258. Indiana is bounded on the north by the lake and state of Michigan; east by Ohio; south by the Ohio river, which separates it from Kentucky; and west by the state of Illinois. It is 246 miles long and 160 miles broad, containing 21,637,760 acres. There are no mountains in Indiana, but the country bordering on Ohio river is broken and hilly. A range of hills runs parallel with Ohio river, from the mouth of Great Miami to Blue river, sometimes approaching to within a few rods of the river, and at other times receding from it to the distance of 2 miles. Immediately below Blue river, the hills cease, and an immense tract of level land, covered with timber, is presented to the view. Strips of bottom and prairie land, covered with a heavy growth of timber, skirt all the principal rivers, excepting the Ohio, from 3 to 6 miles in width. With some few exceptions, the greater proportion of this state may be pronounced to be one vast level. The prairies and timber land alternate, and in general these kinds of land are more happily balanced than in other parts of the western country. Many prairies are long and narrow, so that the whole can be taken up, and timber be easily accessible to all the settlers. Even in the large prairies are those beautiful islands of 224 STATE OF INDIANA. timbered land, which form such a striking feature in the western prairies. The great extent of fertile land, and the happy distribution of rivers and springs, has been one cause of the very rapid increase of population in this state. For a wide extent on the north front of the state, between W abash river and lake RMichigan, the country is generally an extended plain, alternately prairie and timbered land, with a great proportion of swampy lands, and small lakes and ponds. The prairies bordering on Wabash river are particularly rich, having ordinarily a vegetable soil of from 2 to, 5 feet deep. Perhaps no part of the western world can show a greater extent of rich land in one body than that portion of the White river country, of which Indianapolis is the centre. The natural growth of the soil consists of oak of several kinds, ash, beech, buckeye, walnut, cherry, maple, elm, sassafras, linden, honey locust, cotton wood, sycamore, and mulberry. The principal productions are wheat, rye, Indian corn, oats, buckwheat, barley, potatoes, beef, pork, butter, cheese, &c. The climate is generally pleasant and healthy, except in the vicinity of stagnant waters; the winters are mild in the southern part, and not very severe in the northern part. In the central and southern parts snow seldom falls to a greater depth than 6 inches; but in the northern part it is sometimes a foot and a half deep. Peach trees blossom early in March, and the forest trees put forth leaves early in April. The Ohio river washes its whole southern border, affords great facilities for trade, and has some important places on its banks. The Wabash is the largest river, draining, with its branches, the greater part of the state. It is one of the finest tributaries of the Ohio, rises in the northeast part of the state, crosses it north of the middle, and flows south near its west line, and for 150 miles constitutes the boundary between this state and Illinois, and enters Ohio river 30 miles above the mouth of Cumberland river. It is navigable in high water 370 miles to Lafayette; but in lowv water it is obstructed by bars and ledges of rocks 15 miles below. White river, the largesttributary of the Wabash, consists of two main branches, the East and West forks. The West fork rises near the border of Ohio, and traverses the whole breadth of the State. The East fork is nearly as great in extent, and in the volume of its waters. This river is about'300 miles long, and in its West fork is navigable in high water for 200 miles to Indianapolis. It enters the Wabash about 100 miles from its mouth. The Whitewater, in the southeast part of the state, flows into Great Miami river, a little above its entrance into Ohio river. St. Joseph's river enters the north part of the state, and flowing again into Michigan, it enters lake Michigan. The following statistical items are taken from the census of 1850: number of houses, 186,182; value of farms, $128,325,552; value of farming implements, $6,648,799; capital invested in manufactures, $7,235,220; value of manufactured articles, $19,199,681; value of home manufactures, $1,682,981; value of real estate, $170,000,000; number of colleges and academies, 88; students, 5,290; number of common schools, 5,899; value of church property, $1,499,711. STATE OF INDIANA. 225 POPULATION-CENSUS OF 1860 BY COUNTIES. Adams............ 5,774 Franklin.........17,914 Lawrence........ 12.210 Scott............. 5,889 Allen........ 16,921 Fulton......... 5,864 Madison........ 12,497 Shelby....... 15,446 Bartholomew......12,851 Gibson............10,782 Marion........24,289 Spencer........ 8,654 Benton............ 1,144 Grant............11,092 Marshall... 5,348 Steuben......... 6,117 Blackford.......... Gr2,864 eenea...........12,247 Martin5........ 955 St. Joseph.. 10,955 Boone.............11,629 Hamilton....... 12,686 Miami.......... 11,349 Sullivan.......10,168 Brown.... 4,846 Hancock....... 9,714 Monroe.. 11,283 Switzerland..12,953 Carroll..... 11,025 Harrison.......15,538 Montgomery......18,227 Starke............. 558 Cass..............10,922 Hendricks....... 14,077 Morgan......14,654 Tippecanoe........19,269 Clark..... 15,836 Henry........ 17,688 Noble... 7,948 Tipton............ 3,534 Clay.... 8,184 Howard....... 6,667 Ohio.......... 5,310 Union......... 6,881 Clinton........ 11,871 Huntington...... 7,850 Orange...........10,818 Vanderburgh....11,415 Crawford..... 6,318 Jackson....... 11,030 Owen............12,04Q Vermillion......... 8,601 Davis.... 10,354 Jasper...... 3,424 Parke.. 15,049 Vigo......... 14,693 Dearborn......... 20,166 Jay..... 7,051 P......71.......erry.. 7,251 Wabash.........12,109 Decatur...........15,106 Jefferson......23,931 Pike.. 8,699 Warren..... 7,423 DeKalb............ 8,257 Jennings..... 12,541 Porter....... 5,250.Warwick7. 8,222 Delaware..... 10,976 Johnson.........12,228 Posey...........12,367 Washington.. 17,088 Dubois............ 6,230 Knox...........11,086 Pulaski.. 2,595 Wayne............25,900 Elkhart.... 12,903 Koskiusko.....10,243 Putnam... 18,612 Wells.. 6,152 Fayette..... 10,140 Lagrange... 8,424 Randolph.... 14,694 White.. 4,760 Floyd..... 14,876 Lake....... 3,991 Ripley... 14,822 Whitely........... 5,190 Fountain.... 13,260 Laporte.... 12,169 Rush............16,445 The products of the state are essentially agricultural. The cereal crops are large. The average crops may be estimated at 8,000,000 bushels of wheat; 50,000 bushels of barley; 17,000,000 bushels of oats; 300,000 bushels of rye; 100,000 bushels of buckwheat, 45,000,000 bushels of Indian corn. The miscellaneous crops are also extensive; and may be reckoned at 2,500,000 bushels of potatoes; 500,000 tons of hay; 4,000,000 lbs. of tobacco. Hops, hemp and flax are also cultivated. The manufacturing industry of the state is rapidly progressing; the annual product of which amounts to $20,000,000. The State enjoys many advantages which are constantly developing this source of wealth. Indiana does not enjoy the advantages of a direct foreign trade, but is dependent on the ports of other states, in its commercial relations with the world, for an outlet. The productions of this state generally find a market in the Mississippi river towns, whence they are transported to all parts of the world. No inconsiderable amount finds an outlet by the lakes. There are six colleges in Indiana. The Indiana College at Bloomington, was founded in 1827; South Hanover College, at South Hanover, was founded in 1829; Wabash College, at Crawfordsville, was founded in 1833; the Indiana Asbury University, under the Methodists, was founded in 1839; the Franklin was founded in 1837; the St. Gabriel's (Catholic) in 1843, "at Vincennes. There- is a Law School at Bloomington. The Indiana Central Medical College, is located at Indianapolis, and the Indiana Medical College, at Laporte. By an act passed January, 1849, the common school fund was constituted of the surplus revenue fund, the saline and the bank tax funds, amounting in all to $715,748. According to the returns of 1850, there were 5,899 common schools in the state, and the number of scholars was estimated at 75,000. Of the principal religious denominations, there were in 1850, 802 Episcopal Methodist preachers, 63,805 members, and 33,000 Sunday school scholars. The Regular Baptists numbered 392 churches, and 18,311 members; the Anti-Mission Baptists had 143 churches and 4,783 members. The Old School Presbyterians had 202 churches and 9,300 communicants. The New School Presbyterians had 101 churches and 4,460 communicants 15 226 STATE OF INDIANA. The Evangelical Lutherans number about 5,000 communicants. In the diocese of Vincennes are 77 Catholic churches. The principal work of internal improvement undertaken by the state is the Wabash and Erie canal, intended to connect the navigation of lake Erie with that of the Wabash river. The Whitewater canal is also an extensive work, intended to unite Lawrenceville with Cincinnati. The Madison and Indianapolis railroad is 95 miles long. Other extensive lines are projected through the state. At the close of the year 1850 there were 13 banks in the state, with a capital of $2,082,950, and a circulation of $3,422,445; specie, $1,197, 880; loans and discounts, $4,395,099. The absolute debt of the state is $6,531,737. The ordinary annual expenditure, exclusive of debts and schools, is $80,000. All the deaf and dumb of the state, between the ages of 10 and 30, are entitled to an education, without charge for board and tuition. In the institution for the blind, the board and tuition of pupils belonging to the state are free. The hospital for the insane was opened in 1848. The General Assembly meets biennially, on the Thursday next after the first Monday in January. Sessions are limited to 61 days, special to 40. Senate not to exceed 50, nor the House 100 members. Senators are elected for four years-one-half every two years; Representatives for two years; the former must, be 25, and the latter 21 years of age, and both citizens of the U. S., residents of the State for two years, and of their district for one year next preceding election. Representatives are apportioned according to a census of all white male inhabitants over 21 years of age, taken every six years. General laws are passed in all cases where a general law is applicable. The Judiciary consists of a Supreme, Circuit and inferior Courts established by the General Assembly. The Supreme Court consists of not less than three, nor more than five judges, and the State is divided into as many districts, from each of which one judge is elected by the electors of the State at large for six years. The Supreme Court has appellate and such original jurisdiction as the General Assembly may confer. The number of Circuit Courts is determined by the General Assembly; and each consists of one judge, elected by the voters of that circuit for six years. Prosecuting attorneys are elected for two years; justices of the peace for four. Tribunals of Conciliation may be established; and the grand jury system modified or abolished. The Governor and Lieutenant Governor are elected by a plurality of votes for four years. They must be 30 years of age, citizens of the U. S., and residents of the State 5 years next preceding election; cannot serve two consecutive terms. In 1702 Vincennes was settled by French soldiers of Louis XIV. from Canada. Separated from the rest of the world, tlly became assimilated to the savages by whom they were surrounded, and with whom they intermarried. At the peace between England and France in 1763, this country came into possession of the English. In the Revolutionary war the inhabitants took sides with the Americans, in consequence of which the general government ceded to them a tract of land about Vincennes. In 1787 the United States took possession of Vincennes, and erected a fort on the opposite side of the river, for a defence against the savages. The inhabitants at that period consisted of French, of Canadians, and of Indians The victories and treaty of Wayne, in 1795, put an end to STATE OF INDIANA. 227 Indian hostilities. In 1811, in consequence of depredations and murders, a military force was sent against the Indians; but the bloody battle of Tippecanoe, under General Harrison, compelled them to sue for peace. In 1816 Indiana was admitted into the Union as an independent state, having previously been under a territorial government. Since it became a state it has rapidly progressed in population and in improvement. INDIANAPOLIS, the capital of the state, is situated on the left bank of the west fork of White river, at the head of steamboat navigation. It was selected for the state capital, by commissioners appointed by the state in 1820, when it was covered by a dense forest. It was laid out in 1821. The national road passes throug the place on Washington street, the principal business street. This street is 120 feet wide; the other streets are 90 feet wide, with the exception of a circular street, which passes round the governor's house: this street is 80 feet wide. The streets cross each other at right angles, with the exception of four streets diverging from the circular area round the governor's house, which cross the other streets diagonally. The place was originally laid out on a mile square, but additions have been made to it on different sides. Through the squares are alleys of 30 feet from east to west, and others of 15 feet from north to south. The streets are named after different states of the Union. On a rise of ground in the centre of a circular area, stands the governor's house, 60 feet square, and two stories high, with four elegant fronts. The court house is 60 by 55 feet, and two stories high, with a lofty cupola. The state house is one of the most splendid buildings in the west. It is 180 feet long, 80 feet wide, and 45 feet from the foundation to the top of the cornice, with an appropriate dome. It is on the model of the Parthenon at Athens, with a Doric portico on each front of ten Doric columns, with 13 pilasters on each side. It contains elegant halls for the two houses of the legislature, a court room, and rotunda. A bridge crosses White river, which cost $25,000. Population, 8,034. La Fayette is situated on the left bank of the Wabash river, at the head of steamboat navigation, 310 miles from its mouth. New Albany, on the Ohio, is a large and flourishing town, containing a number of manufacturing establishments. Population, 9,785. Jeffersonville, opposite Louisville, is the site of the state prison. Madison, further up the Ohio, is a large and flourishing village, with great natural facilities for both manufactures and commerce. Population, 8,037. Evansville, also on the Ohio, is an important point, and daily advancing in prosperity. Vevay, a Swiss colony, has a fine location, and is prettily laid out, being surrounded by vineyards. Lawrenceburg, on the Ohio, below the mouth of the Whitewater, has an extensive trade, and is now a place of some importance. New Harmony, founded by the German Harmonites, and subsequently purchased by Mr. Owen, the eminent socialist, is a flourishing settlement. Vincennes is the oldest town in the state, having been founded by the French in 1702. Terre Haute, the eastern terminus of the national road, and Logansport, on the Wabash, are considerable towns. Richmond, on the eastern state line; Michigan City, at the base of lake Michigan, and the only lake port in the state; Covington, on the Wabash, and on the line of the Erie and Wabash canal, &c., are places of note, and fast rising. to opulence and importance. 228 STATE OF LINOIS. ILLINOIS. ARE, 55,405 SQUAR MIs. POPULATION Z 1850, 850,000 This state is bounded on the north by the state of Wisconsin; east by lake Michigan and the state of Indiana; south by the Ohio river, which separates it from Kentucky; and west by the Mississippi, which separates it from Iowa and Missouri. It is 372 miles long, and its extreme breadth is 210 miles, containing 35,459,200 acreS. The general surface is level or moderately undulating; the northern and southern portions are broken, and somewhat hilly, but no portion of the state is traversed by ranges of hills, and there is nothing in the state which can be denominated a mountain. That portion of the state which lies south of a line from the mouth of Wabash river to the mouth of the Kaskaskia river, is generally covered with timber, but north of this, the prairie country predominates. It is computed that two thirds of- the surface of the state is covered with prairies. The eye sometimes wanders over immense plains covered with grass, and, in the season of them, adorned with flowers, with no other boundary of its vision but the distant horizon, though the view is often broken with occasional woodlands. Much of the prairie land is undulating and entirely dry. The dry prairies are generally from 30 to 100 feet higher than the bottom land on the rivers, and are often very fertile. They frequently extend from 6 to 12 miles in width. In many instances, there are copses or groves of timber, of from 100 to 2000 acres, in the midst of prairies, like islands in the ocean. This is a common feature of the country between Sangamon river and lake Michigan in the north part of the state. There are extensive tracts called barrens, which are not wanting in fertility, of a mixed character, uniting forest with prairie. The timber is generally scattering, and of a rough and stunted appearance. The surface is generally more uneven and rolling than the prairies. These tracts are commonly healthy, and abound with springs of pure water, and are better adapted for all descriptions of produce, and all kinds of seasons, wet and dry, than the richer and deeper mould of the river bottoms and the prairies. illinois in general, is abundantly supplied with timber, but it is unequally distributed, and on the prairies there is often a deficiency, which might be remedied by cultivation. The kinds of timber most abundant are oaks of various species, black and white walnut, ash of several kinds, elm, sugarmaple, honey-locust, hackberry, linden, hickory, cotton-wood, pecuan, mulberry, buckeye, sycamore, wild-cherry, box, sassafras, and persimmon. In the south and south-east parts of the state are yellow poplar and beech; near the Ohio are cypress, and in several counties are clumps of yellow pine and cedar. The undergrowth are red-bud, pawpaw, sumac, plum, crabapple, grape vines, dogwood, spice bush, green brier, hazle, &c. The alluvial soil on the rivers produces cotton-wood and sycamore timber of amazing size. STATE OF ILLINOIS. 229 In some parts of the state are knobs or ridges of flint limestone, intermingled and covered with earth, elevated one or two hundred feet above the common surface. Back of the alluvions which border the streams there are bluffs, some in parallel ridges, and others of a conical form, formed of limestone rock, from fifty to one and two hundred feet high. Among these bluffs are ravines, which conduct the streams into the rivers. There are also in some parts sink-holes, or circular depressions like a Lasin, of various depths and extent, which discharge the water received by rains, by evaporation or into the ground. There are few tracts of stony ground in the state; but quarries are to be found in the bluffs, and in the banks of the streams, and on the borders of the ravines throughout the state. The soil of the state is generally fertile. The vegetable productions are Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, turnips, cotton, hemp, flax, tobacco, castor beans, &c. The most important mineral production of the state is lead, found in its north-west part, and in Wisconsin, in inexhaustible quantities. Galena is the centre of the lead trade. Salt springs are found in the east and south particularly near Shawneetown. Coal abounds in the bluffs, and iron exists in various parts of the state. Bituminous coal abounds in the ravines and bluffs. The climate is generally healthy, and the air, except in the neighborhood of low and wet lands, is pure and serene. The average temperature through the year is from 50~ to 530 of Fahrenheit. The winters are cold, and the summers, in the south part, are quite warm. Next to the great rivers Mississippi and Ohio on its borders, the Illinois is the largest river in this state, which it crosses diagonally, and after a course of over 400 miles from its sources, it enters the Mississippi, 20 miles above the mouth of the Missouri. Rock river rises in Wisconsin, crosses the north-west part of the state, and after a course of 300 miles, mostly in this state, falls into the Mississippi. Kaskaskia river rises near the middle of the state, and after a south-westerly course of 250 miles, enters Mississippi river, 63 miles below the mouth of the Missouri. It is navigable for boats for 150 miles. Sangamon is a large tributary of the Illinois river. The Wabash runs chiefly in Indiana, but forms a part of the boundary between that state and Illinois. Little Wabash, after a course of 130 miles, enters Wabash river, a little above the confluence of the latter with the Ohio river. Peoria lake, which is an expansion of Ii. nois river, 200 miles from its mouth, is a beautiful sheet of water, 20 miles long, and 2 miles broad. The grain crops of Illiniois are abundant. The average yield of wheat is about 5,000,000 bushels; 120,000 bushels of barley; 5,000,000 bushels of oats; 170,000 bushels of rye; 130,000 bushels'of buckwheat; 40,000,000 bushels of Indian corn. Among the miscellaneous crops may be estimated 3,000,000 bushels of potatoes; 1,350,000 ibs. of tobacco. Rice is also cultivated to some extent, besides hops, hemp and flax. The manufactures of Illinois employ a capital of about $4,000,000. The manufacture of leather is extensively carried on. The state has but little direct foreign commerce. The direct exports of domestic produce for 1849, amounted to $88,412. 230 STATE OF ILLINOIS. Illinois has four colleges. The Illinois College, at Jacksonville, was founded in 1829; the Shurtleff, at Upper Alton, under the direction of the Baptists was founded in 1835; the McKendree, at Lebanon, was founded in 1834; and the Knox, at Galesburg, was founded in 1839. The Rush Medical College, at Chicago, was founded in 1842. The statistics of the common schools for 1848, estimate the number of schools in the state at 2,317; and the number of scholars, 51,447. The number of male school teachers was 1,565; female teachers, 996. Average monthly wages of males $16.56; of females, $8.93. Amount of school funds, $1,404,751; amount raised by advalorem tax, $1,081,137. The deaf and dumb asylum was opened in 1846, at Springfield. Applicants must be over 10 years of age. All pupils from out of the state pay $80 per annum. The Methodists have 138 traveling and 463 local preachers, and 29,867 members; the regular Baptists have 320 churches and 13,441 members; the anti-mission Baptists have 161 churches and 4,000 members; the Evangelical Lutherans have 10 churches and about 700 members; the old school Presbyterians have 135 churches and 4,500 communicants; the new school Presbyterians have 62 churches and 3,407 communicants; the orthodox Congregationalists have 75 churches and 3,471 members; the Protestant Episcopalians have 30 ministers and 1,393 communicants. There are 74 Catholic churches in the diocese of Chicago. In 1836 this state adopted an extensive system of internal improvements. The Illinois and Michigan canal, the most important of them all, connects like Michigan, at Chicago, with the Illinois river at La Salle; which last place is considered the head of steamboat navigation on the Illinois, and is 212 miles from its mouth. This canal is one of the most important works of the kind in the western country. It furnishes the most expeditious route from the Mississippi river to the lakes, and it is impossible to estimate the extent of its maximum business. Most of the staple productions of the country on the Illinois and the upper Mississippi will find their way through this canal. The workmanship and capacity of the canal are of the first class. It is 60 feet wide at the surface; 36 at the bottom, and 6 feet deep. The railroads of the state are the Galena and Chicago Union, from Chicago to Elgin, 42 miles long; the Sangamon and Morgan, from Springfield to Naples, 55 miles long, and the St. Charles branch, 8 miles long. The state debt amounts to $16,662,795. To meet this debt the state owns 145,000 acres of land valued at about $870,000. Besides the revenue accruing from ordinary taxation, nearly $88,000 were received from the tolls of the Illinois and Michigan canal. This was, however, the first season of its completion, and these receipts are not a test of its capacity for business. The sum realized by the sale of canal lands in September, 1848, under the law under which the money was advanced by the bondholders for the completion of the work, amounted to nearly $770,000, exceeding in amount the original appraised value of the lands about two per cent. The appraised value of the entire lands, lots, &c., belonging to the Canal, amounts to nearly $3,000,000, and at these rates of sales there will be realized from this source not less than $3,500,000, which will go far towards liquidating this portion of the state debt, independently of the STATE OF ILLINOIS. 231 yearly revenue from the canal. For the year 1847-48 there has been paid into the public treasury the average yearly sum of $118,000, the avails of what is denominated the interest tax. This amount has been regularly forwarded and proportionably applied to the payment of interest upon all state bonds, as prescribed by law. By a direct vote of people, at the time of the acceptance of the constitution, it was decided that there should be assessed, collected, and applied pro rata for the payment of the public debt other than the canal and school debt, a tax of two mills on the dollar, in addition to other taxes. The ordinary annual expenditure of the government exclusive of debts and schools, is $125,000. There are no incorporated banks in the state. The governor is elected by the people for four years, but is eligible only four years in eight. A lieutenant-governor is elected at the same time, who is president of the senate, and, in case of the death, resignation, or absence of the governor, discharges his duties. The senators are elected for four years, and the representatives for two years. The number of senators shall never be less than one-third, nor more than one-half the number of representatives. The judges of the supeme court are appointed by the joint ballot of both houses of the legislature, and hold their offices during good behavior. Every white male inhabitant over 21 years of age, who has resided in the state for six months next preceding an election, has ~the right of suffrage. In the latter part of the seventeenth century, Illinois was explored by the French from Canada, and some forts and trading posts were established. About 1720 several forts were built within the present limits of Illinois, of which fort Chartres was the most considerable. A chain of communication was formed from Canada to the mouth of the Mississippi river. The oldest document in the state is at Kaskaskia, which is a petition to Louis XV. for a grant of common fields, statir.g the great losses of the people the year before by an extraordinary flood. At the peace of 1763 this country, together with Canada, was ceded to the English. In 1765, Capt. Sterling, of the royal Highlanders, took possession of Illinois, and was followed by several other commanders, who occupied fort Chartres. In the revolutionary war, the Virginia militia, under Gen. Clarke, subjugated fort Chartres, Kaskaskia, and conducted a successful expedition, in 1788, against Port Vincent, now Vincennes. In the same year the legislature of Virginia organized, in this remote region, the county of Illinois, which was afterwards ceded to the United States. In 1800 the present territory of Illinois contained about 3,000 inhabitants. In 1809 the territorial government was formed, and the population the next year amounted to 12,000. In 1812 a territorial government was formed with a legislature and a delegate to congress. In 1818 a state constitution was formed, and Illinois was received into the Union as the 22d state. SPRINGFIELD, the capital of the state, is situate I on the border of a beautiful plain, four miles south of the Sangamon river, and very near the centre of the state. It was laid out in 1822, and in 1833 it contained 30 families, chiefly inhabitants of cabins. It became the capital of the state in 1840, and has had a rapid growth. There are now many handsome public buildings, including the capitol, an elegant edifice of hewn stone The county of Sangamon is noted for its rich land. &4 232 STATE OF MICHIGAN. Chicago is situated on the north-west shore of lake Michigan, at the head of lake navigation. The city is built on a level prairie, elevated above the water, and lies on both sides of Chicago river, between the junction of the north and south branches, and three-fourths of a mile from its entrance into the lake. By the construction of piers, an artificial harbor has been made at the mouth of the river. The city contains the county buildings, a United States land office, eight or ten churches, academies, and about 28,269 inhabitants. Back of the town, for three or four miles, is a fine, elevated and fertile prairie, and to the north, along the lake shore, are extensive bodies of fine timber. Numerous steamboats and vessels ply between this place and Buffalo, and the intermediate places on the upper lakes. It is admirably situated for trade, and is rapidly increasing in population and wealth. The canal, leading southward, is described elsewhere. The towns of Illinois, otherwise than those already noticed, are small, but some of them are rapidly growing into importance. Along the Ohio are Shawneetown, Golconda, Napoleon, Trinity, and Cairo; along the Mississippi, downwards, Galena, Rockport, Alton, Warsaw, &c.; along the Illinois, Ottawa, Peoria, Beardstown, Carrolton, Augusta, &c.; on the Wabash, Darwin, Palestine, Mount Carmel, &c.; and Oregon City, &c., on Rock river. Besides these, there are a large number of thriving villages in the state. Quincy, on the Mississippi, has 8,000 inhabitants. MICHIGAN, AREA. 56,43 SQUARE MILE. POPULATION IN 1850, 397,676. This state occupies two large peninsulas, and is situated on the foul great lakes, Superior, Michigan, Huron and Erie. It lies between the latitudes of 41~ 48' and 47~ 30' north, and the longitudes of 820 20' and 900 10' west. Its area contains 35,995,520 acres; over 10,000,000 of which are not yet surveyed. The surface of the southern _eninsula is generally level, undulating or rolling, and sometimes broken or hilly. In the eastern part, from the southern boundary to Saginaw bay, the land, to the distance of from 5 to 25 miles, is mostly level. Proceeding westward, the land gradually rises to an irregular ridge, in some places 600 or 700 feet high, which divides the waters which flow eastwardly from those which flow westwardly to lake Michigan. This ridge is much nearer the eastern than the western shore. The central counties are somewhat hilly. These hills'consist of an irregular assemblage of somewhat conical elevations, sometimes rising to the height of from 150 to 200 feet, though ordinarily not more than from 30 to 40 feet. But the main portion of the central and western part consists of a table-land, gradually descending toward the lake, exhibiting a gently Undulating, but very rarely a broken surface. In general, the interior of the state may be regarded as level, but the coasts of lakes Michigan and Huron exhibit high and steep banks; and along the former are bluffs and sand-banks, from 100 to 300 feet high. A w STATE OF MICHIGAN. 233 large part of the soil of the peninsula is fertile, and well adapted to the purposes of agriculture. The forest trees present a great variety; oak, hickory, walnut, ash, linden, sugar-maple, soft-maple, elm, ash of various kinds, sycamore, hackberry, cotton-wood, butternut, box or dog-wood, pop lar, white-wood, and cherry. On the north-east border evergreens seem to predominate, as pine, spruqe, and hemlock; and in the north part, large forests of pine and well timbered land extend into the interior. The soil in the settled parts of the peninsula is well adapted to wheat, rye, oats, barley, flax, hemp, garden vegetables, and grasses. No part of the United States is better supplied with fish, aquatic fowls, and wild game. The fish are chiefly white-fish and salmon-trout, and are extensively taken for exportation. The trout weigh from 10 to 70 pounds, and the white-fish are equally large. They constitute a substitute for the cod-fish in the north-west. The upper peninsula has been but imperfectly explored. The lake coast has been estimated at between 700 and 800 miles, five-tenths of which can be reached by the common lake vessels. It is diversified by mountains, hills, valleys and plains, rising gradually from lakes Michigan and Superior to the interior. Porcupine mountains, which form the dividing ridge between the waters which flow into lake Superior and those which flow into lake Michigan, have summits towards the western boundary, estimated at from 1800 to 2000 feet high. A greater portion of this peninsula, except the sand plains, consist of millions of acres of white and yellow pine, and a mixture of spruce, hemlock, birch, oak and aspen; and on the rivers, maple, ash, and elm. Forty large, and sixty smaller rivers flow into the lakes, and will hereafter afford mill-sites, and the means of transportation of a vast amount of lumber. This region does not promise much to agriculture, though there are doubtless fertile tracts; but in minerals it is rich. The climate is cold, but healthy; and though the summers are short, vegetation is exceedingly rapid. The extremes of temperature are 900 above, and 250 below zero of Fahrenheit, which has caused it to be denominated the Siberia of Michigan. The mineral region of this district, in the neighborhood of lake Superior, is rich in copper of the finest qnality, and which is frequently found in its native state. The extreme length of the region is about 135 miles, and it has a width varying from one to six miles. The mineral, however, does not exist in every portion of this district, for miles may intervene and no trace be ascertained. In some of the river beds, large bowlders of native copper are frequently met with. The southern peninsula of Michigan is drained by several large rivers, and many smaller streams. They originate in the dividing ridge, and pass off in an easterly and westerly direction, with some exceptions, to the lakes. Raisin and Huron rivers flow into lake Erie; Rouge into Detroit strait; Clinton and Black rivers into the strait of St. Clair; Saginaw river, formed by the junction of several large branches, enters Saginaw bay; Thunder bay river, Cherborgan, and several smaller streams flow north into the straits of Mackinaw. But the largest rivers flow west into lake Michigan. They are St. Joseph, Kalamazoo, Grand, Maskegon, and Manistee rivers. Some of these are navigable, to a considerable extent. Lake Michigan is the largest lake that lies wholly within the U. States being 300 miles long, and, on an average, 70 miles broad, containing 234 STATE OF MICIGAN. 15,981 square miles, or 10,868,000 acres. It has Green bay, a large branch, on the north-west. The straits of Michilimackinac, 40 miles long, connect lake Michigan with lake Huron. Saginaw bay is a large branch of lake Huron, 60 miles long, and 32 miles wide. POPULATION -CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES Allegan............ 5,043 Eaton........... 7,057 Lapeer............ 7,026 Sanilac....... 2,613 Barry....... 5,070.Genesee........12,035.Lenawee....... 26,374 Saginaw....... 2,675 Berrien............ 11,517 Hillsdale........ 18,395 Livingston.......13,477 Shiawassee......... 5,133 Branch............ 12,472 Ingham.......... 8,834 Mackinaw....... 3,598 St. Clair.. 10,607 Calhoun.............. 16lon. 8,488.Macomb.......... 15,582 St. Joseph........ 12,708 Cass...... 10,907.Jacksoln. 19=,432 Monroe......... 14,702 Van Buren... 5,802 Chippewa..... 2,147 Kalamazoo.......13,179 Oakland.... 21,2 66 Washtenaw...28,566 Clinton..... 5,102. Kent............ 12,018 Ottawa..... 6,490 Wayne........42,770 The fertility of the soil, and the energy of the people, bid fair to make Michigan one of the finest agricultural states. From a report of the Secretary of State, made under the act to procure statistical information, it appears that the land under cultivation in the state in 1848, was 1,437,460 acres; of which 465,900 acres were sown with wheat. The quantity of wheat raised was 4,739,300 bushels, and of all other grains, 8,179,767 bushels; of wool produced, 1,645,756 lbs.; of sugar made, 1,774,369 lbs. In the state, there were 52,305 horses, 210,268 neat cattle, 152,541 swine, 610,534 sheep; 228 flouring-mills, 568 run of stones, 719,478 barrels of flour made, 594 hands employed, $1,496,400 capital employed; 730 saw-mills, 157,179,257 feet of lumber sawed, 1,959 hands employed, $939,470 capital invested; and $4,660,074 in merchandise imported, exclusive of Detroit. The manufacturing industry of the state is on a respectable footing. The various manufactures of iron, wool and leather, are extensively prosecuted. The state is finely situated for commerce, being almost surrounded by waters which are connected with the Hudson by the Erie canal, and with the Mississippi by the Michigan and Illinois canal. The foreign commerce is small. The exports of domestic produce direct to foreign ports, in 1849, amounted to $127,844; imports, $98,141. The annual exports of the state are about $7,000,000; chiefly of flour, grain, fish, lumber, wool, ashes, peltries, &c. The Michigan University, at Ann Arbor, has departments of literature, science and the arts. St. Philip's college was founded by the Catholics in 1839. There are a large number of academies in the state. The condition of the common schools, at the close of 1849, is thus exhibited; Number of townships reporting, 448; number of districts reporting, 2,536; number of children attending school during the year, 102,871; number drawing public money, 125,218;- number of scholars under 4 years of age, 1,937; over 18, 5,022. 4,788 scholars have attended unincorporated, private, or select schools. Amount of school money apportioned, $52,305.37; raised by tax, $73,804.92. Raised for purchasing, building, &c., school-houses, $51,085.20. Received from local funds, $6,830.68. Volumes in town- ship libraries, 67,877. Mill tax for township libraries and support of schools, $17,830.11. A state normal school has been established at Ypsilanti, with an endow ment of school lands. It is to be under the control of a Board of Education of six persons, appointed by the Legislature. By act of the Legislature of 1848, the Michigan Asylum for educating the deaf, the dumb and the blind, was established at Kalamazoo, and by the STATE OF MICHIGAN. 235 same Legislature, "the Michigan Asylum for the Insane" was established at Flint. Both institutions are endowed with lands, and are under the control of a board of five trustees, elected by the Legislature. For the statistics of the various religious denominations in the state, the reader is referred to the statistical tables in the general description of the United States. The principal works of internal improvement are the Central Railway, from Detroit to New Buffalo, via Kalamazoo and Niles and the Southern Railroad, from Monroe to Hillsdale. These works were sold to incorporated companies in 1846, the first for 2,000,000, and the other for $500,000. There is also a railroad from Toledo, Ohio, to Adrian, where it connects with the southern road; and from Detroit lines extend north and northwest to Shelby and Pontiac. Other lines are contemplated. The length of post routes in Michigan is 4,419 miles. There are five banks in the State, with a capital of $764,000. Condition,, January 1, 1851: specie, $125,722; loans and discounts, $1,319,305; circulation, $897,364. The public debt of the state amounts to $2,812,717; annual interest, $175,000. The ordinary annual expenditures of the government, exclusive of debts and schools, is $125,000. By the constitution of 1850, the legislative power is vested in a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate to consist of 32, and the House of not less than 64 nor more than 100, members. Senators and Representatives elected for two years, by single districts, and to be qualified electors in their respective counties and districts. The assent of two-thirds of each, requisite to all appropriation bills for local and private purposes. In all elections by either House, the votes shall be given viva voce. The style of the laws to be, " The People of the State of Michigan enact." The Governor and Lieutenant Governor are elected for two years, by a plurality vote. The Governor may grant reprieves, commutations and pardons, in all cases except for treason and impeachment. He has a qualified veto, overcome by two-thirds of the members of each branch. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, Circuit and Probate Courts and Justices of the Peace. The Judges of the Supreme and Circuit Courts to be elected by the people; the former for eight and the latter- for six years. The Probate Judges and Justices of the Peace, are elected for four years. No imprisonment for debt, except in cases of fraud, breach of trust, or of moneys collected by- public officers, or in any professional employment. The state officers are elected by the people. No special acts of incorporation are allowed; and no banking law to take effect, unless approved by a majority of the electors of the State. The stockholders of corporations and joint stock associations are individually liable for labor performed for such associations. Personal property designated by law, t' -he amount of five hundred dollars, is exempt from execution. Every homestead, not exceeding in value fifteen hundred dollars, is also exempt during the lifetime of the owner and the minority of his children. Michigan was visited by French traders as early as 1640. Detroit was settled in 1670. At the peace of 1763, this country was ceded by France to Great Britain, and, at the close of the Revolutionary war was ceded by 236 STATE OF WISCONSIN. Great Britain to the United States. They however held possession of Detroit until 1796, when it was given up to the United States. In 1805 the state was erected into a distinct territory, and received a territorial government. The British had possession of the country in 1812-13, but were soon expelled by the Americans under General Harrison. In 1836 Michigan was admitted into the Union as a sovereign state. LANSING, in Ingham county, is now the permanent location of the seat of government. The public offices were removed to this place in December, 1847. It is situated in the centre of the state, and has, as yet, but a small population. Detroit, the former capital of the state, is situated on the western shore of the river of the same name. The facilities it enjoys for an extended commerce are great, and few cities have a better promise of future prosperity. The city is laid out with eight avenues; three of these are 200 feet wide, and five others are 120 feet wide. Five of these center at a public ground called the Grand Circus. The other streets are 60 feet wide, and generally cross each other at right angles. Atwater street, upon the river, and Woodbridge street, running parallel with it on the declivity, are chiefly occupied with stores, and dealers in the heavier articles of merchandise. Woodward avenue, leading from the river, at right angles with Jefferson avenue through the Campus Martius, a public ground in the central part of the city, is one of the principal business streets. The principal street running with the course of the river upon the declivity, and through the most dense portion of the city, is Jefferson avenue. On this street the public and private offices, and the fancy and drygoods stores are located; and it is a beautiful street, which would do honor to an eastern city. There are several public squares, the principal of which are the Campus Martius and the Circus. Population, 21,057. Monroe, on Lake Erie, and St. Joseph, on Lake Michigan, are the other principal ports. The towns of Adrian, Saline, Jacksonburg, Marshall, Kalamazoo, and Niles, are important places. The north part of the State is thinly populated. WISCONSIN..AA, 53,924 SQUARE IEs. POPULATION IN 1850, 805,538. Wisconsin is bounded on the north by the territory of Minnesota, Lake Superior, and the northern peninsula of Michigan; east by Lake Michigan; south by the State of Illinois, and west by the Mississippi river, which separates it from the State of Iowa and Minnesota territory. It is 300 miles in length and 240 mies broa, w;.th ar area of 53.924 square miles, or 34,511,360 acres. Wisconsin is one vast plain, varied only by rivers, and the gentle swells and undulations of the country, usually called "rolling." This plain is elevated from 600 to 1,500 feet above the level of the ocean. The highest lands are those dividing the waters of the lakes from those of the Mississippi. From these there is a gradual descent towards the south and STATE OF WISCONSIN. 237 west, which, however, is several times interrupted by ridges and mounds, the latter of which, rising above the general landscape, present an anomaly in the contour of the country, and in the unsettled parts serve as guides to the traveller. The slope towards Lake Superior is very abrupt, and, as a consequence, the rivers are short, rapid and broken by falls. They are unfit for navigation, but possess abundance of water-power, which, at no distant period, will become useful to the settler. There is another ridge of broken land, running from Green Bay southwesterly, forming the "divide" between the waters of Lake Michigan and those of the Bay and the Neenah. After pursuing a similar direction, this ridge passes into the State of Illinois. Besides the great lakes on the north and east, a vast number of smaller ones are scattered over the northern portion of the State. They are from one to twenty miles in extent, and many are amid the most beautiful and picturesque scenery, abounding in fish of various kinds, and having a rich supply of fine specimens of agate, cornelian and other precious stones on their shores. In the shallow water of the bays, a species of wild rice is abundant, and attracts immense flocks of water-fowl to these localities, and even affords a nutritious aliment to man. The Mississippi, as before observed, forms the western boundary. It is augmented from this state by the waters of the Chippeway and Wisconsin. Innumerable smaller streams and branches run through the whole extent of the state, so that no portion of it is without a plentiful supply of good and generally pure water. The Mississippi is navigable to the Falls of St. Anthony, and small boats ply on the Wisconsin. Wisconsin is composed of timbered and prairie land, pretty equally divided, with some swamps and wet prairies, having generally a soil from one to ten feet deep. All kinds of crops which are raised in northern latitudes may be cultirated with success; and, owing to the great range of pasturage on the prairies, it is an uncommonly fine grazing country. The counties of Grant and Iowa abound with lead and copper ore. Bordering the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers the soil is rich, and the surface most generally covered with a heavy growth of timber. The salubrity of the climate, the purity of the air and of the water; the coolness and short duration of the summers, and the dryness of the winters, conspire to render Wisconsin one of the most favored regions of the United States. The swamps, marshes and wet meadows are constantly supplied with pure water from springs; and, as they are seldom exposed to long-continued heats, they do not send forth those noxious vapors so much dreaded in the more southern sections of the Union. Many of the most flourishing towns are in the immediate vicinity of large swamps, yet no injurious effects in the general health is experienced. The natural advantages, and the present advanced position of this state, render it very inviting. It is especially adapted to purely agricultural purposes; also for mining, or for grazing or sheep-farming. Its river and lake facilities are great, and already the busy strife of commercial activity has penetrated to its very centre. Steamboats ply on its waters; and roads, which have been built by the late territorial government, greatly facilitate the development of the natural wealth of the country. 238 STATE OF WISCONSIN. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. Adams............ 187'ond du Lac......14,512 Milwaukie........22,791 St. Croix.......... 624 Brown.......... 6.222 Grant........... 16,169 Portage......... 1,267 Sauk.............. 4,092 Calumet........... 1,45 Green........ 8,583 Racine...........14,971 Sheboyan..... 8,386 Chippewa.......... 615 Iowa............. 9,576 Kenasha.........10,780 Walworth... 17,866 Columbia......... 9,565 Jefferson.........13,389 Rock............20,717 Washington.......19,476 Crawford.......... 2,399 Manitou.......... 3,712 Richland......... 903 Waunlsha.........19,324 Dane..............16,664 Marquette........ 8,642 Lafayette.........11,556 Winnebago.........10,179 Dodge............ 19,140 Marathon......... 456 Lapointe.......... 515 Lead, copper, iron, &c., are found in Wisconsin. The southwest portion of the country is one vast mine of lead, extending over a region of at least 100 miles in circumference. The ore is supposed to be inexhaustible in quantity, and the specimens obtained, yield about 70 per centum of the pure metal. The lead is generally found in a light ochrous earth, free from rock, at a depth of 10 or 15 feet, but the greatest beds have been found at about 40 feet below the surface; and nearly the whole mineral region is covered with the most fertile and productive grain lands. The copper mines in the north, bordering on Lake Superior, are among the richest in the world, and are at the present day worked to some considerable amount. The ore yields from 60 to 75 per cent of pure metal. The adaptation of the soil of Wisconsin to agriculture and grazing, will, doubtless, render this state one of the most prosperous of the grain-growing and provision-producing in our Union, and its rapid progress already argues its future destiny. Commerce and manufactures are as yet in their infancy, and of little consideration. The facilities, however, enjoyed by the state for their development are immense; and, as the wants of the people must soon enlarge themselves, these branches of industry must of necessity be brought into activity. Wisconsin will find outlets for its surplus, both by the lakes and the Mississippi; and the rapid streams which every where flow through its territory, will supply the utmost re quirement for manufacturing purposes. The principal improvement of any magnitude undertaken by the state, was that of the navigation of the Wisconsin and Fox rivers, under a grant from Congress of about half a million acres of land. The construction of this canal opens steamboat navigation between Lake Michigan, by the way of Green Bay and the Mississippi river, nearly through the centre of the state. There is also the Milwaukee and Mississippi railroad, now constructing. Numerous plankroads from the cities and towns on the lake. run into the interior. The religious statistics may be found in the preceding pages, in the general description of the United States. The state is making provision for an extended system of education. In January, 1850, the common school fund was estimated at $2,280,912, consisting of lands specifically devoted to that object by the constitution. Besides this, all property that may accrue to the state by forfeiture and escheats, proceedss of fines for breaches of the penal laws, and five per cent. of the net proceeds of the sales of the public lands, are made part of the school fund. The constitution also requires that each town shall annually raise, by taxation, for the support of schools, a sum not less than one-half it receives from the school fund. For the year ending September 1, 1849, 1,430 out of 1,780 districts, and 455 parts of districts out of 557, in the state, made reports. In the districts reported, the schools were taught on an average 3.93 months and received $17,313.61 of public money. 32,174 children between the ages of 4 and STATE OF WISCONSIN. 239 20 attended school. Average monthly wages of male teachers, $15.22; of females, $6.92; $12,788.37.37 were expended for teachers' wages, 725 for libraries, and $1,054.89 for other purposes. There were 26 school houses of brick, 25 of stone, 359 of logs, and 294 framed, and all are valued at $75,810.75. The highest valuation of any school house is $5,000, and the lowest 75 cents. There were 94 private or select schools, with an average of 24 pupils, and 2 incorporated academies, the number of pupils in which is not given. Wisconsin has no state debt. The ordinary annual expenses of the government, exclusive of schools, is $20,000. The executive power of the state is vested in a Governor, elected for the term of two years, by the people. He has a qualified veto; overcome by two-thirds of each house. The legislative power is vested in a Senate and Asembly; the members of the Assembly are chosen annually. The number to be not less than 54, nor more than 100. The Senators are chosen for two years. The Judges of the circuit courts are chosen by the people for the term of six years. The elective franchise is conferred upon all white males over 21 years of age, who have resided in the State one year. Indians who are citizens of the United States, or civilized persons of Indian descent, not belonging to any tribe, and who are otheswise qualified, are allowed to vote. Legislature not allowed to create any bankunless a majority of the voters first decide in favor of it; no special acts of incorporation are allowed. Wisconsin originally belonged to the French, and formed part of that vast territory called New France. It was ceded to Great Britain in 1763, and acquired by the United States at the close of the Revolution. Few settlements were made in the territory previous to 1836, when it was erected into a separate territorial government. In 1848, having, after a prolonged opposition, voted itself a constitution, it was admitted into the Union as an independent state. MADISON, the capital, is 150 miles from Chicago, and pleasantly situated on a peninsula between the two lakes, on a gentle swell of ground, from which there is a regular descent to the water. It is well laid out, the streets crossing each other at right angles, and having in their center a large square, in the middle of which is the State House, a handsome stone edifice. Milwaukee is the largest and most important town in the state, whether regarded in its natural or commercial position. It is situated on both sides of the Milwaukee river, near its entrance into Lake Michigan, 90 miles above Chicago, and is a very flourishing city. Previous to 1835, this city was a wilderness; its population in 1850 was 20,026. Constant steam boat communication from Milwaukee to Buffalo and other lake ports, is maintained. Green Bay, on the bay of the same name; Racine and Sheyboygan, on Lake Michigan; Prairie du Chein, on the Mississippi river, are growing towns, and will eventually become important to the commerce of the state. 240 STATE OF KENTUCKY. KENTUCKY. AREA, 37,680 SQUARE mES. POPULATION N 1850, 993,334. This state was formerly a part of Virginia. It is bounded on the north by the Ohio river, which separates it from Ohio, Indiana and Illinois; east by Virginia; south by Tennessee, and west by the Mississippi, which separates it from Missouri. It is 400 miles long from east to west, and 175 broad from north to south. It contains an area of 24,115,200 acres. Cumberland mountains run on the south-east border of the state, and send off spurs which extend into its eastern part, rendering it mountainous. This range divides the state from Virginia. A tract along the Ohio river, from 5 to 20 miles wide, is broken and hilly, extending through the whole length of the state. But the hills are gently rounded, and are fertile to their tops, with narrow valleys between them of great fertility. Along the margin of the Ohio, with an average width of one mile, are bottom lands subject to periodical-inundations.. Between the hilly tract on Ohio river, the mountainous country in the eastern counties, and Green river, is a tract of 100 miles long, an4 50 miles wide, beautifully undulating, with a black and fertile soil, which has been denominated the Garden of Kentucky. The forest growth of this region is black walnut, cherry, honey-locust, buckeye, pawpaw, sugar-maple, elm, ash, hawthorn, coffee-tree, yellow poplar, with an abundance of grape vines of a large size. The country in the south-west part of the state, between Green and Cumberland rivers, has been improperly denominated barrens, as the soil is far from being poor. It is thinly wooded with short oak timber, and is covered, in summer, with a high grass. The whole state, below the mountains, rests on an immense bed of limestone, generally about 8 feet below the surface, in which are frequent apertures, in which the waters of the rivers sink, into the earth, causing the large rivers to be greatly diminished in the summer season, and some of the smaller ones to entirely disappear. In no part of the country do the rivers suffer so great a diminution in the dry season, as in Kentucky. The rivers have generally worn deep channels in the calcareous rocks over which they flow. Stupendous precipices are formed on Kentucky river, where the banks in many places are 300 feet high, of solid limestone, with a steep and elevated ascent above them. In the south-west part of the state, between Green and Cumberland rivers, are several wonderful caves. The Mammoth cave, in Edmondson county, 130 miles from Lexington on the road to Nashville, is one of the most remarkable caves in the world. It has been explored to a grea distance, and is, with good reason, supposed to extend for 8 or 10 miles. The earth at the bottom is strongly impregnated with nitre, which has been, to a considerable extent, manufactured from it. Ohio river winds along the north border of this state for 637 miles. Cumberland river rises in the east part of the state, passes into Tennessee, and, with Tennessee river, crosses the west part of the state, and both enter Ohio river. They are the largest rivers of the state, and among the largest STATE OF KENTUCKY. 241 tributaries of the Ohio. Both are extensively navigable. Cumberland river enters the Ohio 59 miles above the junction of the latter with the Mississippi. Tennessee river enters Ohio river 11i miles below the mouth of Cumberland river. Big Sandy river, for a considerable distance, forms the boundary between this state and Virginia. Kentucky river rises in Cumberland mountains, and, through a deep, rocky bed, enters the Ohio 77 miles above Louisville. It is navigable for steamboats 60 miles to Frankfort. Licking, Salt and Green rivers are extensively navigable, and fall into Ohio river. Mississippi river runs on the west border of the state. Among the mineral productions, iron ore, coal, salt, and lime are abundant. Salt is extensively exported. The greater parts of the exports of this state pass down the Mississippi to New Orleans, and the chief imports are brought in steamboats, through the same river and the Ohio, and its various tributaries in this state. - The climate of this state is generally salubrious. The winters are mild. being only of two or three months' continuance, but the atmosphere is moist. The spring and autumn are delightful. The extremes of heat and cold through the year are less than in some other parts of the country. By the census of 1850 the aggregate population of Kentucky amounted to 993,334. The slave population numbers 211,237. Wheat, tobacco, and hemp, are the staple productions of the state; but Indian corn, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, flax and potatoes, and cotton for domestic use, are extensively cultivated. Apples, pears, peaches, and plums, are the most common fruit. Horses, horned cattle, pork, bacon, and lard are extensively exported. Of the cereal grains, the average crops may be estimated at 6,500,000 bushels of wheat; 20,000 of barley; 15,000,000 of oats; 3,000,000 of rye; 2P,000 of buckwheat, and 65,000,000 of Indian corn. Among the miscellaneous crops, may be reckoned 11,000 tons of hemp; 70,000,000 lbs. of tobacco; 2,000,000 lbs. of cotton; 25,000 lbs. of rice. The principal articles manufactured are hardware, cotton and woollen goods, indigo, tobacco, leather, spirits, &c. The foreign trade of the state is chiefly conducted through other states. Louisville, on the Ohio, is the only port of any consideration. The most important work of internal improvement is the Louisville and Portland canal, 2k miles long, around the rapids in Ohio river. It admits steamboats of the largest class, is 50 feet wide at the surface, is excavated 10 feet deep in a compact limestone, and has an entire lockage of 22 feet. It cost $730,000. The navigation of Kentucky, Green and Licking rivers, has been extensively improved by dams and locks. A railroad extends from Lexington to Frankfort, and is now constructing to Louisville. Several other railroads have been projected. The Regular Baptists are the most numerous religious denomination in Kentucky. In 1850 they had 713 churches, 675 ministers, and 62,598 members. The Methodists had 106 traveling and 235 local preachers, and 29,000 members. The Anti-Mission Baptists had 176 churches and about 7,000 members. The Old and New School Presbyterians number about 10,000 communicants. The Catholics are numerous. The statistics 16 242 STATE OF KENTUCKY. of the other denominations may be found in the general description of the United States. Transylvania University, at Lexington, was founded in 1798, and is a flourishing institution. Centre College, at Danville, was founded in 1822; St. Joseph's College, at Bardstown, (Roman Catholic,) was founded in 1819; Augusta College, at Augusta, (Methodist,) was founded in 1825; Georgetown College, at Georgetown, (Baptist,) was founded in 1829; Bacon College, at Harrodsburg, was founded in 1836; St. Mary's College, Marion county, (Roman Catholic,) was founded in 1837. Transylvania University has a flourishing medical department, and there is a medical institution at Louisville. There are also law schools at the Transylvania University and the University of Louisville. The school fund of the state amounted (Dec. 1849) to $1,299,268.42. The interest on this fund is $66,733.99; three-fourths of which is retained in the treasury, and appropriated by the state to its ordinary expenditures. The following are the school statistics for the year 1849:- 71 counties, and 5 cities and towns made reports. Number of children reported, 87, 498. Average number at school, 42,736. Money distributed among such counties, cities, and towns, $51,040.50; of which $29,166 was from the permanent school fund, and $21,874.50 from the two-cent tax. These statistics embrace only the district schools connected with the state system. The number of children in the state, between the ages of five and sixteen, is 192,990. There is a lunatic asylum at Lexington; a deaf and dumb asylum at Danville, and an institution for the blind at Louisville. The entire funded debt of the state is $4,497,652.81, of which $836, 000 are owing to the school fund. To pay this, the state owns $1,270,500 of bank stock, about 400 miles of turnpike-road stocks, 29 miles of railroad, and 290 miles of slack-water navigation, all of which yield upwards of $100,000 per annum; this, with a portion of the annual taxes, pays the interest on the public debt. Receipts into the treasury for the year ending October 10, 1849, $468,630.19; expenditures for same time, $447,620.64; excess, $21,009.55. Value of taxable property in 1849, $285,085,378. Increase since 1848, $12,237,682. 20,067,352 acres of land were listed for taxation by resident citizens, valued at $135,142,565, which is an average of $6.73 per acre. Number of slaves, 195,110; valued at $62,261,571: 344,478 horses; 44,369 mules. On the 1st of January, 1851, there were 5 banks and 21 branches in the state; aggregate capital, $7,536,927; circulation, 7,643,075; specie, $2,794,3517; loans and discounts, $12,506,305. The present constitution was ratified in 1850. Every white male citizen who has resided in the state two years, and in the county, town or city where he offers to vote, one year, is declared a qualified voter. The senators, 38 in number, are elected for four years; and the representatives, 100 in number, for two years. The sessions are to be biennial. Teachers of religion are ineligible. A governor and lieutenant governor, chosen by a plurality of votes, are elected for four years. The governor may veto a bill, but a majority of all the members elect of each house, may pass it. STATE OF KENTUCKY. 243 The secretary of state is appointed by the governor, and the auditor, treasurer, register and attorney general, are elected by the people. The judges of the court of appeals are elected for eight years by the people. The circuit court judges are elected for six years, and the county court judges for four years. All votes, except by dumb persons, shall be given viva voce, personally and publicly. Duellists are excluded from office. No laws shall be passed for the emancipation of slaves without the consent of their owners, or without paying the owners, prior to emancipation, a full equivalent, and providing for their removal from the state. Owners of slaves may emancipate them, saving the rights of creditors. Immigrants to the state may bring their slaves with them, but slaves shall not be brought into the state as merchandise, nor those imported since Jan. 1, 1789. Masters shall treat their slaves humanely, or the slaves shall be sold. Slaves shall not have the right of an inquest by the grand jury, but shall not be deprived of an impartial trial by a petit jury. Free negroes or mulattoes coming into or refusing to leave the state, are deemed guilty of a felony, and may be sent to the penitentiary. The school fund shall consist of $1,350,491 71, and of such sums as the state may hereafter raise by taxation. It shall be held inviolate, and the income thereof shall be apportioned among the counties in aid of common schools. This state once belonged to Virginia. It was first explored in 1769-70, by Daniel Boone, an enterprising hunter. The first permanent settlement was made in 1774, at Harrodsburg. Until Wayne's treaty in 1795, it was continually exposed to incursions from the Indians. The first newspaper was issued at Lexington, Aug. 18th, 1787. Kentucky became a state and was admitted into the Union in 1792. It was separated from Virginia in 1786, after which it had a territorial government until 1792. FRANKFORT is the state capital. It is situated on the Kentucky river, 60 miles from its mouth, at the base of the lofty hills through which the waters pass. Lat. 38~ 14' N., long. 84~ 40' W. The state-house, built of white marble, is a handsome edifice, and the penitentiary, conducted on the Auburn plan, is a strong and durable structure. Steamboats come up to the city, and keel-boats navigate the river for many miles further. Louisville is the chief commercial city of the state, and lies on the south bank of the Ohio river, immediately above the falls. The canal, from Portland, enables steamboats to come to the wharves. The trade is exten sive and valuable, and manufactures of various descriptions are carried on with great spirit, the facilities afforded by the immense water-power of the region conducing much to the progress of this department of industry, Founderies, steam-bagging factories, cotton and woolen mills, flouring mills, &c., are numerous. The city has many handsome public buildings, and the private residences are comfortable and well built. The population has rapidly increased. In 1800, it amounted to only 600; in 1840, to 21,210, and in 1850, to 50,000. Lexington is the oldest city in Kentucky. It is surrounded by a most beautiful and fertile country. The streets are regularly laid out, and spacious. Some manufactures are carried on, but none of the bustle of commercial cities is observed in this place. The Transylvania University 244 STATE OF MISSOURI. the state lunatic asylum, and several other public buildings, are important adornments to the city. Maysville, on the Ohio, is the commercial depot of the eastern counties, and enjoys an extensive trade. Newport and Covington, on opposite banks of Licking river, are both manufacturing towns. The former has a population of 6,026; the latter 9,600. Harrodsburg, famous for its mineral springs, and the seat of Bacon College; Danville, the seat of Centre College; Bardstown, the seat of St. Joseph's College, and Georgetown of another, both belonging to the Roman Catholics; and Princeton, the seat of Cumberland College, are some of the other most important places in the state. MISSOURI. Ams 67,880 SQUnARE Bmrs. PoPuuxor IN 1850, 681,647. Missouri is bounded on the north by Iowa; on the east by the Missis sippi river, which separates it from Illinois and Kentucky; on the south bthe line of 36~ 30', and on the west by the Indian territory and the Mis souri river. Its length from north to south is 315 miles; breadth, 280 containing 43,123,200 acres..The state presents a variety of surface and of soil. South of cape Girardeau, with the exception of some bluffs along along the Mississippi, it is alluvial, and a large proportion consists of swamps and inundated lands, most of which are heavily timbered. From thence to the Missouri river, and westward to the dividing ridge between Gasconade and Osage rivers, the country is generally covered with timber, rolling, and in some parts quite hilly; but no parts of the state are properly mountainous. Along the head waters of Gasconade and Big Black rivers, the hills are frequently ~abrupt and rocky, with fertile alluvion along the water courses. Much of this region abounds with various minerals, as lead, iron ore, gypsum, manganese, zinc, antimony, cobalt, ochres, common salt, nitre, plumbago, porphyry, jasper, chalcedony, buhrstone, marble and free stone. The lead is inexhaustible in quantity, and rich in quality. The iron ore of this region is sufficient to supply the whole United States for many thousands of years. Bituminous coal exists in exhaustible abundance. The difficulty of transporting these products to the market is the only inconvenience. The western part of this state is divided into prairie and forest land, and much of the soil is fertile. The whole is undulating, and along the Osage it is hilly, abounding with good water, salt springs and limestone. North of the Missouri, the surface is diversified, and divided between timber and prairie land. From the Missouri to Salt river, good springs are scarce, and in several counties artificial wells are dug, to be filled with rain water from the roofs of houses. Between Salt river and Des Moines river is a beautiful country, with a very fertile soil. In the middle counties north of the Missouri the surface is rolling, and there are some bluffs and hills, with considerable good prairie, and much timber. To the west of this, and also to the north, the prairie predominates. Much of the prairie land in this state, is inferior to the same kind of land STATE OF MISSOURI. 245m Illinois. But independently of some barren and inundated land, the state contains a great proportion of fertile soil. Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, hemp, tobacco, flax, sweet potatoes, and in the south-eastern parts cotton, are produced. The forest trees and underwood, black and white, are walnut, oak of various kinds, locust, ash, cotton wood, pawpaw, yellow poplar, sycamore, dog wood, and grape vines. In the southern part of the state cypress and red cedar are found. On Gasconade river, about 100 miles above its confluence with the Missouri, the timber is principally yellow and white pine, which is very valuable, being rare in the valley of the Mississippi. The state is particularly rich in minerals. The lead region, the centre of which is 70 miles south-west of Missouri, is 70 miles long, and 45 wide, covering an area of 3,150 square miles. The greatest part of this country is situated in Washington and St. Francis counties, but a part extends into St. Genevieve and Jefferson counties. The ore is of the richest kind. It yields from 80 to 85 per cent. of the true metal. Iron ore is equally abundant. In the south-east part of Washington county is the celebrated " iron mountain," one mile broad at its base, and three miles long, and from 300 to 450 feet high, filled with micaceous oxide of iron, which yields 80 per cent. of the pure metal. There is another body of iron ore denominated Pilot Knob, 300 feet high, and a mile and a half wide at the base, which is equally rich. Washington county is a perfect bed of metalic treasures. The Mississippi winds along thq entire boundary of the state, for a distance of 400 miles, and receives the waters of the mighty Missouri, which crosses the state, and deserves to be regarded, on account of its length, and the volume of its waters, as the parent stream. The Missouri is navigable 1800 miles from its mouth in the Mississippi, to the mouth of Yellow Stone river, for four or five months in the year. The Missouri receives La Mine, Osage, and Gasconade rivers on the south side, and Grand and Chariton rivers on the north side. Salt river crosses the north-east part of the state and enters Mississippi river, 85 miles above the mouth of Missouri river. Des Moines river forms a part of the north-east boundary of the state. Maramee river rises near the head waters of Gasconade river, and after a devious course north-eastwardly, enters the Mississippi 18 miles below St. Louis. St. Francis, Current, Big Black, and Whitewater rivers drains its south-east part. The climate is healthy, though subject to great extremes of heat and cold. The extreme range of the thermometer is from 1000 above zero to 8~ below. But these extremes are short, and not of frequent occurrence. The Missouri is frozen so hard as to be safely crossed by loaded wagons, for a number of weeks in winter. The air is generally dry, pure and salubrious. The average crops of cereal grains may be estimated at 2,000,000 bushels of wheat; 15,000 of barley; 7,000,000 of oats; 90,000 of rye; 30,000 of buckwheat, and 30,000,000 of Indian corn. Among the miscellaneous crops may be estimated 16,000,000 lbs. of tobacco; 10,000 tons of hemp and 500,000 lbs. of maple sugar. The produce of the manufac turing industry may be estimated at $4,000,000. 246 STATE OF MISSOURI. The imports into Missouri from foreign countries, in 1849, amounted to $130,382. No direct exports are reported. The exports and imports of the state are carried on through the ports of the gulf and Atlantic. St Louis has an extensive commerce. POPULATION-CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES Slaves. Free. Total. Slaves. Free. Tbtal. Adair..................3......53 2298...... 2,351 Lincoln027.......... 2,027 7,395..... 9,422 Andrew............ 661.... 9,484 Lirm................. 80...... 3,680. 4,060 Atchison.... 30...... 1,648. 1,678 ivingston.. 308.,941. 4,249 Audrian.............. 457..... 3,052. 3,508 Macon................ 303...... 6,263. 6,566 Barry................ 150.. 3322. 8,472 McDonald............. 83...... 2,153. 2,236 Bates.......... 141.. 3,528. 3,669 Madison........ 6....... 5,305. 6.009 Benton................ 469.. 4,557.. 5,026 Marion........,. 2,843. 9,398....12,241 Boone................3,666......11.315... 14,981 Mercer,........ 14. 2,676. 2,690 Buchanan..... 902......12074....12,976 Mississippi............ 746...... 2,377.. 3,123 Butler......... 53...... 1,563... 1,616 Moniteau......... 66... 5,439...... 6,005 Caldwell.............. 136...... 2,181.. 2,317 Monroe..........2,048.. 8,495......10,543 Callaway............3,907... 9,931.. 13,828 Morgan........... 453...... 4,195...... 4,648 Camdice and Mller.... 819.. 5,853.. 6,172 Montgomery...........1,037...... 4,452...... 6,489 Cape Girardeau........ 1,675....12,241... 13,916 New Madrid...... 1,173. 4,060...... 5,233 Carroll................. 621... 4,827.. 5,448 Newton.......... 241.. 4,029..... 4,270 Cass................... 478... 6,612.. 6,090 Nodaway... 70...... 2,048...... 2,118 Cedar................. 82... 8,278.. 3,360 Oregon............... 18...... 1,414...... 1,432 Chariton............. 1,786... 5,765... 7,650 Osage................. 271...... 6,434...... 6,706 Clark.............. 504...5,023... 5527 Perry... 793. 6,427...... 7,220 Clay............. 2,742... 7,590. 10,332 Pettus................ 884. 4,259...... 5,143 Clinton............. 439... 3,347... 8,786 Pike... 3,275.10,334......13,609 Cole.1,037.. 5,717.. 6,754 Platte............ -,2,798......14,131......16,929 Cooper......... 3,100..... 9,868. 12,968 Polk................ 868...... 6,817. 6;185 Crawford............. 285.. 6,112.. 6,397 Pulaski............... 113...... 3,897..... 4,010 Dade................. 269.. 3,978.. 4,247 Rals......,1,368.. 4783. 6,1 Dallas................ 88.. 3,560. 3,648 Randolph,........ 2,156. 7,284.. 9,440 Davis and Harrison.... 254.. 7,487. 7,741 Bay....... 1,616.. 8,886.. 10,402 De Kalb............... 65.. 2,010. 2,075 Reynolds....... 26.. 1,824.. 1,849 Dodge and Putnam.... 21..... 1,985.. 2,006 Ripley................ 86.. 2,744.... 2,830 Durklin.............. 16. 1,217 1,232 St. Charles....... 1,949.. 9,505......11,454 Franklin.............. 1,460...... 9,562. 11,022 St. Clair.......448.. 3,108...... 3,556 Gasconade............ 114..... 4,886. 5,000 St. Francois....1,321...... 4,285..... 5,606 G(entry............ 50.... 4,197.. 4,247 St. Genivieve........ 616.. 4,699.. 5,315 Greene............... 1,233.....11,776. 13,009 St. Louis county....... 3,311... 23,808... 27,121 arundy................. 149..... 2,856. 3,005 St. Louis city... 2,656......75,289...... 77,935 Henry....672.....,380. 4,052 Saline...... 42,719.. 6,124.. 8,843 Hickory.............. 185.... 2145. 2,330 Schuyler..... 55. 3,232.. 3,287 Holt.................. 127..... 3,828.. 83,955 Scott.................. 393. 2,789...... 3,182 Howard............... 4,891..... 9,080.. 13,971 Shannon. 9 1,193. 1,202 Jackson............... 2,970..... 11,031. 14,001 Shelby.......... 498. 3,754. 4,252 asper................ 213... 4,010.. 4,223 Stoddard.............. 9...... 4,289 Jefferso]8 n.......................512. 6,416.. 6,, 928.............ullivan.... 98...... 2,895... 2,933 Johnson............. 879...... 74064 Taney8.................... 4,375 Knox and Scotland..... 417...... 6,263. 6,680 Texas................. 42. 2,271.. 2,313 Lacede and Ozark..... 155...... 4,639 4,794 Warren......... 935...... 4,926.. 5,861 Lafiyette.....,614. 9,077.:13,691 Washington.......1,077. 7,738.. 8,815 Lawrence...............249.. 4,602. 481 Wayne........ 260.. 4,158...... 4,418 Lewis............1,205.. 5,372. ~ 6,577 Wright............. 82. 3,305...... 3,387 The principal educational establishments in Missouri are the University of St. Louis, founded by the Catholics in 1832; St. Vincent's, at cape Girardeau founded in 1843; Missouri, founded in 1831; Missouri University, at Columbia, the St. Charles, and Fayette. There are medical schools attached to the Universities at St. Louis and Columbia. In 1850 the Baptists had 370 churches, 194 ministers, and 19,523 members. The Methodist Episcopal church had 102 preachers, and 3,591 members. The Methodist Episcopal church south, had 144 preachers and 12,496 members. The Old School Presbyterians had 78 churches and 4,237 communicants. The New School Presbyterians had 50 churches and and 1,832 communicants. In the archdiocese of St. Louis, are 56 Catholic churches. Further statistics of the religious denominations may be found in the general tables. On the 1st of January, 1851, there was one bank with five branches in STATE OF MISSOURI. 247 the state. Capital $1,209,131; circulation, $2,522,500; specie, $1,198, 268; loans and discounts, $3,533,366. The amount of the state debt is $684.997; the annual interest, $73,000. The ordinary annual expenditures of the government, exclusive of debts and schools, is $110,000. The school fund amounts to $575,668. The Governor is elected once in four years by the people, but is ineligible for the next succeeding four years. He must be a natural born citizen of the United States, be at least 35 years of age, and have resided in the state for four years next preceding his election. The Lieutenant Governor is elected at the same time, in the same manner, and must possess similar qualifications. He is President of the Senate; and in case of the death, resignation, or removal from office of the Governor, discharges the duties of that office until it is regularly filled. They are elected by a plurality of votes. The Senate consists of 18 members, chosen for four years; one-half the number being elected biennially. A Senator must be at least 30 years of age, a citizen of the United States, have resided in the state for four years next preceding his election, and for one year in the district for which he is elected, and must have paid a state or county tax. The House of Representatives consists of 49 members, elected biennially by the people. A Representative must be at least 24 years of age, have oeen an inhabitant of the state for two years next preceding his election, and have paid a State or county tax, and be a citizen of the United States. The Governor, with the advice and consent of the Senate, appoints the Judges of the Superior and Inferior Courts, and the Chancellor, who hold their offices during good behavior. They cannot be appointed before they have attained the age of 30 years, nor hold their offices after the age of 65 years. The constitution of Missouri is amendable by a two-thirds vote, in two consecutive legislatures, upon the proposition; and amendments have been once voted upon favorably to elect all the Judges by the people of the dis tricts, and the proposition will probably be adopted with great unanimity. Every white male citizen of 21 years of age or upward, who has resided in the state for one year next previous to an election, and the last three months in the district in which he offers his vote, is entitled to the light of suffrage. The General Assembly meets biennially at Jefferson City, on the first Monday of December. The territory of the state was included in Louisiana, purchased by the United States of France, in 1803. The town of St. Louis was settled by the French in 1764, as a trading port with the Indians, and remained such until it was purchased by the United States. In 1804, Louisiana was divided into the territory of Orleans, extending to the 33~ of N. lat., and the residue was styled the territory of Louisiana. In 1805 the district of Louisiana was erected into a territorial government, under the name of the territory of Louisiana, and in 1812 its name was changed to the territory of Missouri. In 1821 a part of this territory was admitted into the Union as the State of Missouri, after much debate on the subject of slavery, which was allowed by its constitution, under certain restrictions. The 248 STATB OF MISSOURI. remaining portions of the territory have become the States of Arkansas and Iowa. JEFFERSON CITY is the capital of the state, and is situated on the south bank of the Missouri river, near the centre of the state, lat. 38~ 36' north, and long. 920 8' west. The public buildings of the state are here located. St. Louis is the commercial emporium of the State. It is situated on the Mississippi 20 miles below the mouth of the Missouri, and 1200 miles above New Orleans. The site is elevated many feet above the floods of the Mississippi, and is protected from them by a limestone bank, which extends nearly 2 miles; an advantage rarely enjoyed on the Mississippi, which is generally bounded by high perpendicular rocks, or a loose alluvial soil. This spot has an abrupt acclivity from the river to the first bottom, and a gradual one from it to the second bottom. The first bank presents a view of the river, being elevated 20 feet above the highest water; the second bank is 40 feet higher than the first, and affords a fine view of the city, river, and surrounding country,, and contains the finest residences. The place was originally laid out on the first bank, and consisted of three narrow streets running parallel with the river. Fortications were erected on the second bank, as a defence against the savages. Soon after the Ameri. can emigration commenced, additional streets were laid out back of the first, on the second bottom, which is a beautiful plain, and these streets are wide and airy. The whole length of the place extends in a right line 51 miles, and by the curve of the river 6a miles. Its breadth may ultimately extend 6 miles back from the river. The thickly settled parts are confined within much narrower limits. Front street is open on the side toward the river, and on the other side is a range of warehouses, which have a very commanding appearance, and are the seat of a heavy business. In First street the wholesale and retail drygoods stores are located; and in the streets immediately back of this are the artizans and tradesmen. It contains many neat, and some elegant buildings. The more recent housesare built of brick, of an excellent quality, made in the vicinity; some are of stone quarried on the spot, and are generally whitewashed. Many of the residences, particularly in the back parts of the place, have spacious and beautiful gardens attached to them. Among the public buildings of the city, the city hall is a splendid edifice of brick, the basement of which is occupied as a market, at the foot of market street, on a square reserved for the purpose. The courthouse is in the centre of a public square near the middle of the city; the Presbyterian church occupies an eligible site on the high ground of the city, and is a large and well finished building, surrounded with ornamental trees, which are carefully pruned. The Unitarians have a large church of tasteful architecture. The Roman Catholic cathedral is a large and splendid edifice, 136 feet long, 58 feet wide, the walls of which are 40 feet high, above which the tower of the steeple rises 20 feet square to the height of 40 feet; surmounted by an octagon spire covered with tin, crowned with a brass gilt ball 5 feet in diameter, above which is a gilt brass cross 10 feet high. In the steeple is a peal of six bells, the three largest of which weigh from 1600 to 2600 pounds each. The front of the building is of polished freestone, with a portico of four massive Doric columns. The interior is splendidly finished and furnished, and contains several elegant paintings of STATE OF MISSOURI. 249 celebrated masters. There are several literary and benevolent institutions in the city. The St. Louis University is under the direction of the Roman Catholics, was founded in 1832. It has a spacious building 4 miles north of the city, which cost $30,000, which has extensive grounds around it. Its medical department is within the city, and has a building with a hall for lectures, a chemical laboratory, &c. which will accommodate 400 students. The Western Academy of Sciences has an extensive museum of natural history, mineralogy, &c. There is also a museum containing many Indian antiquities, fossil remains, and other curiosities. The Convent of the Sa, cred Heart is an institution of Nuns, for conducting female education. The Protestant ladies conduct an orphan asylum; and there is a Roman Catholic orphan asylum, conducted by the Sisters of Charity, who also minister in the St. Louis hospital. The United States Arsenal is in the southern limits of the city. Jefferson United States Barracks are on the bank of the Mississippi, 10 miles below the city, and can accommodate about 700 men. The city is supplied with water raised by steam power from the Mississippi to a reservoir on an elevated ancient mound, whence it is distributed in iron pipes over the city. The country for 15 miles west of the city con sists of a very fertile prairie. Chontrau's pond, in the upper part of the city, is a beautiful sheet of water, fed almost entirely by pure springs, and has an outlet into Mississippi river. The city is admirably situated for commerce, and already surpasses in ifs trade every other place on the river north of New Orleans. The Mississippi and Illinois to the north; the Ohio and its tributaries to the southeast, and the Missouri to the west, afford i* a ready access to a vast extent of country; while to the south the Mississippi furnishes an outlet to the ocean for its accumulated productions. It is the principal depot for the Amerirican Fur Company, who have a large establishment with 1,000 men in their employ. A vat amount of furs is here collected; and 10,000 dried buffalo tongues have been brought in in a single year. Numerous steamboats ply from this place in various directions; and several cross the Mississippi as ferry boats. The landing is good at South St. Louis, on a bold rocky shore, where there is sufficient depth of water for boats of the largest class. St. Louis was first settled in 1664 by a company of merchants, to whom M. DI'Abbadie, the Director General of Louisiana, had given an, exclusive grant for the commerce with the Indian nations on the Missouri. The company built a large house and four stores here; and in 1770, there were 40 private houses, and as many families, and a small French garrison. In 1780, an expedition was fitted out at Michilimacinac, consisting of 140 British and 500 Indians, for the capture of St. Louis and other places on the west side of the Mississippi, which was successfully repelled by the aid of the American force under Gen. George Rogers Clark, who proceeded from their encampment on the opposite side of the river. In May, 1821, the place contained 651 dwellings, and the population was 5,600. No inland town in the world is more favorably situated for commerce than St. Louis. It is the natural depot of the vast and fertile regions watered by the Missouri, the upper Mississippi, the Illinois and their numerous tributa, ries, it is rapidly increasing in population and importance, and is destined to be one of the principal cities of the west. 250 STATE OF IOWA. St. Genevive, on the Mississippi, 64 miles below St. Louis, was settled by the French, and has considerable trade, particularly in lead. Potosi, in the mining district, is a flourishing town. Herculaneum is environed by bluffs, which are surmounted by shot towers, and is the principal place of of deposite for the lead mines. It is on the Mississippi, 30 miles below St. Louis. New Madrid is the most noted landing place for boats, above Natchez, and Clarksville and Hannibal are noted landing places above St. Louis. St. Charles, on the Missouri, 20 miles above St. Louis, is a flourishing place, and was the capital of the state until October, 1826. Booneville, Lexington, Liberty and Independence, are growing places in the west part of the state. IOWA. AmA, 50,914 SqUAR ManEs. POPULSTION m 1850, 192,974. This large and fertile state is bounded on the north and west by the Westeri Territories; east by the Mississippi river, which separates it from Wisconsin and Illinois; and south by the state of Missouri and the lower course of the Des Moines river. It is 270 miles long, and about 200 miles in breadth, having an area of 32,584,960 acres. The surface is moderately undulating, without mountains or high hills, except in the north part, where art hills of considerable height. On the margins of the rivers are frequent ranges of bluffs, intersected by ravines. These bluffs are generally from 40 to 130 feet high, where a table-land usually commences, consisting of gently undulating timber land and prairie. The state is well watered by rivers and creeks, the margins of which are skirted with a rich bottom land, and covered with timber. Probably nearly three-fourths of the state is destitute of trees, but the streams and timber are so happily diffused, that this circumstance occasions no great inconvenience. Some of the prairies have a level, others a rolling surface; some are covered with a rich coat of natural grass, affording excellent subsistence for cattle, and are frequently interspersed with hazel thickets and sassafras shrubs, and, in the groper season, superbly decorated with flowers. The soil, both on the bottom land and on the prairies, iA generally good; the former consists of deep black mold, and in the latter it is intermingled with sandy loam, and sometimes with red clay and gravel. The soil on the high and rolling prairies will average from 18 to 24 inches deep, and on the bottom lands from 24 to 48 inches deep, and could not be exhausted by 100 years of successive cultivation. The productions of the soil are Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, pumpkins, melons, and all kinds of garden vegetables. The climate and soil are particularly favorable to the cultivation of fruit; and crab-apples, wild plums, strawberries, and grapes, are indigenous and abundant. The ordinary yield of Indian corn is from 50 to 75 bushels to the acre; and of wheat from 30 to 35 bushels. Good wells are generally obtained at the depth of from 25 to 30 feet. STATE OF IOWA. 251 The bottom lands on the rivers, which are occasionally overflowed, are subject to bilious complaints, fevers, and agues; but, as the rivers are not sluggish, their borders are less unhealthy than in many portions of the west. With this exception, the climate is healthy. The winter commences in December and ends in March. The summers are warm without being oppressively hot, and are refreshed by frequent showers. The Mississippi river borders the east of this state, and is navigable for the entire distance. The Des Moines waters the southern section of the country, and falls into the Mississippi, after forming, for some distance, the south-western boundary of the state. It is navigable for 100 miles from its mouth. The Iowa river, a navigable stream, also traverses a large portion of the state. Besides these, there are numerous minor rivers and streams falling into either the Missouri or Mississippi, and which are highly beneficial to the fertility and productiveness of the land, as well as being available for transportation and internal communication. Iowa is rich in minerals. Iron ore is abundant; and lead is found in inexhaustible quantities. Zinc occurs in fissures along with the lead. "Ten thousand miners," says Dr. Owen, "would find profitable employment within the confines of the state." Of wild animals, there are several species. The buffalo, which formerly roamed over the flowery prairies, is now almost extinct; and the elk, though much diminished in numbers, is still hunted in the recesses of the state. Panthers and ld-cats are sometimes seen, and the grey wolf still lurks about the remote settlements. The common prairie wolf is a denizen of these regions, and proves mischievous among the sheep and hogs. In the wooded districts the black bear is found. Foxes, raccoons, opossums, gophars, porcupines, and squirrels of various kinds, are also numerous. The otter and bear still inhabit the unsettled parts about the rivers and lakes. Deer are also quite numerous-the flesh affording food and the skins clothing to the pioneer of the wilderness. The musk-rat is found in every part of the state, and common rabbits abound. The wild turkey is found in numerous flocks; prairie hens, grouse, partridge, wood-cocks, &c., are abundant. Geese, ducks, loons, pelicans, plovers, snipes, &c., are among the aquatic birds that visit the rivers, lakes, and sluices. Bees swarm in the forests; the rivers and creeks abound with excellent fish; and the insect tribes, varied and beautiful, add a gaudiness to the scene. Iowa is now rapidly progressing in population, and the emigration from Europe has been immense. The population, which, in 1840, was 43,112, has now increased to 192,974. POPULATION -CENSUS OF 1850, BY COUNTIES. Allamakee......... 707 Des Moines.......12,915 Keokuk......... 4,082 Polk.............. 4,444 Appanoose...... 3,131 Dallas........... 812 Lee......... 18,783 Page............. 551 Benton............ 678 Dubuque..... 10,841 Louisa......... 4,962 Scott..... 5,987 Blackhawk....... 185 Fremont and Ring- LTnn...........,414 Story...... 42 Buchanan........... 519 gold..... 1,349 Lucas............ 471 Taylor............. 204 Boone.............. 756 Fayette..... 82 Maion...... 5,501 Tama............. 8 Cedar............8,941 Henry....... 8,707 Monroe.......... 2,886 Van Buren....12,268 Clinton....... 2,835 Iowa...... 822 Mahaska......... 5,986 Wapello........... 8,468 Clark............... 83 Jackson....... 7,210 Madison.. 1,179 Warren... 948 Clayton..........,878 Jefferson.........10,997 Muscatine.... 5,733... Wayne........ 40 Decatur.....,,. 965 Jones............ 8,007 Marshall..........88 Winnesheik........ 46 Delaware..... 1,759 Johnson......... 4,472 Powesheik........ 651 Washington....... 4,719 Davis..7.. 264 Jasper......... 1,287 Pottawattamie.... 7,738 252 STATE OF IOWA. The agricultural productions of Iowa are similar to those of the western states generally. The average crops of cereal grains are estimated at 1,500,000 bushels of wheat; 40,000 of barley; 1,500,000 of oats; 15,000 of rye; 30,000 of buckwheat; and 4,000,000 of corn. The report of the state auditor sets forth the value of the real and personal estate assessed in the year 1850: There were 3,752,168 acres of land, valued, with improvements, at $13,227,483; value of town lots with improvements, $3,640,546; value of capital employed in merchandise, $887,237; value of mills, manufactures, &c., $432,830. There were 38,585 horses, valued at $1,460,474; neat cattle, 99,406, valued at $1,106,055; sheep, 140,599, valued at $155,765; hogs, 206,452, valued at $202,897. The horses and neat cattle over two years old, and the sheep and swine over six months old, only, are enumerated. Total valuation of taxable property, $22,623,000. Tax for state purposes, 2& mills on the dollar. The position of Iowa, and its intersection by fine streams flowing into the Mississippi, will contribute to elevate it to some consideration as a commercial state. As yet it enjoys no direct foreign commerce, nor is it probable that any great amount will ever centre here. It will, however, gradually become a great market for the manufactures of other countries, and the more eastern states; and as the wants of the people become more extended, the rivers will be burthened with valuable freights, and steam navigation penetrate to the most remote districts of the country, carrying along with them the civilizing power of commercial intercourse and friendly greeting. The value of the productive property held by the state is $11,277,139. The absolute state debt is- $55,000, on which the interest is $5,500 per annum. The revenue is derived from taxes upon real and personal property. The expenditures are the salaries of state officers and court expenses, and for the year ending November 30, 1848, were: For the legislature, $10,181; executive, $2,500; judiciary, $7,020.92; public buildings at Iowa City, $3,200; interest, $2,552.37; miscellaneous, $7,059.45. Total, $32,514.74. As the sessions of the legislature are biennial, the ordinary annual expenditure, exclusive of debts and schools, is about $19,000. It is provided by the constitution, that a superintendent of public instruction shall be chosen by the people for three years, and that all lands granted by congress to this state, all escheated estates, and such per cent. as may be granted by congress on the sale of the public lands in Iowa, shall constitute a perpetual fund, the interest of which, and the rents of the unsold lands, shall be applied to the support of common schools. The assembly shall provide for a school in each school district, for at least three months in each year; and all moneys received for exemption from military duty, and for fines imposed by the courts, shall be appropriated to support such schools, or the establishment of school libraries. The money arising from the lease or sale of public lands granted for the support of a university, shall remain a perpetual fund to maintain such an institution. Permanent school fund, $132,908.52. STATE OF TENESSEE. 253 The statistics of the religious denominations of the state are. given in the preceding pages. The constitution of Iowa provides that every adult white male citizen - idiots, insane, and persons convicted of infamous crimes, excepted —and who has resided in the state six months, and in the county in which he offers his vote, shall enjoy suffrage. The general assembly consists of a senate and house of representatives, and holds its sessions biennially, commencing on the first Monday in December. The representatives must be at least 21 years of age, and have resided-in the state one year, and in the district one month previous to election; senators must be 25 years of age: one half their number being elected biennially. The governor is chosen by a plurality of all the votes, for four years; he must be at least 30 years old, and have resided in the state two years next preceding his election. In case of the death or disability of the governor, the secretary of state is invested with his powers. A secretary of state, auditor and treasurer, are chosen by the people for the term of two years;- and a superintendent of public instruction, for three years. The judiciary consists of a supreme court and circuit courts. The supreme court consists of a chief justice and two associate justices, elected by the joint vote of the general assembly, for six years. This court has only appellate jurisdiction, and the power to correct errors in law. The judges of the lower courts are elected by the voters of each district, for five years. There are also county courts and justices of the peace. Several provisions are made against debt-contracting, slavery, duelling, &c. IOWA CITY is the capital, and seat of government. It is situated on the east side of the Iowa river, which is navigable at all seasons for keel-boats. This place was the hunting-ground of the Indian until 1839. The location is beautiful, rising on a succession of plateaux, or elevated terraces, overlooking a splendid country. The capitol is in the Grecian Doric style of architecture, measuring 120 feet long and 60 feet wide, and is two stories high above the basement. It is surmounted by a dome supported by 22 Corinthian columns. The present population is about 3,000, and is daily increasing from the influx of emigrants. Dubuque, Burlington, &c., are also places of considerable population and trade. There is a Quaker settlement at Salem, in Henry county, which is said to be in a very flourishing condition. - TENNESSEE. AIA, 44,000 sqvUARE ML. POPULATION I8, 1, 1,00000. Tennessee is bounded on the north by Kentucky and Virginia; east by North Carolina, from which it is separated by the Smoky mountains; on the south by Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi; and on the west by Arkansas and Missouri, from which it is divided by the Mississippi river. Its extreme length is 440 miles,, and its breadth, 116. Area, 28,160,000 acres. It has a total population of 1,050,000. Slave populatien, 250,000. 254 STATE OF TENNESSEE. Cumberland mountains run through the state in the direction of northeast and south-west, dividing it into what has been called East and West Tennessee. Since the purchase, in 1818, of all the territory between the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers, this portion of the state has been denominated the Western District; so that the whole territory is now divided into Eastern, Middle, and Western Tennessee. In eastern Tennessee the country is mountainous, having many branches of the Alleghanies, the most elevated of which are Cumberland and Laurel mountains. This district, although sufficiently fertile for ordinary farming, can never vie with the middle and western sections in profitable agriculture. With this exception, it yields most other vegetable productions of the states, and its vast water-power fits it for a manufacturing region. Middle Tennessee is comparatively a level country, though it has some ranges of hills. A large portion of the lands are fertile, and lie well for cultivation. Western Tennessee presents generally an undulating surface and a light and sandy soil, well adapted to the growth of cotton, which is here the great staple. The soil of the state is various, but generally fertile; and even the mountainous region in the east part, though not generally very productive, has, among its mountains, fertile valleys. On the eastern boundary is a chain of mountains denominated, in its different parts, Unka, Iron, Smoky and Bald mountains, which constitute a continuous range. None of the mountains of Tennessee are over 2000 feet high, and they are generally wooded to their tops, though in some instances too rough for cultivation. Iron ore is found in nearly every county in Eastern and Middle Tennessee, and in many places it is wrought, furnishing iron equal in quality to any in the country. Fine beds of mineral coal are also found in this region. Buhr and other mill-stone, grist, marble, rock crystals, gypsum, paints and dye-stuffs, salts and nitrous earths, may be procured in any quantities in the mountainous districts; and there are numerous fine mineral springs. On the borders of Georgia and North Carolina some gold has been found, and a beautiful variegated marble near Nashville. All the forest trees common in the western country are found in this state. Juniper, red cedar and pine exist in various places. Beautiful groves of pine abound in the mountains, and spirits of turpentine, tar, rosin and lampblack are manufactured in considerable quantities. The mulberry tree flourishes, and silk may become a considerable article of production. The vine is cultivated and flourishes, and peach trees do well if they escape the late frosts. Taken as a whole, cotton in Middle and Western Tennessee is, unquestionably, the staple production; but tobacco, wheat and Indian corn are largely raised. Whiskey, hogs, horses, cattle, flour, gunpowder, saltpetre, coarse linen, poultry, bacon, lard, butter,- apples, pork, tobacco, Irish and sweet potatoes, tar, turpentine, rosin and lampblack, constitute the loading of boats for the southern market. In East Tennessee, cattle, horses and hogs are driven over the mountains to an eastern market. The climate is mild and generally healthy. The winter in Tennessee resembles the spring in New England. Snow seldom falls to a greater depth than 10 inches, or lies longer than ten days. Cumberland river has been frozen over but three or four times since the first settlement of the STATE OF TENNESSEE. 255 country. On some low grounds in the western parts of the state, the inhabitants are subject to bilious fevers and fever and ague in the autumn. The usual route -to market is down the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers to the Ohio, and thence down the Mississippi to New Orleans. Foreign goods come extensively from the coast, through Pittsburgh, and also from New Orleans, through the Mississippi and its tributary waters.' Tennessee river has its chief course in this state, though it rises in Virginia, runs extensively in Alabama, and enters the Ohio in Kentucky. It is 1200 miles long, is navigable for steamboats to Florence, 259 miles from its mouth, and for boats more than 250 miles farther. Cumberland river rises in Kentucky, but has its course chiefly in Tennessee. It is navigable for steamboats 120 miles, to Nashville, and for boats 300 miles farther. It enters the Ohio in Kentucky, 59 miles from its mouth in the Mississippi. The Holston, Clinch, French, Broad and Highwassee, are branches of Tennessee river. Obion, Forked Deer and Wolf rivers, in the western part of the state, flow into Mississippi river, and are navigable for boats. Like the State of Kentucky, Tennessee has numerous caves of great extent, some of which contain human skeletons and the bones of various animals. One cave has been explored to the distance of ten miles. It contains many vaulted compartments, glittering with stalactites, and when viewed by torchlight, the scene is most magnificent. Petrifactions of various kinds are found in many places. Petrified trees and animals are abundant; and among these are the bones of the mastodon, and the organic remains of animals long since extinct. In the Cumberland mountains are some very singular impressions of the feet of men, horses and other animals, as distinctly marked in the solid limestone as if made on moist clay. For manufacturing purposes, the immense water-power of the state is becoming developed by artificial improvements, and the erection of factories and mills on the courses of the streams. Agriculture is the most extensive employment of the people, and the productions are various and abundant. The average crops of the cereal grains are estimated at 10,000,000 bushels of wheat; 7,000 of barley; 11,000,000 of oats; 400,000 of rye; and 75,000,000 of corn. The cotton crop is estimated at 35,000,000 lbs.; tobacco, 35,000,000 lbs.; rice, 12,000 lbs. The direct foreign commerce of the state is necessarily very limited; but her exports and imports to and from the cities on the gulf and Atlantic are immense. On the 1st of January, 1851, there were in the state four banks and nineteen branches, with an aggregate capital of $6,881,568; circulation, $6,814,376; specie, $1,456,778; loans and discounts, $10,992,139. The condition of the finances of the state, in October, 1849, is as follows: total receipts for two years, $790,693; expenditures, $802,436. The amount of productive property held by the state, in 1850, was $4,894,922.55. he state debt amounts to $3,352,856.66, and the annual interest on it is $179,176.37. The amount of school fund owned by the state, $1,321,655. Ordinary annual expenditures, exclusive of debts and schools, $290,000. Several works of internal improvement have been effected in the state. 256 STATE OF TENNESSEE. A railroad is now progressing from Memphis to the Tennesssee river. Somerville branch extends 16 miles from the main road at Moscow. The Hiwassee railroad from Knoxville, 100 miles to the Georgia line, unites with the Western and Atlantic railroad. The Atlantic and Western road is intended to pass through this state and Kentucky to a point on the Ohio river. There are eight universities and colleges in Tennessse. The statistics of these institutions are given in the list of colleges in the United States. There is a medical college at Memphis. The state's portion of the proceeds of the sales of public lands is devoted to education. The Methodists, Baptists and Presbyterians are the most numerous sects. The ecclesiastical statistics of the state may be seen in the general summary of religious denominations in the United States. The constitution of Tennessee, in 1834, underwent a thorough revision. Every free white citizen of the United States, 21 years of age, and who has resided in the county where he offers his vote six months, is eligible to vote at all elections. Every man is considered white who is a competent witness, in court, against a white man. All free colored men are exempt from military duty in time of peace, and from poll taxes. The government consists of an executive, legislature, and judiciary. The executive is vested in a governor, who must be at least 30 years of age, a citizen of the state of at least seven years' standing; he is elected by a plurality of votes, for two years. The senators must be 30 years of age, and the representatives at least 21 years of age. Any qualified voter is eligible to these offices. The general elections take place biennially, on the first Tuesday in August, and the sessions (every second year) commence on the first Monday of October. No person, who denies the being of a God, or a future state of rewards and punishments, can hold any civil office. The judiciary consists of the supreme court, with three judges, one for each district, who are appointed by joint ballot of the legislature for 12 years; a court of chancery, with four chancellors, one for each judicial division; circuit courts, with 14 judges: one for each circuit; and the criminal court of Davidson county, and the commercial and criminal courts of Shelby county. All judges have a fixed compensation, unalterable duing their tenure of office. Justices of the peace are elected in districts, for six years. The constitution forbids lotteries, and the sale of lottery tickets; and the emancipation of slaves by the legislature, without the consent of the owners. Tennessee was originally included in North Carolina. Fort Loudon was built in 1757, on the Little Tennessee river; but in 1760, the garrison and settlers were massacred by the Cherokees. The next attempt at settling was made in Carter's Valley; but the first permanent settlement was effected in 1768, by immigrants from Virginia. In 1776, the boundaries of the territory were settled by North Carolina and Virginia; and, in 1784, the territory was ceded, conditionally, by North Carolina to the United States; and the same year the act of cession was repeated, when a portion of the people announced themselves independent of North Carolina, and prepared a constitution for a state government, which caused much confusion. In 1789, the legislature of North Carolina required their senators STATE OF ALABAMA. 257 in congress to execute deeds for the cession of the territory, which waa accordingly complied with in 1790, and a territorial government erected. In 1796, the territory was admitted into the Union, and a state constitution adopted. The early history of Tennessee is marked with wars and contentions between the whites and Cherokees, and Creek Indians: NASHVILLE, the capital, is the largest city, and enjoys an extensive commerce. It is situated in Davidson county, on the south bank of the Cumberland river, 122 miles from its mouth. This city is rapidly increasing, and at the present day probably numbers at least 20,000. Latitude 36~ 9' 33" north, and longitude 86~ 49' 3" west. It is the seat of the University of Tennessee. Nashville is named in honor of General Nash, who fell at the battle of Germantown, 1776. The city is built on an elevated and uneven site, but the streets are laid out in regular squares, lined with handsome buildings, occupied as stores and private dwellings. The public buildings are the state house, market, lunatic asylum, penitentiary, three banks, 13 churches, the University buildings, various school houses, &c. Water is supplied to the city from Cumberland river, being raised by steam machinery into a reservoir, 66 feet above high water mark. Numerous steamboats ply to and from Nashville. Clarkesville, on the north bank of the river, below Nashville, is a flourishing town. Lebanon, the capital of Wilson county, is the seat of Cumberland University. Franklin, south of Nashville, is a considerable village, and carries on some important mrnufactures. It is the seat of a college. Knoxville, on the north bank of the Holston river, was.formerly the seat of government, and a town of some consideration. East Tennessee college is located here. The Hiwassee railroad terminates at this city. The vicinity is thickly settled, and a number of large villages occupy the surrounding country. Fayetteville, at the head of navigation on the Elk river, is a considerable village. Chattanooga, on the south bank of the Tennessee, and the present terminus of the Western and Atlantic railroad, is a thriving place; and Savannah, Perrysburg and Reynoldsburg, also on the same river, are important towns. On the Mississippi river Memphis is the largest city, and has an extensive commerce. It is in contemplation to connect Memphis with Charleston, S. C., by railroad. ALABAMA. AazA, 60,722 squAzI MAiru. PoPuATixoN uw 1850, 770,000. Alabama is bounded north by Tennessee; east by Georgia; south by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and west by Mississippi. Its length is 325 miles; breadth 200. Area, 32,462,080 acres. The northern districts of this state are mountainous, being crossed from east to west by the south-western extremity of the Alleghanies. In the south the country is generally level. The two divisions differ essentially in soil, climate and natural productions. The north has a fine fertile soil, 17 258 STATE OF'ALABAMA. and the mountains and hills are covered with immense forests of oak, hickory, ash, elm, cedar and poplar. The central region is comparatively sterile, and covered with pine. Forests of cypress, gum, swamp-oak, holly and live-oak diversify the south, and the soil is rich and deep, and peculiarly well adapted to the growth of cotton, sugar, rice, and tobacco. Here groves of orange trees, the lemon, and a variety of fruit trees flourish lux uriantly, and afford in their shade seclusion from the burning sun, which in summer is oppressive and powerful. The climate in the northern district resembles that of the middle states, and here the seasons are well marked, but never severe. In the south, snow and ice are seldom seen, and the seasons are only diversified by small extremes. The state is traversed by several fine rivers. The Tennessee passes through the northern sections, draining in its course all the country north of the mountains. The southern parts are drained by the tributaries of the Alabama and Tombigbee, which unite about latitude 31~ N., and form the Mobile, which, after a short course, falls into Mobile Bay, an arm of the Gulf of Mexico. The Alabama is formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, which rise in Georgia, and running west, unite in 320 30' N. lat. It is navigable for steam-vessels to the junction, But neither the Coosa nor Tallapoosa are navigable for a great distance except by flat-bottom boats. The Cahawba falls into the Alabama at the town of the same name. The Tombigbee, the western branch of the Mobile, rises in the State of Mississippi, and pursues a southerly course of nearly 500 miles, before it joins the Alabama. It receives many fine streams, and is navigable to Columbus, in Mississippi. The Black Warrior, one of its tributaries, is navigable for boats nearly to its source. This river is of importance, because it will probably become the channel of communication between the immense fertile country in the northern part of the state, and the sea-ports on Mobile Bay. The Chattahouchee, which lies on the eastern line of the State, is navigable for steamboats to Columbus, Georgia, and by river craft nearly to its source. The Perdido separates the parts south of 31~ N. lat. from Florida. The Bay of Mobile, which receives the main body of the waters of the state, is 30 miles long, and 12 miles broad, and affords some of the best harbors on the gulf of Mexico. It is of a triangular shape, having its base on the south, half of which consists of a narrow strip of land protecting it from the perturbations of the sea, and the influence of the southern winds. The waters, except at its entrance, are deep, and the anchorage safe. The country between the Alabama and Tombigbee, is the best part of the state. That east of the Alabama consists of good land, a considerable portion of it of the first quality. Of the lands lying north and west of the Alabama and Coosa rivers, the soil is generally good, and well adapted to cotton and sugar growing, and there are some fine cotton lands on the Tallapoosa, in the lower part of its course. Iron and coal are abundant in the mineral regions. The great coal region is in the neighborhood of Tuscaloosa. Gold is found in the northeastern part of the state; and granite, marble, lime and gypsum are obtained in considerable quantities. The aggregate population of the state in 1850 was 770,000. The slave population amounted to 330,000. STATE OF ALABAMA. 259 The agricultural staples of the state are cotton, rice and tobacco. In 1850 the cotton crop of the state amounted to 350,952 bales; and in 1849, it amounted to 518,706 bales. The estimated annual crop of tobacco is 350,000 lbs.; and of rice, 300,000 lbs. The average crops of the cereal grains may be estimated at 1,500,000 bushels of wheat; 8,000 of barley; 2,000,000 of oats; 80,000 of rye; and 30,000,000 of Indian corn. The foreign commerce of Alabama is extensive. In 1849 the domestic exports amounted to $12,824,725. The imports for the same year, in American vessels, amounted to $108,913, and in foreign vessels, to $548,234. Mobile is the chief depot of foreign commerce. Numerous works of internal improvement have been completed in this state. Muscle Shoals canal, designed to overcome an obstruction in the Tennessee river, extends from Florence 35* miles to Brown's. Huntsville canal, 16 miles long, connects the Tennessee with that town. Montgomery and West Point Railroad, is 87 miles long, and connects Montgomery with the latter place at the head of the rapids of the Chattahouchee river, and will hence be continued to Atlanta, Georgia. The Tuscumbia, Cortland and Decatur Railroad is 44 miles long. The Selma and Tennessee Railroad extends from the former place, on the Alabama river, 170 miles to Gunter's Landing, on the Tennessee. The Wetumpka Railroad extends from the head of steamboat navigation of the Alabama, 56 miles to Fort Williams, at the head of the great falls of the Coosa river, and is designed to unite with the Selma line. Cahawba and Marion Railroad, 35 miles long, connects the two places. The University of Alabama, at Tuscaloosa, founded in 1828, is the principal educational establishment in the state. La Grange, Spring Hill, and Howard Colleges are all flourishing institutions. There is a Law School attached to the University. The school fund of the state amounts to $995,220; the university fund to $250,000. The statistics of the various religious denominations are set forth in the general description of the United States, in the preceding pages. The absolute debt of the state at the commencement of 1850, was $8,539,110. The annual liabilities of the state, including interest on state debt and current expenses of the government, amount to $516,000. In January, 1851, the banking capital of the state was $1,800,580; and at the same date the circulation was $3,568,285; specie, $1,998,820; loans and discounts, $4,670,458. MONTGOMERY, the capital, is a considerable town, and is situated in the centre of an extensive cotton region. It has a large trade, and is connected by railroad with West Point, on the Georgia state line. Steamboats ply regularly to Mobile. Tuscaloosa, the former capital, is situated at the head of steam navigation, on the Black Warrior river. It is a small but thriving town, being the centre of a considerable agricultural district. Latitude 33~ 12' N., longitude 87~ 42' W. The city is the seat of the University of Alabama, and contains many beautiful public and private edifices, among which the State House is conspicuous. 260 STATE OF ALABAMA. Mobile, at the mouth of the Mobile river, has become the seat of an extensive trade, and is the most commercial city in the state. The population, which in 1830 was only 3,194, had increased in 1850 to 20,000. It is the chief outlet of the commerce of the state, and immense quantities of cotton and other staples are brought down the rivers to this point from the upper districts, and also from the western parts of Georgia and from the state of Mississippi. The harbor is good, and is well protected by fortifications. Blakeley stands opposite Mobile, at the mouth of the Tensaw. It has many advantages as a commercial point, but has neverbeen able to supersede Mobile, although it enjoys a finer climate and is more healthy. St. Stephens, on the Tombigbee, is a flourishing place, surrounded by a fertile and beautiful country. Cahawba at the confluence of the Alabama and Cahawba rivers, was laid out in 1818, and was formerly the capital of the state. It is connected with Marion by a railroad. Wetumpka, at the union of the Coosa and Tallapoosa; Florence, at the head of steam navigation on the Tennessee; Waterloo, Huntsville, Tuscumbia, &c., are all important places, and chiefly connected with the commerce of state. The constitution of this state is dated 1819. The executive is vested in a governor, who is chosen, by a plurality of the popular vote, for the term of two years. The general assembly consists of a senate and house of representatives. Representatives must be white citizens of the United States; resident the last two years in the state, and one year in the place they represent; they are chosen for two years, and number not less than forty-four, nor more than sixty, until there are one hundred thousand white inhabitants in the state, and thereafter not less than sixty, nor more than one hundred. _ Senators must not be more than one third, nor less than one fourth of the number of the representatives, and have all their qualifications, and must also be twenty-seven years old: they are chosen for four years —one half every second year. The sessions of the general assembly are biennial. Every white male person, twenty-one years old, a citizen of the United States, resident in the state one year next preceding an election, and three months in his county, city, or town, may vote. The judiciary consists of a supreme court, and such other courts as the legislature may ordain. Judges are elected by the people, have a fixed salary, and hold office six years, but may be removed by address of two thirds of both houses, after notice and a hearing. The state treasurer and comptroller are chosen annually, and an attorney general and county solicitor once in four years, by the general assembly. Mobile was the first place settled in the state, at which period it belonged to Florida. At the time it came into possession of the United States, very few inhabitants were found in all the district. The rapid increase it has maintained since then. is shown elsewhere. In 1817, Alabama was erected into a territorial government, and in 1820 was admitted as an independent state of the Union. STATE OF MISSISSIPPI. 261 MISSISSIPPI. AMa, 47,147 quma Xw. POPULATION I 1850, 06,677. Mississippi is bounded north by Tennessee; east by Alabama; south by the Gulf of Mexico and Louisiana; and west by the Pearl and Mississippi rivers, which separate it from Louisiana and Arkansas.. It is 325 miles in length, and 125 miles in extreme breadth; containing an area of 30,174,080 acres. Mississippi has a sea coast of only about 70 miles, with no harbor in this distance which admits large vessels. A chain of low and sandy islands along the coast encloses Pascagoula bay, which is 65 miles long and 7 miles wide, forming an inland navigation between Mobile bay and lake Borgue, which communicates with the Gulf of Mexico by a number of entrances, that admit vessels requiring 8 feet of water. The south part of the state, for about 100 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, is a level country, covered chiefly with pine forests, cypress swamps, open prairies, or inundated marshes. Advancing north, the country becomes more hilly and broken, though there are in the state no elevations that can properly be denominated mountains. From 31~ to 350 north latitude, near the Mississippi river, is a range of bluffs, which in a few places reach the margin of the stream, though generally at a little distance from it. They are an extension of the table land which extends over a portion of the state, into the low grounds on the Mississippi river, and have a fertile soil. The alluvial land on the rivers, where not liable to be overflowed, is the most valuable land in the state. The soil, in its natural condition, is covered with a vast growth of oak, hickory, magnolia, sweet gum, ash, maple, yellow poplar, pine, and holly, with a great variety of underwood, grape vines, pawpaw, spice wood, &c., and cypress in the swampy alluvions of the Mississippi bottoms. By cultivation, the state produces abundantly cotton, Indian corn, sweet potatoes, tobacco, indigo, peaches, melons, and grapes. The lands watered by the Yazoo, through its whole course in the north-west part of the state, are very fertile, while much of the land in the state, covered with pine, has a light soil. Cotton is the staple production of the state, and it is found to be more profitable than others to which the soil is also well adapted. The climate is mild, but very variable. The extremes of heat and cold at Natchez, for 1850, were from 25~ to 940 of Fahr. The sugar-cane and orange-tree cannot be successfully cultivated north of latitude 310. The Mississippi river washes the entire western border for a distance, by the windings of the stream, for 530 miles. A large portion of its bank in this state consists of inundated swamp, covered with cypress, excepting occasional elevated bluffs, which immediately border the river. The Yazoo is the largest river which flows wholly within the state, and enters the Mississippi 12 miles above Vicksburg. It is 100 yards wide at its mouth, is 200 miles long, and is navigable for large boats for 50 miles. It flows through an elevated and healthy country. Big Black is the next river in 262 STATE OF MISSISSIPPI. size, and enters the Mississippi immediately above the Grand Gulf, by a mouth 40 yards wide. Its length is 200 miles, and it is navigable for 50 miles. Homochitto is a small river, which enters the Mississippi 43 miles below Natchez. Tombigbee rises in the north-east part of the state, and flowing into Alabama, unites at length with Alabama river, to form Mobile river. Pearl river rises near the centre of the state, and drains its southern part, and enters the Rigolets between lake Ponchartrain and lake Borgue. Below the 31st degree of north latitute, it divides the state from Louisiana. Pascagoula river waters the south-east part, is formed by the junction of Chickasawha and Leaf rivers, and enters Pascagoula sound. It is navigable for 50 miles, for vessels requiring 6 feet of water, and for boats 100 miles farther; but the bay at its mouth has only 4 feet of water. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the people, and cotton is the great staple. The average crop may be estimated at 245,000,000 lbs. The crop of rice averages 1,200,000 lbs.; of tobacco, 215,000 lbs. The average crops of the cereal grains may be set down at 500,000 bushels of wheat; 1,500,000 bushels of oats; 30,000 bushels of rye; and 17,000,000 bushels of corn. The foreign commerce of Mississippi is chiefly carried on through the port of New Orleans, and no separate statistics are furnished. Natchez is the chief commercial mart of the state. The internal improvements are not extensive. The Vicksburg and Jackson railroad is extended to Brandon, 60 miles; cost, $500,000. The Natchez and Malcom railroad is 30 miles long. The railroad from St. Francisville to Woodville is 28 miles in length, and cost $168,000. Other railroads are projected, and some are in progress. Mississippi University, at Oxford, founded in 1846, though not fully organized, is expected to become an institution of great value. The Centenary College and Oakland College are in a flourishing state. The Methodists and Baptists are the most numerous religious denominations. In 1850 the Methodists had 70 traveling, 8 superannuated, and 182 local preachers, with 21,615 church members; and the Baptists, at the same period, 16 associations, 382 churches, 181 ordained ministers, 42 licensed preachers, and 22,718 communicants. There were also some Anti-Mission and other Baptist sects. Presbyterians were also numerous. The Anglican church had a bishop and 17 clergymen; and the Roman Catholics had also a bishop and 11 congregations. The receipts into the state treasury for the fiscal year ending April, 1850, amounted to $379,402; expenditures, $284,999. CHEF SOUaCES or INCOME. Contingent funds (executive),. $4,196 State tax.- $334X689 Appropriations, 26,179 Internal improvement fund, 13,196 Peniteniry,25,266 Sinking fund,... 19,857 Printin,5,33 Penitentiary,... 3,189 Executed slaves,..... 3,762 Sembnary fund, 1 250 University of M1sissippi, 10,957 1,250 Common schools, 17 Redemption of lands, 4,001 Lunatic Asylum,000 Land 585sales,.... -. —- 2,720 Institution for the Blind, 2,456 Seminary fund, -.... 3,920 Commissions for assessing, - 9,540 Legislature,....48,731 Elections.....2,024 Judiciary,.... 82,307 Ten per cent. fund,....- 8,312 IEecutive, 8,869 STATE OF MISSISSIPPI. 263 The absolute debt of the state is $2,271,707. The ordinary annual expenditures of the government, exclusive of debts, is $130,000. The constitution of this state is dated 1832. Every free white male person, twenty-one years of age, a citizen of the United States, a resident of the state for one year, and of the town or county in which he offers his vote, for four months next preceding an election, is entitled to suffrage. The legislature consists of a senate and house of representatives. Representatives, not less than 36 nor more than 100 in number, and not less than one for each county, are chosen every second year. They must be qualified voters, and have resided in the state two years, and in the county for which they are elected one year last past. The senate must consist of not less than one-fourth nor more than one-third the number of representatives. Senators mustwbe at least thirty years old, citizens of the United States of four years' standing, and have resided in the district they represent one year. They are elected for four years, one-half being renewed every two years. The executive is vested in a governor, chosen by a plurality of votes for two years. All officers are elected by the people in districts or counties. No person denying the being of a God, or a future state of rewards and punishments, can hold office. The legislature has no power to emancipate slaves without the owner's consent, except on account of great public services, and then must pay for them; nor can it prevent immigrants from importing slaves of the same description with those already in the state, if they be bona fide property, and not criminals. The introduction of slaves as merchandise is prohibited; but settlers, previous to 1845, might import them for their own use. No grand jury is necessary to prosecute slaves for crimes not capital. The judiciary consists of a high court of errors and appeals, a superior court of chancery, district chancery courts, and district or circuit courts. The discovery of this portion of the Union is attributed to De Soto, a Spaniard, who, in 1540, landed in Florida, and afterwards traversed the country as far as the Mississippi, in search of gold, and died on the banks of that river in 1542. The first settlement was made by the French at Natchez, in 1716, but in 1729 the whole colony was massacred by the Indians. In 1763, this territory, together with all the vast possessions claimed by the French east of the Mississippi, was ceded to Great Britain, and claimed by Georgia. In 1783, peace being consummated, the country fell into the hands of the United States. In 1802, Alabama and Mississippi were purchased by the general government, and were then named the Mississippi Territory. In 1817, Mississippi was portioned off as a state, and Alabama erected into a separate territorial government. The southern portion of the state, below 310 north latitude, belonged to Florida, but was captured by the United States in 1811, and attached to Mississippi by President Madison. JAcKSON, in Hinde county, and on the west bank of the Pearl river, is the capital of the state. Lat. 32~ 23' north, long. 90~ 8' west. The city is located on a plain about one mile square, and contains a state house, the penitentiary, and several other public buildings. It has about 3,000 inhabitants. Natchez is the largest and most commercial town in the state. It is situated on the east bank of the Mississippi, about 12 miles below the 264 STATE OF ARKANSAS. mouth of the Yazoo river, and 300 above New Orleans. It is divided into two parts: the lower town, which is situated immediately on the river, and extends back some 200 yards; and the upper town, which is built on a bluff which rises abruptly 300 feet above the river. The first is devoted to conveniences for those trafficking on the river, and the latter for the residences of the better classes of society. The streets are wide, regular, and adorned with shade trees. Natchez contains many elegant public buildings, and during a part of the year is a pleasant and not unhealthy abode. It is the great cotton mart for the lower Yazoo district, and the whole country northward and east. Vicksburg, 106 miles north of Natchez, lies on the western declivity of the Walnut Hills, and presents from the river a picturesque attitude. It contains several public buildings. Vicksburg is tl depot of an extensive back country, and the steamboat traffic in the cofton season is immense. Port Gibson, on Bayou Pierre, and between Natchez and Vicksburg, is a flourishing village. Grand Gulf, its port, is situated on the Mississippi. The other considerable towns in the state are Yazoo City, on the Yazoo river; Commerce, on the Mississippi; Monticello, the former capital; Woodville, in the south-west corner of the state; and Mississippi City and Shieldsborough, on the Gulf shore. Columbus, at the head of steam navigation on the Tombigbee river, is also a prominent town, and, of late years, has increased wonderfully in population and wealth. With one or two exceptions, indeed, it is now the largest city in the state. ARKANSAS. amsu, 5198 SQUAR MILES. PoPouLnon N 1850, 209 776. The state of Arkansas is bounded on the north by the state of Missouri east by the Mississippi river, which separates it from Tennessee and Mississippi; south by Lousiana; and west by Texas and the Indian territory. This state is 270 miles long, and 240 in extreme breadth-having an area of 33,406,720 acres. The eastern part of the state, for the distance of 100 miles from the Mississippi, is low and wet, covered extensively with swamps and marshes, and much of it is subject to be overflowed at certain seasons. Near the St. Francis hills, and at Point Chico, the eastern front along the Mississippi, is above the overflow. In the middle, the country is uneven and broken, and in the west it is hilly and mountainous. There are some extensive prairies and some heavily timbered land. On the margins of the rivers the soil is generally fertile, but back of this it is poor. In many parts there is a deficiency of water. The Ozark mountains, rising sometimes to the height of from 1000 to 2000 feet, cross its north-west part. A range of hills, called the Black mountains, runs between the Arkansas and White rivers, extending west from near the White river to the western border of the state. A little south-west of the centre of the state are boiling springs, the temperature STATE OF ARKANSAS. 265 of which sometimes rises nearly to the boiling point, though subject to much variation. Near these springs are ridges of hills, which rise into elevated eaks, deserving the name of mountains. Wild animals, as the deer, elk, ear and wolf, and wild fowls, as the wild goose, turkey and quail, are found in abundance. Its mineral productions are extensive, consisting of iron ore, gypsum, coal, and salt. The country is well adapted to the raising of cattle. I In the eastern part, particularly on the borders of the rivers, the climate is generally moist and unhealthy; but in the middle and western part it is salubrious. Its rivers afford great facilities for commerce. The Mississippi runs on its east border for the distance of nearly 400 miles. Arkansas river, which gives name to the state, flows through it in a south-eastwardly direction, is a broad and deep stream, and is navigable for steamboats 300 miles to Little Rock, and, in the spring floods, 350 miles farther to Port Gibson, beyond the west border of the state. ~ White river rises in the Black mountains, runs through a fertile and healthy country, abounding with springs and streams of pure water, and affords many mill seats. It flows into the Arkansas river, and is uncommonly circuitous in its course. The St. Francis river rises in Missouri, and flows south nearly parallel to the Mississippi, which it at length enters. It is boatable for 300 miles. The Washita waters its southern, and the Red river, a majestic stream, its southwest part. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850, BY COUNTIES. Whites. Slaves. Whites. Slaves. Arkansas...... 1,707.......... Maron............. 2180.......... 126 Ashley......................... 1,415.......... 719 Mississippi......1,502...... 865 Benton........................3,509.......... 201 Monroe.......................1,667........394 Bradley..................... 2,602 1...... 1,377 Montgomery...1,892......... 86 Conay...................... 343..240 Newton............ 1,711...... 47 Crittenden............ 1,848.. 800 Ouchita.....6,035..3,259 Chicot..................... 131......... 4,258 Perry.................. 962...... 15 Clark.....83121. 951 Philips................... 4,37......2,593 Craford.....7,027..........933 Pike......... 1,752.. 110 Carroll.....4,404.. 211 Poinsett..2,028.. 279 Desha.....1,759. 1,172 Polk.................... 1,196... 67 Dallas........................4,333..... 2,542 Pope......................... 4,231.......... 479 Drew...........................2,361......., 914 Pulaski.................. 541..119 Fulton......................... 51 Prairie.......................1825. 274 Franklin......................3,500.. 472 Randolph.. 3,035......... 248 Green....................... 2,540.......... 53 Saline............,.........3,401.. 503 Hempstead.................5,213.......2,458 Scott.........................2,987......... 146 Hot Spring...................3,248.......... 361 Searcy.....1,950..... 29 Izard.......2,977.......... 195 Seier..........2,868....1,373 Independence....... 6,941.......... 828 St. Frencis.......... 3,772 707 Johnson................... 4,496......... 731 Union..........4,776 Jackson....................... 2,52..... 663 Van Buren..................2,761.......... 103 Jefferson................... 3,213.. 2,621 Washington..............8,771.......1,190 Lawrence.....3................. 2,3 1,0 Lafayette................. Yell.......................... 2917.. 424 Madison'.................... 164 The annual crops of the southern staples may be estimated at 25,000,000 lbs. of cotton; 200,000 lbs. of tobacco, and 6,000 lbs. of rice. The cereal grains are raised to the extent of 500,000 bushels of wheat; 500,000 bushels of oats; 12,000 of rye, and 10,000,000, of Indian corn. Arkansas has no foreign commerce; the business being carried on through the port of New Orleans. The state has no internal improvements with the exception of post roads and some improvements made in navigable rivers. 500,000 acres of land given for the purposes of internal improvement, were, by the legislature of 1849, distributed among the counties. 266 STATE OF ARKANSAS. There are no colleges in the state. Seventy-two sections of land, given by congress to the state, for the purpose of establishing a seminary of learning, have been, by act of the legislature of 1849, distributed among the counties. There are but few common schools in the state. In each township (of 36 sections of land) there is one section (the 16th) given by congress to the townships for the use of schools. The law authorizes these to be sold. By act of January 7, 1845, $1,515.84 was appropriated out of the state treasury to buy books for common schools, to be distributed by the auditor to the board of school commissioners of the counties. $1,000 more was appropriated by act of 9th January, 1845, for the same purpose. The revenue arising from leases of salt springs, and from estrays sold, forms, part of the common school fund. There are academies and high schools, for one or the other sex, in Little Rock, Fayetteville, Washington, Camden, and some other places; but we have no means of ascertaining the number of scholars. The principal religious denominations are the Baptists and Methodists. The ecclesiastical statistics of the state are given in the preceding pages. The public debt of the state, in 1850, amounted to $3,682,172. The ordinary annual expenditures of the government amount to $75,000. The state debt was incurred by issuing state bonds on account of two banks, the Real Estate Bank and the State Bank. To meet these liabilities, there are in the Real Estate Bank 187,180.98 acres of land mortgaged by subscribers for stock, the depreciated valuation of which is $2,012,560.38; and in the State Bank, productive assets to the amount of $1,083,026.58; in all amounting to $3,095,586.96. The constitution of the state was formed in 1836. The governor is chosen by the people for four years, but cannot hold the office more than eight years in twelve. The members of the senate are chosen by the people for four years, and the representatives for two years. The elections are viva voce. The senate can never consist of less than 17, nor more than 33 members; and the house of representatives of less than 54, nor more than 100 members. The judges of the supreme court are appointed for eight years, and of the circuit court for four years, and are all chosen by the legislature. The judges of the county courts are chosen by the justices of the peace. The legislature meets once in two years at Little Rock. Every white male citizen of the United States, and who has resided in the state for six months, possesses the right of suffrage. No lotteries can be established, or lottery tickets sold. The legislature may establish one bank with branches, and one banking institution to promote the interests of agriculture. It cannot emancipate slaves, without the consent of their owners. Slaves have the right of trial by jury, and suffer the same degree of punishment for a crime as white persons, and no other. Courts of justice are obliged to assign counsel to the slaves for their defence. LITTLE ROCK, the capital, stands on a high bluff on the south bank of the Arkansas river, and at the head of steamboat navigation. Latitude 34~ 40' north, and longitude, 920 12' west. It is regularly laid out, and contains the state house, court house, United States' Arsenal and land office, the state penitentiary, with a number of churches, two banks, a STATE OF LOUISIANA. 267 theatre, an academy, and other public buildings. The population is about a,000. Helena, Columbia, Osceola, Marion, Napoleon, &c., are considerable villages on the Mississippi; Belleville, Arkansas, Pine- Bluff, Dardanelles, Van Buren, &c., on the Arkansas; Fulton, Lewisville, Laynesville, &c., on the Red river. Arkansas was a part of the Louisiana purchase. It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in 1836. LOUISIANA. ARA, 46,481 SQUARE MIEs. POPULATION 1850, 511,000. Louisiana is bounded north by Arkansas and Mississippi; east by tne Mississippi and Pearl rivers, which separate it from Mississippi$ south-east and south by the Gulf of Mexico; and west by Texas, from which it is separated chiefly by the Sabine river. It is 340 miles long and 288 miles wide, containing an area of 29,715,840 acres. The whole southern border of the state, from Pearl river to the Sabinc, consists either of sea-marsh or vast prairies, which occupy about one-fifth of the surface of the state; and on the borders of the streams are timbered lands. The tract about the mouths of the Mississippi, for 30 miles, is one continued swamp, destitute of trees, and covered with a species of coarse reed, 4 or 5 feet high. The prospect of the country, from the mast of a ship, is an extended and dreary waste. Along the whole border of the gulf of Mexico, a sea-marsh extends inland for 20 or 30 miles. Back of this the land gradually rises a little, and constitutes the prairies. A large extent of country is annually overflowed by the Mississippi and its various outlets. From lat. 32~ to 31~, the average width of overflowed land is 20 miles; from lat. 31~ to the eftfux of La Fourche, the width is about 40 miles. All the country below the La Fourche, with little exception, is overflowed. By a survey made by order of the government of the United States, in 1828, it was found that the river overflowed an extent of 5,000,000 of acres, a great proportion of which is at present unfit for cultivation. A part of this is covered by a heavy growth of timber and an almost impenetrable growth of cane, and other shrubbery. This becomes dry on the retiring of the river to its natural channels, and has a soil of great fertility, and which might, by labor, be rendered fit for cultivation. There are in some parts basins or depressions, in which the water remains until it is evaporated or absorbed by the earth. These, by draining, might constitute rice fields. The sea-marsh is partially overflowed by the tides, and especially when driven in by the equinoxial gales. In the alluvial territory are small bodies of prairie lands, slightly elevated, without timber, and of great fertility. More extended prairies constitute a large portion of the state. The pine woods. which are extensive, have generally a rolling surface, and a poor soil. The greater part of the prairies has a second-rate soil, but some parts of those of Opelousas, and 268 STATE OF LOUIStANA. particularly of Attakapas, have great fertility and feed extensive herds of cattle. More earth is deposited by the Mississippi, in its overflow, on its immediate margin than further back; and therefore the land is higher adjoining the river than in the rear of its banks. This alluvial margin, of a breadth from 400 yards to 19 miles, is a rich soil; and to prevent the river from inundating the valuable tract in the rear, and which could not be drained, an artificial embankment is raised on the margin of the river, called the Levee. On the east side of the river, this embankment commences 60 miles above New Orleans and extends down the river more than 130 miles. On the west shore it commences at Point Coup4e, 172 miles above New Orleans. Along this portion of the river, its sides present many beautiful and finely cultivated plantations, and a continued succession of pleasant residences. The country between the Mississippi, Ibberville, and Pearl rivers, in its southern parts, is generally level, and highly productive in cotton, sugar, rice, Indian corn, and indigo. The northern part has an undulating surface, and has a heavy natural growth of white, red, and yellow oak, hickory, black walnut, sassafras, magnolia, and poplar. The bottoms of Red river are from one to ten miles wide, and are of great fertility, with a natural growth of willow, cotton-wood, honey-locust, pawpaw and buckeye; on the rich uplands grow elm, ash, hickory, mulberry, black walnut, with a profusion of grape vines. On the less fertile and sandy uplands of the state, are white, pitch and yellow pines, and various kinds of oak. The lower courses of Red river have been denominated the paradise of cotton planters. The climate is mild, though the winters are more severe than in the same latitude on the Atlantic coast. The summers in the wet and marshy parts are unhealthy, and New Orleans has been frequently visited by the yellow fever. But a considerable portion of the state is healthy. The Mississippi river runs through the centre of southern Louisiana, and being there divided into several mouths, forms of the land a number of large and small islands. The Atchafalaya leaves the Mississippi a little below Red river, and is supposed to carry off as much water as that river brings in. The Plaquemine, La Fourche, Ibberville and other outlets, leave the Mississippi in like manner, at various points, and carry off considerable waters to the gulf. The Red river crosses the state from west to east, and enters the Mississippi 240 miles above New Orleans. The Washita runs in a southerly direction, and falls into the Red river /little above its entrance into the Mississippi. The other rivers are the Tensar, Sabine, Vermillion, Leche, Pearl, AmitY, &c. The largest lakes are those of Pontchartrain, Maurepas, Borgue, Chetimachles, Mermentau, Calcasieu and Sabine-all south of 31~ north latitude. The coasts are indented with numerous large bays, and lined with islands and sand-bars. The total population of the state at the last decennial enumeration, was 525,000. The slave population numbers 200,000. The staple productions of this state are cotton, sugar and rice. Sugarcane grows chiefly on the shores of the gulf and the bayous Teche, La Fourche, and Plaquemine, and in some parts of Attakapas, south of 310 north latitude. No cultivation yields a richer harvest, though the labor of STATE OF LOUISIANA. 269 the hands is severe. There is a vast amount of sugar lands not brought into cultivation. The quantity of land adapted to sugar has been computed at 250,000 acres; of rice, at 250,000 acres; and of cotton, at 2,400,000. Rice is principally confined to the banks of the Mississippi, where irrigation is easy. The cotton crop of 1850 yielded 781,886 bales. The crop of 1849 was much larger, yielding 1,093,797 bales. The sugar crop averages 250,000,000 lbs.; the rice crop averages 5,000,000 lbs., and about 135,000 lbs. of tobacco are annuaty raised. These are the proportions of Louisiana in the four great southern staples. No wheat, barley, or oats, of any account, are raised in the state. A few thousand bushels of rye, are reckoned in the statistics. About 10,000,000 bushels of Indian corn is the average crop. The vast trade of the valley of the Mississippi centres at New Orleans. A valley which, for its extent and fertility, has not its like in the world. The foreign commerce of Louisiana is that of the whole valley, as most of the exports of the Western States are cleared at New Orleans. The total value of domestic produce exported in 1849; was $36,957,118; being the largest in amount of any state in the Union during that year. The exports of foreign produce for the same year, were $654,549. The imports amounted to $10,050,697. The Ponchartrain Railroad extends from New Orleans 4* miles to the lake, and has cost between $400,000 and $500,000. West Feliciana Railroad runs from St. Francisville, 20 miles, to Woodville, in Mississippi. New Orleans Street Railroad, one mile and a half long, connects that city with the Bayou St. Johns. There is also a railroad from New Orleans to Carrollton, 61 miles, and some others have been projected. In 1848, New Orleans was put in communication with all the Atlantic and Western States, by means of the magnetic telegraph. The length of post routes in the state is 3,888 miles. The Catholic religion is predominant in the state. In 1812 there'was not a Protestant church in Louisiana. Since that period the great influx of emigrants has brought with it almost all denominations of Protestants. Louisiana College, at Jackson, was founded in 1823; Jefferson College, at Bringiers, was founded in 1831; St. Charles at Grand Coteau, is under the direction of the Roman Catholics; Baton Rouge College, at Baton Rouge, was founded in 1838; Franklin College, at Opelousas, was founded in 1839. A State University was lately established at New Orleans. The constitution provides that "there shall be appointed a superintendent of public education, to hold office for two years. Free public schools shall be established throughout the State; the proceeds of lands granted for the purpose, and of lands escheated to the state, shall be held as a permanent fund, on which six per cent. interest shall be paid by the state for the support of these schools." The yearly sum of $250,000 is appropriated for the support of the free schools of the state, and is derived from the levy of a tax of one mill on the dollar, and from the imposition of a poll tax of $1 on each white male inhabitant of the state. There are in the state 53,316 children of both sexes between the ages of 6 and 16, of which number 24,736 were attendant at the public schools for an average period 270 STATE OF LOUISIANA. of 6 months and 13 days. The state is divided into 521 districts, il which 701 schools have been kept up for that period of time. The schools have been organized for three years, under the new constitution of the state. On the 1st of January, 1851, there were in the state five banks and twenty branches, with an aggregate capital of $12,370,390. Loans and discounts, $19,309,108; specie and specie funds, $6,916,000; circulation, $5,059,000. The absolute debt of the state in 1850, was $1,380,566; contingent debt, $14,857,565. The ordinary annual expenses of the government, exclusive of debts, is $515,000. The constitution provides that the credit of the state shall not be lent to any person or corporation whatsoever; but new bonds may be issued to re place outstanding ones. No state debt shall be contracted for more than $100,000, except in case of war, invasion, or insurrection, unless authorized by law for some distinctly specified object or work; which law shall impose taxes to pay the current interest dsring the whole term of the debt, and also to pay the debt itself at maturity; and this law shall be irrepealable till the debt and interest are fully discharged, and shall not go into force till again enacted by the next legislature after its first passage. The state shall not subscribe to the stock of any company or corporation. No corporate company shall be hereafter created, renewed or extended, with banking or discounting privileges. After 1890 the charters of all corporations may be revoked; and no charter shall now be granted, except for mlnicipal or political purposes, for more than twenty-five years. The legislature meets biennially on the third Monday in January. Senators, 32 in number, are chosen for four years; one-half every two years. Representatives, not less than 70 nor more than 100 (the present number is 98,) are chosen for two years. The election is on the second Monday in November. The pay of members of the legislature is $4 a day during the session, and while going and returning. No session shall last more than sixty days. Acts passed after fifty days shall be void. No minister of religion is eligible to the legislature. The State Treasurer is chosen biennially, by joint ballot. Since December, 1849, the seat of govern ment has been at Baton Rouge. The Governor and Lieutenant Governor are elected for four years. No minister of religion or officer of the United States is eligible. Veto power, overcome by two-thirds. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is elected for eight years, at a salary of $6,000 per annum. The Associate and District Judges are elected by the Legislature. The river Mississippi was discovered in 1663, by Marquette and Joliette, two French Missionaries. In 1682 the country was explored by La Salle, and named Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV. In 1699 a French settlement was begun at Ibberville, by M. Ibberville, who, in the attempt to plant the country, lost his life. His efforts were followed up by M. Crozat, a man of wealth, who held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the year 1717 he transferred his interest to a chartered company, at the head of which was the celebrated John Law, whose national bank and Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In 1731 the company resigned the concern to the STATE OF LOUISIANA. 271 crown, who, in 1762, ceded the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain re-conveyed the province to the French, of whom it was purchased by the United States in 1803, for about $15,000,000. This purchase included all the present territory of the United States west of the Mississippi. Soon after the purchase, the present state of Louisiana was separated from the rest of the territory, under the name of the territory of Orleans. In 1812 Louisiana was admitted into the Union as a State, and the part of West Florida west of Pearl river was annexed to it. In 1814, the British made an attack upon New Orleans, but were repulsed January 8th, 1815, by the Americans, under Gen. Jackson, with the loss of about 3,000 men, killed, wounded and taken prisoners. The American loss is stated to have been seven killed and six wounded. Gen. Packenham, the British commander, was killed. BATON ROUGE, the new capital, is situated on the east bank of the Mississippi, and lies chiefly on one street, 30 or 40 feet above high water mark, from which the land rises by a gradual and gentle swell. Among its public buildings the United States barracks are.the most imposing. Baton Rouge is also the seat of a flourishing college. When the new state buildings are erected, the importance of the city will be much increased. New Orleans, the former capital, and, after New York, the most commercial city in the Union, stands on the east bank of the Mississippi, 100 miles from the sea, and four from lake Ponchartrain. Population, 120,961. The city is built on a plain, inclining from the river towards the swamp in the rear, so that, when the Mississippi is full, the streets are inundated; the levee, however, prevents the great body of water from overwhelming the place, and, at the same time, affords a pleasant promenade for the citizens. The position of New Orleans, in a commercial point of view, is unririvaled. The Mississippi, and its numerous tributaries, brings to its market the products of 20,000 miles of navigation, through one of the most fertile countries of the world; and carries back the contributions of every country and climate. The city proper is in the form of a parallelogram, running along the river 1,320 yards, and extending back 700 yards. The whole extent of the city, including its incorporated faubourgs, is not less than five miles, parallel with the river. The houses are principally of brick, and built in an elegant and substantial style. The buildings in the city are especially conspicuous for their elegance, and many houses in the suburban districts are surrounded with gardens, and ornamented with orange and other beautiful trees. The view from the river is splendid beyond description. During the business season, or from November until July, the port is crowded with vessels, of all sizes and of every nation, with hundreds of large and splendid steamboats, and a multiplicity of river craft, consisting of barges, flat-bottom boats, &c. Nothing can present a more busy scene than the levee at this time; the loading and unloading of steamboats and vessels of various descriptions, and the throng of drays, transporting tobacco, sugar, cotton, and the varied and immense products of the whole central valley. The public buildings of New Orleans form conspicuous objects, and are in many respects 8sui generis. The cathedral or church of St. Louis, on the Place d'Armes, strikes the stranger forcibly by its venerable and 272 STATE OF LOUISIANA. antique contour. It was founded in 1792. The new charity hospital is 290 feet long, and three stories high, and is entered on Common street, under a Doric portico. The lower part of the building is occupied by the resident physicians, and as lecture rooms, &c., for medical students; while the second and third stories are divided into wards for the patients and rooms for the sisters of charity, who devote themselves to attendance on the sick. The hospital is calculated to hold 540 patients. The grounds around it are handsomely laid out, and kept in good order. There are many churches worthy of notice, and which are alike conspicuous for their varied styles of architecture and the substantial manner in which they are built. The markets of New Orleans are large and convenient. Poydras street market is 402 feet long and 42 feet wide. The vegetable market is 172 feet long. The meat market, on the levee, is built of brick, and extends from Ann to Main street. St. Mary's market, in the second municipality, is a noble structure built of brick, and covered over in imitation of granite. It is 480 feet long and 42 feet wide. Washington market is in the third municipality, and is a fine structure. All these markets are well supplied with both the necessaries and luxuries of life, and the taste and means of every one can be suited. The theatres of the city are conspicuous buildings, and, for the purposes to which they are applied, celebrated throughout the world for their elegance and accommodations. The most magnificent of these is the " St. Charles," which is 132 feet front by 175 feet deep. Among the buildings of New Orleans, the various cotton presses are not the least imposing in appearance. The Orleans cotton press extends over an area of 194,656 feet, which is nearly covered with buildings. On an average it presses 200,000 bales of cotton annually, but its capacity is much larger. The banks, hotels, &c., are also immense edifices. The St. Charles Hotel is world renowned for its magnificence, and the sumptuous fare it provides for its visitors. The United States branch mint is a noble structure, 282 feet long and 108 feet deep, with two wings, each 29 by 81 feet, and the whole three stories high. The building cost $182,000. New Orleans is supplied with water from the Mississippi, the water of which is raised into a reservoir 250 feet square. The water works belong the Commercial bank, and cost 722,000. Mains are laid in all the streets to lead the water; and a large pipe, a mile long, is used to distribute water to clean and cool the streets in hot weather. There is also a draining company, with a capital of $640,000, for the purpose of draining the marshes about the city. The custom house is also an ornament to the place. The harbor of New Orleans is one of the most capacious and deep in the world, and the local conveniences for shipping and the transaction of an extensive business are unsurpassed. The number of vessels, of all kinds, visiting New Orleans during the year is immense, and a regular communication by packets is kept up with all the large Atlantic cities, and those on the gulf. STATE OF TEXAS. 273 TEXAS, AREA, 82,520 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION IN 1850, 212,000. Texas is bounded on the north by the Red river and the Arkansas, which separate it from the Indian Territory; east by the Sabine and a line which divides it from Louisiana; south by the Gulf of Mexico; and west by the Rio Grande and a line which divides it from New Mexico. The face of the country exhibits three essentially different regions. Along the coasts, and far inland, the surface is a low level, free from swamps, however, and composed of excellent arable and pasture lands, and prairies. The soil is a deep black mold, and of inexhaustible fertility. The bottoms along the rivers are well wooded, and have a rich red soil of great depth. Over this vast plain immense droves of wild horses and cattle roam, in the enjoyment of primeval liberty, except near the settlements, where they are fast diminishing in number. In the north the lands are considerably elevated, and the surface undulating. The prairies of this section are covered with forests of vast extent. The west and north-west is mountainous, and spanned crosswise with the several ranges of Sierras, which divide Texas from New Mexico. The mountain sides are clothed with forests of oak, pine, cedar, and a great variety of trees and shrubs, and they enclose extensive alluvial valleys, most of which are susceptible of irrigation and culture. There are few countries, of the same extent, indeed, which have so small a proportion of land unfit for cultivation. The surface, for the most part, is covered with a fine growth of grasses, comprising, with the common prairie grass, the gama, musquite, wild clover, wild rye, &c., and affording excellent pasturage. The natural growth of woods are of the most useful and valuable descriptions. Among the remarkable features of the country, the " Cross-Timbers" of northern Texas are conspicuous. The climate of Texas, except in the more northern parts, is essentially tropical. A wet and a dry season divide the year. The former lasts from December to March, and the latter from March to the end of November. Snow, except on the mountains, is seldom seen. In the river bottoms and along the coasts, intermittent fevers, and in the summer season yellow fever, prevail to an alarming extent. The principal rivers, proceeding from east to west, are the Sabine, Neches, Trinidad, Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe, San Antonio, Nueces, and the Rio Grande. These fill into the Gulf of Mexico, and, excepting the Brazos, through bays and lagoons, and are all navigable for steamboats for 100 or 200 miles from their outlets, and many much further. The Red river and the Arkansas wind along the northern frontier, and must eventually become the commercial highways of that section of the state. The bays and lagoons are formed by a range of long and narrow islands, which line the coasts. Galveston Bay is by far the finest on the coast, being 35 miles long, from north to south, and from 12 to 18 miles broad, from east to west. Its average depth is from 9 to 10 feet, but in the 18 274 STATE OF TEXAS. channel the depth varies from 18 to 30 feet. The entrance is obstructed by bars. In many parts of the rolling-prairie region, coal, of a superior quality, and iron ore, exist abundantly; and it has been supposed that beds of these valuable minerals extend over the greater portion of the country. The precious metals are found in the mountains to the north-west, and silver mines were worked in these regions until the miners were driven off by the Camanche Indians. Saltpetre abounds in the east, and salt is obtained from numerous lakes and springs; and bitumen in several places. Granite, lime, gypsum, shale, &c., are abundant, except in the low alluvial region. The population, in 1850, was 175,000, including 50,000 slaves. The rearing of live stock has long been the principal and favorite occupation of the Texan settlers, and many of the prairies are covered with a valuable breed of oxen, which scarcely require, and certainly do. not receive much more care or attention than the prairie-deer. These have increased enormously, and a profitable trade in cattle has been opened with New Orleans and the West Indies. The rearing of horses and mules is also pretty extensively pursued. Sheep do not thrive well, except in the northern counties, and even there the wool is inferior and the mutton coarse. Hogs form a considerable item in the economy of the settler; and bees, which are in great numbers, might, with a little care, be made productive, there being an extensive demand for wax and honey for the northern market. Cotton is the great staple of Texas, and it is affirmed, and perhaps truly, that it is of a superior quality, producing more largely, and of a finer staple, than the same article in the Atlantic states. The products of 1850 were 31,263 bales, and in the previous year, 38,827. The grains chiefly cultivated are maize and wheat. The average productions are estimated as follows: Wheat, 1,500,000 bushels; and Indian corn, 1,500,000 bushels. The potato crop yields 300,000 bushels. Rye, barley, oats, &c., are suited for the upper country, and rice grows best near the river estuaries. Sugar-cane grows well, and yields heavily. The plantations, however, are as yet very limited, and hitherto the culture has been altogether experimental. Tobacco will probably become a staple. The mulberry tree grows vigorously, and the climate is well suited for the silk-worm. The topography and geographical position of Texas are highly favorable for an extended commerce. Its situation relative to the other United States, Mexico and the West Indies, generally, augurs a promise of future prosperity, commensurate only with the extent of the development of its unbounded resources. The constitution provides that one-tenth of the annual revenue of the state, derived from taxation, shall be set aside as a permanent fund for the support of free public schools; and that all public lands granted for such schools shall not be alienated in fee, nor be leased for more than twenty years. The Roman Catholics, Methodists, and Baptists, are the most numerous religious denominations. The Roman Catholics and Protestant Episcopalians have each a missionary bishop in the state, and several congregations STATE OF TEXAS. 275 Presbyterians, Anti-Mission Baptists, Unitarians, &c., have also some churches. Works of internal improvement have as yet been confined to the building of roads and bridges, and the removal of obstructions in the rivers. A railroad is projected to connect the waters of Red river, above the raft, with Galveston. There is one bank in the state, which is acting under powers granted to it when that country was connected with Mexico. Its operations are believed to be unconstitutional, and will, it is said, soon be put an end to. The general assembly consists of a senate and house of representatives: the senate is composed of not less than nineteen nor more than thirty-three members. Senators are elected for four years. Representatives, of whom there shall not be less than forty-five, nor more than ninety, are chosen for two years. The governor and lieutenant-governor are chosen, by a plurality of the popular vote, for two years. The governor must have the same qualifications as a senator, and receives $2,000 per annum. The lieutenantgovernor is ex-officio president of the senate. The secretary of state is nominated by the governor, and his nomination confirmed by the senate for two years. The state treasurer and comptroller are chosen biennially by joint vote of both houses. The governor may veto a bill, but by a twothirds vote of both houses in its favor, it becomes a law. The judiciary consists of a supreme court, with a chief justice and two associate justices, appointed for six years. There are eight district courts, with one judge to each district. The constitution has several peculiar provisions. It renders duellists ineligible to public offices; forbids grants of money for any purposes than the ordinary expenses of government, except by a two-thirds vote; provides for the revision of the laws, civil and criminal, every ten years; makes a wife's property, real and personal, her separate property, not liable for the husband's debts; protects the homestead to the value of $2,000; and forbids the creation or extension of corporations for banking or other purposes. The provisions with regard to slavery are similar to those of the other southern states. The Auditor and Comptroller made a report to the Legislature in December, 1849, upon the debt of Texas, dividing it into three classes of liabilities. The first consisted of audited claims, amounting to $6,725,933; the second consisted of claims sufficiently authentic to admit them to be audited under the laws of the late republic, and amounted to $343,407; the third class, not sufficiently authenticated to authorize their being audited under the laws of the late republic, and amounted to $144,136. The resources of the State of Texas, as appears by the assessment rolls of 1847, are-Real and personal property assessed of the value of $45,939,997; tax thereon, $91,879; and poll taxes, one dollar each, to the amount of $18,504. Total tax, $110,373.99. It is also estimated that there are 184,386,920 acres of vacant and unappropriated lands within the limits of the State. 276 STATE OF TEXAS. The cash receipts and expenditure for the year ending October 31, 1848, were as follows:-Receipts, $ 148,449; expenditures, 116,161. Average annual expenses of the state, $100,000. The first settlements in Texas were made by the French at Matagorda, but the settlers were soon after expelled by the Spaniards. Previous to this time, the Indians held undisputed sway over this fine country. On the consummation of Mexican Independence, Texas became, in connection with the adjoining State of Coahuila, a state of the republic. Soon after this period, several colonies of Americans, who had been invited into the territorS by the Mexicans, settled in the eastern section, and were for a long time secured from the onerous burdens of Mexico proper. For some time previous to 1835, however, serious complaints against the central government were uttered, and in the following year open rebellion was rife. The Mexican President invaded Texas with a large army, and was successively victorious and defeated in a number of skirmishes. The American settlers declared their independence in March, 1836, and the defeat of the Mexicans and the capture of Santa Anna at St. Jacinto, (21st April'1836,) secured to the'" patriot party" the acknowledgement of their independent position by the Mexican President, and the whole country east of the Rio Grand was acceded to them. The acts of Santa Anna, however, were never confirmed by the Senate. No serious attempt having been made by the Mexicans to regain Texas, for eight or nine years, the political nationality of the country was considered as consolidated, and in 1845, under this supposition, the United States of America admitted the young republic as a state of the Union. THE CITY OF AUSTIN, the capital of the state, is situated on the north bank of the Colorado, lat. 30~ 25' N., and long. 95~ 42' W. The city consists chiefly of frame houses, and a few brick buildings, occupied by- the wealthier classes and tradesmen. The country in the neighborhood is becoming settled, and quite a number of farm houses have been built. Population about 5,000. Galveston, the chief port of Texas, is situated at the eastern extremity of the island of the same name. It is the depot of a vast fertile region, wa tered by the Trinidad and other rivers. We extract from the Washington Union of May 13, 1851, an interesting article upon the present condition and future prospects of Western Texas: There are few portiOds of our country about which more has been said or less actually known than the western part of the State of Texas. In speaking of this region we include that section bounded by the river Colorado, New Mexico, the Rio Grande, and the Gulf of Mexico. It is about equal in extent to both the great States of New York and Pennsylvania. It is an elevated, dry region, of fine equable climate, remarkably healthy, and possessing many advantages of a local and geographical nature. Nearly the whole territory is covered with a rich and luxuriant growth of musquite grass of several species, which is the most nutritious and substantial pasturage in the world. All kinds of domestic animals -horses, mules, cattle, sheep, &c., &c. - thrive beyond all comparison upon it. Such is the peculiar nature of the climate and herbage, that sheep, goats, &c., bring forth young twi(e or thrice a year, and of course increase with astonishing rapidity. The mildness of the seasons even in winter, is such as to render shelter, food, and care of all these animals quite unnecessary. They live and grow fat without any special attention throughout the whole year. Horses and cattle cost next to nothing to rear them - scarcely more than it costs to raise chickens. There is a considerable variety of soil and productions in different localities, but there is a general similarity. The dry nature of the country renders irrigation very essential; and when practicable, as it is to a very great degree, the yield is absolutely astounding. Upon twothirds of this territory sugar and cotton grow in the utmost perfection. Corn and sweet potatoes abound in all parts; and wheat, rye, Irish potatoes, &c., flourish exceedingly well in the northern and western sections. Fruits of all kinds spring up spontaneously. or may be readily cultured: figs, oranges, lemons, melons, grapes, pears, plums, peaches, &c., &c., appear to be natives and favorites ot the soil. The wide region between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, and falsely characterized as a "vast desert," is known to have been, less than half a century ago, filled with happy and flourishing ranchos, countless flocks and herds, and to have been the seat of comfort and plenty. The ruins of thousands of houses and plantations scattered over it, still attest its former flourishing condition. Between 1808 and 1810, the Indians swept it with fire and the scalping-knife, and reduced it to a waste and ghastly wilderness. Thus does it remain to this lay; but it will speedily be re-peopled, and its former condition be restored and improved. Since the late war ith Mexico, STATE OF CALIFORNIA. 277 attention has been called to this portion of the country, and its settlement is daily progressing. Brownsville, then a mere suburb of Matamoras, containing a few cabins and poverty-stricken Mexicans, is now a fine, flourishing town of nearly four thousand inhabitants. It has many large stores, workshops, and fashionable buildings, and during the last year has transacted a business amounting to little short offive millions of dollars. It is well known that the mines of the frontier States of Mexico, near and bordering on the Rio Grande, produce annually about twenty millions of dollars in silver. A very considerable portion of this money now does or soon will find its way to the markets of the world, through Brownsville or some other point in our territory. Here is a vast outlet for our cotton goods and other productions, which is deserving the careful consideration of every business man in the Union. It is a well-authenticated historical fact, that in the mountainous region in which the rivers Colorado, San Saba, Guadaloupe, &c., take their rise, numerous rich silver and gold mines abound, from which, about a century ago, the Spanish government derived large quantities of the precious metals. These mining operations were broken up by the Indians; but remains of large and prosperous cities still stand in those distant quarters, which bear evidence of the truth we have stated. It is not improbable that the discoveries of a few years will show that this part of Texas may rival California in its mines and facilities for extracting the valuable deposites. Point Isabel, nine miles from the mouth of the Itio Grande, is a place of no small importance, and will soon attract the notice of the country. The Rio Grande river itself, is navigable for steamboats nearly to Laredo, about a thousand miles from its entrance into the Gulf, and is destined to become a most valuable highway for the business of our country in that quarter. There are many well-informed men who assert that this river must ultimately constitute an essential link in the great chain ofimprovements to the Pacific ocean. A number of thriving towns are gradually arising along its shore, and will rapidly swell the torrent of business that must flow between the interior and the ocean. The illiberal and short-sighted policy of Mexico has encouraged smuggling and all sorts of illicit trade along this border; but it is thought the eyes of their legislators will be opened, and these restrictions be altogether withdrawn. Then will most extensive commercial relations grow up, mutually beneficial to both nations. The chief articles of traffic in Western Texas will be sugar, cotton, wool, hides, horses, mules, and cattle, besides the specie obtained from Mexico. This will draw into that fertile region a vast amount of capital, and will add ten-fold to its peculiar advantages. Along that frontier it may be difficult to retain slaves, for they can easily escape into Mexico; but the labor of Mexican peons, and other workmen, can be produced at very cheap rates, and indeed upon terms that are quite as favorable as slave labor can be had, however well secured. About forty miles from Brownsville, in a north-east direction, lies the famous Salt Lake, called the Sal del Rey. It covers about four thousand acres; and such is the saline quality of the water, that there is a clear, pure bed of salt, about a foot deep, extending over the whole surface, and if any part be removed, in twentyfour-hours it is completely replaced. In early times, this Salt Lake yielded a large revenue to the Spanish government, and is believed to-be capable of supplying the whole Union with a most excellent article of salt. This property, as well as most of the lands in Western Texas, is involved in law-suits, and it will be a year or so before the title is settled. This is one of the most serious drawbacks on immediate improvement. But it is believed that two years at the furthest, will suffice to bring all these questions to the test of legal adjudication. In the mean time, if-the government faithfully perform its duty of arresting the Indian depredations, this region o.our country will fill up with unprecedented rapidity. The ease and cheap rates at which plantations can be opened and families subsisted, give it advantages for settlement with which few, -if any, sections in any State can pretend to compete. For the purpose of Sugar and cotton growing, the most striking inducements are presented. Both are more certain crops than in any other part of our country, and inquality, so far as respects sugar, especially decidedly superior. Many planters from Louisiana are removing with all their slaves and capital to Texas, and fid not only that the land is far cheaper, but preferable to that which they left. The most serious inconyenience is a scarcity oftimber; but that can be easily supplied. A few years will exhibit a surprising increase in the population and products of -that new State, and elevate it to a high rank in the Union. It is altogether likely that in a short time measures will be taken to divide Texas into at least two States, adopting probably the Colorado as the line of separation. The public debt being virtually paid, the war with Mexico ended, her boundary disputes all settled, and the Indian incursions-committed to the defensive authority of the federal government -with a public domain unparalleled in extent, fertility, and variety of productions, and a climate genial and attractive as that of Italy-what a career of prosperity and glory must Texas be destined to run! The period of ten years has been to her an age. It has seen her rescued from poverty and danger, and placed on a footing as high and as firm as the most stable and independent of the old Thirteen States. She came not alone, but was the happy precursor of our national advance to the shores of the Pacific - to a land richer than the Ophir of the ancients, and to a position whence we can stretch forth our hands and seize the commerce of the East, now ten-fold greater than it was when it built up Tvre and Sidon, Babylon and Venice, and made those nations which controlled it the masters of the world. CALIFORNIA. ARaE, 448,691 squARE Mu.s5. POPULATION IN 1850, 165,000. That portion of the territory ceded to the United /States by the late treaty with Mexico, called Alta California, occupies a large surface, and stretches from New Mexico to the Pacific, and from Oregon to the river Gila, which separates it from the Mexican Republic. It lies between 320 and 42~ north latitude, and 1070 and 1240 west longitude. The depth of the country from north to south is 600 miles, and its width from east to west, more than 1000 miles. It has a superficial area of 287,162,240 acres. The area of the State of California, according to an estimate made in Pruss's map, is 158,500 square miles. 278 STATE OF CALIFORNIA. The eastern portion of the former territory of California is traversed by the Rocky Mountains; another chain traverses the western part, and is called the Sierra Nevada. Between the two is an elevated and extraordinary region, called the Great Basin (now the territory of Utah). The whole country is thus described by Col. Fremont: " The Great Basin measures 500 miles in diameter every way; is between four and five thousand feet above the level of the sea; shut in all around by mountains, with its own system of lakes and rivers, and has no connexion whatever with the sea. Partly and sparsely inhabited, the general character of the Great Basin is that of a desart, but with great exceptions; there being many parts of it fit for the residence of a civilized people; and the Mormons have established themselves in one of the most favorable localities. In this Great Basin are situated the vast Salt and Utah lakes, besides numerous smaller bodies of water. The Humboldt river, within the same limits, is the most important. It lies on the line of travel to California and Oregon, and is the best route now known through the Great Basin, and the one traveled by emigrants. " West of the Sierra Nevada, and between that mountain and the sea, is the second grand division of California, and the only part to which the name applies in the current language of the country. It is the occupied and inhabited part, and so different in character; so divided by the mountain wall of the Sierra from the Great Basin above, as to constitute a region to itself, with a structure and configuration - a soil, climate, and productions —of its own: and as northern Persia may be referred to as some type of the former, so may Italy be referred to as some point of comparison for the latter. North and south, this region embraces about ten degrees of latitude- from 320, where it touched the peninsula of California, to 420, where it bounds on Oregon. East and west, from the Sierra Nevada to the sea, it will average, in the middle parts, 150 miles; in the northern parts, 200 -giving an area of one hundred thousand square miles. "Looking westward from the summit of the Sierra, the main feature presented is the long, low, broad valley of the Joaquin and Sacramento rivers -the two valleys forming one — five hundred miles long and fifty broad, lying along the base of the Sierrra, and bounded to the west by the low coast range of mountains, which separates it from the sea. Long dark lines of timber indicate the streams, and bright spots mark the intervening plains. Lateral ranges, parallel to the Sierra Nevada and the coast, make the structure of the country, and break it into a surface of valleys and mountains - the valleys a few hundred, and the mountains two to four thousand feet above the sea. These form greater masses, and become more elevated in the north, where some peaks, as the Shastl, enter the regions of perpetual snow. " Stretched along the mild coast of the Pacific, with a general elevation in its plains and valleys of only a few hundred feet above the level of the sea, and backed by the long and lofty wall of the Sierra, mildness and geniality may be assumed as the characteristic of its climate. The inhabitant of corresponding latitudes on the Atlantic side of this continent can with difficulty conceive of the soft air and southern productions under the same latitudes in the maritime region of Upper California. The singular beauty and purity of the sky in the south of this region is characterized by Humboldt as a rare phenomenon, and all travelers realize the truth of his description. "The present condition of the country affords but slight data for forming correct opinions of the agricultural capacity and fertility of the soil. Vancouver found, at the mission of San Buenaventura, in 1792, latitude 340 16', apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, peaches and pomegranates, growing together with the plaintain banana, cocoa-nut, sugar-cane and indigo, all yielding fruit in abundance and of excellent quality. At San Buenaventura, we found the olive trees, in January bending under the weight of neglected fruit; and the mission of San Luis Obispo (latitude 350) is still distinguished for the excellence of its olives, considered finer and larger than those of the Mediterranean. " The productions of the south differ from those of the north and of the middle. Grapes, olives and Indian corn have been its staples, with many assimilated fruits and grains. Tobacco has been recently introduced; and the uniform summer heat which follows the wet season, and is uninterrupted by rain, would make the southern STATE OF CALIFORNIA. 279 country well adapted to cotton. Wheat is the first product of the north, where it always constituted the principal cultivation of the missions. This promises to be grain-growing region of California. The moisture of the coast seems particularly suited to the potato, and to vegetables common to the United States, which grow to an extraordinary size. " Perhaps few parts of the world can produce in such perfection so great avariety of fruits and grains, as the large and various region enclosing the Bay of San Francisco and drained by its waters. A view of the map will show that region and its great extent, comprehending the entire valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, and the whole western slope of the Sierra Nevada. General phrases fail to give precise ideas, and I have recourse to the notes in my journal to show its climate and productions by the test of the thermometer, and the state of the vegetable kingdom. " These valleys are one, discriminated only by the names of the rivers which traverse it. It is a single valley — a single geographical formation-near 500 miles long, lying at the western base of Sierra Nevada, and between it and the coast range of mountains, and stretching across the head of the Bay of San Francisco, with which a delta of twenty-five miles connects it. The two rivers, San Joaquin and Sacramento, rise at opposite ends of this long valley, receive numerous streams, many of them bold rivers, from the Sierra Nevada, become themselves navigable rivers, flow towards each other, meet half way, and enter the Bay of San Francisco together, in the region of tide-water, making a continuous water line from one end to the other. "The valley of the San Joaquin is about 300 miles long and 60 broad, between the slopes of the coast mountain and the Sierra Nevada, with a general elevation of only a few hundred feet above the level of the sea. It presents a variety of soil, from dry and unproductive to well-watered and luxuriantly fertile. The easteri (which is the fertile) side of the valley is intersected with numerous streams, forming large and very beautiful bottoms of fertile land, wooded principally with white oaks, in open groves of handsome trees, often five or six feet in diameter, and sixty to eighty feet high. The rolling surface of the hills presents sunny exposures, sheltered from the winds, and having a highly favorable climate and suitable soil, are considered to be well adapted to the cultivation of the grape, and will probably become the principal vine-growing region of California. The uplands bordering the valleys of the large streams, are usually wooded with evergreen oaks; and the intervening plains are timbered with groves or belts of evergreen and white oaks, among prairie and open land. The surface of the valley consists of level plains along the Tulare lakes and San Joaquin river, changing into undulating and rolling ground nearer the foot-hills of the mountains. " The Bay of San Francisco has been celebrated, from the time of its first discovery, as one of the finest in the world, and is justly entitled to that character even under the seaman's view of a mere harbor. But when all the accessory advantages which belong to it - fertile and picturesque dependent country; mildness and salubrity of climate; connexion with the great interior valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin; its vast resources for ship-timber, grain and cattle — when these advantages are taken into account, with its geographical position on the line of communication with Asia, it rises into an importance far above that of a mere harbor, and deserves a particular notice in any account of maritime California. Its latitudinal position is that of Lisbon; its climate is. that of southern Italy; settlements upon it for more than half a century attest its healthiness; bold shores and mountains give it grandeur; the extent and fertility of its dependent country give it great resources for agriculture, commerce, and population. " Sheltered from the cold winds and fogs of the sea, and having a soil of remarkable fertility, the valley of St. Joseph (San Jose) is capable of producing in great perfection many fruits and grains which do not thrive on the coast in its immediate vicinity. Without taking into consideration the extraordinary yields which have sometimes occurred, the fair average product of wheat is fifty fold, or fifty for one sown. The mission establishments of Santa Clara and San Jose, in the north end of the valley, were formerly, in the prosperous day of the missions, distinguished for the superiority of their wheat crops. " The slope of alluvial land continues entirely around the eastern shore of the bay, intersected by small streams, and offering some points which good landing and deep 280 STATE OF CALIFORNIA. water, with advantageous positions between the sea and interior country, indicate for future settlements. " The Bay of San Francisco is not a mere indentation of the coast, but a little sea connected with the ocean by a defensible gate, opening out between seventy and eighty miles to the right and left, upon a breadth of ten to fifteen, deep enough for the largest ships, with bold shores suitable for towns and settlements, and fertile adjacent country for cultivation. The head of the bay is about forty miles from the sea, and there commences its connexion with the noble valleys of the San Joaquin and Sacramento. "Summer and winter, in our sense of the term, are not applicable to this part of the country. It is not heat and cold, but wet and dry, which mark the seasons; and the winter months, instead of killing vegetation, revive it. The dry season makes a period of consecutive drought, the only winter in the vegetation of this country, which can hardly be said at any time to cease. In forests, where the soil is sheltered; in low lands of streams and hilly country, where the ground remains moist, grass continues constantly green, and flowers bloom in all the months of the year. In the southern half of the country, the long summer drouth has rendered irrigation necessary; and the experience of the missions, in their prosperous day, has shown that, in California as elsewhere, the driest plains are made productive, and the heaviest crops produced by that mode of cultivation. With irrigation a succession of crops may be produced tnroughout the year. Salubrity and a regulated mildness characterize the climate: there being no prevailing diseases, and the extremes of heat during the summer, being checked by sea-breezes during the day, and by light airs from the Sierra Nevada during the night. The nights are generally cool and refreshing, as is the shade during the hottest day. "Geographically, the position of this California is one of the best in the world; lying on the coastVf the Pacific, fronting Asia, on the line of an American road to Asia, and possessed of advantages to give full effect to its grand geographical position." In 1848 gold was first discovered in California. The gold region lies in the valleys of the San Joaquin and Sacramento. The metal principally exists in the form of dust or grains. The almost simultaneous discovery of quicksilver, was also an event of great importance. Besides these two valuable metals, California yields almost every description of mineral. "While in California," says Bryant, "I saw quicksilver, silver, lead, and iron ores, and the specimens were taken from mines said to be inexhaustible. From good authority I learned the existence of gold and copper mines-these metals being combined-and I saw specimens of coal taken from two or three different points, but I do not know what the indications were as to quality. Brimstone, saltpetre, muriate, and carbonate of soda, and bitumen, are abundant. There is little doubt that California is as rich in minerals of all kinds as any portion of Mexico." Various estimates have been formed in regard to the amount of gold taken since its first discovery in 1848. The product of the first season was estimated at $3,000,000 in value. In 1850 the gold from California deposited at the United States Mint, amounted to $31,500,000. During the first three months of 1851, the deposits amounted to $10,435,000. In various places rich veins of gold inmbedded in quartz have been discovered, which promise to yield an abun(lant harvest to the enterprising miner. Some veins have been found not l-es than 30 feet in width, producing a dollar's worth of gold to an ounce of rock. Th'le act for the admission of California into the Union, was ap;proved on the'tch of September, 1850.* The State Constitution was ratified by the -' Thie intelligence of the reception of California into the Union, was wvelcomed at San Francisco with expresn:ones of (!u-iversal enthusiasm. The steamer which bore the tidings was decked with flags and streanmers of all al':ioI;s with a piece of canvass extending from fore to mainmast, inscribed with the words "' California is STATE OF CALIFORNIA. 281 people on the 13th of November, 1849. The executive power is vested in a Governor, who is elected for the term of two years. He must have resided in the state two years, and has a qualified veto, overcome by a twothirds vote. Salary $10,000. The legislative power is vested in a Senate and Assembly. The Senators are chosen for two years, and members of the Assembly for one year. A Supreme Court is established, with a Chief Justice and two Associates. Term of office 6 years; salaries $10,000 dollars each. District and County Courts are also established. The elective franchise is conferred upon all white male citizens of the United States, who have resided in the state six months, and 30 days at the place of voting. No charter shall be granted for banking purposes, nor shall paper of any kind circulate as money. The stockholders in corporations are individually liable for its debts. Being knowingly concerned in any way in a duel, forfeits the right to vote, and to be elected to office. The credit of the state shall not be given or loaned to any individual or corporation. The real and personal property of the wife before marriage, and that acquired after by gift, devise, or descent, shall be her separate property. The Legislature shall protect by law from forced sale a certain portion of the homestead and other property of all heads of families. A plurality of votes shall constitute a choice, where not otherwise directed by the constitution. A Superintendent of Public Instruction shall be elected for three years. A system of common schools, to be taught at least three months in each year, shall be provided by the Legislature. The proceeds of public lands granted to the -State for schools, the 500,000 acres granted to new States under the act of Congress of 1841, estates of persons dying without heirs, and such per cent. as Congress shall grant on the sale of lands in this State, shall be a fund, the interest of which, and the rents of unsold landls, shall be inviolably appropriated to the support of common schools. The proceeds and income of certain lands are set apart for the support of a uni versity. The value of taxable property in 1850 was estimated at $200,000,000. The state debt amounted to 390,000. The chief sources of revenue are, a state tax of one-half per cent. on real and personal property; a poll tax of five dollars; a miner's tax of $20 per month on foreign miners; and duties on auction sales. The ordinary an nual expenditures inclusive of state debt, amount to $600,000. The first mails despatched to California left New York the 2d of October, 1848, and were sent by the way of Cape Horn. The subsequent mails have been sent by the Isthmus of Panama. The first mail was contained in a single bag. The one on the 23d of June, 1850, filled 160 bags. Charges of postage between any points in California and Oregon, 124 cents, and to any other place in the United States, 40 cents. admitted." The salvos of artillery and the waving of flags soon spread the joyful news to every part of the city. All classes of the inhabitants shared the general hilarity, and, with exchanges of mutual congratulations, exulted in the accession of California as the thirty-first state of the Federal Union. A more formal celebration of this event took place on the 29th of October, in which the citizens generally participated with patriotic joy. A procession was formed in honor of the occasion, salutes were fired, banners displayed, an oration pronounced, a national ode sung, and the festivities closed with a ball and supper. 282 STATE OF CALIFORNIA. San Francisco, from its situation, must eventually become the centre of a large trade, and in course of time rival the great commercial cities of New York and New Orleans, in business and prosperity. The principal towns where post offices are established, are Benicia, Colloma, Los Angelos, Monterey, Sacramento, Salls Creek, San Diego, San Francisco, San Jose, the capital of the state, Santa Barbara, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, Sanoma, Stockton, and Vernon. This city of San Francisco has suffered from extensive conflagrations. The fire of December, 1849, destroyed property to the amount of a million and a half of dollars. On the same night a fire broke out in Stockton; loss estimated at $250,000. Another fire at St. Francisco occurred in May, 1850, destroying 200 buildings and pro perty to the amount of over fbur million dollars. It is stated that more property was consumed than could have been contained within an equal space in any city in the world. On the 15th of June a third destructive conflagration took place, consuming an amount of valuable property estimated at five millions. The wharves and shipping were protected with great difficulty. Another disastrous fire occurred in September; loss estimnated at one nilion. In the month of January, 1850, a great overflow of the Sacramento river occurred, deluging the country both above and below the city of Sacramento, the flood extending in many places like an immense sea over the whole breadth of the valley. The course of the river was indicated only by the trees and shrubbery with which the banks were covered. A great number of horses and cattle were swept away by the flood and drowned. The wood-cutters and charcoal-burners on the banks of the river were obliged to climb into trees in order to save their lives. On the night of January 9th the city of Sacramento was entirely submerged, and remained under water for several days. The streets in which the principal business operations were conducted were swept completely through by the raging torrent. Every description of merchandise was borne away in the mighty rush. Boats navigated the streets, taking passengers from the second stories of the dwelling-houses. The ridge of high land in the rear of the city was studded with tents, and man and beast, seeking safety in flight, were crowded together in dire confusion. Sutterville was overflowed. The ranches back of the river suffered the same fate. A large amount of property was destroyed by this inundation, but it is believed that no lives were lost. The emigrants to California by the overland route, have been exposed to incredible sufferings from famine and disease. The number at one time on the plains has been from fifty thousand to one hundred thousand souls, not one half of whom were able to reach the place of their destination without being exposed to the greatest hardships. Almost every party was obliged to be put on short allowance. The roads were lined with the bodies of dead aninals, which had either perished from exhaustion or had been slaughtered for food and partly consumed. Many emigrants who had lost their animals packed their scanty supplies on their backs and attempted to contin4,e their perilous journey. The women and children lagged in the rear, many of whom found a grave on the desert plains. Great sympathy was excited for the condition of the emigrants in the cities of California; public meetings were held to procure means for their relief; and, by the prompt and energetic action of charitable individuals, many lives were no doubt preserved. California was discovered by Cobrillo, a Spanish navigator, in 1542, and the northern part was called New Albion, by Sir Francis Drake, in 1587. In 1768, it was first colonized by the Spaniards. The country has several times since the Spanish power was exterminated, suffered from revolution; and for the last ten or twelve years the authority of Mexico has been very loose. The people have more than once declared thomselves independent, and as often rejoined the confederacy. In 1846, it was occupied by the United States' forces, and by the treaty of 1848, was ceded to that government. We conclude our sketch of California with a quotation from an article by the editor of the New York Journal of Commerce: The old Greek fable of "Pallas Ethena" has been verified in these modern days by the sudden rise of an independent sovereignty on the shore of the Pacific. Cali fornia has sprung from the head of her father, " full-grown and armed," to assume at once the attributes and characteristics of maturity, to promulgate laws for her own guidance and direction, and to determine, by the rapid development of her own resources, the position she shall occupy in the political and commercial world. That latent power of development which operates with such wondrous effect upon all the institutions of society, moulding and transforming themn as the exigencies of advancing time require, seems in her case to have transgressed the laws by which it has hitherto been governed, and to have concentrated into a single year - almost into a single impulse -the force which has hitherto extended through centuries. She has reared for herself a political constitution by a single effort, and its beneficent operation is already manifested in a popular and general regard for justice, and in a growing regard for order and established law. Yet the scion that, on its parent stem, would have long remained a twig, becomes, when grafted upon a new stock, itself a tree, and in a comparatively short period produces the finest fruit in profusion. So, in the political world, the institutions that have started into life under one political organi INDIAN TERRITORY. 283 zation, may be safely and advantageously transferred, and the infusion of new vigor, energy and vitality, is the necessary result. The American element is predominant in every aspect of California; not only in her constitution and laws, professedly copied from those of our eastern states, but in the moral and social condition of her people, strangely as that condition is affected by circumstances, for which we can find no parallel in the history of the world. The influx of immigrants from every quarter of the globe - and there is no quarter that has not contributed its quota — has had little effect in supplanting the truly American spirit infused into the new state by the first thousand who went thither from the Atlantic coast. An immigration like that which poured into San Francisco, upon the first anJouncement of discovered treasure, the world never saw before. Unlike the old marauding expeditions of Cortez and Pizarro, which consisted for the most part of reckless adventurers, associated only by common interest in the acquisition of plunder, and by the necessity of mutual defence against common foes, the first California emigration comprised in itself representatives from every class and condition in American society. It took from our midst the bone and sinew of our land - not the mere refuse of a crowded population —our young men just on the verge of active life, and fitted to endure life's'struggles by an early discipline such as no land but our own can furnish. It took them from their workshops, their forges, their fields, with arms strengthened by toil, with spirits rendered resolute by habitual self-reliance. It took them from educational pursuits, from college, and from school, with minds well cultivated and balanced, ready for a life-struggle with ignorance and error. It took also men of mature years, of high intellectual and moral worth -men of experience and reflection, impelled not alone by idle cupidity and avarice, but by large and comprehensive views - by considerations of national as well as individual interest. In search of gold, it is true, all, or nearly all, thus left their homes: many, indeed, to dig for gold, bent only on acquiring the largest pile in the shortest period, and expecting to return at the earliest possible moment. Yet there were others of a less sordid nature, who regarded the new state as a fitting field- for permanent labor; who had the foresight to appreciate her advantages of position, her extensive resources, her capacity for immediate greatness; who, while seeking the advancement of their private fortunes, were not unmindful of their relations to their native land, nor- of the " manifest destiny" of the Anglo-Saxon race. The pulpit and the press are both at work in California, and their influence in counteracting lawlessness is irresistible and sure. The following testimony on this point from a California clergyman will be read with interest, and not without satisfaction: " No sober man can look candidly upon a community gathered so rapidly as ours without seeing, to speak entirely within bounds, as fair a representation, in every class of our citizens, of enterprise, of capacity, of love of order, respect for law, and reverence for religion, as can be found among the same classes at home; and this, too, with gigantic temptations to encounter, with no strong force of a settled public opinion to bear upon them, removed from the sacred guardianship of home, and from the thousand refined and delightful resources which are there everywhere opened for the mind and the heart." With few exceptions, the writers on the subject concur in predicting for California a population which, in point of character as well as numbers, shall compare favorably with that of any other state in the Union. INDIAN TERRITORY, THins territory was set apart by congress for the permanent residence of the Indian trihes, which have been removed from the states east of the Mississippi river. It is situated west of the states of Missouri and Arkansas, south of the Platte or Nebraska river, and north of Texas. It lies between the latitudes of 340 and 400 north; and the longitudes of 940 and 1000 west. It is 560 miles long and 446 miles broad, and contains an area of 248,551 square miles. This region is watered by numerous fine rivers, which have their sources in the Mexican Cordilleras, and traversing the oountry from west to east, finally fall into the Mississippi. The soil - espelially of that portion 284 TERRITORY OF MINNESOTA. of the territory bordering on Arkansas and Missouri-is said to be fertile, and the climate favorable to agriculture. Iron, lead, coal, and salt, are abundant; and the Indians have many well cultivated farms. The various agricultural products correspond With those of the same latitudes east of the Mississippi. The inhabitants of this territory are the Indian tribes indigenous to the country, and those that have been transported thither by the United States government; which now exercises no other control over them than such as may be necessary to preserve the peace of the frontier, and harmony among the several tribes. Of the transported tribes the Cherokees are the most numerous, having a population of 30,000. They have large herds of horses and cattle, and are good agriculturists. The Creeks nmmlher about 25,000. They have attained a considerable degree of civilization, having a written constitution and laws, well cultivated fields and gardens, and well built homesteads. The Choctaws number about 12,000. They have a government modeled after that of the United States. Their domain embraces 19,000 square miles. Among them agriculture and the mechanic arts are systematically pursued. Schools and churches are established, and several valuable works have been translated into their language. There are fifteen other transported tribes, whose aggregate population amounts to about 15,000. Among these are the Seminoles, Chippewas, Chickasaws, Delawares, Shawnees, Winnebagoes, Wyandots, &c. The indigenous tribes are more inclined to cling to their fbrmer customs and modes of life. They prefer the excitements of war and hunting to the quiet pursuits of civilization. Among them are the Pawnees, numbering about 12,000; the Osages, 4,000; the Kansas, 1,800; and the Omahas, Missouris, &c.; in all about 20,000. The NEnR.SKA TERartroy lies on the north of the Indian Territory, occupying the valley of the Platte river. It is inhabited by Indian tribes. No government has yet been established, nor its boundaries ascertained. The MrssouRI TERRrToRY reaches from the settled states to the Rocky Mountains, and from Nebraska to the British possessions. Inhabited by the Indian tribes. TERRITORY OF MINNESOTA. This territory lies on the north of Iowa and Wisconsin, and has an area of 150,000 square miles. It contains many rivers and small lakes. The sources of the Mississippi and several other important streams, lie in this region. Its agricultural capacities and mineral resources are of the highest order. It is rapidly filling up and is destined soon to become a bright star in the national galaxy. The territorial government was organized in 1849, and the town of St. Pauls was selected for the capital. The population of the territory is now set down at 5,139. We append a few extracts from the message of the governor in 1851, to the second legislative assembly of the territory. 1" As a Territory, but yesterday without a name, or political existence, our growth has been of the most satisfactory character. Health has prevailed within our borders. Our new soil has not failed to respond gratefully to the labors of the husbandman; and already in places, our prairies, scarcely abandoned by the disappearing buffalo, are assuming a robe of cultivated verdure. The enterprise of our hardy lumbermen has met with a liberal return; and there has been a rapid augmentation of this important element of wealth, and rich ource of revenue, so invaluable to ourselves, as well as to the country on the great river to the south of us. " That the fertility of our soil, the salubrity of our climate, our forests, our fisheries, our mines, our inexhaustible water power, furnish elements which will attract hither a large and steady immigration, and secure a growth both vigorous and rapid, cannot be doubted. " Until we become essentially an agricultural community, we shall never be an opulent and prosperous one; and experience has demonstrated that beyond all doubt, we can produce from the soil in its natural state in Minnesota, in which the test has been made, wheat, oats, potatoes and corn, in quality equal to that produced in any of the States of the Union, and in quantity that astonishes even those who have been familiar with the most fertile bottom lands of Indiana and Illinois. It happened to me, during the last summer, to witness upon the banks of the northern lakes under the forty-eighth degree of latitude, fields of corn and wheat, in a state of most luxuriant growth; and from the settlements of the Red River of the North, I have received specimens of spring wheat equal in weight to any winter wheat raised in the middle States of the Union. With these results, in connection with the incomparable salubrity of our climate, the remunerating prices of produce, the certainty and proximity of a market, the abundance and cheapness of land, and the hidden treasures of its unworn fertility, who can doubt that the future has in store for us a career of manly vigor, and a succession of prosperous days? Our soil teems with vegetative power, and is equally adapted to the growth of wheat, the raising of cat tie, and the production of wool." The principal settlements are on the Mississippi and its branches, in the vicinity of the Falls of St. Anthony. St. Pauls, the capital, is 327 miles above Galena, and eight miles below the falls. It lies on a beautiful level plateau, and has 1,200 inhabitants. St. Anthony, at the falls, has 1,000 inhabitants. TERRITORY OF NEW MEXICO. 285 TERRITORY OF NEW MEXICO. The act for the organization of New Mexico, and fixing its boundaries, was approved on the 9th of September, 1850. By this act the boundaries are defined as beginning at a point in the Colorado river, where the boundary line of the Republic of Mexico crosses the same; thence eastwardly with said boundary line to the Rio Grande; thence following the main channel of said river to the parallel of the thirty-second degree of north latitude; thence eastward with said degree to its intersection with the one hundred and third degree of longitude west from Greenwich; thence north with said degree of longitude to the parallel of the thirty-eighth degree of north latitude; thence west with said parallel to the summit of the Sierra Madre; thence south with the crest of said mountains to the thirty-seventh parallel of north latitude; thence west with the said parallel to its intersection with the boundary line of the State of California; thence with the said boundary line to the place of beginning. The general aspect of the country is mountainous, with a large valley in the middle, running from north to south, and formed by the Rio Grande del Norte. The valley is generally about twenty miles wide, and bordered on the east and west by mountain chains, continuations of the Rocky Mountains, which have here received various names, as Sierra Blanca, Sierra de los Organos, Sierra Oscura, &c., on the east side, and Sierra de los Grullas, de Acha, de los Mimbres, &c., on the west side. The height of these mountains south of Santa Fe, may, upon an average, be between six and eight thousand feet, while near Santa Fe, and in the more northern regions, some snow-covered peaks are seen that may rise from 10,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea. On the higher mountains, excellent pine timber grows; on the lower, cedars and sometimes oak; and in the central valley, mezquite, &c. The main artery of New Mexico, is the Rio Grande, a large and long river. Its highest sources are in the recesses of the Rocky Mountains, near the head waters of the Arkansas and the Colorado of the West. Following a generally southern direction, it passes through New Mexico, where its principal affluent is the Rio Chamas, from the west, and winds its way in a south-eastern direction, dividing in its course the United States from the Republic of Mexico to the gulf, into which it falls in 25~ 50' north latitude. Its tributaries below New 5Mexico, are, from the north the Rio Pecos, and from the south the Conchos, Salado, Alamo and San Juan. The length of the river in a straight line is about 1,200 miles, but from the meanderings of its lower course, it runs at least 2,000 miles from the region of eternal snows to the almost tropical climate of the gulf. The returns of the recent census of New Mexico exhibit a population of 61,000 inhabitants, of whom not quite 700 are natives of the United States. Of the adult native population, it appears that there are about 1 in 100 who can read. The returns abound with interesting facts relative to the living population, the statistics of mortality, the agricultural and mineral resources, education, morals, religion and manners, and many developments concerning the physical features of this newly acquired but interesting and extensive region of country. As all which throws any light on the physical features of New Mexico is regarded with interest, we extract from the " remarks " accompanying the returns, the following: " The tillable soil of San Miguel county runs in strips. In the valleys of the rivers it is remarkably rich in al the earthy salts, but is frequently valueless from the inability of the natives, with the spare means at their 286 TERRITORY OF UTAH. disposal, to throw water on it for purposes of irrigation. From juts of clay peeping out of the river banks, I would suppose that Artesian wells might remedy the difficulty. Away from the rivers the soil is rocky and sandy; granite, and its elements, may be seen in every direction; vegetation, from the dryness of the climate, necessarily sparse. Pine and pinon are the only trees in the county that can take the name of timber. I cannot say that I saw a stick of kard wood during my trip. The climate is rich and voluptuous as that of Italy, and, with ordinary precaution, I doubt if any disease could exist. In Rio Ariba county, sandstone, granite and limestone, can be had of any useful size for building purposes, and of the best quality. Cedar, pine and cotton wood trees abound. The pine trees are of the largest size — 150 feet without a limb. Lime can be had by burning. Iron ore and stone coal evidently exist, but heretofore have not been brought out. There are here the remains of an old copper furnace. From the appearance of the mountains, gold evidently can be found in abundance. There is a hot spring in this county of temperature nearly boiling, of sufficient size to turn a common mill. The seasons are usually dry. Nothing can be raised, such as corn, wht at, &c., except by irrigation. Bernalilla county was settled in the year 1693. Gold and copper abound in the Sandia mountain. In this place is found a large quantity of an alkali called tequesquinto, formed by evaporation of the great quantity of saline substances that are here in the river bottom. Albequerque was settled in 1595. There is a large soda spring at the foot of the Sandia mountain. Lead may be found near the same. The inhabitants go to San Antonio, twenty miles, for firewood. Copper is found near San Antonio, and lead and copper near Placita and Las Huertas. The maladies most prevalent in the county of Santa Fe have been erysipelas, rheumatism and hooping-cough. The character of the water is pure and healthy. The soil is generally poor, sandy and gravelly, and only in the bottoms along the streams is the land good and productive. In some parts of the creek and river bottoms is found a loose and rich soil, though in small lots. The water is very scarce, as the creeks are small and very little rain falis, and good crops are therefore only to be expected when much snow falls in the winter. The principal natural fertilizer is gypsum. The system of irrigation practised in this country constantly renews the soil. The rocks are granite, gneiss, and feldspar. In the mountains, red and white sandstone exists in abundance, limestone in small quantities, and basalt. The different kinds of timber that grow naturally, are yellow pine, fir, scrub oak and aspen, on the mountains; pinon and cedar on the sand hills, and cotton wood and willow along the streams. The principal ores are gold, silver, iron, copper and lead. The first is the only one now sought'for and obtained in small quantities in gold dust in the' placer' mountains. A principal reason why much gold is not obtained in the' placers,' is the scarcity of water in the regions where the gold is found. There are several gold mines, supposed to be very rich, but which have not been worked for some time to any extent.'" The principal city of New Mexico is SANTA FE, one of the oldest Spanish settlements. Lat. 35~ 41' 6" north, and long. 106~ 2' 3" west. Its elevation above the level of the sea is about 7,047 feet. Santa Fe is about 20 miles east, in a direct line from the Rio del Norte, and lies in a wide plain, surrounded by lofty mountains. A small creek, rising in the hills, and flowing past the city to the Rio Grande, supplies it with water. The land around is sandy, poor, and destitute of timber, but the mountains are covered with pine and cedar. No pasturage is observed about the settlements, and as a consequence the stock is driven to the mountains. The climate of this section is delightful, not being subject to any extremes. Nearly all the year the sky is clear, and the atmosphere dry. The houses of Santa Fe are built of adobes, but one story high, with fiat roofs; each house is square in form, with a court or area in the centre. The streets are narrow and irregular. The Plaza is spacious, and one side is occupied by the official residence of the executive. The inhabitants are a mixture of Spaniards and Indians, and the races sprung from an indefinite amalgamation of the two original races. The city proper contains 3,000 or 4,000 souls, and about 6,000 more are settled within its jurisdiction. A profitable trade has, for many years, been carried on from the western states to Santa Fe, and many of the companies engaged in this business have amassed large fortunes. Many of the necessaries, and all of the luxuries enjoyed by the people of Santa Fe, are obtained through this source. The average amount of merchandise annually carried from the Mississippi to this city, is estimated at half a million of dollars. During the existence of Mexican rule, the traders were severely taxed by the authorities. There are a number of other small towns along the Rio del Norte, chiefly inhabited by Indians. These are styled "Pueblos," and the inhabitants "Pueblo Indians," to distinguish them from the same races on the plains. The principal are Taos, Canada, San Miguel, &c., &c. None of these, however, demand more than a passing notice. TERRITORY OF UTAH. The act establishing the territorial government of Utah, and fixing its boundaries was approved on the 9th of September, 1850. By this act that extensive region - bounded on the west by the state of California, on the north by the territory of Oregon, on the east by the summit of the Rocky Mountains, and on the south by the parallel of 37' north — is erected into the territory of Utah; and when admitted as a state, the said territory, or any portion of the same, shall be received into the Union, with or without slavery, as its constitution may prescribe at the time of its admission. An appropriation of $20.000 was made for the erection of public buildings TERRITORY OF UTAH. 287 at the seat of government, when established, and $5,000 for a library. The population of Utah is set down at 75,000. The name of Utah is derived from that of an Indian tribe. In Mormon history and interpretation, the word Deseret signifies "honey-bee;" indicative of industry and its kindred virtues. The extreme length of the territory, east and west, is 750 miles; breadth, north and south, 350 miles. Area, 240,000 square miles. The main topographical features of the country are described in the foregoing pages, under the head of California. The Great Salt Lake and the Utah Lake are in the " Great Basin," toward its eastern rim, and constitute its most interesting feature: one a saturated solution of common salt, the other fresh; the Utah about one hundred feet above the Salt Lake, which is itself 4,200 above the level of the sea: they are connected by Utah river - or, as the Mormons call it, the Jordan, — which is forty-eight miles in length. These lakes drain an area of from 10 to 12,000 square miles. The Utah is about thirty-five miles long, and is remarkable for the numerous and bold streams which it receives, coming down from the mountains on the south-east; all fresh water, although a large formation of rock-salt, imbedded in red clay, is found within the area on the south-east, which it drains. The lake and its affluents afford large trout and other fish in great numbers, which constitute the food of the Utah Indians during the fishing season. The Great Salt Lake has a very irregular outline, greatly extended at time of melting snows: it is about seventy miles in length, -both lakes running north and south, in conformity to the range of the mountains, -and is remarkable for its predominance of salt. The whole lake waters seem thosroughly impregnated with it, and every evaporation of the water leaves salt behind. The rocky shores of the islands are whitened by the spray, which leaves salt on everything it touches, and a covering like ice forms over the water which the waves throw among the rocks. The shores of the lake, in the dry season, when the waters recede, and especially on the south side, are whitened with incrustations of fine white salt; the shallow arms of the lake, at the same time, under a slight covering of briny water, present beds of salt for miles. resembling softened ice, into which the horses' feet sink to the fetlock. Plants and bushes,'blown by the wind upon these fields, are entirely incrusted with crystallized salt, more than an inch in thickness. Upon this lake of salt the fresh water received, though great in quantity, has no perceptible effect. No fish or animal life of any kind is found in it. The climate of Utah is milder and drier, in general, than it is in the same parallel on the Atlantic coast. The temperature in the Salt Lake valley, in the winter, is very uniform, and the thermometer rarely descends to zero. There is but little rain in Utah, except on the mountains, from the 1st of May until the first of October; hence agriculture can only be carried on by irrigation. The greater part of Utah is sterile and totally unfit for agriculture, and is uninhabited and uninhabitable, except by a few trappers and some roaming bands of Indians, who subsist chiefly upon game, fish, reptiles, and mountain crickets. The general sterility of the country is mainly owing to the want of rain during the summer months, and partly from its being elevated several thousand feet above the level of the sea. The whole country is almost entirely destitute of timber. The little which there is, may be found on the side of the high, rocky mountains, and in the deep mountain gorges, whence issue the streams. On the table-lands, the gently undulating plains and the isolated hills, there is none. There are, however, small groves of cottonwood and box-alder on the bottoms of some of the principal streams. A species of artemisia, generally known by the name of wild sage, abounds in most parts of the country, where vegetation of any kind exists, but particularly where there is. not warmth and moisture sufficient to produce grass. The whiteTpopulation of Utah, in 1850, was estimated at 15,000, who were principally located in Salt Lake, Utah, and Sanpeech valleys. The last named, the southernmost settlement of the Mormons, is about two hundred miles south of Salt Lake City. It was made at the request of Walker, a distinguished chief of the Utah tribe, who wished the Mormons to settle in his valley, in order to learn his people the arts of civilized life. and to educate and bring up their children as were those of the whites. The inhabitable portions of the Great Basin, according to Mormon authority, are supposed to be capable of supporting a population of about 200,000. By means of irrigation. the Mormon valleys are lmade exceedingly productive. Wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, oats, and Indian corn, are their agricultural products, and all the garden vegetables peculiar to the middle and western states are produced in great perfection. Tobacco and sweet potatoes can be produced in limited quantities. So fertile is their soil, that an average crop of wheat is fifty bushels to the acre. The system of irrigation prevents rust or smut striking the crop, and renders it sure. The territory of the Mormons is unequaled as a stock-raising country, and they are to a great extent a pastoral people. The finest pastures of Lombardy are not more estimable than those on the east side of the Utah lake and Jordan river. Salt Lake Cityis pleasantly situated on a gentle declivity near the base of a mountain, about two miles east of the Utah outlet, or the river Jordan, and about twenty-two miles south-east of the Salt Lake. It is nearly on the same latitude with New York City, and is, by air lines, distant in miles from New York, two thousand one hundred miles; from St. Louis, one thousand two hundred; from San Francisco, five hundred and fifty; and from Oregon City and Santa Fe, each six hundred. During five months of the year, it is shut out from all communication with the north, east, or west, by mountains rendered impassable from snow. Through the town runs a beautiful brook of cool, limpid water, called City Creek. The city is laid out regularly, on an extensive scale; the streets crossing each other at right angles, and being each eight rods wide. Each lot contains an acre and a quarter of ground, and each block or square eight lots. Within the city are four public squares. The city and all the farming lands are irrigated by streams of beautiful water, which flow from the adjacent mountains. These streams have been, with great labor and perseverance, led in every direction. In the city they flow on each side of the different streets, asad their waters are let upon the inhabitants' gardens at regular periods, likewise upon the extensive fields of grain lying to the south. The greater part of the houses which had been built up to the close of 1850, were regarded as merely temporary; most of them were small, but commodious, being, in general, constructed of adobe or sun-dried bricks. Among the public buildings are, a house of public worship, a council-house, a bath-house at the Warm Spring; and it is in contemplation to erect another temple more magnificent than that they formerly had at Nauvoo. On the temple square they intend to have a garden that will cost at least $100,000 at the commencement. Their missionaries have already made arrangements in the Eastern States,'in Great Britain, France, Italy, Denmark, the German States, and in the islands of the sea, to gather the choicest seeds and fruits, and everything that can beautify and adorn it. Public free schools are established in the different wards into which the city is divided, in which the ordinary branches are taught, and in some the Latin, Greek, French, and German languages, and that of the Society Islands. East of the city, a mile square is laid off for a state university, and the Mormons have appropriated for this object, $5,000 a year for twenty years, to be paid out of the public treasury 288 TERRITORY OF OREGON. TERRITORY OF OREGON, Oregon is an extensive territory, 500 miles long and 600 broad. It is bounded on the north by the British Possessions; east by the Rocky moun tains; south by Utah and California, and west by the Pacific. Its area is 341,463 square miles or 218,536,320 acres. It is divided into three natural sections: the first plateau lies along the Pacific, and extends from 100 to 150 miles to the Cascade range; the second lies between the Cascade range and the Blue mountains, and the third, between them and the principal range of the Rocky mountains. These several plateaux are distinguished by different soil, climate and productions. The southern part of the western section, especially in the valley of the Willamette river, is' supposed to be the most fruitful in Oregon; it grows the finest wheat and other grains. The middle plateau is of a light sandy loam, having in the vallies a rich alluvium, but is barren on the hills. The third, or eastern section, is rugged and barren, except on the low grounds, which are adapted to grazing. Some of the Cascade mountains rise to the height of 4,000 feet above the level of the sea; but in the eastern, or great range, the summits sometimes reach the elevation of more than 6,000 feet, and these lofty altitudes are so continuous as to present a serious barrier. Only three places have yet been found in this chain that admit of passage: the first and northernmost, was found by Lewis and Clarke, and lies in latitude about 46~ 30' north; the next is in 44~ 30', where a road is practicable; and the third, is the "' South Pass," discovered by Col. Fremont. This last is the most eligible passage, and will become the great thoroughfare from the states to Oregon. A range of mountains, called the Klamet, runs from the great range westward towards the Pacific. The climate is temperate, and without great extremes of heat or cold. The rainy season lasts from November to March. The Columbia is the great river of the territory, nearly all the others being its tributaries. Its northern branch, Clark river, from its source in the Rocky mountains to near Fort Colville, is bounded by lofty wooded mountains. At Walla-walla it unites with its other branch, the Lewis, which is not navigable for even canoes. At the junction, the Columbia is 1286 feet above the ocean, and near three-fourths of a mile wide; it here takes its last turn to the westward, pursuing a rapid course for 180 miles, previous to passing through the Cascade range, in a series of falls and rapids that obstruct its flow, and form during floods insurmountable barriers to boat navigation, which difficulties are now overcome by porterages Locks and canals will be eventually used. From thence, there is still water navigation for forty miles, when its course is again obstructed by rapids. Thence to the ocean, 120 miles it is navigable for vessels of 12 feet draught at the lowest stage of water. To the south of the Columbia, the only three rivers of note, are the Umpqua, Rogue's and the KIlamet. It will be almost impossible to give an idea of the extensive fisheries in the rivers, and on the coast. They all abound in salmon of the finest TERRITORY OF OREGON. 289 flavor, which rnm twice a year, beginning in May and October, and appear inexhaustible; the whole population live upon them. The Columbia produces the largest, and probably affords the greatest numbers. There are some few of the branches of the Columbia that the spring-fish do not enter, but they are plentifully supplied in the fall. The great fishery of the Columbia is at the Dalles; but all the rivers are well supplied. The last one on the northern branch of the Columbia is near Colville, at the Kettle Falls; but salmon are found above this in the river and its tributaries. In the rivers and sounds are found several kinds of salmon, salmon-trout, sturgeon, cod, carp-sole, flounders, ray, perch, herring, lamprey-eels, and a smelt called " shrow," in great abundance; also large quantities of shellfish, viz.:-crabs, clams, oysters, mussels, &c., which are all used by the natives, and constitute the greater portion of their food. Whales, in num bers, are found along the coast, and are frequently captured by the Indians in and at the mouth of the straits of Juan de Fuca. Abundance of game exists, such as elk, deer, antelope, bears, wolves, foxes, muskrats, martins, beavers, a few grizzly bears and siffleurs, which are eaten by the Canadians. In the middle section, or that designated by the rolling prairie, no game is found. In the eastern section the buffalo is met with. The fur-bearing animals are decreasing in number yearly; indeed, it is very doubtful whether they are sufficiently numerous to repay the expense of hunting them. In the spring and fall, the rivers are literally covered with geese, ducks, and other water-fowl. Fort Vancouver, on the Columbia, and 90 miles from the ocean, is the pricipal seat of the British fur trade, and the head-quarters of the Hud-son's Bay company. It is a large stockade inclosing many buildings. Here is a fine farm, workshops, mills, and a school. Astoria, or Fort George,:is eight miles from the mouth of the Columbia river, and has but two or three buildings. The American settlements are confined to the western section of Oregon: and are principally in the beautiful and fertile valley of the Willamette. Oregon City is 2,300 miles from St. Louis, on the east bank of the Wi!lamette, just below the falls, at the head of navigation, and about 18 miles from the mouth of the river. It is the largest town in Oregon. In 1848 it contained one Methodist and one catholic church, a public library, one newspaper printing office, one female boarding-school, one day-school, five stores, three hotels, two flouring and two saw mills, and 650 inhabitants. It has since much increased. Milwaukie, Plymouth, Portland, and Salem. on the Willamette, and Cascade on the Columbia are promising places. In 1850, the total white population was about twenty thousand. We can recognize in Oregon the material of her future greatness; a climate and a soil extraordinarily productive, eminently characterize it; the prolific growth of grain, vegetables and grapes; the natural meadows, untouched by the hand of cultivation, sufficiently extensive to furnish subsistence to innumerable herds of cattle during the entire year. Inexhaustible forests of the finest fir and cedar in the world; never failing streams which furnish water power of unlimited capacity, show how lavishly nature nas bestowed her blessings upon this favored land. With the developement of her agricultural resources, and the improvement of her immense water power, she can supply the entire P cific coast with the most important of the necessaries of life, and many of the staple articles of Commerce. Her 19 290 MEXICO. immense resources are gradually, but surely being developed; her mineral wealth is at present not to be computed; gold has been found in several places, in sufficient quantities to induce the belief that there are mines, perhaps extensive ones, of this precious metal within the borders of her territory; iron, lead, and coal, are known to exist, and the indications of their abundance are of the most flattering description. Mr. Thurston, a member of congress, from Oregon, describes the country as follows: "Middle Oregon, that part between the President's range or the Cascade mountains and the Blue mountains, not only has the reputation of being one of the finest grazing countries in the world, but also, is susceptible of sustaining a dense population, and is ultimately destined to do so. The climate of middle Oregon is, undoubtedly, the best in the world. While it is almost free from snows, it is subject to but moderate rains; while its long sumners are one continued holiday of sporting sunshine, its winters are but moderately rainy. Its waters are nowhere to be surpassed for either coolness, purity or flavor; and taken all in all, middle Oregon is one of the fair spots of nature, but for ten or fifteen years to come, will not be needed for settlement. "' The productions of the two western divisions of Oregon, are such as are produced in any of the northern states; As the country is never subject to hot weather, and its nights being cool, it follows, of course, that corn deos not grow so spontaneously as in the western states. Yet, good crops of corn may be raised by attten. ding to its cultivation, as they do in New England. It should be borne in mind, however, that we have no par titular use for corn, as wheat, oats, barley and rye, can be raised much more abundantly and with less cost; yet, I have seen as stout corn growing there, as I ever did anywhere. For raising the other kinds of grains, those I have mentioned, and buckwheat, and peas, and beans, no country can surpass Oregon. And as to its vegetable productions, I venture nothing in saying, it can vie with any country.'Oregon is an extraordinarily healthy country. The climate is free from those sudden changes from heat to cold, from the oppressive, still and sultry day to the warring elements of a tempest-riven evening. Wherever there is a sultry, imunpure and pent up atmosphere, there are thunder storms, tempests and tornadoes. With these we are rarely visited. This, of itself, is evidence of the purity of our atmosphere, and, consequently, of the healthiness of our climate." MEXICO. ARxA, 1,100,000 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION 7,200,000 THE UNITED STATES OF MEXICO, are bounded by the Rio Grande anct Gulf of Mexico, on the east and north-east; Guatemala on the south-east; the Pacific on the west and south-west; and the river Gila, &c., on the north.* These boundaries contain an area of 1,100,000 square miles. The extreme length is about 1,400 miles, and the greatest breadth, 650. Latitude, 150 to 33~ north, and longitude 900 to 117~ west. Area in Population States. SquareMiles. Population. Capitals. of capital. Federal District................ 100 1,39,520 Mexico....... 300,000 Mexico........................ 25,450 5 Tlalpan. 12,000 Xalisco......................... 73,000 679,111 Guadalajara................. 60,000 Puebla........................ 18,440 661,992 Puebla........... 95,000 Guanaxuato................... 8,000 613,666 Guanaxuato................. 60,000 Oajaca....................... 32,650 500,2'78 Oajaca....................... 40,000 echoacan.................... 22,468 497,906 Valladolid........ 25,000 San Luis Potosi............... 19,000 331,840 San Luis Potosi..... 50,000 Zacatecas....................... 19,950 2783,575 Zacatecas.................... 25.000 Vera Cruz...................... 27,660 254,380 Vera Cruz....... 15,000 Durango....................... 54,500 162,618 Durango.................... 25,000 Chihuahua..................... 107,500 147,60,) Chihuahua.................. 0,000 Sinalloa......................... 54,700 147,000 Sinaloa...................... 13,000 ChJliapas.1.8..,..............*. 18750 141,206 Cuidad Real.................. 3,000 Sonora......................... 200,000 124,000 Arispe..................... 5000 Queretaro........... 7,500 120,560 Queretaro.................... 40,000 Neuvo Leon. 21,000 101,408 Monterey.................... 15,000 Tarnaulipas.................... 85,100 100,068 Neuvo Santander.............. 4,000 Coahuila...................... 93,600 75,340 Coahuila..................... 4,000 Aquas Calientes —(new state).... 69,600 Aquascalientes............... 20,000 fr;>t e: o..............'-*14,676 63,580 Villa Herosa................ 000 Yucatan....................... 9,500 580,984 Merida.............15,000 Baja California................. 67.029 83,439 Loreto....................... 00 * Treaty of 1848, between the United States and Mexico MEXICO. 291 Previous to its invasion by the army of the United States, nothing could be more unsatisfactory than our acquaintance with this country. Few even of the principal towns and rivers, were correctly laid down, and with respect to population and other statistics, the unsettled, disorderly, and almost lawless state of the country, made inquiry useless, and all but nugatory. The foregoing table is as near an approximation to the truth as can at present be arrived at. PHYSICAL ASPECT. —This great country comprises all the varieties of soil, climate, and temperature, on our globe. Immense level tropical plains, covered with a gigantic growth of evergreen vegetation, from the shrub to the most lofty trees in the world; table elevations on tropical mountains, where perpetual spring prevails, and where productions of the tropics grow side by side with those of the temperate climates; mountain summits covered with unmelting snows, or throwing up volcanic fires; immense prairies clothed with ever verdant grass, and feeding innumerable herds of buffaloes and wild cattle and horses; vast tracts of sandy desert, scorched with a cloudless sun, and moistened with no rain; other regions, where periodical rains deluge the country for weeks in succession - such are the contrasts of this strange country. African heats are contiguous to arctic snows; the wheats and fruits of the United States to the banana, cocoa, and pine apple, of the tropics. In one district nothing is raised except by artificial irrigation. In another, the rank vegetation is thrown up by the richest soil and a reeking humidity. Ancient and deep forests, untouched by the axe, groves of mahogany and logwood, the palm and guava, rear their columns on the plains. In another, mountains, whose summits were never pressed by mortal foot, pour from their cone-shaped funnels into the elevated and frosty atmosphere, the flame and lava of never quenched internal fires. It is a scene of continual wonders, strong contrasts, and sublime contemplations, whether we view the grandeur of the vegetable kingdom, or the diversity of the animal races, particularly the splendor and variety of the birds, the beauty and sublimity of the scenery, or the grandeur of the almost numberless mountain peaks. MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES.-The chain of mountains which enter Mexico on the south, diverges as it proceeds north, into two great arms, like the upper part of the letter Y, following the line of the coasts on either side. The whole of the coast tract between these arms, forms the high table lands of Mexico-the plateau of Anahuac-elevated from 6,000 to 8,000 feet above the level of the sea! Hence, although a large portion of this plain is south of the tropic, it enjoys a moderate climate, inclining more to cold than excess of heat. But few valleys or hills interrupt the general level. The most remarkable tract in this elevated region is the plain of Tenochtitlan, (in which is the capital,) surrounded by porphyritic and basaltic rocks. It is of an oval form, 54 miles long and 37 miles broad, occupying an area of 1,700 square miles, of which 160 square miles are covered with water. More elevated on the southeast side, there are are seen towering above the plain, the volcanoes of Popocatapetl, 17,735 feet, Iztaccihautl, 15,700 feet, Cittalapetl or Orizaba, 17,388 feet, and Nauhcampapetl or the Cofflre de Perote, 13,514 feet above the sea. LAKES. —The waters of the valley of Mexico are deposited in five principal lakes, situated on different levels: —that of Tuzcuco, which is near the 292 MEXICO. centre of the valley, and covers 70 square miles, is the least elevated Further north are the lakes of St. Christoval and Tonanitla-while south is the lake Chalco, occupying an area of 51 square miles; and these three are five feet higher than that of Tescuco. The most elevated, however, of the whole, though the smallest, is Zimpango, the level of which is 30 feet above that of Tezcuco. These lakes are fed by numerous small rivers, and having no natural outlet, are drained by the Desague of Huchuetoca, an artificial canal cut through the rock, 12 miles in length, 150 feet deep and 300 feet wide —having its embouchure in the river Panuco, which flows eastward to the Gulf of Mexico. This great work, completed in 1789, at an expense of ~1,292,000, was undertaken to obviate the frequent inundations, some of which did great damage to the capital. The water of lake Tezcuco is salt, that of the rest is fresh; but, from those of the south, sulphuretted hydrogen is copiously disengaged, the stench of which is often perceptible in the city of Mexico. Beside the volcanoes already mentioned, those of Tuxtla, Jorullo and Colima, in the table land, are at present in a state of activity, and there are several others now extinct. Jorullo, which rises west of the capital, first broke out in 1759, when a tract of land three or four miles square swelled up like an inflated bladder, emitting flames and fragments of rock through a thousand apertures. These active volcanoes seem to be connected with others parallel to them, and obviously of similar origin. Earthquakes are frequ nt in Mexico, but it is seldom they create much mischief. RIVERS.-Compared with the vast extent of Mexico, her rivers are few and unimportant, and great disadvantages are suffered bor want of water communication. The Rio Grand del Norte, which separates the United States from Mexico, has a long course, but the trade on that river must forever be sequestered by the superior ability and energy of the Americans. The Rio Grand de Santiago, called by the natives Tolototlan, rises in the centre of the republic, not far from the capital, and, after traversing the Lake Chapala, falls into the Pacific at San Blas. The Balsas of Zacatula, and the Yopez, are the only other rivers on the west side of the plateau; and on the east side are the Tula, Tampico and Tabasco, flowing into the Gulf; but they have bars at their mouths which prevent the entrance of large ships. CLIMATE. —In regard of climate, the country is divided into three re gions, named, respectively, the Tierras Calientes, or Hot Regions; the Tierras Templadas, or Temperate Regions; and the Tierras Priars, or Cold Regions. The first include the low grounds of the coasts, under the ele vation of 2,000 feet; the mean temperature is 770, and the country is es pecially suited to the growth of sugar, indigo, cotton and bananas, which all flourish luxuriantly; but this district is almost inaccessible by sea for one half the year, owing to the prevalence of north winds and boisterous gales, and during the other half are extremely unhealthy from the oppressive heat, and the great quantity of rain that falls. The coast then becomes the seat of pestilence, and the stranger, from more northern regions, arriving for the first time at Vera Cruz, or any other part of the coast within the tro pies, in August, September or October, has little chance of escaping the yellow fever, and fluxes, peculiar to these regions. But at the height of 2,000 to 2,500 feet, these scourges are quite unknown. MEXICO. 293 The temperate regions, which are of comparatively small extent, occupy the slopes of the great plateau, and range from 2,500 to 5000 feet in elevation above the sea. The mean annual temperature is from 680 to 70~, and the extremes of heat and cold are alike unknown. The Mexican oak, and most of the fruits and cereals of Europe, flourish in this genial climate. Fogs, however, are frequent, occasioning excessive humidity, but producing great beauty and strength of vegetation. The cold regions include the high table lands, and mountains of upwards of 5,000 feet in elevation. The mean temperature of this plateau is generally about 60~, but in the city of Mexico it sometimes, though rarely, falls below the freezing point. In the cold season the mean heat of the day va, ries from 550 to 700; while in the summer, it seldom rises in the shade above 75~. At a greater elevation than 8,000 feet, the climate is severe and disagreeable, and under the parallel of Mexico, the snow-line varies from 12,000 to 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. The climate of the table lands, on the whole, is favorable to human life, and the prevalent diseases are believed to be more owing to the bad habits of the people, than to the qualities of the soil and climate. Indeed, owing to the improvidence of the people, famine and its concomitant privations, have thinned the population more than epidemic complaints. ZOOLOGY. —The zoology of Mexico is but imperfectly known. The bison and musk-ox wander in immense herds in northern Mexico. The jaguar and the cougar, are met with in the lower part of the country. The Mexican bear is the same as that of the United States and Canada. The wild horses, which are found in immense droves, are descended from those brought thither, by the Spaniards. Inconceivable numbers of mules are raised, and there are at least seventy thousand employed in the trade between Vera Cruz and the capital. There are families that possess from 50 to 60,000 oxen, cows and horses. The sheep are a coarse and neglected breed. The bird and insect tribes of Mexico, are of beautiful colors, and immense in variety and numbers. AGRICULTURE. -Mexico, not only from its extent through 21 degrees of latitude, but also from the varying elevation of its surface, and consequent variety of climate, produces most of the plants peculiar to the tropics, as well as those belonging to the temperate regions of south and middle Europe. " Indeed," says Humboldt, " there is scarcely a plant in the rest of the world, which is not susceptible of cultivation in one or other part of Mexico; nor would it be an easy matter for the botanist to obtain even a tolerable acquaintance with the multitudes of plants scattered over the mountains, or crowded together in the vast forests at the foot of the Cordilleras." The soil also is, in most parts, extraordinarily fertile; and wherever water can be procured for irrigation, the most abundant crops may be raised with very little labor. About 450,000 square miles in the tierras calientes, are said to be adapted for the cultivation of the banana. It is propagated by cuttings; and there is probably no other plant which produces on the same extent of land, and with so little labor, so great a quantity of food. Humboldt affirms that one half hectare (about an acre) of land, planted with bananas, will furnish food for more than 50 individuals'; and all the labor required to raise this enormous produce is to cut off the stems when the fruit is ripe, and to give the earth a slight digging about the roots of the plant once or twice a year. --— * ~- --- -I. 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BARBADOES. - - - ---------------— C- -I- --— * — --------------------— ~ —;=_ _~MEXICO-PLAINS-I\IIRAGE.i A_ w ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ 296 MEXICO. The same parts of the country which produce the banana, produce also the cassava, or manioc, the farina of which yields a very nourishing bread; it requires more care than the banana, somewhat resembles the potato, and arrives at maturity about eight months after the slips have been planted. The culture of maize is scarcely less important in the tierras calientes than that of the plants before named; it is not confined, however, to the low lands, but ascends as high even as the plain of Toluca, (9,100 feet above the sea,) the lowest average temperature favorable to its growth being about 480 Fahrenheit. The plant, under favorable circumstances, rises to the height of 7 or 8 feet, and the returns, in common years, are most abundant; but they are more uncertain than those of any other'kind of grain. Maize is the principal food of the people, as well as of most domestic animals; and a deficient harvest, whether from want of rain, or excess of cold, produces a general famine, and compels great numbers of the rural population to seek the deserts in search of wild plants. There can be no doubt, however, that if agriculture were pursued with any spirit, and the system of irrigation generally introduced on corn lands, or even if there were the slightest degree of providence in the natives, those dearths would not occur that on several occasions have been so fatal, especially in the mining districts. The cerealia, such as wheat, barley, &c., succeed best in the temperate regions, where the mean heat does not exceed 60~ Fahrenheit; in fact, in the equinoxial regions of Mexico, these grains are not found under the level of 2500 feet above the sea. The Mexican wheat is of excellent quality; it is large, white and nutritive. In well irrigated lands, and on good soils, the produce is said to average 24 for 1. Rye and barley resist cold better than wheat, and are cultivated in the highest regions; barlry yielding abundant harvests, even where the ther mometer indicates a heat during the day of only 57~. Oats are little cultivated. Among the other alimentary plants, are the potato, confined chiefly to the table-land; the yam, common both to the high and low country; the capsicum, raised in immense quantities for its spice, which is universally used instead of salt for seasoning food; beans, and various other garden vegetables common to Europe and America. Most of the fruits of Europe are common and plentiful; the olive and vine introduced since the revolution, generally succeed well; and nowhere are there finer pine-apples, pomegranates, guavas, alligator pears, &c. One of the most valuable plants in the country is the maguey, (Agave Americana.) The maguey plantations are principally found in the states of La Puebla, Mexico, and Guanaxuato; but the plant is very hardy, and occurs in a wild state all over the country. Its growth is slow; but when arrived at maturity, its leaves are from 5 to 8 feet in length, and the stem often attains the height of 20 or 30 feet. Its period of flowering is very uncertain, but once in ten,years may be considered a fair average. At the flowering season, when the plant first begins to be useful, the exact time is watched when the stem of the flower is about to shoot up; the top is then cut off, so at to form a hollow, for the reception of the sap, which is regularly drawn off; and a vigorous plant will yield 15 quartillos daily, for four or five months successively. The sap, which has a slight sub-acid taste, ferments readily in three or four days, being in its vinous state, called pulque, a beverage which somewhat resembles cider, though with a MEXICO. 297 disagreeable smell. Immense quantities of it are drank by all classes, and many whites as well as Indians use no other liquor. A kind of brandy, called mexical, (very like whiskey,) is made from the distillation of pulque. The maguey is useful, also, in many other ways: its fibres are converted into thread ropes and paper, its prickles serve for pins and needles, and its juice is effective in healing green wounds. Large quantities of sugar are raised in the neighborhood of the capital, and the crops are very abundant; the lands are cultivated by free laborers, and the farming seems pretty good, though the process of refining is very clumsily conducted. Vanilla is extensively raised, and the cultivation of coffee and tobacco is increasing. The plows and all the agricultural implements of the Mexicans are of the rudest description. MINING INDUSTRY.- The silver and gold mines of Mexico have always been deemed the main sources of its wealth; and, unquestionably, its mineral riches far exceed those of any part of America, except, perhaps, Peru. Before the war of independence, there were, in the 37 mining districts of New Spain, somewhat more than 3,000 mines, producing annually about $21,000,000 in silver, and about $2,000,000 in gold. Since that period this great interest has diminished in importance, chiefly from the expense and insecurity attending the operations. M. Duport estimates the quantity of coin struck in 1841 as follows: Silver coin......................................$12,731,747 Gold coin....................................................................... 751,058 The following statement of M. Chevalier, as to the insecurity of the miners, in 1835, discovers a state of things disgraceful to the government; and such indeed as could hardly have been credited upon any inferior authority. "How," asks he, " can the mines be worked with any feeling of security, when it requires a little army to escort the smallest portion of the precious metal to its place of destination? Between the m ine of Real del Monte and the village of Tezeyuco is a mountain pass, where a grand battle was fought between the miners and the banditti of the country. The former were defeated, overpowered by numbers; but not without having sold their lives as dearly as possible. The mine is now guarded by artillery and grape-shot, and the Englishmen employed there are regularly drilled in the use of the musket." In such a state of things, the wonder is, not that the produce of the mines has declined, but that it continues to be so great as we find it to be. The mineral riches of the country are, however, inexhaustible; and there wants only a government able and willing to afford security, to make the produce of the mines greater than ever, The principal mines are in the states of Guanaxuato, Zacatecas, San. Luis Potosi, Chihuahua, Duranro, Guadalaxara, and Mexico. The richest mineral tract lies between the 21st and 25'th parallels of north latitude. Many of the mines have been very imperfectly wrought; and by far the larger part of the richest veins is yet unexplored. It is worthy of remark, also, that the ores appear to increase in richness on proceeding north. The mines in the confines of Durango and Sonora are peculiarly rich, lie near the surface, and hold out, wherever they have been tried, a promise of riches superior to any that Mexico has yet produced. Iron is found in great abundance in Guadalaxara, Mechoacan, and Zacatecas; but no mines of that metal were worked before 1825. Copper 298 MEXICO. is raised in Mechoacan and Guanaxuato. Large quantities of copper money have been coined in the mint in the city of Mexico. Tin is obtained partly from mines, but principally from washings in the ravines. The lead mines, though rich, are quite neglected. Zinc, antimony, and arsenic, have been found; but neither cobalt nor maganese. A quicksilver mine is wrought in the state of Queretaro. Carbonate of soda, used for smelting the silver ore, is found in great abundance, crystallized on the surface of several lakes. MANUFACTURES.- The selfish policy of Old Spain, by which she endeavored to keep her colonies as much as possible dependent on her own markets, or on supplies furnished by her, led to the enactment of laws prohibiting the rearing of silk-worms, and the cultivation of flax, and of the vine and olive. Coarse woollen and cotton fabrics, worth about ~1,500,000, were formerly made; but these have greatly diminished since the revolution. The system on which the cloth and other factories are conducted, is disgraceful to persons having the smallest pretensions to civilization, and is wholly subversive of all improvement. Each factory is, in fact, a prison, in which the work-people are treated with the greatest rigor, and from which there is no escape; the proprietor, instead of paying his workmen in money, supplies them with spirits, tobacco, and food, at prices fixed by himself. An intelligent German, who resided forty years in Mexico, states, that the high walls, strong double doors, barred windows, and severe corporal punishments, common to these factories, make them as bad as the worst conducted jail in Europe. Criminals and insolvent debtors are condemned to work in the factories as a punishment. The native Mexicans are destitute of all spirit of enterprise, and strangers cannot attempt any permanent establishment in a country from which, during every session of congress, they are periodically threatened with expulsion. A more than ordinary display of industry would excite the jealousy of the natives; for nothing exasperates a Mexican more than to see Europeans and North Americans growing rich before his face. A flourishing factory, established by a foreigner, would be very likely to be pillaged during the first popular tumult. Instances of the kind have already occurred. When the Mexicans had achieved their independence, and were organizing their government, they created a fund for the encour agement of national industry (banco de avis,) and endowed it with an, additional duty of 22 per cent. on foreign importations. In this way a few hundred thousand piastres were soon procured, which were expended in the vain attempt to establish manufactories. At present, the receipts for this fund are thrown into the abyss of the national deficit, which every year increases in depth, and where they are lost like a drop of water in the sea. Cigars, hats, glass, and earthenware, are produced on a large scale; but the factories are, for the most part, extremely ill-conducted. Mexican leather is very indifferent; paper is of bad quality, and' exorbitantly dear; the making of cutlery and hardware is scarcely attempted, and what is done, is badly executed; the use of cast-iron and tin for culinary utensils, is almost unknown, and a very few years ago there was only one manufacturer of watches and optical instruments in the whole of Mexico. COMMERCE. —An individual, looking at a map of the world, would be apt to conclude that Mexico is one of the most favorably situated countries MEXICO. 299 for commerce; and, in some respects, this is true. But her trade labors, notwithstanding, under some serious disadvantages. Though washed by the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, neither of her coasts are accessible for several months of the year. On the east coast, or that bordering the Gulf of Mexico, there is not a single good harbor; and during the season when the coasts are accessible, they are extremely unhealthy. Owing, also, to the rapid ascent from the shores to the interior, the construction of roads, and the transport of commodities to and from the inner provinces, is alike difficult and expensive. No doubt, however, an efficient government and an industrious people would speedily, in a great measure, overcome these obstacles to an extensive intercourse with foreigners. But Mexico has neither the one nor the other; and, at present, her trade is confined within the narrowest limits. TRADE BETWEEN MXTCo AND TIHE UNITED STATES. Value. Years. Imports. Exports. 1843 (nine months.................................................. $1,471,937 $3,782,406 1844.......................... 1,794,833 2,387,002 1845.............................................1........... 1,152,331 1,702,936 1846................................................. 1531,180 1,836,621 1847.692,428 71.............................. 692,428 746,818 1849.................................................................. 2,090,868 2,216;719 The roads, too, instead of being improved, have been suffered to fall into a state of almost irreparable decay. In this respect, the evidence of M. Chevalier is decisive. " The splendid road which, during the domination of the Spaniards, was constructed across deserts and precipices, by the merchants of Vera, Cruz, to the summit of the upper country, is a melancholy instance of the carelessness with which the public interests of the country are directed. During the war of independence, this road was cut up in various points; and, down to this day, the enfranchised Mexicans have not replaced a single stone, nor filled up a single trench, nor even cut down one of the trees, which, in the absence of any considerable traffic, and under the influence of a tropical sun, are rapidly growing up to a magnificent size in the very middle of the road. In the upper country nothing would be more easy than to open noble means of communication. The soil is naturally level; and basaltic rocks, particularly adapted for the construction of roads, are found in great abundance. But even where there are roads, the Mexicans make little use of them. They carry to a yet more extravagant length the inconceivable predilection of the Spanish race in favor of transporting their goods on the backs of animals. You expect to meet with carts and wagons: no such thing; everything is conveyed on the backs of mules or Indians. Troops of little consumptive donkeys bring into the city in parcels, not much bigger than a man's two fists, the charcoal required for the culinary operations of the inhabitants. The price of every bulky article is thus increased to an enormous degree. The interior districts are as inaccessible as if they were cut off by an enemy's army, and famine frequently ensues." GOVERNMENT.-On the resignation of Iturbide, the Mexicans determined on establishing a federal government. The present constitution, dated October 4, 1824, is modelled on that of the United States; the 300 MEXICO. republic was then divided into 19 states, each of which is permitted to manage its own local affairs, while the whole were cemented together in one body politic by fundamental and constituent laws. The powers of the supreme government are divided into three branches - legislative, executive, and judiciary. The legislative power was vested in a congress consisting of a house of representatives, a senate, and a president. Representatives, elected by each state at the rate of one member for 80,000 inhabitants, hold their places for two years. The qualifications requisite are 25 years of age, and eight years' residence in the state. The senate consists of two members for each state, of 30 years of age each, who are elected by a plurality of votes in the state congress. Congress sits annually, from January 1 to April 15. A council of government, consisting of half the senate, sits during the recesses of congress. The city of Mexico is the seat of government. The legislatures of the states are similar to that of the republic in general. Under Santa Anna, the federal government was consolidated into a central government, with a single legislative body for the entire republic, the states being formed into departments with subordinate councils. At this time, however, they are in the exercise of all their attributes, and will probably remain so, until the federal government recruits its shattered constitution, when it is probable they will again be suppressed.' I have only been two months in Mexico," says Chevalier, " and already I have witnessed five attempts at revolution. Insurrections have become quite ordinary occurrences here, and their settled forms been gradually established, from which it is not considered fair to deviate. These seem almost as positively fixed as the laws of backgammon or the recipes of domestic cookery. The first act of a revolution is called lpronunciamiento. An officer of any rank, from a general down to a lieutenant, pronounces himself against the established order, or against an institution which displeases him, or against anything else. He gets together a detachment, a company, or a regiment, as the case may be, and these generally, without more ado, place themselves at his disposal. The second act is called the grito, or outcry, when two or three articles are drawn up, to state the motives or objects of the insurrection. If the matter is of some importance, the outcry is called a plan. At the third act, the insurgents and the partisans of government are opposed to one another, and mutually examine each other's forces. At the fourth act they come to blows; but, according to the improved system lately introduced, the fighting is carried on in a very distant, moderate, and respectful manner. Iowever, one party is declared victor, and the beaten party dispronounce. The conquerors march to Mexico, and their triumphal entry into the capital constitutes the fifth act of the play; the vanquished meanwhile embark at Vera Cruz or Tampico with all the honors of war." The laws are alleged to be mild and just, but they are almost powerless; for nothing can well be conceived more appalling than the state of anarchy described by the very intelligent traveler just quoted. " With tranquillity, unfortunately, everything else is also lost. There is no longer any security. It is a mere chance if the diligence firom Mexico to Vera Cruz proceed the whole way without being stopped and robbed. It requires whole regiments to convey the conducta of piastres to Vera Cruz. Travelers who cannot afford to pay for an escort, go armed MEXICO. 301 from head to foot, and in little caravans. Here and there, rude crosses erected by the side of the road, and surrounded by heaps of stones, thrown by passers-by, in token of compassion, point out the spot where some wayfarer, and almost always a stranger, has perished by the hand of robbers." " The immediate environs of the most populous cities are infested by malefactors, and even in the interior of cities, not excepting the capital, there is no longer any security. There are numerous instances of people being robbed on a Sunday, and at the hour even when the greatest number of people are abroad, within a league of Mexico. An English charge d'affaires was lassoed on the Alameda, the public walk, in the middle of the day. In the evening, after sunset, notwithstanding the numerous guardians of the night (serenos,) notwithstanding the videttes of cavalry at every corer of the streets, notwithstanding the law prohibits the riding on horseback through the streets after eight o'clock, in order to prevent the use of the lasso, a man is not safe in Mexico, not even in his own house. If, in the evening at eight or nine o'clock, you visit a friend, before the porter consents to open the enormous gate lined with iron or bronze, there pass as many formalities as if it were a question of letting down the drawbridge of a fortress. Persons on whose words I think I can rely, have assured me that as many as 900 dead bodies are yearly deposited in the morgue of Mexico." FINANCES.- According to the report of the ministers in 1850, and other official documents, the expenses of the general government are as follows: Estimate for the Department of War........................................................ $5,753,655 00 " for Department of Foreign Relations............................................... 870,000 00 c" for Department of Justice...................................................... 427,000 00 c for Department of Finance................1...................................... 1,639,164 00 Interest on the English debt $51,203,250, at 8 per cent., according to the new arrangement....1,536,247 50 Interest on the Domestic or interior debt, $75,000,000, at 8 per cent..........................2,250,000 00 Total...............................................................................$12,476,066 50 It is not possible to fix exactly the precise amount of the revenue proceeding almost entirely from indirect imposts, on account of its being subject to alterations. Nevertheless, according to the result produced in former years, it may be set down at $8,450,000 a year, and is as follows: Importation Duties................ $4,000,000 00 National Lotteries.................... $ 60,000 00 Exportation Duties................... 450,000 00 Sealed Paper......................... 150,000 00 Tonnage Duties....................... 60,000 00 Pawnbrokers' Shops.................. 30,000 00 One per cent. on increase of importation, 140,000 00 Duties on the Assays of Silver in the DisTwo per cent. on Averia............... 210,000 00 trict and Territories, Tolls, Letters of Internation Duties.................... 500,000 00 Security, Patents for Navigation, PassIntroduction of money into the ports. 300,000 00 ports, and smaller imposts.. 229,000 00 Contingent paid by the States.......... 1,011,000 00 Tobacco revenue belonging to Governm't, 600,000 00 Total........................... 8,450,000 00 Playing Cards........................ 20,000 00 Post Office Revenue.............. 90,000 00 RECAPITULATION. Direct contributions of the District and Expenses............................. 12,525,956 50 Territories...................... 450,000 00 Revenue............................. 8,450,000 00 Tax on the rent of property............ 50,000 00 Mints................................ 100,000 00 Deficit...,............ 4,075,956 50 The defensive means of the Mexicans have been hitherto sufficient for the protection of the country from foreign invasion. They were sufficient, indeed, to act against the Spaniards in 1825-'29, and against the French in 1838; but in the American campaigns against this country in 1846,'47,'48, their impracticability was tested and shown to be illusive. The strong fortress of San Juan d'Ulloa, off Vera Cruz, was taken after a few days resistance, and all the fortified points along the line - Perote, Cerro Gordo, Puebla, &c.,- to the city of Mexico, and those of the capital itself 302 MEXICO. were successively captured by the gallant armies under General Scott. In northern Mexico the strongholds yielded with the same facility —Metamoras, Monterey, Buena Vista and Chihuahua, (twice taken possession of,) attest the bravery of the Americans and weaknress of Mexico in every point of view. The armies of Mexico, though numerous, are incapable of defence; drawn from the serfs of the soil and from the dungeons of the prison, they feel no interest in the exploits of war, well knowing that neither honor nor emolument will accrue to them, whatever be the result otherwise. They are thoroughly demoralized as a body, and prove more annoying to the peaceful inhabitants of the country than destructive to the enemy. In not one battle among the hundred, fought during the late hostilities, were lthey successful. The number of men in the Mexican army in times of peace is about 20,000, exclusive of an active militia of about 30,000. In periods of war and invasion the force is augmented ad libitum, and all are liable to serve. When the government is able, it pays the soldiers liberally; when the treasury is empty, they liberally pay themselves from the first private house they come across, and exact forced loans with the same impunity as that enjoyed by the supreme head of the nation. RELIGION.- The Roman Catholic is the only publicly recognized religion, but others are tolerated. The church establishment consists of the archbishop of Mexico and nine bishops, having an aggregate income of 539,000 dollars, with 3677 parochial clergy. There are also 10 cathedrals, having 168 canons and other dignitaries, and one collegiate church. The regular clergy comprise 1978 monks, chiefly Franciscan; and there are 156 convents. Ecelesiasticial property is free from taxation, and they have the sole management of all money bequeathed for pious uses. The annual income of the ecclesiastics is valued at about 12,000,000 dollars. The Spanish monks and priests were expelled during the revolution; and their places are filled by creoles. Religion has little influence over the white population, and the hold of the church over the Indians, never complete, is now fast lessening; for they are all, more or less, inclined to idolatry. EDUCATION.- The necessity of education is recognized by the constitution, which requires that the priests should teach all persons to read and write; but the regulation has little practical effect. Under the old government, botanical pursuits were much encouraged: chemistry and mineralogy were taught in the school of mines; but the progress of science, literature, and the arts, have all been checked by the unsettled state of the country since the revolution. POPULATION. — The amount of the population has been estimated at different periods, both before and after the revolution; but, owing to the jealousy of the old government, and the distracted state of the country, since the declaration of independence, very little credit can be attached to these estimates. The following are those by the best authorities: 1794............Humboldt.........,200,000 1827........... Ward............... 8,000,000 1803................Do................ 6,600,000 1835.............. Chevalier.............. 7,000,000 1813..............Poinsett....... 6,362,125 1850............Am. Almanac..........7200,000 1825.............Do........... f6,500,000 The classes of the population are singularly varied, and are characterized by distinctions more striking than those in any other country. Four distinct and rival classes may be enumerated: 1. The Chapetones, or pure MEXICO. 303 Spaniards, never exceeding 80,000 in the palmy days of New Spain, but now hardly amounting to 24,000, and, politically considered, a degraded class; 2. The Creoles, or native whites of European descent, forming the wealthiest and most powerful part of the population, estimated by Chevalier at 1,300,000; 3. The Indians, or native Mexicans, constituting the great mass of the rural laborers, and supposed to amount to 3,800,000; 4. The mixed castes, comprising Mestizos, Mulattoes, Zambos, Quadroons, and Quinteroons, somewhat exceeding 1,900,000. The distinctions of color have been done away with, as far as political privileges are concerned, by the revolution, which admits persons of all colors to the equal enjoyment of civil rights. The mulattoes and zambos principally reside in the low country, the whites on the table-land. The Indians are divided into numerous tribes, speaking upwards of twenty languages. Their character remains much the same as it is alleged to have been at the time of the conquest. Indolence, blind submission to their superiors, and gross superstition, are as much their characteristics now as formerly. The form of their religion is changed, and that is nearly all: they take the same delight in the ceremonies and processions of the church as they once took in the fantastic mummeries of their aboriginal idolatry. They are scattered over the country as laborers, distributed in villages, or else live in the towns as artizans, workmen, or beggars. In a few instances they have accumulated property, and acquired respectability; but, in general, they are indolent, ignorant, and poverty-stricken. " Mexico," says Chevalier, " is a country so rich, that famine scarcely visits even the most indolent. In the tierras calientes, and even on the plateau, the natives are content to dwell with their families in a cabin of bamboo trellis-work, so slight as scarcely to hide them from the stranger's gaze, and to sleep either on mere mats, or at best on beds made of leaves and brushwood. Their dress consists simply of a pair of drawers, or petticoat, and a scrape, (a dyed woollen garment,) which serves for a cloak by day, and a counterpane by night. Each has his horse, a sorry beast, which feeds at large in the open country; and a whole family of Indians is amply supplied with food by bananas, chili, and maize, raised, almost without labor, in a small enclosure round the hut. Labor, indeed, occupies but a trifling portion of the Indian's time, which is chiefly spent in drinking pulque, sleep, or singing to his mandolin hymns in honor of Notre Dame de Guadeloupe, and occasionally carrying votive chaplets to deck the altar of his village church. Thus, he passes his life in dreamy indifference, and utterly careless of the ever-reviving emeutes by which the peace of Mexico is disturbed. The assassinations and robberies which the almost impotent government allows to be committed with impunity on the public roads, and even in sight of the capital, are to him only matter for conversation, the theme of a tale or ditty. And why should he trouble himself about it? Having nothing in the world but the dress in which he stands, his lance, spurs, and guitar, he has no fear of thieves; nor will the poniard of the assassin touch him, if he himself, drunk with pulque or chingarito, do not use his own." ANTIQUITIES.- Humboldt, Bullock, and other European travelers, have furnished excellent descriptions of numerous ancient monuments, which show that the native Mexicans, before the loss of their independence, had been in some respects a comparatively civilized and ingenious people. 304 MEXICO. Among the most extraordinary are pyramids, somewhat similar in exterior form to those of Egypt, and in some instances even of larger dimensions. The base of the pyramid of Cholula is a square of 1423 feet on each side, and its height is estimated at 177 feet. A far more elegant building, of similar shape, is situated in the north part of the state of Vera Cruz; it is formed of large blocks of porphyry, highly polished, and arranged in six stages, diminishing in size according to the elevation, and having all its materials most nicely adjusted. The base is a square of 82 feet on the sides; it is 65 feet high: and the ascent to its top is by a flight of 57 stairs; the front is richly adorned with hieroglyphics and curious sculptures. The mountains of Tezcuco are nearly covered with the remains of ancient buildings and cities. The ruins of Palenque, near the Rio Chacamas, a branch of the Usumasinta, extend upwards of 20 miles along the ridge of a mountain; and their architecture resembles more that of Europe than Mexico. The remains of an Aztec city, called by the Spaniards La Casa Grande, are to be seen about a league south of the river Gila, in the state of Sonora. They are spread over a space of more than a square league. In the centre is a teocalli, laid down according to the cardinal points, its sides being 445 feet by 276 feet. It has three stories and a terrace, but no stairs. Within are five apartments, each 27 feet long, 11 broad, and 11 high. A wall with towers surrounds the main building. The traces of an artificial canal to the river are visible. The neighboring plain is strewed with fragments of red, blue, and white earthenware, and pieces of obsidian, which prove that the Aztecs had passed through a country abounding with this volcanic substance before they dwelt on this spot, previously to their final settlement in Mexico. In the west part of the state of Chihuahua are similar ruins of great extent, which are also considered to have been the site of one of the temporary stations of the Aztecs during their migration southwards. Besides sculptures, vases of elegant form have been found, similar to those of Etruria and Egypt. Roads formed of large hewn blocks of stone may be traced, not only in the neighborhood of those ruined cities, but at great distances from them. HISTORY.-The first settlers of Mexico are believed to have been the Toltecans, a tribe of Indians from the Rocky mountains, who fixed themselves near the present city of Mexico. They named the country the Anahuac, and, after flourishing here for near 400 years, they were either exterminated or abandoned the country, not, however, before having imparted some degree of civilization to the barbarous Chichemecas, who arrived about 1170, and who were the next possessors of the soil. These were again displaced by the Acolhuans, who appeared about the year 1200, and drove out the last occupants. The Aztecs arrived in California in 1196, and gradually found their way southward, and in 1325 founded their chief city, on the Island of Tenochtitlan, and called it Mexico, in honor of Mexitli, their god of battles. This nation rapidly increased in power, and if the remains of monuments and large cities were a just test of civ ilization, the Aztecs might claim to rank high among the nations of antiquity. But they had invented no alphabet, and had nothing better than a rude species of picture writing to record events, and were ignorant even of the use of metals. Their barbarism was conspicuous in their sacrifices of the human species; no grand event of joy or grief could be complete without MEXICO. 305 the flowing of human blood and roasting the dead carcass on the fires of the teocallis. Montezuma I., one of their greatest kings, extended his empire from the gulf to the Pacific; but it must be stated, at the same time that many of the conquered nations reluctantly obeyed his sway, and were ever ready to revolt. Such, briefly, was the state of the country on the first arrival of the Europeans. The conquest of this mighty empire was completed by Fernandez Cortez, who arrived at Vera Cruz in 1.521., with a small but resolute force. Here he was met by a messenger from the great monarch, who had been despatched to ascertain his motives, and to command him to withdraw. But Cortez, refused to return until he had communicated with Montezuma himself; and at once set out for the capital. His next step was to form a junction with the Tlascalans, who were at war with Mexico. This effected, he continued his journey, and having got the king into his possession, used him as a means to subjugate the empire. Outraged at the conduct of the Spaniards, the Mexicans flew to arms, and succeeded in driving the invader from the Aztec territory, but in the melee the emperor himself was killed. Cortez retreated to Tlascala to recruit his forces. Returning with a large body of Indians, and brigantines to navigate lake Tezcuco, he recommenced the siege, and after a desperate resistance of 75 days, succeeded in capturing the city, and on the fall of the city the empire was at an end. Province after provice submitted, and the Spanish power, in an incredible short time, was established from Vera Cruz to the Pacific. Cortez, on his return to Spain, was received with the highest honors, but he was ultimately neglected by the emperor; and, alas! for the gratitude of princes! the great conqueror of Mexico died at Seville in obscurity and want, while his enemies were reaping the benefit of those gallant deeds, which have rendered the name of Cortez famous in American history. Under the Spanish arrangements, Mexico was, as a subordinate kingdom, governed by a viceroy, with powers nearly equal to those of the sovereign. By these arrangements, also, the natives were to be considered as freemen and vassals of the crown; and the Spanish discoverers, settlers, and their posterity, were to have a preference in all civil and ecclesiastical appoint ments. The natives were thus, in fact, excluded from holding all offices of trust or profit. The great object of the Spanish government was to keep the country in the hands of the European or white population. This system was retained nearly three centuries; during which Mexico continued to be a blank in the history of nations, and known only by the issue of the precious metals. The entrance of the French into Spain, and the abdication of Charles VI., gave the death blow to the Spanish authority in America. The natives and colored population saw in this that the time was at hand for them to assert their rights to be freemen, which was opposed by the audiencia, by whom also the viceroy was arrested, sent to Spain, and confined in prison until the general amnesty. An open insurrection against the European authority broke out in 1810, at the head of which were Hidalgo and Morelos, two priests of New Spain; and under the auspices of the latter, the first national congress assembled at Chilpanzingo, in 1813. One of its earliest acts was to declare the independence of Mexico. For several years the history of the Mexican revolution is only a record of sanguinary struggles leading to no decisive result. At length in 1821, 20 3 06 MEXIcO. Augustin Iturbide, who had previously been a royalist, declared suddenly in favor of the liberals, and published his famous PLAN OF IGULA, in favor of a constitutional monarchy. His cause met with a favorable reception, and he succeeded, not only in installing a national congress, but also prevailed on that body to raise him to the throne, under the title of Augustin I. His arbitrary acts, after his elevation, however, soon caused a revulsion in the minds of the people, which, finding it impossible to repress, he abdicated. He was not only allowed to withdraw from the country, but rewarded for his past services by an annual allowance of ~5,000 accompanied, however, with an edict of outlawry in case of return. In spite, however, of this prohibition, he returned clandestinely, and was soon discovered, apprehended, and shot. On the downfall of Iturbide the congress reassembled, and appointed a provisional executive of three persons: Victoria, Bravo, and Negrete, all men of approved patriotism. The government was remodelled, and a constitution formed on principles much similar to those of the constitution of the United States. This was completed and published 2d Feb., 1824, and Mexico commenced anew a promising career. The internal history of Mexico, from this period, presents one continued theme of revolution, rapine and bloodshed. War has been the every day employment of the several political parties, whose sole object has been to gain the victory for the sake of the spoils, not for the benefit of the country; and such has been the arbitrary acts of the mushroom governments that have sprung from the revolutions of the day, and such has been the general disgust, that state after state has seceded from the confederacy, California, Yucatan and Texas, led the way-others followed, and eternal war was the result, now one party and then the other, being successively victorious. Finally, Texas not only asserted her independence, but maintained it, and in 1846 was annexed to the United States. Mexico proclaimed war with that nation also, which has resulted in the cession of California and New Mexico to the United States. MEXICO, (MEX. Tenochtitlan,) the capital of the United States of Mexico, and anciently the chief city of the empire of Montezuma, 7,426 feet above the sea; lat. 190 25' 40" N., long. 101~ 25' 30" W. Population, 300,000. It stands nearly in the centre of an elevated plain, or plateau, surrounded by mountains, and having an area of about 1,700 square miles, one-tenth of which is covered by four lakes, the largest of which, (Tezcuco,) nearest the city, has an area of 77 square miles. The old city of Mexico, or that taken by Cortes, was built on a group of islands in the lake Tezcuco; but though the modern city occupy its site, it is, owing to the diminution of the waters of the lake, partly originating in natural and partly in artificial causes, situated about 21 miles W. from the lake. The ground on which it stands is, as mhight be anticipated from the statement now made, low and swampy; the largest buildings are erected on piles, and the roads leading to it are raised six or eight feet above the surrounding flat. Though within the tropics, it is so elevated that its mean temperature is only 65~ Fahrenheit. It is said by Humboldt to be " undoubtedly one of the finest cities ever built by Europeans in either hemisphere; being inferior only to Peteislabrg, Berlin, London and Philadelphia, as respects the regularity and breadth of its streets, as well as the extent of its public places." The architecture is generally of a very pure style, and many of the buildings are of noble construction, though usually of somewhat plain exterior. Two sorts MEXICO. 307 of hewn stone, porous amygdaloid and porphyry, are used in the better parts of the city. The balustrades and gates are of Biscay iron, ornamented with bronze; and the houses, which are three or four stories high, have flat terraced roofs, like those in Italy and other southern countries. The streets are wide, well paved and flagged, but not lighted or watched at night; so that robberies and assassinations are scarcely less common than in Spain. Nearly all the houses are hollow square, with open courts surrounded by colonnades, and ornamented with plants, &c. The stairs to the interior front the outer gate, and the best apartments which are showily painted in mosaic and arabesque, generally face the street. Numbers of houses are covered with glazed porcelain, in a variety of elegant designs and patterns. The Plaza Mayor, or grand square, is one of the finest to be seen in any metropolis: its east side is occupied by the cathedral and segrario, or parish church, and its north side by the palace, while on the other sides are handsome rows of shops and private dwellings. In its centre is a colossal statute of Charles IV., said to be the finest work of its kind in the new world. The palace, or government house, a fine building nearly square, with a front several hundred feet in extent, comprises four large courts, in which are the public offices, barracks, prison, and a large botanic garden; but almost every part of it is falling to decay: the massive tables, staircases and chandeliers have disappeared, and all is now in the most appalling disorder. The cathedral, on the north side of the square, on the site of the great temple of the god Mexitli, is a heterogeneous edifice; one part of the fronq is low, and of bad Gothic architecture, while the other and more modern part is in the Italian style, and displays much symmetry and beauty: its two towers are ornamented with pilasters and statutes. The interior is imposing, lofty and magnificent; but the grandeur of the effect is much diminished by the ponderons erections in different parts, and a profusion of massive carved ornaments, pictures and painted statues. The high altar and its appendages are inclosed by a massive railing of mixed metal; so valuable on account of the gold it contains, that a silversmith of Mexico is alleged to have offered the bishop a new silver rail of equal weight in return for the old metal! In the interior, also, are some curious remains, including several idols and a " stone of sacrifice," that is, a stone on which the human victim was placed when the priest tore out his heart! On the outer wall is fixed the Kalenda, a circular stone of basaltic porphyry, covered with hieroglyphic figures, by which the Aztecs, or native MIexicans, used to designate the months of the year, and which is supposed to have formed a kind of perpetual calendar. Few monuments of antiquity, however, remain; and we may echo the exclamation of Antonio de Gama, the first among Mexican antiquaries, " How many remains of antiquity have thus perished through ignorance of their value! " The church services are celebrated with great magnificence; not in Rome herself, is greater attention paid to the external minutiae of religious observances. Besides the cathedral, there are said to be from 50 to 60 other churches, most of which display more or less the barbarous mixture of style that characterized Spanish architecture during the 16th and 17th centuries. Opposite to the latter of these, is the palace of the Inquisition, now applied to other, and, it is hoped, more usefil ends. Bullock describes it as "very elegant, exhibiting little or no appearance of the purposes for which it was intended." This tribunal was abolished by Iturbide in 1822. The Mineria, or College of Engineers, was originally a large and handsome building, but owing either to a want of care in making the foundations, or to the effect of earthquakes, the walls have settled in several parts, and the front is visibly out of the perpendicular. The.Acordada, or public prison, is alarge substantial structure, fitted to contain about 1,300 prisoners; the barracks, also, formerly used as a hospital, are very extensive and well constructed. The theatre is a respectable building of considerable size; but the establishment has for some years had so little success that it is veryv seldom opened. The Plaza de 308 MEXICO. hbros, for the exhibition of bull fights, consists of a great circular inclosure, fitted up exactly like that of Madrid, and fitted to accommodate from 2,000 to 3,000 spectators. The promenade conveniences of the city are truly a feature of Mexico. The Alameda, or public walk, at the west end, somewhat resembles a park, but has the stiff, formal appearance of Dutch and French grounds. In the centre is a magnificent fountain. Another open space, called the Passeo, about two miles in length, planted with double rows of trees, is much frequented on holidays by persons in carriages and on horseback. In the city also are several portales, or covered colonades, lined with shops and stalls, and forming a favorite evening promenade. The environs also present on Friday evenings a very lively scene of bustle and gaiety; hundreds of canoes, of various sizes, mostly with awnings, and crowded with native Indians and Meztizos, are seen passing in every direction along the canals, each boat with its guitar player at the stern, and some of the party either singing or dancing. The manufactures carried on in the city and vicinity, are not generally remarkable either for extent or fineness of workmanship. Nothing is exposed in the store windows, and most of the articles are made in the places where they are offered for sale. Gold and silver lace trimmings, epaulettes, &c., are made in great perfection; silversmith work and chasing are also well done. Jewelry and lapidary's work is made at great expense. Cabinet ware is extremely dear and inferior, being made with clumsy tools and bad woods; the saw is scarcely known, and the turning-lathe is of the most primitive construction. Coach making is better understood, and extensively carried on. Hats and cloaks are made on a large scale, but are sold at high prices. Soap is a staple manufacture. Men, not women, are the milliners, and it is not uncommon to see twenty or thirty strong, able fellows, who should be employed at coal-heaving or dray work, employed in decorating ladies' dresses, making flowers, and trimming caps and flounces! The bake houses are large establishments, and the bread, which is excellent, is made exclusively by peons or slaves, which class also perform the work in the cloth factories. Shops for the sale of pulque, a kind of beer made from the aloe, and native Spanish brandies, are very common, and have a gay appearance. The city markets are well supplied with animal and vegetable productions. The latter are chiefly cultivated on the chinampas, or floating islands, on the lakes, which are extremely fertile. Turkeys, fowls, pigeons, and many varieties of wild water fowl, are very abundant and cheap; as are hares, rabbits, tortoises, frogs and salamanders, all of which are esteemed good eating by the inhabitants. The meat market is well supplied with beef, mutton and pork, but veal is prohibited. There is a great variety of vegetables and fruits, and a most enormous consumption in proportion to the population. The vegetable market is large, but yet une. qual to the daily supply; and the groupd is entirely covered with bananas, plan tains, citrons, shaddocks, melons, pomegranates, dates, mangoes, tomatoes, and all the varied productions of tropical countries. The population of Mexico is of a very mixed character, about one-half being Creoles, or descendants of the Spaniards; one-fourth Meztizos, or half-castes, between the Europeans and Indians, and nearly another fourth copper-colored Indians, with some blacks, mulattoes, and about 6,000 or 7,000 Europeans. There is extreme disparity in the wealth of the citizens. Many of the magnates and successful speculators are immensely rich, but the mass are indolent and indigent, the lower orders being generally found loitering about the porches of churches, public buildings and the markets. These are the leperos, a class somewhat similar to the lazzarori of Naples; but the latter are not so notorious as the leperos of Mexico, foi the crimes of robbery and murder. The dress of the higher order of men closely resembles that of Europeans, the large cloak being as common here as in Spain. The costume of the ladies is universally black, with the veil and mantilla; but on holidays and public occasions, MEXICO. 309 their dresses are remarkable, as well for gayness of colors as for expensiveness of material. Indeed, when in their carriages on the Passeo, they contrast somewhat strangely with the same persons when seen at home in complete dishabille, without stockings, squatting on the floor, and either pursuing their favorite amusement of segar smoking, or eating cakes and capsicum out of the dirty earthenware of the country. The ladies seldom go out during the day; but after sunset, young and old come forth from their hiding places, and the Alameda, Passeo and Portales swarm with the dames and signoritas of the city, chatting and smoking with their gallants. Many gentlemen belonging to the higher ranks are intelligent, and a few even fond of literature; but the city is so badly supplied with libraries, and other means of study, as to give little encouragement to such pursuits. Tenochtitlan, the original city, as before remarked, was built on a group of small islands in Lake Tezcuco; and was connected with the main land by three principal causeways. These still exist, and form at present paved ways over the extensive marshes of the vicinity, and protect the city from inundations, which are not unfrequent, and against an enemy they have hitherto been found convenient and useful. Mexico, when first discovered by the Spaniards, was a rich and populous city, the seat of the Aztec dynasty, religion and trade. According to Cortez it was as large as Seville or Cordova, was well built and well supplied with various products. VERA CRUZ -IS the capital of the state of that name, and the centre of the foreign commerce of Mexico. The harbor is a mere roadstead, but the town is well built, and its towers, cupolas and battlements give it an imposing appearance from the sea. It is, however, surrounded by barren sand hills and ponds of stagnant water, and is exceedingly unhealthy, being, in fact, the principal seat of the yellow fever. The older inhabitants, or those accustomed to the climate, are not so subject to this formidable visitation as strangers, all of whom, even if coming from Havana and the West India islands, are liable to the infection. The badness of the water at Vera Cruz, is supposed to have some share in producing the complaint. The houses of Vera Cruz are mostly large, some of them being three stories high, built in the old Spanish or Moorish style, and generally enclosing a square court with covered galleries. They have flat roofs, glass windows, and generally wooden balconies in front, their interior arrangements being the same as in old Spain. The town and castle are built of madrepore, the lime which forms the cement being of the-same material. There is one tolerably good square, of which the government house forms one side and the principal church another. The foot-paths are frequently under arcades. No fewer than sixteen cupolas or domes used to be counted from the sea, but only six churches are now in use; and most of the religious buildings have been neglected or abandoned since the Spaniards were expelled from the town. Rain-water is carefully preserved in tanks; and most sorts of provisions, except fish, are dear. Crowds of vultures and buzzards perform the office of scavengers. The Castle of St. Juan d'Ulloa, which commands the town, is built on the small island of the same name, about 400 fathoms from the shore. It is a strong citadel, and its northwest angle supports a lighthouse with a brilliant revolving light 79 feet above the sea. The harbor of Vera Cruz, is a mere roadstead between the town and the castle, and is exceedingly insecure, the anchorage being so very bad that no vessel is considered safe unless made fast to brass rings, fixed for the purpose, in the castle wall; 310 MEXICO. nor are these always a sufficient protection during strong north winds.lBut notwithstanding its numerous disadvantages, Vera Cruz maintains its commercial importance; though latterly Tampico, in a healthier situation, with a better port, has been growing in consequence. Vera Cruz was founded in the latter part of the 16th century, on the spot where Cortez first landed. Previously, however, there had been a small town which was called by Cortez himself Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. It received the title and privileges of a city from Philip III., in 1615. The castle was taken by a French squadron in 1829, but was soon after abandoned and restored to the Mexicans. In 1847 it was again captured by the Americans under General Scott, and held until the ratification of peace.. The city was much improved in police and health during the occupation. JALAPA is situated in a delightful and elevated district, 4,000 feet above the sea. It has 12,000 inhabitants, and is much frequented by the higher classes from Vera Cruz during the sickly season. The surrounding country is covered with dense forests, and is particularly remarkable for the medicinal article-jalap, from which the city takes its name. The ports of Alvarado and Coatzacualco on the south, are interesting only for their associations; the first was the principal entrepot on the Gulf during the occupation of Vera Cruz by the Spaniards, and has since become famed, as having been taken by Lieutenant Hunter, U. S. Navy, in 1847, and garrisoned by three men! and the latter derives some interest as being the eastern terminus of the proposed route across the isthmus of Tehuantepec. GUADALAXARA is the seat of government of the State of Jalisco, and contains a population of 60,000. The streets are handsomely laid out and, many of the houses elegant. There are fourteen squares. In the Plaza de Armas are the government house, where the legislature sits, the Cathedral, and the Portales de Commercio. The public promenades are ample, and the markets, shops, and other civic conveniences, are on a large scale. The College, maintained at the public expense, is a noble establishment, and has contributed much to the enlightenment of the people. The city is supplied with water from the Cerro de Col, three leagues distant. Many coarser kinds of manufacture are carried on within the city, which has long been celebrated for its leather and earthenware. Guadalaxara was, under the Spaniards, the capital of the independency of the same name, and the seat of an Audiencia Real. PUEBLA is the capital of the State of the same name, and is distant about 70 miles from the city of Mexico. It stands on the declivity of a hill, and is a compact and uniformly built city. The streets, though not very wide, are straight, and intersect each other at right angles. The houses of stone, are generally two stories high with flat roofs, having mostly a court in the centre surrounded by open galleries, and a fountain of water. Many have iron balconies on the street, and their fronts are inlaid with highly glazed tiles or else gaudily and tastefully painted. The apartments are spacious, and are commonly paved with porcelain, and their walls adorned in fresco. Puebla has 70 churches, 9 monasteries, and 13 nunneries. The church es are sumptuous in the extreme. In expensive interior decorations; in MEXICO. 311 the quantity and value of the ornaments of the altar, and the richness of the vestments, they surpass the churches of Rome, Geneva or Milan. CHOLULA, eight miles west of Puebla, and an old Aztec city, though fallen from its ancient grandeur, retains many of the attributes of splendor and wealth. Cortez, at the commencement of the sixteenth century, compared it to the largest cities of Spain, but since the rise of Puebla, its interests have retrogaded. It contains many churches, and has regular and broad streets; the houses are mostly of one story, and flat-roofed. Cholula has some manufactures; but it derives more interest from its antiquities than its present position among the cities. The principal extant relic of its ancient grandeur is a huge pyramid or teocalli, to the east of the town, now covered with prickly pear, cypress, and other evergreen shrubs, and looks at a distance like a natural conical-shaped hill. As it is approached, however, it is seen to consist of four distinct pyramidical stories, the whole built with alternate layers of clay and sun-dried bricks, and crowned with a small church. According to Humboldt, each side of its base measures 1,440 feet, being almost double the base of the great pyramid of Cheops; its height, however, is only 164 feet. It appears to have been constructed exactly in the direction of the cardinal points. The ascent to the platform on the summit is by a flight of 120 steps. This elevated area comprises 15,069 feet. The chapel erected on it is in the shape of a cross, about ninety feet in length, with two towers and a dome. It was dedicated to the Virgin by the Spaniards, and has succeeded to a temple of Quetzalcoatl, the god of the air. This pyramidal pile is, however, conjectured to have served for a cemetery, as well as for the purposes of religion; and Humboldt, and other authorities, regard it as bearing a remarkable analogy to the temple of Belus, and other oriental structures. The Indians believe it to be hollow, and have a tradition, that, during the abode of Cortez at Cholula, a number of armed warriors were concealed within it, who were to have fallen suddenly on the Spanish army. At all events, it is certain that Cortez, having some suspicion, or information of such a plot, unexpectedly assaulted the citizens of Puebla, 6,000 of whom were killed. In making the present road from Puebla to Mexico, the first story of this pyramid was cut through, and a square chamber discovered, destitute of an outlet, supported by beams of cypress, and built in a remarkable way, every succeeding, course of bricks passing beyond the lower, in a manner similar to some rude substitutes for the arch, met with in certain Egyptian edifices. In this chamber two skeletons, some idols in basalt, and some curiously varnished and painted vases, were found. There are, also, some other detached masses of clay and unburnt brick, in the immediate vicinity of Cholula, in one of which, apparently an ancient fortress, many human bones, earthenware, and weapons of the ancient Mexicans, have been found. The view from the great pyramid, embracing the Cordillera, the volcanoes of La Puebla, and the cultivated plain beneath, is both extensive and magnificent. Cholula is surrounded by cornfields, aloe plantations, and neatly cultivated gardens. The Castle of Perote, is celebrated in the annals of Mexico, as the last home of many of her gallant sons, who have either pined in its dungeons, or been murdered by the political powers of the day. This fortress is situated in the middle of an extensive plain, and is considered as one of the 312 MEXICO. strongest in the world. It is the national prison of the republic, where all political offenders are incarcerated. QUERETARO, lies in a rich and fertile valley, and is 110 miles north-east of the city of Mexico. Population, 95,000. It is a well built city with three large squares, many handsome public and private edifices, and the usual excess of churches and convents. The Franciscan monastery is spa. cious and surrounded with extensive gardens; and the convent of Santa Clara is an immense building, inhabited by 120 females, including many young ladies sent thither for education. The streets have side walks, laid with flags of porphyry; the city is well supplied with water, brought to it by an aqueduct about 10 miles in length, carried across the valley upon 60 arches. ZACATECAS, is situated in a narrow valley, and is distant from Mexico, in a north-west direction, 290 miles. The population is said to be from 22 to 25,000 inhabitants, and that of its suburb, Veta Grande, 6,000. Viewed from a distance, its numerous churches and convents give it an imposing appearance; but its streets are narrow and filthy. Its markets are abundantly supplied with fish, fruits, vegetables, &c. This is one of the chief mining cities of Mexico, and has a mint, which some years ago gave employment to 300 men. The machinery in the mint is of brass, and was made by native mechanics; it is ponderous and ill constructed. CI.IHJAHUA, lies by the small river Sacramento, a branch of a confluent of the Rio Grande. The population at one time is said to have been 70,000, but it is now stated at 30,000. It is a well-built town -the streets regular and at right angles, and the houses are substantial structures, and well supplied with water, which is conveyed by an acqueduct about three miles long. The cathedral, a very large and highly ornamental structure, was erected at the expense of $1,500,000, raised by a duty on the produce of the adjoining mines. The state legislature meets here in a neat building. The town is chiefly maintained as a depot for the mining districts. The country around the city is occupied by extensive haciendas, in which large herds of mules, horned cattle and sheep are pastured. But notwithstanding the great capabilities of the soil, agriculture is in a very depressed state, the mines being the great object of attention. MONTEREY is a well-built town, with about 15,000 inhabitants, many of whom are extremely wealthy. It is celebrated as a place besieged and captured by the American forces in 1846. The country around is very fine, and dotted over with prosperous ranchos and the mansions of the rich. It is built on sufficiently high ground to make it healthy, and it enjoys a beautiful climate the whole year round. SALTILLO is a city of some 12,000 population, and was, for a long period the head quarters of Major-General Z. Taylor, during the war with Mexico. BUENA VISTA, the scene of a battle as glorious to ihe American arms as disastrous to those of Mexico, lies a few miles south of Saltillo. Under the old Spanish regime, YUCATAN formed a Captaincy-General, and was under the dominion of the viceroy of New Spain. The geographical position of Yucatan is favorable in a commercial point of view. It is in the form of a peninsula, stretching out nearly four degrees into the Gulf of Mexico. It adjoins the States of Chiapas and Tabasco, which border MEXICO. 313 on the Heuasacualco river, in the isthmus of Tehuantepec, the proposed line of a railroad to unite the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. With these advantages it may become a magnificent state. Yucatan presents many evidences of having been the abode in former times of a race of highly civilized people; but whence they came and whith er they have gone will ever remain unknown. There having existed, is proved by numerous ruins of towns and villages, which exhibit much architectural beauty. The Indians of the present day are incapable of such works, nor indeed was their existence known to them previous to the researches of the European and American archmaologists, whose works have created such a lively interest. In the eastern part of the state, and particularly to the south of Merida, there are the remains of several ancient stone structures; one of which, called by the natives OXMUTAL, is still in very good preservation; it is about 600 feet square. The rooms, corridors and pillars are adorned with figures, in half relief of serpents, lizards, &c., in stucco. There are also figures of men in the attitudes of dancers, and resembling in every respect those which are found in the ruins of Palenque, which proves that the same race has swayed the destinies of all the lower province of Mexico. The Territory of LOWER CALIFORNIA extends between 22~ 48' and 32~ north latitude, and is separated from the main land by the Gulf of California. It is about 900 miles long, by from 30 to 100 broad. Area, 57,000 square miles. Population, 63,000. The peninsula is traversed north and south by a chain of rocky hills, not more than 5,000 feet high. The suiface of the country is much broken, and except in the sheltered valleys and on the margins of the streams, incapable of cultivation. There are some tolerable harbors, but in the present position of things they are useless, except as a refuge for whale ships. Lower California is said to be rich in minerals, but no mines except those of San Antonia, about the 24th parallel, are worked, and even these produce comparatively little. The climate is excessively hot and dry; unlike Mexico, the rains, except in the most southerly part of the peninsula, occur during the winter months; summer rains seldom occur north of Loretto, in latitude 26~ N. Violent hurricanes are frequent, but earthquakes seldom occur. Timber is very scarce, and except near the missions, which occupy the choicest spots, but little is done in agriculture. The pearl fisheries of the Gulf of California are very extensive, but they cause a great sacrifice of life in prosecuting them. 600 divers were formerly employed in this perilous business. Pearls, tortoise-shells, hides, dried fruits and dried beef are the chief articles of export. Loretto, a small town near the centre of the peninsula, is the capital. In the latter part of the 16th century the Jesuits established themselves here, with a view of converting the Indians; but, at the present day, they are little removed from the barbarous state in which the holy fraternity found them. 314 CENTRAL AMERICA. CENTRAL AMERICA, THIS country occupies, with little exception, the whole of the long and narrow tract connecting the two American continents. It lies between 80 50' and 16~ 50' north latitude, and its breadth varies from 90 to 350 miles. The states of Central America consist of five separate republics. Their extent, population and capitals are as follows. No general census has been taken, however, since the declaration of independence. These estimates are from the American Almanac of 1851: Area in Square Miles. Population. Capitals. Republic of Guatemala..................28,000..................935,000................ New Guatemala Honduras.................. 81,000..................308,000.............. Chiquimnula.'c Costa Rica.................. 23000.................. 198,000..................Cartago. San Salvador................24,000....3............. 86000..................San Salvador Nicaragua.............40,000.................400,000................ Leon Total........ 196,000............... 2,204,000 The physical geography of Central America has many peculiarities. No very distinct mountain chain traverses the country, but an elevated plateau occupies the central parts, forming a kind of chain of communication between the Cordilleras of South America and the mountain chains of Mexico. This plateau rises much more precipitously from the Pacific than from the Atlantic side, the general slope of the country being to the north-east. The table-land rises also considerably as it proceeds northwest; in Costa Rica and Nicaragua its highest parts are of very moderate elevation; and the lake of Nicaragua, situated on a plain bounded by hills of no great height, is less than 134 feet above the level of the Pacific. In the state of Guatemala, the table-land averages perhaps 5,000 above the ocean, the loftiest summits, which are either active or extinct volcanoes, being in that republic. The water-volcano, near Guatemala, so called from its frequently emitting torrents of hot water and stones, but never fire, is 12,620 feet above the Pacific. There are two large plains-those of Nicaragua and Comayagua, besides many of lesser size, on the banks of the larger rivers and along the shore; these principally consist of extensive savannas, with rich pasturage, interspersed with clumps of trees. All the larger rivers of Central America flow north-east and east, the proximity of the high mountain range to the Pacific permitting but a short course to those flowing west. The chief are the Montagua, Polochie, Rio de Segovia, the San Juan, Connecting the lake of Nicaragua with the Atlantic, &c.; the banks of most of these are richly wooded. The Montagua is of considerable size, and useful for the conveyance of goods into the interior of Guatemala. The lake Nicaragua is by far the most important body of water in Central America, and will form an important part of the projected water communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Central America possesses an advantage over Mexico, in having excellent harbors on both seas; its coasts are indented by deep and capacious bays, as those of San Juan and Chiriqui, on the Caribbean sea, and of CENTRAL AMERICA. 315 Nicoya, Papago, and Conchagua, on the Pacific. A few islands surround the shores, and a number ot small cayos, (low green islets,) skirt the eastern coast, rendering navigation, from their similarity to each other, alike difficult and dangerous to shipping, except guided by an experienced pilot. The climate of Central America is much similar to that of all tropical countries; the lowlands about the coasts are unhealthy, and fevers prevail to a great extent. The shores, however, are generally peopled by the Indian tribes, whose constitutions are more able to resist these climatic effects than those of the Europeans. The temperature of the table-land varies, according to its elevation; but an equable, moderate and agreeable temperature may be obtained there all the year round, with a perfectly healthy climate. The dry season lasts from October to the end of May, during which the north winds prevail; and in the table-lands, in November and December, water exposed to the open air at night, is sometimes, but rarely, covered with a thin pellicle of ice. The rest of the year is entitled the wet season; but the rains, though heavy, last only during the night, and the days are fair and cloudless. Earthquakes are very frequent. Goitre is a very common disease in Central America. The country is rich in mineral products. The precious metals are found in great abundance in Honduras, Costa Rica, and other states; with copper, iron, lead, nickel, tin, antimony, &c. But the vegetable productions are of far greater importance. The forests yeild many valuable kinds of timber, including mahogany, cedar, Palo de ]aria, a species of wood well adapted to ship-building, &c. But the log-wood tree, (hcematoxylo# campechianum,) is by far the most valuable of the products of the forests. It is an important article of export, as well as a species of Brazil wood, found in these regions. Among other vegetable products, may be enumerated the dragon's blood, mastic, Palma Christi, and other balsamic, aromatic and medicinal plants; with sugarcane, cocoa, indigo, coffee, tobacco and cotton, which are extensively cultivated. The crops vary with the elevation. Between the heights of 3,000 or 5,000 feet the nopal, or cochineal plant, is a favorite object of cultivation, particularly in the neighborhood of Guatemala. Maize is generally grown, but wheat only in the high table-lands in the north; it is almost unknown in Nicaragua and Costa Rica, Flax and hemp, though well suited to the climate, are neglected, and vanilla runs to waste for want of hands to gather and prepare it. Tamarinds, cassia, long pepper, ginger, &c., though little known to the commerce of the country, are abundant. A fruit, called chicozapote, yielding a great deal of substantial nourishment, supplies the place of maize, and forms a principal article in the traffic of some provinces. Horses, asses, sheep, goats and hogs, having been introduced by the Spaniards, are now found in great abundance. Immense herds of cattle graze on the plains of Nicaragua, and Costa Rica carries on a large trade in these animals. The horses are inferior, but the mules are superior to those of other Indo-Spanish countries. The wild animals comprise the American tiger, wolf, tapir, mountaincow, wild goat, wild striped boar, flying squirrel, the zorillo, noted for its fetid odor, &c. Few of them are very formidable; but the densely wooded 316 CENTRAL AMERICA. coasts of the Pacific are much infested by dangerous reptiles, including the cayman and several venomous serpents. The birds exhibit the most beautiful and varied plumage. Locusts and the warrior-ant are very mischievous, and often create great devastation; the latter will enter house after house, clearing them, however, of all other vermin. The pearl oyster is found on the coast. The foreign commerce, though considerable, is small compared with what a little energy might make it. The principal exports are the precious metals, indigo, cochineal, dye-woods, sarsaparilla, balsam of Peru, hides, tortoise-shell, &c. Agriculture, and cattle and sheep breeding are the chief occupations of the people; but the manufactures are not unimportant. They produce some of their own cotton and woolen fabrics, and a good many hands are employed in manufacturing earthenware, furniture, cabinet works, &c.; and the Indians of the interior are proficients in making mats which are used in place of carpets. The several states into which Central America is now divided, have republican forms of government, chiefly based on the constitution of the United States of America. The cities, towns and villages have separate municipalities, and annually elect their alcades and other officers. In the State of Guatemala the Spanish laws have been entirely abolished, and a code, compiled by Mr. Livingston of the United States, substituted in its stead. The population is divided into four grand classes, of Indians, whites. blacks and ladinos, the latter an intermixture of the Spanish and Indian races, and a few mulattoes. The relative cumbers of these are, Indians, 685,000; whites, 475,000; ladinos, 760,000. The number of blacks and mulattoes is inconsiderable. The constitutions of the several states grant equal rights and privileges to all. The Indians of Guatemala preserve their ancient language and customs, but in the other republics a Castilian patois obtains. The principal occupation of the people is agriculture; some, however, are employed in the factories and mines. They live harmoniously with the whites, but they hate inveterately the ladinos. The Indians are now the ruling race; Carrera, the last President of Guatemala, was a pure Indian, wild from the woods, but a man of genius, and much attached to study and the acquisition of civilized manners. He was a self-made man, the offspring of a revolt. The principal cities are — in the State of Guatemala, the city of the same name, once capital of the confederacy, but now the seat of the state government. It is situated on an undulating plain, 4,961 feet above the level of the sea, and at a distance of 26 leagues from the Pacific Ocean, in latitude 140 37' N., and 900 30' W. longitude. It is a well-built town of 40,000 inhabitants, and is the see of the primate. Old Guatemala is also a fine town amidst runs, in a delightful valley, eight leagues southwest of the new city. It is a place of favorite resort, and contains between 12 and 18,000 inhabitants. It has been several times destroyed by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and has been abandoned as the capital since the earthquake of 1773. Totonicapan has a population of 12,000; Quesaltenango, 14,000; Coban, in Vera Paz, 14,000; Salama, on the Polochie, 5,000; and Izabal, a village of about forty huts, three houses and court-house, on CENTRAL AMERICA. 5y1 the southern shore of the Golfo Dulce. The greatest part of the export and import trade of the district is carried on by the port of Izabal and by of Omoa, on the left of the entrance of the gulf. L The cities of COSTA RICA are —San Jose, Cartago, Esparsa, Alajuela, Eredia, Estrella, &c. Those of NICARAGUA are -Leon, Grenada, and Nueva Segovia. The most important port on the Pacific is that of Ralejo. Those of HONDURAS are - Comayagua, Tegusigalpa, Gracias, San Pedro, Sulaco, Olancho, Sonaguera, and Trujillo or Truxillo. And, those of SAN SALVADOR are - San Salvador, Libertad, San Vicente, San Miguel, Santa Anna, and Sonsonate. San Salvador was formerly the seat of the late general government, in the federal district, which at that time formed a circle round the city twenty miles in diameter, with a further extension of 10 miles towards the south, so as to include the roadstead of Libertad, on the Pacific. The coasts of this country were discovered by Columbus in 1502, and most of it was conquered by the Spaniards before 1524, and it was erected into a Captain-Generalship by the Emperor Charles V., in 1527. The policy adopted by Spain towards Guatemala, was attended with unintentional benefits to the latter. Being only a Captain-Generalship, the scale of its public expenditures was kept down in deference to the higher pretensions of the Spanish Viceroyalists; and, as its financial wants were few, taxation pressed lightly on the people. It was not, however, permitted to export more of its native products than were sufficient to pay for the articles the merchants of Cadiz thought necessary to send for its consumption! Central America was declared independent by the people, on the 15th December, 1821, and was incorporated with Mexico, which had just thrown off the Spanish yoke itself; but, on the fall of Iturbide, it disconnected itself from that republic, and again formed into a separate, independent gov ernment, November 22d, 1823, under the title of the " United States ot Central America," and the several provinces were at the same time transformed into independent republics, as far as their own internal affairs were concerned, on the principle adopted in the states of the American Union, the constitution of which they chiefly copied in forming their federal fundamental law. The new federal government was organized in April 1825. In the early part of 1838 civil war broke out between the Indians and whites, and on the 24th of February the city of Guatemala was attacked and captured by the insurgents under General Carrera, a pure-blooded Indian, and Senor Salazar, who had been vice-president since the 1st May, 1835, was killed. The government was overpowered, and Carrera ultimately succeeded in gaining the presidency, which he retained until the dissolution of the confederacy, in 1846, and continued governor of the state of Guatemala, which he ruled with great moderation and wisdom, until 15th August, 1848, when he was overthrown by a stronger party. The dissolution was preceded by a long period of anarchy and bad feeling among the several states, which, though not actually, had been virtually dissolved since 1839. Carrera gave the death-blow to the confederacy by an actual declaration in 1846, but, at the same time, he stated that it was not impossible that, at a future time, and under favorable auspices, for a new alliance to be determined upon. 318 WEST INDIA ISLANDS. Since the acquisition of California, the project of opening a ship canal through Nicaragua, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, via the river San Juan and Lake Nicaragua, has not only been renewed, but invested with a more immediate and practical importance. A special minister was sent by the United States Government to Nica, ragua, empowered to agree with that state, for the extension of the protection of both countries to any company of American citizens who should contract in good faith to construct the proposed canal. Such a contract was entered into by a New York company, styled " The American Atlantic and Pacific Canal Company," on the 27th of August, 1849; and on the 2d of September following Mr. Squier signed a treaty with the plenipotenT tiaries of Nicaragua (ratified by the Government of that State on the 27th of the same month,) which provided for the neutrality and protection of the canal. It also provided for the free transit forever of the citizens of the United States and their property through the territories of Nicaragua, for the entire freedom of all the ports of the country, and for extending the same liberal concessions to all nations which should enter into the same treaty stipulations. This treaty was approved by the President, but has not been ratified by the Senate. Subsequently a treaty was negotiated by Mr. Clayton, Secretary of State of the United States, and Sir Henry Bulwer, Minister of Great Britain, providing for extending the protection of both countries over any route of communication which may be opened across the continent, and also for the abandonment of British terri torial pretensions on the Mosquito shore, and the withdrawal of the British establishments on the coast of Central America. Mr. Squier, in his report to the Department of State, estimates the proposed line as follows: Length of the River San Juan..............................,...............90 miles. Part of Lake Nicaragua to be traversed.......................................... 110 do. Length of Rio Tipitapa.........................1....5.............. 18 do Length of Lake Managua........................................ 50 do. From Lake to Realejo.............................................. 45 do. Total.......................................................................... 313 miles. The engineer of the New York company has surveyed a more favorable route from the Lake to the Pacific, passing near the city of Nicaragua. This route is only 12 miles from Lake to Ocean, and requires a cutting of but 68 feet at the highest to cause the water of Nacaragua to mingle with that of the Pacific. WEST INDIA ISLANDS, AaRa, 91,898 squaz xYasm. PoPIuLToN, 3,680,762. THIS group of islands stretch in the form of an arch between the two American continents, and consist of four large, and a number of small islands, besides numerous rocky islets, called cayos, or keys. They are divided into three groups, called the Greater and Lesser Antilles and Bahamas. A remarkable current, called the Gulf Stream, sets through this group of islands. It passes from the Gulf of Florida, like a swift river, and immensely broad. After WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 819 passing from the chain of islands, it diverges from the American continent, increasing in breadth, and decreasing in velocity. The waters of the gulf are warmer than those of the ocean. With the exception of St. Domingo, all the West India Islands are colonial dependencies of European powers. The following table, exhibits their names, population, area, and the governments to which they pertain: WBBT INDIAN GOVERNMENTS. States..... Form of Govern- Caprea in Sq.opulation. states. ment. Capitals. Miles. Population. Hayti. an........ Empire......... Cape Haytien...... 11,000 700,000 Dominica,.S.Domingo,...... Republic... San Domingo.... 18,000 200,000 Cuba... Spanish Province. Havana........... 43,380 1.315,796 Porto Rico. Spanish Province. San Juan......... 3,865'359,086 Jamaica........ British Province.. Spanish Town.. 5,468 360,000 Trinidad.. British Province.. Puerta d'Espagne. 2,400 47,000 Tobago.............................. British Province.. Scarboro' 187 15,000 Grenada............................ British Province.. St. George's 155 49,000 St. Vincent's, &c... British Province.. Kingston......... 131 28,500 Barbadoes.................. British Province.. Bridgetown....... 166 115,000 St. Lucia... British Province.. Castries........... 225 16,000 Dominica................... British Province.. Roseau........... 275 20,000 Antigua.. British Province.. St. John's.. 168 56,980 St. Christopher's and Virgin Islands. British Province.. Basseterre......... 378 38,000 Bahamas... British Province.. Nassau......... 4,440 20,000 Turk's Island........ British Province.. 14 700 Bermuda Islands................. British Province.. Hamilton......... 47 14,000 Guadaloupe, &c............. French Province.. Basseterre......... 309 135 000 Martinique............. French Province.. Port Royal........ 290 119,700 Curacoa, &c......................... Dutch Province... Wilhelmstadt... 375 14,000 Santa Cruz, &c............. Danish Province.. Christinstadt. 200 44,000 St. Bartholomew's.............. Swedish Province. La Carenage... 25 156,000 Total.........................91,398.. 3,680,762 There are mountains in all the large islands, the sumlits of which attain a great altitude. Mount Potrillo, in Cuba, has an elevation of 9000 feet; the Ciba Mountains of iHayti, 8,600, and the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, 7,150 feet. Several of Caribbean islands are of volcanic origin. Numerous streams descend from the mountains, which, though they do not attain the magnitude of rivers, serve to irrigate the plains and valleys through which they pass. As these islands lie, principally, between the tropics, they are subject to great heats; yet even in the warm season, the influence of the surrounding ocean, the periodically recurring sea-breezes, and height of the land in the interior, tend to modify the climatic intensity peculiar to their geographical position. In the interior of the large islands, in which elevation is more marked, a mild and delightful temperature is enjoyed throughout the year. The low-lands, however, in all these islands, are exceedingly unhealthy. Here life is short, even among the native born. At an elevation of 1,200 feet, the aspect of the climate is different, nor is it liable to the propagation, and prevalence to those fevers and fluxes which prove so destructive to life in the low and swampy grounds. In the more northerly of the islands, ice sometimes forms in winter, but snow never falls. The rich and varied productions of these islands, give them an important position, in a commercial point of view. To their valuable native plants, art and industry have added others not less valuable. The sugar-cane, yielding its triplicate of sugar, molasses and rum; the coffee-plant; pimento or allspice; the plantain and the banana; the pine-apple, anana, yam and sweet-potato; maize, cassava, manioc and cocoa; the tobacco and cotton -plants; various dye-woods and stuffs, as fustic, logwood and cochineal; and medicinal plants, as liquorice, arrow-root, jalap and ipecacuanha; and woods for cabinet-work, as mahogany and lignumvitae; all are indigenous or introduced staples, and render vast contributions to commerce. To this list, must be added all the varieties of tropical fruits: the bread-fruit, cocoanut, mango, paw-paw, guava, orange, lemon, tamarind, fig, cachew-nut, manmmee, grenadilla, vanilla, &c., &c 320 HAYTI AND DOMINICA. The cattle of the West Indies are inferior, and only a few of the islands contain sheep and goats. Very few horses, asses or mules are reared, and consequently great numbers of these animals are imported from the adjacent continents. Reptiles and amphibious animals, inhabit the shores and margins of the rivers, and fish and turtles are abundant. The bird tribe is extensive, and remarkable for beautiful plumage. The original inhabitants of these islands have long been extinct, except a small remnant, which still exists in the Islands of St. Vincent and Trinidad When discovored, a dense population covered these prolific regions, but the barbarities of the Europeans, in a short space of time, destroyed these unhappy people, supplying their places with the no less unhappy African. Cuba, and the other large islands, were found in possession of the Arrawauks, a peaceful and timid race, that soon submitted to the invaders. The inhabitants of the Lesser Antilles, on the contrary, were the warlike and vigorous Caribs, who resisted the sway of the Europeans to the last. The present population is composed of white and colored persons: the former are Europeans and their descendants; while the latter consist of Africans, their descendants, and the mixed races sprung from an indiseriminate amalgamation of all. These are of every variety of color and complexion, and are variously classified as mullatoes, quadroons, &c., according to the preponderance of caste. There is also another class lately introduced into the ]British islands, under the name of " Coolies," who originated in the mountains of Asia, and are imported as free laborers, under stringent restrictions. These are intended to supply the place of the recently emancipated negroes, who, it is said, have become worthless and lazy, and a burden upon the colonist. The negro race is, however, the most numerous, forming about three-fourths of the whole population. The commnerce of the West Indies contributes vast supplies of tropical productions, alike to the nations of Europe and America. The chief articles of export are -sugar, molasses, rums, coffee, tobacco, cotton and cocoa; drugs, spices and dye-stuffs; mahogany and other hard woods for cabinet-work; and a great variety of fruits, &c. The imports are the manufactures cf Great Britain and other countries, and foreign productions generally. The United States supplies these islands with flour, and a great variety of salted provisions, and some manufactured articles. An extensive commerce is also carried on with the South American States, more especially with Venezuela and New Grenada HAYTI OR SAN D(OMINGO, AREA, 29,000 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION OF IIAYTI, 700,000; OF DOMINICA, 200,000. Hayti, the original, and now revived name of one of the West India Islands, is next to Cuba: the largest of the Greater Antilles. Columbus gave it the name of Hispaniola, and it was also called San Domingo, from the city of that name on its south-east coast. The French called it the "Queen of the Antilles." Its shape is somewhat triangular, having the apex directed eastward; but it has several peninsulas and promontories which render its outline very irregular. Its greatest length from west to east is 400 miles; its breadth varies from 40 to 155. The surface of Hayti is, as its name implies, generally mountainous; but there are some extensive plains, especially in the east. The mountain system is complicated, and it is difficult to give a clear idea of it without the aid of a map. A great mountain knot, the Cibao, occupies the centre HAYTI AND DOMINICA. 321 of the country, from which two parallel chains, running east and west, extend through the island in its entire length. The loftiest summits of the Cibao are considerably more than 6,000 feet in height. In the south-west is an additional mountain chain, which stretches west to the extremity of the long and narrow peninsula terminating in cape Tiburon. The shores of Hayti are in general bold, except on the east, where low and swampy islands prevail. They are almost everywhere surrounded by small uninhabited islands and dangerous reefs, but they have, notwithstanding, many excellent harbors, especially along the north and west coasts. The largest plain, called by the Spaniards Los Llanos, in the south-east, extends along the coast for 80 miles, with a breadth varying from 20 to 25 miles. In the west half of the island are the large plains of Artibonite and the Cul-de-Sac. The last named, east of Port-au-Prince, is from 30 to 40 miles long, by about nine broad, and was formerly one entire sugar-garden, though now almost wholly waste. There are several plains of less extent. Hayti is in most parts profusely watered; it has numerous rivers, the largest being navigable for a great part of their course, and are generally deep. Three lakes of considerable size exist at no great distance from the south coast of Henriquillo; the largest is about 50 miles in circuit, and has salt water, while the adjacent lake of Azney is fresh. The climate of the low lands is very unhealthy to Europeans; and Mackenzie says that " the yellow fever would effectually secure the island, in case of external attack, if the policy of abandoning the coasts and destroying the towns were acted on." The excessive heat of the plains, &c., are however, tempered by fresh sea breezes at night. The soil is almost universally a deep vegetable mold, the fertility of which is scarcely equalled. The mountains, even to their summits, are, according to Mackenzie, capable of cultivation. The greater part of the island is covered with dense forests of mahogany, iron-wood, logwood, cedars, and other large and useful trees, or an impenetrable underwood. The plantain, potato, vanilla, manioc, &c., are indigenous; as is the palmetto or cabbage-tree. The latter is " truly the prop of the East Haytian, who eats the upper portion of it, builds and covers his house with its various parts, and fashions his furniture out of its trunk." Parrots, and other birds of brilliant plumage, waterfowl, &c., are very abundant; the alligator, cayman, ignama, turtles, &c., abound in' the larger rivers; sev eral kinds of serpents are met with, and the crustacea and testacea afford a plentiful supply of food to the inhabitants of the coasts. Hayti produces gold, silver, copper, tin, iron of good quality, rock-salt, &c. The principal copper mine yields an ore containing a considerable admixture of gold. and the sands of many of the rivers contain a good deal of gold dust, small quantities of which are collected. The mines of Cibao, which have long been unproductive, are said by Robertson to have yielded for many years a revenue of $500,000 annually; but it deserves to be remarked, that notwithstanding the excessive destruction of the original inhabitants in the working of these and other mines, the Spaniards derived so little advantage from them, that when Sir Francis Drake made a descent on the island in 1558, the inhabitants were so wretchedly poor as to be compelled to use pieces of leather as a substitute for money! 21 322 HAYTI AND DOMINICA. In order to understand the progressive changes which have taken place in the condition of Hayti and its inhabitants, it is necessary to premise a short sketch of their history. The island was discovered by Columbus, on the 5th of December, 1495, at which time it is said to have been divided into five states. Having taken possession of it in the name of Spain, Columbus founded the town of La Isabella on the north coast, and established in it, under his brother Diego, the first colony planted by Europeans in the New World. The city of St. Domingo, which subsequently gave its name to the entire island, was founded in 1498. The island is believed to have contained, at the epoch of the discovery by the Spaniards, above 1,000,000 inhabitants, of the Carrib tribe of Indians. But incredible as it may appear, in consequence of their wholesale butchery by the Spaniards, and of the severe drudgery they were compelled to undergo in the mines, the natives were reduced to about 60,000 in the short space of 16 years! The aboriginal inhabitants were soon, in fact, wholly destroyed; and their place was at first very inadequately supplied by Indians forcibly carried off from the Bahama islands, and adventurers from Spain and other European countries, and in the following century by the importation of vast numbers of negroes from Africa. The Spaniards retained possession of the whole island till 1665, when the French obtained a footing on its west coasts, and laid the foundation of that colony that afterward became so flourishing. In 1691, Spain ceded to France half the island; and in 1776 the possessions of the latter were still farther augmented. It was not, however, till 1722, when the monopoly of trading companies was put an end to, that the French part of the island began rapidly to advance in population and wealth. From 1776 to 1789 the colony had attained the acme of its prosperity; and its produce and commerce were then equal or superior to those of all the other West India islands. Unhappily, however, this prosperity was as brief as it was signal; and the ruin that has over whelmed the colony may be said to be complete. To attempt to give any intelligible sketch, how slight soever, of the events by which this destruction was brought about, and by which the blacks of Hayti have emancipated themselves from the dominion of the whites, and founded an independent state, would far exceed our limits. At the epoch of the French revolution, the negroes in the French part of St. Domingo were estimated at from 480,000 to 500,000. That a good deal of dissatisfaction existed among them is certain; but there was no disposition to revolt, and the rash and injudicious proceedings of the mother country, the debates and proceedings of the colonial assembly, and the deep-rooted animosities of the whites and mulattoes, were the prominent causes of the revolution. The proscriptions, ruin, bloodshed, and atrocities by which it was accompanied and brought about, are, perhaps, hardly to be paralleled. In the year 1800, Hayti was proclaimed independent; and its independence was consolidated by the final expulsion of the French in 1803. This was effected by Dessalines, who erected the French or west part of the island into an empire, of which he became emperor, with the title of James I. His despotism and cruelty having rendered him universally detested, Dessalines was slain in an insurrection in 1806, and Hayti was divided among several chieftains, the principal of whom were Christophe in the north-west, HAYTI AND DOMINICA. 323 and Petion in the south-west. In 1811, the former caused himself to be proclaimed king, under the title of Henry I.: Petion continued to act as president of a republic till his decease in 1818, when he was succeeded by Boyer. The latter, after the suicide of Christophe, in 1820, took possession of his dominions, and the Spanish portion of the island having, in 1821, voluntarily placed itself under his government, he became master of the whole of Hayti. This state of things lasted until the death of Boyer, when the Spanish portion formed itself into an independent government, by the title of the REPUBLIC OF DOMINICA. From a report made to the agent of the U. S. Government, in 1845, the following extracts are made. " The Dominican territory comprehends two-thirds of the island. The country is fertile in the productions of the West Indies, and in copper, gold, iron and coal. The pearl fisheries are carried on in the great bays. " A constant trade is kept up with the islands of St. Thomas and Curacoa, the United States, France, England and Germany, whither is transported a large amount of mahogany and tobacco. A sufficiency of sugar is made to supply the population, and an equal amount is exported. " The principal articles of export, are mahogany, lignumvitm, logwood, tobacco in leaf and cigars; cattle, hides, yellow and white wax, gum, guiacum, honey and lumber. " The defensive means of the republic, are sufficiently ample for all immediate use. The cities are well fortified, and the frontiers protected from invasion of the blacks of Hayti. The public arsenals are well supplied with the materials of war, and they have an army of 18,000 men, of which one-half is always on duty. The navy is small, consisting of only one brig and three schooners of war, all built at Caracas. " The population is over 200,000, half of which are whites, who hold the general administration, and two-thirds of the other half are mulattoes, a great portion of whom are landed proprietors, or old mechanics, and the remaining are negroes, mostly free born. Slavery has been forever abolished in the republic. Education has been very much neglected, but must now revive, as government has undertaken to supply schools in each parish at the public expense, besides which, numerous private schools for the upper classes are established in the convents, and also in the large cities. " The government is very similar in form to that of the United States, and from appearances hitherto, it seems to answer all healthful purposes. It consists of a President, Senate and House of Representatives; and a Judiciary, with the usual powers conceded to the several departments. A revolution took place in the republican government of Hayti, in 1849, and Faustin I. now sways an imperial sceptre. The former government, though nominally republican, was, in reality, but an elective monarchy. SAN DOMINGO, the capital city of Dominica, and principal seaport within the Dominican territory, is situated at the mouth of the Ozama river, which forms its harbor. Latitude 18~ 28' 50" north, longitude 69~ 59' 37" west. This city was the first permanent settlement in America. It is surrounded by old ramparts, strengthened by bastions and outposts. Its interior is regularly laid out; the streets which intersect each other at right angles, are spacious, but not all paved. The houses are in the Spanish style, and many of them fine, substantial buildings. Besides the cathedral, a gothic structure, built in 1540, and reported to have formerly contained the remains of Columbus, there are nine other churches, two convents, two 324 BRITISH WEST INDIES. hospitals, some large barracks, old and new national palaces, and many other public buildings, &c. The harbor is both capacious and secure; it has from 10 to 12 feet of water, but owing to a bar at the mouth of the Ozama, large ships are obliged to anchor in the outside road-stead, exposed to the south winds. St. Domingo has a considerable trade with the interior, and its external commerce is respectable. Population, 15,000. PORT-AU-PRINCE, now PORT REPUBLICAN, is the capital of Hayti, and situated in the intermost recesses of the Bay of Gonaives, on the southwest coast. It is built of wood, and has but an inferior aspect, its streets being unpaved and ill-regulated. It carries on an extensive trade with the United States and Jamaica. Population, 20,000. The other principal towns are Cape Haytien, formerly the capital of Christophe's kingdom; Aux-Cayes, one of the most flourishing on the island; Jeremie, a place of considerable trade; Gonaives, a small town, with a good harbor, &c., &c. BRITISH WEST INDIES. THE names of these islands, their area and population, are given in the tabular view on a preceding page. They are the most highly cultivated and productive of all the British colonies. An important event in the history of these islands took place in 1833; when the British Parliament passed the law for the abolition of slavery. In 1838, all the slaves, without restriction, received their liberty. The sum of $96,000,000 was granted by England t9 indemnify the slaveholders. The effect of this measure on the several islands is variously stated; but whatever may have been its consequences, good or evil, to the white population, it is confidently asserted that the social condition of the negroes has much improved. JAMAICA, one of the Greater Antilles, is the largest and most valuable of the islands belonging to Great Britain. It is 150 miles long and 55 broad, containing an area of 5,468 square miles. The island is somewhat of an oval shape, with an elevated ridge called the Blue Mountains, (in some places nearly 8,000 feet above the level of the sea,) running longitudinally through it, and occasionally other ridges which traverse from north to south, approaching the sea on the south coast in gigantic spines, of sharp ascent, difficult of access, and clothed with dense and sombre forests, and on the north declining into lovely mounds, and round-topped hills, covered with groves of pimento and all the exquisite verdure of the tropics - the coup d'ceil presenting a splendid panorama of high mountains embosomed in clouds, and vast savannas or plains, hills and vales, rivers, bays and creeks. Jamaica has 16 principal harbors, besides 30 bays, roads or shipping stations, which afford good anchorage. This island is evidently of volcanic origin; at the present day, however, no volcanic action is perceived. A small elevated salt lake in the mountains, 8,000 feet above the sea, has the appearance of an extinct crater, and the BRITISH WEST INDIES. 325 character of the rocks everywhere denote the powerful operation of fire. The soil is generally deep and fertile; on the north a chocolate color, in other parts a bright yellow, and everywhere remarkable for a shining surface when first turned up, and for staining the skin like paint when wetted; it appears to be of a chalky marl, containing a large proportion of calcareous matter. The climate differs in intensity with the elevation. The temperature is not subject, however, to sudden flaws, and the transitions are always slow. The air is remarkably light and enlivening, producing great cheerfulness even in old age, and so equal in its pressure, that it rarely varies more than an inch at any time of the year. From July to October is the hurricane season. The natural productions of Jamaica are those of the West Indies generally. The great staples now grown by the planters are sugar-canes, the coffee plant, cotton, indigo and cocoa. Sugar-growing was early introduced by the Spaniards. The quantity of sugar now made is very great; and the importations into Great Britain alone have, for some years, averaged 1,500,000 cwts., which represents as many pounds sterling. The sugar of Jamaica is of a very fine quality. The quantity of rum manufactured is also very large, averaging at least 4,000,000 gallons a-year. Of coffee, and that too of excellent quality, about 25,000,000 lbs. is annually exported, of which 20,000,000 lbs. is sent to England. The coffee plant was first introduced into Jamaica in 1728. It thrives in almost every soil in the mountain districts, and in the very driest places has frequently produced very abundant crops. The cultivation of cotton, indigo and cocoa was formerly more extensively engaged in than at the present day; it has principally given way to that of sugar and coffee. The cultivated vegetables of Europe arrive at great perfection. Maize is the principal corn grown, and together with calavances, the yam and sweet potato, cassava, &c., forms the chief food of the negroes. The bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, plantain and banana, alligator pear, the delicious mellow fig, pine, cachew, papaw and custard apples, orange, lime, lemon, mango, grape, guava, pomegranate, soursop, shaddock, plum, tamarind, melon, wall and chestnut, olive, date, citron, and many other delicious fruits, arrive at perfection. The population of Jamaica, which numbers about 360,000, consists of 35,000 whites, or Europeans, and their descendants; of blacks and the colored races, about 320,000; and of some Coolies, &c., which have been transported from India, and other parts, as free laborers. The condition of that people is the same in all the islands as regards their political and social attributes. The original Indian race is extinct. All accounts agree that the island was thickly peopled on its discovery; within half a century after, not one existed! Las Casas says, speaking of the treatment the Indians received from the Spaniards: —" They hanged these unfortunates by thirteen, in honor of the thirteen Apostles;- -1 have beheld them throw the Indian infants to their dogs; 1 have heard the Spaniards borrow the limb of a human being to feed their dogs, and next day return a quarter to the lender!" A governor or captain-general, (appointed by the crown,) aided by an executive and legislative council of 12 members, and a house of assembly, form the government of the island. 826 BRITISH WEST INDIES. The military establishment of this island consists, generally, of four European regiments, and one West Indian regiment, with a strong detachment of artillery, in all about 3,000 men. The trade of this important island is considerable. The shipping inward and outward varies little from seven hundred and fifty vessels of all kinds, respectively, and one hundred and fifty thousand tons annually, employing between seven and eight thousand seamen. The amount of exports is valued at between ~3,000,000 and ~4,000,000, and the imports at about ~600,000. The principal articles of export are sugar, rum, molasses, ginger, pimento, coffee, &c., with a large variety of tropical fruits. The imports are British manufactures and colonial produce, with a variety of articles from the United States and foreign countries. Kingston is the chief port, but considerable business is done at Savannah le Mar, Morant Bay, St. Anne's, Annatto Bay, Port Maria, Port Antonio, Montego Bay, and Falmouth. Spanish Town, the capital, is situated at the extremity of an extensive plain, and is distant from Port Royal harbor six miles. The buildings of the capital are in the magnificent style of Spanish architecture, and have an imposing appearance. The population is about $5,000. The king's house is a splendid building, having cost ~50,000. Kingston, the chief mart of commerce, is situated on a gentle slope about a mile in length, which is bounded on the south by an extensive basin, through which all vessels must advance, beneath the commanding batteries of Port Royal. The harbor is one of the finest in the world. The streets of Kingston are long and straight, the houses in general of two stories, with verandahs above and below. The English and Scotch churches are really elegant structures, particularly the former, which is built on an elevated spot, and commands a splendid view of the city, the plains around it, the amphitheatre of mountains, and the noble harbor of Port Royal. Jamaica was discovered by Columbus, 2d May, 1494. The island remained in the hands of the Spaniards until the 3d May, 1655, from which, to the present period, it has remained in the possession of Great Britain. No less than twenty-six slave insurrections have occurred in the island since occupied by England. The provisions for religion and education on this island are ample, and education is rapidly extending. Mr. Latrobe remarked, universally, throughout his tour of the island, that children of the colored class of every shade evinced a remarkable facility for the attainment of the rudiments of such branches of instruction as are taught them, particularly in writing and arithmetic, their progress in these being " truly extraordinary." The CAYMANS are three small islands, dependencies of Jamaica; the largest containing about 1000 acres. The inhabitants are employed in catching and feeding turtle for the markets. Columbus gave the name of Los Tortugas to these islands. TRINIDAD has an area of 2,400 square miles and a population of 47,000. It is 90 miles long by 50 broad and lies in latitude 10~ north. The northern front, as seen from the ocean, resembles an immense ridge of rock, but as viewed from the gulf of Paria, it presents a most magnificent panorama BRITISH WEST INDIES. 327 From every elevation the scenery is transcendant, and the whole island, in climate, enjoys a perpetual spring. The gulf of Paria, formed by the west shore of Trinidad and the opposite shore of the main, may be said to form one vast harbor. It is thirty leagues long, and fifteen leagues from north to south. Ships may anchor safely in from three to six fathoms of water, over gravel or mud soundings. It is entered on the north by the Dragon's Mouth, and on the south-east by the Serpent's Mouth, two straits formed by projections from the island and main land. The gulf is the recipient of numerous streams from both, and several islands are embosomed in its waters. Trinidad is evidently a section from the adjacent continent, severed either by volcanic or oceanic eruption. It has the same strata of earth, the same rocks, and in its general geological character is entirely similar. The volcanic origin of this island is indicated by several craters, and south of Cape de la Brea is a submarine volcano, which occasionally boils up, and discharges a quantity of petroleum. There is also a similar one on the east part of the island and bay of Mayaro, which in March and June gives several detonations, resembling thunder —these are succeeded by flames and smoke, and some minutes after pieces of bitumen, as black and brilliant as jet, are thrown on shore. The minerals found in Trinidad are iron; a very brilliant white metal, more ductile and malleable than silver, supposed by M. Vauqueline to be a new metal; copper, in the form of sulphate; arsenic; plumbago and bituminous coal. But the most remarkable mineral phenomenon is the "Asphaltum, or Pitch Lake," which is situated on a head-land, jutting from the north-east corner of the island. It is elevated 80 feet above the ocean. Seen from the sea the head-land resembles a dark, scoriaceous mass, and on a nearer view it is found to consist of bituminous scorire, vitrified sand and earth all cemented together. A strong sulphurous smell pervades the neighborhood for ten or twelve miles around, and is felt on approaching the shore. Deep crevices or funnels, sometimes six feet deep, are found in various parts of the asphaltum, filled with excellent water, often containing mullet, and other small fish. Alligators are said to have been seen in these extraordinary caverns. Several of these communicate with the sea, and experience the agitation of storms that ruffle the adjacent waters, often rising and falling during a storm six or eight feet, and scattering on the land large masses of asphaltum. Pieces of what was once wood, are found completely changed into bitumen, and the trunk of a large tree on being sawn, was entirely impregnated with pitch. When mixed with earth this substance acts as a fertilizer, and the finest fruits on the island come from the districts bordering on this singular lake. When Trinidad was first discovered, it was inhabited by a dense population of Caribs. These unhappy people were either murdered or transported to the Hispaniola mines. The present Indian population is about 760. The inhabitants of European descent number about 5,000, and the negro and mixed races about 40,000. There are also some Chinese and a number of Coolies recently imported. The total is estimated at 47,000 souls. The provisions for education, both of black and white persons, are ample; the Lancasterian system is generally adopted. Schools are supported either by the state or by voluntary contributions. Besides the public and free 328 BRITISH WEST INDIES. schools, there are twenty-three private academies for the education of the children of the rich. The administrative functions are vested in a lieutenant-governor, and an executive and legislative committee, half of which is composed of official persons, and half taken from among the people. The exports of Trinidad are sugar, molasses, coffee, and some cotton and indigo. The value of exports is about ~375,000 annually, two-thirds of which are carried to Great Britain, and about one-sixth to the United States. The remainder is distributed among the other West Indies, Canada and foreign states. The imports, the annual value of which is about ~350,000, consist of manufactured goods, &c., chiefly from the ports of England. Port of Spain, the capital, embosomed in an amphitheatre of hills, lies on the Gulf of Paria, and is one of the finest towns in the West Indies. The buildings are of massive stone, and the streets are long and wide, shaded with trees, and laid out in parallel lines from the sea, so as to catch every breeze that blows. The churches and government buildings are fine and imposing edifices. The harbor is available for the largest ships. TOBAGO is another of the West India islands belonging to Great Britain, and lies in lat. 110 15' north, about 16 miles north-east of Trinidad. Area, 187 square miles. Though moist from saline impregnation, the climate of Tobago is not unhealthy. The island is out of the usual range of hurricanes, but in December and January the north winds are often strong and cold. So decidedly salubrious are the highlands, that Dr. Lloyd, the principal medical officer, reported to Sir James McGrigor, that on some of the estates in the interior, no European resident had been buried for upwards of ten years. The island is beset with currents, which are uncertain and dangerous to navigation. The north-east trade-wind blows all the year about the island. The population of Tobago is about 15,000, of which only 400 or 500 are whites; the remainder are the black and mixed races. There are but two churches and two chapels belonging to the church establishment, and five or six dissenters' meeting-houses. Schools are established in each parish, and the Moravians and Wesleyan Methodists have schools which they have established on their own account. Tobago is entirely Protestant, and is under the diocesan surveillance of the bishop of Barbadoes. Almost every kind of plant that flourishes in the Antilles grows in Tobago. The orange, the lemon, and the guava, pomegranate, fig and grape, are in perfection: the two latter yield fruit twice a year; and all the culinary plants of Europe thrive well. The cinnamon, pimento, and nutmeg trees, grow wild in some districts; and the cotton of Tobago is excellent. The staples are sugar, rum, and molasses, the chief bulk of which is carried to England. The value of exports amounts annually to about ~200,000, and of imports to about ~70,000 or ~80,000. The weights and measures of England are used here. There is no paper currency, and but little coin on the island. Scarborough, the capital, is situated on the south-west side of the island, along the shore. It is protected by several forts. GRENADA is a mountainous island, of about 25 miles in length. Area. 155 square miles; population, 49,000. From north to south the island is BRITISH WEST INDIES. 329 traversed by a mountain range, often rising to an elevation of 3,000 feet. Several hot, chalybeate, and sulphurous springs, exist. In the centle of the island, at an elevation of 1,800 feet, amid mountain scenery, is situated a perfectly circular fresh water lake, 21 miles in circumference, and.14 feet deep. Around this lake is a superb sylvan amphitheatre of mountains clothed in all the verdant grandeur of the tropics. The products of the island are similar to others composing the West Indies; and the govern ment is the same as that of Jamaica. The militia of the island consists of seven regiments. There is no paper money, and the annual amount of coin in circulation is about $250,000. Churches and schools are provided for the people. The Catholics and Wesleyan Methodists have establishments there. St. Georae, the capital, is situated within an amphitheatre of hills, and is well and tastefully built. The harbor is excellent, and is said to be capable of containing 1,000 ships. Grenada was discovered by Columbus, in 1498. The British have possessed it since 1783. ST. VINCENT is 18 miles long and about 7 miles broad, and lies in 130 10' north latitude. The island is mountainous, but the hills are capable of cultivation. It is frequently visited by hurricanes, but is generally quite healthy. With its dependencies, it contains an area of 131 square miles, and 28,000 inhabitants. Kingston, the capital, is situated on a fine and deep bay, and protected by fortifications. The value of exports from the island is about $1,500,000 annually. BARBADOES is about 22 miles long and 14 in breadth, and lies in lat. 130 5' north. Area, 166 square miles; inhabitants, 115,000. This island is generally level, except in the north-east, and has a beautiful appearance, owing to the extent of cultivation —its sloping fields and terraces. A superior system of agriculture is pursued, and scarcely an acre remains unproductive. The climate is very healthy. ST. LUCIA has an area of 225 square miles, and a population of 16,000. The approach to the island, which is divided longitudinally by a ridge of hills, from the south, is very remarkable. Two rocks, called' sugar loaves," rise perpendicularly out of the sea, and shoot to a great height in parallel cones, standing on either side of the entrance into the small but deep bay, and are covered with evergreen foliage. Behind this, the mountains, which run north and south, rise in the most fantastic shapes. When sailing along the shore, the variety of scenery is exquisitely beautiful: coves and bays fringed with luxuriant cane-fields, and flotillas of fishing and passage boats add life and animation to the scene. DOMINICA is situated in 15~ 20' north latitude, and contains 275 square miles, with a population of 20,000. This island is volcanic, with rugged mountains and well watered valleys. The highest peak is 5,314 feet above the level of the sea. Near the centre of the island, on the summit of a high mountain, is a lake of fresh water, deep, and in some places unfathomable; probably the site of an extinct crater. Several mountains are continually burning with sulphur, and warm mineral springs issue from the hills. The commerce of the island employs 6,000 tons of shipping. The exports are chiefly sugar and coffee, and amount to about $400,000 per annum. 330 BRITIS1H WEST INDIES. Roseau, the capital, is situated on a point of land on the south-west of thee island, which point forms two bays — Woodbridge's to the north, and Charlotteville to the south. The landscape, behind the town, is beautifully grand: indeed, the whole prospect from the edge of Morne Bruce, a lofty table-rock occupied by the garrison, is one of the very finest in the West Indies. The valley runs up for many miles in a gently inclined plane, between mountains of irregular heights and shapes, most of which are clothed up to their cloudy canopies with rich pastures of green coffee, which perfumes the whole atmosphere, even to some distance over the sea; the river rolls a deep and roaring stream down the middle of the vale, and is joined at the outlet of each side ravine by a mountain torrent; while at the top, where the rocks converge into an acute angle, a cascade falls from the apex, in a long sheet of silvery foam. ANT IUA lies in latitude 17~ north, and contains 168 square miles, and 57,000 inhabitants. Antigua is nearly oval in shape, with an extremely indented coast, and is almost surrounded by islets, rocks and shoals. In the northeast it is low and marshy. Towards the south and southwest, the elevations gradually increase, forming round-backed hills of moderate elevation, generally running east and west, intersected by cultivated valleys, and partially clothed with small trees and brushwood. Boggies' Hill, in the Sheckerley range, 1,200 feet high, is the greatest culmination. No island in the West Indies can boast of so many excellent bays and harbors, but they are all, except those of St. John, English harbor and Falmouth, difficult of access. The soil of the high lands is of a red clay, argillaceous, with a substratum of marl; on the low lands it is a rich, dark mould, on a substratum of clay. In some of the formations animal remains have been found, and petrified weeds. Agate, cornelian, and chalcedony, are frequently met with. Nitrate of potash, like a hoar frost, covers the flat, oozy shore, which bounds the bay of Falmouth. The bulk of the people are employed in agriculture, and the manufactures are confined to sugar, molasses and rum. Antigua totally abolished slavery in 1834, without waiting the intermediate apprenticeship, as in the other slave colonies. It has since improved, both in physical and moral character, and the value of property is said to have been enhanced. BARBUDA lies about 36 miles north of Antigua, and is the property of the Codrington family. It is about 20 miles long by 8 broad, and has a population of 1500. Its soil is fertile, and the air salubrious. MONTSERRAT lies about 22 miles southwest of Antigua, and has a circumference of 34 miles. The island was discovered by Columbus, who named it from its serrated mountainous appearance. Plymouth, the capital, is a small but neatly built town, the houses being constructed of fine gray stone. Principal exports, sugar and some cotton, the cultivation ol which has been recently introduced. ST. CHRISTOPHER's was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and was named after the great navigator himself. At that time it was densely populated, and was called by the inhabitants the "fertile island." The area is about 68 square miles. In shape it resembles Italy. The commerce of SWEDISH WEST INDIES. 331 the island is not large. The exports amount to $800,000 annually, and the imports to about the same sum. The soil and climate are similar to the adjacent islands. Education and religion are generally encouraged. ANGUILLA lies in lat. 18~ north, about 45 miles northwest of St. Christopher's. The island is flat, without mountains or rivers, but nine-tenths of the land is cultivated. In the centre is a salt lake yielding about 3,00,000 bushels of salt annually. Sugar, cotton, maize and cattle are raised abundantly. The island is 30 miles long by 3 broad, and the climate healthy. THE VIRGIN ISLANDS were discovered by Columbus in 1793, and were named in honor of the 11,000 virgins in the Roman ritual. They comprise a cluster of lofty islands and rocks, about 50 in number, extending about 24 leagues east and west, and 16 north and south. The English, Danes, &c., divide the sovereignty of this groupe. Throughout they are rugged and rocky. The capital is Tortola, situated at the south side of the island of the same name. The harbor is 15 miles long by 31 broad, and perfectly land-locked. In war time it has sheltered 400 vessels. THE BAHAMA ISLANDS consist of several hundred islands of various magnitudes, extending between Hayti and Florida, nearly 600 miles. All these islands are little elevated above the sea, and are evidently the work of the coral insects, whose labors, though apparently insignificant, have furnished so many beautiful spots fit for the residence of civilized man. Few only are inhabited; some present to the eye a few scattered plantations, and others ard tenantless. Generally speaking, the Bahamas are low and fiat. The ocean, close to the isles, is almost unfathomable. Reefs of rocks, or rather walls of coral, bound them after the manner observable in the South sea isles. New Providence, from its harbor and relative situation in respect to the Florida channel, is considered the most important of the group, and on it is situated Nassau, the seat of government of the whole, and the headquarters of the naval and military establishments. It is 21 miles from east to west, and 7 from north to south, mostly flat and covered with extensive lagoons. A range of rocky hills runs along the islands from east to west, at a very short distance from the sea. On this ridge many of the buildings of Nassau are erected, including the government-house, and at its extremity to the west are the barracks and Fort Charlotte. SWEDISH WEST INDIES, ST. BARTHOLOMEW is the only island belonging to the crown of Sweden in the West Indies. It is one of the lesser North Caribee islands of about 25 square miles, and a population of 15,000, of whom two-thirds are blacks. There is neither lake nor spring in this island, and the inhabitants depend on the clouds for water. It produces sugar, cotton, cocoa, tobacco; also iron-wood and lignumvitme. 332 SPANISH WEST INDIES. La Carenge is the only accessible port. Contiguous to this harbor, stands Gustavia, the chief and only town. It has a mixed population of Swedes, English, French, Danes, Americans and Jews. It was ceded to Sweden by France, in 1785. Slavery was abolished in 1848. SPANISH WEST INDIES. CUBA is the largest, most flourishing, and important of the Antilles, or West Indian islands. It was discovered by Columbus, Oct. 28, 1492: and was first called Juana, in honor of Prince John, son of Ferdinand and Isa. bella; afterwards Ferdinandina, in memory of the Catholic king: then successively Santiago and Ave Maria, in deference to the patron saint of Spain and the Virgin; and by Spanish geographers La lengua de pajaro, as being descriptive of its form. The name Cuba, was that in use among the aborigines at the time of its discovery. Its figure is long and narrow, approaching to that of a crescent, with its convex side looking towards the Arctic Polea; its western portion, lying between Florida and the peninsula of Yucatan in Mexico, leaves two entrances into the gulf of Mexico; the distance from Cape St. Antonio, the most westerly point of the island, to the nearest point in Yucatan, is 125 miles across; and that from Point Icacos, the most northerly point in the island, to cape Tancha, the southern extremity of Florida, being 130 miles across. The greatest length of the island, following its curve, is about 800 miles; its breadth, which is very irregular, varies from 130 to 25 miles. Its coasts are very much indented, and it is surrounded by many islands, islets, reefs, &c. Notwithstanding the general difficulty of approaching its shores, it has several excellent harbors, that of Havana being one of the best in the world. In the western half of the island, the climate is such as is to be expected along the northern limit of the torrid zone, presenting many inequalities of temperature from the near neighborhood of the American continent. The seasons are spoken of as the rainy and the dry, but the line of demarcation is not very clearly defined. During the rainy season, the heat would be insupportable but for the regular alternation of the land and sea breezes. The weather of the dry season is comparatively cool and agreeable. It never snows, but hail and hoar frost are not uncommon. The feathered race are remarkable for the beauty of their plumage; but are far too numerous for separate notice. The rivers, though not large, are well supplied with excellent fish, as are the bays and inlets with the natives of the deep. Oysters and other shell-fish are also numerous, but of inferior quality, and adhere to the branches of the mangrove trees which surround the coast. The forests are of vast extent. Mahogany and other hard woods are indigenous, and several sorts are well suited for ship-building. The palm tribe are as remarkable for beauty as utility; and of vines there is great variety, some of such strength as to destroy the largest of the forest trees in their parasitical embrace. The tropical fruits are plentiful and various of these the pine-apple, orange, and its varieties, are the most highly valued. SPANISH WEST INDIES. 333 Savannas and plains stretch from the mountains to the sea, and present a scene of cultivated fields clothed in perennial verdure, and producing all the staples and fruits of tropical countries. During the whole year vegetation is strong, and no season is without its peculiar fruits. So prolific, indeed, is the soil, that two, and sometimes three crops of grain are produced annually. The mountains are rich in minerals, particularly copper, iron and natural magnet; and mines of gold and silver have been worked since the first period of its occupation. There are several salt lakes in the interior, abounding in excellent fish, and mineral springs, impregnated with iron and iodine, gush from the crevices, and up-spring from their sources in the hills. The scenery of the island is magnificent; from the elevations, the wide ocean, the multitude of islets embosomed on its surface, and the far distant shores of the adjacent continent, and large islands, and the shipping of all nations wending their pathless way through the waters, unfold to the eye such a scene as the imagination loves to revel in. Majesty, beauty and wealth are before the spectator, and the effect is truly sublime. In the plains the scenery is changed, and the magnificence of the mountains is merged into the pastoral quietude of rural life, indicated by the teeming abundance which everywhere crowns the toil of the husbandman. Here, wide plantations of the sugar-cane - cotton - tobacco and all the vigorous vegetation of the tropics, is seen to perfection, and vast herds of cattle roaming peacefully through the flowery savannas, give token of the wealth and ease in which the people of this fine island pass their careless life. The progress of Cuba in population has been rapid. There have been but five or six censuses taken, the dates of which are exhibited in the annexed table: 1775. 1827. 1841. 1847. Whites............................96,440.........311,051.........418,291... 2...4256,770 Free Mulattoes.................19,327.......... 57,514. 152,838 159,2 3 Free blacks......................11520.......... 48,980..................15923 Slaves...........................44,333.......286,942.........436,624.......... 323,759 Total.......................171620..........704,87....... 1,007,624..........908,762 The people are universally Roman Catholics. Churches, chapels, convents, &c., are established in all parts. There are some 200 or 300 schools on the island, some private and others gratuitous. In the higher schools, the classics and mathematics are taught. No slave is admitted into any schools of the island. The industry of the people is confined almost wholly to the production of the great agricultural staples. The manufactures are almost limited to the making of sugar, molasses and rum. The commerce of Cuba is chiefly in the hands of European merchants. The principal articles of export are, sugar, coffee, rum, molasses, wax, tobacco and cigars, with some honey, hides, cotton and a variety of fruits. The imports consist of manufactured articles, chiefly from England and the United States, with corn and salted provisions. The exports of Cuba amount annually to about $20,000,000, and the imports to about $2,000,000 or $3,000,000 more. The commerce carried on between the United States and Cuba, in 1850, is exhibited in the following table: Exports from the United States....................................................$5,309,213 Imports into the United States.......................10,659,956 334 SPANISH WEST INDIES. The means of internal communication are comparatively imperfect. The common roads are badly constructed, and in the rainy season are impassable for wheels. The principal ports and towns are united by railroads, and as far as they are alone concerned, little further is required. As respects the civil government, Cuba is divided into two provinces, viz: eastern and western; Havana being the capital of the one, and Santiago of the other. The Captain-General, governor, or supreme military chief of the island, is at the same time civil governor of the western provinces, but except in military matters, the governor of the eastern province is perfectly independent of the Captain-General, and responsible only to the Court at Madrid. The island is also divided into three military divisions. It is not easy to exaggerate the political importance of Cuba. Her size, geographical position, and the situation, great strength, and admirable harbor of Havana, render her, as it were, the mistress of the Gulf of Mexico. No wonder, therefore, that her possession, and the nature of the government to which she is subject, should be objects of intense interest to the United States, and also to Great Britain and other commercial nations. On the whole it would seem to be for the common advantage of the commercial world that Cuba should continue as at present, dependent upon Spain, or that she should become independent. Havana, the capital, is a large and flourishing commercial city, and perhaps, next to New York and New Orleans, the greatest emporium in the western world. It stands on the north-west of the island, and on the west side of one of the most perfect harbors in the world. The population amounts to about 100,000 made up of about 45,000 Europeans and their descendants, 25,000 free mulattoes and blacks, and about an equal number of slaves. Havana is renowned for its harbor. The entrance is narrow but deep, without bar or obstruction of any kind, and expands into a magnificent bay. Vessels of the largest dimensions safely ride on its waters, and approach its quays. The city lies at the entrance and on the west side of the bay; its suburb, Regia, is on the opposite side. The Moro and Punta are two forts at the entrance —the Punta on the east, and the Moro on the west side; and the city is otherwise strongly defended, and fortifications have been erected on all the commanding heights in the vicinity. The streets of the city proper are narrow, crooked, and ill-regulated, but in the suburbs, especially Salud, they are wide and handsome. The houses within the walls are of stone; without, of various materials. The public edifices, such as the cathedral, government-house, admiralty, arsenal, general post-office, and royal tobacco-factory, are less remarkable for splendor than for solidity of construction. There are three theatres, an amphitheatre for bull-fights, and several handsome public promenades. The arsenal and dock-yard are at the south end of the city. In the latter large numbers of ships of the line, steamers, &c., have been built. It is perhaps equal in capacity to the most celebrated dock-yards in the world. The commerce of Havana is immense, and the articles exported of the most valuable description, being as well foreign as domestic. The markets of the city are well furnished, and the consumption of country produce is immense, more than 2,000 beasts being constantly employed in bringing it up, besides that brought by way of railroad and other conveyances. SPANISH WEST INDIES. 335 Next in importance to Havana, is Santiago de Cuba, the residence of the authorities of the eastern province. It is one of the best cities on the island, and third in commercial importance. It lies six miles from the sea, on the river of the same name, the mouth of which forms its harbor. Matanzas ranks next to Havana in commercial importance. It is situated at the bottom of a deep bay, 52 miles east of the capital. The population is estimated at 18,000 inhabitants, one-third of which is of Europoan origin. It is well built, partly of stone, and contains some fine public edifices. PUERTO RIco, is the smallest of the larger Antilles, and most eastward, lying betwen latitude 17~ 55' and 180 30' north, and between longitude 650 40' and 67~ 20' west. It forms part of the great wall between the Atlantic ocean and Caribbean sea, and is separated on the east by the Virgin Passage from the Virgin Islands, and from HIayti on the west by the Mona Passage. The island resembles a parallelogram in shape, its length, from east to west, being 100 miles, and its breadth about 38 miles-area, 3,865 square miles. The population numbers more than 350,000 of which only 127,000 are of European descent; the remainder being negroes, three-fourths of whom are slaves. The general course of the mountains in Porto Rico is from east to west, midway between the north and south coasts. The greatest elevation is at the north-east extremity, being about 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. The face of the isand wears all the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics, and is highly cultivated, and dotted over with a number of thriving villages. The climate is said to be less unhealthy, and more desirable as a residence of Europeans, than most of the Antilles. It differs widely, however, in different parts; in the north it is liable to heavy rains, and in the south, to drouths. Violent hurricanes frequently sweep over the island, and spread devastation and ruin among the plantations. The resources of Porto Rico are essentially agricultural. No minerals are found, and no manufactures exist; but one-half, however, of the available lands are cultivated. The staples produced are sugar and coffee, with the usual catalogue of West India produce. The breeding and feeding of cattle is largely attended to, and it is estimated that the number of these amounts to more than 200,000. Cattle-breeding is, perhaps, more profitable here than any other department of agriculture; but owing to the subdivision of the property, few persons own more than 1,000 cattle. The numbers of sheep, goats, hogs, mules, and asses, are however, very limited; but there are about 80,000 horses, of tolerably good breed. The value of live stock is estimated at from $7,000,000 to $8,000,000. Previous to 1815, Porto Rico, being excluded from all foreign countries except Spain, was either stationary or increased very slowly. But in that year a royal decree favorable to commerce, and a free trade under moderate duties, has since been permitted. In consequence of this liberal measure, the island has made rapid progress in every department of internal and external prosperity. 336 FRENCH WEST INDIES. FRENCH WEST INDIES. GUADALOUPE lies between 150 58' and 160 13' N. latitude, and between 610 15' and 61~ 45' W. longitude, 40 miles west of Antigua, and 20 miles north of Dominica. Together with its dependencies, the small adjacen islands of Marie-galante, La Desirade, and Les Saintes, andS'a portion of the island of St. Martin's, it occupies an area of 309 square miles, and has a population of about 135,000. Guadaloupe is divided into two unequal parts by the Salt river, an arm of the sea about five miles in length, and varying in width from 20 to 120 yards. The division southwest of this inlet is Guadaloupe Proper-that on the northeast is called Grand Terre. The former is of an oblong shape, and a chain of volcanic mountains covered with woods runs through the centre nearly its entire length. The medium height of its summits is about 3,000 feet, but near the south extremity the Soufriere, a volcano still exhibiting smouldering activity, rises to 5,108 feet above the level of the ocean. A multitude of rivulets course down the flanks of this chain, and water the slopes of the island. The soil of Guadaloupe is light and easy of tillage, but is inferior to that of Grand Terre, which is rich and fertile. Almost every part of the island is capable of cultivation; and, notwithstanding the deficiency of water, in some parts is very productive. The climate is extremely hot, and is only tempered by the recurrence of sea and land breezes. About 86 inches of rain fall during the year. Hurricanes and earthquakes are frequent, and have several times been attended with tragical consequences. More than onehalf the cultivated land is planted with sugar-cane. The agriculture of these islands has been much improved of late, in consequence of the introduction of the new implements; and the manufacture of sugar has also improved since steam engines were brought into use. The live stock consists principally of black cattle, sheep and mules. Guinea grass is the only forage grown. The commerce of Guadaloupe, in which is included that of its dependencies, is considerable. The annual value of produce exported, averages 25,000,000 francs, and consists of raw sugars, molasses, rum, coffee, dyewoods, cotton, copper, &c. Guadaloupe and its dependencies are divided into three arrondissements, six cantons, and 24 communes. The legislature consists of a governor and a colonial council of thirty members, elected for five years by the people at large. A Deputy is sent to the National Assembly in Paris, as representative of the interests of the colonists. Churches, schools and charitable institutions are well provided. The revenues are under 5,000,000 francs a year. Basse-terre, the capital and seat of government, on the southwest shore, is a clean and well-built town of 5,000 inhabitants. The small island of MARTINIQUE is situated about 25 miles southeast of Dominica, and 20 miles north of St. Lucia. It is about 38 miles long, and 10 in average breadth; its area is 290 square miles. DUTCH WEST INDIES. 337 ST. MARTIN'S, one of the Virgin Islands, belonging partly to the French and partly to the Dutch, lies between Anguilla and St. Bartholomew's. It forms a commune of Guadaloupe. DUTCH WEST INDIES. The colonial possessions of the Dutch in the West Indies are extremely limited, and consist only of a few small, but somewhat important islands. These are Curagoa, St. Eustatius, Saba, and the southern part of St. Martin's; the first lying off the coast of Venezuela, and the three last between the islands of Anguilla and St. Christopher's. CURA9OA lies on the north of Venezuela, in latitude 120 6' north, and longitude 690 west. The shores of this island are bold, and the interior, in some parts, hilly. The soil is in general poor and rocky, and there is a great deficiency of water; but, by the industry of the inhabitants, some tobacco, sugar in considerable quantities, indigo, &c., are grown; and an abundance of salt is obtained from the marshes. Maize, cassava, figs, oranges, citrons, and most European culinary vegetables, are cultivated, but provisions are not produced in sufficient quantity for its inhabitants. The government is conducted by a Stadtholder, assisted by a civil and military council. Wilhelmstadt, the seat of government, is one of the neatest cities in the West Indies; its public buildings are magnificent, and the private houses are commodious. The harbor is excellent, and well protected by strong fortifications. There are several good harbors, but the principal commerce is carried on by the merchants of the capital. The small islands of Buen Ayre and Oruba, one on each side of Cura~oa, also belong to the Dutch. They are chiefly celebrated for their fine breed and number of cattle. ST. EUSTASIUS is one of the Leeward Islands, and lies in latitude 170 30' north, and longitude 62~ 40' west, between St. Christopher's and Saba, 9 miles northwest of the former, and 15 southeast of the latter. This island is evidently an extinct volcano; it rises from the ocean in a parymidal form, and has a depression in the centre, apparently its ancient crater, but which now affords a plentiful cover for numerous wild animals. The coast is almost inaccessible, except on the southwest, where the town of St. Eustasius has been built. The climate is moderate, and generally healthy, but terrific earthquakes and hurricanes are frequent. The island also suffers from the scarcity of water. Almost all the land is under cultivation, and tobacco, the principal product, is raised on the side of the pyramid to its very summit. All other West India staples are grown, and from a superabundance of hogs, rabbits, poultry, &c., the inhabitants are enabled to furnish other islands with these necessaries. Formerly St. Eustasius carried on an extensive contraband trade with South America. This island has, with little exception, belonged to the Dutch since the middle of the 17th century. 22 338 DANISH WEST INDIES. DANISH WEST INDIES. The Danish colonies in the West Indies comprise the three islands of Santa Cruz, St. Thomas', and St. John's, in the Virgin group. SANTA CRUZ, the most southerly of the Virgin Islands, lies 60 miles east-south-east of Porto Rico. Its length from east to west is 20 miles, and its breadth 5 miles. The northern portion is traversed by a chain of hills, but the island is generally level. The coasts are much indented, and present numerous harbors, the best of which are Christianstadt and Friederichstadt. The rivulets are dried up during a part of the year, and water is scarce and bad, and the climate unhealthy. The fertility of the soil is indicated by the quantity of its products. The average value of sugar amounts to about 1,200,000 rix-dollars annually, and that of rum, celebrated throughout the world, to 50,000 rix-dollars. The principal town, Christianstadt, the capital of all the Danish West Indies, is situated on the declivity of a hill, on the northeast shore of the island. It is a well-built town of some 5,000 or 6,000 inhabitants. Its port is secure, and defended by a battery. Friederichstadt, on the west coast, has 1,500 inhabitants. Santa Cruz was discovered by Columbus in 1493. The Dutch, English, French, Spaniards, and Danes, alternately possessed it until 1814, when it was finally ceded to Denmark. It also formerly belonged to the knights of Malta. ST. THOMAS lies 36 miles east of Porto Rico. The surface is mountainous, and the soil less fertile than St. Croix. Sugar and cotton are the principal staples. St. Thomas has long been, and continues to be, one of the chief emporiums in the West Indies. It owes its distinction partly to its spacious and safe harbor at St. Thomas, on the south side of the island, and partly and principally, to the moderation of the duties imposed on commerce. St. Thomas has in consequence become as it were a depot for the supply of the neighboring islands, goods being sent to it until opportunity offers for conveying them to their ultimate destination. The great articles of importation are European manufactured goods, but chiefly from England, and provisions, lumber, &c., from the United States. ST. JOHN'S, six miles east of St. Thomas, contains about 40 square miles. The soil produces sugar, coffee, tobacco, &c. The Moravian Brethren have missions in all these islands. In addition to those described, there are a great number of small islands, belonging to the Columbian archipelago; but as they have no great com mercial importance, it will not be necessary to enumerate them. SOUTH AMERICA. THE physical geography of SOUTH AMERICA has been described in the first part of this work, in the general description of North and South America. It lies between the parallels of 110 20' north, and 56~ 30' south latitude, and between the meridians of 350 and 830 west longitude. Its greatest length is 4,550, and its greatest breadth 3,200 miles, containing an area of 6,500,000 miles. The following table sets forth its distinct political divisions: GOVERNMENTS OF SOUTH AMERICA.. Form of Govern- Area in Sq. opultion. States. ment. apitals. Miles. opulatio. Venezuela.......... Republic........ Caraccas.......... 1,450,000 1,000,000 New Granada....................... Republic........ Santa Fe de Bogota 380,000 1,687,000 Equador....................... Republic.... Quito............. 325,000 600,000.Bolivia............... Republic......... huquisca...... 318,000 1,700,000 Peru.................. Republic.............. Lim 524,000 1,373,000 Chili............................... Republic.... Santiago......... 144,000 1,200.000 Argentine Republic................. Republic... Buenos Ayres..... 726,000 67b5,00 Uruguay............................ Republic......... Montevideo... 120,000 140,000 Paraguay.......................... Republic......... Acencion.. 74,000 250,000 Brazil.............................. Empire.... Rio de Janeiro..... 2,300,000 7,500.000 British Guiana..................Province......... Georgetown. 76,000 96,;00 Dutch Guiana....................... Province......... Paramaribo.... 88,500 6,500 French Guiana.................... Province......... Cayenne.... 21,648 18,000 Patagonia...........................Native Chiefs00....00 80,000 Total.~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~.~~~~ 6,577,148 16,326,000 We will now proceed to describe these several states in the order of their arrangement in the table. COLOMBIA. Rcepubcs. Square Miles. Population. Capitals. uPLc oF No w GRENADA................ 380,000... 1,687,000.......Bogota. EQUADo................... 325,000. 600,000..Quito. V ZULA................... 1,450000.. 1000,000............. Caraccas. In 1831 Colombia was divided into three independent republics: NEW GRENADA, VENEZUELA, and EQUADOR. This vast territory may be gen erally described: It lies between 120 25' north and 50 south latitude, and longitude 60~ and 830 west; length, from east to west, 1,320 miles; breadth, from north to south, 1,080 miles. The area and population of the three states are given separately in the table. This country is naturally divided into three distinct tracts. The first comprises the country between the Pacific ocean and the Caribbean sea and the Andes; the second, the mountainous region; the third, the immense savannahs which stretch south and east from the Andes to the neighborhood of the river (339) 340 NEW GRENADA- EQUADOR-VENEZUELA. Amazon, and the mountains which border on the Orinoco. It has 2,000 miles of coast on the Caribbean sea and the Atlantic, and 1,200 miles on the Pacific. The former is a great deal more indented with bays and inlets than the latter; the principal are the gulfs of Paria, Maracaybo, and Darien, on the Caribbean Sea: with Panama, Choco, and the gulf of Guayaquil, on the Pacific. Several islands belonging to Colombia'surround its coast; as those of Margarita, Tortuga, &c., (Venezuela); I. Rey, Quito, &c., (New Grenada); and Puna, (Equador). The great Cordillera of the Andes enters the province of Loxa from the south, between lat. 40 and 5~ south: in 20 23' south, where it is nearly 15,000 feet in height, it divides into two parallel ridges, in the elevated valley between which, 9,000 feet above the level of the sea, Quito and other towns are situated. East of this valley rise the summits of Copaurcu, 16,380, Tunguragua, 16,720, Cotopaxi, 17,950, and Guyambu, 18,180 feet; and on its west side, those of Chimborazo, 20,100, Henisa, 16,302, and Petchincha, 15,380 feet high; all covered with perpetual snows, from amidst which torrents of flame and lava have frequently burst, and desolated the surrounding country. Colombia includes the most northerly of the three great basins of the South American continent, the Llanos of Varinas and Caraccas; which, like the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, consists of savannahs or steppes devoid of large trees. These, in the rainy season, appear from the high lands as a boundless extent of verdure, but in time of drouth they are a complete desert. Humboldt remarks, that "' there is something awful, but sad and gloomy, in the uniform aspect of these steppes." " I know not," he says, " whether the first sight of the Llanos excites less astonishment than that of the Andes. The plains of the west and north of Europe present but a feeble image of these. All around us the plains seemed to ascend towards the sky; and that vast and profound solitude appeared like an ocean cov ered with sea-weeds." The chief characteristics of these steppes, like those of northern Asia, is the absolute want of hills and inequalities. This resemblance to the surface of the sea strikes the imagination most powerfully where the plains are altogether destitute of palm-trees, and where the mountains of the shore and the Orinoco are so distant that they cannot be seen. The phenomena of the mirage, and the apparition of large lakes, with an undulating surface, may frequently be observed. These savannahs are watered by the numerous streams which form the Meta, the Apure, and finally the Orinoco; and the periodical overflowings of which convert the whole country, during four months of the year, into an inland sea. The equally well-watered plains of Equador are intersected by numerous large branches of the Amazon, and form a part of the great central basin of the continent. The chief rivers are the Amazon, which, in the earlier part of its course, runs almost entirely through Equador, near its south border; and the Orinoco, which, together with all its branches, is wholly included within the territories of Venezuela and New Grenada. Besides these, there are the Magdalena, Cauca, Atrato, Zulia, Tocuyo, and Guarapiche, whose waters go to the Caribbean sea; the Patia, Mira, Esmeralda, and Guayaquil rivers, falling into the Pacific; the Yapura, Putumayo, Napo, Piguena, Pastaca, Marona, Santiago, Huallago, &c., affluents to the Amazon; the Guaviare, Meta, Arauca, Apure, with its numerous branches, Ventuari, Caura, NEW GRENADA- EQUADOR- VENEZUELA. 341 Carony, &c., which discharge themselves into the Orinoco; and the Cayuni, which passes into the territory of British Guiana. The most considerable lake is that of Maracaybo, which is rather a kind of inland fresh water sea, and communicates with the gulf of the same name by a channel about two leagues broad and eight long. The lake of Valencia is the next in importance: there are others, both in the plains and in the mountain regions; the most celebrated of them is that of Guatavita, not far from Bogota, into which, it is affirmed, large sums were thrown by the natives during the period of the Spanish conquests. The Cordilleras teem with metallic wealth; and though imperfectly explored, have already produced large quantities of gold, silver, platina, mercury, copper, lead, and iron. There are mines of rock salt in the mountains north-east of Bogota, and caves producing nitre near the lake Guatavita. Hot sulphurous springs abound in several parts; those of Las Trincheras, about ten miles from Valencia, are believed to be the hottest hitherto discovered, excepting those of Urijino in Japan. Colombia abounds in stupendous natural wonders: among the rest are the natural bridges of Icononzo, not far from Bogota; the fall of Tequendama, the loftiest cataract, and the Silla de Caraccas, the loftiest cliff yet discovered; the cavern of Caripe or Guacharo, &c. The climate of the country between the Cordillera and the Caribbean sea is extremely hot, and generally unhealthy. In the valley of the Orinoco the heat is also intense; but this tract is not so insalubrious as the sea coast, and is often refreshed by strong breezes. The middle region possesses every gradation of temperature, according to elevation. Violent storms, accompanied with thunder and lightning, are frequent at Maracaybo. Earthquakes are very common; many took place at the end of the last century, and one in 1812 overthrew most of the principal towns on the northern coast, with great destruction of'human life. Intermittent, putrid, and bilious fevers and dysenteries, are the most prevalent diseases on the coast; goitre is nearly universal in the mountainous regions. The vast forests that line the shores of the rivers, and cover the mountains, abound with fine timber, which would yield a large revenue, if themeans of transit to the coast were better. Mahogany, cedars, and an infinite number of woods of great beauty and durability, a very hard species of oak, iron-wood, ebony of various kinds; Nicaragua, Brazil, and numerous other dye-woods; the cocoa and other palms; bananas, plantains, gigantic mimosas, &c., are found in profusion. Humboldt observes, "It might be said that the earth, overloaded with plants, does not allow them space enough to unfold themselves. The trunks of the trees are everywhere concealed under a thick carpet of verdure." Venezuela is, generally speaking, more fertile and richly wooded than New Grenada. Mangroves and Cacti grow thick upon the coast; the tamarind, date and various other tropical fruits, are nearly everywhere plentiful, and the Picus gigantea sometimes reaches the height of 100 feet. The cocoa-nut, indigo, cotton, yam, and potato, are indigenous to Colombia, as are vanilla, cassia-fistula, cochineal, &c.; the provinces of Loxa and Mariquito are famous for their cinchona bark; cusparia, sarsaparilla, sassafras, squills, storax, and a multitude of other medicinal plants, gums, resins, and balsams, are natives of this country. 342 NEW GRENADA- EQUADOR- VENEZUELA. Nature has been equally prodigal of animal as of vegetable life. Ja guars, tapirs, wild horses, hogs, deer in immense numbers, wild dogs, and monkeys of different kinds, are among the most common quadrupeds; as vultures, parrots, and parroquets, in large flocks, macaws, scarlet cardinals, flamingoes, pelicans, and an abundance of water-fowl, are plentiful among birds. Immense alligators inhabit the large rivers and llanos, where, together with large serpents of various kinds, they lie buried in the mud during the dry season, and revive at the first appearance of the rains. The rivers and lakes are well stocked with fish, and the stagnant pools in the llanos abound with the gymnotus, or electrical eel. Scorpions, millipedes, scolopendras, termites, mosquitoes, and myriads of other insects abound; the pearl oyster inhabits several parts of the coast. The Caribs are the ruling Indian tribe; they are tall, of a reddish copper color, with dark, intelligent eyes, and a grave expression of features. They raise the flesh of their legs and thighs in long stripes, and shave most of the hair from their heads; but do not flatten the forehead, as is customary with the other tribes along the Orinoco. Since the revolution all the Indian tribes have been declared free; and the rest of the population became free in 1840. Cocoa, coffee, cotton, indigo, sugar, tobacco, wheat, maize, hides, cat tie, and Brazil-wood, are the principal articles of culture and commerce the grains and nutritious roots known in the West Indies by the name of ground provisions, are produced only in sufficent quantities for home con sumption. Maize is grown every where, and, when ripe, is pounded in wooden mortars into a coarse meal; there being no more perfect machinery for grinding it. Wheat is grown on the higher lands, especially in New Grenada, where it often yields 40 bushels an acre: two crops may be produced in one year. A substitute for bread is found in cassava, which is produced, by a process similar to that for making starch, from the yuca root; the plantain is to the mass of the natives what the potato has become to the poor of Ireland; the rice of Colombia is indifferent. Cocoa is principally grown in Venezuela, on the low rich soil of the coast, in Varinas, and near Guayaquil. It does not come into full bearing till after eight or nine years' growth; but after that continues in produce for 20 or 30 years, bearing two crops a year with little trouble or expense. From what has been said, it will be evident that Colombia is a country of great natural riches, suffered to lie for the most part waste. Were its inhabitants of an active and industrious disposition, and its resources developed even in a moderate degree, it would be one of the richest and most important countries in the world. Previously to the arrival of Columbus, the horse and ox were unknown in the New World; but the llanos are now covered with herds of both. M. Depons, in the early part of the presenG century, estimated that there were, from the mouths of the Orinoco to the lake Maracaybo, 1,200,000 oxen, 180,000 horses, and 90,000 mules; an estimate which Humboldt thought too low. Sheep and goats are plentiful in the table-lands of Bogota, &c.; animal food is cheap and much consumed; and hides, wool, and cheese, form a principal portion of rural produce. Along the coast many of the inhabitants subsist as fishermen; bartering the fish they catch for maize and other inland produce. There are three pearl fisheries; two on the shores of the Atlantic, and one on those of the NEW GRENADA- EQUADOR -VENEZUELA. 343 Pacific. The pearls of this coast are remarkable for their beautiful play of light, in which they are much superior to those of the East. The Indians of Cariaco have a singular method of catching wild fowl, which may here be noticed: they leave calabashes floating continually on the water, that the birds may be accustomed to the sight of them. When they wish to catch any of these wild fowl, they go into the water with their heads covered each with a calabash, in which they make two holes for seeing through. They thus swim towards the birds, throwing a handful of maize on the water from time to time, the grains of which scatter on the surface. The birds approach to feed on the maize, and at that moment the swimmer seizes them by the feet, pulls them under water, and wrings their necks before they can make the least movement, or, by their noise, spread an alarm among the flock. The ports of La Guayra, Rio del IHacha, Santa Martha, Carthagena, Chagres, Puerto-Cabello, Panama, and Guyaquil, are those most frequented by foreign traders. The want of internal communication is a considerable disadvantage; throughout the whole country there is not a road passable for wheel carriages; and every species of commodity is conveyed on mules. The ways generally are mere tracks, formed by the tread of successive travelers, and even in what were formerly termed royal roads, all that has been done is to cut down the trees. Bridges are few, and, except those of Valencia and Capitanejo, consist only of a few rough planks, with branches, &c., laid across; or of ropes, upon which a suspended basket is made to run from one end to the other. In the more precipitous and dangerous passes, where mules can scarcely be used, it is customary for travelers to be carried in chairs fastened to the backs of men, who obtain a miserable livelihood by continually exposing themselves to risks, such as those which beset the chamois-hunter. Government is vested, in each of the different republics, in a senate and a house of representatives, both consisting of members elected by the cantonal deputies of the provinces, in a provisional assembly, held once ir four years. In Colombia, previous to its partition, the right of suffrage ir the election of deputies required the parochial voter to be a Colombian, above the age of 21, the owner of property worth 100 dollars, or exercisinm some trade or profession, and able to read and write. To be a cantonal elector, it was requisite to be a native of the canton, possessed of propert) worth $500, or an income of $300: to be a senator, it was necessary t( have an income of $500, or to be of a learned profession. The executive power was vested in a president and vice president, the former of whon could not continue in office longer than eight years successively; an( neither he, nor any of the ministers, could be members of the congress With some variations, this government has been adopted by the existing republics. The-civil and criminal codes are an ill-digested collection of the laws ol Castile and of the Indies, royal ordinances, and other Spanish decrees and colonial regulations; and their administration is very unfavorable spoken of. The judges were elected by the congress, from lists given b: the president. Trial by jury, and the liberty of the press, were anono the first enactments of the Colombian Congress. 344 NEW GRENADA- EQUADOR- VENEZUELA. The religion is Roman Catholic, the ceremonies and festivals of which are celebrated with great splendor. The inquisition was abolished in 1821; but the clergy still possess considerable power, and though general toleration is afforded to persons of other creeds, they are not at liberty to perform their rites in public. The clergy are paid by the state: convents are still numerous, but diminishing; and dissent from Catholicism is spreading. Many Indians have embraced Christianity. The ranks of the different armies are filled with Indians and mixed races, in a tolerable state of discipline. In addition to these, there is a militia, consisting of the whole male population between 16 and 40 years of age. Considerable pains have been taken by the Colombians to raise a navy; but their maritime force is inconsiderable. A marine school was some years since established at Carthagena. During the Spanish regime, elementary education was sadly neglected, and all the more important branches of useful knowledge professed at the universities of the Caraccas, Bogota, and Quito, were so taught as to be really worse than useless; and instead of expanding and enlightening the mind, served rather to imbue it with the grossest prejudices. South America has suffered much from this wretched system; the anarchy of which it has been so long the theatre, being quite as much to be ascribed to the ignorance and prejudices of the people as to their want of acquaintance with the art of government. But some considerable progress has been made towards the establishment of a better order of things. Primary schools were ordered to be established in every parish, by the congress of 1821. Architecture has made but little progress, and almost the only specimens worth notice are confined to Bogota. Painting is successfully cultivated in that city and Quito, and music in Caraccas; but, generally speaking, the fine arts are in a very backward state. The besetting vice of the Colombians is indolence, which retards all their social progress; they are courteous, hospitable, and when intimately known, friendly and cordial; temperate in their habits, and grave in their deportment; but suspicious, reserved, slow, and imbued with much national pride. The manners, dress, habits, and amusements of those of European descent resemble those of their Spanish ancestors. Equador, and especially the valley of Quito, contains many monuments of the sway of the Incas; Venezuela was the first part of the new continent discovered by Columbus in 1498. The Spaniards found more difficulty in conquering this than any other part of their American territories; but before the middle of the 16th century, both Venezuela and New Grenada had been erected into captaincies, governed by viceroys from Spain. In 1808, after the invasion of Spain by Napoleon, a spirit of insubordination broke out in these colonies; in 1811, their independence was declared; and, in 1819, Venezuela and New Grenada united into one republic, under the name of Colombia. In 1822, the royalists in Equador were defeated by Gen. Sucre; Bolivar headed the revolutionists elsewhere; and, in 1823, the struggle ended with their complete independence. In 1829, Venezuela separated from the other states; rejoined them for a short period in 1830; but, in November, 1831, separated anew; since which period Colombia has remained divided into the above three republics. NEW GRENADA — EQUADOR- VENEZUELA. 345 The course of events, since 1831, in Equador, are little known. Personal ambition and civil war, however, have been predominant, and it is probable that its history would be but a record of successive dynasties, whose terms have been marked in blood and horror. War seems to be the ruling passion of all the Indo-Spanish nations in South America; and the prosperity of the people is made a secondary object to the success of ambitious and designing demagogues. Such, indeed, has been the story of this favored country since its emancipation from old Spain: tyrant succeeds tyrant, and the people bite the dust. Venezuela, since the dissolution of the confederacy, has enjoyed external peace; but within her own borders, civil wars have reduced the energies of the republic, and retarded its prosperity. Several members of congress were massacred in 1848, and the act was said to have been instigated by the president. The last civil war terminated in 1849. New Grenada presents a different aspect, and the government seems to be one of energy and enterprise. It preeminently excels all the others formed on the ruins of the ancient Spanish colonies, if we except that of Chili; and there is no doubt but that its present wise policy will do much to consolidate the interests of its people. It was in the regions of the vast plains watered by the Oronoco, that report located the fabulous " El Dorado," the golden kingdom of Manao, which was the grand ultimatum of the Spaniard's hopes, and in search of which a great many expeditions were fitted out in the 16th century. The Indians of Peru were continually pointing their reckless invaders to the north, and inciting their rapacious desires with stories of a more golden region, even than their own, in that direction. Whether it was that they endeavored by stratagem to rid themselves of their merciless conquerors, or that they referred to the opulent city of the Aztec emperor, on the northern continent, has not yet been satisfactorily understood. So confident, however, were the Spaniards of the existence of such a country, that so late as the year 1780, a large expedition perished in the search, of course fruitless, of this imaginary region. The city of BOGOTA is the capital of New Grenada. It is situated at the foot of two mountains, which shelter it fiom the violent east winds, on an elevated table land 8,650 feet above the level of the sea, in north latitude 40 37' and west longitude 740 10'. The temperature of the atmosphere is fine and equable, but the climate is exceedingly humid, though not unhealthy. Externally the city has an imposing appearance, but the streets are generally narrow, though regular, and the houses low, of ancient architecture, and of heavy and gloomy aspect. Nearly half its area is occupied by religious buildings, there being 26 churches, besides the cathedral, nine monasteries and three nunneries. The city was founded in 1538, by Quesada, and now contains 40,000 inhabitants. Few of the dwellings display much taste or splendor, and the beauty of the city rests entirely with its ecclesiastical edifices, the tall spires and towers of which rising amid the grandeur of the surrounding scenery, give, when viewed at a distance, a very fine appearance. Hondo, on the Magdalena, is the port of Bogota, and is situated about 55 miles west of that city. It has a considerable trade in cotton goods, hides, grain, &c., and contains a population of about 10,000. The climate here is much warmer than at the capital, but by no means is it unhealthy. Bogota is an archepiscopal see. Popayan is the next city to Bogota in size, and is more elegantly built, being the residence of many opulent merchants. It contains a mint, a university and 346 NEW GRENADA- EQUADOR- VENEZUELA. many magnificent religious buildings. This city is situated on the river Cauca, and has a considerable trade through the port of Cartagena. Population, 25,Q00. Cartagena is the principal port of New Grenada, and carries on quite an extensive trade with the United States and Europe This city was at one time of immense importance to the Spanish possessions, and is still considered as the stronghold of the republic. It is built on a sandy island of the north coast, to the westward of the Rio Magdalena, and possesses one of the finest harbors in America. It is an episcopal city-is well fortified, and has a population of 18,000 Though much decayed, it is still a fine city, and the centre of trade. Panama is a well built city, on a peninsula of the southern coast of the isthmus, to which it gives its name. It was formerly much frequented by Spanish merchantmen; and its importance has lately been revived by the project of making it the west rn depot of inter-oceanic communication. Its harbor is inferior. The population fluctuates, but it is generally about 10,000. Porto Bello, or Puerto Bello, is a very small town or village, on a fine natural harbor, but in so unhealthy a situation that it has acquired the title of the " Grave of Europeans." It stands on the north side of the isthmus, opposite Panama. The celebrated City of QUITO is the capital of Equador. It is situated in a ravine, on the east side of Pichincha, above 9,500 feet above the sea. Latitude 0~ 13' 27" south, longitude 78~ 10' 15" west. The population is variously estimated at from 40,000 to 70,000. Quito, on the whole, is the best built city in South America. It has four broad, straight and well paved streets, and three large and some smaller squares, in which are the principal public buildings and the best private residences. The houses, which are large and commodious, are mostly built of unburnt brick, cemented with a species of mortar used by the ancient Peruvians, which soon becomes extremely hard. On account of earthquakes they are seldom more than one story high, exclusive of the ground floor or rez de chaussee. They are flat roofed, and have usually a balcony facing on the street. The city is abundantly supplied with water, and a fine brass fountain adorns the centre of the principal square. Ecclesiastical edifices, which are numerous, form the chief ornaments of the place: the ex-Jesuits' college has a beautiful front, with Corinthian columns, finely sculptured by native artists. The interior of this edifice is very rich, and when visited by Stevenson, it had a library said to comprise 20,000 volumes, including several rare works. All these institutions were formerly depositaries of vast quantities of gold and silver ornaments; but these of late have been turned to a better and more useful purpose by the State. The charitable institutions are numerous and well supported: there is an almshouse, an orphan asylum, hospitals, &c., which are said to be well conducted. The educational system of Quito is more perfect than most others of South America, but according to Ulloa, the students are more perfect in the exact and abstract sciences than in their knowledge of politics, history and the departments of learning, which are more useful, and tend more to expand and vivify the intellect. The inhabitants of Quito, like those of other Spanish cities, make bull fights, masquerades, dancing, gaming, music and religious ceremonies and processions, their principal employments. Indolence is the characteristic of all classes; this, however, is in a great measure to be ascribed to the climate, and the case with which the necessaries of life are produced. The city enjoys a perpetual spring; vegetation never ceases, but from December to March violent storms of rain and lightning almost daily occur in the afternoon. Earthquakes are also frequent, and one of these visitations, which occurred in 1797, is said to have destroyed in the province 40,000 persons, and to have had a permanent influence over the climate. NEW GRENADA- EQUADOR- VENEZUELA. 347 A plain about four leagues from this city was made choice of by the French astronomers of 1736, for measuring a degree of the meridian; and an inscription on a marble tablet on the wall of the ex-Jesuits' church in Quito, commemorates the event, and the labors of the commission; but the most enduring memorial of that great undertaking is to be found in the "Historical Voyage " of Ulloa, one of the best works of the kind that has ever been published. Quito was founded by Sebastian Benalcasar, in 1534, and incorporated as a city by Charles V., in 1541. Guayaquil is the principal sea port of Equador, latitude 20 11' 21" south, longitude 790 43' west. It is built on the north bank of the river Guayaquil, and is divided into the old and new town, the former being occupied by the poorer classes. It is a tolerably well built city, but has frequently suffered firom fires. Its private houses are mostly tiled, and furnished with arcades. The principal buildings are the custom house, three convents, a college, hospital, &c.; but from being situated on a level, and intersected by many creeks, the drainage is bad, and the streets are so swampy as to be sometimes impassable. Many of the inhabitants live on the river in balzas, or rafts. The river opposite to the city is about two miles wide, and has on its south bank a dry dock,'where ships of a superior construction have been built. The city is unhealthy, and infested with vermin. The port of Guayaquil is one of the best on the Pacific, ships of large size coming close up to the town. It is defended by three forts, one being on the opposite side of the river. Ships bound for Guayaquil generally call at Puna for pilots. The City of CARACAS is the capital of Venezuela, and is situated in a mountain valley, at the foot of the Silla de Caracas, 330 feet above the sea, from which it is eight miles inland, and twelve miles S. S. E. of its port, La Guayra. This city is finely situated, and in the enjoyment of a temperate, though variable climate; but it is very much exposed to the attacks of earthquakes, by which it has frequently suffered. It is surrounded by the Guayra, and several other rivulets, which supply many public and private fountains, and wash the streets. It is a well and regularly built city; the streets are sufficiently wide, paved, and cross each other at right angles; there are, also, a number of squares, the principal of which is the Plaza Mayor. This is ornamented with several fine buildings; the cathedral on the east side, the university on the south, and the prison on the west; but it is disfigured by ranges of low shops, collected in its centre, where the fruit, vegetables and fish markets, are held. Most of the public buildings are of a religious character; the cathedral is spacious, but heavily built, and it is probably to this circumstance that its preservation was owing during the great earthquake of 1812. Previous to that year, there were eight other churches, the handsomest of which, Alta Gracia, was built by people of color; but this and the other churches, and nine-tenths of the houses, and between 9,000 and 10,000 inhabitants were destroyed, by the terrible catastrophe that then happened. There are three convents, two nunneries and three hospitals, besides a theatre capable of containing 1,800 persons, the pit of which is not covered in. The houses of Caracas are at present inferior to those which existed previous to the great earthquake; they are now chiefly built of sun-dried clay or brick, and the roofs tiled, and the walls white-washed. Caracas was founded in 1567, by Diego Loseda, and, under the Spanish government, was the seat of the Captaincy-General of Venezuela. In 1812, the population was 40,000, but it is now only about 24,000. La Guayra, which is the port of Caracas, is the chief trading town of the republic; but its merchants are, for the most part, the agents of others in the capital, where all negotiations are conducted. The population is about 15,000. The harbor is but indifferent, and the climate unhealthy. 348 REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA. REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA. AReA 818,000 sqUARE MILES. POPULATION 1,700,000. Bolivia, or Upper Peru, under the Spanish dominion, formed at different periods a portion of the viceroyalties of Lima and Buenos Ayres. It is geographically situated between the parallels of 9~ 30' and 25~ 40' south latitude, and longitudes 580 and 71~ west from Greenwich, having Peru on the north and northwest; Brazil and Paraguay on the east; the Argentine Republic and Chili on the south, and on the west the Pacific Ocean. Its extreme length from north to south, is 1,100 miles, and its breadth from the Pacific to its eastern boundary, is about 750 miles. The general features of the western portion of the country, are much similar to those of the eastern portions of Peru. It is traversed by mountains interspersed with beautiful elevated plateaux and vallies; while in the eastern provinces it stretches into a succession of immense pampas and well watered plains. The Andes, which enter Bolivia at its southern extremity, give off near latitude 24~ a lateral eastern range of no great elevation, which forms the boundary for a considerable distance between Bolivia and La Plata. About latitude 20~, the Andes divide into two great chains, which run parallel to each other to between 14~ and 15~ south, where they again unite. The farthest west of these chains is called the Cordillera of the coast, or of the Andes, and the farthest east the Cordillera Real: including the intermediate country, they occupy a breadth of more than 230 miles north of latitude 180, and south of that parallel of upwards of 300 miles; and cover at least 100,000 square miles of surface, which, however, is partly in Peru. The principal elevation of the eastern chain, Illimani, is 24,450 feet, and of the western 25,400 feet (Sorata) above the level of the ocean. Many of the passes across both chains are between 15,000 and 16,000 feet in elevation, or near the limit, in this region, of perpetual snow; while beneath the peaks of the Illimani there is a gorge or valley, perhaps 18,000 feet below the neighboring summit, probably the greatest difference in elevation that has ever yet been observed between any two similar contiguous points. The eastern portions of the country, which is in many parts very little above the level of the sea, is watered by considerable rivers. The whole region is extremely fertile; but it is nearly in a state of nature, and covered with vast primeval forests. The desert of Atacama occupies the country between the Andes and the Pacific: it extends for about 250 miles along the coast, having a variable breadth of from 30 to 60 miles. It is never refreshed by rain, and is almost as sterile and worthless as the Zahara; the only habitable parts are the narrow strips which skirt the rivers. Bolivia includes the eastern and southern shores of the largest accumulation of fresh water in South America — the Lake Titicaca, which occupies an area of 4,600 square miles, at the height of 12,798 feet above the REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA. 349 level of the ocean, an elevation superior to that of the highest summits of the Pyrenees. The mineral resources, especially those of the precious metals, are ex tensive and much celebrated. Gold is found in large quantities on the. declivity of the eastern Cordillera, and in the sands of the rivers flowing thence into the Beni and its tributaries. Potosi is famous for its rich silver mines: the Cerro di Potosi, a mountain belonging to the Andes, which is 18 miles in circumference, and rises to the height of 16,037 feet, is supposed to be a solid mass of the ores, or the matrix of the precious metals, of which it has produced an immense amount. Viewed from a distance, it presents all the various tints of the rainbow, and when the sun shines on the different colored ores, the effect is sublime. The first mining operations were commenced in 1545, from which time to the year 1803, it produced silver to the amount of ~237,358,334 sterling, on which duty was paid, besides, perhaps, an equal amount smuggled from the country. Gold, in large quantities, was also extracted from this mountain. The revolutionary struggle, however, much retarded operations, and they have since been almost suspended, and the mines are now quite unproductive. The interminable forests which border the margins of the rivers of Bolivia, abound in the finest woods, fit for every purpose of ship-building, carpentry and cabinet-work. The cocoa of Apolobamba and Moxas is celebrated, and is much superior to that produced in Equador; it is used by all classes as a nutritious and restorative diet. Fruits of all kind flourish luxuriously on the Beni and other streams: tamarinds; the chirimoya, lemons, figs, sugar-canes, pine-apples, plantains, &c., grow wild in all this region. Bolivia is very productive in medicinal plants and drugs: cascarilla, infdigo, cinchona, copaiba, sarsaparilla, &c. Its agricultural products consist of rice, coffee and various grains. Cotton, gum-elastic, tobacco, dye-woods, &c., are articles of export. Among other products, is a species of cinnamon called canella de clava, said to differ little from the genuine, except in the thickness of its bark. In the narrow strips along the margin of the rivers that run through the desert of Atacama, maize is much raised, with excellent fruits, cotton and sugar cane. The wild animals of the country are those peculiar to the whole central portion of South America: the tapir, jaguar, leopard, and a variety of monkeys inhabit the forests on the. banks of the rivers. Guanacos, alpacos, a kind of hare, and a small animal of the family Rodentia, whose burrow ing often renders travelling on horseback unsafe, are found in the valley of Desaguadero. The llama, and other animals mentioned in Peru, are common to this country, and the cochineal insect is raised with greater facility than in Mexico. The parrot and paroquet, as well as various singing-birds, as the thrush and whistler, are indigenous, and several kinds of turkeys inhabit the woods. The rivers are well supplied with fish and amphibia, in great variety, and the eastern plains are infested with myriads of annoying reptiles and insects. Vast herds of cattle roam over the pampas, and horses, asses, mules, &c., are used as beasts of burden: sheep are only found in the mountains in the west, the eastern lands being too warm for them. 350 REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA. The climate of Bolivia presents several peculiarities, determined by locality. The vast desert of Atacama, on the Pacific, partakes of the characteristics of Western Peru; there it never, or but seldom rains, nor is thunder or lightning known. In the vast plains east of the Andes, the rainy season, which is identical with summer, lasts from October to April, during which the rains are continuous, and the country is inundated to a great extent by the overflowing of the surcharged rivers; the temperature of these plains is very high, and throughout, they may be said to be unhealthy, and productive of fevers and other endemic diseases. The banks of the Beni, however, are represented as being comparatively healthy. In the valley of Desaguadero, 1,300 feet above the level of the sea, the temperature is moderate, uniform, and the climate in the highest degree salubrious and pleasant; snow falls in November and April, the beginning and end of the summer season, but never remains on the ground for any length of time. The winter in this valley is extremely dry, and, although the nights are cool, the sky is serene and cloudless. Tremendous hail-storms are frequent in the mountains, and earthquakes on the coast. In the higher regions of the Andes, the inhabitants are frequently afflicted with snowblindness throughout the winter season; but otherwise, their exalted station, is as happy as it is healthy. Bolivia is divided into the following departments, and these are subdivided into districts and parishes: Departments. Capitals and Cities. Potosi..................................................POTOSI, Ataaxama, Cotagaita, &c. Chuquisaca......................................... CuIJQ8ACA, Pomabamba, Tomina, &c. Cochabamba...................O........................ OREPESA, Cochabamba, &c. La Paz...................................................LA PAZ, Apolobamba, Zarata, &c. Tarija...................LT............. Tat, Moja, Vehan, &c. Santa Cruz de la Sierra, containing the territories of Santa Cruz, Moxas, and Chiquitos. More than three-fourths of the population is composed of the aborigines, which though in a low state of civilization, are endowed with respectable physical and mental characteristics. The foreign settlers are mostly of Spanish descent. The African race is not very numerous, but those of mixed blood' are in -considerable numbers in the Pacific districts. The Indian tribes, especially those who still retain their original independence, are in natural parts far superior to the Creole and Indo-African races. Some on the Bqni are wild and warlike, and go naked, even the women wearing but a few leaves bound round their waists; another tribe, the Maropas, in the immediate vicinity of the former, although a warlike and proud race, evince considerable ingenuity and aptitude for various kinds of work; they manufacture beautiful cloths, are pretty good carpenters, and are said to have shown much taste for music and painting, in which they were initiated by the Jesuits. The metropolis of Bolivia is the CITY OF CHUQUISACA, formerly called, La Plata; it lies in a low plain, surrounded by hills, on the north bank of the Cachimayo, and on the high road between Potosi and Santa Cruz. Latitude 190 29' south, longitude 660 40'. Its population amounts to 16,000, pretty equally divided between the Spaniards, Indians, and mixed races. The cathedral is a large and handsome building, and is adorned with some good paintings and decorations. The city is also provided with a uni versity, monastic establishments, splendid churches, a conventual hospital, three nunneries, &c. The best houses are only of one story, but are roomy, REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA. 351 and surrounded by garden-plats; they are supplied with water frori the public fountains. Potosi is the next city of importance, and far more populous than the capital, being the centre of the rich mining districts. It was formerly the metropolitan city. Early in the 17th century it is said to have had a population of 150,000; but at present it amounts only to 36,000. It is built on the northern declivity of the Cerro de Potosi, on uneven ground, and has a spacious square or Plaza in the centre, of which the old government palace occupies one side; the treasury and public offices another; a convent and church, the third; and splendid houses of the rich, the fourth. Extensive suburbs, once inhabited by the miners are still in existence, but are now in ruins; and nothing remains but the outline of the streets. The most remarkable edifice is the mint, built of stone, in 1751, at a cost of $1,148,000; and in the principal square is an obelisk, erected in honor of Bolivar, in 1825; it is 60 feet high. The houses of Potosi are generally of stone or brick, of one story, with wooden balconies, but without chimneys. The country around is perfectly barren, and the climate anything but pleasant; the rays of the sun scorching at noon, while at night the atmosphere is piercing cold. The markets of this city are well supplied, but owing to the distance all articles have to be carried, the necessaries, as well as the luxuries of life, are comparatively high in price. La Paz has a population of 30,000. It is situated on an eastern declivity of the Andes, at an elevation of 12,170 feet above the sea, and at no great distance from the head waters of the Beni. It has a cathedral, four churches, several convents, and a bishop's see, with very considerable revenues. It is the centre of a considerable trade in Paraguay tea. La Paz was founded in 1548, and received its name in commemoration of the peace that ensued after the defeat of Pizarro and his comrades. It suffered considerably during the revolt of the Indians some years ago, but is still a city of some wealth and importance. The other principal towns of BQlivia are Tarija, situated in a valley of the same name, and containing 12,000 inhabitants; Tupiza, Lipiz, Tarapaca, and San Francisco de Atacama on the Pacific, and the City of Oruro, north-west of Potosi, built at the foot of a mineral mountain of the same name. Beside these, the country is dotted over with innumerable villages of Indians, and wherever the least prospect of centralizing wealth is perceived, new settlements are made by the enterprize of capitalists. Agricultural industry, as a general feature of the condition of the Bolivians, is in a backward state. The natural fertility of the soil and the ease with which the necessaries of life are obtained, have, no doubt, contributed to this state of things. As in Peru, so it is in Bolivia, the inhabitants are too engrossed in search of the precious metals. Arts and manufactures are in a like depressed state; what do exist, are manufactures of cotton cloth, the best of which is made at Oropesa; weollens of the hair of the llama and alpaca, the best at La Paz; hats of the wool of the vicuna, at San Francisco de Atacama; glass at Oropesa; vessels and ornaments of silver ware in the mining districts, and a few other articles of little importance to the general wants of the nation. The commerce of the country is almost entirely inland; Bolivia has maintained an extensive trade with Peru, Buenos Ayres and the republic 352 REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA. of Paraguay. Previous to the revolution, that of Peru was maintained as the annual value of $7,000,000, and the goods received from the latter at $10,000,000. The Spaniards and Creoles, to this time, had been the only consumers of foreign goods, as the Indians and mixed races used little more than the coarse manufactures of the country. Since the separation from Spain, however, things are different: the freedom of the Indians and other inferior races has caused them to imitate the manners and extravagances of their former masters, and a consequent increased demand for foreign luxuries has ensued. The direct commerce, however, is very limited, and the chief part of the foreign goods imported are still brought by way of Buenos Ayres and Peru. The export trade of this country is all carried on from its few ports on the Pacific, to reach which they have to be conveyed first by toilsome passages against the currents of the rivers to the foot of the Andes, then across the mountains on the backs of mules. Nothing but bullion and gems can repay these enormous expenses; and in fact, the exports of Bolivia are nearly altogether limited to the precious metals, the finer descriptions of wools and other valuables. It is probable, however, that in a few years, steam navigation will open vast outlets for Bolivian commerce, and convey its treasures to the Atlantic coasts: the gigantic rivers flowing through the eastern and most fertile regions, are navigable almost to their sources, and the only wonder is, that the facilities they afford have not already been adopted. The public revenues of Bolivia are on a respectable footing, and more than cover the expenses of government in time of peace, and pay interest on the national debt, which amounts only to about 2 or 3,000,000 of dollars. The religious condition of Bolivia, and the condition of learning and the sciences, generally, are like those of Peru, in a state of unimpeachable inferiority. The weights, measures and coinage of the country, are similar in capacity and value, to those of Spain, but bear the national impress: the silver of Bolivia, however, is of a finer character than that of Spain, and is more valuable as bullion. The form of government is that of an elective integral republic. The constitution on which it is based was propounded by Bolivar, in 1825, but some of the provisions of that constitution have been abandoned, and others substituted. The powers are decreed to a president, (formerly for life,) a legislature, consisting of a senate and house of deputies, and a judiciary, independent of the other divisions of the government. The whole male adult population are eligible to office, but elections are carried on through electoral colleges. Nominal liberty is also allowed to all. The history of this country is little known; the short accounts we have are contradictory, and made to suit the interests of the writer, or his party. Bolivia, under Spain, was known as Upper Peru, and was successively attached to Peru proper and the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. It was the first to feel the effects of the revolution, and the last to rid itself of Spanish oppression. Previous to the battle of Ayacucho, it was the strong hold of General Lascerna, the Spanish viceroy of Peru, who had fled hither on the breaking out of the revolution in Lima. The consequence of that battle, in which the Spaniards were entirely defeated, was its independence. The present name of the republic was given in 1825, in honor of the South REPUBLIC OF PERU. 353 American liberator, Simon Bolivar, and to him was entrusted its destimes. The state of the country has never been settled, and it is still the scene of constantly recurring revolutions. REPUBLIC OF PERU. AmaA, 524,000 SQUAm s. POPUL&TON, 1,378,000. Of all the regions south of the Gulf of Mexico, Peru is the most cele brated for wealth and ancient civilization. Its very name is proverbially used to denote abundance of the precious metals. It lies between the parallels of 30 and 220 south latitude, and 69~ and 81~ west longitude. It is bounded on the north by Equador; south and southeast by Bolivia; east by Brazil, and west by the Pacific Ocean. Its extreme length is about 1,500 miles; breadth from 40 to 600. The whole of Peru is traversed by the Cordilleras of the Andes, the eastern range of which approaches within from 30 to 100 miles of the Pacific Ocean. The country is naturally divided into three distinct regions: the slope between the Andes and the coast; the mountain regions of the Andes themselves, and that east of the Cordilleras, forming part of the great basin of the Amazon. All these divisions are widely different in character. The coast region, between the Tumbez River and the Leche, is mostly a desert, and wherever, in fact, it is not traversed by streams or is not susceptible of irrigation, it consists principally of arid, sandy wastes, and is in the last degree barren. Immediately on the coast lies all the principal settlements made by the Spaniards. The Andes in Peru, as well as in Bolivia, consists of two main chains or Cordilleras, connected in various parts'by cross ranges, and enclosing several extensive and lofty valleys. The Peruvian Andes are not, in general, so elevated as the Bolivian, though many of their peaks rise above the limits of perpetual snow. The loftiest summits are towards the south where the Nevada Chuquibamba (latitude 50) reaches to 21,000 feet in height; and several others, surrounding the valley of Desaguadero, which belongs only partly to Peru, may at least approach this elevation. The largest rivers in the world have their source from the Peruvian Andes. The Tunguragua, generally regarded as the proper source of the Amazon, and its vast confluents, Huallaga and Ucayale, (the latter formed by the junction of the Apurimac and Paro,) have their sources on the east side of the western chain of the Cordilleras, between 10~ 30' and 160 south latitude, and pursue, though with many windings, a northerly course, until they pass the boundaries of the country. These great rivers are mostly navigable, and, with the assistance of steam navigation, will, no doubt, at an early period, carry the riches of this remote region across the continent to the ports of the Atlantic. There are few lakes in Peru, if we except that of Titicaca. This lake, the largest and most elevated in South America, is partly within Bolivia, being enclosed by the Cordilleras south of the table-land of Cuzco. Its outline is very irregular, being divided by a number of headlands into a main body of an oblong form, and three subsi 23 354 REPUBLIC OF PERU. diary portions; its area is 4,000 square miles, and its height above the ocean 12,795 feet. It is said to be in many places 500 feet deep. It contains many small mountainous islands, and from the largest, at its southern extremity, the lake has received its name, which signifies "the leaden mountain." This island is three leagues in length, and one in breadth, and about a mile from shore. It is mostly uncultivated, but very fertile. On this island tradition places the first appearance of Manco Capac; and it is held in great veneration by the Peruvian Indians. The other lakes of Peru are comparatively small, but are the sources from whence all the great rivers flowing eastward, have their origin. The rivers of the coast are of no account; they are small, shallow, and incapable of navigation. The coasts are lofty and rugged throughout. In the northern provinces, some miles of a loose, sandy desert intervene between the high lands and the ocean; but, in general, the cliffs approach close to the shore, which has not, perhaps, in an extent of 1,600 miles a dozen secure harbors. The best of these are Callao, Payta, Sechura, Sa lina, Pisco, Islay, and a few others; Truxillo and Lambayeque have only open roadsteads. The water being almost of uniform depth, vessels are obliged to approach within a quarter of a mile of the shore before they can anchor, and the prodigious swell which rolls unbroken from the Pacific, occasions a heavy and dangerous surf. The operation of landing is, except in a few places, at once difficult and hazardous; it is effected by means of platforms, raised on inflated skins, and differing in different parts of the coast. All the goods which go into the interior, at this part of the coast, are landed in this manner. The great bars of silver, and the bags of dol lars also, which are shipped in return for the merchandize landed, pass through the surf, on these slender, though secure conveyances. The mineral resources of Peru, like those of Mexico, are inexhaustible: the whole country is one vast mound of mineral wealth; the mountains, rivers and streams are glittering with gold, silver and precious stones. The very name of the country is associated in the mind with ideas of gold and silver. Humboldt, at the commencement of the present century, estimated the annual value of the gold and silver of Peru at 6,240,000 dollars; but at present, owing to the anarchy and insecurity that has prevailed, their value is probably not more than half that amount. The vegetable products of Peru are various and very dissimilar. Sugar, rice, tobacco, yams, sweet potatoes and cocoa, are raised in the warmest situations; the vine, wheat and quinoa, are planted in the colder places, and potatoes in the most cultivated grounds. The grapes are well-flavored, but the wine made from them is inferior. Medicinal plants, drugs and dye-stuffs form a large part of the exports, and some of the hard woods abound in the forests. The cinchona, or Peruvian bark, is very plentiful and indigenous to the country: it grows at the elevation of 10,000 to 12,000 feet. The Zoology of Peru presents a large catalogue: but it will be seen, that the animals it notices are mostly common to the other parts of South America. The puma, or Americanlion; the uturuncu, a species of tiger; a black bear, inhabiting the mountains; great varieties of deer, wild bears, armadillos, &c., form the catalogue of Peruvian wild animals, and are made objects for the chase. The lama, alpaca, guanaco, vicuna, &c., and a REPUBLIC OF PERU. 355 variety of others, have been used as beasts of burden, and are valuable for their wool and skins. Four varieties of the condor are indigenous to Peru. Alligators are found in the rivers, but the reptile tribe here are not so troublesome as near the equator. Of foreign quadrupeds, acclimated in Peru, sheep appear to have sue ceeded best. They have increased in an amazing degree on the great commons and pastures of the Andes, at an elevation of 12,000 to 14,000 feet above the sea.- Few sheep are bred on the coasts, but during certain months, large flocks are driven from the interior and fattened for the Lima market. Many of the ewes are in lamb, and the common bargain between the drover and the farmer is to give the lambs for the pasturage, the farmer calculating onreceiving 150 lambs for every 100 ewes. Besides this increase, which is greater than in England, the ewes bear twice a year, generally in June and December. Little attention has been paid hitherto to breeding sheep, so as to improve the wool; but as the latter is now becoming an increasing article of export, more care will doubtless be bestowed on this object. The average quantity of all wools exported to Great Britain and the United States, amounts annually to from 25 to 30,000 quintals. The climate of Peru is much hotter than that of Chili. In the country included between the Western Cordillera and the coasts, rain, thunder and lightning are entirely unknown. A great part of Peru, between the western range of the Andes and Pacific, supplies one of the most perfect examples of what is called the hot and dry climate; as for the space of 400 leagues along the coast, rain never falls, and the parched earth is cracked asunder, and plants have no existence. The summits of the Andes intercept the clouds, which pour down in torrents from the mountain districts, often accompanied by tremendous thunder and lightning, while near the sea not a drop fuls to moisten the parched earth. The atmosphere, hence, in all this region, is uniformly hot. The elevated plains, between the western and central Cordilleras, called by Humboldt the high table lands of Peru, have scarcely any variation of temperature throughout the year; the mercury of Fahrenheit's thermometer always stands at about 660 or 67~: the climate is here mild and genial, and a perpetual spring exists. The only distinction of seasons arises from the rains, which prevail from November to May. The highest Andes are perpetually covered with snow, and experience an uninterrupted winter between the tropics. Here, too, amid the reign of winter, and with their sides covered with perpetual snow, volcanos, in number, pour forth their fiery lava and lurid flames. The Republic of Peru includes seven departments, eight populous cities, and between 14 and 1500 towns and small villages; four of the departments are situated on the coast of the Pacific, and three in the interior, viz: Departments. Gapitals. Cities, t4c. f Truxio or bertad................Truxillo........................ Sechura, Payta. Coast. Junin..................... H........uanuco...................Pasco, Junin, Banot. IAma............................ Lima........................Callao, &c. Arequipa........................ Arequipa........,,....Arica, &c. Ayacucho....................Huamanca.....................Huancavelica, &c. Interior. Cuzco............................. Cuzco.......................... Abancay, Tinta, Urubamba. Puno............................ Puno.......................... Chucuito. The inhabitants of Peru consist, principally, of Spaniards, native Indians, Africans, and the several commixtures derived from those original sources. LMa, the capital of Peru, and the most splendid city of South America, 356 REPUBLIC OF PERU. is situated in the beautiful valley of the Rimac. The surrounding country is in the highest state of cultivation, and the fertile plains, crowned with the most luxurious vegetation, produce sugar, maize, rice, and the choicest of fruits in abundance. This city is the great emporium of trade for the whole Pacific -coast of the continent of America, and the grand depOt of the metaliferous regions of South America, into which they have been pouring their wealth for nearly three centuries. Lima is elevated about 600 feet above the level of the sea, and is skirted by hills which overlooh the city. It is surrounded by a solid wall of brick, and has seven gates. The form of the city is nearly triangular, the base extending along the margin of the river. Notwithstanding the frequent earthquakes which have destroyed this city, it occupies an area of ten miles it circumference. The streets are paved, and through them streams of water flow, conducted from the river a little above the city; they are broad, and cross each other at right-angles, forming squares of 150 yards on each side. The houses are low, but commodious and handsome, having fruit gardens attached to most of them. In the centre of the great square there is a spacious and superb fountain. The city is divided into five parishes, and contains 23 monasteries, 14 nunneries, and 16 hospitals; a cathedral and national palace. It is the seat of a university, a school of medicine, and numerous educational institutions. There is also a theatre, and other places of amusement. Lima was founded in 1535, by Pizarro. Callao is situated at the mouth of the Rimac, and is strongly fortified. It is built on a low, flat point of land. The port is one of the most safe and commodious on the coast of the Pacific ocean, and is the rendezvous of an immense amount of shipping, and a convenient depat for whaling craft. Truxillo is north of Lima, in latitude 80 6' south, and is situated in the valley of Chono. It was one of the cities founded by Iizarro, in 1535, and lies about one and a half miles from the sea. Population 13,000. Cuzco, the ancient capital of the Incas, and now the capital of the department of the same name, lies in latitude 130 32', about 400 miles south-east from Lima. It was founded in the 11th century, by Manco Oapac, the first Inca of Peru, and taken possession of by Pizarro in 1534. It stands on an uneven site, skirted by mountains on the north and west. The ruins of the famous fort, built by the Incas, are still visible on the mountains, on the north of the city. Huamanca, on the north-west of Cuzco, is the principal city of Ayacucho, and lies in latitude 13~ south, on the declivity of a mountain ridge, not remarkable for its height, but still so far above the river as to be scantily supplied with water. It was founded by Pizarro in 1539. Arequipa, containing 20,000 inhabitants, is one of the best cities in Peru, and lies in the valley of Quilca, 7,700. feet above the level of the sea, from which it is 30 miles distant; latitude 16~ 30' south. Puno, the capital of a department of the same name, contains 16,000 inhabitants, and is a well built city. The vicinity is a most beautiful country, and its proximity to the lake Titicaca contributes much to the romantic interest of the place. Huanuco is the capital of the department of Junin. The cities of Peru, generally, are well built, but the buildings are low, and seldom support a second story; this is precautionary and necessary, on account of the disasters occasioned by the frequent recurrence of earthquakes. Many of the REPUBLIC OF'PERU. 357 cities that now exist, were built long before the Spanish Conquest, and, even to this day, many of the private houses belong to the early era of the first Incas. l The native Spaniards or Creoles of Peru, forming the higher and more cultivated classes, are said to be inferior to the same denominations in almost all the other South American states. Their long political degradation, the general diffusion of wealth, and the facility of procuring the necessaries of life, seem to have been the principal cause of this degradation. The males are described as being an insignificant race; destitute of all that is manly; alike enervated in body and mind, and unable to exert themselves. The trade of theocountry is carried on entirely by foreigners. The ladies, though more equal to the task of living than the men, are, nevertheless, destitute of that propriety which ought to distinguish their sex: they are vain, proud and profligate, and great coquettes. Both sexes are devoted to the destructive habit of gambling, and their families are consequently neglected. In the country, however, the morals of the community are better, and more restraint is maintained over the passions, but still the same bane exists among them as in the cities. Peru may be said to be one vast gambling-house. The accounts of the Indians, given by recent travelers, are various and conflicting; however, the statement of Ulloa may, on the whole, be safely depended on. That excellent observer represents them as in the lowest stages of civilization, without any desire for the comforts and conveniences of civilized life, immersed in sloth and apathy, from which they can rarely be roused, except when they have an opportunity of indulging to excess in ardent spirits, of which they are exceedingly fond. With the exception of Mr. Stevenson, most recent travelers say, that they are dirty in the extreme, seldom taking off their clothes, even to sleep, and still more rarely using water. The oppressions, both in their religious and domestic connections, to which they have been subject before and after the conquest, have probably sunk them to the low point in the scale of civilization they occupy. From the nature of the country, Peru labors under great disadvantages in regard to inland communication. The deep valleys that separate the elevated plains, and the lofty mountains which rise between the table-land and the coast, render traveling difficult. In many parts there is a total want of roads and bridges, and in others, the paths lie along the edges of steep and rugged precipices, so narrow, that mtiles alone pass in security. In the most mountainous districts, it is customary for those who can afford it, to travel on the backs of Indians; in this way they are carried for 15 or 20 days together, over roads winding through uninhabited forests and craggy steeps. In the lower regions, however, the means of internal communication are more attended to, and a general system of road-making has attracted the attention of government; and there is little doubt but that the progress of steam-travel in other countries will act as a stimulus to the Peruvians, to build lines of railroads to connect their principal cities, but at present nothing of the kind is known in Peru. The defensive means of the nation are chiefly confined to a few strong forts to protect its commerce on the sea-board, and one or two small armed steamers. Its standing army is a miserable mob, composed of the lowest OCELOT OF CHILI ~~~~~~_ __ -.. _~ alp Illi n i i, oii iu N PERUVIAN WORSHIP -TEMPLE OF THE SUN. L 360 REPUBLIC OF PERU. grade of inhabitants, half clad, half fed, and would be entirely useless in case of foreign invasion. Agriculture is quite in its infancy. The fields owe their luxuriance more to nature than man, except in the single advantage of water, which he often directs and supplies to them. Manure is a thing seldom thought of, and the implements of husbandry are of the rudest construction. The plow, slight and single-handed, is constructed altogether of wood and without a mould-board: the plow-share is a thick iron blade, (or, oftener, a piece of iron-wood,) only tied on by a lasso or thong of raw hide. Harrows they have none: a clumsy rake or bundle of brush-wood, dragged over the sown ground, supply their place. Indeed, their whole system of farming is uncouth and inconvenient in the extreme, and all their implements are of a similar description. They drive their sugar and corn mills by means of oxen, as if wind and water were not as powerful, to say nothing of the expense. As a general thing, the manufactures of Europe and the United States have superseded in the larger towns the rude inventions of the natives, and are supplied to Peru in exchange for bullion and raw material. The commerce of Peru, which has been much retarded by foreign and domestic troubles, has of late considerably increased. The export trade chiefly consists of the produce of.the mines and raw materials for manufacture, but is on a much more limited scale than when the country was under Spanish rule. The principal articles are gold, silver, copper and other metals; Peruvian and other barks for medicinal purposes; drugs of various descriptions; chinchilli, seal and other skins; hides, tallow, &c.; wool, cotton and some other articles of minor import. Peru will continue for some time, a vast inlet for foreign manufactured goods, especially those of the finer descriptions, while in exchange for these, the exporting nations will reap the benefit of the immense mineral wealth of the country. The trade carried on between the United States and Peru, in the years 1844, 1846, 1847 and 1849, was as follows:,ports from the United States to Peru. Exports from Peru received in the United States. 1844..........$16,807 1844...... $184,424 11846........ none.. 252,599 1847-...::::::::::.......... 192,978 1847...................... 396,223 1849....................... ~-111,236 1849........................... 446,953 The present government is founded on republican principles and popular supremacy. Under Spanish rule, the viceroys were the source of all laws, and had indefinite power over the lives, property and liberties of the people. The constitution of Peru, which was finally settled on in 1839, recognizes executive, legislative and judicial functions, which are entirely separate and independent of each other. The executive power is delegated by Congress to a President, whose term of service is six years, unless he is dismissed for cause. The legislative power resides in a Senate and Assembly, chosen from the people through electoral colleges. The deputies are appointed one for every 20,000 inhabitants. Judges are appointed by the executive, and are not removable, except for misconduct. Knowledge of the law, however, is by no means a qualification of a Peruvian judge, and it is not unfrequent that the greatest injuries are inflicted upon applicants throlugrh the ignorance of the arbitrator and lawyers. REPUBLIC OF PERU. 361 The established religion is the Roman Catholic, and no other is tolerated. The church is presided over by an archbishop, whose residence is at Lima, and several suffragans. It is immensely rich, and has amassed large amounts of property from pious donors. The Inquisition is entirely abolished. Literature, though now confined to a few of the higher classes of society, is in a progressive state of development. Schools for reading, on the Lancasterian plan, are common in the capital, and exist in the large provincial towns. Lima has a university, and several other colleges. The weights and measures used in Peru, are those of Spain, and the coinage is of similar values and proportions as in that countryt The history of the Peruvians, present all the features of romance. When the Spaniards, under Pizarro and Almagro, arrived in Peru, in 1532, they found the country under the dominion of the Incas, who, according to the traditions of the natives, had held the sovereignty about 400 years. If we may believe the native traditions, the Peruvians were initiated in the arts of society and government, by a man and woman who came from an island in the Lake Titicaca, in the south country. Manco Capac instructed the men in agriculture and other useful employments, while Mama Oella taught the women to weave and spin. The former, after collecting the savages into society, and founding a town, turned his attention to framing laws for their government. He constituted himself their sovereign and high priest, and made the office hereditary in his own family. His territories at first comprised only a few leagues around the capital, but they were rapidly enlarged under his vigorous and enlightened government. The same tradition represents the disappearance of this remarkable legislator to have been as sudden and unaccountable as his arrival. His death is supposed to have taken place about the end of the 12th or commencement of the 13th century of the christian era. From this period, to the arrival of the Spaniards, the native historians enumerate fourteen reigns of Incas, (such was the title of these monarchs,) whose names have been preserved. It was in the later part of the reign of Huana Capac, in 1524, that the discovery of Peru by Europeans took place. The government and manners of the ancient Peruvians, as compared with those of the Mexicans, were mild in the extreme. Still, however, a considerable number of the attendants of the Incas were sacrificed at their death, and interred with them, that they might appear in the next world with their former dignity, and be served with the same respect. The remains of the roads, aqueducts, palaces, temples, and other structures scattered over the country, attest the advanced Btate of civilization at which the Peruvians, as compared with most other American nations, had arrived. The empire of the Incas fell an easy prey to Pizzaro and his blood-thirsty comrades. The relation of their barbarities is revolting, and the subsequent usage the Indians received from the hands of the Spaniards, will ever remain an indelible blot on the escutcheon of that nation. Peru, under the government of a viceroy, continued in the hands of Spain for nearly 300 years, and was the last strong-hold of the Spaniards in South America. In 1821, however, the valiant San Martin, with the Chilian army, entered the country, and proclaimed its independence; but, like all the ci-devant Spanish colonies, it has been involved since then in all but perpetually-recurring vicissitudes, and a prey to civil commotions. 362 REPUBLIC OF CHILE. REPUBLIC OF CHILE. AREA, 144,000 SQUARE MUa. POPULATION, 1,200,000. The republic of Child lies along the western coast of South America, extending from 25~ to 420 south latitude, or as some geographers say, to the straits Of Magellan. Its length, according to the first description, would be about 1,200 miles; the latter about 2,000 miles. The breadth of the- country is unequal, being bounded by the summit of the Andes, but, taking the average, it may be about 120 miles from those mountains to the Pacific ocean. The southern boundary is a matter of indifference as yet, for the whole country south of the Rio Biobio, is still in the hands of the unsubdued Araucanian Indians, who maintain a species of independence, and have never been conquered. This country is indifferently called Chili, Chil6, or, according to the Indian vocabulary, Tsheelee. Child is a most picturesque country. The lofty chain of the Andes, which traverses the whole continent of South America, separates this fine country from the Argentine republic, which forms its eastern boundary. The surface below is indented with vallies and beset with spurs from the main Cordilleras. There are generally, however, sufficient openings through these spurs to admit of mule traveling, by which means intercourse can alone be carried on by the inhabitants from one district to another. To the traveler that wanders over these delightful vallies, the scenery is frequently grand and imposing. Passing from the north to the south he never loses sight of the towering summit of the Andes, and by ascending to the summit of the cliffs, the expansive Pacific may be viewed in all its majesty. The highest summits in the range of these mountains are about 23,000 feet above the level of the ocean. ~ The general average height of the Andes is 15,000 feet. There are fourteen volcanoes in a contant state of eruption, and a large number which discharge only at intervals. The two principal passes in the Andes, which lie between the Argentine republic and Child, are the pass of Putamda and that of Palos. Gen. San Martin, the liberator of Child, crossed over these snow-clad summits with his army, in 1818. The shores of Chile are in general high and steep, but the waters are deep almost everywhere. Like Peru, Child has an extensive marine border on the Pacific, but is much more convenient for shipping, being indented with bays, which afford safe harbor and anchorage. Few countries are so well watered as Child. The melting of the snow on the Andes causes a perpetual flow of water down their slopes, and forms numerous rivers. They are more than 100 in number, and more than fifty disembogue into the ocean. The greater number of the rivers are, however, very short, but tend to irrigate the land, and render the soil very fertile; and through a large portion of the country there is no valley, nor scarcely a field, which is not so situated that it may be regularly irrigated from some river or stream. There are some small lakes, both in the northern and southern provinces, but of no importance. The islands of the Archipelago of Chiloe are 47 in number; of these, REPUBLIC OF CHILE. 363 hut 32 are inhabited, the others are sterile, and unfit for cultivation. The islands of San Juan Fernandez, situated 400 miles west, in the Pacific, are also an appendage to Chil6. Their chief importance is derived from their having been the residence of Alexander Selkirk, the Scottish sailor, from whose adventures the celebrated story of Robinson Crusoe was made up by Daniel De Foe. The climate is equable and healthy; diseases of an epidemic nature are scarcely known. On the coast the heat, which is sometimes excessive in the interior, is much modified by the immense bulk of adjacent waters. In the interior the temperature in summer often rises to 90~ Fahr., and, occasionally, to 95~ and 100~ in the shade, while on the coast it seldom attains a greater elevation than 850 in the day time, and sinks in the night to 70~ or 750. At Santiago, the capital, the mean temperature of summer, from December to March, is about 842~ during the day, and 580 at night. Cool and pleasant breezes from the ocean set inland in the evening, and dispel the lassitude of the overheated inhabitants. The winter sets in with the month of June, but, unlike the the northern winter, presents none of the horrors of a snow storm, nor the biting energies of a frost; on the upper regions and in the mountains, however, snow falls abundantly, and covers the summits from June to November. The rainy season commehces in April and lasts till August, but this is only in the southern provinces. North of Santiago the rainy season is limited to a few occasional showers, and in the arid province of Coquimbo rain never falls, but the heavy dews of the night counterpoise the want of it. The northern provinces being out of the range of the volcanic region of the Cordilleras —the eruptions of which seem to act as safety-valves - are especially subject to earthquakes. In some parts the earth is in a constant state of agitation, and experiences daily shocks, and the country is frequently desolated for miles in extent. In 1819, the city of Copiapo was totally destroyed; and in 1835, Conception, and other towns on the coast in the middle provinces, were nearly ruined. Talcahuana suffered more than any other place during the earthquake of 1835; but one house was left standing. What added to the devastation, was the inundation of the place by three heavy seas, which swept all before them. The features of the harbor and the bay were materially altered; one cove was filled up, and became highland, and two small islets in the harbor were much increased in size, while a large one at the mouth of the bay sunk in part. Off the coast the effects were equally apparent; a portion of the island of Juan Fernandez became sunken, and a rock was thrown up near the coast, and in what was heretofore considered a safe track for vessels, on which a short time after, a British sloop-Qf-war struck and was founderced'The year 1847 was also a terrible time along the Pacific coast of South America, from the Isthmus of Darien to the southern extremity of the continent; numerous towns were desolated, and great tracts of the country laid waste. Chile is extremely rich in metals; silver is found there at a greater elevation than other metals; it is also met with in the vallies and basins of the lower ranges; but, in general, it has been observed to decrease in abundance the further distant we are from the Andes. Gold is most plentiful in the lower bowels of the mountains, and is also found in abundance in the vallies in every part of the country. Most, or perhaps all, of the 3OV4 REPUBLIC OF CHILE. rivers wash down gold in the form of grains or dust. The useful metals are also found in abundance: copper, lead and iron are especially abundant; but excepting copper, from which great wealth is drawn to the nation, these metals are not much sought after. The condition of the actual miners is sad and lamentable: they are virtually the slaves of the proprietors and capitalists, who reap the fruit of their labors, and appropiate to the own use the riches that should, in some manner indemnify the poor man for his toil. There are also vast fields of coal in the northern provinces. Several extensive mines are now in operation near Conception, and the trade in this article has become considerable. In Valparaiso it is now the common article of fuel, and large quantities are supplied to steamships visiting the coasts. The vegetable productions of Chil6 are diversified as the latitude and elevation of the country vary. The southern parts of Chile, indeed, are the only fruitful portions of these regions. There everything useful to man, and appropriate for the support of cattle, is produced in abundance: it is a country of corn, wine and oil. Forests of vast extent cover the southern provinces and country of the Araucanian nations. The flanks of the Andes exhibit profuse vegetation. The Quillia, the bark of which furnishes a natural soap, is brought to the towns as an article of trade; laurels, cypresses and other evergreens'grow to such a size as to be highly useful for their timber. Most European fruits flourish, but tropical plants seldom survive transplanting. Child produces many hard woods, which are used by the people instead of iron. Wheat is the staple grain of the country, and is raised extensively for exportation: it succeeds best at an elevation of 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the level of the ocean. The province of Acuncagua, which is the best cultivated of any in the country, sends considerable quantities of grain to Valparaiso. Rye is wholly unknown in Child, but barley is grown in the south, and Indian corn, buckwheat and oats are not altogether neglected. The potatoe, which, from its being the universal diet of Irishmen, has obtained the soubriquet of " Irish," is a native of, and was originally brought from this country: in this, its natural soil, it grows abundantly and to the great est perfection. The grape, in great variety, furnishes the wines of the country. The animals of Child are those common to the southern part of the continent: the jaguar, llama, guanaco, numerous monkeys and other wild animals roam through the vast forests. A kind of beaver, inhabits the margin of the rivers; and the chinchilla abounds in the desert country of the north: both are highly prized for their furs, which form a rich article for export. The great condor of the Andes, several species of vultures, pelicans and other water fowl, flocks of parrots, paroquets, &c., form a long catalogue of the birds of Chile, and the whale, dolphin, cod, &c., are inhabitants of the adjacent seas. The country enjoys a pre-eminent freedom from the presence of noxious and venomous animals, serpents, reptiles, insects, &c. The soil and climate of Child are essentially proper for successful agri culture, and the facilities with which lands are irrigated, would argue much REPUBLIC OF CHILE. 365 m favor of, the development of all its agricultural resources. Chile, however, does not contain a laboring population: ease and plenty are the only ambition of Indo-Spanish races. The implements of husbandry are essentially original and of the most barbarous construction. Iron is scarcely ever used, though in plenty-the harrow consists of a heap of bushes, tied together and pressed by a weight, which is dragged over the ground: the spade and hoe are almost unknown. Reaping is performed by means of a rough sickle, and the corn is thrashed out in a hard dry spot of ground, by being galloped over by horses. It is then left in the air for some months, and not housed until the approach of the rainy season. Few farms are arable: such as are so, are situated in narrow valleys, and are of small extent. Cattle-breeding is the most important branch of rural industry. Farms, of immense size, are appropriated to this purpose, and it is not uncommon to find from 5,000 to 20,000 head of cattle at a single hacienda, and belonging to one proprietor. Black cattle are plenti. ful, but neither the beef nor milk they produce are of much value. The horses of Child are a noble breed, swift, docile, and far superior to those of Buenos Ayres. Goats are plentiful, but the sheep are infericr, both in their mutton and their wool. The hogs of Child are small, and not very good: they are little valued, and seldom consumed by the inhabitants, During the dry season, the cattle suffer severely. The condition of the laborers on the farms is almost that of serfs. Thlands are cultivated under a species of feudal tenure, having been originally apportioned, after the Spanish conquest, to 360 proprietors, in au equal number of tracts. The tenant is scarcely ever allowed to build his hut on the cultivated grounds, to enclose his rented lands with fences, or to possess any cattle: and the multitude of other arbitrary practices tend to keep the peon in that state of servitude in which it is the object of the proprietor to retain him. The coasts present good fishing grounds, and, with good boats, the Chilese might be made good fishermen. They seldom fish more than a mile from shore, using only canoes of the rudest possible construction, or rafts, supported on large sealskin air-bags, both urged on by means of the doublebladed paddle, used first on one side and then on the other. Child is the only republic, formed from Spanish America, that has retained and increased its valuable commerce, since its separation from the parent country. Its increase has been comparatively rapid of late years. In exchange for the precious metals, furs, and other exports to foreign parts, Child receives many articles of luxury, use, and necessity. England supplies her chief wants in cotton and woollen goods, hardware, &c.; Germany, in linen; silks, paper, perfumery, leather, wines and brandies, are brought from France, and innumerable other articles are obtained from the United States of America, both of domestic and foreign manufactures. A large amount of commerce is also carried on with the states of Central and South America. The chief exports of Child are bullion, copper, hides, tallow, pulse, wheat, fruits, drugs, &c. The value of the United States trade, for a series of years, as exhibited by the Treasury Reports, was as annexed: 36(3 REPUBLIC OF CHILE. IMPORTS INTO UNITED STATES. EXPORTS FROM UNITED STATES. Years. Domestic. Foreign. Total. 1840................$1,616,859.....$........... 81,372,54........... $356,575......$1,728,829 1841................. 1,230,980.................846,410............256,578........ 1,102,988 1844................... 70.......... 856,645........... 248,756........ 1,105,221 1846........... 1,275,960.......531............1,39,1. 229,434..........1,768,670 1847.. 1.,........1,716,703............... 1,461,347.......210,263.....1,671,610 1849.................. 1,817,723.............. 1,.........1..... 19464..........2,017,100 The republic is divided into eight departments, which are again subdi vided into provinces and districts. The departments, according to the par tition of 1825, are as follow: Departments. Prinipal Cities and Towns. SANTIAGO............................................Santiago, Rosario, &c. ACONCAGUA..............................a.........Aconcagua, Colorado, &c. COQUIMBO............................................Copiapo, Coquimbo (uasco, &c. CONCHAGUA...............C.............Curico, Lora, La donstitution, &o. MAULE........................................... Cauquenes Negunche, &c. CONPCION.......................................adiia, an Fernando, &. CHILOE, Is. OF..............................San Carlos, Castro &. Beside the above divisions, there is a large tract of country south of tho Rio Biobio inhabited by the Araucanian Indians, and which has received the appellation of Araucania. Its limits are indefinite and unsettled. The population of Chil6 has been set down at various amounts, from 1,200,000 to 1,600,000. "The Chilians," says Mr. Miers, "though they may be said to possess, in no degree, a single virtue, have the credit of possessing fewer vices than other Creoles; there is a passiveness, an evenness about them, approaching the Chinese, whom they strongly resemble in many respects: even in their physiognomy they have the broad low forehead and contracted eyes; they have the same cunning, the same egotism, and the same disposition to petty theft." This character is too general to apply to a whole population, and must be taken with some qualification. The same authority continues, " They are moderate in their food, but frequently very dissipated in their habits, and in the towns very fond of dress and display. Highway robberies are very rare, and so are murders, in the country, but not in the towns. Education, or any taste for the fine arts, have hitherto made but little progress." SANTIAGO, the capital of Child, and seat of government, is situated in a delightful plain on the south bank of the Mapocho, a branch of the Maypu, 90 miles from the seaboard, and 20 miles from the Andes. The city is built on an elevation of 2,000 feet above the level of the ocean, which renders the climate agreeable and salubrious. Its aspect is irregular and picturesque. The dark tints of the fig and olive, with the lighter hues of the mimosa, mingled with steeples and houses, produce a novel and imposing effect. The city is regularly laid out, the streets intersecting each other at right angles, and inclosing in the middle a spacious open square, on the sides of which are the principal buildings, and in the centre a beautiful fountain. The public buildings are the cathedral, the university, mint, churches, convents, hospitals, &c. These are not only handsome buildings, but large and magnificent. The houses have in general only one floor, and being surrounded by large gardens, the town appears completely overshadowed with foliage, and each house standing by itself, and being strongly barricaded towards the street, forms a little fortress. The streets are well-paved and furnished with side-walks. The Alameda, a mile in length, and planted with a double row of trees, is one of the finest promenades in South America. The vicinity of Santiago presents the most REPUBLIC OF CHILE. 367 romantic and sublime prospects; the waters of the ocean and the height of the Andes alone intercept the sight. Santiago, however, is not only the metropolis of Child, and the residence of its primate, but an emporium of its commerce, which is increased by its vicinity to the richest mines in the country. The population amounts to about 80,000 persons, chiefly of Spanish descent. VALPARAISO, the principal seaport, is about 60 miles north of Santiago, and is in latitude 330 11' 9" south, and longitude 71 381' 8" west. Population, 40,000. The city is built on a high, rugged promontory, which projects into the ocean, forming, with the shore, a deep crescent, the cavity of which, opening to the north, forms the harbor. The waters of this bay are deep, and sufficiently capacious to ride a large fleet. The city itself is inconvenient, and badly built, but its appearance from sea is imposing, the houses being scattered on the beach and at the foot of a precipitous range of hills. There is no mole, or any facility for landing goods, except by launches, which are moored to the shore, and across these all packages are brought, on men's shoulders or by boats. The harbor generally presents some British and American flags, and occasionally vessels of other foreign nations visit this port; but the greatest amount of the shipping is composed of coasters from Central America, and the neighboring states of Bolivia, Peru, &c. The markets of Valparaiso are well supplied with all meats and vegetables, and at moderate prices, and its climate is generally agreeable. CoNCEPTION, the second city of Child, in point of rank, stands to the north of the Rio Biobio, a league from the sea, and contains 13,000 inhabitants. It was originally built three leagues to the north of its present position; but having been twice destroyed by earthquakes, the inhabitants removed hither. Talcahuana, the port of Conception, is six miles distant on the southwest side of the bay of Conception. This bay is one of the largest and safest on the Pacific coast: it is ten miles long from north to south, and nine from east to west. The mouth of the bay opens towards the north, and is divided by the island of Quiriquina into two channels; the eastern and safest is two miles broad, and the western about a mile and a half: both have sufficient depth for the largest sized vessels, and a safe anchorage is attainable in any part of the bay. There are several other towns and ports of inferior pretensions to those already noted, but not of sufficient importance to require further notice or comment. There are few works of public importance in Child: Poeppig says that there are but three or four bridges of any size in the whole country, and these were mostly ruined during the war. The mountain torrents and ravines are crossed in some places by Indian hanging bridges, made of oziers and thongs of raw hides, which sometimes sway from side to side with the weight of the person crossing them, in a terrific manner. The attention of the government, however, has lately been turned to works of internal improvement. Canals and railroads are projected, and roads of every kind will soon embrace every part of the country. There is also an effort being made to open and improve new ports, so as to facilitate the exportation of produce from the interior. 868 REPUBLIC OF CHILE. The public finances of Child have, for a long time, been in the most pros perous condition: the revenue has exceeded the expenses since 1835, and 1arge surpluses have been set aside to be applied to the liquidation of the public debt, incurred in the infancy of the republic. According to the latest accounts, the annual receipts amount to about 3,000,000 dollars, and the expenses of the government consume about 2,000,000 dollars. The best criterion of the prosperity of Chilese finance, is ascertained by a reference to the price of stock in the London market-Chilian bonds are sold at par, and often command a premium. This, indeed, is the only state of the late Spanish possessions that is able to pay its way, and maintain in the world an independent station. The army and navy of Child are on a respectable footing. The navy, which is gradually increasing, consists of several sloops and brigs, and some small steamers. There is every prospect of this country acquiring great political and military power: the abilities of its rulers, while they maintain all peaceful at home, will command, -by their energy, the respect of other nations, and prove the best palladium for the liberties of the whole people. The army amounts to 2,876 men, and the national guard to 60,000. The government of Child is that of a constitutional integral republic. In 1828, the first suitable constitution was proclaimed, but experience having proved that it limited very much the action of the government, it was reformed in 1833, and since then the operation of the government has been expeditious, civil wars have ceased, the country is flourishing, agriculture and commerce have developed themselves, and th6 credit of the nation, within the country and abroad, is superior to that of any other South American state. The national religion is Roman Catholic; the clergy are not as numerous, however, as in some portions of Spanish America, and are under the subordination of the archbishop of Santiago. The wealth of the church is great, and it is said that one-third of all the territory belongs to the institutions. Convents and nunneries abound throughout the republic. All other religions are allowed to be professed, but toleration does not go so far as to allow of the public exercise of any other than the holy apostolic. No one, however, is interfered with, whatever his religion, -so that he does not disturb the peace of society. The history of this country is romantic in the extreme. Previous to the Spanish conquest, Chile belonged to the Incas of Peru. In 1535, Pizarro sent Almagro to invade the territory, and in 1540, Valdavia; the latter of whom conquered all the territory, except Araucania. The country remained in the hands of Spain till the entrance of the French into the Peninsula, in 1809, and the overthrow of the Bourbons. The revolution, which ended in the separation of Chil6 from the parent state, commenced at Santiago, the capital, on the 18th September, 1810, by establishing a junta, who apparently governed the country in the name of Ferdinand VII., but afterwards, without disguise, as an independent government. After many contests, the patriot forces were entirely subdued at the battle of Rancagua, fought on the 5th October, 1814, and the Spanish authority became reestablished throughout the country. The battle of Chacabuco (17th February, 1817) reversed the position of affairs; the patriot army gained a great victory, and occupied the capital and most of the provinces. LA PLATA, OR ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 369 In March, of the year 1818, however, the Spaniards got some advantages at Cancha-rayada, and again dispersed and defeated the people; but on the 5th of the next month, the great battle of Maypu was fought: the patriots were successful in driving away the enemy from all the provinces, except those of Valdivia and Chiloe. The result of this battle was, the independence of Child, which was formally proclaimed on the 18th September, 1818. The Spanish forces occupied Valdivia and Chiloe until the 15th January, 1826, when they were finally subdued, and every remnant of their army driven from the country. Chil6 since then has been prosperous as a whole —civil wars and differences have occasionally embroiled its peace, but of late the country has been entirely pacified, and in the event of nothing interrupting its present well-being, it will soon be one of the most flourishing nations of the world. LA PLATA, OR ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, AREA, 726,000 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 675,000. This confederation of independent states formerly constituted the Spanish vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres. It lies between the 22d and 41st parallels of south latitude, and the meridians of 54 and 72 west longitude. It is bounded on the north by Bolivia; on the east by Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay; on the south by the Atlantic ocean and Patagonia, and on the west by Chile, from which it is divided by the Andes. The length of this country from north to south is 1,300 miles; and its breadth from 300 to 1,100. Its area and estimated population are given in the table. The Indians are not included in the estimate. The territory included within the above mentioned limits, is mostly comprised within the great valley of La Plata, and its branches: one of the most extraordinary vallies in the world, both as it respects its magnitude and its peculiar soil and surface. The region which is watered by this vast river and its tributaries, rises towards the west into lofty mountains, whose bases extend into immense plains, which terminate on the margins of the La Plata and the shores of the Atlantic. Perhaps no country in the' world presents so level a surface as this; west and south of La Plata, presents one extended plain, embracing all the varieties, from the richest alluvial soils, to the high broken and sterile wastes; and most of this tract is destitute of timber, except on the margins of the rivers. The lower sections of this interminable level, extending from the northern part of the province of Corodova, and south on the borders of the River La Plata and the Atlantic, far into Patagonia, and from the river and coast into the interior of the highlands, at the foot of the Andes, is usually called the " Pampas," and extends nearly 1,500 miles from north to south, with a breadth, in many parts, of nearly five hundred miles; over all this immense space, there is scarcely a tree or shrub, or single perennial plant, to be seen. There are neither hills nor eminences, and the undulations are so gentle, as only to be perceived by taking a long view over its surface. The keen winds, called l"pamperos," sweep over this unsheltered plain, 24 370 LA PLATA, OR THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. without the least obstruction. The surface of the earth appears to be a soft, black, rich soil, without stone graver or sand, but on the banks of some of the rivers, and in some other places, reddish clay seems to form the superficial crust. The Pampas are principally useful for pasturage; they support numerous herds of horned cattle, horses, mules, and sheep; deer, ostriches and wild dogs, also abound. Thousands of these are to be seen at one view. The more elevated plains, to the north and west of the Pampas, are likewise generally destitute of timber, except on their water-courses, but have a soil more dry and sandy. The rivers here are more numerous, and the country is copiously supplied with pure water. The country east of La Plata has generally a waving or undulating surface, and everywhere abundantly irrigated with never-failing springs and streams of the purest water. This tract is found clothed with stately forests, with the exception of some of the lower river districts, and has a rich and fertile soil, producing, in great abundance, all the varied productions of temperate regions. The River La Plata embodies most of the interior waters of the Argentine Republic. Its principal head-waters is the Paraguay, which rises in Brazil, in latitude 130 south, and after a course of 1,250 miles, receiving numerous branches, and passing through the great lake or morass of the Xaraes, it assumes the name of La Plata, at its junction with the River Parana, about 750 miles from the sea, and the latter river is said to afford a boat navigation of 1,500 miles further into the interior. The Colorado and Negro, both vast rivers, flow directly into the Atlantic, after a general course south-east. There are few bays or harbors of importance, except the great bay of the La Plata, which is the most extensive in the world, and affords harbors of vast magnitude to the two capitals of Buenos Ayres and Montevideo. In the alluvion of the Pampas, quantities of marine shells, and the Megatherium, Olypoldon, &c., have been found, and its whole wide area is one vast sepulchre of extinct quadrupeds. The precious metals, with copper, lead, iron, &c., are found in different parts of the country. The vegetable products of the northern parts, include most of those which flourish between the tropics; while in the south they are in general similar to those of Europe. But even so far south as Corrientes, cotton, tobacco, rice, sugar-cane, indigo and many other articles of primary im portance in the markets, may be produced to almost any extent; and a large tract of the country is extremely well adapted to the culture of wheat, maize and other grains. The vine flourishes to perfection; figs, oranges, peaches, walnuts, apples and other fruits flourish in luxuriance in the central and southern provinces. The climate is subject to great extremes of temperature in winter and summer; but the gradations are regular. The winter is about as cold as the month of November in New York, and the ground is sometimes covered with a white frost, but ice is seldom formed. In summer, the heat is oppressively hot, but both heat and moisture vary considerably on the same parallel: at Buenos Ayres, the heat is tempered by the aea breezes and moisture from the Atlantic, but on proceeding inland, these modifying influences are gradually lost, and in the far west the air is extremely dry: LA PLATA, OR THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 371 no dew falls at night; in the hottest weather there is apparently no perspiration, and the dead animals lie on the plain, dried up in their skins. The chief source of wealth is the immense herds of horned cattle which wander over the wide extending Pampas. In the single province of Buenos Ayres, they are about three or four million head of cattle. The horses of the Pampas are similar to the common Spanish breed, and of all colors; they wander wild in immense herds, being caught indiscriminately when wanted. Among the Indians, mare's flesh is the common animal food. The sheep are of very inferior quality, and the wool, though improved of late years, is still of the coarsest descriptions, and scarcely worth the cleaning: goats and hogs are also quite an inferior breed. The singular animal, the coypou, which furnishes the skins, known in commerce by the name of nutria, is abundant in Buenos Ayres, and the chinchilla abounds in many districts. On the slopes of the Andes are found guanacos, llamas, vicunas, &c. Wild boars, deer, jaguars, pumas, armadillos, &c., are also met with. Monkeys are plentiful, and condors, vultures and numerous birds of rich plumage, inhabit the country. Its greatest pest are giant ants, locusts, immense bugs, mosquitos, and other descriptions of the insect tribes. Sir Woodbine Parish gives the following as the several independent States of the Argentine Confederacy, and their population, &c: Provmnces. Population. Chief Towns. Populatieo. BUENOS AYREB................R......200,000 Buenos Ayres.......................100,000 SANTA FE............................ 20,000 Santa Fe...... 5,000 ENTRE R;IOS....................2 30,000 Pana............................... 15,000 CORRIERTES........................... 40,000 P orant.............................. 16X000 CORRIENTES.,,,,..,, 40,000 Corrientes............................. 16,000 CORDOva.............................. 85,000 Cordova.............................. 10,000 SANTIAGO........................... 50,000 Santiago................................ 8,000 TUAN............................. 45000 Tueman............................. 5,000 SALTA................................ 60,000.Sata............................... 9,000 CATAMARCA........................... 35,000 Catamarca..... 2,000 RIOJA.20,000 Rioja............................... 2,500 SAN LUIs............................. 25,000 San Luis............................. 3,000 MENDOZA............................ 40,000 Mendoza............................. 20 000 SAN JUAN......................... 25,000 San Juan............................. 12,000 GRAN cAco, (the Indian territory.) The population, however, as given in the above table, must be taken as very imperfect, and as a mere approximation to the reality: it omits altogether the Indians, who form, in fact, the greater portion of the whole. The native whites are generally of Spanish descent, and retain to the present day, many of the habits and traits of the old Spaniards, whose language they speak. The country people of the interior, the "gauchos," are rude but hospitable, and from infancy, the men are almost constantly on horseback, riding over the vast plains in search of cattle and horses; these are taken with the lasso, which, by continued practice, is thrown with wonderful dexterity and precision. The lasso is a rope about 40 feet long, made either of hemp or hide, but more generally of the latter: one end is fastened by an iron ring to the saddle-girth, and the other being rigged in the form of a noose, is coiled up with the whole rope and hung at the saddle bow. Thus equipped, and with a junk of jerken beef under his saddle for food, the hunter sets out. On perceiving a herd, he approaches it cautiously, marks with his eye the noblest animal as his victim, then taking the lasso from its place, whirls it through the air, so that the noose falls about the head of his object, which it has no sooner reached, then putting spurs to his horse, he darts off at a gallop, dragging the captured animal behind him. 372 LA PLATA, OR THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. The population is comprised in several distinct tribes, dispersed over the Pampas and unsettled territories. The most prominent of these are the C7hiriviones, the Pampas and the Mattacas. The first are a quiet, inoffensive people, residing together in a state of perfect simplicity. As a means of defence, they keep constantly ready for duty five hundred warriors armed with lances, but if unmolested are inoffensive. They are a fine looking race, with complexions of a soft copper color, and their women are exceedingly beautiful. Their towns are built on the borders of the Pilcomayo, in the waters of which it is a custom for the old and young to bathe twice a day. The Pampas are a ferocious and brutal race; having no local habitation, but roving in bands over the plains, on horseback, committing depredations and murder upon the whites whenever they are found defenceless, and carrying the young women away into the Pampas for wives. The Mattacas are an indolent and filthy race, and being of migratory habits, the camps of their wandering tribes are often met with in the various parts of the country. Their oldest male member is worshipped as their deity, but he is required to live a solitary life, and only presents himself to his people at long and stated intervals. The external commerce of the country is monopolized by Buenos Ayres. The country is dependent on foreign supplies for almost every article, both of manufactures and tropical produce. These are supplied from England, Spain, and the United States. The imports consist of calico, cottons and woolens; the produce of the West Indies and other countries, &c.; the exports are the hides, tallow, hair and horns of the cattle slaughtered by the gauchos, and some few other articles, among which are some mineral substances. The United States enjoy a considerable portion of the trade of Buenos Ayres; the remainder with little exception, is carried on by British merchants. There is, also, a large inland trade carried on by means of mules and wagons, which cross the large plains to the city of Mendoza, and the mining districts at the base of the Andes. They carry from the sea-board, the foreign imports, and bring back the mineral wealth of those regions, with some few other commodities gathered up on the route. BUENOS AYRES, the principal city of the Argentine confederacy, is situ ated on the south-western shore of the La Plata, in latitude 240 36' south. It is regularly built, but the city contains no public buildings of any importance, except, perhaps, the cathedral, a large and handsome building, the interior of which is profusely decorated with carving and gilding. The population amounts from TO70 to 100,000, of whom from 15 to 20,000 are foreign, chiefly English and French. Though close to the river, the city has no harbor, and ships drawing 16 or 17 feet of water anchor in the outer roads, seven or eight miles from the shore, loading and unloading by means of lighters. The climate of this district is in general mild and healthy —in fact, it was for this reason that the Spaniards gave it its present name, which signifies " good air." The City of Corrientes, founded in 1588, is situated at the junction of the Parana and Paraguay rivers, which afford every facility for an active commercial intercourse with the remote parts of the confederacy, as well as with the sea; but without steam navigation, which has not yet been in troduced to any extent, these cannot be made available. DICTATORSHIP OF PARAGUAY. 373 Cordova is situated in latitude 31~ 26' south, 172 leagues distant, by the post-road, from Buenos Ayres, in a pleasant valley, on the banks of the Rimero river. It contains many churches, and is the seat of a university, once celebrated, but now dwindled down to the dimensions of a provincial school. The government of this country is nominally a representative republic or confederation, each of the provinces being, to a certain degree independent of the rest, and in the enjoyment of their own executive and legislative authorities. But, in 1835, Gen Rosas, who was unanimously called to the Presidency, refused to act unless invested for a period with extraordinary powers. These were accordingly granted him, so that at present the government is a nearly absolute dictatorship, presenting, however, a favorable contrast to the dictatorship of the neighboring state of Paraguay, as it was, under the rule of Dr. Francia. There is a junta or parliament of 44 members, half annually renewed by popular election; and a senate of two deputies from each state. The state governments consist of the popular assemblies and governors, who are elected by the delegates. The state of Buenos Ayres alone supports the expenses of the government; the other states contributing nothing directly to the general disbursements of the confederation. The annual amount of the public revenue, is from 12 to 15,000,000 dollars, a sum insufficient to meet the ordinary expenses; and there is a public debt of $40,000,000, bearing interest at six per centum. DICTATORSHIP OF PARAGUAY, AREA, 74,000 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 250,000. The territory of this state lies between the parallels of 20~ and 27~0 south latitude, and between the rivers Paraguay and Parana. It is about 500 miles long, and 200 in width. On the north and east it is bounded by the empire of Brazil, and on the south and west by the Argentine Republic. Paraguay is an inland peninsula, enclosed, on all sides, except the north, by immense rivers. A chain of mountains, known as the Sierra Amambahy, which enters Paraguay on the north, runs through its centre to about 26~ south latitude. From this chain many rivers flow on each side, to join the Paraguay and Parana; but none of these require special notice, though in the rainy season they are often surcharged by the torrents, and overflowing, spread devastation over extensive tracts. The only lake of importance in the whole country, is Ypao, but in several parts there are extensive marshes, presenting a succession of lagunes, or small collections of fresh water. The climate is temperate, but damp; resembling, in a great measure, that of Buenos Ayres on the sea-board. Paraguay, in point of fertility, forms a striking and favorable contrast to the adjacent parts of the Argentine Republic. It is well-wooded, and diversified with undulating hills and verdant vales. The Indian corn and 374 DICTATORSHIP OF PARAGUAY. sugar-cane are also frequently to be seen in the vicinity of the farm-houses. Rice, maize, yucca and kitchen vegetables, are now cultivated on an extended scale; and the growth of cotton, which had formerly been wholly received from Corrientes, suffices for home consumption. The breeding of horses or horned cattle has been equally encouraged; and, instead of receiving cattle from Eritre Rios, the farmers have now a surplus stock. The total prohibition of intercourse between Paraguay and other countries, has contributed much to these results, as the people thus turned to the cultivation of the soil all the industry which, under the old government, had been applied to navigation and the collection of the Yerba mat6 for foreign markets. The Yerba mat6, or Paraguay tea, is the leaf of the Ilex Paraguayensis, an evergreen about the size of an orange tree, growing wild, and in great abundance, in the dense forests in the north and east provinces, to which the natives resort in great numbers for its collection. It is difficult to penetrate the country where it is found; but the profits derived from the articles are ample, Paraguay tea being in as general demand through the Argentine Republic, Chi16, and many parts of Peru, as the teas of China are in Europe and the United States. Almost half the whole territory is national property. It consists of pasturage lands and forests, which have never been granted to individuals, the estates of Jesuit missionaries, and other religious corporations; and a great number of country-houses and farming establishments confiscated by the former dictator, Dr. Francia. This celebrated man paid great attention to the improvement of agriculture. He has let a great portion of the lands, at a moderate rent, and for an unlimited period, under the single, but indefinite condition, that they shall be cultivated or turned into pasturage. On other parts of the lands he established large farms, where thousands of cattle and horses are bred. These supplied his cavalry with horses and his troops with bread; besides which they furnished great numbers of cattle for the consumption of the capital. The migration of the peons is prohibited, which prevents accumulations of people in particular places, and insures the cultivation of the whole country. The arbitrary measures adopted in this country will not coincide with ideas of republican liberty, as existing in the United States; but there is no doubt but that the policy of Paraguay, however anomalous, has proved salutary, and tended much to civilize the inhabitants. The government of Paraguay is an anomaly in the present times. It approaches as near to an absolute despotism as can well be conceived. The state is nominally republican, having a so-styled congress of several hundreds of members; but the entire sovereignty resides in the dictator or governor, who is not only commander-in-chief, but head of the church, the law, and every other branch of the administration. In the time of Francia, there was no law save what was dictated by himself, and his rewards and punishments were as tyrannical and barbarous as his policy was generally oppressive. The population consists of native Spaniards, (a small moiety,) Indians, (the great bulk,) Negroes, and the mixed races, sprung from the amalgamation of these original stocks. The condition of the people is lamentable, but their position, without any incentives to ambition, is at least nugatorily DICTATORSHIP OF PARAGUAY. 375 a happy one: little to do, the necessaries of life abundant, and the state untroubled by foreigners. The -military force comprises about 3,000 men, chiefly cavalry; besides which there is a militia, composed of every free male citizen, 17 years of age, and capable of bearing arms. The naval force consists of only a few brigantines and gun-boats, to protect the river coasts from smugglers and foreign invasion. The amount of revenue is uncertain: it is derived from the state lands, which comprise half the territory; tithes in kind from all species of produce, the right to levy which is sold to the highest bidder every year; taxes upon shops and storehouses in the capital; the droit d'aubaine, or right to the property of foreigners dying in Paraguay, fines, postages, sales, stamps, and commercial dues, &c. The principal expenditures are in support of the army and navy, and purchase of war stores. There is no public debt. The state of education in Paraguay is respectable, and public schools are plentifully distributed throughout. It is a rare occurrence in this country, where no printing press exists, to find a free man who cannot read and write. The religion of the country is that of Rome, but the state has an ultimate authority over the churches and missions, and the governor assumes a guardianship over all religious interests. There is, in all parts, perfect security of person and property: each district being made responsible for every murder or theft committed within its limits. Mendicity is unknown, as all persons are obliged to be employed at some calling. AcENsIoN, the capital, is finely situated on an eminence, on the left bank of the Paraguay, in south latitude 25~ 16'.'It is an ill-built town, with unpaved streets and houses little better than huts. The only good buildings are the convents. What has been called its beautiful cathedral," is a paltry white-washed fabric; and its government-house, styled the National Palace, though extensive, is mean. It contains about 10,000 inhabitants, and is the centre of considerable trade in hides, tobacco, timber, yerba mat6, wax, &c.; and the adjacent country is comparatively well cultured and populous. Dr. Francia's first great theory of national polity was, to place his country in a position of actual independence of all other countries; and, to this end, he, after a short time, ceased all intercourse with foreigners, and even prohibited his own people from leaving and strangers from coming into his territory. Some, who chanced to set foot in Paraguay, suddenly found themselves in a vast prison; guards were posted at every outlet to prevent escape from the country, and thus they were held prisoners at large, and, without the assignment of a cause, for years. Bonpland, the celebrated botanist, was so held in durance for nine years; Don Pablo Soria and his companions, who explored the Rio Vermejo, were taken on their arrival at the Rio Paraguay, and held five years, with the whole country for a prison. In connection with this course of policy, Francia set into operation a code of stringent laws of his own creation, compelling each man to follow such employment as he should dictate, by which means the country derived at least one advantage, viz, habits of industry among the people, which previously were not known: agriculture flourished per force, and manufactures took a start, but in no branch of employment could a person 376 REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY. become rich or independent; the proceeds, beyond their actual necessities, went into the dictator's coffers, which greatly aided the revenues of the country. Thus shut from the world, and under a tyranny more singular and grinding than bloody, the people of Paraguay seem to have been in a fair way to lose what little refinement civilization had before invested them with. The women appeared naked in public, and female house-servants performed their domestic duties, or waited upon company, with no covering, except a cloth about the loins; and the natural delicacy of the sex was merged in an arbitrary custom. In 1841, Dr. Francia died, at Acencion, and was succeeded by a junta. The exclusive policy of the government, however, interrupts all further inquiry into its present condition. General Lopez is now the nominal head of the government, but his attributes are little understood. REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY, AREA, 120,000 SquARe urxs. POPULATION, 140,000. This is a very compact territory, extending along the northern shore of the estuary of the Rio de la Plata, and is bounded on the west by the river Uruguay, on the south-east by the Atlantic ocean, and on the north-east and north by the territory of the empire of Brazil. It lies between 30~ and 35~ south latitude, and 520 and 590 west longitude. This country is little known to foreigners. The coast presents the aspect of a low flat plain, without wood of any kind, and as far as the eye can reach, quite level in appearance with the water, except in the single instance of the highland of Monte Video. Inland, however, and particularly in the north, the country is intersected by hill-ranges, alternating with valleys, traversed by considerable affluents of the Uruguay. In this territory, the humidity of the soil, which is washed by numerous rivers, is corrected by the pampero, a remarkably dry wind. The climate of Uruguay is proverbially healthy, and it is evident that the thinness of the population must arise from the mode of life followed by the settlers, or from political causes, and not from any deficient fertility of the soil or other natural or necessary cause. Uruguay is divided into nine departments, and possesses three principal towns, Montevideo, La Colonia, and Maldonado; fifteen small towns and eight hamlets, without including estancias or farms, and ranchos or cottages. The population is variously estimated at from 120,000 to 200,000. Agriculture has been much interrupted of late years by political causes; the crops are chiefly of cereal grains and the other staples peculiar to the La Plata country. Grazing is the chief employment of the farmer. In manufactures, no progress has been made -not even a tolerable carpenter is to be found in the territory. The Port of Montevideo, on account of its contiguity to the ocean and its own conformation, is the best on either side of the Rio de la Plata, and EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 377 has greatly the advantage of Buenos Ayres in a commercial point of view. The city of Montevideo is the capital of the state, and is well fortified by a citadel. It contains 10,000 inhabitants. The houses are built of stone or brick, but are seldom more than one story high and fiat-roofed, and the streets are unpaved, so that they are either clouded with dust or loaded with mud, as the weather happens to be wet or dry. The town is well supplied with water, and contains no public buildings of any importance; the cathpdral, however, is said to be handsome. The commerce of this city, which includes that of the whole republic, is very considerable. Its exports consist of the animal products natural to the country, as hides, tallow, horns, hair, &c.; and its imports are mostly dry goods and hardware, flour, sugar, wines, tobacco, boots, shoes, salt, &c. The trade is principally with Brazil, Great Britain, the United States, France, Sardinia, Spain and Portugal. The other ports are Maldonado and Colonia del Sacramento, but are too insignificant to require further notice; the principal commercial transactions are done in Montevideo. The country, though comparatively small in limit, has, from time to time, and does, at the present period, occupy much of the attention of the world. It was originally a part of Buenos Ayres, but when the latter country threw off the Spanish yoke, Uruguay, by the influence of Artigas, was not included in the confederation. Subsequently, and after the defeat of Artigas, who had fled into Paraguay, and was there imprisoned by I)r. Francia, in a convent, from which he never escaped, it was seized upon by the emperor of Brazil, and by him held as a province of the empire, under the name of Cisplatina. This connection, however, was not satisfactory to the people of the country. In 1825, they declared their independence, and in 1828, by the aid of the armies of the Argentine Republic, under General Albia, the Brazilians were driven out and the independence of the country secured, under treaty, between the Argentine Republic and Brazil. This independence was acknowledged and guaranteed by France and Great Britain. A constitution was then formed, similar to that of the United States, with the exception that this was an integral instead of a federal republic. THE EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. AREA, 2,300,000 SQUARE MIES. POPULATION, 7,500,000. Brazil stretches along about two-thirds the eastern coast of South America, while its superficial area occupies nearly half its whole extent. It lies between 40 17' north, and 330 south latitude; its most easterly point is Cape San Augustin, in 340 58' west longitude; its western limit is uncertain —it probably reaches the 75th meridian. The length, from north to south, is 2,500 to 2,600 miles, and its breadth, from east to west, between 2,000 and 2,300 miles. The Atlantic ocean forms its eastern and southern boundary; Guayana and Venezuela, from which it is separated by a chain of mountains, lie on the north, and its western boundary is formed by the republics of La Plata, Peru, Bolivia and Equador. 378 EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. The east side of Brazil is traversed, from north to south by a range of mountains, of which the average height is about 3,000 feet. This range divides the coast land from the campos, or unwooded country, the average elevation of which is about 2,000 feet. It gradually becomes lower on approaching Paraguay, until it is lost on the low and swampy plains inhabited by the Guaycurug Indians. The highest range of Brazilian mountains is that which traverses the centre of the country, the greatest altitude of which is 6,000 feet. Brazil above all other countries, has been favored by nature with all the advantages and requisitions for carrying on an extensive commerce; its principal cities are on the coasts; its harbors are the finest in the world, and its large rivers, most of which are navigable to a great distance inland, are connected therewith in such a way as to facilitate the transit of inland products, and ensure their ultimate shipment to foreign countries. The principal rivers are: The Amazon, that mighty stream which almost divides the continent, and which is generally considered the longest river in the world. It is formed by the junction of the modern Marafion (Tunguragua) with the Ucayale, or ancient Marafion; it enters Brazil at San Francisco de Tabatinja, and flows from west to east along the immense northern province of Para discharging itself into the Atlantic in about the meridian of 500 west longitude. Its tributaries are the Madeira, Xingu, Rio Negro, Tapajoz, and more than 60 others, all of which give bulk to the vast body of water that constitutes the Amazon. The other large rivers are the Rio Pardo, RioDoce, Para, San Francisco, Parana, &c. At the mouth of the Para, the phenomenon of the bore, to which the Indians have given the name of pororoca, manifests itself in a very striking manner. Three days previous to the new or full moon, when the tides are highest, an immense wave, upwards of fifteen feet in perpendicular height, rushes from shore to shore with a tremendous noise, and is succeeded immediately by a second and third, and sometimes by a fourth. The tide, instead of occupying six hours to flow, attains its greatest height in a few minutes. The roaring of the pororoca is heard distinctly at the distance of two leagues. Many of the rivers of Brazil, especially the Amazon, like the Nile, overflow their banks, and subject the country to extensive inundations, attended with an injurious effect upon the health. The navigation of many is interrupted at a distance from the coast by dangerous falls and rapids, and the mouths of many of the smaller rivers are subject to winds and currents, which render them extremely unsafe to the navigator. The soil, in a country so extensive as Brazil, must, of necessity, be very various in character and composition. In the neighborhood of Rio Janeiro it consists, in a great measure, of plains, which bear every indication of former inundations. The marshy plains, at a distance from the sea might, perhaps, by dint of draining, be made available for the purposes of growing rice and the sugar-cane. The soil upon the heights, which surround these plains, consists of a mixture of clay and coarse quartz sand; it retains but little moisture and in time of drought becomes extremely hard. A few miles from the town, traces of considerable improvement are observed. A EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 379 pretty deep layer of rich quartz sand rests upon a bottom of granite or decayed feldspar; the soil is much injured, however, by the universal growth of the Mandioca. The soil of Brazil is generally well-adapted for the cultivation of this plant; its tendency is, nevertheless, to exhaust it completely in the course of a few years; a plantation never yields more than three crops, after which it is abandoned. In the mountainous districts in the interior, which are still covered by their native woods, the excellence of the soil is amply proved by the size and abundance of the trees. Neglected for centuries, a layer of the richest mould has been formed of their fallen leaves and decayed trunks, which resting again upon a rich and deep bed of clay, is of a red or yellow color, as it contains more or less of the oxides of iron. The mineral products of Brazil are chiefly confined to the more rare and valuable descriptions: the most celebrated, though not the most important, are diamonds. The diamonds found in Minas Geraes are generally the largest but they are not of the purest water. The most celebrated diamond mines in Brazil are those of Serrado Frio. These mines were not actually discovered until the government of Dom. Lorenco d'Almeida, although the diamonds were known to have been in the possession of the Negroes, who met with them accidentally while employed in gold washing, and other persons ignorant of their value, long before that period. They were first exported from Brazil to Lisbon, in 1726, by Bernardo da Silva Lobo. This district is surrounded by almost inaccessible rocks, and was formerly guarded by so much vigilance, that not even the governor of the province had the liberty of entering it without the special permission of the director of the mines. The mines are wrought by accumulating the cascalhao, a kind of ferrugenous earth, (in which the diamonds are found mixed with flints,) and washing it. The former operation is generally performed during the hot season, at a time when the beds of the rivers and torrents are dry, and the diamond sand can be easily extracted. When the wet season arrives, the washing commences: it is performed in the open air and frequently under sheds. At the bottom of the bed glides a small stream, which occupies one of its sides. Seats raised and without backs, are arranged along the shed, in such a manner that the subaltern officers are enabled to watch the negroes at work. One officer superintends eight negroes. Each negro works in a compartment of the shed, separated or walled off, as it were, from the others. The cascalhao to be examined, is placed in troughs close to the stream, and the negroes are introduced entirely naked, excepting in time of extreme cold, when they are allowed a kind of waistcoat, but without either pockets or lining. They are furnished with a kind of hand-spike, by means of which they separate the earth from the flint, and then taking the largest stones in their hands, they proceed to search for the diamonds. When a negro discovers a diamond, he shows it to the officer, and then deposits it in a large wooden vessel suspended in the middle of the shed. If any negro is fortunate enough to discover one, weighing seven carats, he is purchased by government, and obtains his liberty: the discovery of a stone of less weight, also confers liberty on the finder, but with some restrictions. Various premiums are distributed according to the value of the stone even to a quid of tobacco. Formerly there were as many as 30,000 negroes employed in the mines. 380 EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. The value of these mines has been over-estimated; it is an ascertained fact, that less than 3,500,000 carats have been found since the opening of the mines in 1728, to the present time. The actual value of this amount. does not reach $30,000,000, a sum about equal to one year's exports of all other productions of Brazil. Gold is supposed to exist in great abundance in San Paulo and the neighborhood of the river Ytdnes. The most celebrated mines are those of Congo Soco, about 40 leagues from the Villa Rica; they now belong to the " Anglo-Brazilian Mining Company," which purchased them in 1825, for ~70,000 sterling. The gold about Villa Rica is found in the form of powder or fine dust, in crystals, and sometimes, though rarely, in whole lumps. A mass, weighing 16 pounds, was once found. Among the other mineral productions of Brazil, platina, found in the province of Minas Geraes, is the most valuable. Copper is also found in the same province. Precious stones abound in Brazil, especially topazes, of which there are a great many varieties, found principally in the district of Capa6. In some parts of Minas Novas, white and blue topazes are found, though the usual color is yellow. The climate of Brazil is as various as the positions of the several portions of the country, and presents all the transitions of the torrid and temperate zones. As the northern parts of Brazil are situated near the middle of the torrid zone, the heat in the lower regions is often sultry and oppressive, but the moisture of the atmosphere keeps vegetation in perpetual vigor. Hence there is little difference in the seasons: the days and nights scarcely vary in length; the sun declines only a few degrees from his vertical position; the trees never lose their foliage, nor is the ground ever destitute of flowers. Many of the trees and plants are adorned with blossoms of the most beautiful kinds, which, being intermixed with leaves of the brightest green, impart to the forests of these regions a splendor unparalleled in the temperate zones. In reference to this part of the New World, it has been emphatically observed,-"A finer country than Brazil-one blessed with a more genial climate, or possessing a more fruitful soil; one more happily diversified with wood and water; intersected with navigable rivers; or richer in mineral treasures, is scarcely to be found in the whole compass of the globe." The vegetable products of Brazil are unrivalled in regard to variety and luxuriance by those of any other nation of the world. Among the most important, are those of sugar, coffee, cotton, gum-elastic, rice, tobacco, maize, wheat, mandioc, beans, cassavaroot, bananas, epecacuanha, ginger, yams, and cotton, which form the staple articles of the country, and the culture of which has, of late years, increased with almost unexampled rapidity. Sugar-is principally raised in the province of Bahia and other provinces on the coast, and the value of the exports on this article alone are estimated at from 10 to 15 millions of dollars annually. Coffee is even more extensively cultivated than sugar. It is principally produced in Rio, and enjoys celebrity in all parts of the world. Its flavor has been very much improved of late by careful cultivation, and skill in the management of the plant, and is little inferior to the best samples of Mocha. EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 381 In consequence of the great and constantly increasing demand for gum elastic, or "caoutchouc," (a corruption of the name given it by the aborigines of Brazil, "cahucu,") in England and the United States of America, from the almost daily new uses to which it is found applicable, the attention of the Brazilian government and legislature has been called to the expediency, and even necessity, of promoting the propagation of the trees from which it is extracted. Cotton appears to be the next principal product of the fertile soil of Brazil; and is mostly of very superior quality —scarcely inferior to SeaIsland. Tobacco, of an inferior quality, is grown on the islands of the Bay of Rio Janeiro, and some few other places; rice is largely cultivated; Mandioca, however, is the main dependence of the people. The tea plant can be cultivated with success, as the soil and climate has been found favorable to its production. But still little attention is paid to its culture or increase, as labor here is neither as abundant or cheap, as in China, which renders all attempts at cultivation unsuccessful. The extensive forests of Brazil furnish almost every variety of useful and ornamental woods, in requisition for ship-building, carpenters' work, and dyeing. Drugs of a great variety are procured in Brazil. The carassato, or castor tree, is indigenous, and much cultivated for the sake of the oil extracted from its seeds, in general use for lamps, and other purposes. Rosewood is plentiful, and cocoa is in general use among the people, and forms one of the chief articles of the internal trade. The nuts of Brazil, also, form an article of trade, though not of any great importance. The Brazilian forests are full of rapacious animals; among which are the tiger-cat, the hyena, the saratu, an animal about the size of a fox, but far more ferocious; the juguar, or tiger of South America; the sloth, and the porcupine. The planters are much annoyed by ounces; wild hogs are common, and the singular animal called the anta or tapir. European domestic animals are abundant; the increase, especially of the ox and horse, has been astonishingly great. Vast herds of wild cattle are met with in all the open parts of the country, especially in the llanos, or plains, in the southern provinces. Sheep have not increased so rapidly. The "emu," or American ostrich, is found in the plains, and the forests swarm with innumerable varieties of birds, monkeys, &c. In the marshy countries the boa constrictor attains an enormous size, and they are also infested with the coral snake, and other venomous reptiles. The beauty and variety of the insect tribe is astonishing; the air is actually alive with all the colors of the rainbow, from the prevalence of these beautiful creatures. Manufactures, unless we call the preparation of sugar and caoutchuc manufactures, can hardly be said to exist in Brazil; and are restricted to the production of the coarsest cloths, the tanning of leather, and a few of those that are most simple and necessary; but a great number of trades are carried on. "The European stranger at Rio," says Dr. Von Spix, "is astonished at the number of gold and silver smiths and jewelers, who, like the other tradesmen, live together in one street, which calls to mind the magnificent Ruas de Ouro and de Prata, of Lisbon. Many trades, which are necessary in Europe, are, at present, almost superfluous in the 382 EMPIRE OF BRAZIL interior of the country, on account of the circumscribed wants of the inhab itants. In the capital, however, and the other towns on the coast, joiners, whitesmiths, and other artizans, are numerous; but tanners, soap-boilers, and workers in steel, are scarce. There is great demand for mechanics to build sugar and other mills, to construct machines for working the gold mines, &c., and very high wages are paid them. The commerce of Brazil is very extensive; her existing commercial system is one of great freedom and liberality, and is well-calculated to accelerate the development of her resources. The duties on exports and imports are moderate, and are imposed for the sake of revenue alone. The imports comprise all sorts of manufactured goods, suitable for the people and climate, particularly cottons, linens, woollens and hardware, from En gland; flour, provisions and coarse cottons, from the United States; wines, silk, salt, brandy, &c., from France and Portugal; linens, lace, &c., from Hamburg, &c., &e. According to a convention entered into between England and Brazil, the import of slaves should have ceased in 1830. Far, however, from this being the case, the importation is carried on with greater safety, and in greater numbers at present, than at any former period. It is ascertained that between 70 and 80,000 negroes are annually brought into the country. Brazil is divided into 18 provinces, for the purpose of district government, with as many presidents to administer their affairs, and subdivided into comarcas. The actual population of Brazil is not known; it has been variously stated. Cannabich, upon the authority of documents existing in the empire, stated, 1830, the amount at 5,735,000; Malte-Brun estimates it, for the same year, at 5,340,000. Balbi computes the total at 5,300,000, subdivided as follows: Portuguese or Fiholos do Reino, Creoles, &e................................... 900,000 Mestizos (free) and Mulattoes................................................... 600,000 " (slaves).................................................................... 250,000 Free Negroes................................................................ 180,000 Converted Indians.............................................................. 2,926,500 Independent Indians, European Settlers, &c.................................... 150,000 But we are satisfied that the highest of these estimates is very decidedly under the,mark, especially in regard to the number of negro slaves, and that the population of Brazil may, at present, be safely estimated at 7,500,000. In Brazil, unlike the Spanish and English colonies, there is hardly any political division of castes, and very few of those galling and degrading distinctions, which have been made by all other nations in the management of their colonies. The mildness of the laws affecting the colored population are remarkable. Amalgamation is permitted, and is not at all unfrequent. The Brazileros, or native Brazilians-those born of Portuguese parents in Brazil-amount to about 600,000; they appear to inherit all the idleness and inactivity of their European ancestors. The Creoles, are those born in Brazil, of African mothers; the Mamlucos, are the offspring of the Whites and Indians; the ulribocos, of Negroes and Indians; and the GPubros, of the Mulattoes and Negroes. The natives are strong and well made, their complexion is copper colored, their hair is black and sleek. They bear an implacable hatred against the negroes, and evince much delight in eating them: but they are terrified by EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 383 fire-arms, and betake themselves to flight on hearing the report of a gun. Such as are taken prisoners cannot be subdued either by stripes or kindness; many, despairing of ever being able to regain their freedom, refuse sustenance, and perish from hunger. Don Pedro, when prince regent, published a proclamation, commanding them to live in villages, and to become Christians; they were offered his protection if they complied, and threatened with war of extermination in the event of their refusal. It had no effect. RIO DE JANEIRO, or simply Rio, is the capital of the country, and the largest and most important commercial city in South America. It lies on the west side of one of the finest bays in the world, in lat. 220 54' 15" S. and long. 43~ 15' 50" W. The population is said to be 200,000, one-half of which are whites, and the remainder Negro slaves and the mixed races. The city, which is in the shape of a parallelogram, is laid out on level ground, at the foot of hills, and has a handsome appearance from the harbor. The general style of architecture is mean: the streets are, however, well laid out, intersecting each other at right angles, and paved with blocks of granite, with water courses in the centre. The Cathedral of Nossa Senhora da Gloria, on a lofty hill, on the south side of the city, is a conspicuous object from a distance, and especially from the bay. There are several convents: a misericordia, with a hospital attached; a foundling hospital; and various other religious and charitable institutions. The royal place forms two sides of a largo or oblong space, opening to the bay, near the principal landing place. Among the other public build ings may be specified, a new and handsome theatre, the Exchange, the old Jesuit's College, the Episcopal Palace and Royal Villa of Christovia, in the environs. They are also sundry lyceums and schools, and a great many private and licensed academies. An extensive botanic garden adorns the suburbs, and near the palace is the public library, containing from 50,000 to 70,000 volumes. Several daily and weekly papers are published at Rio, but they are said to be, without exception, the most worthless publications of their class anywhere to be met with. The harbor of Rio is one of the finest in the world: its entrance is marked by a remarkable hill, in the form of a sugar-loaf, 900 feet in height, close to its west side; while, on the other side of the bay, one mile and a half distant, is the fort of Santa Cruz, on which is a light-house: there is also a light-house on Isla Raza, about ten miles south from the mouth of the harbor. There are about 100 small islets lying on the bosom of the bay, like stars bespangling the blue sky. Ships may enter day or night, as there are nc obstructions or dangers to dread. The largest ships may safely ride in this extensive bay, which is capacious enough to accommodate the shipping of all nations. The arsenal, the dock-yard and marine establishments, are on a small island within the harbor. The commerce of Rio is very extensive, and has increased rapidly during the last few years. It is now by far the greatest mart for the export of coffee. Sugar is also an important export from Rio: the other great exports are hides, rice, tobacco, rum, tapioca, ipecacuanha, manioc flour, &c.; the export of cotton has almost entirely ceased; and that of gold and diamonds is almost clandestine. The average aggregate value of the exports of Rio is about 30,000,000 reis yearly. The currency of Rio and of Brazil generally, is in a very vitiated state, 884 EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. and since the substitution of copper and paper for silver, has declined more than one-half in value. The other principal towns are San Catarina, in the province of the same name, which has from 5 to 6000 inhabitants: the principal ports in this district are Laguna and San Francisco; Portalegre, in Rio Grande do Sul, and its port San Pedro, the population of which is about 1,200; the seaports of Victoria, Espiritu Santo and Puerto Seguro; Bahi or San Salvador, the harbor of which is magnificent; Pernambuco, which owes its importance to its trade in cotton, - population 70,000, and many others, both on the coast and inland, with the space alloted to this article, prevents a further mention of. Notwithstanding Pedro I. established two universities, literature appears to have made no progress in Brazil. All the literary talent, such as it is, is monopolized by the newspapers, though none of them are conducted with anything of ability approaching those of England or the United States, nor is the circulation sufficient for their support. There are no books issued with advantage to the publishers, but such, as in most countries, would be indicted by a grand jury; while the " Art of being Happy," a translation from a French work, was left to sleep on the shelves of the vender, the " Art of Stealing " was bought up as fast as it could be prepared; and, at the present day, there is scarcely a house in Brazil that does not contain this manual of morals and shadow of Brazilian morality. The established religion of Brazil is the Roman Catholic; but all other religions are tolerated. The Jews were the first settlers, and are still a numerous body. The affairs of the church are under the superintendence of the archbishop of Bahia. Monasteries and nunneries are extremely numerous in many parts of Brazil. The Saints' days are celebrated with as much splendor at Rio as at Rome itself; and the Carnival is magnificently kept. The army and navy of the empire are on a respectable footing. The land forces amount to 60,000 or 65,000 men; of which 15,000 are regular troops, the remainder consist of regular and local militia — the first of which may be sent on foreign service, but the latter are constituted to pro tect the provinces, and put down internal disorders. The navy numbers 1 ship of the line, 5 frigates, 6 corvettes, 13 schooners, 4 war steamers, &c.; but they are said to be in a very efficient state. The revenue is chiefly derived from duties on exports and imports; from tenths and duties on sales of lands and houses; the mining duties and the revenue of the diamond district. The whole amounts to the sum of about $18,000,000 annually. The national debtis near $100,000,000, the interest on which consumes near one-third of the revenue, and the army and navy another third. Prior to 1808, Brazil was merely a Portuguese colony, but when John IV. came to reside in Rio, it was raised to the dignity of an independent monarchy. In 1822, Don Pedro was declared emperor, and in 1824, the present constitution was promulgated and sworn to. The spirit of this constitution is monarchical. The legislature consists of two chambers; a senate, appointed by the emperor, and a house of representatives, elected by the people. The executive power is delegated to six ministers, under whose control are placed all matters connected with the interior, foreign GUIANA. 385 affairs, justice, marine, war and finance. A respectable diplomatic and consular system has been established. There is also a " nobility " in Brazil, the only artificial manufacture of the kind in America; in 1837, it was composed of 16 marquises, 6 counts, 19 viscounts, 20 barons and 13 ladies, who preserve the title of their deceased husbands. The titles are not hereditary. Don Pedro II., the present emperor, was born 2d December, 1825, and therefore was not of age to govern the country, until 1842. A provisional government, or "Council of Regency," was formed on the abdication of Pedro I., consisting of three members named by the Senate. This council was soon succeeded by another, but the power was shortly afterwards vested in an individual. The emperor assumed the powers on his attaining his majority, since which time the prosperity of Brazil has been onwards; its commerce has expanded, and in spite of the nefarious system pursued by those in authority, the resources of the empire have been developed in a most extraordinary degree. GUIANA, GUIANA was once more extensive than at present: it included the whole of that portion of South America lying between the Orinoco and the Amazon rivers, of which the northern part, called Spanish Guiana, now belongs to Venezuela, and the southern, known as Portuguese Guiana, is attached to the Brazilian province of Para. The region at present styled Guiana, extends along the coast from Cape Barrima, at the mouth of the Orinoco, to the Oyapock river, a distance of about 750 miles, and extending in the interior to the mountains at the source of the Essequibo, Surinam and Maroni rivers, 350 miles; comprising an area of about 160,000 square miles. Along the sea-shore the country presents the appearance of an extensive and uniform plain. The soil is surprisingly fertile, and a most luxuriant vegetation almost everywhere overspreads the country. This region is at present divided between the British, Dutch and French. The colonies of Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice, belong to Great Britain; Surinam to Holland; and Cayenne to France. British Guiana contains a population of 97,000 persons, of whom only 3,529 are whites. Surinam has a population of about 60,000, of whom 55,000 are slaves. The inhabitants of Cayenne number about 25,000, of whom 3,786 are whites; making a total for the population of Guiana, of 182,000 persons, exclusive of the revolted negroes and Indians in the interior. Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice, belonged to the Dutch till the last war, when they were conquered by Great Britain, and were confirmed to that power by the treaty of 1814. The territory is low, flat, alluvial, and in many parts swampy; and the greater portion, when it came into the possession of its present owners, was covered with dense and almost impenetrable forests. Since that time a vast improvement has talen place; British industry has cut down the woods, and, availing itself of the natural fertility of the soil, has rendered this one of the most productive regions in the New World. Demarara ranks, as to produce, second only to Jamaica: its rum is inferior only to hers; and the coffee of Berbice ranks above that of any of the American islands. 25 886 PATAGONIA. Georgetown, the capital of British Guiana, is built on the low bank of the river Demerara. It contains 10,000 inhabitants, mostly negroes, with a considerable proportion of people of color. New Amsterdam, the chief town of Berbice, is agreeably situated, intersected by canals, and with a considerable spot of ground attached to each house. Agriculture is carried on in British Guiana on a great scale; many of the plan tations have from 500 to 1,500 laborers; and upwards of $200,000 have often been laid out in the embankments and buildings of a new estate, before any returns whatever were received; the profits, however, are always remunerating, and frequently great. Surinam constitutes the most important part of the Dutch western possessions. Its coast, like that of the rest of Guiana, is flat and alluvial, and is traversed by several broad rivers coming from a considerable distance in the interior. That of Surinam has a channel about four miles wide, but shallow and rocky, navigable only for boats. Paramaribo, the capital of Surinam, at the mouth of the river, where it affords excellent anchorage for vessels, is a considerable town, well built of wood, and arranged in regular streets adorned with fine trees. Its commere, though now surpassed by that carried on in British Guiana, is considerable, and supports a population of 18,000 or 20,000 persons. Cayenne is bounded west by Surinam, on the south and east by Brazil, and on the north by the Atlantic Ocean. It is an alluvial, swampy region, covered with majestic forests. Fine aromatics, unknown to the other regions of the west, have been cultivated here with success. The Cayenne pepper is the most pungent and delicate kind of that spice; and the clove, long exclusively attached to the Moluccas, has succeeded so well that a part of the consumption of Europe is supplied from Cayenne. The annual value of the exports to France is $500,000; of imports, $350,000. Cayenne proper consists of an alluvial island, about eighteen miles long, and ten broad, formed by the branches of the river of that name, on which is Cayenne, the capital of the colony, a small town neatly built of wood, with a spacious and commodious road, and a population of 3,000. There are also some small settlements scattered along the coast. PATAGONIA. PATAGONIA, the southern extremity of the western continent, is a cold, desolate region, the interior parts of which are but little known. It is about 1,000 miles in length, and from 300 to 400 in breadth, having an area of probably 370,000 square miles. It is very thinly inhabited by an Indian race, who have long drawn the attention of navigator by their great size, and have usually been described by them as a nation of giants. They are divided into tribes, of which the Moluches and Puelches appear to be the principal. The Patagonians are said to be excellent horsemen, and hunt the rhea, or American ostrich, which is found in considerable numbers in the northern part of their country. Their arms consist of a long tapering lance, a knife, or if it can be procured, a scimitar, and the balas, a missile weapon of singular kind, carried in the girdle, and consisting of two round stones, covered with leather, each weighing about a pound. These are fastened to the two ends of a string, about 18 feet in length, and used as a sling, one stone being kept in the hand, and the other whirled round the head till it is supposed to PATAGONa. 887 have acquired sufficient force, when they are together discharged at the object. The Patagonians are so expert in the management of this double-headed shot, that they will hit a mark not bigger than a shilling, with both the stones, at the distance of fifty yards. It is not customary with them, however, to strike either the guanaco or ostrich with them, but to discharge them so, that the cord comes against the legs of the ostrich, or the fore legs of the guanaco, and is twisted round them by the force and swing of the balls, so that the animal being unable to run, falls a sure prey to the hunter. The rocky coast of Patagonia has, of late years, become celebrated for its depositaries of "guano," and hence has' been much resorted to by vessels of all nations, in order to procure this valuable article. Immense quantities are annually carried off. " Guano " is the excrement of birds, which, through an indefinite series of ages, has accumulated on these sterile shores. It is useful as a manure, and is also highly prized as an agent in several manufacturing processes. Deer of various kinds, with guanacos and horses, abound in the interior, and seals are numerous in the bays and harbors. The Andes extend along the eastern coast of Patagonia, but after passing Chili they no longer display the vast height which distinguishes the more northern part of the range. They are supposed not to exceed 3,000 feet in general, though some peaks rise to 5,000 or 6,000, which wear a most dreary aspect, being constantly covered with ice and snow. The principal rivers of Patagonia are all on the eastern side, and flow from the base of the Andes into the Atlantic Ocean. Terra del Fuego, separated from Patagonia by the Strait of Magellan, is inhabited by a few miserable savages in the lowest state of wretchedness, and subsisting solely on the shell-fish which they pick up on the shore. "The natives of these islands," says Capt. Wilkes, " are not more than five feet high, of a light copper color, which is much concealed by smut and dirt, particularly on their faces, which they mark vertically with charcoal. They have short faces, narrow foreheads, and high cheek bones. The hair is long, lank and black, hanging ever the face, and is covered with white ashes, which gives them a hideous appearance. The whole face is compressed. Their bodies are remarkable from the great development of the chest, shoulders, and vertebral column; their arms are long, and out of proportion; their legs small, and ill made." Their huts are of a circular form, from seven to eight feet in diameter, and four or five feet high, with an oval hole to creep in at. The fire is built in an excavation in the middle of the clay floor. These people almost live on shell-fish, and the usual accompaniment to their hut is a heap of shells. They are armed with slings, and spears of rude construction, with which they strike their fish as well as defend themselves. They are naturally very grave, and seldom express surprise. The facility with which they repeated words, was truly wonderful, and their powers of mimicry often became annoying. The women appeared to be modest, but they are extremely ugly, and much begrimmed. The men employ themselves in building huts, obtaining food and providing for their daily wants. The women are generally seen paddling their canoes. They bury their dead in caves. Hermit Island, immediately south of Terra del Fuego, is remarkable as containing Cape Horn, the most southerly point of America, and facing directly the vast ocean which surrounds the southern pole. 388 SOUTH AMERICAN ISLANDS. SOUTH AMERICAN ISLANDS, A CONSIDERABLE number of islands are sattered around South America, none of which, however, are of much importance. The Gallapagos are a numerous group, situated on the equator, about 650 miles west from the coast of New Grenada, nine of them only are of considerable size. They enjoy a fine climate and fertile soil, and are the seat of volcanic action. At the mouth of the Amazon river is the island of Joannes, belonging to Brazil. It is little more than a vast swamp, and is inhabited by Indians. Fernando de Noronha, about 200 miles northeast from Cape St. Roque, belongs also to Brazil, and is used as a place of confinement for transported convicts. Of several islands lying along the east coast of Brazil, the most important is Santa Catharina. It is a fine fertile island, and is much visited by vessels in want of refreshments. The town of Desterro, the principal on the island, contains 5,000 inhabitants. The islands of St. Felix, Juan Fernandez, and Chiloe, belong to Chili; the latter forms the most southern province of that republic. A number of islands extend along the west coast of Patagonia; they are but little known, and are cold, barren and desolate regions. Wellington island, about 150 miles in length, is the principal of these. Southeast from Patagonia are several groups of islands, scattered at various distances from the continent. They comprise the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, and Sandwich Land. The climate of these islands is cold and severe, and their shores are rugged and barren. They are all uninhabited, except the Falkland group, and are very seldom visited. The latter contains many good harbors, which afford shelter to the whale and seal ships which navigate the southern seas. They are claimed both by Great Britain and Buenos Ayres. At Port St. Louis, on the East Falkland ialand, there is a small settlement consisting of a governor and a few families, (Gauchos from Buenos Ayres.) Wild cattle and horses are numerous. The flesh of the former furnishes the chief food of the inhabitants. Further to the south are the islands of South Shetland, South Orkney, Palmer's Land, and Graham's Land. These have all been discovered since the year 1819. They are desolate, sterile regions, covered even in midsummer with ice and snow, and are untenanted by a single human being. Their shores abound with the fur-seal, sea-elephant, and vast numbers of pei.guins. Vessels from New England frequent these islands for the purpose of procuring seals, the furs of which -are very fine and valuable. EUROPE. AREA OP EUROPE, 3,816,936 sQUARaE M I E..............P...P.....PoPUnO, 262,800,000. WITH the exception of Australia, EUROPE is the least of all the great divisions of the globe, being only about a fifth part of the size of Asia or America, and a third part of that of Africa. But, though thus inferior in point of size, Europe is immeasurably superior to the other continents in the enterprise, intelligence, and civilization of her inhabitants, and perhaps also in her physical advantages. Europe is mostly situated within the temperate zone, and no part of her surface approaches within many degrees of the intertropical regions. The climate is, therefore, rather inclined to cold; but it is comparatively temperate, and is neither so cold in winter nor so hot in summer as the countries in the corresponding latitudes of Asia and America; so that, while comfortable lodging and warm clothing are indispensable, the exertions of the inhabitants are not impeded by the too great intensity of cold on the one hand, or of heat on the other. The surface, too, of the country is infinitely varied and picturesque; and it has the advantage of being more intersected than any other country by great arms of the sea, supplying facilities to internal and foreign commerce, that are all but wholly denied to Asia, Africa, and Australia, and not enjoyed in an equal degree even by America. The soil of Europe seems also to be of the quality best suited to stimulate and reward the efforts of the husbandman; for though it be nowhere so fertile as to produce crops without laborious diligence, and, consequently, does not foster indolence or a want of attention, it never fails liberally to reward the efforts of the industrious and skillful cultivator. Hence it is that this continent has every thing that seems best fitted to call forth and develop human genius and resources. But the advanced civilization and superior influence of Europe in the affairs of the world, seems, after all, to be owing in no small degree to the superior capacity of her inhabitants, as evinced in their enterprise, invention, perseverance and power of combination. In all these respects they seem to be decidedly in advance of the most improved Asiatic nations; while the difference between them and the most improved native nations of Africa, America- and Australia, appears almost as great as the difference between man and the least advanced of the lower animals. Europe is the only part of the world in which civilization and the arts have, generally speaking, been uniformly progressive. Important discoveries have been made, at remote periods, in China, India, and other Asiatic countries, but these would seem to have been the result of accident only, and, at all events, have had comparatively little influence: it is here only that they have been appreciated, improved, and perfected, and made instrumental in the production of further discoveries. It is characteristic of the European that he is never satisfied with what he has achieved; he is always pressing forward with unabated ardor in the career of industry and invention; and is as anxious to advance (8891 390 EUROPE. himself at this moment as his semi-barbarous ancestors 3000 or 4000 years ago. How much of this distinctive character and superiority of the European is to be ascribed to different and favorable circumstances, and how much to difference of race, is an inquiry foreign to our subject and incompatible with our limits. Most probably a good deal is ascribable to both causes; but, at all events, his superiority is alike great and obvious. It would seem, too, that he is destined to extend his dominion over every part of the world, with exception, perhaps, of the African continent. The European is already master of by far the largest portion of America; he has also laid the foundations of settlements in Australia that will, no doubt, at no very distant period, spread over every part of that remote and barbarous continent; and some of the oldest, most extensive and richest countries of Asia are already in his power; and the fair presumption seems to be, that he will in the end extend his conquests over every part of that great continent! Hence the prodigious preponderance of Europe, in a moral and political point of view! It is to the world at large what Rome was to Italy, or Athens to Greece. Nearly all the Europeans belong to the Caucasian race. Only a few tribes in Russia are Mongolians. With respect to their origin, the Europeans form three great divisions: the Germanes, Slavonians, and Romanians. The GERMANES are to be considered as descendants of Gomer (Gen. x: 2), or of the Kimres, who at first lived in the countries near the mouths of the Dnieper and Dniester, whence they afterwards moved to the north and north-west, and peopled the Scandinavian peninsula, the present kingdom of Denmark, Germany, etc. The old Goths were likewise Germanes. Thus, to the great family or tribe of the Germanes belong the Germans proper, most of the Swiss, and part of the English, the -Dutch, the _Flemings (in Belgium), the _Danes, Icelanders, Norwegians, and Swedes. The SLAVONIANS, in ancient times called Sarnates, are probably descendants of Magog and Madai (Gen. x: 2), or of the Scythians and Medes. In the beginning they lived in the country between the Don, Volga, and Caucasian Mountains, and in the course of time spread over the present Russia and Poland, and westward to the Elbe river. To the great family or tribe of the Slavonians, belong the Poles, Russians, Servians, Bosniacs, Bulgarians, Croats, Slavonians proper, Bohemians, etc. The ROMANIANS are descendants, partly of the ancient Iberians, Gauls, etc., partly of the ancient Romans and Greeks, and partly of the Germanes; and the Italians, -French, Spaniards, Portuguese, and part of the Swiss, belong to this great family; or tribe. Besides these three great divisions, there are still found descendants of the ancient Celts, or Gaels, in Ireland and Wales, and the Highlands of Scotland; and Basques, or descendants of the.Terians, in Biscay, and the neighborhood of Bayonne, in France. The Turks belong to the Tartar tribe; the Magyars, in Hungary, are probably descendants of the ancient Scythians, and lived, until the close of the ninth century of the Christian era, in the vicinity of the Ural river; and the Greeks are descendants partly of the ancient Greeks, but chiefly of Slavonian tribes. The descent of the Jews is universally known. Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. On the east, the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the EUROPE. 391 Bosphorus, the Dardanelles and the Archipelago, form the boundaries towards Asia; and on the south, Europe is separated from Asia by the Black Sea, and from Africa by the Mediterranean. The most northerly point of Europe is North Cape, in Norway, lat. 710 11' north; and its most southerly point is Gibraltar, lat. 36~ 7' north. The distance between these two points is 2,424 miles. The most easterly point of Europe is Catharinburg, at the frontier of European Russia and Siberia, long. 6O~ 40' east from Greenwich; and its most westerly point is Cape Roxant, belongimg to Portugal, long. 90 31' west from Greenwich. The distance between these two points is 3,370 miles. STATES OF EUROPE. (Later estimates of area and population will be found in the subsequent pages.) States and Titles. Form of Government. Sq. Miles. Population. E aof.. —, Andorre, Pyrenees, Republic.. With two syndics and a council. 190 7,000.... Anhalt-Bernberg,* Duchy. States having limited powers.......... 336 48,844 1846 Anhalt-Cothen,* "............... 310 43,120.... Anhalt-Dessau, ".....cc " " 337 63,082 1846 Austria Empire...... Constitutional monarchy.... 255,226 35,879,152 1842 Baden,+ Grand Duchy....... Limited sovereignty; two chambers...'6,712 1,349,930 1846 Bavaria,* Kingdom.......... Limited monarchy; two chambers.... 28,435 4,504,874 1846 Belgium, ".cc. 12,569 4)335,319 1846 Bremen,* Free City.......... Republic; senate and convention...... 67 72,908 1842 Brunswick,* Duchy.... Limited sovereignty; one chamber. 1,528 269,301 1846 Church, States of, Popedom.. Unsettled........................... 17,048 2,908,115 1846 Denmark, with Seblewig Absolut monarchy; with prov. states.. 69,762 2,239,077 1845 Holstein, Kingdom....) France......... Republic; with one chamber..........0125 85,401,761 1846 Frankfort,* Free City... Republic; senate and legislative body 91 68,240 1846 Great Britain, Kingdom... Limited monarchy; lords and commons, 116,700 27,019,555 1841 Greece.......... Limited monarchy.................... 10,206 637,700 Hamburg,* Free City........ Republic; senate and common council.. 149 188,054 Hanover,* Kingdom......... Limited monarchy; two chambers.. 14600 1,773,711 1845 Hesse-Cassel,* Electorate..... Limited sovereignty; one chamber.. 4,386 754,590 1846 Hesse-Darmstadt * Gr. Duchy, Limited sovereignty; two chambers.... 3,198 852,679 1846 Hesse-1Homberg,i Land4ravate Absolute sovereignty.. 154 24,433 1846.Eohenzol.-Heckingen,* Prin. Limited; one chamber................ 136 20,143 Hohensol.-Signaringen,# "... 383 45,431 1845 Holland, with Luxemburg.... Limited monarchy; two chambers 13,890 3,236,741 1848 lonian Islands Republic...... Under Brit. protec.; council and chamb. 998 219,797 1844 Liechtenstein,? Principality.. Limited monarchy; with one chamber.. 62 6,351 1842 Lippe-Detmolt ".. 432 108,236 1846 Lippe-Schaumburg, cc cc 205 31,870 1846 Lubec,* Free City........... Republic; senate and common council.. 142 47,197 1845 Mecklen.-Schwerin,* G. Duchy Limited monarchy; with one chamber.. 4,701 524,042 1847 Mecklenburg-Strelitz *'. 1,094 94,406 1845 Modena and Massa, i)uchy.... Revolutionary........................ 2,073 515;343 Monaco, Principality......... Absolute monarchy......... 50 7,000 Nassau,* Duchy............. Limited sovereignty; two chambers 1,736 424,817 1846 Oldenburg,* Grand Duchy... Unsettled................... 2,470 278,909 1846 Parma, Duchy. 2,184 496,803 1846 Portugal, Kingdom..... Lim. monarchy; one chamber of reps. 34,500 3,412,500 1841 Prussia,4 "... Limited monarchy.................... 106,302 16,330,186 1850 Reuses, Principalities of..... Limited sovereignty; one chamber 588 112,75 1846 Russia (in Europe),t Empire.. Absolute monarchy..... 2,041,809 60,303,266 1846 San Marino, Republic........ Senate and council of ancients......... 7,600 Sardinia, Kingdom.......... Constitutional monarchy.. 28,880 4,650,368 1839 Saxony,*.......... Limited monarchy; two chambers 5,705 1,836,433 1846 Saxe-Altenburg....... Duchy, Limited monarchy; one chamber... 491 129,589 1846 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha," " "...... 790 147,195 1846 Saxe-Mein.-Hildburg,...... 880 160,515 1846!Saxe-Weimer-Eisenbach, "...... 1,403 257,573 1846 chwarburg-Rudolst.,* Prin. "... 331 68,711 1846 Schwarzburg-Sondersh., " "...... 328 8,682 1846 3icilies, The Two, Kingdom.. Limited monarchy; with two chambers 41,521 8,423,316 1845 Spain........... "..Limited monarchy; with a legislature. 176,480 12,386,841 1833 SNoa, 3... Lim. monarchy; with a diet.and stortsing l12,725 3,138,884 1840 Norway,) 121,725 1,167,766 1845 Switzerland, Republic........ Confederation of republics; a diet..... 17,208 2,365,286 1850 Turkey, Empire............. Absolute monarchy.................. 188,140 9,545,000 Tuscany, Grand Duchy...... Limited monarchy; two chambers...... 8,712 1,786,875 1844 Waldeck,# Principality....... Limited sovereignty; one chamber.. 455 58,753 1813 Wurtemburg,* Kingdom..... Limited monarchy; two chambers 7,568 1,743,827.... * Member of the German Confederation t Including Poland and Finland. 392 EUROPE. The population of Europe numbers about 70 inhabitants to a square mile, the highest ratio in any division of the world. If the United States were as thickly settled as Europe, they would have a population of 185,000,000; and not less than 803,750,000, if the proportion were like that of Holland and Belgium, where the population is 306 to a square mile. With the exception of about 7,000,000 Mahommedans, 3,000,000 Jews, and a few Pagans among the Samojedes and Kalmucs, all the Europeans are CHRISTIANS. Of these, nearly 133,000,000 are Roman Catholics (occupying the Pyrenean peninsula and Italy, and prevailing in France, Ireland, Belgium, Poland, Austria, and Bavaria), more than 59,000,000 are attached to the Greek Church (chiefly in Russia, and moreover prevailing in Turkey, Greece, and the Ionian Islands), and about 58,000,000 are Protestants (almost exclusively occupying the Scandinavian peninsula and Denmark, and prevailing in Great Britain, Prussia, Holland, Finland, in the Baltic provinces of Russia, and in most of the German states). All Europeans are civilized, except the Laplanders, Samojedes, some Kalmuc tribes, and the Gipsies (the latter chiefly in Hungary, Russia, Spain, and England), who are to be regarded as half-civilized; and as civilization has prevailed among them for many hundred years, Europe is not only the most enlightened, but also the best cultivated grand division of the earth. By its emigrants, America, and civilized countries of other parts of the world, have been peopled. Though the least civilized state of Europe is certainly more advanced in all that respects mental cultivation and improvement in the arts, than the most improved native state founded in any other part of the world, there is a wide difference in the degrees of civilization that obtain among the different European communities. The Italian republics were the first to emerge through the barbarism that involved Europe after the Roman empire had fallen a prey to the attacks of the Germans and other northern invaders. It was in them that commerce, arts, and literature again rose to such excellence as to rival or excel their state in the most brilliant periods in the annals of Greece and Rome. The invention of printing, in the 15th century, gave, to the moderns a power of diffusing, increasing, and perpetuating information of which the ancients were wholly destitute, and which has contributed incomparably more than any thing else to accelerate the progress of civilization. Only a very short time elapsed after books began to be multiplied, till governments, beginning to be sensible of the importance of this new power, endeavored to make it subservient to their views, by enacting laws for its regulation, and preventing any work from being published without a license, or till it had been revised by a censor: and it was not till Holland had emancipated herself from the blind and brutal despotism of old Spain, and the Stuarts had been expelled from England, that the press began to be really free; and that periodical literature, and especially newspapers, began to acquire some portion of the vast importance to which they have since attained. But the jealousy of the doctrines broached by the early reformers was still greater than that of the freedom of the press. They attacked principles that had long been regarded as sacred, and which in fact had been looked upon by most persons as part and parcel of the Christian faith. In addition to this religious feeling, most princes believed that the government derived a strong support from the church; and that, were its foundations unsettled, the whole frame-work of society would, most EUROPE. 393 likely, be shaken to pieces, and their power and authority might fall to the ground. We need not, therefore, be surprised that almost all the great sovereigns of Europe, as the kings of France and Spain, the emperor of Austria, &c., were determined enemies of the Reformation. In England, the unbridled licentiousness of Henry VIII. effected a separation from the church of Rome, which otherwise it might have been impossible, or, at all events, very difficult to bring about: and in France, the extinction of the line of Valois by the death of Henry III. in 1589, and the elevation of Henry IV. to the throne, secured to the country the advantages of a toleration that could not be obliterated, even by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. But in the Peninsula, Austria and Italy, the efforts of the enemies of the Reformation prevailed. Philip II., though he failed in his attempt to extirpate the principles of civil and religious liberty in the Low Countries, completely succeeded in Spain and Portugal. The result has been such as might have been anticipated: Spain, deprived of those means of instruction and improvement that she once possessed, and which have been enjoyed by other countries, has not merelybeen outstripped by her rivals in the career of wealth and improvement, but has positively retrograded; and is infinitely less industrious and civilized at this moment than in the reign of Charles V. In no other country has the freedom of the press and of religious opinion been so completely rooted out as in Spain; and none, consequently, has fallen into such a deplorable state of weakness and decrepitude. In general, it may be affirmed of the different countries of Europe, that their civilization is proportioned to the amount of freedom they have practically enjoyed. Other things have, no doubt, had a material influence in dvancing and retarding their progress; but it has, notwithstanding, manmly depended on the feedom of the press and of opinion. Of the secondary causes that have influenced the progress and diffusion of civilization, commerce has undoubtedly been by far the most powerful. An extensive commerce is only another name for an extensive intercourse with foreigners;, and it is impossible that this should take place without partially, at least, obliterating local and national prejudices, and expanding the mind. Commerce is also a powerful means of promoting industry and invention. An agricultural people, having little communication with their neighbors, may be either stationary or but slowly progressive; but such cannot be the case with a commercial people. They necessarily become acquainted with all the arts and inventions of those with whom they carry on trade, and with the endless variety of their peculiar products and modes of enjoyment. The motives which excite, and the means of rewarding superior industry and ingenuity, are thus prodigiously.augmented. The home producers exert themselves to increase their supplies of disposable articles, that they may exchange them for those of other countries and climates. And the merchant, finding a ready demand for such articles, is stimulated to import a greater variety, to find out cheaper markets, and thus constantly to supply new incentives to the vanity and ambition, and consequently the industry of his customers. Every power of the mind and body is thus called into action; and the passion for foreign commodities-a passion which some shallow moralists have ignorantly censured-becomes one ot the most efficient causes of industry, wealth and civilization. At no former period in the history of the world, has commerce been aearly so extensive as at present; and it is all but certain that it will 394 ENGLAND AND WALES. continue to increase with the increase of intelligence, population and wealth, all over the world. THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, AREA, 117,921 SQUARVE rEs. POPULATION, 28,000,000. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, as it is officially styled, comprises two large islands, with sev eral groups of smaller ones, lying opposite the middle of continental Europe, and separated from it by the strait of Dover. The largest of the two islands, embracing England, with Wales and Scotland, has been called GREAT BarrAIN since the year 1603, when, by the accession of James VI., of Scotland, to the English throne, both kingdoms were united. The other and smaller of the two islands is IRELAND, which in 1172 was conquered by the English, and has ever since formed a constituent part, first of the kingdom of England, and since 1608, of the United Kingdom. ENGLAND AND WALES. AREA, 58,468 SQUAREl Mas. POPULATION, 17,000,000 ENGLAND and WALES Occupy that portion of the island of Great Britain lying between the latitudes of 500 and 550 45' north; and the meridians of 10 50' east, and 6~ west.,The greatest length, from Lizard's Point to Berwick upon Tweed, is about 400 miles; and the greatest breadth from St. David's Head to the east coast of Essex is 300 miles. England combines within itself all that is most desirable in scenery with all that is most necessary for the subsistence and comfort of man. Although its features are moulded on a comparatively minute scale, they are marked with all the agreeable interchange which constitutes picturesque beauty. In some parts plains clothed in the richest verdure, watered by copious streams, and pasturing innumerable cattle, extend as far as the eye can reach; in others, gently rising hills and bending vales, fertile in corn, waving with woods, and interspersed with flowery meadows, offer the most delightful landscapes of rural opulence and beauty. Some tracts furnish prospects of the more romantic and impressive kind; lofty mountains, craggy rocks, deep delIs, narrow ravines, and rumbling torrents; nor is there wanting, in contrast to these, scenes, in which every variety of nature is a different charm, the vicissitude of black, barren moors, and wide, unanimated heaths. The distinguishing peculiarity in the aspect of England, is, however, the exuberance of its vegetation, and the rich luxuriant appearance of its lower and far more extensive portion. It owes this distinction partly to nature and partly to art. The humidity and mildness of the climate maintain the fields in a constant state of verdure; in winter they are seldom covered with snow, or blighted by long-continued frosts, and in summer they are rarely withered and parched by droughts. In no other'nation has the combination of beauty with utility been so much regarded. - Though without any extensive forests, England is extremely well wooded. The country is portioned out into innumerable fields; and these being all, or nearly all, surrounded with hedges and rows of trees, it has, even in the best cultivated districts, a woody appearance, and sometimes almost resembles a vast forest. ENGLAND AND WALES. 395 Another peculiar feature in the physiognomy of England, is the number and magnificence of the seats of the nobility and gentry. These superb mansions, many of which are venerable from their antiquity, and all of which are surrounded with fine woods and grounds, give to the country an appearance of age, security and wealth, that we should in vain look for anywhere else. The farm-houses and cottages have mostly, also, a substantial, comfortable look; and evince that taste for rural beauty, neatness, and cleanliness, that eminently distinguish their occupiers. The number and the prodigious size and splendor of many of the cities and towns of England, justly excite the admiration and astonishment of foreigners, and even of natives. They are the chosen seats of opulence, art, science and civilization. All the gratifications that wealth can command, or the caprices of taste or fashion require, may there be had in the utmost profusion; at the same time that art and industry are carried in them to the highest perfection to which they have attained, and are aided by every invention and discovery, however remote the country, or distant the era of their origin. The surface of England is of a diversified character; the eastern districts are in general level, and there are several directions in which hundreds of miles may be traveled without seeing a hill. Along the western side of the island are large tracts, not only hilly, but sometimes rising even to mountain grandeur. Such are the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, the bleak ridge of Ingleborough, extending like a spine through the north of England: of the same character are Derbyshire, the whole principality of Wales, and a great part of Devon and Cornwall. These tracts exhibit all the varieties of mountain scenery: in Cumberland, encircling little plains filled with beautiful lakes; in Wales, enclosing narrow valleys through which the rapid mountain stream dashes; in Derbyshire presenting rocky scenery in every picturesque and fantastic shape; while in Devonshire low broad steeps overshadow wide and beautiful vales. With one exception, the most important rivers of England traverse the breadth of the kingdom: rising among the western hills, and flowing toward the German ocean, they do not attain that length of course which the ex-tent of its territory in another direction would have admitted. Though deficient, however, in magnitude, they are numerous, commodious, and valuable; flowing through broad vales and wide-spreading plains. The Thames, though not the longest, deserves to be ranked as the first of British rivers. It originates from a number of rivulets on the borders of Wilts and Gloucestershire, which, uniting at Cricklade, form a stream which is about nine feet broad in summer, and is called the Thame. Near Oxford it receives the Charwell and the Isis, assuming on its junction with the latter river the compound name of Tamesis, which has been abbreviated into Thames. After a course almost southward to Reading, it winds northward through the wooded vale of Henley and Maidenhead, and thence by the castellated heights of Windsor. Its course to London is by Chertsey, Hampton, Twickenham, and Richmond, among the magnificent woods and palaces of this paradise of England. Near Teddington its current is slightly acted upon by the extreme ebb and flow of the tide, which rises higher in this than in any other river of Europe. It divides the capital into two unequal parts, having on its northern bank the cities of London 396 ENGLAND AND WALES. and Westminster, and on its southern the borough of Southwark. The entire course of the Thames is about 220 miles. The Trent, with its tributary, the northern Ouse, traverses the whole midland territory of England, and several of its principal manufacturing districts, to which it affords a communication with the eastern, and by canals with the western, ocean. The Ouse, with its branches, forms one of the most useful and least beautiful of English rivers. It winds a sluggish course through manufacturing districts and rich arable fields without any diversity of scenery. The Humber, formed by the junction of the Trent and Ouse, resembles an arm of the sea; and its trade contributes mainly to the commercial prosperity of Hull. The Severn is the only great stream which runs from north to south for a considerable part of its course. It expands into the estuary of the Bristol Channel, the seat of a commerce once second only to that of the metropolis, but now surpassed by that of Liverpool. The other rivers of England are small; the Eden, the beautiful river of Cumberland, forms the Solway; the Mersey of Lancashire, with its tributary the -Irwell, is important, for the mass of commodities which it conveys from the great manufacturing districts to Liverpool; the southern Ouse, combines with the Witham of Linconshire in forming that broad, shallow, marshy estuary called the Wash, through which is exported a considerable quantity of grain from the,agricultural districts; the Tyne and the Tees in the north of England are the channels of extensive trade; the Tyne, in particular, which carries down the product of the vast coal mines of Newcastle. The lakes of England occur principally in the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, which are denominated the country of the lakes. These, of which Windermere, the largest, is only twelve miles long and one broad, have been raised to distinction by the taste of the age for picturesque beauty, rather than as geographical features of the country. The surface of England includes specimens of the whole extent of the series of rocks, from the primary, which are found in the ranges of mountains on the west, to the lowest of the tertiary, which compose several districts in the south-east; strata intermediate to these divisions being found in succession, in proceeding from the west and north towards the east and south. In Cornwall and Devonshire, eminences of granite, serpentine, and feldspar-porphyry, occur, while the slopes resting on them are composed of different, kinds of slate. The granite of this district is extensively used for paving in London, though considered less hard and durable than that brought from Scotland. The Welsh' mountains are composed chiefly of varieties of slate, with some intermixture of volcanic rocks, as basalt and trap; while: a rich coal-field, one hundred miles in length and from five to ten in breadth, rests upon their southern verge, extending from Glamorgan into Pembrokeshire, being the largest coal-field in Great Britain. The northern range of mountains is also chiefly composed of slate rocks, there being only one mountain of granite near Shap, in Westmoreland. Between these ranges of mountains and a line drawn from Exmnouth to Stockton-upon-Tees, the surface is composed of the lower secondary strata, including rich beds of coal. the existence of which in this situation is mainly ENGLAND AND WALES. 397 what has enabled England to become the first manufacturing country in the world. The eastern parts of the counties of Durham and Northumberland, from the Tees northward to Berwick, form-a peculiarly valuable coal-field, of numerous beds, from which the metropolis and other cities in the east of England and elsewhere are supplied with this important mineral. Another coal-field of great value, and that upon which the manufactures of Manchester depend, extends northward from Macclesfield to Oldham, and thence westward to Prescot, near Liverpool. A coal-field near Wolverhampton, in Staffordshire, is the most valuable in the centre of England; upon it depend the extensive metallic manufactures of Bir mingham. Tin ore, containing about three parts metal out of four, is found in thick veins or vertical beds in the granite of Cornwall, where it has been wrought since before the conquest of the country by the Romans. Copper ore is also found extensively in that district, generally in continuation of veins, which, in the upper parts, have been composed of tin ore; and in several of the same veins, lead, zinc, and antimony are found. A mountain of copper ore, named Parys Mountain, has long been wrought in the Isle of Anglesea, but is now supposed to be nearly exhausted. Next in importance to coal, as a mineral product, is iron, which is extensively diffused throughout England, though chiefly wrought in the neighborhood of coal, on account of that fuel being required for smelting it. This valuable metal is produced in South Wales to the amount of 380,000 tons annually. The chief other districts where it is wrought are Staffordshire, Worcestershire, and Yorkshire; the entire produce in the year being a million of tons. In an account of the mineral productions of England, it would be improper to overlook its clay, so extensively used in the manufacture of pottery (chiefly in Staffordshire), and in making bricks and tiles for building. The climate of England is chiefly characterized by the absence of extremes in temperature, by humidity, and by almost incessant variations within a limited range, peculiarities ascribable to the geographical positions of the country, in contiguity with an extensive continent on one hand, and a vast ocean on the other: the latter with nearly the same temperature throughout the year, and' exerting an equalizing influence over the contiguous atmosphere; the other with a varying temperature, above that of the ocean in summer, and lower during the winter months. Hence the origin and direction of the prevailing winds at different periods of the year, according to whichever of those great surfaces exert most rarifying power; those blowing from the continent being comparatively dry, while those from the ocean, being charged with its exhalations, bring the chief part of the rain that descends, two-thirds of the whole of it falling on the west side of the kingdom. The thermometer, at the coldest period (January), seldom falls much below the freezing point, and at the warmest (July and August) as rarely rises higher than 800 Fahr., though occasional instances of greater variation may be cited. In the northern counties, from their contiguity to the sea on either side, the range is still more limited, rarely exceeding 75~, or falling more than 30 or 4~ below zero: so that their mean annual temperature is within 2~ or 30 of those on the southern coast. The great drawbacks upon the climate are the 398 ENGLAND AND WALES. prevalence of cold, biting north-east winds in April, May, and June, which frequently render them the most disagreeable season of the year; and the occasional occurrence of wet summers and harvests. The crops in England are very rarely injured by drouths; but they not unfrequently suffer from excess of humidity. In Cornwall, where the climate is most equal, and the winters the mildest, the moisture and coldness of the summers are such that the fruit is inferior in flavor to that raised in the more eastern and midland counties, at the same time that it arrives later at maturity. The leading grain in England is wheat; barley, oats and rye being in a great measure local to the less favored districts. The turnip and potato are almost everywhere cultivated; and peas, beans and clover are extensively diffused. Hops are produced in the counties of Surrey, Worcester, and Hereford. Hemp, flax, and some other useful productions of the soil, are less conspicuous. The principal fruit trees are the apple, pear, cherry, and plum; but many others are cultivated under particularly careful circumstances. The English garden produces a great variety of pot-herbs, most of which have been introduced from the continentwithin the last three centuries. Of the useful animals, England possesses a considerable variety. Her draught-horses are remarkable for their bulk, generally fine condition, and great strength. The race and riding-horse have been improved by the best blood of Arabia and Barbary. The aggregate stock of horses is estimated at 1,500,000; worth about ~13,000,000; two-thirds' of the number are employed in agriculture. The stock cattle may be estimated at little short of 4,000,000, about a fourth of which are annually slaughtered. They are divided into long-horned, short-horned, and polled: the first division comprising the Lancashire; the second, the Holderness, Northumberland, Durham, Northern Devon, Hereford, and Sussex; and the last, the Suffolk Duns, &c. Butter and cheese are most important products: Epping Forest in Essex, Cambridgeshire, and Dorset are the districts most celebrated for the former; and Cheshire, Gloucestershire, Wilts, and other western counties, and Leicestershire, for the latter. The rich and fine cheese, called Stilton, is made wholly in Leicestershire. Milk is an important marketa ble article in the vicinity of large towns, and the cows kept for the supply of this article to the metropolis alone, have been estimated to amount to 12,000, yielding milk to the value of ~700,000 sterling a year. Sheep, the total number of which in England and Wales may be about 26,000,000, are divided into long-wooled and short-wooled; the former, including the Romney Marsh, Teeswater, Lincoln, and New Leicester: and the latter (which far excel the former in the quality of mutton) the South-Down, Dorset, Wilts, Hereford, &c., breeds. The Merino breed, introduced from Spain towards the end of the last century, has been chiefly useful in crossing and improving the fleece of other breeds. In some parts of England, sheep are kept on fallows, for the benefit of their manures. Great numbers are fed on the open chalk downs of the southern counties. The total produce of wool in England annually, is estimated at about 470,000 packs of 240 pounds. Hogs are fattened on most farms, and are also kept with advantage by millers, dairy-men, brewers, distillers, &c., whose refuse they consume. The Hants, Berks, Gloucestershires, and Herefordshires, are the best of the large breeds, and that of Suffolk is distinguished among ENGLAND AND WALES. 399 the smaller ones. Yorkshire and Westmoreland are famous for their hams; Hants, Wilts and Berks for their bacon. Some of the ancient wild animals, as the wolf, boar and beaver, are now extinct, and others, as the stag and wild-ox, are very rare. The hare, partridge and pheasant, are the chief game animals, grouse being only found, and that in small amount, in some of the northern woods. Most of the smaller quadrupeds, birds, insects, &c., common in the same latitude, are found in England. The nightingale is said to be not heard farther north than Yorkshire. The rivers present trout, perch, &c., and the adjacent seas abound in herring, mackerel, sole, pilchard, and other edible fishes. Agriculture is, in England, in a progressive state, but is yet not nearly so far advanced as in the better parts of Scotland. Previous to the 18th century, no advance had been made from the most simple modes of tillage and husbandry. The chief improvements since then, are thus enumerated in a popular work:-" The gradual introduction of a better system of rotation, since the publication of agricultural works, from 1700 to 1750; the improvement of live stock, commenced by Bakewell, about 1760; the raised-drill system of growing turnips, the use of lime, and the convertible husbandry, by Pringle, and more especially by Dawson, about 1765; the improved swing-plow, by Small, about 1790, and the improved threshingmachine, by Mickle, about 1795. The field-culture of the potato, shortly after 1750; the introduction of the Swedish turnip, about 1790; of spring wheat, about 1795; of summer wheat, about 1800; and of mangel-wurzel more recently, have, with the introduction of other improved field-plants and improved breeds of animals, contributed to increase the products of agriculture; as the enclosing of cofnmon fields, lands and wastes, and the improvements of mosses and marshes, have contributed to increase the pro duce and salubrity of the general surface of the country." Mr. M'Culloch calculates that twelve millions of acres are cultivated in England, as follows: Acres. Wheat........................................................................... 3,800,000 Barley and Rye................9............. 900,000 Oats and Beans..............................,.......................8.... 8,000,000 Clover............................................................................ 1,300,000 Roots, (turnips potatoes, &c.)................................................... 1,00,000 Hops and garden products.................................................... 150000 Fallow..................... 1,650,000 12,000,000 The value of crops is estimated by the same writer, at ~72,000,000. He also calculates 17,000,000 acres of pasture lands, as producing ~59,000,000. The gigantic commercial and manufacturing interests of England, will be noticed in the subsequent pages, in the general statistics of the British Empire. At the period of the Roman invasion, England was possessed by various aboriginal tribes, supposed by some, to have been Celts, and by others a mixture of the Celtic and Gothic races. Their descendants still form the chief bulk of the people of Wales and Cornwall, but their language is extinct, except among the Welch. The south-east, at that period, was occupied by the Belgme, a branch of the Teutonic family from Gaul, which had dispossessed the natives, and driven them into the interior. After the 400 ENGLAND AND WALES. downfall of the Roman power, the south-east and midland districts were subdued by the Jutes and Saxons; and Norfolk and Suffolk by the Angles, while the north was over-run, sometimes possessed, and largely colonized by the Danes -all kindred families of the Gothic or Teutonic race. The Normans subdued England in the 11th century, and subsequently commingling with the Jutes, Danes and Angles, formed the present intermixture, the modern English and the English language. For a long period, and until lately, however, the people of each county had a dialect peculiar to themselves, but by the diffusion of education, intercommunion, and other causes, the mother tongue has become more uniform, and one language, with slight deflections only, is now spoken in every part. The groundwork of the English language is Saxon, with a large addition from the Greek, Latin and French. In short, the modern English are of a mixed origin, and their language, from that circumstance, contains probably a greater number of different elements than any other of the modern tongues. POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES. IENGLn sa ONTES - Lincoln.............. 862,717 Wilts............... 260,007 Bedford.............. 107,937 Middlesex..........1,76,616 Worcester.............. 233,484 Berks................ 160,226 Monmouth........... 134,49 York, East Riding.... 193,676 Buckingham.......... 155,989 Norfolk............... 412,621 City of York, &c. 24262 Cambridge............ 164,609 Northamnpton......... 199,061 York, North Riding...... Chester............... 95,800 Northumberland 250,168 York, West Riding......1,154,924 Cornwall.............841,265 Nottingham........ 249,773 WELSH COUNTIES - Cumberland....... 177,912 Oxford............... 161,573 Anglesea....... 50,809 Derby................ 272,202 Rutland... 21,330 Brecon......... 53,295 Devon............... 533.731 Salop or Shropshire... 239,014 Cardigan................ 68,380 D!iset............... 174,743 Somerset. 436,002 Caermarthen............ 106,482 Durham.............. 324,277 Southampton or. 54940 Caernarvon............. 81,068 Essex................ 344,995 Hampshire.... 5'' Denbigh... 89,281 Gloucester............ 431,307 Stafford.............. 510,206 Flint................... 66,547 Hereford.............. 114,438 Suffolk............... 315,129 Glamorgan............. 173,462 Hertford.............. 157,237 Surrey............... 582,613 Merioneth............... 39,238 Huntingdon.......... 58,699 Sussex............... 299,770 Montgomery............ 69,220 Kent................ 648,161 Warwick..... 402,121 Pembroke.............. 88,262 Lancaster............ 1,667,064 Westmoreland........ 56,469 Radnor........... 25,186 Leicester............. 215,856 The following are omitted in the table: Town of Berwick on Tweed.............. 8,484 Isle of Man.......4..................47,976 Isle of Wight................... 42,550 Scilly Islands...........2.....5. 282 Channel Islands.................... 76,065 The national character of the English exhibits some very bold and marked features. Of these the most conspicuous is that love of liberty which pervades all classes. The liberty for which the English have successfully contended, includes the right of thinking, saying, writing, and doing most things which opinion may dictate, and inclination prompt. The knowledge that the highest offices and dignities in the state are accessible to all, redoubles their activity, and encourages them to perseverance. The English gentry, unlike their continental neighbors, reside during the greater part of the year at their country-seats; appearing in London and at court only for a few months in the spring. In this class, and indeed among the English in general, an uncontrolled temper, elevated by the feeling of independence, often impels individuals into extremes both of good and evil. Nowhere exists a purer spirit of patriotism; nowhere break forth more violent excesses of faction. In no country of Europe, perhaps, are there so many men who act steadily upon principle; yet in none exists, at the same time, so large a proportion of individuals living in habitual and open violation of all principle, and frequently in contempt of legal ordinances. Domestic life is cultivated by the English more sedulously than by ENGLAND AND: WALES. 401 any of the continental nations, and the sanctity of marriage is more carefully guarded. Perhaps the most estimable quality of the English is their love of justice; the source of all honorable dealing among the higher classes, and of what is emphatically called fair play, in the transactions of humbler life, The principle, that a man's word should be his bond, is acted upon most rigorously where the greatest intersts are at stake; as on its observance, more than on that of any law that has been or can be devised, the commercial and financial prosperity of the country depends. The English are the most provident people in the world. More than a million of individuals are members of friendly societies, and the deposits in savings banks exceed 13,000,0001. The great extension of life insurance affords another proof of this laudable disposition. The English also deserve to be called a humane people, zealous, both from feeling and from principle, for the promotion of every thing that tends to the welfare of their fellowcreatures. Crime in England has undergone a considerable change. Highway robbery, so prevalent towards the beginning and middle of last century, is now nearly unknown, and all sorts of crimes and violence have been materially lessened. On the other hand, there has been a very rapid increase, particularly within the last twenty years, of crimes against property. A material change has recently been effected in the criminal law of England, by the abolition of an immense number of capital punishments. In her intellectual character, England may be justly considered as standing proudly eminent. Bacon, Boyle, Locke, Newton, Davy, with a long train of coadjutors, have disclosed to mankind perhaps a greater sum of important truths than the philosophers of any other country. Strong, clear, sound sense appears to be the quality peculiarly English; and her reasoners were the first to explode those scholastic subtleties which, having usurped the name of philosophy, so long reigned in the schools. It was their merit to discover and establish true philosophy, and apply it to objects of real interest and utility. In works of imagination, the genius of the English is bold, original, and vigorous. In the drama, Shakspeare stands unrivalled among ancient and modern poets, by his profound and extensive knowledge of mankind, his boundless range of observation throughout all nature, his exquisite play of fancy, and his irresistible power in every province of thought and feeling, the sublime and the pathetic, the terrible and the humorous. In epic poetry, Milton is acknowledged by common consent to stand first among the moderns. Spenser and Dryden are alike eminent, the one for sweetness, the other for versatility; while in correctness of taste, and the polished harmony of numbers, Pope has no rival among the poets of any modern nation. In historical writing, England has many illustrious names, among which that of Gibbon deserves an honorable place. In oratory, some of her statesmen have acquired great renown, though the general taste both in the senate and at the bar seems to delight rather in plain sense and in cogency of argument, than in: those elaborate, ornate, and declamatory flights by which the great speakers: of antiquity acted on the imagination and passions of their hearers. The institutions for public education in England are extensive and splendidly endowed. The two universities of Oxford and Cambridge are not 26 402 ENGLAND AND WALES. only the wealthiest but the most ancient in Europe. They enjoy among other privileges that of returning each two members to parliament, and of holding courts for the decision of causes in which members of their own body are interested. They were of ecclesiastic origin; but they have long been considered as lay corporations. Their resources have been augmented by the munificence of sovereigns, and of opulent individuals. Of the public schools of England, the most distinguished are those of Westminster, Eton, Winchester, and Harrow. Although originally founded as charity-schools, yet being now appropriated to the education of boys of the first families, the habits formed in them are very expensive. Greek and Latin are almost exclusively taught there by masters eminently qualified; and Englishmen of education generally excel in the knowledge of both languages. Of the scientific institutions of England, the foremost is "the Royal Society of London for improving Natural Knowledge." In its infancy it owed much to the protection of Oliver Cromwell; and having survived the Commonwealth, was incorporated by royal charter, in 1663. The Society publish an annual volume under the name of Philosophical Transactions. The Society of Antiquaries traces its origin to the reign of Queen Elizabeth, but was not incorporated until 1821. It has published a series of volumes entitled Archceologia. Several private societies have been formed for the cultivation of particular branches of knowledge, by the union of indivnduals distinguished for their attainments or devotion to those branches. The principal public libraries have owed their origin to the spirit and enterprise of private individuals; the Bodleian Library at Oxford, was the bequest of Sir Thomas Bodley, and was enriched by successive donations. The British Museum derived its first treasures from the collections of Sir Robert Cotton and Sir Hans Sloane; but has acquired, through purchase by parliament, the Harleian and Lansdowne MSS., the libraries of Major Edwards and Dr. Burney, and several valuable collections of coins and minerals. It has also been enriched by the entire collection of George III., presented to the nation by his successor. With this accession, the library, which previously consisted of 125,000 volumes, has been augmented by one-half. The Museum is also very rich in specimens of natural history, particularly in mineralogy. Institutions of a highly useful character have sprung from the general desire of knowledge which marks the present age. Their object is to communicate knowledge to the commercial classes, as well as to persons who have no opportunities for a regular course of study; and the chief means employed for this purpose are a library, a re ding-room, and courses of lectures. Of these establishments are the Royal Institution, the London Institution, &c.; and all the great cities and towns have now their public libraries. Of the Fine Arts, that of painting has been greatly neglected in Eng land. Portrait painting, indeed, always met with encouragement; yet Vandyke, the leader in this branch of art, was a foreigner. It was only toward the close of the last century that Reynolds formed a style decidedly English, and of distinguished excellence. The Royal Academy, under the immediate patronage of the king, consists of forty artists, including the president, while a number of others are ENGLAND AND WALES. 403 attached in expectancy as associates. There are four professors, viz. of painting, of architecture, of anatomy, and of perspective, who annually read public lectures on the subjects of their several departments. In the other departments of the fine arts, music, sculpture, and architecture, the English have been by far excelled by the continental nations; in engraving, they have produced some distinguished names. The publishing and selling of books, forms one of the principal branches of her productive industry. Periodical literature has a very extensive circulation. In the metropolis nearly sixty magazines and reviews are published, of which the monthly value has been estimated at ~6000. Another important characteristic of the national spirit may be remarked in the immense circulation of newspapers, notwithstanding a heavy stamp duty. There are in London eight daily morning papers, and five daily evening papers; seven papers published thrice a week; and upwards of forty weekly papers. Of the latter species of newspaper, every principal city has two or three, and every town of consequence has one. The favorite amusements of the English are those which combine the advantage of air and exercise. The stage, though eminently rich in dramas, and supplied with actors of high talent, is not the habitual resort of the people. In former times hunting was almost the sole business of life among the English squires, and though their tastes are now much varied, the original pastime, in all its forms, continues to be eagerly followed. By the nobility and gentry, horse-racing is supported with equal ardor, and no country rivals England in the high excellence to which she has brought the breed of animals employed in this diversion. The races of Doncaster, of York, and above all of Newmarket, are attended by the most distinguished persons in the country for rank and opulence; and other race-courses attract great multitudes of miscellaneous spectators. Among the common people boxing-matches present a similar occasion of laying wagers. Bull-baiting was put down only by statute. Of the national out-door games, those of cricket and tennis deserve especial commendation, for their tendency to enliven the spirits and invigorate the frame. In their habits and modes of ordinary life, the English may be called a domestic people, especially when compared with the French. In common with other northern nations, the English retain a taste for fermented or distilled liquors, which, however, has been in a great measure corrected and subdued among the higher and middle classes. Beer and porter con stitute the staple drink of the great body of the people; but malt spirit of a cheap and very pernicious kind is consumed in great quantities by the lowest orders, especially in the metropolis, where it is rapidly accelerating their degeneracy. Among the middle classes the wines of Spain, Portugal and Madeira are in general use; but the cellars of the rich are stored with the choicest products of the French vineyards. Convivial excess, so long a reproach to the English, has become comparatively rare. The chief cities, towns, &c., of England will be referred to in the order of their distribution through the southern, eastern, midland, northern, and western counties. Canterbury, the chief place in Kent, is one of the most ancient and venerable of the English cities. It is the ecclesiastical metropolis of the i~ —----------'',',,'' L'".'"/','',. -'",., L —'-=- ~ -~ — ~='=-ml-..~'i-~-~t-~-' "'' —'. ---- — = —------- -~ —--- - -'' ~ ---- i B!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ LONDION _-i -- s- ------ - ~~~~~~~~~ c E~ — =1 ~~~ er. -..t,~3=. I =d~~~~~~~-3- -_ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ __ - 1_ 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~YOR EGLND 406 ENGLAND AND WALES. kingdom, tne residence of its primate; who, as such, places the crown on the sovereign's head, and ranks next in dignity to the royal family. Its cathedral is of early origin and of vast extent. While revered through the Catholic world as the shrine of the Murdered Becket, it was visited by crowds of pilgrims, and enriched with offerings; but of these treasures it was stripped by Henry VIII. Maidstone and Tunbridge are among the agreeable inland towns in Kent. The former, of great antiquity, has one of the most elegant parochial churches in the kingdom. In a wild park, south-east of Maidstone about five miles, stands Leeds Castle, an extensive pile, of military architecture. Its architecture is of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. In whatever point of view it is regarded, the most picturesque combinations are visible. The Kentish Cinque Ports are Dover, Sandwich, Hythe, and Romney. The first is still a place of considerable note. The spacious castle on a commanding eminence, the white and towering cliffs, present to the approaching mariner an imposing spectacle. Deptford, Woolwich, Chatham, and Sheerness, are grand establishments for the construction of ships of war. Deptford contains also the Victualling Office. Woolwich is the depot of artillery, and the theatre of all the operations connected with its construction and preparation. Greenwich, about two qailes below Deptford, is celebrated for its superb hospital for disabled and superannuated mariners. This edifice was begun by Charles II., on a design of Inigo Jones, as a royal palace. It remained unfinished until the reign of William III., when it was converted into a naval hospital. It was enlarged by the addition of three wings, enriched by donations, and by a tax of 6d. a month from every seaman, and it now supports 3,000 boarders, and pays pensions to 5,400 in different quarters of the kingdom. In Greenwich park stands the celebrated observatory, furnished with the best instruments that can be obtained for perfecting astronomical observations. Brighton, the gayest of all the southern watering-places, from being a large fishing village, rapidly rose to be an elegant town. Its extensive lawn called the Steyne, sloping towards the seat forms an agreeable promenade. The pavilion, or palace built by George IV., and the chain pier, are among the objects of note. Along the southern bank of the Thames are Kew, with its palace and fine gardens, containing plants from every quarter of the world; Richmond and its hill, which commands a magnificent view of the Thames winding among wooded parks and palaces. Camberwell, Clapham, and other villages in the vicinity of the capital, are entirely composed of the villas of opulent citizens, and the seats are numerous. At St. Anne's Hill, a beautiful villa on the Thames, Fox passed the latter years of his life in literary retirement. Windsor, from the beauty of its site, on an eminence near the Thames, and the magnificence of its royal castle, forms a commanding feature in the prospect for many miles around. William I. constructed here a fortress of considerable size; but the whole structure was remodeled by Edward III. Since it ceased to be important as a place of strength, it has been occupied as a palace; and is the only one, in fact, suitable to the dignity of the monarch. The noble terrace walk, 1,870 feet in length, commands a finely varied and extensive prospect. George III. completely repaired ENGLAND AND WALES 407 St. George's chapel, and partly restored the north front of the upper ward; but in consequence of his illness, the improvements were suspended eleven years. George IV. resumed them on a scale commensurate with the importance of so venerable an edifice; and large sums of money were voted by parliament for this national purpose. The royal apartments contain an extensive collection of paintings, among which are some fine portraits by Vandyke, and some historical pictures by Guido, Correggio, Carlo Dolci, and Leonardo de Vinci. The chapel of St. George is considered one of the finest specimens of the ornamental Gothic in the kingdom. The choir in particular is of admirable workmanship, and adorned with banners of knights of the garter ranged on each side. It includes also the tombs of many of the English princes, particularly their late majesties, and the Princess Charlotte; and some of its windows are painted after the designs of Reynolds. To the south of the palace extend Windsor Great Park, and Windsor Forest, grand features, first formed by William the Conqueror. Even after the considerable abridgment that has taken place, the domain is still fifty-six miles in circumference, containing within its range some noble timber. Parts of it were devoted by George III. to his favorite pursuit of experimental farming. Winchester is one of the most ancient and venerable cities in England. During part of the Saxon period, it was the metropolis. Its venerable cathedral has been the work of successive ages. It was founded under the Saxon kings, enlarged by William of Wykeham diAeri Edward III., and completed by Bishop Fox, in the sixteenth century, when extensive additions were made to it in the highly ornamented and pointed English style; of which several of the specimens here preserved are reckoned the finest in the kingdom. The college, or rather school, founded by Bishop Wykeham, is also a magnificent edifice, and is one of the four great classical schools to which the distinguished youth of England resort. Portsmouth is the grand arsenal for equipping the powerful navies of Great Britain. Here are carried on, upon a gigantic scale, all the opera. tions subservient to building, equipping, and refitting ships, and supplying the navy. The sea-wall of the dockyards extends nearly three quarters of a mile, and encloses an area of one hundred acres: the forge, where anchors of huge dimensions are formed; the ropery, above a thousand feet long; the spacious dry docks; the endless range of warehouses; the gunwharf, the armory, are objects which astonish by their immensity. The Isle of Wight is about twenty-three miles in length, and thirteen in breadth; divided by a channel of only a few miles from the coast, on which are the bays of Portsmouth and Southampton. It is traversed by a ridge of chalky downs, on which are fed about forty thousand fine-wooled sheep of the Dorsetshire breed. On the north are luxuriant meadows, supporting valuable breeds of horses and cattle; while on the south are fine arable plains, yielding grain much beyond the consumption of the island. Thc island is celebrated for its striking and peculiar scenery; the grand views of land and sea enjoyed from its high open downs; the deep and dark ravines of its southern shore, and the bold romantic cliffs which it there presents to the English Channel. This island is a favorite resort of the queen. Salisbury is a handsome and well-built town. The streets are spacious and regular, crossing each other at right angles, and kept clean by streams ,rot~~~~~~~ Id~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ii i i~ ~~ii i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i;:i l l i II~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t..ft.... g~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ge —--—: —=MET ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ LONDON-NATIONAL GALLERY.~~~~~~~~~~~- 410 ENGLAND AND WALES. of water, from the river Avon. The pride of: Salisbury is its cathedral, completed in 1258, which is considered the most elegant and finished Gothic structure in the kingdom. It has also the loftiest spire, rising to the height of four hundred and ten feet. No county is adorned with so many fine seats as Wiltshire. Wilton House contains the finest private collection of ancient sculpture in the kingdom. Corsham House and Longford Castle contain celebrated collections of pictures. Wardour Castle is distinguished for its grand terrace; Stourhead for the romantic beauty of the grounds; Longleat is a superb seat. Norwich is the finest city in the east of England. The chief industry of Norwich, however, consists in manufactures. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, a large colony of Flemings settled there, and established the fabric of woolens, which soon reached an unprecedented height. The light and ornamented forms became the staples; bombazines, crapes, fine camblets, and worsted damask. Norfolk contains several of the most superb seats in England. Holkham, built by Lord Leicester on a design of Inigo Jones, and particularly noted for a gallery room, is richly adorned with sculpture and paintings, and has also a very extensive library. Houghton is a magnificent seat. The capital of Cambridge is the seat of one of the two great univer sities. There are thirteen colleges and four halls, in which the masters, tutors, and students, not only teach and are taught, but are lodged and boarded. Some of the largest of these endowments are stated to be for " poor and indigent scholars;" but are filled with the sons of opulent families, who cannot live there but at a very considerable expense. Yet the resort continues to increase, and the existing colleges are insufficient to contain the applicants, who must often wait several years previously to admission. The chapel of King's College was built between the reigns of Henry VI. and Henry VIII. Its interior has been called matchless; the roof is of the most perfect workmanship, and its support without pillars, has been viewed as an architectural mystery. But the most striking char acteristic is the prodigious blaze of painted glass, on each side, from twelve brilliantly tinted windows fifty feet high, giving to the fabric the appearance of being walled with painted glass. Since the university was adorned by the immortal name of Newton, mathematics and natural philosophy have been the ruling pursuits; and, notwithstanding the lustre reflected on it by Milton, as well as by Bentley and Porson, it has left to Oxford the foremost place in classical knowledge. At Newmarket, h1rse-rabing has chosen its most favorite ground. The town lies amid bleak hills, that have however, a sufficient extent of level heath to make the finest course in the kingdom. It consists of one long street, chiefly filled with inns and coffee-houses, for the reception of the sporting world, who crowd thither in the appropriate seasons, which are April, July, and October. The bustle is then immense. "Trains of horses," says Dr. Spiker, "were led up and down the streets. Excellent equipages, gigs, curricles, landaus, flew past us and past each other with the swiftness of an arrow. Horses were prancing about with their riders; jockeys were carrying bridles to and fro: in short, all was life and bustle." ENGLAND AND WALES. 411 The course is covered with turf, whence the pursuit of horse-racing itself is usually designated the turf. The city of Lincoln was, during the middle ages, one of the most con spicuous and splendid capitals of England. The cathedral still holds the first rank among religious edifices. From a distance its three towers appear conspicuous; two of them 180, and one 300 feet high, and ornamented with various pillars and tracery; and as the structure stands on a hill, in the midst of a vast surrounding flat, it has the most commanding site in the county. When plundered by Henry VIII., it was found to contain an extraordinary treasure, in gold and silver, pearls, diamonds, and other precious stones. LONDON, the British metropolis, is a world within itself, and the most populous, wealthy and commercial city of which we have any account. It is situated in the counties of Middlesex, Kent, and Surrey, on the banks of the Thames. As the metropolis of the United Kingdom, it is the seat of legislation, jurisprudence, and government; the principal residence of the sovereign, at which affairs of state are transacted, and relations maintained with foreign courts; the centre of all important operations whether of commerce or finance, and of correspondence with every quarter of the globe. London, in its comprehensive sense, includes the cities and liberties of London, the city of Westminster and its liberties, the borough of Southwark, and the parishes and precincts contiguous to those three parts of the metropolis. Ilts extent, from Poplar in the east to Belgrave-square in the west, is nearly eight miles; its breadth, from Islington in the north to Walworth in the south, exceeds five miles. The circumference, allowing for inequalities, is computed at thirty miles. The buildings, streets, squares, and other spaces, including that taken up by the river Thames, winding from the eastern to the western extremity, about seven miles on an average breadth of a quarter of a mile, occupy an area of eighteen square miles. By a more convenient topographical arrangement, London has been divided into six grand portions: 1st, the City, which may be termed the central division; 2d, the western division, including Westminster; 3d, the north-west division, including the district north of Oxford-street and west of Tottenham-court-road, -these two last mentioned divisions constitute the west-end of the town; 4th, the northern division, comprising the whole district north of Holborn and the City from Tottenham-court-road on the west to Shoreditch and Kingsland-road on the east, including St. Pancras, Somers-town, Pentonville, Islington, Hoxton, and Kingsland; 5th, the eastern division, including the whole district east of the city and of Shoreditch; 6th, the southern division, comprising the borough of Southwark, and the mass of buildings extending from Rotherhithe to Vauxhall, and ranging southward for more than two miles. The divisions north and south of the Thames communicate by five bridges, —London Bridge, Southwark Bridge, Blackfriars, Waterloo, and Westminster bridges. The port of London extends from London Bridge to Deptford, a distance of about four miles, with an average breadth of from four hundred to five hundred yards. Its divisions are the Upper, Middle, and Lower Pools, and the space between Limehouse and Deptford. 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JAMES' PARI.K,,,,,,, i,,',,, =;= ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~,i,.........'' ~....;....,,Ir 414 ENGLAND AND WALES. who mentions it by name. The Romans fortified it with a wall, and made it one of their principal stations. At the beginning of the third century, it is represented as a great and wealthy city, and considered to be the metropolis of Britain. In the end of the sixth century, it became the capital of the East Saxons, whose king, Sebert, is reputed the founder of the cathedral church dedicated to Saint Paul, and of the abbey and abbey church of Westminster. The reign of Charles II. includes the most memorable epoch in the history of London. In 1665, a plague swept away 100,000 persons. In September, 1666, -broke out that great and awful fire which destroyed 400 streets, 13,000 houses, and 89 churches. For the rebuilding of the city, an admirable plan was presented by Sir Christopher Wren, the architect: the difficulty of reconciling conflicting interests, allowed it to be but very partially adopted. He rebuilt the cathedral of St. Paul and most of the parish churches in the Grecian style, and the front of Guildhall in the original Gothic. Instead of wood and plaster, the chief materials of the former city, the new buildings were of brick, in the substantial though heavy style then in vogue. There were no flagged footpaths; the streets were ill-paved: and as there was no system of drainage by sewers, and no distribution of pure water by pipes, they were in some places far from endurable. The city, however, gained by the change, though with the sacrifice of many interesting memorials of its ancient state, and of its most glorious times. The villages surrounding London, formerly at some distance, — on the east, Stepney and Limehouse; on the south, Peckham, Camberwell, Brixton, Clapham; on the west, Brompton and Knightsbridge; on the north, Hackney, Hoxton, Islington, Highgate and Hampstead, —being now joined to the metropolis by continued ranges of streets, may be considered as integral portions of it. The population within a radius of eight miles from St. Paul's, which is all virtually London, does not fall short of 2,000,000. St. Paul's Cathedral, the masterpiece of Sir Christopher Wren, is the finest specimen of modern architecture in the kingdom, and, after St. Peter's at Rome, may rank as the finest ecclesiastical structure in Christendom; but it is so surrounded with buildings that the beauty of its exterior cannot be appreciated. The style, which is Grecian, unites grandeur of design with justness of proportion. The interior of St. Paul's is too bare of ornament; but the defect is partly supplied by marble monuments of various degrees of merit. Westminster Abbey is a noble specimen of Gothic architecture. The interior is grand in design and rich in detail, and the interest which it excites is enhanced by the numerous monuments of kings, warriors, statesmen, philosophers, and poets, which it encloses. The chapel built at the western extremity by Henry VII. in honor of the blessed Virgin, is in the richest style of the later Gothic, and its exterior has been skilfully renovated. Among the parish churches of the metropolis, that of St. Stephen's Walbrook, is distinguished for the fine proportions and finished elegance of its interior. The stately portico of St. Martin's, Charing Cross, excites universal admiration; next to which may rank that of the new church of St. Pancrass; the steeple of which is constructed on the model of the Temple of the Winds at Athens. The other public buildings are too ENGLAND AND WALES. 415 numerous to be described, and a bare mention of them would give little satisfaction. The principal inns of court, and their subsidiary inns, are remarkable rather for plainness than magnificence of architecture. The Banqueting House at Whitehall is a memorial of the fine taste of Inigo Jones; and its ceiling is decorated with an allegorical painting from the pencil of Rubens, which is still exposed to view, though the apartment has been converted into a chapel. Westminster Hall, of which the portal has been rebuilt in the original style, is reputed the longest hall in Europe unsupported by pillars. It is 276 feet long by 76 broad. Within it, on coronation festivals, 10,000 persons have dined. It now forms the entrance hall of the magnificent building erected for the accommodation of the imperial parliament —a building second to none in Europe. The Bank of England, a building of great extent; the Royal Exchange; the East India House, in Leadenhall street; the Tower which has still an arsenal and a garrison, being the depository of the regalia of the United Kingdom; the Trinity House, and the New Mint, both situated on Tower Hill; the new Post Office, in St. Martin le Grand; the new Palace in St. James' Park, &c., deserve mention. The monument is one of the most conspicuous ornaments of the metropolis. The pedestal is 42 feet, the shaft of the column 120 feet, the cone at the top with the blazing urn of gilt brass, 40 feet, making the total height of the monument 202 feet. It was erected by Sir Christopher Wren, to commemorate the fire of London, in 1.666. The bridges of London attract attention by their beauty End utility. Until the year 1740, the only one existing was London Bridge, built in the t*elfth century, with arches so narrow, unequal, and ill-placed, as to form a sort of breakwater, occasioning a rapid or fall of the stream, highly dangerous to boats and barges. The new London Bridge commenced in 1824, and opened in 1831, has taken its place. The bridge consists of five semi-elleptical arches; the centre arch 152 feet span, with a rise above high water mark of 29 feet 6 inches. Southwark Bridge leads from Queenhithe to Bankside, Southwark. Of its three arches of cast iron, the central one is 240 feet span; the others 210 feet each. The piers and abutments are of stone, the rest of the work iron: this is the most stupendous bridge of these materials in the world. Blackfriars Bridge, built between the years 1760 and 1769, has 8 piers and 9 elliptical arches; length 995 feet. Waterloo Bridge, of granite, has nine arches, each 120 feet span; the peirs are 20 feet thick. Westminster Bridge has 14 piers supporting 13 large and two small arches. -The width of the middle arch is 76 feet; that of the two next, 72, that of the last, 52. Waterloo Bridge is the finest piece of masonry in Europe: the expense exceeded ~1,000,000. These immense works, with the exception of London Bridge) have all been accomplished by associations of private individuals. In addition to these communications, the Thames Tunnel, a sub-aqueous passage beneath the bed of the Thames, was commenced at Rotherhithe in 1825, and after many interruptions from irruptions of the super-jacent -waters, was completed in 1843. This is one of the most wonderful structures in the world, and, as a commercial avenue between London and Southwark, very advantageous. These are but a few of the great enterprises of the citizens, but will serve to exhibit the spirit of improve ment that animates them in all that is useful and ornamental. M —~ ARCHITECTURE-CASTLE HOWARD-ENGLAND. ~~~ —- ~ ~ ~ —— ~~: -'"Xi —= ~ — ~ i ii ~~~~_~~___ _~ii 2:~.CTiTji?CTUiRE -- LEEDS CAII.)TLE -- EN~GLAMD. 418 ENGLAND AND WALES. / To whatever extent London is deficient in national buildings, it is ~uperior to all others for its accommodations and means of supplying all the wants and luxuries of life. Its noble squares, its clean and well regulated thoroughfares, the brilliant lights which convert night into day, together with the amazing number of shops and the costly merchandize therein displayed, are objects of interest to every visiter, and especially to foreigners. Nowhere else in the world are undertakings conducted on an equal scale of magnificence. Sewers which rival at least in point of extent the celebrated constructions of the same nature at Rome, are the means of keeping the streets free from impurities. The strict police system of the metropolis is also a matter of no little moment. Water, that important necessary of life, is supplied by eight different incorporated companies, in quantity, which, according to a statement laid before parliament, was sufficient to meet a yearly consumption of 228,914,761 hogsheads, the average daily supply being at the rate of 100 gallons to each house. The lighting of the me tropolis is effected by several coal gas companies. The length of gas-pipes laid is estimated at 450 miles, and the gas is conveyed through these into 7 or 8,000 streets. The splendid parks of London are truly the lungs of the metropolis. Their importance as places of recreation and pleasure is eclipsed only by the healthiness with which they invest the largest city of Europe. These are St. James' Park, Hyde Park, Regent's Park, &c., in the West End, and Victoria Park, in the eastern suburbs. Regent's Park is surrounded by magnificent buildings, and contains the Gardens of the Zoological Society, whose collection of animals is one the most interesting and attractive objects of public curiosity. Hyde Park is the largest, and is continuous with Kensington Gardens, a large enclosure connected with the royal palace. The Serpentine river, so often mentioned as a resort of the youth of London for skating in winter, is a large oblong pond, partly in Kensington Gardens and partly in Hyde Park. These parks are highly adorned with ornamental woods, and contain several statues of British heroes and statesmen. The magnificent temple for the "World's Industrial Fair" was erected in Hyde Park in 1850, and opened in May, 1851. The building covers about 18 acres of ground, and is 1,848 feet long by 408 broad, affording room for eight miles of exhibition tables. Its architectural form is highly ornamental as well as convenient. It is three stories in height; the upper ones receding behind the lower; each story formed of fluted pillars and arches of iron and walls of glass, surmounted by an ornamented frieze and architrave. It is impossible, however, to convey to the mind, in this way, an adeqate idea of the size and magnificence of this wonderful structure. It is described as "one of the most successful and astonishing examples of contrivance, tact, science, industry and perseverance, and engineering skill the world ever saw." London contains a University, erected in 1836 by royal letters patent, for conducting examinations in literature, science and art, and conferring academical degrees. It is governed by a senate, consisting of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, and a body of fellows; the chancellors and fellows being appointed by the crown, and the vice-chancellor elected annually by the members of the senate. Connected with the University are two colleges, named University College and King's College -the one open to students of all religious creeds, and the latter open only to those of the established ENGLAND AND WALES. 419 religion. The great public schools in which classical learning is taught, are St. Paul's School, founded in 1510; Westminster School, in 1590; Christ's Hospital or the Blue Coat School, in 1552; the Charterhouse (Chartreux) School, in 1611; Merchant Tailors' School, in 1561; and the Mercer's Company's School, in 1534. There are also in London sixteen schools of medicine; as many of law, and five of theology; four patent, and thirteen or fourteen minor theatres, with a large number of pseudotheatrical exhibitions; a botanical garden, (at Chelsea;) a horticultural garden, (at Turnham Green;) two zoological gardens; besides many private establishments devoted to similar objects. The number of scientific, professional and literary societies exceed one hundred, of which, about twenty are chartered. The institutions connected with benevolent objects amount to several hundreds, upwards of one hundred and thirty affording medical aid to the afflicted and sick. Some of these are unparalleled in the extent of their operations, and the large amount of funds voluntarily subscribed by their members. The amount received for missionary and religious purposes alone, annually exceeds half a million sterling. London manufactures every article of ornament and use. It is the centre of industry, as it is of commerce, and the sciences. To give an idea of the immense operations carried on within and without the city in this line would require volumes. A glance at the London directory will give a better illustration of this subject than we are able to effect in the small space allotted to our descriptions. We may state, however, the approximate numbers engaged in some of the leading trades. There are about 16,000 tailors; 50,000 engaged in printing, binding, and other press and book-work; 20,000 shoemakers; 7000 bakers; 8000 butchers; 15,000 carpenters; 6000 cabinet-makers; 6000 publicans; 2000 upholsterers; 3000 plumbers and glaziers; 6000 brick-layers; 5000 house-painters; 5000 blacksmiths; 2000 white-smiths; 2000 plasterers, and about 2500 stone-masons. But it would be endless to name the artizans in the several branches, — all are there, different only in number and the amount of production. London, in reference to the extent and activity of its commerce, stands without a rival; and if we bring it into comparison, not only with the principal trading cities of the world, but even with some of the states that are most distinguished for commercial activity, we shall find the result of our inquiries calculated to excite, in a high degree, feelings of astonishment. In reference to the foreign trade of London, indeed, it may safely be affirmed that at present it exceeds not only that of every other city of the world, but even the entire foreign trade of all countries, except France and the United States. The vast superiority of London as a trading place is sufficiently proved by a concurrence of circumstances and facts. Previous to the reduction of the postage on letters, London supplied one-third the post-office revenue, a sufficient indication of the business that could require such a correspondence. A knowledge of the inland and coasting trade of London can only be arrived at by approximate calculations. The probable value of merchandize transferred yearly by the trade of London, may be estimated at ~300,000,000. The Thames itself forms the Port of London; and for several miles below the city the river is constantly crowded with vessels from every part 420 ENGLAND AND WALES. of the world, the masts of which present the appearance of an interminable forest. The limits of the port, however, are London bridge and Deptford. The upper portion, extending from London bridge to Limehouse, is divided into the upper, middle and lower pools, below which, as far as Deptford and Greenwich, are two divisions, named Limehouse Reach and Greenwich Reach. Further down the river, Blackwall, Rugsby, Woolwich, Gallions, and Barking Reaches, occur in succession. The celebrated docks connected with the port and trade of London have been noticed in a former page. These great works are built on an extensive scale, and, together with their vast warehouses, are the wonder of the world. The tobacco warehouse belonging to the London docks covers an area of five acres, and the under-ground vaults, which are 18j acres in extent, afford stowage for 60,000 pipes of wine. In short, London is the grand centre of the commerce of the world, and a place to which the traders and money-dealers of all nations resort. In respect of wealth it has no rival, and we seek in vain for any city of the ancient world which may be put in comparison with it. Hampton Court, built by Cardinal Wolsey, and enlarged by Sir Christopher Wren, forms one of the largest of the English palaces. Here are many fine pictures, among which are seven of the cartoons of Raphael, regarded as the master-pieces of that renowned painter. Bushy Park, the seat of William IV. while Duke of Clarence, is surrounded with magnificent woods. Chiswick, the villa of the Duke of Devonshire, and Osterley Park, both in this vicinity, containing fine paintings. Syon House is the seat of the Duke of Northumberland. But the chief ornaments of Middlesex are the villas of the wealthy citizens of London. At Twickenham, barbarous hands have demolished Pope's villa. Strawberry Hill is a light fantastic fabric, built by Horace Walpole. The villas which cover the hills of Hampstead and Highgate, command beautiful prospects. Oxford justly claims the first rank among the midland cities. Its university, the most richly endowed in Europe, and the nursery of so many great men; the numerous and extensive edifices connected with it, arranged in such a manner as to produce a truly noble effict, render it one of the most interesting places in England. Blenheim stands as a proud monument of a nation's gratitude to its long unrivalled hero. Its exterior displays that minuteness of detail and general heaviness, which characterise the designs of Vanbrugh: some of the apartments, however, are of almost unequalled grandeur; particularlythe great hall, fifty-three feet by forty-four, and sixty high; and the library, one hundred and eighty feet by forty-three. The woods, also the lake, and the general disposition of the grounds, are greatly admired. The gallery of pictures, is one of the very finest in the kingdom, containing some of the best works of Rubens, Vandyke and Titian. Stowe, the seat of the Duke of Blckingham, is celebrated as the most elaborate and splendid example of the species of gardening called classical, im which an attempt is made to present nature herself in an ornamented form. Her own proper ornaments of wood, water, hill and plain, are heightened by the introduction of temples, ruins, statues, inscriptions, and other objects calculated to excite lofty and poetical ideas. Woburn Abbey, where the house of Russel, by princely shows and festivals, have thrown a new lustre on British agriculture, is ENGLAND ASND WALES. 421 a magnificent edifice. The stables, experimental farm, and other appendages of the most useful of arts, excite the admiration of every farmer and even amateur: nor is this residence deficient in the lighter embellishments of painting and statuary. On the border of Leicestershire and Lincolnshire, stands the Duke of Rutland's proud castellated edifice of Belvoir. From a lofty height it overlooks a vast extent of country, including a vale of the same name, one of the richest and most beautiful in England. The collection of paintings is of great value. Warwick is a noble county. - Its woodlands, the remains of the wide ancient forest of Arden, are still extensive, and a great part lies in fine natural grass. Pasturage predominates greatly over agriculture, occupying nearly two-thirds. Stratford, a considerable town on the Avon, to which the muse has given a deathless name, is the birth place of Shakspeare; the poetical pilgrim here beholds the genuine tomb of the poet, and the site of the house chosen by him for his final residence; though the house itself a barbarous hand has demolished. There are two castellated seats in this county, Kenilworth and Warwick. both of almost matchless grandeur; but the former presents only the picturesque remains of its pristine state. Founded in the reign of Henry I., it was extended and adorned by John of Gaunt; and remained with the princes of the house of Lancaster till wrested from them by the triumph of the house of York. It continued thenceforth a royal appendage; and was bestowed by Elizabeth on her handsome favorite, Leicester, whose residence here, and the splendid fetes, and romantic incidents connected with it, have been so happily worked up by.the greatest romance writer of the age. At the close of the civil wars, it was given up wholly by Cromwell to his soldiers for plunder, and wasreduced to the totally fallen state in which it now appears. Kenilworth exhibits the feudal age in its total downfall; but the traveler has only to proceed a few miles in order to see it entire and in full glory. This is the proud mansion once inhabited by the king-making Earl of Warwick. It was built by the Earl of Warwick, who, in the fourteenth century, distinguished himself at the battles of Cressy and Poitiers. The principal cluster of large towns in Staffordshire, consists of those in the southern quarter which are employed in making iron, and manufacturing it into various forms. The articles manufactured in Birmingham, consist, in a great measure, of such as individually appear unworthy of being named, yet astonish and dazile by their magnitude, when half the world is to be supplied with them; such as pins, buttons, nails, paper,. trays, filigree, and toys. There are not wanting, however, in fabrics of greater magnitude, taken even singly, such as that of fire-arms, &c. During the last war, the gunsmiths of Birmingham met the demand with such energy, that on one occasion, they delivered to the government 14,000 muskets in a week. Of ponderous machinery, none perhaps, is more interesting than that of the metal rolling-mills. Birmingham is commodiously built, with suitable churches and other edifices, but without anything prominent in architecture, or any antique monuments. The town can boast of enlightened citizens, under whose auspices letters and the arts have been cultivated with ardor. The institutions for the education of the poor, are not, perhaps, surpassed by any in the kingdom for extent and efficacy. —'I,-e-~i".~~.';?',;'-~'~, -,:! — ~, ~~ —~~~~-= —-— ~~~~~~~~~ Ilr:~ ~ ii._~ ~..~:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~L BL E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iXEM F-X~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - i" —-~~~ —---- -:.~a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,-~ ~ -—'-~ ~ ~- - LiL~~~-... ~~;.o ~~ —~ ------— r - s I WOOLWICH.~~;-; —— C — T_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r/ e.= 424 ENGLAND AND WALES. Derbyshire, in its natural features, is perhaps the most remarkable of any county of England. Except in the lower and southern districts on the Trent, the whole county is traversed by ranges of rugged and rocky hills, penetrated by vast excavations, and separated by narrow valleys. In proceeding to Castleton, the traveler passes through the Winyats, or gates of the winds, a narrow road of about a mile in length, between precipices a thousand feet high, dark, rugged and perpendicular. At the end of this road, opens on one side Mamin Tor, or the Shivering Mountain, 1,300 feet high; on the other, the High Peak, crowned with the ruins of a Saxon fortress; and at its foot, the wonder of wonders, " the Peak Cavern." This is a huge gulf, 42 feet high, and 120 long, at the foot of perpendicular cliffs. The visitor is thence guided through a succession of dark cavernous apartments, and is ferried along a subterraneous river; above which the rocks rise so close, that he must lie flat on his face. At the end of somewhat above 2000 feet, the cavern terminates, or at least becomes no longel passable. Elden Hole is a fissure near Buxton, which descends perpendicularly to an unknown depth. A line of 2,652 feet has been let down without finding bottom. Poole's Hole, near Buxton, is chiefly remarkable for the petrifactions with which it is filled. Of seats, Chatsworth has sometimes been considered the finest in England. It was built by William first Duke of Devonshire, in 1702; and is 191 feet square, of the Ionic order, richly ornamented both within and without. Keddlestone House has a fine Doric front, 360 feet long, considered one of the finest architectural features in England. Hardwicke Hall was l9ng the residence of the unfortunate Mary; the furniture, and the portraits remain, in many respects, in the same state as during her residence. Nottingham is watered by the broad stream of the Trent. its tributaries, and numerous canals. The Vale of Belvoir, to the south-east, ranks with the richest tracts in the island. The north-western part contains the remnant of the great forest of Sherwood, famed for the revelries of thle merry outlaw, Robin Hood. Being covered, also, in a great measure, with the ornamented grounds of noblemen of high rank, it is called the " dukeries." Nottingham is a large town, boldly and picturesquely situated upon the Trent. Its streets are arranged along the face of a hill so steep, that the ground floors of the streets behind, in some instances, rise higher than the roofs of those in front. The rocky materials of this hill are so soft and yielding, that they are cut to a great extent into cellars and warehouses. The making of stockings has always been the staple of Nottingham. Nottinghamshire may boast of some splendid seats. Worksop Manor, built by the Duke of Norfolk, contains fine portraits of the Howard family. Clumber Park is fitted up in a magnificent style by the Duke of Newcastle, with a very valuable collection of pictures. Welbeck Abbey, a seat of the Duke of Portland, is noted for its fine stables. Newstead Abbey had been stripped of its fine furniture and paintings, before it came to the late Lord Byron. Newcastle was famed at an early period in the military annals of England. It formed a leading point in the wall of HIadrian and in that of Severus. Robert, son of the Conqueror, built here a castle of immense ENGLAND AND WALES. 425 strength, more than two miles in circuit, which served long as the main bulwark against Scottish invasion. Scarcely a trace of it now remains; and the occupations of Newcastle are entirely changed. Both banks of the river, down to Tynemouth, form an immense wharf, to which, by railways and steam wagons, coals are conveyed from the contiguous pits. The seats are chiefly great baronial castles, at the head of which stands Alnwick. This proud keep of the Percies covers five acres, and is defended by sixteen towers. An expense of ~200,000 has been incurred in converting the interior, from a feudal castle, into the most splendid of modern mansions. Yorkshire is next in order: its eastern division resembles the two counties just described; while the western forms part of the great central seat of English manufacture. The Yorkshireman has a character of his own, marked by shrewdness, simplicity, good humor, and a species of drollery; so that the London comic stage is considered incomplete without one of his representatives. The North Riding consists, to a great extent, of moorlands; the hills of which rise often to a considerable height. These dreary tracts spread over the whole Riding, so that culture can exist only in the valleys. The East Riding, which extends to the Humber, is traversed also by a range of high wolds, which, though rugged, have not been able to resist the energies of British industry. Hull, the principal port, is the fourth commercial city in England, only surpassed by London, Liverpool and Bristol, It carries on a most extensive export of goods brought by the interior system of rivers and canals, It is the principal of the whale-fishery ports; though this branch has lately declined. York, the capital, is the first object that strikes us as we proceed into the interior of the North and West Ridings. This celebrated city, though so much eclipsed by several that are only of to-day, still boasts a dignity superior to them, and to almost any other in England. Eboracum was a distinguished Roman station; for some time York disputed with London the distinction of being the capital of England; and when obliged to give up this claim, continued the unquestioned metropolis of the north, till the creative powers of trade raised up rivals to it in the northwest. The houses are high, and the streets narrow; yet, altogether, York is a handsome, respectable-looking old city. It boasts one feature of almost unrivalled beauty, its cathedral. On the exterior all the richness and elegance of Gothic ornament has been lavished, particularly upon the western front and the large window in the eastern. But the interior is without a rival in the empire; and its effect is altogether sublime. Leeds is the capital of western Yorkshire, and, in a commercial sense, of the whole county. Although it was of some note even in early times, its present greatness is modern, and of the most rapid growth. The woollen manufacture is not carried on wholly in large towns; the cloth is wrought to a certain state of forwardness in the numerous villages, thence sent into Leeds, where it is purchased and worked up into a saleable state. The cloths are sold in weekly markets, held in the cloth halls, the most remarkable feature in Leeds. That for mixed cloths was built in 1758, that for white cloth in 1775. They form quadrangular edifices round an open 426 ENGLAND AND WALES. area, and are divided into stands, of which, in the first hall are 1800, and in the second 1210. These are let at a moderate rent to the owners of the cloth, who, on the ringing of a bell, occupy their stands, and though the market remains open only an hour, goods to an immense value are often disposed of. In the southern part of this riding, the manufactures of iron and cutlery take the place of those of woollen; and flourish to such an extent that they are second only to the great iron district around Birmingham. Sheffield is the capital of this district. It early derived importance from the fabrication of arms, but it has reached a much higer degree of greatness since it betook itself to the more useful fabrics of knives, forks, razors, snuffers, scissors, combs, buttons, saws, sickles, and various instruments of husbandry. The superb seats which adorn Yorkshire are so many, that to enumerate even the most distinguished can with difficulty suit our limits. Castle Howard is a magnificent pile, noted for its classical collection of sculpture and painting. Duncombe Park is admired for the noble view obtained from the terrace in front, and for the ruins of Rivaulx Abbey, situated in a beautiful vale at a little distance; Studley Royal, an almost unrivalled specimen of an ornamental-park, encloses within its precincts, Fountain's Abbey, one of the grandest of monastic remains, covering several acres. Wentworth House is generally considered the noblest mansion in the north. The principal front extends upwards of 600 feet, forming a centre and two wings, in the middle of which is a fine Corinthian portico. Manchester, the centre of British industry, and the manufacturing capital of the empire, is favorably situated on the Irwell; though this stream, navigable for barges, scarcely makes any figure beside the vast artificial lines formed from its waters. Although the cotton manufacture is now widely diffused throughout England, Manchester continues the centre of the trade; receiving and distributing the raw material, collecting the produce worked up in numerous towns and villages, and transmitting it to the various markets. Its manufacture embraces the finer muslins and other delicate fabrics, with the plain and useful forms of dimities, fustains, velveteens, checks, shirtings, ginghams, diapers, cambrick muslins, figured muslins, calicoes for printing, and various fancy goods. Huge towns, resembling cities, devoted to the cotton manufacture, are found in every direction round Manchester. Liverpool, the commercial capital of Lancashire, is, if possible, a still grander object, and far surpassing indeed every other seaport, with the exception of the metropolis. Nothing can be more remarkable than the contrast of its present state with its humble origin. In the 16th century, it is described as a small place with only a chapel, having no parish church within four miles. It had then 138 inhabitants, and two or three ships, whose aggregate tonnage was 223 tons; and in a petition to Elizabeth, about the year 1578, it is styled "her majesty's poor decayed town." The solid construction of its docks; the powerful iron gates by which they are enclosed; the long covered ways where the goods may be landed without in jury from the inclemency of the weather; the immense magazines, some rising to the height of 12 or 13 stories-all denote a gigantic industry and magnificence which spares no sacrifice to attain objects of public utility. The finest view of Liverpool is obtained from the sea, where the vast height ENGLAND AND WALES. 427 and extent of the exterior dock wall, the forest of masts above, and the town behind, make a most imposing appearance. The charitable institutions are administered on a great scale, and with activity. Foremost stands the Blind Asylum, the first established in England, which receives inmates from all parts of the kingdom. The Infirmary is a very spacious and airy situation; and, among the other institutions common to great towns, the Stranger' Friends' Society distinguishes itself by its generous exertions. The English mercantile towns generally show a zeal to combine intellectual pursuits with those of wealth; but none perhaps so successfully as Liverpool-one of whose merchants, while carrying on an extensive business, produced works which rank him among the most classical English writers. The counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, or the country of the Lakes, form a bold and peculiar region, presenting a striking contrast to those recently surveyed; being enriched neither by natural wealth nor by human industry. But the multitude of mountains crowded together, their bold, perpendicular, and often projecting forms; the pleasing though not extensive lakes, and soft pastoral valleys, which they enclose, render this the most beautiful country of England, and the favorite resort of all the admirers of the picturesque and sublime. The western counties form the last division of England Proper, comprising the counties south of the Mersey, which form the western boundary of England. This extensive line has scarcely any character which can be generally said to apply to it. We mention Cheshire, Shropshire, Here ford, and Mdnmouth, as bordering on Wales, and the last three partaking somewhat of its rude and romantic character; Worcester, Gloucester and Somerset, occupying the fine valley of the Severn-a region filled with commerce and cultivation, and containing several great cities; lastly, Cornwall and Devon, the extreme corner of England, but marked by a mild climate, rich mines, and a surface agreeably diversified. The towns of Monmouthshire are small. The capital has a limited trade along the Wye; but its situation, in a delightful country, has attracted the neighboring gentry. There are still remains of its once powerful castle, and of a Benedictine priory. A few miles from Monmouth is Tintern Abbey, the most picturesque perhaps of all the English monastic remains. This arises not merely from its extent and beauty, although these be great; but from its roofless and ruined state, whence the walls, both within and without, are overgrown with luxuriant ivy, and decaying art and nature are blended together. In another direction is Ragland Castle, the seat of the dukes of Beaufort, and considered one of the strongest of the ancient for tresses; but, after the gallant defence made by the Marquess of Worcester for Charles I., "Cromwell," says Gilpin, " laid his iron hand upon it, and shattered it to ruins; to which it owes its present picturesque form." Worcester is a considerable and very handsome city, the principal streets being spacious and regular, with many good houses, and presenting a general air of neatness and comfort. It is of high antiquity, the cathedral having been founded in the 7th century, though the present structure was almost entirely erected in the 13th and 14th centuries. It is of great extent, simple and august, without the rich ornament which distinguishes some others. It contains the tomb of King John, one of the most ancient in England; also that of Prince Arthur. Worcester is chiefly noted in -e ~~+'` ,;_..d:n%L1~ h~~iCL_1;.;=X--C-=_t~ t;= _s -~ 1, ~ J ---— i -111 —' T-,=5-=--~Y-S~YI~~r-_EC?QQ(=__J-, — 1: A -__ikl(//lll 2IF-aSFE r —-- 3 — E I r.— ~ —--- r~ ":;~ — ~-~~ - i iS i.~J~ -I-f -~ —-— Tl;i —-_ s; —— i- — ~-"C...-.;~ —------ -- ~' i;-s " ~- i I! I~ i~'h -- r C i~i*~\ -.i; i 1 It g~.. 1 ~Z i i''f." rurl i*~' rl r;~~~~~ r b'~.' 4 c-I'1. r;3~ —-i:r, ifa =e r Ir'Ci -- ~~ BF d,! ORNITROLOGP —MALE AND FEMALE TITMOUSE AND NEST. --.~. >~1. DROPIN WEL, NARSBOO',ENGAND lW._~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-Z —— ~- -~ 430 ENGLAND AND WALES. history for the great battle in which Cromwell totally routed the Scots army, and compelled Charles II. to quit England as a fugitive. The city has lost its woollen manufacture; but has still one of porcelain, the finest in the kingdom. Fifteen different materials are used, chiefly white granite, and steatite from Cornwall; and every piece passes through twenty-three hands before it is brought to perfection. Gloves are also made; and there is a considerable trade up and down the Severn. Cheltenham, by the fame of its waters, and its attractions as a place of fashionable resort, has become a greater and more crowded place than Gloucester. The waters are at once saline and chalybbate; and, being thus both tonic and aperient, are efficacious in indigestion, biliary affections, and similar disorders. Cheltenham now ranks second only to Bath, both as a resort for invalids and a gay rendezvous of the fashionable world. The name of Bath implies the circumstance to which from the earliest ages it has owed its importance. The Romans made it one of their principal stations, and built splendid baths, of which the remains have been discovered. Near the middle of the last century, it became very distinguished as a scene of fashionable residence, and continued to increase till recently, when its attraction was shared by Cheltenham and some newer places of resort. It became the most beautiful, we may merely say the only beautiful, city in England. The houses, built of a fine freestone, while those of almost all the other great towns are of brick, have a decidedly superior aspect; and several of the streets, as Great Palteney Street, the Crescent, the Parades, &c., being not only composed of fine houses, but formed on a regular plan, may vie with the finest in Europe. The city, moreover, rising by a gentle ascent from the Avon, large portions of it may often be seen at once in the most advantageous points of view. The pumproom, the assembly-room, and every structure raised for the sick or the gay, are unequalled in splendor. Plymouth is the most important of the towns of Devonshire, and one of the great naval arsenals of Britain. The main and central depots lie at Portsmouth and on the Thames; but it is important that the fleets should have this exterior station, where they may rendezvous, and receive their final equipment and supplies before leaing the Channel; where also, when exhausted, they may put in and refit. Plymouth Bay forms also an excel lent roadstead, though exposed to the heavy swell which came in from the Atlantic. To remedy this, government undertook that stupendous work the Breakwater, a mole formed by immense stones heaped upon each other, stretching across the entrance, and at a certain distance from either shore. The estimated expense was ~1,170,000; and the quantity of stone, 2,000,000 tons. It hs completely answered expectation; and, in proportion as it has advanced, has rendered the roadstead more secure. As the approach was also rendered dangerous by the Eddystone rocks, a lighthouse has, after much difficulty and several unsuccessful trials, been erected there by Mr. Smeaton, sufficiently firm to withstand the furious assaults of the Atlantic waves to which it is exposed. Plymouth is now divided into two nearly equal parts —Plymouth and Plymouth dock, at the mouth of the Tamar, recently called Devonport, and raised to the dignity of a separate borough. The dock-yard is most superb; 3500 yards in length, and from 1000 to 1600 in breadth. All the establishments connected with it, ENGLAND AND WALES. 431 the ropery, smithy, saw-pits, mast-houses, as also the victualling departments, are on the most extensive scale, yet conducted in the most regular order. Wales is a territory which, though united to England by early conquest, still retains the title of a separate principality, and possesses a national aspect. The verdant and extensive plains of western England here give place to the lofty mountain, the deep valley, the roaring torrent, and the frightful precipice. Wales has rivers and torrents without number, which roll through its mountain valleys, and whose banks, adorned with verdure and cultivation, combine in the most striking manner with the lofty and varied summits which tower above them. The loftiest mountains are in North Wales; its valleys are deeper and narrower; and it presents more strikingly all the characteristic features of Welsh scenery. In South Wales, on the contrary, the valleys are broader, more fertile, and fuller of towns and villages; they often even expand into wide plains, still encircled by a mountain boundary. Agriculture, in such a country, labors under many disadvantages, and is carried on too often upon the old system of infield and outfield. Manufactures are nearly confined to the article of flannel, which has always been a fabric of the Welsh, in which they still excel their Yorkshire rivals. It is to mining, however, that the industry of Wales has been chiefly attracted, by the profusion of mineral wealth which nature has lodged in the bowels of its mountains. The lead of Flint, Caernarvon, an d other counties of North Wales, the copper of Anglesey, and above adll,the iron of Glamorgan and other counties in the British Channel, are objects of extensive importance. Coal is found almost every4 where, and is employed either for domestic purposes, or in fusing and refining the metallic ores. The Welsh are a Celtic race, the descendants of the ancient Britons, who, in these mountain recesses, sought refuge from the destroying sword of the Saxons, which so completely dispossessed them of the low country of England. They could not resist the overwhelming power of Edward I., who annexed Wales to the English crown. In order to hold it in subjection, however, he was obliged to construct, not only on its frontier, but in its interior, castles of immense extent and strength. Yet they did not prevent formidable insurrections, in one Of which Owen Glendower maintained himself for years as an independent prince. Within the last 300 years, the Welsh have been as peaceable as any other subjects of the empire. A tubular bridge across the Menai Strait, which separates the island of Anglesea from Caernarvon, is a triumph of art worthy of notice. It was finished in 1849. It consists of two iron tubes, composed of parts riveted together, and made to span the strait, supported by three towers; one in the middle of the strait, and one on either side at a distance of 460 feet. The two parallel tubes are of wrought iron, each a quarter of a mile long. The abutments are 230 feet from the land towers; so that the bridge has four spans, two of 230 and two of 460 feet. The middle tower is 230 feet high from its foundation. The railroad cars pass through this stupendous structure, about 100 feet above the level of the ocean waves at high tide. The early history of England, like that of all nations, is shrouded in uncertainty. Before the invasion of Julius Caesar, in 55 B. C., little was known of the inhabitants, who were called Britons, from the word brit, 432 ENGLAND AND WALES. signifying painted. They were then ferocious and warlike, clad in skins and armed with clubs, and even the iron-breasted Romans quailed at first before the horrid front which the infuriated natives presented to their invaders. The Romans possessed Britain 500 years, during which time many improvements were introduced, and the manners of the people became assimilated to those of their conquerors. In the fifth century the Roman legions quitted Britain to defend their own territories from the Vandals and Goths; and no sooner were they gone than the Scots made a descent on the south, to repel whom the Saxons and Angles were invited into the country. The Scots were defeated, indeed, but the foreigners had made themselves masters of the kingdom, and gave it the name of Anglia or England. The Saxon heptarchy was now formed, which corn prised the seven kingdoms-of Kent, (which was founded in 454, and lasted until 823); East Saxony, (527-827); Northumberland, (547-827); Mercia, (585-827); East Anglia, (575-792); West Saxony, (519-828); and South Saxony, (423-685). These several kingdoms, at the dates specified, merged into those of their more powerful neighbors, and after a brief existence gradually amalgamated, and finally, under Egbert, became one consolidated monarchy. England now suffered invasions by the Danes, who several times became masters of the kingdom, but they were finally expelled in 1041, and the Saxon government restored. In 1066 the Normans, under William the Conqueror, obtained possession, and by this circumstance the whole political and moral condition of the people was materially changed. Feudalism was introduced, and the whole land parcelled out to the followers of the Norman adventurer. To the time of John, the history of England is little else than a recital of kingly acts for the benefit of kings. The barons now revolted, and the 1" Magna Charta" was wrested from the reluctant monarch. Thus was given the first impulse to liberty, and the foundation undesignedly laid for the elevation of the people. The Reformation was the next great event that had any considerable effect on the people's rights. This commenced with Henry VIII., and was consummated by the elevation to the throne of Elizabeth. On the death of Elizabeth, the English and Scottish crowns were united in James I. The Protectorate succeeded the decapitation of Charles I., and was soon succeeded by the Restoration. The principles involved in the controversies which led to these great events, enlightened the people to their own condition, and gradually developed their intellectual and moral capacities. They by this time understood alike their rights as subjects, and the duties of the monarch; and when James II. attempted to rule absolutely, and alter the religion of the country, a bloodless revolution forced him from the throne, and set upon it his son-in-law William, an avowed Protestant. The liberties of the people were confirmed by the Bill of Rights, the sequel to the Magna Charta. The succession of the House of Hanover took place in the person of George I. England now progressed rapidly in the arts and manufactures, and commercial relations were established with all nations. In 1801 Ireland was united with Great Britain. Since this period no great domestic event has occurred, but the United Kingdoms have gone on prospering and developing themselves, and though not altogether agreeing among themselves, have still preserved sufficient unity to build up one of the mightiest and most enlightened kingdoms of ancient or modern times. SCOTLAND. 433 SCOTLAND, AREA, 31,268 SQUARBE mE. POPULATION, 2,840,000. The place which Scotland holds as part of Great Britain, has already been exhibited in the introduction to the chapter on England. We shall now describe in detail this important, though secondary, member of the British empire. Scotland is bounded on the south by England, from which it is separated by a line drawn along the Tweed, the Cheviot Hills, and thence to the Solway Frith. On every other side it is bounded by the Atlantic, the Northern and the German oceans. The length of Scotland, from the Mull of Galloway, in about 45~ 40', to Dunnet Head, Caithness, in 580 40', is 280 miles. The greatest breadth, from Buchan-Ness to a point on the opposite shore of Inverness, is 130 miles. This breadth varies little in the intervals between the friths of Forth and Moray; but to the south of the former, the average breadth scarcely exceeds 100, and to the north of the Moray Frith, 40 or 50 miles. Scotland, in its general outline, consists of two great and perfectly distinct parts: the Lowlands and the Highlands. The former comprehends all Scotland south of the friths of Forth and Clyde; for the pastoral hills of the southefn and western borders, less elevated than the northern mountains, and inhabited by a different race, are not considered as forming any tie between these and the Highlands properly so called. Immediately north of the Clyde, the highland ranges begin to tower in endless succession: but on the east coast, the Lowlands extend beyond the Forth and northward through the counties of Fife, Forfar, Kincardine, and Aberdeen; these last are closely encroached upon by the mountain territory. The lowland district also extends round the northern promontory of Aberdeen, and along the borders of the Murray or Moray Frith, which contain as level tracts of territory, and enjoy as mild a climate, as any part of Scotland. This level tract does not comprehend quite the half of the country; even the Lothians, and still more the western provinces, are hemmed in by low ridges of bleak table-lands, covered, in a great measure, with heath and moss. The arable lands are almost solely comprised in broad flat. valleys, chiefly along the friths, called straths or car8es. Several of these are much famed for fertility, a blessing but partially bestowed even on the best districts of Scotland. The highlands which comprise the whole west and centre of northern Scotland, form a region of very bleak and rugged aspect. A chain of long and lofty ridges extends from south-west to north-east, not reaching, however, the German Ocean or the Moray Frith, but leaving between them the level interval of the northern lowland. The mountains usually dip, almost perpendicularly, into the lakes and seas on which they border; and even the interior valleys are on so high a level, that in this climate they admit only in scattered patches the culture of the coarser kinds of grain, particularly oats and bigg. The mountains, particularly the great Gram pian barrier, which extends across from Ben Lomond to Blair-Athol, lock in closely with each other, and can be entered only by formidable and easily defended passes. The consequence has been, that they have preserved 28 434 SCOTLAND. within their recesses a primitive people, who, in dress, language, and the whole train of their social ideas, differ essentially from the Lowlanders, and have retained alntique and striking characteristics, both physical and moral, that are obliterated in almost every other part of Great Britain. The Isles comprise the third part of Scotland. On the east, indeed, and even on great part of the southwest coast, only a few bold and naked rocks rise perpendicularly from the ocean. But the western highlands are bordered by the Hebrides, an extensive range of large islands, some of which are separated from the continent by such narrow channels, that they may almost be considered as forming part of it. Again, the northern extremity of Scotland is prolonged by the two ranges of the Orkney and Shetland islands, in a continuous line with each other, but at some distance. These islands are rocky and bare, exposed to excessive moisture and the perpetual storms of the Atlantic. The population bears, in language and features, the marks of a Scandinavian origin; dating from the period when the piratical rovers of the north made extensive inroads on the western states of Europe. Among the Scottish mountains, the most considerable are the Grampians, a name which is given very generally to all those which cover the surface of the highlands, but applied more particularly to the chain running across the counties of Perth and Argyle, and comprising Ben Lomond, Ben Ledi, Ben More, Ben Lawers, and others of that elevated ridge which directly face the low country of~ Stirling and Perth. Several of these mountains exceed the altitude of 4000 feet. Ben Nevis rises to the height of 4315 feet. On the borders of Inverness and Ross-shire, Ben Wyvis, and some others, are of nearly equal elevation. The south of Scotland is also very hilly; but its heights are seldom more than 2000 feet, green and pastoral. The most remarkable are the boundary chain of the Cheviot, celebrated in the annals of early feud, hunting, and border warfare. The Lowthers, a steep high ridge, including valuable lead mines; the pastoral hills of Ettrick and Yarrow; and Criffel and Cainsmuir, in Galloway, form important objects: the lower ranges of the Pentland and Lammermoor border the Lothians. The rivers of Scotland are not so much distinguished for their length or magnitude, as for the pastoral scenery through which they wind their early course, and for the magnificent estuaries which they form at their junction with the sea. The Forth rises near the foot of Ben Lomond, flows east towards Stirling, near which it is swelled by the larger stream of the Teith; whence, after many windings through the beautiful plain overlooked by Stirling castle, it opens on the great frith on which the capital of Scotland is situ ated. The Clyde rises on the borders of Dumfries-shire; flows for a conside rable space through a wild pastoral valley; and descends, by a succession of most picturesque cascades, into the lower region of Lanarkshire. After passing through a tract which may be denominated the garden of Scotland, it enters Glasgow, becomes a broad stream, and expands into a winding frith, not so broad as the Forth, but the scene of a much more active trade. The Tweed rises from the same chain as the Clyde, and running eastward, waters the most beautiful and classic of the pastoral districts of Scotland, in whose verse Tweed is the favorite name. Of similar fame are its SCOTLAND. 435 tributaries, the Yarrow, the Gala, the Teviot; swelled by whose waters it forms, on reaching Berwick, a capacious harbor. The Tay rises in the central Highlands, descefids into the lowlands of Perthshire, and after winding beautifully around the city of Perth, expands into the Frith of Tay, and forms the harbor of Dundee. The Spey has a longer course than any other; but, rising in the midst of the Perthshire highlands, and rolling northward through the wild recesses of Athol and Braemar, its line is comparatively obscure. The other rivers of Scotland are of subordinate rank; the Dee of Aberdeen, the Esk of MIontrose, the Nith and Anuan of Dumfries, the Ayr and Irvine of Ayr. Lochs form a characteristic feature of Scotland; many of them are long arms of the sea, running up into the heart of the mountains. Among these, Loch Lomond is pre-eminent. The traveller admires its vast expanse, its gay and numerous islands, its wooded promontories and bays, and the high mountain barrier at its head. Loch Katrine, in a smaller compass, presents a singular combination of romantic beauty. Loch Tay, enclosed by the loftiest of the Grampians, presents Alpine scenery on the grandest scale; while at Inverary, Loch Fyne unites the pomp of art with that of nature. The long chain of Lochs Linnhe, Lochy, and Ness, stretching diagonally across Scotland, comprises much fine scenery, and has afforded facilities for making a navigable communication between the German and Atlantic oceans. The coal formation occupies considerable portions of East, Mid, and Western Lothian, and extends westward to Glasgow. It forms extensive tract in Ayr-shire; in Dumfries-shire; and in Berwickshire. The coal mines in the Lothians and'around Glasgow are the most productive in Scotland. The annual quantity of coal brought into Glasgow is 561,049 tons; of which 124,000 are exported. It may also be noticed, as connected with coal, that in Glasgow, during twenty-four hours in the winter months, the gas company makes upwards of 500,000 cubic feet of gas from coal; and during the same period in the summer months, about 120,000. The pipes extend to more than 100 miles through streets. The great iron works at Carron are supplied with the ore from which the iron is obtained, from the coalfields of this and the middle division of Scotland. The ore or stone, which is an argillaceous carbonate of iron, occurs in beds and embedded masses, and principally in the slate of the coal deposit. The admirable building-stone around Edinburgh and Glasgow is a sandstone which occurs in beds in the coal formation. To the Greek and Roman writers, Scotland was not known as a distinct country. Albion, or Britain, was viewed as one region, parcelled out among a multitude of different tribes. Agricola first penetrated into that part of Britain which we now call Scotland. He easily over-ran the low country, but encountered the most obstinate resistance when he approached the Caledonians, who appear then to have held all the northern districts. An obstinate battle, the precise place of which has never been ascertained, was fought at the foot of the Grampians. All the rude valor of Caledonia could not match the skill of Agricola and the discipline of the Roman legions. The whole open country was abandoned to the invaders, whose progress, however, was stayed by what they termed the Caledonia fol est. 436 SCOTLAND. In the fifth century Britain was abandoned by the Romans, and over-run by the Saxons, who occupied the eastern part of the south of Scotland, as far as the Forth. The western part was formed into the kingdom of Strachcluyd. It flourished for about 300 years, and was rendered illustrious by the name and exploits of Arthur and his knights, whose power from 508 to 542, is represented by tradition as having been predominant over the south of Scotland and the north of England. The Scots, before this time, had come from Ireland, their original seat, which, in the fourth century, was often called Scotland. Even before the departure of the Romans, the Scots, joined with the Picts, are mentioned as the ravagers of defenceless Britain. They appear at one time to have been driven back into Ireland; but in 503 they again landed in Cantyre, and during the next four centuries, spread gradually over the kingdom. At length under the victorious reign of Kenneth, which commenced in 836, they wrested the sceptre from Werd the Pictish king, and established supreme sway over the whole country, which, from them, was ever afterwards called Scotland. The Scoto-Saxon era, as Mr. Chalmers calls it, is memorable rather for an insensible change, than for any sudden revolution. After the subversion of the kingdom of Strathcluyd, by the Saxons, that people had colonized and filled the whole south; and the Scottish kings, though of Celtic origin, having established themselves in this more fertile part of their territories, soon began to imbibe the spirit of its occupants. From this or other causes the whole lowlands of Scotland is in language and manners Teutonic, and Gael or Celts were again confined within their mountain boundary. An era of disputed succession arose out of the contending claims of Bruce and Baliol, after the death of Margaret of Norway. Edward I., availing himself of this dissension, succeeded in introducing himself under the character of an arbiter, and having established Baliol on the throne by an armed interference, sought to rule Scotland as a vassal kingdom. The result was a struggle, calamitous to Scotland, but which, however, placed in a conspicuous light the energy and heroism of the nation, and brought forward the names of Wallace and Bruce, ever afterwards the foremost in her annals. The result was glorious; the concentrated force of the English was finally defeated in a pitched battle at Bannockburn; they were compelled to renounce their ambitious pretensions, and allow the kingdom to be governed by its native princes. Under the turbulent and unfortunate sway of the Stuarts, Scotland continued for several centuries without any prominent revolution, though with a continual tendency to internal commotion. This dynasty, from their connexion with the French and English courts, had acquired the idea of more polished manners, and habits of greater subordination as due from the nobles. Such views were ill suited to the power and temper of a Douglas, and many other powerful chieftains, through whose resistance the attempts of the monarchs were followed with disaster, and often with violent death. The introduction of the reformed religion, especially in open opposition to the court, which granted only a reluctant and precarious toleration, was unfavorable to the crown, and fatal to a princess whose beauty and misfortunes have rendered her an object of enthusiasm to the gay and chivalrio part of the Scottish nation. SCOTLAND. 487 The union of the crowns, by the accession of James VI., in 1603, to the English throne, produced a great change, in itself flattering to Scotland, whose race of princes now held sway over all the three kingdoms. The struggle between presbytery and prelacy, gave rise to a conflict which still powerfully influences the temper and character of the Scots. The efforts of the presbyterians, acting under the bond of their League and Covenant, first enabled the English parliament to rear its head, and had a great effect in turning the scale of contest against the crown. The Scots revolted, however, at the excess of the independents, and endeavored to rear again, on a covenant basis, the fallen crown of the Stuarts. These brave but unsuccessful efforts, were ill requited by an embittered persecution against all the adherents of presbytery, till the revolution finally fixed that system as the established religion of Scotland. The union of the kingdoms, in 1707, placed Scotland in that political position which she has ever since maintained; and, by allaying internal contest, and opening a free trade with the sister kingdom, this union has produced results highly beneficial, although the devoted attachment of her mountain tribes to the exiled Stuarts, repeatedly impelled them to attempt to replace that house on the throne; attempts which, at one critical moment, spread alarm into the heart of England. Scotland has always ranked as a poor country; and for a long time, natural obstacles were enhanced by moral impediments. The Scots showed an aptitude to embark in all schemes of turbulence; but indolence, and dislike of plain hard work, might be recognized as a national characteristic. Since the age arrived, however, when industry has came into honor, and when improved processes were studiously applied to all the useful arts, the Scots have entered with peculiar spirit and intelligence into this new career; and in its prosecution have been more successful, in some respects, than their southern neighbors. The agriculture of Scotland has to contend with obstacles which must be manifest, when we look at its rugged aspect, and its vast hills and morasses. Fifty years ago, moreover, the progress of Scotland, in this primary art, was generally behind that of the rest of the empire. As soon, however, as the great system of agricultural improvement was adopted throughout the kingdom, the Scottish farmers not only shared in it, but carried it farther than those of England. The farmers of the Lothians, of the Carse of Gowrie, and even of the district of Moray Frith, made a complete reform in the whole train of agricultural operations. They brought extensive tracts of common and waste under cultivation, reduced the number of cattle and improved the breed, cultivated the artificial grasses, dismissed superfluous hands, and adopted the use of machinery, of which the most important, the threshing machine, was of Scottish invention. The consequence was, that considerable fortunes were made by successful farmers, and that rents were in almost every instance trebled, and in some cases raised to eight or ten times their former amount. In the mountainous districts also, a new system was introduced, which proved more profitable to the landlord. The numerous little farms hitherto held by tenants or vassals, were thrown into extensive sheep-walks. Considerable depopulation, in the agricultural districts, was the consequence; a great proportion of this brave and warm hearted race were forced to quit their native glens, to which they were 438 SCOTLAND. fondly attached, and to seek support, either in the great manufacturing towns, or in settlements formed on the other side of the Atlantic. The cultivated lands of Scotland, and the amount of its produce, after all these improvements, are still limited. Of the 18,944,000 acres, its computed extent of land, only 5,043,000 are under regular cultivation, and not more than 1,800,000 under grain. Of these, only 140,000 produce wheat, though this is considered the most profitable crop, and is raised of good quality, where the soil and climate admit. Oats, a hardy plant, is the staple produce of Scotland, and the food of its rural population: it covers 1,260,000 acres. Barley occupies 280,000 acres, being raised chiefly for distillation; but in the higher districts, it is the ruder species, called bear or big. The chief exportable produce consists in cattle and sheep, which are sent in numbers to the English markets. The sheep are not equal to the fine English breeds, but the mutton of the Grampians and Cheviots is of exquisite flavor. The manufacturing industry of Scotland has, within the last century, advanced with prodigious rapidity, being quite equal, compared with the extent and population of the country, to that of England. Woollen, the grand original staple of England, has never obtained more than a very partial footing in Scotland. Linen, with other products of flax, is the original staple of Scotland. It was throughout the country a household manufacture, and for household use. Flax, in almost every family, was diligently spun into yarn, which was then sent out to be woven and bleached. The coarser kinds of linen still form the staple of the eastern counties, though Dunfermline excels in fine sheeting and diaper. By far the greater proportion of the raw materials is imported, very little hemp or flax being grown either in Scotland. or England; almost all the former, and more than half the latter, is brought from Russia, the rest of the flax from Holland, Flanders and Germany. The cotton manufacture, though of comparatively recent introduction, has m gcotland, no less than in England, risen to be first in point of magnitude. Glasgow and Paisley, produce fabrics carried to an extreme degree of fineness. The muslin of Paisley, is one of the most delicate fabrics existing. The printing of cottons, particularly shawls, is also carried on to a greater proportional extent in Scotland than in England. The fisheries form a considerable branch of industry in Scotland; the herring, cod and haddock abound on various parts of its shores. The Dutch long monopolized the great northern herring bank; and by a superior mode of cure, obtain a preference in all markets. The British government, however, has for sometimes made great exertions for the promotion of Scottish fisheries; and there has been a wonderful increase in the quantity caught, and a corresponding improvement in the process of cure. Salmon, taken in all considerable rivers, and kept fresh by being packed in ice, chiefly supplies the London market. The whale fishery in Greenland and Davis' Straits, has for sometime, been prosecuted by Scotland with increased activity. Commerce, till the union of the crowns, and even of the kingdoms, could scarcely be considered as existing in Scotland; but it has since been cultivated with great ardor and enterprise. One branch of her commercial intercourse is that with her opulent sister kingdom. In England she finds a SCOTLAND. 439 market for cattle, her chief agricultural surplus; for her wool, such as it is; for her sail-cloth and other coarse fabrics from flax and hemp; for part of her fine calicoes and muslins, &c. In return, she receives almost all the woolen cloth, and a great part of the silk consumed by her; hardware and cutlery of every kind; tea and other East India goods; and through this channel a part of all the foreign luxuries which she requires. The trade with Ireland is chiefly supported by the exchange of coal and iron, for oats and cattle. That with the Baltic, particularly Russia, is very active; the eastern part of the kingdom deriving thence the hemp and flax, which form the material of her staple manufacture; also timber, iron, and the other bulky and useful staples of that trade. Having few articles of her own with which this market is not already stocked, the payment is made chiefly in bullion and colonial produce. The flourishing trade carried on from the west coast with America and the West Indies, is supported by the export of cottons, linen, wearing apparel, and other commodities; and by the import of cotton, sugar, rum, and the various luxuries of those fertile regions. The Mediterranean trade is not neglected; and since the opening of that to India, Greenock has adventured with considerable success. Artificial navigation, meets with peculiar obstructions from the ruggedness of the surface, and hence canals have never become very numerous. The " Great Canal," admits vessels of considerable size to pass from Frith of Forth to that of Clyde, and thus unite the German and Atlantic oceans. Branches to Glasgow and to the fine coal field at Monkland, have been advantageously opened. The Union Canal, completed at an expense of nearly ~400,000, connects the Great Canal near its eastern point, with Edinburgh, by a line of thirty miles through a country very rich in coal and lime. The Caledonian Canal, uniting the chain of lakes which cross Scotland diagonally through the counties of Inverness and Argyle, allows even ships of war to pass, from the east coast, into the Atlantic, without encountering the perils of the Pentland Frith and Cape Wrath. It was finished in 1822, at an expense of ~1,000,000, entirely defrayed by government. The gates of the locks are of iron; the expense of each lock was ~9000. The locks axe twenty-three in all, eight of which, looking down from Loch Eil, where it opens into the western sea, are called by sailors the " stair of Neptune." The canal is fifty feet broad; length twenty-two miles with forty miles of lake navigation. Of the population of Scotland an estimate was first attempted in the year 1755, when it was computed to be 1,265,380. The reports of the clergy for the " Statistical Account," between 1792 and 1798, gave 1,526,492; which was raised by the government enumeration of 1801 to 1,599,000. The census of 1811 gave 1,805,000; which was raised by that of 1821 to 2,093,456. In 1831, it was 2,363,842. In 1841, it was 2,628,957. POPULATION OF SCOTLAND. Aberdeen............ 192,288 Elgin.................... 34,994 Orkney and Shetland...... 60,007 Argyle.............. 97,140 Fife................... 140,310 Peeble.................... 10,52Q. Ayr......................164,522 Forfar...................170,380 Perth................. 138,151 Banff......... 50,076 Haddington..... 85...... 85,781 Renfrew................154,755 Berwick...... 3......... 34,427 Invernes s............ 97,615 Ross and Cronlarty........ 7S,05S Bute.................... 15,695 Kincardino.......... 33,052 Roxburgh............... 46,062 Caithness.........8.,.. 36,197 Kinross................ 8.763 Selkirk.................... 7,989 Clackmaan............. 19,116 Kilkudbright, Stewartry of, 41,099 Stirling.................... 82179 Dumbarton............... 44,295 Lanark..................427,113 Sutherland.......... t Dunfries.................. 2,825 Lirlithgow............... 26.848 Wigtown................ 44.0)(34 Edinburg....... 225,623 Nairn.................... 9.923 1 allu Crranel......, 42 440 SCOTLAND. In point of disposition, the Scots are a grave, serious, and reflecting people; but bold, enterprising, ambitious,. and imbued with a deep-rooted determination to pursue the objects of their desire, and repel those of their aversion. Under these impulses, they quit, without much regret, a land which affords few opportunities of distinction, and seek, either in the metropolis and commercial towns of England, or in the most distant transmarine regions, that wealth and fame which they eagerly covet; yet, amid. this distance and these eager pursuits, their hopes and affections remain fixed on the land of their nativity; and they usually seek to spend the evening of their days in Scotland. The Scots appear naturally brave; a quality which is particularly observable among the highland tribes, and by which they rendered themselves formidable, first under Montrose, and afterwards in the rebellion against the house of Hanover. Since they were conciliated by the wise measures of Pitt, they have crowded into the British army, and formed some Qf its bravest regiments. Among the lower classes, crimes against the order of society are of comparatively rare occurrence, and there is less necessity for capital punishment; there is also less of extreme dissoluteness among the higher ranks. To their religious duties the Scots people have always shown an exemplary attention. In catholic times, the Romish church in Scotland enjoyed more influence, and had acquired a much greater proportion of the national wealth, than in England. But they entered upon the cause of reform with an ardent zeal, which left behind it that of all their neighbors. After a desperate struggle, on which, for nearly a century, the political destinies of the kingdom depended, they obtained their favorite form of presbytery, the most remote from that pompous ritual, for which they have entertained the most rooted abhorrence. Literature, soon after its revival in Europe, was cultivated in Scotland with peculiar ardor. Even in the age of scholastic pursuits, Duns Scrotus and Crichton were preeminently famed throughout the Continent. When the sounder taste for classical knowledge followed, Buchanan acquired the reputation of writing Latin with great purity. Letters were almost entirely suppressed during the subsequent period, marked by a conflict between a licentious tyranny and an austere religious party, who condemned or despised the exertions of intellect and the creations of fancy; and literature lay dormant till the middle of the last century, when Scotland, with a church and universities alike poorly endowed, produced as illustrious a constellation of writers as had been called forth by the most lavish patronage in the great European capitals. We shall only mention, in history, Robertson and Hume; in moral and political philosophy, Hume, Reid, Smith, Ferguson, Stewart, Brown; divinity, Blair, Campbell, Macknight; poetry, Home, Thomson, Beattie, Burns; physical science, Gregory, Black, Playfair, Leslie. In the present generation, the most popular of fictitious writings, and one of the most able periodical works known in modern times, have issued from the Edinburgh press. The universities of Scotland hate been a powerful instrument in supporting her literary fame. Though not richly endowed, the fees of wellattended classes afford a liberal income, and have enabled them to attract the most learned among the clergy; while, in England, a wealthy church draws eminent scholars from the universities. SCOTLAND 441 The public libraries are not rich. That belonging to the advocates or barristers of Edinburgh contains upwards of 100,000 volumes, among which there are ample materials, both printed and in manuscript, for elucidating the national history. The university library is half as large; and those of Glasgow, King's College Aberdeen, and St. Andrew's, are highly respectable. Each of these universities can claim a copy of every new work. Scotland has a native music, simple and pathetic, expressive of rural feelings and emotions, to which she is fondly attached. Golf and foot-ball are the only amusements that can be deemed strictly national. Skating, and curling, or the rolling of smooth stones upon the ice, are also pursued with great ardor during the season that admits of those amusements. The recreations of the higher ranks are nearly the same as in England. Dancing is practised with peculiar ardor, especially by the Highlanders, who have favorite national steps and movements. The Highlanders retain the remnants of a national costume peculiar to themselves; the tartan, a mixture of woollen and linen cloth. adorned with brilliant stripes variously crossing each other, and marking the distinctions of the clans; the kilt, or short petticoat, worn by the men, the hose fastened below the knee, which is left bare; and the bonnet, which in another shape is also still worn by the shepherds of the border. In treating of Scotland in detail, we shall divide it into three constituent parts: -1. The Lowland counties; 2. The Highland counties; 3. The Islands. The cultivated part of Berwickshire consists of the Merse, extending chiefly along the Tweed, and reaching to the sea. Above it is Lauderdale, or the Valley of the Lauder, which is fitted chiefly for grazing, and touches closely on the heaths of Lammermoor. Berwick-upon-Tweed, though its harbor be indifferent, is the chief channel for exporting the valuable produce of the Merse. The strong wall and deep ditch, which once defended Berwick, still remain, though neglected; and large barracks have been erected. In the western part of Berwickshire is Dryburgh Abbey, a fine old Gothic edifice, in which rest the remains of Scott. Haddingtonshire, or East Lothian, runs along the Frith of Forth, between which and the range of Lammermoor extends a plain about twenty miles in length and twelve in breadth, perhaps the largest in Scotland, and all under high cultivation. Edinburgh is chiefly supplied with wheat from the market at Haddington, which is considered one of the first in the country. The towns are of secondary importance. Haddington is supported only by the market and by its court for legal proceedings. Dunbar has a little trade and fishery. Its castle, the ruins of which extend over a promontory of broken rocks, stretching out into the sea, forms a truly grand object. The Bass, "that sea rock immense," which rises to the height of 400 feet, forms a perpendicular precipice, on which build crowds of that rare species of sea-fowl called Solan goose. Their young, whose down is of some value, are taken by the perilous exertions of fishermen, suspended by ropes from the top of the cliff. There are still some remains of the fortified prison which was in ancient times reserved for state offenders, and in which some of the most eminent covenanter's were confined for several years. On the shore immediately opposite, crowning a perpendicular cliff, appears Tantalion, a strong castle of the Douglases, now in a ruinous state. 442 SCOTLAD. Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, is a city of no very high antiquity The Castle Hill, indeed, whose rocky and precipitous sides support on the summit a level space of some extent, accessible only by a narrow ridge at one point, must always have been of importance in a military age. It is named in the Pictish annals under the title of Castrum Puellarum, which is supposed to have originated from the custom of placing the princesses and ladies of rank to be educated there, as in a place of security. In the tenth century, mention is first made of the town of.Edin; but David I., in the twelfth century, founded the abbey and palace of Holyrood; and, under the sway of the Stuarts, Edinburgh became the capital of Scotland. Edinburgh is built upon three ridges, running from east to west, and separated from each other by deep ravines. The Old Town, which, till the last half century, formed the whole of Edinburgh, is situated on the middle ridge, extending nearly a mile of gradual descent from the Castle to the palace of Holyrood. To secure the protection afforded by this site, the houses were crowded into the very smallest possible space; they are raised six or seven stories on the side facing the street, which, from the acclivity of the ground, gives to that facing the ravine a height of ten or even fourteen stories. From this central street, there descend on each side closes or lanes about six feet broad, and sloping-very abruptly. The Cowgate, a poor street, inhabited by small tradesmen, extends along the bottom of the ravine, and terminates in a spacious Grass-market, completing old Edinburgh. Although it contains many excellent houses, it is now occupied only by the inferior orders of tradesmen, who occupy spacious apartments at very low rents. The wealthy citizens have migrated to two towns, built on the opposite sides of the Old Town; one on the south side, or St. Leonard's Hill, occupied by citizens of the middle class, those connected with the university, or such as are fond of retirement; the other, called properly the New Town, is on the north; and comprises the residence of almost all the opulent and fashionable classes. Being built on a regular plan, and of fine freestone, it forms one of the most elegant towns in Britain. The beauty of Edinburgh is enhanced by its situation; being overlooked on one side by the eminence of the Castle, and its ancient towers, and on the other by a range of bold hills, the highest of which is called Arthur's Seat. The lowest, the Calton Hill, round which walks of easy access have been formed, commands a fine view of Edinburgh, the Frith of Forth, and its surrounding shores. The general effect, rather than that of any par ticular edifices, constitutes the merit of Edinburgh. Of antique structures, there is nothing very fine, except the large hospital for boys, erected from the funds bequeathed by George Heriot, the celebrated goldsmith. The great cathedral of St. Giles has been admired almost solely for its spire, and Holyrood Palace, a comparatively modern structure, for its little ancient chapel. The former has been now externally rebuilt on a very handsome plan, and the latter has undergone a thorough repair. Four miles south, in a very commanding situation, are the remains of Queen Mary's pleasant country palace of Craigmillar. The Register Office, the new College, and new High School, are elegant structures; but the National Monument, on the Calton Hill, begun on the model of the Parthenon, is stopped for want of funds. Edinburgh is a city eminently scientific and literary, and has even become known under the appellation of the "modern Athens." Connected SCOTLAND. t43 with these pursuits, an extensive trade in printing and publishing books is carried on by some enterprising individuals. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1581, has risen to great fame, both as an institution for teaching, and a nursery for eminent men. The medical school in particular, attracts students from all the three kingdoms. The annual number of students at the University exceeds 2000. They are lodged in the town, and are not subject to any personal discipline, except that of attendance on the lectures. Edinburgh has its Royal Society for physical and literary researches, its Antiquarian and Horticultural Societies, an Institution for the promotion of the Fine Arts, and an Academy for Painting. Leith is the port of Edinburgh, and carries on a considerable import trade for the supply of that capital and all the interior country, for which purpose she carries on a constant intercourse with London and other ports on the eastern coast. Stirling, an extensive and beautiful county, the link between the ffighlands and Lowlands, extends for 35 miles along the Forth. It encloses several of the richest carses in Scotland; but the greater part is hilly and pastoral, while many of the lower grounds consist of fine meadows, adorned by the beautiful meanderings of the Forth. It even encroaches on the Highlands, since its western extremity includes Ben Lomond. This county is traversed by the celebrated Roman wall between the Forth and Clyde, usually ascribed to Antonius, though, from the account of Tacitus, it would appear to have been first formed by Agricola. It seems to have reached from near Dumbarton to Carriden, rather more than 36 miles. Stirling is also crossed by the great canal between the Forth and Clyde. The town of Stirling can boast a situation as noble and commanding as any in Scotland. The view from its castle, which includes entire the principal range of the Grampians, the meadows or links through which the Forth winds, and a part of thirteen counties, is generally considered the finest in the country. The main street like that of Edinburgh, descends gradually down the ridge of the hill on which the castle stands. This fortress, in feudal times, was accounted one of the bulwarks of the kingdom; and Stirling was the frequent seat of royalty, and the scene of many of the memorable and tragic events in Scottish history. The town owes its present limited prosperity chiefly to its carpet manufacture and other branches of industry. Falkirk is a larger town, situated in a broad and beautiful carse, through which the Forth flows. The three great annual trysts exhibit an immense show of highland cattle and sheep, brought up for the supply of the southern districts. The next district, including the county of Roxburgh, Selkirk, Peebles, DIumfries, and part of Lanark, may most properly bear the appellation of pastoral Scotland. It is covered with long ranges of hills, from one to two thousand feet high, clothed with pasturage to their summits. This is the region of Scottish poetry. It was amid these scenes that Thompson and Scott caught that inspiration which has rendered their poetry the delight of their country. The chief occupation in this tract is sheep-farming. The village of Melrose is only distinguished by its abbey, founded by David I., in the twelfth century, and the finest edifice ever erected in the south of Scotland. The profusion of the ornaments, and the beauty of the _ tu rt-.r' s^.o_ ~LL -~ 2-- f jiirF ir' —-r —; ~- i — —--— _TL — *~ —---- ---— -=; - —:"" —" -' —-C; ------— -----— -r —-='C'r.-12 — _— 1- ----- - —-L-r=ll —-= -i —-- -----— r:~~ ----—;L--=Z —_LT —-;-1_ — — —-— s —-II —-.- —----- -- --— =FECs;;EF- —=-LI r-_._ —t —B=iSP-_lIblEeeBSPe —~ ----— =_== —===~ - — ---- i -itt~ —--— —r — - ---- --- - —-- I —a —-~ —---- — ~ — — 1 — -1 —7 -- --— 1 f- —- e- -`Lj2i9BBPhll%~lrL=~. i;-;- -- -- _;-i -- L — —~ -- ---— i --- L. rikY1~Yr;r;lrirIrpllmrwallpr 7aa \ill:'je"""i"""I~.\llgC--I- ------` —— ~ -5 —~ c*il liIRB""""ilE#3BlrPY 1. —P-.T -- ce - T-~_ — ~7 —-x. _ 1 — r ~: I —- ------- - 5 -r t-i;;- -- - —~= —I — C_ ___ -= —- —----— --L_ — i T- — —-Ca~-. ——. —L — ~- — ~C L —-S-. —— —----- -r ---- t ---- — -------- - -. - —-- --.. L —li SCI:O'rL AND -- GL RSGO TJ - - -~~~~ —----— ~-=i —-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —- — r~~~~~~~~~~~ —~~~~~-~~~~S~~~- ~ ~ ~ ~'' —-—.-7 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -,.~-*~ARCHlTECTURE -GLASGOWI EXCHANGE. __ 446 SCOTLAND. sculptures, which remain nearly entire, have rendered it the study of the painter and the theme of the poet. Dumfries, a well-built, gay-looking city, is a sort of southern Scottish capital, and it has been so distinguished from an early period; but no traces remain either of the castle, or of the monastery in which Cumming fell by the hand of Bruce. The town carries on some trade by the Nith, which admits vessels of one hundred and twenty tons, and it has two great annual markets for the cattle from the west; but it is chiefly supported by the gentry who make it their residence. Annan is agreeably situated at the mouth of the river of that name. A small spot, famed in the annals of gallantry, is Gretna Green, close on the English border; whither fly many a fond matrimonial pair, to escape the jealousy of parents and guardians. The Duke of Buccleugh has numerous seats in the district, of which the chief is Dromlanrig Castle, a magnificent edifice, on the Nith, and surrounded by extensive parks and plantations. Among many others round Kelso, is Fleurs, the splendid seat of the Roxburgh family. Abbotsford, from the many additions made by its illustrious proprietor, has become a striking and picturesque object. Ayr, at the point where the rivers Doon-and Ayr fall united into the sea, forms a sort of capital for the gentry of a considerable part of Scotland. It was the principal scene of some great historical events in the time of Wallace and Bruce; and was carefully fortified by Oliver Cromwell; but the bar at the mouth of the harbor has been unfavorable to its progress. It exports, however, chiefly to Ireland, a considerable quantity of coal, brought by railways. The town is irregularly built, but has one handsome principal street. Its theatre, its academy, and some charitable institutions, are on a greater scale than the size of the town might lead us to expect. The counties of Lanark and Renfrew constitute the valley of the Clyde, the grand theatre of Scottish commerce and industry. Lanarkshire, or Clydesdale, is divided into three regions, of widely different character; the upper valley is altogether a rude pastoral region. Below Tinto, the banks of the Clyde assume a softer and gayer character, exhibiting a succession of gardens and orchards. Below Hamilton comes the flat district around Glasgow, which supplies that city with inexhaustible stores of excellent coal. Glasgow is the commercial capital of Scotland, and in population ranks as the third town in the island. Tradition ascribes its origin and erection into a bishopric to St. Mungo, in the year 560. Its rapid rise commenced with the union, which opened to it the trade with America and the West Indies, hitherto monopolised by the English ports. In- 1718, for the first time, a vessel from Clyde sailed across the Atlautic. By the middle of the century, the merchants of Glasgow imported more than half the entire amount of tobacco which came into Great Britain; and to them the French farmers-general chiefly looked for their supply of this important article. The intercourse also with the West Indies, which had hitherto been very limited, was now carried on to a vast extent. A stil greater source of wealth was opened at home. Glasgow had, in the course of the century, become a great manufacturing city, employing her industry on the old staple of linen of the finer descriptions, as cambrics, lawns, gauzes; also in the making of stockings and of shoes for exportation; but its product in these branches never exceeded ~400,000. But when cotton was exteD SCOTLAND. 447 sively introduced into Britain, Glasgow devoted herself entirely to this new manufacture. She became the rival of Manchester; and, if circumstances did not allow her to obtain so great a share of the manufacture, she produced some finer fabrics, and was as prompt in availing herself of every improved process. Glasgow is now the largest town in Great Britain, London and Manchester excepted. The harbor is at the Broomielaw, where there is an extensive quay along the Clyde; but so great are the obstructions to its navigation, that Glasgow depends chiefly for imports on Greenock and Liverpool. The public edifices deserve admiration. The cathedral, one of the finest in Scotland, is a massive structure, with a wooded hill adjoining, on the top of which a monument has been erected to the memory of John Knox. The modern edifices are also handsome; the Lunatic Asylum, the Assembly-rooms, the Infirmary, the Roman Catholic chapel, the New Exchange Reading-rooms, &c., deserve mention. The bridewell is esteemed the most perfect in Scotland, both in point of construction and management. Glasgow is not a mere commercial town; its university, founded in 1450 by Bishop Turnbull, has been adorned by a long succession of illustrious teachers. Paisley, though in Renfrewshire, may be considered next, in order to connect together the great seats of manufacture. Paisley was a small town until the middle of the last century, when it contained little more than 4000 inhabitants. Soon after, its manufactures, which were already begun, made most rapid advances. Down to the year 1783, they consisted chiefly of linen, fine thread, gauzes, both of linen and silk, and other delicate and elegant fabrics. On the introduction of cotton, the manufacturers of Paisley, like those of Glasgow, cultivated this branch almost exclusively, preferring its most elegant species. Muslin, the finest of all the productions of the loom, became the staple of Paisley. The operative weavers of Paisley are equal in intelligence to any class of the same rank elsewhere; and this spirit has led to the formation among them of a number of book societies reading rooms, and subscription librariA. Greenock is entirely a commercial and maritime station; it is the only great western port of Scotland, but by far the larger proportion of the vessels belong to Glasgow. The principal trade consists in importing the produce of the West Indies, to which is added a very extensive herring fishery, and a share of the cod fisheries of Newfoundland and Cape Breton. Greenock is not an elegant town; but the hills behind it command a noble view of the river, and of the mountains of Argyle on the opposite coast. The banks of the Clyde above Glasgow, whose vicinity forms only a small part, however important, of the extensive county of Lanark, are still to be surveyed. First occurs Bothwell, one of the principal seats of the Doug lases. Here Edward I. placed the chief garrison, which was intended to hold Scotland in subjection. It is now a bold and striking ruin, rising above the river banks. A little above is Bothwell Bridge, so noted as the disastrous scene of the route of the covonanting army. But Lanark has a still greater attraction in the falls of the Clyde, Boniton, Corra, Stonebyres, situated above and below it, at about two miles distance from each other. Their height does not exceed eighty or ninety feet; but the mass of water, with the grandeur of the rocky walls and hanging woods, render them one of the finest examples of this description of scenery. 448 SCOTLAND. The northern Lowlands, beyond the Forth, form a belt of about twenty miles in breadth, reaching the shores of the Moray Frith. The coast is generally level and fertile; but a great part of the interior is bleak and moorish. This district contains, however, several cities and seaports of considerable magnitude and importance. Lochleven is a little lake, of considerable beauty, having, on an island in its centre, a castle, anciently of great strength, and noted in history, even before it acquired the romantic interest derived from the imprisonment of Mary, and her adventurous escape. Only a square turreted building and one of the walls of the chapel now remain. On another island are the traces of a very ancient and considerable priory. Dundee, the largest town in Forfarshire, ranks fourth in Scotland as to population and wealth. It was of early importance and strength, deriving its origin from Malcolm Canmore, and it obtained a fatal celebrity through the sieges, by Edward I.; by the Marquis of Montrose; and by Monk, who gave it up to indiscriminate pillage. Dundee, however, has recovered from these disasters, and is become one of the most flourishing commercial towns in Scotland. Montrose is prettily situated at the mouth of a river, bearing, in common with many others, the name of Esk. Its trade and industry are considerable; and it has a safe harbor. A number of the neighboring gentry have been attracted byits agreeable situation, which renders it the most fashionable place in the county. Forfar, the county town, situated in the valley of Strathmore, is chiefly supported by the business of the courts; there is also a manufacture of brown linens. The village of Glammis is distinguished by the magnificent castle in its vicinity. Aberdeen is a large and important northern county. It has a very considerable line of coast, both to the east and to the north, and extends, with increasing breadth, far into the interior. There it forms Mar, or Braemar, a highland district, one of the most elevated in the kingdom, some of the mountains rising to above 4000 feet, and containing extensive forests of ancient pines, with large flocks of wild deer, in the deep glens or valleys. From the heights of Braemar descend the Dee and the Don, the first of which forms some very picturesque falls in its early course. Aberdeen, " the Queen of the North," and the largest city beyond the Forth, is situated between the Dee and the Don. New Aberdeen is a handsome city, especially the principal street, composed of a long range of new and good houses, built of its fine granite. Its commerce, manufactures, and fishery are those of the county, all these branches centering in Aberdeen. This city is now the principal ship-building port in Scotland. The Highlands of Scotland comprise somewhat more than half the surface of the kingdom. This region consists altogether of continuous ranges of lofty mountains, which on the borders, leave between them some of the fine valleys, called straths, but in the interior only the deep and often rocky intervals called glens. They are peopled by a race totally distinct from the Lowlanders. These mountaineers wear a costume, already described, quite peculiar to themselves; they speak a Celtic dialect, deep, strong and guttural, bearing no resemblance to the Teutonic speech of the Lowlands and of England. They have ever maintained that valor, which, ScoTLAND. u449 under Galgacus, set bounds to the career of Roman conquest, and preserved their mountains untouched by the invader; and they have since been converted from formidable foes into gallant defenders of the rest of the empire. The upper part of Strathearn, between Perth and Crieff, varied with gentle hills, cultivated valleys, and the windings of two great rivers, may almost be called the garden of Scotland. As we proceed to the north and west the Grampians gradually swell, and at length are found occupying the whole interior of the county, in a line from north-east to south-west, and comprehending the mighty summits of Ben Lawers, Benmore, Bengloe, Schehallion, Ben Voirlich, Benledi, Benvenua; all from 3000 to upwards of 4000 feet high. Within their recesses they enclose three large lochs, Tay, Earn, and Katrine, These lakes, varied with woods and verdure, exhibit in many parts scenes of great grandeur and beauty. In the lowlands of Perth, agriculture is carried to great perfection; the highland tracts, on the contrary, are in general fit only for pasturage. Perth is well built, and, as to situation, one of the most beautiful cities in the kingdom. The view of it from the north, in particular, in the heart of a finely wooded plain, with the Tay winding round it, and the Hill of Moncrieff rising above, is almost without a rival in the kingdom. Perth might, for a long time, be considered the capital of Scotland. It was the frequent residence of the kings. Parliaments and general assemblies met there oftener than in any other place; and, in the civil contests, the pos session of Perth was considered of vital importance by the contending par ties. At present it has declined to a rank decidedly provincial; and its commerce, once considerable, has been almost wholly transferred to Dundee. The other towns of Perthshire are small, but distinguished for the grand and picturesque scenery amid which they are situated. Dunkeld, in this respect, is generally considered the pride of Scotland; the finely wooded and rocky hills through which the Tay meanders, with the valleys and glens opening on every side, produce a diversity of landscape scarcely equalled elsewhere. The late duke of Athol, whose spacious domains cover this part of Perthshire, was most active in respect to plantations, since those of Dunkeld alone cover 11,000 acres; and the whole number of trees planted by the duke amount to 30,000,000. Inverness, the gay capital of the Highlands, is of a very different char acter from that of the wild region over which it holds a sort of dominion. Seated on a bay, at the head of the Moray Frith, it partakes in a great measure of the mild and fertile character of its shores, and stands at some little distance from the awful ranges of mountains by which it is enclosed. Dumbarton has a lowland strip extending along the northern banks of the Clyde. In the western part are the Great canal, joining the Clyde at Dunglass; and the wall of Antonius, called by the Scottish vulgar " Graham's dike." The approach to Dumbarton affords one of the most striking prospects in Scotland; and its castle, the ancient.and mighty hold of the Britons, towering on the summit of a perpendicular rock, still maintains its importance as a fortress. Dumbarton has a large manufactory of crown glass, which is exported to foreign parts; and on the banks of the Leven there are extensive printfields. Climbing the high mountains at the head of Loch Etive, we come to Glenooe, which in terrific grandeur surpasses perhaps every other spot in Great 29 450 IRELAND. Britain. This effect is produced by its bold and broken mountain forms, its spiry rocks, and black precipices; at the bottom of which, in a deep chasm or ravine, flows the rivulet of Coe. This stream is the Cona of Ossian, believed the favorite haunt of that celebrated Caledonian bard. The islands appendant on Scotland, form one of its most conspicuous features. Though neither rich nor fertile in proportion to their extent, they exhibit a great variety of bold and striking scenery, and are peopled by,a race whose habits of life and forms of society are peculiar to themselves. They may be divided into the islands at the mouth of the Clyde; the Hebrides, or Western Islands; and the Northern Islands, or those of Orkney and Shetland. Staffa, a large rock, about a mile and a half round, and encircled by cliffs, which nowhere exceed in height, 144 feet, contains the Cave of Fingal. Almost all the rocks of the island are basaltic and columnar; but here they are arranged so as to produce the most singular and magnificent effect. An opening, 66 feet high and 42 wide, formed by perpendiclar walls terminated by an arch at the top, admits into a natural hall, more than 200 feet long, and bounded on each side by basaltic columns rising in regular symmetrical succession. Two other caves, the Cormorants' Cave and the Boat's Cave, present similar scenes. Of the columnar rocks, which extend over a great part of the island, many are bent and twisted in a remarkable many. Iona, a small island near Staffa, excites the deepest interest by the venerable ruins which attest, in this secluded corner, the early existence of religion and learning, at a time when the rest of the kingdom was buried in barbarism. St. Columba, about the middle of the sixth century, founded here a monastery, and made it a centre whence he endeavored to diffuse the light of Christianity. The Zetland or Shetland islands, called by the natives lailtland, form one of the extremities of Europe, encircled by the illimitable extent of the Arctic and Atlantic oceans. The aspect of these shores against which the waves of the great surrounding ocean dash with almost perpetual fury, is equally grand and terrible. The author of " The Pirate " draws a most lively picture of these " deep and dangerous seas of the north, their precipices and headlands, many hundred feet in height-their perilous straits, and currents, and eddies-long sunken reefs of rock, over which the vivid ocean foams and boils —dark caverns to whose extremities neither man nor skiff has ever ventured-lonely and often uninhabited isles, and occasionally the ruins of ancient northern fastnesses, dimly seen by the feeble light of the arctic winter." IRELAND. Amu, 28,095 SQUARX mwru. POPuLArTON, 8,600,000. IRELAND forms the third grand division of the United Kingdom. Its greatest length is from Cape Clear, in 51~ 19', to Malin Head, in 55~ 23' north latitude; making about 280 miles. The utmost breadth, if reckoned IRELAND. 451t from the most easterly point of the county of Down (opposite Bur Island) to Dunmore Head in Kerry, will be 218 miles; but it is nowhere so broad under the same parallel of latitude. The surface of Ireland cannot on the whole be called mountainous; its central districts composing one vast plain, which crosses the kingdom from east to west. It is, however, diversified by ranges of mountains, superior in extent, and, with the exception of those of Wales, equal in elevation, to any in England. Wicklow, in the vicinity of Dublin, may be classed as an alpine region. On the borders of Leinster and Munster, the SlieveBloom, the Knockmele Down, and the Galties, form long and lofty ranges, commanding an extensive view over the wide plains that stretch beneath them. All these, however, are much surpassed by the extreme south-west county of Kerry, which presents a complete chaos of lofty and rocky sumiits. The most elevated are those which enclose the beautiful and finely wooded lakes of Killarney, Mangerton and Macgillicuddy's Reeks, the last of which is considerably more than 3000 feet high. At the opposite, or north-eastern extremity of Ireland, Antrim presents to the Scottish seas a barrier of rocky cliff, less lofty, but of a very bold and peculiar character; precipitous, and formed into long columnar ranges; a phenomenon which the Giant's Causeway exhibits on a greater scale than any other spot in the known world. The Mourne mountains, a lofty granite range in the south of the county of Down; those of Carlingford, which extend into the county of Armagh; with considerable ranges in Tyrone, Derry, and Don-. egal, may dispute the pre-eminence with those of the south. In Connaught there are also some considerable detached mountains, of which Croaghpatrick in Mayo, has been reckoned by some to exceed even Macgillicuddy's Reeks; but Ireland has no extended table-lands, like those which cover a considerable part of England. The most elevated part of the Bog of Allen, in that central point where the rivers divide, is not more than 270 feet above the level of the sea. The Shannon is without a rival in the three kingdoms. It rises far in the north, from Lough Allen in the province of Connaught, and has a course of 170 miles, throughout the whole of which it is more or less navigable, the only obstruction which existed, having been removed. Below Limerick it expands into an estuary about sixty miles in length, by which the largest vessels have access to that city. The Barrow is also an important river, which runs southward through the greater part of Leinster, receives from the west the Nore and the Suire, and finally forms the harbor of Waterford. The Boyne, so celebrated for the victory gained on its banks; the Foyle, which, after passing Londonderry, forms Lough Foyle; the Bann, which passes through Lough Neagh, and affords a flourishing salmon fishery; and the B]lackwater, which terminates in the bay and port of Youghal, are also deserving of mention. The other rivers are rather numerous than of long course; but they almost all terminate in wide estuaries and loughs, which diffuse through Ireland the means of water communication, and afford a multiplicity of spacious and secure harbors. Lakes or loughs are a conspicuous feature in Ireland, where this last name, like the similar one used in Scotland, is in many instances applied to arms of the sea. Lough Neagh is the largest lake in the United Kingdom, covering nearly 100,000 acres. Its banks are flat, tame, and in many 452 IREBLAD. places marshy and inundated. Loch Erne, also in Ulster, is divided into two reaches, the united length of which is about thirty miles, while its circuit includes a great variety of rich and ornamented scenery. Lough Foyle, Lough Swilly, and Belfast Lough, are properly bays. The Shannon forms several lakes, of which Lough Ree is the principal; and the whole of its course downwards from Limerick resembles more a lough or bay than a river. Connaught has several extensive lakes. That of Kil larney, in the south, is famed, not for its extent, but for the singular grandeur and beauty of its shores. The prevalent soil in Ireland is a fertile loam resting on a lime-stone foundation. The soil, though of no great depth, is sufficiently so for all agricultural purposes, and yields well with proper care. Tipperary and Limerick, long distinguished as the golden vale, possess an extraordinary fertility. In some parts of Ireland, the rocks rise above the surface in wave-like succession, the interstices being filled with rich mould, and covered with a thick close sward, which affords excellent pasturage. Large districts of grazing land are seldom met with, the only extensive tract of this description is the Curragh of Kildare, which has been used from time immemorial as a sheep walk. The mountains are capable of tillage for a considerable height, and their summits, except in a few instances, afford an abundant pasture for sheep in summer. The vegetable and cereal productions are entirely the same as in England, the difference being in the relative amount of the several staples. Potatoes and oats form a large moiety of the agricultural growths. Ireland was formerly entirely covered with vast forests, which, in the early period of its connection with England, formed the chief obstacle to the progress of the invaders. The roof of Westminster Hall is built of timber cut in the wood of Shillalagh. Trunks of large trees are frequently found in the bogs; and even in the mountain tracts, which have long been devoted to sheep-walks, trees shoot up spontaneously whenever the land is secured from the intrusion of cattle. Timber is now scarce in Ireland, but the extension of agricultural improvement, and more especially the c" timber act," which gives the tenant an interest in the trees he may plant, are gradually remedying this important want. The climate of Ireland is much milder and more equable than that of England. The winters along the western coast are especially mild, no doubt occasioned by the prevalence of the west winds. Frost and snow are not frequent, and are seldom of long continuance in the southern and south-western districts. In these, however, the falls of rain are heavy during the autumn and winter. Notwithstanding the general mildness which prevails, and which preserves the verdure of the fields throughout the year, the seasons are generally later than in England. On the whole, the climate is well adapted to vegetation, and it is seldom that such famines as those which desolated the years 1846-7-8 occur. These, however, were extraordinary years, and owed their short-comings to the loss of one staple, the potatoe, which suffered alike in other parts of Europe, and also in America. The animals of this island differ generally in no respects from those of Rngland, and require no specification. The Irish believe that every sort of venomous reptile was banished from the island by St. Patrick. Ireland IRELAND. 458 was also famous for a peculiar breed of falcons: and the bones and horns of a gigantic elk or moose-deer are found in the bogs. The antiquities of Ireland may be classed under the heads of the Cromleac, the Cairn, the Circle, the Pillar-Stone, the Barrow, the Dun, the Lis, the Rath, the ancient Stone-roofed Buildings, and the lofty and beautifully built Bound Towers. The name (Iromleac is compounded of Crom, which signifies fate or providence, and leac, a stone, literally " the stone or altar of God;" and to what god they were dedicated, sufficiently appears by the name retained by so many of these altars. They vary in size and form, and in most instances consist of three upright supporters, two at the lower and one at the upper end, upon which the altar-stone was balanced; underneath this, and between the uprights, a hollow is usually found, which is thought to have been for the purpose of facilitating the passage of cattle and children under the sacred fire-a custom which seems to be alluded to in the Scriptures, when the Israelites are reproached with passing their sons and daughters through the fire to Moloch, one of the names given to the sun. Of the Cairn there are two kinds, the burying and the simple cairn, or high places made of stones flattened on the top. These artificial high places were usually situated on an eminence; and here, on festival days, especially the first of May and the first of November, the fires of Bel were wont to be lighted. At these times all household fires were extinguished, to be re-kindled by a brand from the sacred flame-a practice which continued till the time of St. Patrick, who succeeded in putting an end to it. Tumuli of this description abound in all parts of the kingdom. Among the earliest and peculiar antiquities of Ireland, are the low stoneroofed buildings, with high wedge-shaped roofs; of these, a few instances still exist at Kells, Kildare, Ardmore, and Killaloe. The most remarkable relics of the olden times of Ireland are the lofty Bound Towers, of which, perfect and imperfect, one hundred and eighteen have been enumerated in various parts of the kingdom. They are built with a wonderful uniformity of plan. They are all circular, of small diameter, and great altitude. In most of them the door is at some height from the ground; small loop-hole windows, at distances in the sides, give light to the spaces where the different floors once were; and generally there were four large-sized windows round the top, immediately below the roof, which is high and cone-shaped. There are, however, two or three towers, in which it does not appear that there ever were any windows round the top. Of the excellence of the masonry, a proof was given some years ago by the tower of Mahera, which, in consequence of having been undermined, was blown down, and lay at length and entire upon the ground, like a huge gun, without breaking to pieces, so wonderfully hard and binding was the cement with which it had been constructed. Various theories have been offered as to the purpose for which these mysterious buildings were erected; the only clear point seems to be, that they were religious, as they are always placed near churches. They vary in height from 35 to 120 feet; the internal diameter from 10 to 16 feet, and the outer circumference from 46 to 56 feet. Their tapering shape forms one of their most marked characteristics. Ancient weapons and golden ornaments are from time to time dug up in all parts of Ireland, as bronze swords, exactly like those discovered at Carthage and on the field of Marathon. Multitudes, also, of spear-heads, 454 IRELAND. of all sizes5 made of the same mixed metal, and curiously shaped bronze rings, have from time to time been discovered, the use of which had long been a desideratum to antiquaries, when a recent event unexpectedly threw light upon the subject, and confirmed the conjecture of Sir William Betham as to their having been current money. A variety of golden articles have been discovered in many parts of the country, such as semi-lunar shaped disks, formed of thin plates of pure gold; torques, or large twisted collars for the neck; armlets, brooches, rings, pieces of gold, bell-shaped, but solid and fastened together, the use of which has not been made out; and some rings of the same shape as those of bronze, which have been proved by Sir William Betham to have been used as money. The traveler in Ireland must be struck with the vast numbers of small castles which stud the whole country. They chiefly bear date about the reign of Elizabeth, by whose orders they were raised, as strongholds to overawe the Irish. They are usually high and square, with towers at each corner. Besides these fortalices, there are ruins of very large castles, so customarily attributed to king John, as to show that they were built in the early times. Of these the extensive ruin at Trim, in the county of Meath, affords a fair example, as being one of the largest, and often formerly the residence of the viceroy or chief governor. Parliaments were held within its walls, and money minted there and sent into circulation. A few of the ancient castles belonging to the old nobility still continue to be inhabited. The extent of country, and the objects of culture in Ireland, vary considerably from those of the sister kingdom. Its superficial extent is computed at 12,000,000 Irish, or 19,278,760 English acres. Of this, notwithstanding the considerable amount to be deducted for mountain, lakes, and bogs, Mr. Young calculates that there is a greater proportion of productive land than in England. The soil of Ireland is shallow, consisting most generally of a thin sprinkling of earth over a rocky ground; but the copious moisture wafted from the sea, by which it is everywhere surrounded, produces a quick and rapid vegetation, and in particular a brilliancy of verdure, not equalled perhaps in any other region of Europe. Such a country is of course highly favorable to pasturage; and as this pursuit is suited to the imperfect stages of culture, the rearing of live stock has been long the main staple of Irish husbandry. Its luxuriant plains are depastured by vast herds of black cattle; and from this source is derived the very large quantity of salted provisions shipped from the southern ports. The dairy is also a great branch of industry in Ireland. None of its cheeses, indeed, have acquired a reputation; but butter of excellent quality is made and largely exported. Another species of live stock is an essential article to the economy of an Irish cultivator. The pig usually shares his cabin, and is fed, like himself, on potatoes. It is too great a luxury to be killed for his own consumption; but is sold and driven to the ports to be salted for exportation. Sheep are bred extensively on the mountain tracts, which are unfit for rearing any other stock. In many places they are bred for the wool and milk. In this last respect, however, goats are more productive; and they are reared in immense quantities in the mountain districts in the north. The Irish horses are small, hardy, and capable of doing much work upon little food. Poultry are fed in great numbers in and around all the cabins, the interior of which they are admitted to share; a practice extremely favorable to their increase. The produce of grain is IRnLAND. 465 also large, notwithstanding the imperfect processes employed in cultivating it., Wheat and barley were little raised till of late, when both the culture and export of the former have been greatly extended. Still the main objects are oats and potatoes; the former as the subject of a large export, the lattgr as the staple food of a considerable body of the people. Flax is also a valuable product of Irish husbandry, affording the material of the linen manufacture. There is a want of trees in Ireland. The immense forests which somb centuries ago covered a great proportion of its surface, have fallen and been converted in a great measure into moss or bog. The bogs of Ireland present an extensive obstacle to cultivation. They are estimated by the parliamentary commissioners at 2,330,000 English acres. From them, indeed, fuel is supplied to many districts, yet the draining of a large portion would be certainly desirable; and the commissioners seem to think that, from their generally elevated position, this might be done with great facility and advantage. The great quantity of water beneath these bogs causes often a singular phenomenon, that of moving bogs. Bursting the surface, the bog inundates the surrounding lands, spreading desolation and barrenness through its whole course, which in one instance extended no less than twenty miles. In respect to manufactures, the state of Ireland cannot be described as flourishing; a misfortune for which she may accuse the oppressive policy of England. One species of fabric, however, she has been allowed and even encouraged to cultivate, and it has attained to a very considerable magnitude. The linen manufacture was first introduced by the Earl of Strafford, who brought flax-seed from Holland, and workmen from France and the Netherlands. His attainder, and the subsequent troubles, suspended the,undertaking; but it was revived by the Duke of Ormond, who established near Dublin a colony from Brussels, Jersey, and Rochelle, and gave lands on advantageous terms to those willing to embark in the business. After the Revolution, the English parliament created a board for the promotion of the linen manufacture, and granted bounties both on the raising of flax and the export of linen. These exertions met with great success; and the manufacture has become general throughout Ireland, and particularly in Ulster. Fishery is a branch of industry for which the extended shores and deep bays of Ireland would be peculiarly adapted. Nor do the inland waters, the rivers and lakes, less abound in the species of fish appropriate to them. The diligence of the Irish in taking fish for immediate consumption is considerable, being urged on by the frequent abstinence from other food which their Catholic profession enjoins. Their trout and salmon are distinguished both for size and taste: the salmon are caught by weirs, stake-nets, and ether contrivances, but with so little precaution that their number has been sensibly diminished. The curing of fish has made very little progress, when compared with the opportunities which the coasts of Ireland afford; and Ireland cannot come into competition with Scotland. Canals have been undertaken in Ireland on an extensive scale, but with only a small portion of the expected benefit. This seems partly owing to the excessive magnitude of the plans, and partly to the prevalence of 456 IRELAND. jobbing. The two chief undertakings are the Grand and the Royal canals, both proceeding from Dublin into the interior. The former, commenced in 1756, has, by large advances from government, been completed, at an expense of upwards of ~2,000,000. It is carried across Kildare and King's County to the Shannon, near Clonfert. This distance is eighty-seven miles, which, with a branch to the Barrow at Athy, one westward to Ballinasloe, and several others, makes an entire length of 156 miles. The Royal Canal, of nearly the same dimensions, reaches from Dublin, through Meath and Longford, nearly eighty-three miles, to Tarmonbarry, on the Shannon. The expense was ~1,420,000. The roads of Ireland have long been excellent. Any person may present a memorial to the grand jury of the county, showing the necessity of a new road, and if this presentment be approved, the work immediately proceeds. POPULATION OF IRELAND. i. L T. 2. ULSTER. Leitrim....................55,207 Crlow.................. 86,228 Antrim........,..........60875 Mayo.388887 Roscoamon............,9 Dubltn....*872,78338 Armagh....... 232,93 9 c8 o. 2, Sllgo............181,886 Kildae..... 114,488 Cava...... 243,158 Kilkenny............ 202,420 Donegal.......... 296,448 4. MUNTER. King's.. 14~6,857 Down............ 361,446 Longford...... 115,491 Fermanagh.............156,481 Clare...286,394 Louth.............. 111,979 Londonderry.........................854,118 Meath.................183,828 Monaghan.... 200,442 Kerry......... 293,880 Queen's........... 15,830 Tyrone................12,956 Limerick.................30,029 Westmeath............141,300 Tipperary......45,553 Wexford.............202,03. CONNAUGHe. Wterford.... B196,187 Wicklow................. 126,143 Gal Drogheda......16,261 al.................... The Irish character presents very marked features, many of which are amiable, and even admirable. Hospitality is an universal trait, and is enhanced by the scantiness of the portion which is liberally shared with the stranger. The Irish are brave, lively, merry, and witty; and even the lowest ranks have a courteous and polite address. They are celebrated for warmth of heart, and for strong attachments of kindred and friendship, which leads them, out of their scanty means, to support their aged relations with the purest kindness. Benevolence is a distinguishing feature of the higher ranks. They are curious, intelligent, and eager for information. With so many good qualities, it were too much to expect that there should not be some faults. They have little taste for conveniences or luxuries; and are destitute of that sober and steady spirit of enterprise which distinguishes the English. The love of fighting seems to be a general infirmity. The fairs, which, in every town and village of Ireland, are regular and of long duration, afford the grand theatres, first of unbounded mirth, and ultimately of bloody conflict. The Irish do not fight single-handed, but in bands, and on a great scale. On receiving a supposed injury, they go round to their companions, friends, and townsmen, and collect a multitude, with which they make a joint attack on the objects of their wrath. The ecclesiastical state of Ireland has been one of the chief causes of its unsettled condition. The native Irish did not share in any degree the reformation so unanimously adopted in England and Scotland. When, therefore, the English church was introduced as the established religion, it threw out, as dissenters, the bulk of the Irish population. Even of the protestant part, a large proportion introduced as colonists from Scotland, were attached to the presbyterian form. IRELAND. 457 The Roman Catholic clergy receive no stipend from government, but are entirely supported by their flocks. They are formed, however, into a regular hiearchy, at the head of which are four archbishops; Armagh, (the primate,) Tuam, Cashel, and Dublin. Under them are twenty-two bishops, with a vicar-general, dean, and archdeacon in each diocese. The number of Catholic priests has been stated at 1400, besides several hundred friars. Their income arises less from any fixed allowance, than from dues, offerings, and presents; and the bishops, to make up their incomes, receive from the parish priests a portion of what they have collected. The Established Church of Ireland is in union with that of England, and every way similar. The literature of Ireland in modem times, cannot boast any very distinguished preeminence; yet she has maintained her station in the literary world. In wit and eloquence, indeed, she has excelled both the sister kingdoms. In the former quality, Swift and Sheridan shine unrivalled; and in the latter, Burke, Grattan, and Curran have displayed daring and brilliant flights. In her graver pursuits, Ireland has not been so happy; though Usher attained the first eminence in theological learning, and Berkeley was the author of a highly ingenious system of philosophy. The Irish establishments for education are scarcely adequate to the magnitude of the country. There is only one university, that of Dublin, founded by Elizabeth on the model of those of England, but not on so great a scale. Of it and of other Irish literary institutions, an account will be found under the head of Dublin. As the constitution of this university is strictly Protestant, and does not allow the teaching of Catholic theology, the students of that faith must have been all educated abroad, had not government endowed for their use the College of Maynooth. It is supported by a revenue of about ~9000 a year, and contains a president, vice-president, and eleven professors, all with moderate appointments. The students receive board and education; and the whole annual expense of each is not supposed to exceed ~20. The students of the north resort chiefly to Glasgow for theology, and to Edinburgh for medicine; though there has been an attempt to obviate this necessity by the formation of an institution at Belfast. The education of the poor in Ireland is a subject which excites the deepest interest in all the friends of that country. It appears that by the 8th of Henry VIII., every clergyman, on his induction, becomes bound to keep or cause to be kept an English school. This act, however, is either obsolete, or so far evaded that only 23,000 children are now taught in these parochial schools. The greatest effortat Irish education, however, is that made by the Charter Schools, instituted in 1733, which, by parliamentary grants and private benefactions, have enjoyed an income of ~30,000 a year. But this sum, which might almost furnish schools to the half of Ireland, is spent upon 2000 boys, who receive board as well as instruction. Although the act recites no other object than instruction in the English tongue, proselytism has become almost the sole aim. The Hibernian Society, the Baptist Society, and that for discountenancing vice, support schools to a very considerable extent. The Kildare Street Society, established in 1812, founded numerous schools, in which they endeavored to induce the Catholics to attend by renouncing all attempts to gain proselytes; but from the entire Scriptures being read in these schools, and other 458 IRELAND. alledged causes, the Catholics were supposed to view them with jealousy.'The allowance made to this society was therefore withdrawn, and a new plan instituted, in which the moral and literary is separated from the religious education, and is communicated to the youth of both religions during four or five days in the week, while, in the remaining period, religious instruction is expected to be administered by the clergy of the respective churches. Extracts only from the Scripture, approved by the leading Catholic clergy, are read in the common schools. Local funds, to a certain extent, are required to be contributed. The fine arts do not appear to have attained any great excellence in Ireland. Her best painters have sought for patronage in the British metropolis; and the attempts to establish an annual exhibition in Dublin have not succeeded. The Irish harp and native Irish melodies enjoy considerable reputation. The ecclesiastical structures have not that splendor and richness which so strongly mark many of those in England; but the modern edifices, especially in Dublin, display a taste as well as magnificence which render that capital almost preeminent. In funerals, marriages, and similar solemnities, the Irish retain several old national customs. The practice of hired howling women at funerals, called ululates, is very prevalent; a considerable sum is paid to those employed, though, in cases of necessity, they howl gratis. A still more -singular custom is that of the wakes, where thirty or forty neighbors assemble, are entertained with meat and drink, and indulge in every sort of fun. Marriages in many parts of the country are marked by some real, or at least apparent, violence; the bridegroom collects a large party of friends, seizes and carries off the seemingly reluctant bride. Alluding to this custom, her going to her husband's house, even in ordinary cases, is called the "hauling home." Amusement, forms a copious element in the existence of an Irishman. Ample scope is afforded to the Catholics by their numerous holidays, and the Protestants vie with them in this particular. The fairs afford a grand theatre for fun of every description. The chief bodily exercise is hurling, which consists in driving a ball to opposite goals; to this are added horseracing, cock-fighting, cudgelling, leaping, and dancing; to say nothing of drinking and fighting. The conversation of the Irish is distinguished by loud mirth, seasoned with a good deal of humor, by singing, and telling long stories. The houses of the Irish, if we except those of the rich, or in towns, which are formed after the English model, are mere hovels formed of earth, taken out of the ground on which they stand; whence the floor is reduced at least a foot below the outer level, and becomes a receptacle for all the superfluous moisture. No compulsory provision exists in Ireland for the support of the poor; a circumstance to which we are inclined to ascribe much of their distressed state, as well as of the backward state of the country in general. Not being obliged to contribute anything to their support, the landlords and occupiers have, generally speaking, manifested great indifference to the condition of the peasantry. Few among them have hesitated to allow their estates to be subdivided into minute portions to advance their political interests, or to obtain an increase of rent. But it is abundantly certain that TRELAND. 459 they would have paused before venturing on such a course of proceeding, had they been made responsible, in all time to come, for the paupers they were thus introducing upon their properties. The dress of the Irish peasantry consists chiefly of the native wool, worked rudely up into frieze or linsey; for they seldom can afford to wear the fine linen which they fabricate. But the most prominent feature of this attire among the lowest class, is its lamentable deficiency; in many instances it covers little more than half of the person, and presents an image of extreme poverty. When this deficiency does not exist, the Irishman loves to display the extent of his wardrobe; when going to a fair, he puts on all the coats he has, though the season be midsummer. The food of the Irish peasant is no less scanty than his dress and habitation. It is almost wholly comprised in the potato, without any other vegetable (for he is a stranger to the luxury of a garden), and only in favorable circumstances is it accompanied with milk. This food, however, is sufficient to preserve him in full health and vigor. In the north, the use of oatmeal in the forms of cakes and pottage has been derived from Scotland. Ireland is divided into four provinces, or rather regions: Leinster in the east, Munster in the south, Connaught in the west, and Ulster in the north. This is independent of the minuter English divisions into counties, a number of which are comprised in each of the four provinces. These last, indeed, when Ireland was ruled by native governments, formed separate kingdoms. They are still distinguished by marked boundaries, by a different aspect of nature, and by a considerable variation of manners and customs. Leinster is the richest and most cultivated of the four great divisions, and, as containing the seat of government, the most important theatre of political events Though the surface be level to a great extent, it is not destitute of considerable ranges of mountains. These include almost the whole county of Wicklow, whose bold and picturesque summits are seen even from Dublin. In the interior, the long range of Slieve-Bloom stretches towards the borders of Munster. A considerable part also of the midland counties is covered by the great bog, which crosses the whole centre of Ireland. After all deductions, however, there remains a large extent of level land, fit either for tillage or pasturage. This is the part of Ireland.where wheat is grown to the greatest extent, oats being elsewhere almost the only grain; and its rich pastures supply the capital with cattle and the products of the dairy. Leinster comprises the counties of Dublin, Kildare, Queen's county, King's county, Wicklow, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Meath, Westmeath, Longford, and Louth. The county of Dublin owes its distinction almost exclusively to its containing the capital of Ireland. The city of Dublin disputes with Edinburgh and Bath the reputation of being the most beautiful city in the empire, If the brick of which the houses are built impair the effect of the general range of its streets and squares, its public buildings, composed of stone, surpass in grandeur and taste those of any of its rivals. There is no period of -Irish record in which Dublin was not an important place. It is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of Eblana. The Danes, in the 460 IRME D. ninth century, made it their capital, and enclosed it with a wall about a mile in length, the course of which may still be traced. As soon as the English began to establish themselves in Ireland, its proximity induced them to make it their head-quarters; it grew up with the improvement of Ireland and the extension of the English sway, but all its splendor has arisen within the last sixty or seventy years. The numerous streets and squares formed during that period have been built on a regular plan, and contain several superb mansions, which once belonged to the principal nobles. The squares are particularly admired; that of St. Stephen's Green is nearly seven furlongs in circuit; Merrion Square, which contains the splendid mansion of Leinster House; Rutland Square, in the interior of which are the gardens of the Lying-in Hospital; and Mounjoy Square, are also spacious and finely laid out. Of the streets, the finest is Sackville Street, 170 feet wide, and adorned with many splendid mansions. To the west is the old town, now bearing marks of decay, and still further west is the tract called " the Liberty," as being out of the jurisdiction of the magistrates. It is inhabited only by the lowest orders, and exhibits scenes of filth and wretchedness not to be paralleled in any city of the sister island. A room fifteen feet square is frequently let to three or four families; and one house was ascertained to have lodged 108 persons. Dublin has been "shorn of its beams" since the Union; when the nobles and gentry, no longer called to attend parliament, transferred their own residence to the metropolis of the empire, and their Dublin mansions have been converted to humbler purposes. The Castle, the residence of the lord lieutenant, is extensive; but its architectural beauty is almost confined to a modern Gothic chapel. The cathedral of St. Patrick and Christ Church have a venerable aspect; but they can rank only secondary to the fine structures in the English cities. The splendid structure, formerly the parliament-house of Ireland, and now the national bank, was built between 1729 and 1739; but an eastern front was added in 1785, and a western front shortly after. The portico is 147 feet in length, supported by lofty Ionic columns; the whole covering an acre and a half of ground. Th:e Royal Exchange forms a square of 100 feet, and its principal front has a richlv decorated portico of six Corinthian columns. The Four Law Courts, situated on the north bank of the river, form also one of the noblest structures in Dublin: it consists of a square of 140 feet, presenting a front of six Corinthian pillars, supporting a circular lantern and magnificent dome. The quay is ornamented by the Custom-house, of which the front is entirely of Portland stone, embellished with a Doric colonnade, and extending 375 feet. The Post Office, in Sackville Street, is extensive and magnificent, with a front of 223 feet, adorned with an Ionic portico of Portland stone; the main structure is of granite. In the centre of Sackville Street is the monument erected to Nelson; an object by no means ornamental. The inns of court, the theatre, the half finished Roman Catholic metropolitan chapel, and several other churches and chapels, with many of the hospitals, may be mentioned as adding to the architectural splendor of Dublin. All the usual associations for the relief of distress are supported on a liberal scale, and great zeal is shown in favor of all institutions for the promotion of knowledge. Trinity College was founded in 1593; and its students amount to 1,600. There are twenty-five fellowships, and the livings in the gift of the univer IRELAND. 461sity, which are considerable in number and value, are offered to the fellows in the order of seniority. The gradations of rank, amongst the fellows in Trinity College, are indicated by a different dress and table. The library contains 100,000 volumes; but its other collections are not equal to those of the Dublin Society. Usher, Swift, Berkeley, Chandler, Leland, Parnell, Burke, Grattan, Curran, with other distinguished characters, are mentioned as pupils of this seminary. The buildings of the College are on a large scale, divided into three quadrangles, for the accommodation of the fellows and pupils. The front towards College Green extends 300 feet, and is adorned with columns of the Corinthian order. The library forms a fourth quadrangle, built. of hewn stone, with a rich entablature; and the principal room, 210 feet long and 41 feet broad, is elegantly fitted up. At a short distance from town is a botanic garden. The Royal Dublin Society, incorporated in 1749, for the promotion of husbandry and the useful arts, has a botanic garden; a museum of natural history; a school for drawing, with models; and teachers in all these departments. The Royal Irish Academy, incorporated in 1782, has published many volumes of Transactions. The Dublin Institution has been formed on the model of that of London, and a city Library established. Although a great literary spirit prevails in Dublin, there are few books printed there, and the art of printing is in a backward state. The works of Irish authors issue from the London presses. Dublin has very little foreign trade; but she has a considerable trade with England, particularly with Liverpool. The bay is spacious, and has good anchorage; but the entrance is beset with formidable sand-banks, particularly those called the North and South Bulls, which cannot be passed by large vessels at low water; so that vessels embayed at that time of the tide, and attacked by strong easterly gales, can scarcely escape being driven upon one of them. To avert these evils, a double wall has been constructed three miles in length, composed of enormous blocks of granite, dovetailed into each other, the interval filled with gravel; and a light-house erected at the end. Another pier of great extent has been built at Dunleary, now Kingstown, on the southern side of the bay, which is connected by a railway with the capital. To these advantages Dublin unites that of being placed at the termination of the Grand Canal on the south, and the Royal Canal on the north, which penetrate by different lines to the Shannon and the interior of Ireland. The environs are celebrated for their beauty. The vast number of villas and villages which cover the adjacent districts, and are rendered conspicuous by the ground sloping down to the bay; the foreground of the Dublin mountains, and the picturesque summits of those of Wicklow in the background, render the situation striking and delightful. To the west, Phoenix Park, a royal demesne of several miles in circumference, affords an agreeable promenade, and has lately been adorned with an obelisk, 210 feet high, in honor of the Duke of Wellington. The rest of the county contains only villages, and the interior possesses few interesting objects. The shores of the bay, however, include many striking sites; and the view from the Hill of Killiney is almost matchless. Wicklow is in general composed of bog, forest, and mountain, and contributes little to the wealth of Ireland. It is, however, celebrated for picturesque beauty. Its coast, diversified by hills, broken into glens, and rr~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —_-_ ---- - -.:: ~ ~= —.-r~ —~r_,i~w',~!cl ~,;;~~~~~~~ I, =-!~ -s —— ~-I-=-~ —-~=I; 4 ~~-~ _3-~~-;r~~r=~_= —=_=-~~Z;_i-=~-.~."~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~',; —r..-,~.~.~7'~.~~-'"'*' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i..::-. ~~II~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~: ~'-... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —_ ~ —— = ——,-_~ ~ __ __.~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —- ~..:.~....,_ — ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —Ii=IS-I SC~E —-B~Z~OFGLENG!~IFF 464 IELAD. richly wooded, is almost covered with the seats of the gentry and opulent citizens of Dublin. These variegated and embellished grounds, having on one side the expanse of the Irish Channel, and on the other the lofty mountains in the interior, produce a number of beautiful sites. The demesne of Powers-court is preeminent, the water-fall descending 360 feet down a steep hill, amid vast hanging woods. The interior of the county presents features of a very different description; glens between lofty mountains, naked and desolate. Among these is Glendalough, which is surrounded by a most majestic circuit of mountains, and contains some remarkable ecclesiastical monuments, attributed to St. Kevin, a great patron saint of Ireland in the seventh century. One of his disciples founded at Glendalough a little city, long celebrated as a seat of religion and learn ing. Only its site can now be traced; but there are distinct remains of seven churches, among which the cathedral and St. Kevin's kitchen are the most entire. Loughs Dan and Bray, situated in the bosom of the wildest mountains, and enclosed, by dark and lofty rocks, present nature under an aspect the most rudely sublime. Wexford, to the south of Wicklow, is separated from it by a range of mountains; but the interior contains a great deal of level land, in which agriculture is pursued with greater diligence, and the tenantry are more comfortable, than in most other parts of Ireland. Kilkenny, a fine and extensive county, separated from Wexford by the Barrow, is watered not only by that river, but'by its tributaries the Nore and Suire. These streams carry 6ff the superfluous moisture, and prevent the formation of bog or marsh to any extent. Kilkenny, being chiefly level, or intersected only by hills of moderate height, is composed almost entirely either of arable or fine pasture land. The latter is employed in extensive dairies, but the system of cultivation is still imperfect. Kilkenny, the capital, advantageously situated on the Nore, is partly built of the marble of the surrounding quarries, Its cathedral is one of the finest in Ireland, and the castle, with its remaining gates and bastions, exhibits indications of that strength which enabled it to hold out against Cromwell longer than any other city in Ireland. At present Kilkenny flourishes by inland trade, and by a manufactory of blankets and other woollens. The foreign trade of the county is carried on by- Waterford. Carlow is encompassed by mountains, which however enclose a champaign tract of great beauty and fertility, equally fit for tillage and pasture, and producing the best butter in Ireland. The town of Carlow is a considerable place, distinguished by an abbey and castle, both of great antiquity. The town has a manufactory of coarse woollens, and carries on a considerable'trade down the Barrow. An extensive Catholic seminary has lately been founded here. Queen's County and King's County form a table-land of moderate elevation. Part of the great chain of bogs crosses these counties, and. renders a large proportion of them unproductive, though it supplies them with cheap and abundant fuel. The remaining surface is highly fertile. Queen's County is situated along the heads of the Barrow and the Nore; King's County reaches to the Shannon; and both communicate by canals with Dublin. Portarlington, on the borders of the two counties, is a well-built place, with good schools, and the residence of a considerable number of ~IEANDI. 465 gentry. Tullamore, on the great canal, and Birr or Parsonstown, are the most thriving towns in King's County. Kildare, with the exception of about a sixth part of bog, forms a plain of the finest arable soil, well cultivated, and whence the capital is chiefly supplied with grain. The Grand and Royal Canals, which both cross its northern border, afford the means of ready conveyance to Dublin. Kildaretown, presenting a lofty round tower and some other vestiges of past importance, is only supported by the races held on the curragh of Kildare, an expanse of several thousand acres of the very finest turf. Naas and Athy are larger towns, and the castle of the former bears testimony to the period when it was the residence of the kings of Leinster. In this county is Maynooth, a small town containing the college established by the government for the education of the Roman Catholics. Meath is one of the most favored counties of the kingdom in respect to soil. Its rich pastures support vast herds of black cattle, which supply the markets of the capital, and are exported to England. The products of the dairy are abundant, though not of very superior quality. Louth, though the smallest in area of any Irish county, is one of the first in point of natural and acquired advantages. An active spirit of improvement has brought almost every part of its excellent soil under cultivation. Its linen manufacture produces chiefly dowlas and sheetings, with some cambric. Louth presents many samples of the earthen mounds called raths. Dundalk, the capital of the county, is ancient, populous, and flourishing. It has been the theatre of important historical events; but its lofty towers and castles are now demolished, and have given place to comfortable dwellihngs. It is the only place in Ireland where the cambric manufacture has been introduced, and continues to flourish. Drogheda, at the mouth of the Boyne, was of still greater importance as a military station, being considered one of the keys of Ireland. In the great rebellion of 1641, it stood a long siege, but was afterwards taken by Cromwell, who punished its resistance by a most barbarous massacre of the garrison. In 1690, two miles above Drogheda, was fought the battle of the Boyne. The fortifications are of obsolete structure, and are commanded on several sides. The place has an excellent harbor, and extensive commerce in grain brought down the river in considerable quantities for exportation; in return for which, coals and other commodities are imported. Westmeath and Longford, reaching westward as far as the Shannon, consist chiefly of a very extensive plain considerably encumbered with lakes, bogs and morasses, and subject in part to the overflowing of the Shannon, but including fertile tracts of great extent. Athlone, the largest inland town of Ireland, is situated partly in Westmeath and partly in Roscommon. It is memorable for its resistance to General Ginkle in 1691, previous to the battle of Aughrim, and is still considered an important military station. It is divided by the Shannon into two parts united by a bridge. Munster includes the south and southwest of Ireland, and, though not the most extensive division of the kingdom, is one of those which presents the boldest and most striking features, Most of the great mountain chains of Ireland traverse Munster; among which are conspicuous the Galties and the mountains of Kerry, which encircle Killarney; so that, nrtwithstanding the almost boundless plains of Limerick and Tipperary, and the level 30 466 IRELAND. character of a great part of Cork, it may be considered as a mountainous region. It has manufactures, though not on so great a scale as those of the north; and its commerce is very considerable, chiefly in the export of salted provisions. The Catholic religion prevails, with little: intermixture of that of the English church. Munster is divided into larger and less numerous portions than Leinster; its counties are Tipperary, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and Clare. Tipperary, extending over almost the whole frontier of Leinster, is crossed by a long chain of mountains called variously Slieve-bloom, the Devil's Bit, and other uncouth names; and on the south it includes part of the Galties. On the north a small portion of the great central bog extends across the county; but one district, along the upper course of the Suire, bears the appellation of the Golden Vale. The sheep and horned cattle are of excellent quality. There are manufactures, chiefly for domestic use; and some coal, similar to that of Kilkenny. Clonmel, the county town, is one of the most considerable in the interior of Ireland: it stood a long siege against Cromwell, who after its reduction demolished the strong walls and castles by which it was defended. It is a well-built town, with four streets crossing each other, and carries on a brisk inland trade. Cashel is a large and handsome city, the seat of an archbishopric, to whose residence a considerable library is attached. In ancient times, it was the capital of the kings of Munster, of whose palace some remnants may still be traced. Noble fragments remain of the ancient cathedral, majestically seated on the summit of A precipitous rock. The choir and nave, 210 feet long, are strewed with the remains of its rich ornaments. Here was deposited the Lia Fale, or fatal stone, on which the kings of Munster were crowned. The structure is now abandoned to decay, and a modern cathedral of fine Grecian architecture has been substituted. Cashel contains remains of other monastic edifices,. of which Hore Abbey, on the same rock with the cathedral, is a magnificent specimen, still almost entire. Waterford is a mountainous county, and only a small portion is under cultivation: the chief branch of rural industry is the dairy, and great quantities of butter are salted for exportation. Waterford, its capital, one of the principal seaports of the empire, being placed at the confluence of the Barrow and the Suire, the second and third rivers of Ireland, enjoys a most extensive interourse with the interior. Cork is the largest county of Ireland. On the northern borders is the lofty range of the Galties, which present many picturesque features, and command extensive and beautiful prospects; its western border partakes of the mountainous character of the neighboring districts of Kerry; and the rocky shores and headlands washed by the waves of the Atlantic, are of an awful and terrific character. About a fifth of the county consists of mountain and bog; the rest is only traversed by hills of moderate elevation, enclosing fertile and often beautiful valleys, especially that along the river and bay. The style of culture is altogether Irish; in small farms, by poor tenants, chiefly by the spade, and potatoes the prevailing crop. The manufactures consist of sail-cloth, coarse linens and woollens. There are also some extensive distilleries. Cork, the great southern emporium of Ireland, has a population of 107,000; being, in point of wealth and magnitude, the second city in the IRELAND. 467 Island. Its monastic structures, once considerable, have almost entirely disappeared. Its great prosperity is modern, in consequence of the provision trade, of which it has become the chief mart. The river Lee, at its junction with the sea, forms the spacious enclosed bay, called the Cove of Cork, composing one of the finest harbors in the world. In consequence of its convenient situation, the West India bound fleets usually touch there, and take in provisions. The export of salted beef and pork has somewhat diminished since the peace; but that of provisions in general, and particularly grain, has been greatly augmented; and Cork, on the whole, is in a very flourishing and prosperous state. A great part of the old town consist of miserable and crowded alleys; but a number of handsome new streets have been built, and several channels branching from the Lee, which flowed through the city, and were detrimental to the health of the inhabitants, have been filled up. Cork has a literary institution, with the usual appendages of library, lectures, and botanic garden; and it supports the charitable establishments usual in great cities, on a liberal scale. Kinsale, on a fine bay at the mouth of the Bandon, was much more frequented than Cork by the early English monarchs, who bestowed on the place extensive privileges, and viewed it as the key of southern Ireland. It has now, however, sunk under the superior importance of its neighbor; and it is chiefly supported by a fishery. Youghal, at the mouth of the Blackwater, has a good harbor, though obstructed by a bar; and carries on some trade and manufacture. Kerry presents an assemblage of mountains, wild, rocky and desolate. These are interspersed with valleys and narrow plains, which are almost wholly employed in pasturage; and Kerry has a small breed of cows, which yield plenty of excellent milk. Its coast is broken into several very deep bays, particularly those of Dingle, Kenmare and Tralee. A considerable quantity of herring is caught in these bays. Tralee, the county town, exhibits the remains of a strong castle, once the residence of the Earls of Desmond, when under the title of Palatine, they exercised the real sovereignty over this part of Ireland; a sway which terminated with their attainder under the reign of Elizabeth. Killarney and its lakes, as to scenery, have no rival in Ireland. There is only one body of water, to which, however, the term lakes, is usually applied; so completely is it divided into three bays united only by narrow straits, and presenting each a different aspect. The lower lake, immediately adjoining Killarney, forms the main expanse of water, and presents all the features on the greatest scale. Limerick is one of the finest counties of Ireland. Its borders include some branches from the high mountains of Kerry and Tipperary; but the main body consists of a fertile plain. An alluvial tract, two or three miles broad, along the Shannon, is quite exuberant. That noble river now expanded into an estuary or bay sixty miles in length, runs along the whole northern border of Limerick. The city of Limerick, now outstripped by Cork, is the third in Ireland. Its situation, in the centre of the grand internal navigation of the kingdom, secures to it an extensive trade; and the largest vessels can ascend to the harbor. Limerick is one of the great marts for the export of grain and provisions. It was anciently the strongest fortress in Ireland, and has always 468 RL. stood out to the last extremity for the Catholic cause. Ireton, Cromwell's lieutenant, reduced it only after a long seige, aided by a party within the place. In 1690-1, it stood two long seiges, and yielded only upon those advantageous terms, called the " capitulation of Limerick." Its capture was considered as closing the contest in support of the Stuarts. At this day, not more than a twelfth part of the population of imerick is protestant. The spacious monasteries are almost entirely demolished; the streets are narrow, crowded and gloomy; but since the fortifications were demolished, they have been carefully widened. In a quarter built by Lord Perry, and bearing his name, they are spacious and regular; and the houses, though only of brick, built in the most handsome modern style. The assembly rooms, theatre and other modern structures, are elegant and commodious. Clar0 county is a wild, hilly, romantic district, abounding with fine creeks and harbors, but without commerce, and with mines of lead,-iron and coal, which have not been turned to account. More than half the surface consists of mountain, bog and waste; its hills, however, support numerous flocks of sheep, the wool of which is of superior quality. The plains on the banks of the Shannon and the Fergus vie in fertility with any in the kingdom. Ennis, the capital, is situated on the banks of the last mentioned river, by which it communicates with the Shannon. It is considerable, though irregularly built; and its abbey, in the purest style of Gothic architecture, is considered the finest in Ireland. Connaught forms a great peninsula, the most westerly part of Ireland, extending from the Shannon to the Atlantic. This division is of all others the most decidedly Irish, having continued unsubdued long after the English kings claimed the proud title of lords of the island. It still contains fewer English inhabitants; the religion is more universally Catholic; industry and manufactures have made less progress, and all the imperfect agricultural implements and processes are in more general use. Disturbances, however, have never taken place here to so great an extent as in Munster and Leinster. Its shores are penetrated by deep and extensive bays, forming some of the finest harbors in the world. The counties in Connaught are Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Roscommon, and Leitrim. Galway presents to the sea ranges of steep cliffs, which, with the waves of the Atlantic dashing against them, exhibit a grand spectacle. The interior contains two extensive lakes, and is diversified with hills, though there are few which are not fit for pasturage. The cattle are of good quality, and the flocks of sheep are more extensive than in other parts of Ireland. The fisheries of herring and salmon are considerable. Galway has always been a considerable town, and is still supported by some inland and foreign commerce, by a considerable fishery, by the resort of the gentry to it for sea-bathing, and as the only scene of gay society to be found in Connaught. It was once' very strongly fortified both by nature and art; and to obtain the protection of the walls, the streets were made narrow, and the houses high, massive and gloomy; but they have of late been considerably opened, and suburbs built, of more gay and elegant description. Mayo is chiefly elevated and rugged; some of the mountains rising to upwards of 2600 feet; but many of their sides are verdant, and the valleys rich and well watered; so that Mayo is a fine pastoral county. The estates are large, but the farms small, and much subdivided. mLAND. 469 Sligo contains a considerable quantity of bog; but the remainder consists of a sandy gravelly soil, well adapted to the production of barley and oats; so that pasturage is not so exclusively the employment here as in the two last mentioned counties. Salmon is caught in large quantities. The linen manufacture has made considerable progress, and is extending. Sligo, the capital, at the mouth of the river and the head of the bay of the same name, was in early times a considerable place: it has suffered severely in civil contention; yet by the advantage of a good situation and harbor, it has attained considerable importance and trade. In the vicinity is a remarkable circle of stones, called the Giant's Grave, somewhat resembling Stonehenge. Roscommon is mostly level, finely watered, and celebrated for rich pastures; but the increase of population and manufactures has caused a great part of them to be lately brought into tillage; it contains some pretty little lakes, among which Lough Key is particularly admired. Ulster presents in many respects a superior character to the other three, its population being more industrious, better instructed, and in more comfortable circumstances. The Presbyterian form of worship, introduced by the Scottish settlers under the reign of James I., is the prevailing one. The linen manufacture, the staple of the country, has here its chief seat, and is carried on almost in every village. The harbors of Belfast, Londonderry, and Lough Swilly, are sufficient for the wants of commerce. The coast of Antrim, in the boldness and peculiar character of its rocky scenery, is without a match in any other part of the world. The counties of this province are, Fermanagh, Donegal, Londonderry, Antrim, Down, Armagh, Tyrone, Monaghan, Cavan. Fermanagh is a somewhat rough county, comprising a large proportion of mountain and bog, but with fertile valleys, in which, besides the usual products of oats and potatoes, flax is cultivated to the extent of about 6000 acres. Donegal includes a great extent of the north-western coast of Ireland, full of deep bays and fine harbors. In its interior, however, it consists almost entirely of mountain, moss, and moor, with only a few productive valleys. It is often called with some adjoining districts, " the black northof Ireland." Derry, or Londonderry, a large and fine county, is crossed by a range of mountains, whose principal peaks are from 1000 to 1500 feet high, and a considerable part of whose surface consistsof heath and bog. There are, however, fine valleys and extensive plains, which are cultivated with some diligence, but according to that system of minute subdivision which is the bane of Irish agriculture. The linen manufacture flourishes in full vigor, chiefly, according to the Irish system, among the little farmers and cotters, who combine it with the cultivation of a few acres. Londonderry is a, fine city, situated at the point where the Foyle, after traversing a great part of this county and that of Tyrone, falls into the broad basin of Lough Foyle. It is ancient, being the theatre of remarkable events even in the time of the Danes. In 1608, after the attainder of O'Neale, it was granted by James I. to the citizens of London, whence it derived the first part of its name. But its chief distinction was from the siege sustained-by the city in 1690-1, against the united forces of Ireland under James II. London 470- IRIAND. aerry is composed of four main streets crossing each other at right angles, and surrounded still by its old walls in full repair, serving rather for ornament than defence. It has an ancient Gothic cathedral, and some handsome modern edifices. It is now supported by an extensive commerce, for which Lough Foyle, though its entrance is somewhat impeded by a bar, affords a spacious and secure harbor. Its chief intercourse is with the United States and the West Indies, to which it exports the linen manufactured in this part of the country. Antrim, occupying the north-east corner of the kingdom, opposite the coast of Scotland, is one of the most remarkable districts of Ireland, in regard to natural features as well as to commerce and industry. A great part of the surface consists of rugged mountains, composed chiefly of rock and moss, and even its best soils are scarcely available for agricultural purposes till improved by the use of the lime with which the country abounds. The mountains where they face the ocean, are broken into vast perpendicular precipices, exhibiting the basaltic columnar form on a grander scale than exists in any other part of the world. Of these objects, the Giant's Causeway is the most celebrated and magnificent. Three natural piers or moles, 400 feet in height, here stretch out into the sea, and are visible above the water for about 300 yards. The walls are composed of dark basaltic columns, of the most regular form, and so closely united, that only the blade of a knife can be thrust between them. Each column is distinct from the others, and divided into jointed portions, as perfect as if art had formed them; there being in each part a projection, which is lodged in a corresponding concavity or socket of the one contiguous. The coast eastward of the causeway is composed of a succession of capes, presenting the most sublime scenery; dark precipitous cliffs, rising regularly in gradually retiring strata, and formed into various broken colonnades which might suggest the idea of palaces overwhelmed in ruins. Other striking features distinguish the coast of Antrim. Conspicuous above all others is Fairhead, called also Benmore; a promontory which forms nearly the north-eastern point of Ireland. It consists of a vast mass of columnar greenstone, composing a mural precipice, of rudely columnar, and 250 feet high. At its feet lies a chaos of huge masses of rock, heaped together in the wildest confusion, and forming a scene of ruin the awful grandeur of which has scarcely a parallel. Against this the sea heaves in a solemn majestic swell, the peculiar attribute of the Atlantic waters. Belfast, the grand emporium of the north of Ireland, has risen to greatness by rapid steps. Carickfergus, by means of peculiar privileges, monopolized all the trade of this part of Ireland, till these privileges were bought up by the earl of Strafford. The career of competition was then opened to Belfast, and she gradually outstripped all her rivals. The linen manufacture is very flourishing at Belfast, and that of cotton is rapidly extending; besides which there are various minor fabrics. Commerce, however, is the main source of its wealth. Down is a fine county, penetrated by several large lakes, as those of Strangford and Carlingford. The last of these receives the Newry, which communicates by a canal with Lough Neagh. The Mourne mountains, on the southern border, exceed 2600 feet in height, and form a conspicuous object; but a large extent of the county is level, and a greater proportion IRELAND. 471 is under tillage than pasturage. The combination of farming and weaving exists m a remarkable degree; and the linen fabrics are not only extensive, but some of them very fine. Armagh is also a fine and agreeable county. In general it is only pleasingly diversified with little hills, the bogs are no more than requisite for supplying fuel, and only a small part is left unproductive. Both culture and manufacture are prosecuted with great activity. Armagh, the capital, was celebrated in the early history of Ireland as one of its most extensive and populous cities, and has always been the ecclesiastical metropolis of the kingdom. The Augustine monastery, and the college attached to it, ranked for a long time among the most celebrated institutions in Europe for religion and learning; the latter, it is said, could once boast of 7000 students. Armagh sunk, however, under successive ravages by the Danes, the English, and, finally, the Irish insurgents under O'Neale, and fell into decay; but by good fortune had for its primate Dr. Richard Robinson, to whose munificent exertions is ascribed its revival and its having become one of the prettiest little cities in Ireland. To him Armagh is indebted for the repair of its cathedral, for a library, and an observatory. The linen market is well supported by the flourishing state of the manufacture in Armagh. The only other place of consequence is Lurgan, a thriving manufacturing town. The three counties of Tyrone, Monaghan, and Cavan occupy a great proportion of the interior of Ulster, and present a very uniform aspect; a considerable extent of mountain and bog, fertile plains, inde cultivation, and the linen manufacture. O'Neale, Earl of Tyrone, was long one of the most formidable enemies of the English power. Omagh is the county town of Tyrone, but is not so considerable as Dungannon, a large, populous, and handsome place, once the chief seat of the O'Neales; but this powerful castle was demolished by the parliamentary forces. The earliest inhabitants of Ireland, from which the native race now existing has sprung, appear, by the language still spoken, to have been Celtic. The Romans, in occupying Britain, could not fail to acquire much information relative to Ierne, Hibernai, or Ireland; and accordingly we find that the map of that country by Ptolemy is less defective than the one which he gives of Scotland. About the fourth century, we find Ireland bearing the name of Scotland, from the leading people on its eastern shore, who afterwards passing into Argyle, and making themselves masters of all Caledonia, communicated to it the name of Scotland, finally withdrawn from the country to which it originally belonged. The Danes, during the height of their power, from the ninth to the twelfth centuries, possessed almost the whole eastern coast of Ireland, making Dublin their capital. Before this time Ireland had been converted to Christianity, and a number of celebrated monasteries had been founded, the tenants of which were distinguished, even over Europe, for their piety and learning. The English sway commenced in 1170. Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, as a private individual, formed the first settlement; but Henry II. soon assumed the title of " lord of Ireland." The range of dominion was long restricted to a portion of the kingdom enclosed within what is called the English pale, without which the Irish remained still under - the 472 IN rule of their native chieftains. Henry VIII. assumed the title of " king of Ireland," but without any material extension of his authority over that kingdom. The Irish massacre was a dreadful outrage, to which attachment to popery and zeal for national independence united in impelling a proud and fierce people. Forty thousand English settlers are supposed to have perished, and the rest were driven into Dublin. Cromwell, however, afterwards crossed the Channel, and made cruel reprisals; he took the principal fortified towns, and reduced Ireland under more full subjection than ever. Yet the disposition of the people remained the same; and when James II. was driven from the English throne, he was received with enthusiasm in Ireland, and became for some time its master. The battle of the Boyne, followed next year by that of Aughrim, decided the fate of the empire, and more especially of Ireland, which then felt for the first time the miseries of a conquered country. The estates of many principal native proprietors were confiscated; the Catholics were deprived of all political privileges; they were rendered incapable of holding any office or employment in the state; they were debarred even from holding land, from devising property, and from exercising other important functions of civil society. The gradual emancipation of Ireland commenced at the period of the American war. Till that era England had denied to her the right of trading directly with any foreign nation; and had compelled her to export and import every commodity through the channel of Great Britain. The extremity, however, to which Britain was reduced enabled the Irish to place themselves in a formidable attitude; and by forming armed associations, and adopting other threatening measures, they induced parliament to grant them free trade with all nations. From this time also the most obnoxious of the restrictions on the Catholics were gradually repealed or fell into disuse; and before the end of last century, they had obtained almost every political privilege. A very formidable rebellion broke forth in spite of these concessions. The French revolution, which caused a general ferment in Europe, was intensely felt throughout Ireland. A society was formed of "United Irishmen;" and secret meetings were held, having in view the entire separation from England, and the formation of the kingdom into an independent republic. The vigilance of government, and the failure of the French in their attempts to land a force of any magnitude, prevented matters from coming to the last extremity till. 1798, when a violent insurrection arose in four of the counties nearest Dublin. The rebels, though zealous and brave, being without discipline, were routed in successive encounters with much inferior bodies of regulars and militia; and being unsupported by French aid were completely put down in a few months. The exaspera tion, however, produced by the tragical events of this short period continued'ong to rankle in the minds of the Irish, and to aggravate the evils under which they labored. To soothe this irritation, another expedient was em ployed, which materially affected the situation of Ireland. The difficult and reluctant union of the two kingdoms was effected, in 1800, by Mr. Pitt. Ireland gained thus considerable commercial advant. ages; and, from the example of Sdotland, it was hoped that a gradual tranquillity would be the result. This expectation has not yet been fulfilled. The peasantry of the south, inflamed by national jealousy, by religious IRELAND. 47 animosity, and by the severe privations under which they labor, have continued, if not in open rebellion, at least in a state of turbulence constantly tending towards it; and. their discontents have been increased by the indiscreet zeal of the Protestant party. The bill for Catholic emancipation, so unexpectedly introduced, in 1828, by the Duke of Wellington, and carried after such a violent ferment of parties, has made a remarkable change in the political constitution of Ireland. The political disabilities under which the Catholics had hitherto labored, have been finally removed. They are made admissible to the highest offices of state, with the exception of that of lord chancellor; an exclusion decided upon, not so much on account of the dignity of that office, as the extensive church patronage attached to it. Roman Catholics are also made admissible to sit in both houses of parliament, and to every other political privilege enjoyed by their fellow countrymen. Within the last twenty years, however, the condition of Ireland, in spite of all obstacles, has been improved, and the changes which have taken place, in both its political and social state, are of vast importance to its welfare. Neverthbless, Ireland is not quieted, and discontent is still felt by all classes. The causes are well understood, and arrange themselves under the several heads of political, religious, and social, all of which have sprung from the violence of usurpation, and the wrongs which wrested from the natives every natural claim to their own lands, their adopted religion, and those feelings which characterize humanity. The miserable condition of the people has become more generally known since the famines of 1846-47-48, in which years the potato crops almost entirely failed; and that being the great staple on which the Irish depend for subsistence, scenes of the most horrid description ensued. Thousands on thousands perished for the want of food, and thousands more were irrecoverably ruined in health and means of future competence. No less a sum tan ~8,000,000 was voted by parliament for the relief of the starving, and vast supplies of provisions and clothing were sent from the United States. This famine, and the misery it entailed, is wholly attributable to the effects of bad government. The people are kept in poverty, and as a consequence cannot reserve aught for adverse times. The first year of famine, however, they bore comparatively well; but when it continued from year to year, their resources were exhausted, and all their small comforts disappeared from their dwellings, and themselves were doomed to horrors, the naming of which curdles the blood of the coldest spectator. 474 GUNRAL DESCRIPTION OP GENERAL DESCRIPTION 0. THE UNITED KINGDOM. UNDER this head it is intended to notice those particulars that have reference to the BRITISH EMPIRE as a whole, and which could not, with propriety, be placed in the description of any one of its constituent parts. Perhaps no country ever existed more favorably situated, or placed under more advantageous physical circumstances, than the United Kingdom. It is sufficiently extensive to be the centre of a mighty empire; and to support, independent of any extrinsic resources, a very large population, and, consequently, possesses that native and inherent power that is necessary to secure the first of political blessings —national independence. Its insular situation is also of immense advantage; it possesses a well-defended frontier, on which there can be no encroachment, and about which there can be no dispute; and while it renders it comparatively secure from hostile attacks, it affords unequalled facilities for commerce; every part of its frontier being, as it were, a terminus to the " great highway of nations." The government of the United Kingdom is constitutional, or possesses a regular form-not in so many words, but of well recognized power in the institutions and laws of the country. The constitution is monarchical, in which the sovereign accepts the dignity under express agreement to abide by the laws, and maintain the Protestant religion. The sovereign is the nominal head or directing power in the executive of the state, the fountain of all honors, and the implied guardian of the interests of the people. He can doe no wrong; but the ministers of the crown are responsible, and are amenable to penalties, if an unlawful act is done. The legislative part of the government is composed of two deliberating bodies —the house of lords, and the house of commons. The house of lords is composed of a separate class or rank, which is called collectively the peerage, and whose members enjoy certain exclusive privileges and honors. These are the lords spiritual and temporal-the former consisting of the arch-bishops and bishops, and the latter, the temporal lords, enjoy their seats from hereditary right, or in virtue of being elevated to the peerage. The number of members of the house of lords is at present 495, viz: two princes of the blood royal, two English arch-bishops, 20 dukes, 23 marquises, 135 earls, 23 viscounts, 24 English bishops, 6 Irish prelates, 216 barons, 16 representative peers of Scotland, and 28 of Ireland. The house of commons consists of knights, citizens, and burgesses, respectively chosen by counties, cities, and boroughs, apportioned as follows: Coa tie s..................................... U9 England and Wales f...... IUniversities................I....... 4.......0 Cities and boroughs.......................... 337 ~CScotland for.ounties..................80....... Soothind, for................ Cities and boroughs......................... 23 Contie.................................... 64 Ireland, foresties................................ 105 Cities and boroughs......39......... Total.................6 5.................... 658 THE UNITED KINGDOM. 475 The number of persons entitled to vote in the election of these members is probably 1,000,000, of whom about 600,000 vote for county members; 5,000 for university members; and 400,000 for members of cities, boroughs, and towns. The great bulk of the voters, as settled by the reform act of 1832, is composed of occupants of houses of ~10 and upwards of yearly rent —in other words, the middle classes. The operative classes, by reason of not generally occupying houses of so high a rent, are ineligible to vote. The extreme duration of a house of commons is seven years, but by reality it scarcely ever exists so long, the death of the sovereign, change of ministry, and other circumstances, causing a more frequent renewal. The parliaments of England and Scotland were united in 1707, and then called the British Parliament. The union of Ireland was carried into effect January 1, 1801, and the parliament which sat the same month, and which included the members from Ireland, was styled the First Imperial Parliament. The parliament which assembled January 29, 1833, was styled the Eleventh Imperial or First Reform Parliament. The two houses, with the sovereign, compose the three estates of the realm, or legislative body. The sovereign takes no personal concern in the proceedings of parliament, further than opening or proroguing the sessions; but the interests of the crown in parliament are entrusted to members of the cabinet council or ministry, and by them are defended and explained. The two houses, with the sovereign, have the power to pass laws, impose taxes, borrow money, make inquiries into the management of the public revenues, or the transactions of the great officers of government, and even to bring the latter to trial, if necessary. Members of either house inquire into the manner in which all great public institutions or boards of management are conducted, such as those for education, for purposes of charity, for the erection of lighthouses on the coast, for the construction of harbors, and generally, indeed, into all the business which is intrusted to the executive part of the government; they cannot direct what is to be done, but may always make scrutiny into it afterwards, if any error or mismanagement has taken place. The discussions on these subjects are often very warm and eager, and bring to light facts of great public importance. No act of the two deliberative bodies becomes valid as a law without the assent of the sovereign; and all propositions relating to money to be raised for the public service, must originate with the house of commons, the lords merely giving their assent as a matter of form, without being allowed to alter anything. This circumstance gives a much larger share of influence to the commons than is possessed by the lords; the former- having it in their power, whenever they are dissatisfied with the measures of government, to stop the supplies of money, and bring the whole machinery to a stand. Each of the two houses has one presiding member, whose duty it is to preserve order and see that the regulations of the assembly are attended to by the members; he is also the person through whom any communication passes between the house and the sovereign, he alone having the privilege of addressing the throne in the name of the house. Hence, in the House of Commons, this officer is called the ASpeaker; in the House of Lords he is commonly known as the Lord Chancellor, from another office which he holds; but the duties of the latter are quite the same with those of the Speaker of the commons. 476 GENERAL DESCRIPTI&N OF The executive, as already stated, is reposed in the hands of the sovereign. The dignity is hereditary in the family of Brunswick, and in the person of either male or female. Victoria I. now enjoys that office. The sovereign conducts all intercourse with the rulers of other nations, forming treaties and alliances, declaring war or concluding peace. She has the duty of protecting the persons and trade of British subjects in foreign countries. For this purpose, she has the sole appointment of the officers who perform these duties; of judges in the several courts of law; of officers in the army and navy; of public ambassadors, and of consuls at foreign ports for the safety of trade; and of the officers who levy the taxes. She has also large forces, both naval and military, at her disposal, which are sta, tioned in different parts of the empire where she or her advisers think that they are wanted for the time. The task of managing all these extensive concerns, which would fall into confusion in the hands of one person, is deputed by the queen to a number of persons who are denominated her Ministers, and sometimes the Cabinet. These are nominally selected and appointed by the queen herself; but as her choice would be in vain if it were to fall on men who were disagreeable to Parliament (which might in that case refuse to grant supplies for national business,) the ministry is generally chosen from among such men as enjoy a considerable share of public confidence. They have all some high state office. The chief is the Rirst Lord of the Treasury, whose nominal duty is the receiving and issuing of the public money, while his actual station is that of leader of the administrattion; he is the first who is appointed in any ministry, and generally selects all the other members, according to his own views of their abilities, or of the influence they possess in the country or in Parliament; and any changes afterwards made are generally at his suggestion, or at least with his fullassent. Next is the Lord High Chancellor, who presides in the highest law court of the kingdom, and is Speaker of the House of Lords; he is chief adviser of the sovereign in all that relates to the laws of the country; and has the disposal of a great number of clerical and law offices. After him are the principal secretaries of state, who are five in number, each having a separate charge; the first is Secretary for the Home Department, after whom are the Secretaries for Foreign Affairs and for the Colonies, the Secretary of War, and the Secretary for Ireland. These, with the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and several others of the high officers of state, form what is called the Ministry, the Cabinet Council, or briefly the Cabinet; and all the measures of the executive government are settled by their deliberations. The regular division of labor which is established in the British government, is one of its chief excellencies; because every secretary, or other officer of state, having a particular department assigned to him, the responsibility for any error or mismanagemeht is established at once, and may be either rectified or punished. Parliament itself has its duties; and when these are not performed to the satisfaction of the electors, the members can be dismissed at next election, to make way for others who deserve better, The British constitution may be generally described as a mixture of all three kinds of government —monarchical, aristocratical, and democratical. Such a government would probably be found totally inapplicable in other societies; but in Britain it answers well, having grown up in conformity with the views and character of the people, and enjoying, in consequence THE UNITED K!TN(DOM. 477 of that conformity and of its long existence, the respect required to enable any system to work. Upon the whole, notwithstanding the Reform Acts, the aristocratic principle predominates, yet fully as much from the spirit of the people themselves as from any forms of the constitution. The executive government in Ireland is vested in a Lord Lieutenant, who is appointed by and dependent on the crown. He is assisted by a Privy Council, a body also nominated by the sovereign, and invested with great powers, judicial and ministerial; and also by a Chief Secretary, who is always a member of the House of Commons, and more immediately the responsible member of the Irish government. The counties are under the protection of Lords Lieutenant and High Sheriffs, as in England. The levy and expenditure of money for local purposes, is vested in the local grand juries. There is no political government of Scotland distinct from that of Great Britain. The judiciary of England is very complicated, and the powers of each in a great measure arbitrary and undefined. There are three distinct codes by which the Supreme Courts are regulated, viz: the Common Law of England, which is administered in the Court of Queen's Bench, Common Pleas and Exchequer; the Civil, Common and Ecclesiastical Laws, which are administered by the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Judges, and Equity, which forms the basis of pleas in the Court of Chancery. The Judges of the Queen's Bench, Common Pleas and Exchequer, are the judicial assessors of the House of Lords; and make periodical circuits through the entire counties of England and Wales, where, at the assizes, they administer civil and criminal justice. The magistrates of cities and boroughs are also invested with judicial functions, and by the municipal Reform Act, a uniform system has been established in all boroughs, except London. In every county there are a number of justices of the peace, who are individually committing magistrates, and collectively act as judges at the county sessions. The most important cases, however, are left to the assize judges to determine. The sheriffs are chosen by the sovereign annually, from three persons presented for selection, and are in their own counties judges of the county courts, keepers of the king's peace, the executive officers of the Supreme Courts, and bailifgh to the crown. The coroner is chosen by the freeholders of the county. There are usually four coroners to each county who hold their offices during life. The subordinate keepers of the peace are the usual bodies of constables and police. The Lords Lieutenant are Custodes Rotulorum in their respective counties and first justices of the peace. The laws of Scotland are administered by the court of sessions, and the high court of justiciary. The first is the supreme civil court of law, and by virtue of its inherent supremacy, exercises the ministerial functions of the court of chancery, in respect to the guardianship of children, idiots and lunatics, and the property of absentees; and in all cases decides according to equity as well as law. Appeal lies to the House of Lords. The high court of justiciary is a criminal tribunal, and is strictly supreme, there being no appeal from its decisions. Every county is placed under a sheriff, who is both judge and magistrate. There is in Scotland an officer of high rank and dignity, styled Her Majesty's Advocate, or by courtesy, the Lord Advocate, who, with the assistance of the Solicitor General and several advocates-depute, superintends the whole criminal business of the country, and acts as public prosecutor in cases brought before the high court of 478 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF justiciary. The counties have each a similar officer, styled Procurator-fiscal, whose duties are confined to his own territorial limits. These functionaries always act under the Lord Advocate, and report to him all their proceedings. The orders and decrees of the supreme court are executed by a class of officials, styled Messengers-at-Arms, appointed by the Lord Lyon King at-Arms. The administration of the laws in Ireland, is vested in the Lord Chan cellor, assisted by the Master of the Rolls; and in the twelve judges of the supreme courts, of king's bench, common pleas and exchequer. The twelve judges visit the counties in six circuits twice a year, for the trial of civil causes in nisi prius, and criminal cases of a more serious character. Minor offences are determined before magistrates at petty sessions. Stipendiary magistrates are now stationed in the large towns. The police of Ireland is very effieient, and from the faithfulness they observe in doing their duty, have become to evil doers a source of annoyance and complaint. The revenue of the British empire, has varied exceedingly of late years; from 1761to 1774,which was a period of peace, it increased from ~ 8,000,000 to Y~10;285,673; and since that time, from the various wars in which the country was engaged, the immediate expenses, and the interest of the public debts, it has continued to augment. From 1775 to 1783, which was the period of the American war, it rose from ten millions to twelve millions; and during the peace which followed till 1793, it was increased to seventeen and a half millions a year. After this period, the French revolutionary war commenced. That war was by no means unpopular with the nation; and it was besides gilded by the many splendid victories, which continued to be obtained by British seamen, as long as the enemy had a fleet to appear at sea. Heavy taxes for defraying the expenses of this war were therefore submitted to without remonstrance, and the public revenue rose accordingly to a very large amount. From 1794 to the peace of Amiens in 1801, which only lasted two years, the revenue was increased from seventeen and a half millions to twentyeight millions; and from 1803 till 1816, the year after the final conclusion of peace, it had risen' to ~76,834,494, which was the largest sum ever raised by taxes in one year. The sums thus raised in taxes, large as they were, did not, however, meet the expenditure of the country during these periods of War. In order to defray the great charges which arose, it became necessary also to borrow to, great amount. The following table will show the sums raised by taxes, Ihe sums borrowed, and the total expenditure for each of the years specified: Years. Raised in Taxes. Borrowed. Total Expenditures. 1794.................. 17,674,395.................~5,079,971............ ~.......22,754,366 1801........ 28,085,829.......... 83,532,159................... 61,617,988 180.................. 8,401,738................ 23,972,742................... 62,873,480 1806........... 53698124................. 22,358,672................... 76,056,796 1810............I.... 66,029,349................ 22,763,202.................. 88,792,551 1814............ 70,926,215............. 52,309445.................. 122,285,660 1816................... 76,834,4................ 54,471,464.......... 130,305,958 These sums will appear altogether enormous, and must give the most extraordinary idea of the resources of a government, which, while it raised such a large yearly amount in taxes, had yet credit to borrow the immense additional sums which were wanted. The whole sum which was expended in the wars of the French revolution, from 1794 to 1816, amounted to THE UNITED KINGDOM. 479 seventeen hundred millions of pound sterling- a sum so far beyond all ordinary dealings, that we can have little conception of its amount or value. All the mines that are at present wrought in Europe and America, (including even all the products of the Sacramento valley,) would not furnish gold and silver equal to it in less than 300 years. The debt formed by borrowing money at different rates of interest to conduct the warlike operations of the country, has risen from small beginnings towards the conclusion of the seventeenth century, to an unparalleled amount. At the revolution of 1688, the national debt amounted to only ~664,263; at the accession of Queen Anne, ~16,394,702; of George I., ~54,145,363; of George II., ~52,092,235; at the end of Spanish war in 1748, ~78,293,312; at the commencement of war in 1755, ~74,571,840; at the conclusion of peace in 1762, ~146,682,844; at commencement of American war in 1776, ~135,943,051; at conclusion of peace in 1783, ~238,484,870; at commencement of French revolutionary war, ~233,733,609; at peace of Amiens in 1801, ~582,839,277; at peace of 1816, ~864,822,461; and at the present time the amount is ~841,000,000, with an interest of ~29,000,000. The revenue which it is necessary to raise for the purpose of paying the interest of the debt, and conducting the business of the country, is derived from taxation upon a great variety of different articles, which are all, however, reduced to the following heads: Sources. 1847. 1848. Customs......... 18792348.........................17,888,988 xcise.................................. 12,73,998.......................... 12,26323 Stamps................................ 7,201,797.......................... 6,449,104 Taxes.................................. 4,325,732.......................... 4,306,703 Property Tax........................... 6,491,936.......................... 5,411,253 Post Office.......8.................. 854,000................... 787,000 Crown Lands........................ 112000.........................71,000 Misoellaneous.......................... 307,621.........................230,201 Total ordinary Revenue............. 49819,432..........................47,407,486 China Money........................... 227,644.......................... 455,021 Interest and other Moneys............... 208,190.......................... 187,408 Repayment of Advances.................. 804,843....... 422,485 Total Revenue.................... ~51,060,109..........................48,472,400 Of the total income of 1848, it will be observed that fully thirty millions were raised from customs and excise, and nearly seven millions from stamps. Thus the great bulk of taxation is indirect, and the really direct taxes are a mere trifle in comparison. The chief burden of the taxes likewise falls on the consumers of luxuries, as tea, wines, spirits, &c.; and these, though in some measure falling on the bulk of the people, are principally borne by the wealthy and inebriate; and as the property tax amounts to more than ~5,400,000 annually, the great owners really contribute considerably of direct aid to the public income. On the whole, however, the taxes are not very unequally shared, and as every year removes them further and further from the laboring classes, the imposts are not felt to be too onerous. The customs duties are levied on nearly 1700 articles imported into the country, but a few leading articles raise nineteen-twentieths of the entire amount, and the insignificant sum raised from the remainder, acts merely as a prohibition on foreign commerce. The leading articles from which revenue is derived are tobacco, spirits, wines, &c. The duties on breadstuffs, formerly so onerous, are no longer available, the tax being now a merely nominal amount. 480 GAddP A DEBSCRIPTION OF The whole question of import duties, with reference to an improvement in the mode of levying them, has, for some time, been under advisement and great alterations have already been adopted, and many- of the heaviest restrictions been removed from commerce. The general tariff, the corn laws, and the laws relative to navigation, have, indeed, all undergone a thorough revision, and it is to be presumed that the alterations are not final. The total annual revenue, as above mentioned, is at present between forty-eight and forty-nine millions, and we have now to see how this large sum is spent. The first great item inthe expenditure is in the form of interest on the national debt. The amount applied to this item is little short of three-fifths of the whole. It is difficult to obtain an exact idea of the complicated statements put forth by government, but it is certain that about ~31,000,000 go towards liquidating and paying of the interest on this debt, and that the whole business of the country- civil, military, and naval, including charges for the royal household —is conducted for the sum of ~13,000,000 to ~15,000,000 per annum. The debt has been latterly increasing; in other words, the revenue is falling short of the expenditures. The expense incurred for the personal support of the sovereign and royal family and household, is but a small item in the general expenditure of the nation. Formerly the crown possessed private revenues from lands, duties, &c., but all such are now abandoned to the country, (chiefly under the management of the board of woods and forests,) and the sovereign has a civil list of fixed sums regularly voted by parliament. On the accession of Victoria, a civil list was voted, amounting in the aggregate to ~386,000, with a power to the crown to grant pensions not exceeding ~1200 in any one year. The cost of the civil department of government does not fall much short of three millions a year, and is distri buted among about 22,000 functionaries; in this, however, is included the expenses of the Irish government. The expense incurred for the colonies amounts to a like sum; and the annual expenses for ambassadors and consuls to and:in foreign countries, are about ~300,000, and for courts of justice, nearly ~800,000. Altogether, the civil management of the kingdom costs ~4,000,000 annually. Next to the national debt, then, the army and navy are the greatest burden on the country; the average expense of these are, respectively, about ~3,500,000 annually, or, together, ~7,000,000, a sum equivalent to all the ordinary expenses of the United States government. According to the terms of the constitution, a permanent or standing army is not held to be legal. It is understood that the civil power, as exerted by magistrates, constables, and police, is competent to preserve order, and that the creation of a military force is only a matter of temporary necessity. An army, however, being constantly required, both to assist the civil authority, and to protect the foreign possessions of the empire, an act of parliament, called the Mutiny Act, is passed annually, to maintain a large body of troops in regular service. Whether from this provision in the constitution or otherwise, it happens that education in military tactics is conducted on a very limited scale; the privates in the army are enlisted by small bounties from the lowest classes of the community, and very rarely, if ever, are promoted to the rank of commissioned officers. The commissioned officers, in general, belong to the aristocracy or landed gentry, and THE UNITED KINGDOM. 481 m most instances purchase their commission according to a scale of prices. Although both privates and officers are alike ill-prepared,; by previous instruction, for performing the duties of their profession, such are the effects of discipline, the excellence of equipment, and other advantages, but, above all, a high tone of honor and spirit of valor, that the British army is found able to compete with forces recruited under more favorable circumstances. The British army, on the ist June, 1848, consisted of 120,000 men, of whom about 14,000 are officers and non-commissioned officers. This. number was exclusive of the Indian army proper, and the several colonial regiments. Of the British army, (properly so called,) from 20,000 to 25,000 men are generally stationed in Ireland; about 20,000 serve in India; from 10,000 to 12,000, including artillery and engineers, in Great Britain; and the remainder are dispersed in America, the West Indies, and the British colonies and possessions in different parts of the world. The pay of a private in the horse guards varies from is. 9d. to 2s. 0Od. per day; in the cavalry of the line, Is. 4d.; in the foot guards, Is. 2d.; and in the infantry of the line, 1s. Id. When at home and in barracks, 6d. a day is deducted from this, for which the soldier receives three quarters of a pound of meat, and one pound of bread. The principal part of his clothes and accoutrements is furnished at the public expense; his pay, however, is subject to a deduction of 2s. 7Ad. a week, in the case of privates serving in the cavalry; is. Id. a week from privates in the foot guards, and Is. 6d. from all other privates, on account of these articles. Great Britain has long been renowned as a first-rate naval power: by command of its war vessels it protects its commerce, and exerts its authority in the most remote quarters of the globe. The British royal navy is re.. cruited in much the same manner as the army; but the constitution, by a singular anomaly, sanctions the forcible abduction of men from their private homes to serve on board of war vessels. This species of impressment, however, is only resorted to in cases of urgent necessity, as for instance during the heat of war. The sailors who enlisted are generally young men who have served an apprenticeship on board merchant vessels; and with this preparation, they form seamen of the highest qualifications; their courage, integrity, and kind-heartedness, are a lasting theme of national gratulation. The following table, taken from an official document presented in 1846, by Mr. Bancroft, to the Senate of the United States, will exhibit the naval force of Great Britain for that year: In Commission. Building. In Ordinary A -- - I 0. Total. No. Guns. No. Guns. No. Guns. Mhpps of the line..................17 1570......23 2124......75 6258.....115 Frigates....................... 32 1146....15 498......73 3066......120 Bloops, brigs, and bombs...........71 856......21 305......40 521......132 Schooners, cutters, tenders, and 3 66.....0 0.......6 18.....39 kethes....................... Steam frigates..................... 6 60......12 120......4 40.......22 Steam sloops.....................56 270......20 100.....6 30.......80 Steam packets.....................21 42......3 6.....0 0.......24 Other steamers................... 9 18.....6 12.......0 0.......15 Trmnsports and troop ships........ 5 70.......0 0.......0 0........5 Receiving ships, coast-guards, and. 48.......0 0.......0 0....... 84 other non-effective vessels, &c.. 485. 0 0. 0 0 84 Total.......................332 4583....100 161.....204 9933......636 The official list numbers 671, but names only 636. Whole number of guns to 636 vessels, 17,481; number of men in the navy, 27,500 -boys 2000, marines 10,500; total, 40,000. 31 482 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF The average pay of a sailor is ~2 7s. per month, with victuals, which are estimated at about ~1 4s. additional. High salaries are paid to people about the dock-yards, the master-workmen receiving ~250 per annum, and the artificers from 5s. to 12s. 6d. per day. During the war with France, Great Britain' had upwards of 1000 ships, manned by 184,000 seamen. The number of vessels of the revenue service amounts to 72, mounting 144 guns. The British Indian navy in 1844-5, consisted of 36 vessels; of which 22 were steamers —guns, 166. The total number of steamers in the English navy, including 35 contract mail steamers, is 199. There are also eight East India mail steamers. On the subject of the British steam navy, P. L. Simmonds, Esq., editor of the Colonial Magazine of London, says: " Look at the already immense number of powerful steam-ships that swarm in the waters of the Mediterreanean, and enter every port upon its beautiful,shores; that are found careering in every sea of Europe, from the Frozen Ocean to the Bay of Biscay and the Black Sea; that have long since driven every other mode of transit out of the Euphrates and the Red Sea; that penetrate the Indus almost to its source; that ascend the Canton River, in spite of every ob stacle, besides myriads of war-junks, and batter down the walls of the ancient celestial cities; that are surrounding every island, and entering every harbor of the West Indies; that swarm along the shores of North America, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Isthmus of Darien; and that regularly transmit the rich produce of the mines of South America, from all its principal ports, to the great commercial metropolis of the world -crowded, busy London. Look at all this, and see what an element she has to sustain her onward march for an empire. At no period did Great Britain possess such a foundation for naval strength within her bosom as at present. She now possesses 3,500,000 tons of shipping, and numbers 160,000 seamen in her navy, while a fleet of 700 steamers, (more than is possessed by all the rest of Europe,) prowl along her shores." The subject of ocean mail steam-navigation, in which Britain surpasses every other nation, might here with propriety be enlarged upon. Space, however, can only be alotted to a mere enumeration of the details connected with the several companies engaged in this business. The ships employed are equipped as war-steamers, and are convertible to government use whenever demanded. The policy of this system is apparent, and its economy worthy of imitation. The names &c., of these companies, are exhibited in the annexed list: Company. No. Men. Tons. Horse-powca Peninsular and Oriental.................. 23.......... 1,320..........24,646.......... 7,956 Royal Mail.................... 14. 1,127.......... 16,069.......... 5,457 British North American..................10. 875.......... 13,876. 5,24 General Steam.................. 14.......... 214... 7,868. 2,6& City of Dublin......150.......... 8,660. 1,67 Mona Isle..................................... 4.......... 45... 1,568. 664 South-Western................................ 6.......... 103.. 1239, 636 Pacific........................................ 4.......... 184.. 2,384 740 Halifax, &c.................................... 1.......... 30.. 489. 260 Total.............................................,148......... 61978......... 5,264 The united kingdom is a Protestant state, but all religions (not offensii t to public or private morals) may be professed, and their different forms ~1 worship practised, without interference from any quarter whatever. All denominations of christians have their own churches, employ whom they THE UNITED KINGDOM. 483 please as their pastors, and are equally under the protection of the law. The empire contains several established or predominant churches, which are supported by special acts of the legislature. In England and Ireland, there is one church, denominated the United Church of England and Ireland (separate before the union of the two counties in 1800) being a Protestant Episcopacy. In Scotland, the established religion is Protestant Presbyterian. According to the constitution, the religion of the English church, and also the law of England, are established in every colony by the simple act of adding the territory to the crown, unless there be a special provision to the contrary. Thus the church of England prevails in all the great colonial dependencies, except Lower Canada, which is guaranteed a Roman Catholic hierarchy; the Cape of Good Hope, which has been guaranteed Protestant Presbyterianism; Malta, which is Roman Catholic; and so on with some minor colonial possessions. The affairs of the church of England, are managed by archbishops and bishops, but no step of any importance, out of the ordinary routine, can be taken without an act of Parliament, and therefore, the church may be said to be governed by the legislature of the country. The sovereign is the head of the church, which is thus in intimate union with the state. The laity, except through their representatives in the House of Commons, possess no right to interfere in any shape whatever with the doctrines or practice of the church. The doctrines defined by law are contained in the thirtynine articles, and the form of worship is the book of common prayer. Ecclesiastically, the country is divided into dioceses, each of which is under the care of a bishop or archbishop; the dioceses are classed into two provinces, each of which is under the charge of an archbishop. The archbishop of York, is styled " Primate of England;" and the archbishop of Canterbury, who ranks next to the royal family, is styled "' Primate of all England." The other dignitaries of the church are archdeacons, deans and prebendaries; the inferior clergy are rectors, vicars and curates. Strictly, there are only three grades, bishops, priests and deacons, all clergymen belonging to one of these. The bishops are entitled to be addressed as "my lord," being legally spiritual peers. The revenues exigible by law for the support of the church are most unequally distributed, and the dioceses are of very unequal proportions. The same may be said of the working clergy, some of whom have wealthy and others very poor benefices, while curates or assistants are paid on the meanest scale. The revenues of the archbishops and bishops amount in the aggregate to ~150,000 per annum. The largest incomes are those of the archbishop of Canterbury, about ~19,000; Bishop of Durham, ~19,000; Archbishop of York, ~12,600; Bishop of London, ~13,900; Bishop of Winchester, ~11,000; and Bishop of Ely, ~11,000; the others vary from about ~1,500 to ~5,000. The greater part of these revenues are derived from lands, or rents for grounds let on leases, and for which fines are taken at entry. The chapters of cathedrals, composed of deans, canons and prebends, possess also large revenues; the dean of Durham, for instance, having ~4,800 a year, and other members of the chapter, ~32,160. The gross revenues of the deans and chapters amount to upwards of $235,000. The revenues of the inferior or parochial clergy are derived from tithes commuted into money payments, and also fees in celebrating marriages,baptisms and funerals. With respect to the parochial branch of church emoluments, we 484 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF extract the following from Mr. M'Culloch's Statistical Account:-" It appears that of 10,478 benefices, from which returns have been received, 292 are under ~50 a year; 1,629 are between ~50 and ~100 a year; and 1,607 are between ~100 and ~150; so that there are 1,926 benefices under ~100 a year, and 3,528, or more than a third of all the benefices in the country under ~150 a year. On many of these benefices there are no glebe houses, nor do they possess the means of erecting any. Were the spiritual duties of the poorest of these livings not performed by the clergymen of the neighboring parishes, it is difficult to see how they cbuld be performed at all." Curates are paid by the rectors or vicars, whose servants they are; by law, their salary cannot be under ~80- the average, is ~81. The total revenues of the church, may be stated in general terms, as follows: Archbishops and bishops.................................................. ~150,000 Cathedral and collegiate churches......................... 250,000 Deans and other functionaries...................................................... 60,000 10,583 Parochial benefices......................................................... 3,100,000 Curates of resident clergy.......................................................... 87,000 Curates of non-resident clergy............................................ 337,000 ~3,984,000 A proposal to introduce greater equality into ecclesiastical salaries has for some time engaged the consideration of ecclesiastical commissioners; and about twelve years ago an act of Parliament was passed, appropriating revenues from certain sinecure offices in cathedrals, as they become vacant, to increase the incomes of the poorer classes of parochial incumbents. In 1847, the total number of congregations belonging to the established church, was 11,855. At the same time there were the following number of congregations of dissenters:-Roman Catholics, 622; Presbyterians, 212; Independents, 1,897; Baptists, 1,881; Calvinistic Methodists, 507; Wesleyan Methodists, 2,818; other Methodists, 666; Quakers, 396; Home Missionary congregations, 453; Unitarians, 360; total of dissenting congregations (exclusive of Jews) 9,812. It is considered probable that this number includes as many actual worshippers as the 11,855 congregations of the establishment, or about 4,500,000. Thus, reckoning dissenters and members of the established church at 9,000,000, about 7,000,000 remain who cannot be said distinctly to attend any place of worship, though in most instances, nominally belonging to the established church. Titular Roman Catholic bishops have recently been appointed by the Pope of Rome throughout England. In Ireland the established religion is Protestant Episcopacy, of which another branch is established in England. Thus the same doctrines, ritual and forms of ecclesiastical government exist in these two countries, the hierarchies only being different with respect to their political status. At present, considerable alterations are in the course of being carried into effect with regard to the higher orders of the Irish clergy and their dioceses. Formerly there were four archbishoprics -Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam, with thirty-two dioceses consolidated under eighteen bishops. When the new arrangement is carried fully into effect, by the demise of certain functionaries, there will be only two archbishops, those of Armagh and Dublin and ten bishops. The archbishop of Armagh is styled, " Primate and Metropolitan of all Ireland;" and the archbishop of Dublin is styled, " Primate and Metropolitan of Ireland." There have hitherto been 33 THE UNITED KINGDOM. 485 deans and 80 chapters of cathedrals. The number of parishes, including perpetual curacies, is 2,405, but many have no church, and the number of incumbents for the whole, is only 1,383. According to the proposed arrangements, the money saved by the extinction of higher offices, is to be appropriated to sustain churches and glebe houses in parishes, and to execute other necessary purposes. The revenue of the Irish archbishops and bishops, amount to ~151,128 annually; and the total income of the church, including the value of glebe lands and tithes, is about ~700,000. The Roman Catholic church in Ireland, consists of four archbishops and twenty-four bishops, with 1,013 parish priests, 1,394 curates, and other priests, (regulars) about 300; total clergy, 2,735. The number of Roman Catholic chapels, is 2,205; colleges, 25; convents, 56; nunneries, 93; and monasteries, 42. After the Roman Catholic body, the chief dissenting communion is that of the Presbyterians, in the northern parts of the country. Protestant Presbyterianism, according to a polity introduced from Geneva, by Knox, was established in Scotland, by act of Parliament in 1560, a few years after the Roman Catholic church had been completely dismembered and suppressed. The history of the country describes the struggles of this form of church government with Episcopacy, during the greater part of the seventeenth century. Shortly after the revolution, an act of Parliament of William and Mary, 1690, reestablished Presbytery on the model of a statute of 1592. According to the plan thus established, and never afterwards materially altered, the clergy of the church of Scotland are all equal in rank, and are officially ministers of parishes. To the church, belongs a body of lay functionaries, called elders, each church having several, who assist the clergymen at the communion, visit the sick, and generally act as a vigilant ecclesiastical police. The incorporation of laity with the church has given it a remarkably secure footing in the affections of the people. The ecclesiastical community is governed by a series of courts - the lowest being the kirk-session in every parish, composed of the ministers and elders; the next is a court composed of the clergy of a division, called a presbytery, and an elder from each parish; the next is a synodal court, composed of functionaries from an aggregation of presbyteries; and the highest is the General Assembly, composed of delegates from the presbyteries, and which meets annually in Edinburgh. Constant residence in their parishes is obligatory on the clergy. A secession firom this church, which is styled the Free Church of Scotland, has lately been recognized by act of Parliament, and has numerous followers. Among its chief supporters was the late Rev. Thomas Chalmers, D. D., one of Scotland's most eminent divines. Though belonging to a distinct communion, this section of Presbyterians maintains equal rights and privileges with the older church-the preference being left with the parishes. The parochial clergy are supported by money stipends levied from the heritors or landowners, on the principle of commuted tythes or teinds. The amount of stipends yearly, depends on the average market value of corn, the averages being called fiars, which are struck annually by a jury in every county. Each minister being entitled to a certain quantity of grain, the value of the quantity, according to the fiars, is paid in money. If the 486 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF teinds in the hands of heritors be not all uplifted, the stipend is liable to be increased at the end of every twenty years. The grQoss amount of teinds, paid to the clergy annually, is about ~150,000. The total income of the church, including value of glebes and manses, is calculated at ~275,000. In some parishes the exigible stipend is so small, that it is made up to a minimum of ~150 by government. Among the largest stipends are those paid to the eighteen parish ministers at Edinburgh, who receive about ~500 each, levied by a peculiar law as a money-tax from the inhabitants. In Scotland, no secular days, such as Christmas and Good Friday, are legally set apart as holidays, the Scottish church recognising no saint's days or holidays whatsoever. But in each parish there are one or two fast days in the year, previous to the celebration of the communion. Scotland abounds in dissenters, the bulk of whom are all separatists from the church, and, under various names, profess the same doctrine and formula. Besides these dissenters, there is a considerable body of Protestant Episcopalians, in communion with the church of England; also Roman Catholics and Independents. The number of congregations belonging to the Established Church, and various dissenting bodies, may be summed up as follows:-Established Church, 160; United Associate Synod, or Secession Church, and other Presbyterians, 750; Independents, 300; Episcopalians, 120; other Protestant sects, 70; Roman Catholics, 600. England is almost the only country in Europe in which there is no public or general system of elementary education. For the instruction of her clergy and gentry, she has several great public classicql schools; but she has no national establishment, like those which exist in Prussia, Holland, and other countries. Elementary instruction is given to the children of the poorer classes by endowed and charity schools, and the children of the middle classes are chiefly educated at the schools of private teachers. There are in England about 4,200 endowed schools, 18,000 unendowed schools, and a large number of Sunday-schools, educating 1,500,000, or one-tenth of the entire population, instead of the sixth, which Prussia has shown to be the proper amount of school-attenders. Thus England is shown to enjoy- little more than a half part of the proper amount of education, even supposing the education she did enjoy to be good. Of late, however, schools have been opened, particularly in connection with factories, mechanics' institutions, and by subscription. At present, a considerable portion of the humbler order of schools are in connection with two great rival societies-the British and Foreign, and the National, both of whose head establishments are in London. Recently, an annual grant of ~830,000 has been made by Parliament, to enable the privy council to encourage elementary instruction in such schools as will submit to the supervision of an inspector. Religious sectarian differences have as yet frustrated every other step towards the establishment of a national system of education. " That the existing provision for popular instruction," says Mr. Simp son, in his work on'National Education in Great Britain,' " i deficient in quantity, and in too many cases, still more defective in quality, must be ad mitted by all who are acquainted with the actual state of the country. The intellectual condition of the agricultural districts has been well described by a powerful and original writer, as a' gloomy monotony;-death without his dance.' Shut out from every thing that can sustain or ennoble an THEI UNITED KINGDOM. 487 intelligent nature, the peasantry of England has long since displayed, in unparalleled degradation, the full effects of knowledge denied, and have now sunk into a state of mental inanition and sendti-barbarism, from which, it is to be feared, the present generation can never be recovered. Rude, selfish, superstitious and profane;-their sense of right and wrong limited and often perverted; insensible to enjoyments of a higher order than those which arise from the grosser forms of sensual gratification; and scarcely ever looking beyond the apparent interests of the present hour, the great mass live and die without an effort to raise themselves above the lowest conditions of animal existence. " In the towns a different state of things prevails, yet one scarcely less to be lamented, and probably more perilous to the peace of the community. The bulk of the laborers still remain in utter and hopeless ignorance; while the better class of artizans, only partially enlightened, are seldom found capable of enjoying a scientific lecture, a useful book, or a calm political disquisition." The chief educational establishment in Ireland is Trinity College in Dublin; and latterly a collegiate institution for conferring the higher branches of instruction, has been established in Belfast. Elementary education has in recent times made great advances in this part of the United Kingdom. Maynooth College is an ecclesiastical school endowed by the state in favor of the Catholics. In 1831, there was established by- act of Parliament a national system of education, the main feature of which is an arrangement by which the children are separated at certain times, and taught religion by their respective pastors —the necessary funds being provided by the state. By this means it was hoped that the great body of the people, and more particularly the children of the poorer class of Catholics, would at length be brought within the pale of education. We need not say how differently the plan has been regarded by various parties, both in Ireland and in Britain. The national board consists of nine commissioners chosen from both the Roman Catholic and Protestant bodies-the Roman Catholic and Protestant archbishops of Dublin being among the number. The commissioners receive from the public purse, and expend annually, the sum of ~50,000. Besides this great national system of elementary instruction, the country possesses several religious or charitable associations for promoting education among the poorer classes: of these the principal are the Kildare Place Society, and the Church Education Society. The Roman Catholic body also supports a considerable number of schools. " The present population of Ireland probably amounts to 8,600,000. Upon this number, eighteen per cent. would give 1,500,000 children to be educated; of whom 1,200,000, or, at the very lowest computation, 1,000,000, belong to those classes for the education of whose children it is the especial duty of the state to afford peculiar facilities. In this view of the subject we have not taken into account the children between three years old and five years, although in our opinion infant schools ought to be provided for this portion of the national offspring. In this paper we have not attempted any separate notice of the infant schools at present existing in Ireland, beeause they are not sufficiently numerous to obtain a place in our general classification. To provide a suitable education for one million of children, would Drobably cost above ~300,000 per annum; and herein 488 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF lies one of the main difficulties which terrifies statesmen. The same minister who cheerfully asks from parliament above a million and a half sterling every year, to provide a military and police force for the purpose of coercing the people of Ireland to the observance of order, would shrink from the duty of proposing an annual grant of ~200,000 to instruct the rising generation in their duties as subjects and citizens."-President Bache's Report. Scotland possesses five colleges or universities for the higher branches of instruction: being those of Glasgow, St. Andrew's, King's College, and Mareschal College, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. Education at these institutions is generally conferred on a more'liberal and less expensive scale than at the universities of England. Scotland has been long distinguished for its parochial institutions for elementary instruction, and also for its grammar-schools or academies in the chief towns, which serve as preparatory gymnasia for the universities. Each parish (some parishes in towns excepted) is provided with a school at the expense of certain land-owners or heritors, in virtue of an act of parliament passed in 1696, reestablishbag statutes formerly in existence. Within the last forty years, the parish schools have been almost superseded in some quarters by the establishment of voluntarily;-supported institutions, better suited to the wants of the age. In a report to parliament, the number of schools in Scotland was stated as follows: Parochial schools, 1,047; pupils attending them, 68,293; total emoluments of teachers, ~53,339. Voluntarily-supported schools, 3,995; pupils attending them, 151,160. It appears from this that there were 219,453 children receiving instruction, (not including the attendance of Sunday-schools), and that of these only 68,293, or a little more than onefourth, were educated at the parochial schools. There are 5,042 schools, and of these only 1,047, or about one-fifth, were parochial establishments. The publication of this report caused considerable surprise, for it was generally believed that the great bulk of the juvenile population were instructed in the parish schools. A great difference was found between the attendance of males and females. Taking the entire attendance on the schools, there were 132,489 males, and 89,964 females. The result of the inquiry seems to be, that about one in nine of the population in Scotland attends school. The manufactures of Great Britain surpass in extent and variety those of any other country; and from the superior character of its machinery, the economizing of time, and the refined skill of its workmen, the manufactures are generally produced at a lower rate, and of better quality, than in countries more favorably situated with respect to the production of raw materials. The cotton manufacture is the most extensive of the whole, both with respect to the capital which it involves, and the number of people to whom it gives employment; it is supposed to form one-fourth part of the total industry of Britain. The number of work-people in its various departments, (reckoning spinners, weavers, bleachers, &c.; engineers, smiths, and others engaged in the works,) is estimated at 1,700,000. The capital engaged in this large branch of manufacture at present is reckoned at about ~40,000,000, and the total value of the goods annually produced is believed to be between ~30,000,000 and ~34,000,000. The raw material, or cotton wool, is brought chiefly from America, and a part also from the THE UNITED KINGDOM. 489 East Indies and Egypt. The chief seats of this manufacture are Manchester, Glasgow, and Paisley; and the magnificent apparatus of factories, machinery, and warehouses, with which these cities are filled, for this sole business, are the astonishment of all visitors. The cotton manufacture has latterly been greatly impeded in its tendency to increase, by the establishment of cotton factories in Germany, Switzerland, and the United States, in the two first of which countries labor or food is cheaper than in Britain, and consequently goods are there produced at a somewhat cheaper rate. The woolen manufacture was the earliest established in England; it gives employment to above half a million of people. The goods manufactured are valued at twenty millions-; the finer qualities of the raw material are imported from Germany, or from Australia; the coarser are produced cat home. This manufacture, particularly the finer kinds, is chiefly carried on in the west and north of England; both fine and coarse fabrics are now made at Galashiels, in Scotland; and Kilmarnock and Stirling drive a thriving trade in carpets, bonnets, &c. In the finest kind of broadcloths, the Prussians are said still to excel the English. The silk manufacture has been carried on in this country for a long period, having been introduced in the fifteenth century by emigrants from France. It was for many years confined chiefly to Spitalfields in London, and to Coventry. The quantity of silk for working, annually imported, is about three and a half millions of pounds. The consumption of silk goods at home is large. The annual produce of, the manufacture is now estimated at ~10,000,000; and it is supposed to give employment to about 300,000 work-people. Its chief seats are Spitalfields in London, Coventry, and latterly Manchester, Paisley, and Glasgow, where some of the most beautiful fabrics are now made. The leather manufacture is of considerable importance. The value of the different articles of which it forms the material, is estimated at ~20,000,000; this includes gloves, saddlery, boots and shoes, &c. The increase of this trade of late years has been very great; hides are imported from all quarters of the world, and the quantity has doubled within a few years. Iron, cutlery and hardware, forms one of the manufactures in which Britain particularly excels. The abundance of her mines of iron, copper, tin, lead, and coal, and the easy access which can be had to them at all points by sea, river, canal, and railroad, give facilities which are possessed by no other country. The annual value of the manufactured goods is estimated to be above ~26,000,000, and employment is given to 420,000 men in the working of copper, brass, pewter, steel, tin, and other metals. The chief seats of the manufacture of the finer and more skilled articles, are Birmingham, Sheffield, and the immediate vicinity; and from these districts metal goods of all descriptions, implements of war, and the most elegant ornaments of peace, are despatched to all parts of the world. For heavy cast-iron goods, cannon, parts of machinery, &c., Carron, in Scotland, has long been celebrated. The earthenware, china and glass manufactures, rank next to those we have mentioned. The number of people employed cannot be easily estimated; but as no money has to be sent abroad to purchase any part of the material of these works, the whole proceeds of the goods go to pay wages at home. The annual value of the glass manufactured is about four and 490 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF a half millions, and that of the pottery and earthenware about three and a half. The whole value of the manufactures of all kinds produced annually in Great Britain, is reckoned to be about ~180,000,000. The wealth and enterprise of the most distinguished commercial nations of ancient or modern times, of which history has transmitted to us the record, sink into insignificance when compared with the commercial great ness of Britain. The inland commerce is, perhaps, the richest, the most extensive, and the most active, that exists in any country; while the foreign trade extends to every accessible region of the world. Every article manufactured in the country, that will command a sale in a foreign market, is exorted, and its value returned either in money or goods. The imports from different countries, according to a return made to the British Parliament, affords the following details of British commerce for the year ending 5th May, 1847: IMPORTS. Articles. Quantity. Articles. Quantity Brandy...................gals... 2,557,226 Lambs.............................. 2,867 Bacon.........................cwt... 16,440 Molasses............................ 602,986 Bark................................ 421,649 Nutmegs....................lbs... 446,490 Beef, salted.......................... 171,783 Oxen and bulls............... 18,824 Butter............... 290 960 Oats............................ qrs... 1,000,868 Broadstuffs, sil or satin.........lb 145,933 Opium.......................... lbs... 151.849 Bandanas, and other silk hdkfs...pcs... 649,837 Pork, salt..................,.cwt... 111,196 Cheese....................... cwt... 364,486 Palm oil................. 408,537 Cocoa...........................lbs... 2,321,851 Pepper.........................lbs... 6,383,148 Coffee.....................51,651,601 Quicksilver..................2,090,401 Cows................... 26,945 Rice...........................cwt... 995,328 Calves................. 3,570 Ribands..............lbs... 212,908 Cassia Lignea..... 1,109,398 Rum..........................gals... 3,894,527 Cinnamon........................... 340,675 Silk, raw.lbs... 4,204,858 Cloves... 165,504 Sheep... 95,402 Cape wine..................... gals... 230,152 Sugar, refined................. cwt... 70,039 Cotton wool...................cwt... 4,042,222 " unrefined...... 6,067,654 Eggs................................ 65,096,305 " Brit. Am................ 2,227,995 Flour............................... 4,062,955 Mauritius.. 922,536 Flax............................. 1,146,456 " East India............. 1,352,352 French wines..................gals.. 473,038 " foreign................. 1,546,000 Grain, wheat.............qrs 1,329,712 Sheep and lambs' wool..........lbs...59,192,335 Gloves...pairs... 2,210,497 Swine and hogs.......... 3,283 G(uano........................ tons.. 93,251 Tallow........................ cwt... 1,121,622 Goat-skins, undressed............ 493,206 Tea............lbs... 51,227,400 G. Brandy............. gals 445,866 Tobacco, unmanufactured.............50,525,420 Hides, tan......lb.... 1,339,183 Tobacco and snuff, manufac............ 1,998,024 Indian corn.................... qrs.. 1,677,996 Wines.........................gals... 6885,745 Indian meal....................cwt... 487,275 ExPORTS. The aggregate value of the exportations of British and Irish produce and manufactures, during the same period, amounts to ~51,563,846. The following are the prominent articles and also their values: Articles. Value. Articles. Value. Butter....................~ 178,618 Machinery......................,133,094 Candles.............................. 45,430 Iron and steel........ 4,361719 Cheese..................... 26,8338 Copper and brass............... 1,752,283 Coals and culm.......... 8...... 88 Lead............................... 166,594 Cotton manufactures............ 17 881923 Tin.................................. 1830,232 Cotton yarn...................... 3 Tin plates............................ 39,698 Earthenware............ 818 189 Salt........ 241,769 Herrings............................ 2469 Silk manufacture..................... 861,648 Glass................................ 276,947 Soap................................ 149,087 Cutlery and hardwares............... 2,181,014 Refined sugar....................... 399,916 Leather............. 284......0 Sheep and lambs' wool............... 350,615 Linen manufacture............. 2,89,254 Woollen yarn........................ 983,208 Linen yarn......... 788,373 Woollen manufacture................ 6,573,697 The foregoing figures may serve to furnish some idea of the immense extent of the commercial intercourse and traffic of Great Britain with all THE UNITED KINGDOM. 491 parts of the world, and to prove, in a degree, the efficacy of the measures passed of late years for the emancipation of trade in general, from the restrictions by which its operations were obstructed. The greatest part of the export trade is carried on with the United States, Germany, China, the Colonies in North America, West and East Indies, &c., Holland, Italy, Russia, Brazil, France, Portugal, Turkey, Hayti, and foreign West Indies, Spain, &c., which constitute the chief consumers of British manufactured articles. In minor proportions they are sent to all other countries, to an annual aggregate of from fifty to sixty millions sterling. The vast size of the British Mercantile Navy will be recognized in the following tables, which are taken from De Bow's Commercial Review, for October, 1848: Steam vesscls. Tona Othr essel. Tonae. Crews. lasted IIingdom..............................2,9946....170162 uney Jersey and Man....................,....... 28.... 6.. Total. -.900. U3........78,677..........24,016... *....8,044,392.... 175,691 VSSELS EMPLOYED IN THE ISHERIES. S7ip. Men. Northern, or Greenland..1.......0...........................16....... 00 Sperma"t.................................................................. 68.......2,176 Common oil............................. 1....... 82 Total.85.....................................................................008 The internal trade of the country, both Britain and Ireland, must be very great, but its amount cannot be even approximately ascertained. The banking or money trade is conducted by about 600 banks, national, jointstock and private banks, each having branches in various portions of the country. The Bank of England is the great fiscal agent of Britain. In no part of the world has the joint-stock system been followed out to such a prodigious extent as in England, except perhaps in the United States. These ramify into every department of business, and in the aggregate represent an enormous capital. Canals, docks, bridges and railways are all constructed by companies; and commerce, banking, insurance, &c., are all carried on, not by individuals, as formerly, but under these institutions. In 1838, the whole capital invested in joint stock was only ~167,000,000 -the capital of railway companies alone is, at the present time, superior to this amount. Connected intimately with the commerce and manufacturing industry of the country, is the immense facility of internal communication which the United Kingdom possesses, and which is so peculiar a feature in British enterprise. Railroads, canals, and turnpike roads traverse in every direction the whole surface of the land. These works attest most obviously the activity, the power and resources of the nation. The length of turnpike roads is, in Great Britain, about 25,000 miles, and in Ireland 14,000 miles. These are supported by tolls, which a short time ago amounted to ~1,200,000 a year. The total length of canals is nearly 3,000 miles, the income of which amounts to about ~15,000,000 per annum, which sum, after deducting the expenses of repairs, &c., pays an interest on the investments of between 5 and 6 per cent. The net of railways which now bands together the various parts of Great Britain and Ireland, extends to an enormous length. At the commencement of 1850, there was a total length of 12,000 miles of road, including 492 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF those completed and those in progress, which would be finished within the year. The principal lines are- the Liverpool and Manchester railway, about thirty-two miles long, and uniting these populous towns; the London and Birmingham railway, about one hundred and twelve miles long, connecting the metropolis with the centre of England; the Grand Junction railway, continuing the London and Birmingham line to that of Liverpool and Manchester, and also to a railway proceeding northward to Lancaster and Carlisle, and thus forming a most important thoroughfare obliquely across the country; the Midland Counties, North Midland, and Great North of England railways, connecting the great seats of trade in Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, and Derbyshire, with the London and Birmingham line; the Newcastle and Carlisle railway, connecting these towns; the Great Western railway, about one hundred and seventeen miles long, connecting London with Bristol, and with smaller tributary lines opening up the west of England; the South-Western railway, about seventy-seven miles long, connecting London with Southampton; the Manchester and Leeds railway, connecting these populous towns. In Scotland, the Edinburgh and Glasgow railway, and the Glasgow and Ayr railway, axe the principal lines. As yet few lines have been built in Ireland. The bridges, aqueducts, and tunnels, which have been erected in connection with roads and canals, are more magnificent and numerous than those of any other country. To estimate their number would be difficult; but we may mention that, in the metropolis, the Waterloo and London bridges alone cost very nearly two and a half millions sterling. The iron bridges which have been erected in different places, are the admiration of all foreigners. Their arches are constructed of a number of strong ribs of metal, standing apart from each other like the joists of a house, and on these the floor or roadway is formed. Bridges of suspension are now also common; in which the roadway is suspended by iron bars, from strong chains which are fixed in the earth, and then hung over high pillars at each end of the bridge; by this means bridges can be constructed over deep and broad waters, where it would have been altogether impossible to stretch anarch of any other kind. On a we frequented road, bridges costing ~14,000 or ~18,000 are often consilcd merely to shorten the distance by a mile or two, or to avoid an inconvenient ascent in the old track. Were it possible to estimate the amount of capital laid out on this kind of improvement alone, it would be almost incredible. The lighthouses of Britain are perhaps the most remarkable part of the nautical apparatus of the islands. The capital expended upon them has been large, and the skill with which some of them, such as the Bell-Rock and Eddystone lighthouses, are constructed for durability in the midst of a tempestuous sea, could only have been exhibited in a country where mechanical science existed in its highest perfection; and there is hardly a dangerous or doubtful point along the coast where the mariner is not guided by a light on some headland or rock. The population of the United Kingdom, as before observed, consists of various classes of persons, among whom, with respect to wealth, education, and general condition, even more than the usual differences are to be found. Notwithstanding great improvements in agriculture of late years, the country cannot produce wheat, oats and other cereal grains, in sufficient THE UNITED KINGDOM. 493 abundance to meet the demands of a daily-increasing and hard-laboring population, and what is deficient is excluded, except at high duties, which render the price of bread higher than it is elsewhere in Europe. Without entering minutely into this great and much debated question, it may be mentioned as a general result, that the difficulty of purchasing food leads to a corresponding depression of circumstances in the humbler orders of the community, and either causes an extensive dependence on poor-rates for support, or produces debased and dangerous habits of living. The present condition of society throughout the United Kingdom exhibits the spectacle of great and valuable efforts at improvement among the more enlightened classes. Within the last ten years, the utility of the press has been immensely increased, and works of instruction and entertainment have been circulated in departments of society where formerly nothing of the kind was heard of. The establishment of mechanics' institutions, lyceums, exhibitions of works of art, reading societies, and other means of intellectual improvement, forms another distinguished feature of modern society. At the same time great masses of the people, for lack of education, and from other unfortunate circumstances, are evidently gravitating into a lower condition. From these reasons, and others connected with the development of the manufacturing and commercial system, convictions for crime have been largely increasing. The leading epochs in the history of the Empire, areI. The invasion and establishment of the English power in Ireland during the reign of Henry II. II. The union of the crowns of England and Scotland in 1604, on the accession of James, king of Scotland, to the throne of England, vacant by the death of Elizabeth. III. The great civil war in the reign of Charles I., followed by the execution of that monarch in 1649; the establishment of the Commonwealth, and the restoration of Charles II. in 1660. IV. The Revolution, justly styled "glorious," of 1688, which expelled the family of Stuart from the throne; defined and firmly established the principles of the constitution; and introduced a liberal, tolerant, and really responsible system of government, under the great deliverer, William III., prince of Orange. V. The establishment of the legislative union of England and Scotland, in 1707. VI. The accession of the House of Hanover, 1714. VII. The American war, 1776-1784. VIII. The war with revolutionary France, 1793-1815. IX. The legislative union of Ireland with England and Scotland, 1799. X. The passing of the Reform Act, 1832 494 FRANCE. FRANCE. AREA, 204,825 SQUARE MmLES. PompON, 35,401,000. France, lying on the south-west side of Germany, and on the south separated from Spain by the Pyrenees, touches the North Sea only with a small part of its northern extremity, is separated from the British Islands by the Strait of Dover and the English Channel, and is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and the Bay of Biscay, and on the south by the Medi terranean Sea and the Gulf of Lyons. In France, every fifth year a census is taken; and the above-stated population is according to the last one, of the year 1846; and the number of inhabitants was then exactly 35,400,486. According to the census of 1841 the population was 34,173,234. The great mass of the people consists of French, belonging to the great family of the Romanians (see General View of Europe, ante). The number of Germans, chiefly in Alsace and Lorraine, is about 1,500,000; and -in French Flanders are about 180,000 Flemings. In the French province of Brittany are nearly 1,200,000 Breyzards, or descendants of the ancient Britons, who settled here in the fifth century; and in Gascoigne about 150,000 Basques. Near the Pyrenees are to be found Gypsies, perhaps 9,000 in number. There is no established religion in France, all denominations being equal in the eye of the law; but the great mass of the people are Roman Catholics, under the church-authority of 14 archbishops and 66 bishops; while only about 4,000,000 are Protestants-nearly 3,000,000 Reformists, and about 1,000,000 Lutherans. There are nearly 4,000 convents with 24,000 religeuse, of whom, however, 18,000 are sisters, or nuns, who have devoted themselves to the attendance and care of the sick, and to the education of children. The surface of this very extensive territory is in general level, although it borders, and is encroached upon by the greatest mountain ranges of Europe. The Alps cover the full half of its eastern frontier, and their branches extending into Dauphiny and Provence, render them very rugged and romantic regions. The Pyrenees, which rank second among the chains of the continent, range along the southern border, and cover with their branches Roussillon and Gascony. On the east, where France reaches to the Rhine, are the Vosges and other chains of moderate height, parallel to that river.'The only range exclusively French, is that of' Auvergne, in the centre.of the kingdom, which not only includes all that province- where it rises to the height of.5000 or 6000 feet, but stretches by a dividing line along the left bank of the Allier to Languedoc, parallel to the coast of the Mediterranean, where it is called the Cevennes. But by far the greater part of France, including the whole north and the whole west, is one widely extended plain, which yields in very high perfection all the fruits and ffroducts of the temperate zone. The rivers of France, though not of the first magnitude, are noble and commodious. Traversing almost every part of the kingdom, they afford FRANCE. 495 ample means of internal navigation; and the broad plains which border on them, yield the most luxuriant harvests. The Loire, which is the principal, rises in the south, on the borders of the Provence, and flows for some time nearly north, parallel to the course of the Rhone and the Saone, though in an opposite direction. Near Nevers it receives the Allier, which in a parallel and nearly equal stream has hitherto accompanied it; it now gradually bends round into a westerly course, which it follows through the plains of Orleanais and Touraine, the garden of France, till after a course of 700 miles, it falls into the sea a little below the great commercial city of Nantes. The Rhone is not at first a French river: it rises in the heart of Switzerland, amid the eternal snows and glaciers of the Grimsel and the Shreckhorn, and rolls its earliest course beneath the mighty mountain walls of St. Gothard, Monte Rosa, and the Simplon. It now expands into the Leman lake, from whence it emerges near Geneva, where it soon enters France, and rolls direct towards Lyons. At that great city, it receives the Saone, bringing down an ample stream from the Vosges, swelled by that of the Doubs from the Jura. The Rhone, now following the direction of its tributary, turns directly south, and after a rapid course through Dau phiny and Provence, enters the Mediterranean by several mouths. In this course, the Alps transmit it to the Isere, and the classical stream of the Durance: its entire length may be 500 miles. The Seine, though of inferior magnitude, claims distinction as flowing by the metropolis: it rises on the frontier of Burgundy, and runs almost due north, till it receives the parallel and nearly equal Aube, when their united waters flow west and north-west. Before reaching Paris, it receives from the south the Yonne, and from the north, almost under the walls of the capital, its greatest tributary, the Marne. At Paris it is navigable for vessels of considerable burden. Beyond Paris, the Seine makes some extensive windings, and is augmented from the north by the waters of the Oise bringing those of the Aisne. It then passes the fine and flourishing city of Rouen, and spreading into an estuary, joins the English Channel at the ancient port of Havre. The Garonne has a course of still less extent, though its broad navigable stream, flowing through a magnificent plain, the most productive in valuable wine of any in France, gives it a high commercial importance. It rises near the eastern Pyrenees, and flows northward to Toulouse, where it assumes a steady north-west course, during which, swelled from the north by the Aveyron, the Lot, and the Drodogne, and passing the great haven of Bordeaux, it becomes an estuary, capable of receiving the largest vessels. The Rhine is to France only a limitary river for somewhat above 100 miles; but its great tributaries, the Moselle and Meuse, rise and have most of their early course within its territory. The important Belgic river, the Scheldt, also rises within the French territory. France has no lakes, which, in a general view, seem worthy of mention. Among the wild quadrupeds of France is the wolf, which is still not uncommon in the wooded and mountainous districts: when pressed by hunger, it descends to the farms, and even attacks the inhabitants. The beaver is said still to exist in the southern parts; and probably the wild boar may not be wholly extirpated from the existing forests. Bears were once common, while three or four of the smaller quadrupeds appear peculiar to France. 496 BAGNCE. Several interesting and beautiful birds, unknown or but rarely met with in Britain, are here not uncommon; such as the wood-chat, shrike (Lanius rufus T.) the gross-beak or hawfinch, the blue-throated warbler, and several others of the same family. In short, from the connection of this country with the central and southern kingdoms of Europe, the ornithologist might probably discover in France more than three-fourths of all the continental birds. The climate is in general temperate, France lying between the parallels of 420 and 50~ north latitude. In the south, it is sometimes very hot; but there, as well as in other parts of the country, it has sometimes also been very cold, especially in 1608, in the beginning of last century, and in 1776. The soil is, upon the whole, fertile, yet there are also many barren and desert tracts, together amounting to 7,799,672 hectares, or 30,279 square miles; nearly one-seventh of the total area of France. Of the arable land, about 14,000,000 hectares, or 54,346 square miles, are appropriated to grain-raising; and in 1843 there were 5,338,043 hectares (2574 hectares are nearly equal to one English square mile) cultivated with wheat, 2,638,948 with rye, 1,300,186 with barley, 2,840,360 with oats, 700,890 with buckwheat, and 595,227 with maize and millet. Upon an average, the annual produce is about 833,000,000 bushels of grain, 128,000,000 of which consist of wheat.' Beside which, the annual harvest of potatoes may be computed at 170,000,000 bushels. All the grain raised in the country is at times not sufficient for home consumption, and in the period from 1815 to 1841, grain has been imported from foreign countries to the amount of 464,000,000 francs in value. The agriculture in France is generally in a backward state, or at least inferior to that of England, Be]gium, and Germany. Of far greater importance is the vine culture, tf which purpose 2,134,822 hectares were appropriated in 1843. At al events, France ranks first among the wine countries in the world, and itf annual produce in wines may on an average be estimated at 720,000,000 gallons. Other productions of the vegetable kingdom are principally: madder, in the environs of Avignon, and other parts of Provence, and in Languedoc; apples, in Normandy and Brittany; plums, in Gascony; sugar beets, of which at least 22,000,000 pounds of sugar are made annually; olives, in Provence; tobacco, cultivated only in Brittany, Gascony, French Flanders, and Alsace, the tobacco trade being a monopoly of the government; capers, almonds, and truffles. Before the revolution of 1789, France had extensive and valuable forests, but they have since been thinned so extravagantly, that in 1843 no more than 7,422,315 hectares, or only about the seventh part of the total area of France, were still woodland, of which, moreover, only the fourteenth part consisted of forests of tall trees. The rearing of cattle is in France, even more than agriculture, in a backward state, and in 1843 the total number was only 9,130,632, whereas Austria numbered in the same year 11,389,001 head of black cattle. The best breed is that of Normandy and Auvergne. The cattle reared in France are not sufficient for the home consumption. The number of horses throughout the country is estimated at 2,500,000; the finest breed is to be found in Normandyt and Limousin, but even these horses are inferior FRANCE. 497 to those of Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, ahd other parts of Germany, from which countries many horses are annually imported to mount the French cavalry. Fine mules are reared in Poitou and Auvergne. In 1843, the number of sheep was 29,130, 231. Of goats, the fine breed from Angora and Thibet, introduced into France since 1819, thrives well in the southern provinces. In these provinces the rearing of silk-worms is also very important. Of mineral products, France hat only iron and coal in somewhat considerable quantities. Most of the iron mines are in Champagne, Burgundy, Franche-Comt6, Lorraine, Nivernais, Lyonnais, and Berry, and in 1842 the total produce was 6,954,100 metric quintals of iron of various descriptions. The total produce of coal amounted in the same year to 35,920,843 metric quintals, but being insufficient for home consumption, nearly 17,000,000 quintals had to be imported from Belgium and England. Of precious metals, only silver is obtained in Dauphiny; and the annual produce of copper, chiefly found'in Navarre and Bearn, Dauphiny, Lyonnais, and Lower Alsace, may be estimated at 3,000 quintals. Salt is made in rather large quantities by evaporation of sea-water at Cette and other maritime towns. France abounds in warm springs and mineral waters, on account of which especially Bagndres and Bardges, in the Pyrenees, and Bourbon l'Archambault and Vichy, in Bourbonnais, are much visited. The manufactures of France, though they do not present the immense results of those of England, are considerably more productive than those of almost any other nation. Silk has been long one of the most prominent objects of French manufacture. Even the revocation of the edict of Nantes, though it drove many of the most industrious citizens out of the kingdom, left that branch of industry still very flourishing. It suffered more from the dreadful calamities which befell Lyons, its chief seat, during the height of the revolutionary mania. The 15,000 establishments that existed in 1788 for the manufacture of silk, were reduced in 1800 to 3500; but again amounted, in 1831, to about 15,000. It now gives employment to 60,000 persons. It is chiefly in cloths that this city excels all others, both as to the brilliancy of the dyes, and the richness and beauty of the stuffs. Nismes excels in taffetas, mixed silk and cotton stuffs, gauzes, and crapes; Tours in furniture stuffs; Avignon in satins, levantines, &c. The Cevennes are famous for bonnets, while almost all the silk ribands are fabricated in the department of the Loire. The woollen manufacture is still more extensive and valuable than that of silk. The woollens of France are either very coarse or very fine; the former are established chiefly in the hilly tracts of the southern border, where the sheep yield abundance of coarse wool, and the shepherds spend the leisure of winter in working it up into serges, friezes, and similar stuffs. On the other hand, at Sedan, Louviers, Abbeville, are manufactured finer cloths than any of those of Britain, though the latter produces a much larger quantity of good and substantial cloth. The making of linen is as widely scattered as the culture of hemp and flax. The coarse cloths are chiefly fabricated by the peasantry, each out of the produce of his own little patch of land. There are, however, large manufactures of plain useful cloth in Normandy and Dauphin6, the latter 32 498 PRANCE. from hemp; and great quantities of sailcloth are made in the maritime countries. In the departments along the Belgic border-there are extensive fabrics of lawns, cambrics, and lace; which last, though not of equal repu tation with that of Brussels and Mechlin, forms yet an important object of trade. The cotton manufacture was first introduced in 1770, and since 1812 has probably tripled in extent and importance. The principal districts engaged in this branch are Rouen, arl the adjacent towns in Normandy; Lyons and Tarrare; Lille, Cambray, and other places in French Flanders; Paris and its neighborhood; St. Quentin, Abbeville, Amiens, and other towns in Picardy; Troyes, and the adjacent towns in Champagne; Mulhausen, Bischweiller, and other places in Alsace. The total number of persons employed seems to be 250,000. The minor manufactures of France ramify through such a number of branches, that it would be tedious to notice them. Leather is manufactured to the yearly value of 65,000,000 francs. Jewelry, and watch and clock work, are made chiefly in Paris. Paris is indeed remarkable for every fabric of taste and luxury. The porcelain of St. Sevres, and the beautiful but expensive tapestry of Gobelins, are highly valued. Soap, oil, liquors, hats, perfumery, earthenware, saltpetre and other chemical articles, are also manufactured to a large extent. In the manufacture of the finer chemicals, especially the vegetable alkaloids, the French have long excelled, and their articles have a preference in all markets. The total computed value of goods manufactured in France is about 1,600,000,000 francs annually. Trade is much more confined, however, to home consumption than in England. The only articles imported largely are cotton and silk; little is exported, and, as a consequence, the productive industry is not so liable to fluctuations as in countries depending on others as customers. As a commercial nation France is only second-rate, and vastly inferior to either Great Britain or the United States. The productions of industry, as well as those of the soil, give rise to a large internal commerce, but with foreign countries exchange is comparatively limited. The most important commercial towns are Paris, Lyons, Rouen, St. Etienne, Beaucaire, Aix, Toulouse, Montpelier, Lille, Strasbourg, Nancy, Mulhausen, and Perpignan. The inland commerce is chiefly transacted at fairs, which are held periodically in all the great towns of the republic, and the facility and cheapness of land-carriage, by railroads, &c., are peculiarly beneficial to the merchant. The extent of the business effected cannot well be ascertained. The chief articles of import from foreign countries are horses, cattle, raw silk, tallow, peltry, wool, leaf tobacco, dye-woods, oil, various metals, hemp, cotton, indigo, sulphur, colonial produce, and spices. The principal exports consist of the manufactures of the country, wines, brandies, perfumery, &c., with fruits and confectionary. Paris itself furnishes more than a fifth part of the whole. The distribution of the foreign commerce of France, and the amount of transactions with each country, is exhibited in the following table, which is abstracted from the " Tableau General du Commerce de France" for 1846, published by the administration of commerce at Paris: RANICE. 499 Imported into France. Eported from France, FRma. Francs Great Britain.................79,000,000.................... 113,00,000 United States.........111,000000.....100,000,000 Sa rdnina............................... 107,000o000. 49,000,000 Belgi,O..........................lOlO0 o o....................... 48,000;o Russia......62,000,00........................ 2000........................ German Un ion................. 47,000,000....................... 62,000,000 Martinique........................ -.................I..... 22,000,000 Turkey..........8,00 0,000........................ 38,000,000 Spain................................. 86,000,000.... 8..,000,000 Switzerland...... 20,000,000. 47,000,000 Algeria............................... --..94,000,000 The Bank of France is the only privileged institution of the kind in the country. It was first chartered in 1803, for a period of fifteen years, but the period was subsequently prolonged. Previous to the revolution, it issued notes of two values only, viz: 1000 francs and 500 francs; but since that period the law has been modified, and also several issue branches been instituted in different departments. The bank is under the direction of a governor named by the president, two deputy governors, and a number of directors. The branches are managed by similar officers, who are all accountable to the central institution, and render weekly reports thereto, which are published in the aggregate of the general bank accounts. There is besides a separate council for the discount department, composed of twelve members, chosen from such of the shareholders as are merchants. The business consists in discounting bills, making advances on government securities, or on the deposits of bullion, foreign coin, diamonds, shares, &c. &c., and has, since the revolution, greatly aided, from its resources, the establishment of the Republic. The avenues of internal communication of France are entrusted to the management of the board of roads, bridges and mines. The business connected with this board is very extensive, and looks to the general safety of the great travelling public. The railroads of France centre at Paris, and thence diverge to every point. These means of conveyance, however, are not so extensive as in either Belgium or England. "In 1842," says Willams, in his " Railroad and Steamboat Companion," "the French government resolved that a system of railways should be planned and executed. With this view, it was determined that from Paris, as a centre, main branch lines should issue, to be directed to those points of the frontier, by land and by sea, that should best serve the purposes of foreign commbrce. In 1844, there were 537 miles of railway open to the public, absorbing a capital of $57,320,000; in progress of-construction, 1,837 miles, and 961 miles projected. When these are completed, the total length will be 3,235 miles, requiring the enormous capital of $355,977,000. The great North. ern Railway, which unites Paris with Brussels, is now open, and it is said to be the most gigantic railway concern in the hands of any one company in the world. It will have need of 3,250 carriages and 175 locomotives. It has occupied four years in its construction, and cost 180,000,000 francs. Most of the railways of France have been undertaken by the government, and when completed, are leased for a term of years to companies or indi viduals, on complying with certain conditions. At the expiration of 40 years they will revert again to the government, and in about 90 years private companies will cease to exist, except such as the government may think fit to re-constitute." In France there are 86 canals, forming altogether a length of 2,350 miles. S00 lAkNCE. The French national character has very marked features, and has been the object of mingled admiration and contempt to the neighboring nations. In the eyes of Frenchmen, especially of the old school, la belle France is the centre of all that is refined and polished in human existence, and whatever lies beyond its sphere is marked with a deep taint of barbarism; while their rougher neighbors brand them as artificial, effeminate and fantastic The art of living in society seems certainly carried to greater perfection than in any other country; and the manners are characterised by a peculiar gaiety, amenity and courtesy. The polish of the higher ranks seems to have descended even to the lowest circles. In more serious points of view, the French possess estimable qualities. Intoxication is a vice confined to the lowest ranks; and swearing is repelled at least as a mark of barbarism. The French are ingenious, acute, active and intelligent. If they have not what can strictly be called patriotism, they have at least a very strong national feeling. To exalt the glory and promote the influence of France, is the prevailing impulse which actuates the mind of almost every Frenchman. It is probable, that the impression of the general dissoluteness of French manners has been chiefly derived from the opulent circles of the capital; while, as a late writer has observed, Paris and the provinces form entirely separate worlds. Among the peasantry, and even among the trading class in the cities, there appears to be much that is respectable and amiable. The great activity and prominent station of the female sex are everywhere conspicuous: they are seen managing the shops, carrying on great manufactories, and joining in the hardest toils of the loom and the field. The intellectual character of the French has been brilliant, and since the age of Louis XIV., has had a powerful influence, in matters of taste, on the general literature of Europe: that prince, ambitious of glory in every form, extended a munificent patronage to letters and arts. The French Academy, though its endowments were not very splendid, and though intrigue often influenced its admission, gave a fixed and high place in society to men of letters; who, amid all the frivolity of French character, were received even among the highest ranks, with a distinction not accorded to them in any other modern country. The aim of Louis to make the French a sort of universal language, was in a great measure successful; it became the established dialect at all the courts, and the chief medium by which the different nations communicate with each other. The departments in which the writers of that age excelled, were chiefly pulpit eloquence, poetry of a light and satirical character, and the drama in a somewhat fettered and artificial form. The writers of the following age took a bolder and more varied flight, and sought to turn the opinion of mankind into new channels npon all subjects. The wit and varied talent of Voltaire, the eloquence of Buffon and Rosseau, the comprehensive views of Montesquieu, and the science of D'Alembert, gave a new turn to the ideas of the thinking world throughout Europe. These writers, with their successors of the same school, had a powerful influence in bringing on this revolution, in the ruins of which several of them were buried. Learning was for some time almost extinguished in France; but as soon as the revolutionary frenzy abated, the National Assembly constituted a new body called the National Institute, round which, all the highest names in science have continued to rally. The French during this period did not shine in poetry or general FRAN. 501 literature; but in mathematics, physics and chemistry, the labors of Lavoisier, Laplace, Lalande, Chaptal, and a number of others, have, notwithstanding the powerful rivalry on the other side of the Channel, raised them, perhaps, to the very first place. Recently, France has produced some very eminent historians, and popular poets of a peculiar character; there has been also a remarkable extension of the habits of reading. The literary and scientific collections of Paris are the most splendid in Europe: the royal library contains 800,000 printed volumes, 100,000 manuscripts, 5000 volumes of engravings, and 1,000,000 historical docquments. There are sixteen other libraries in Paris, containing 800,000 volumes. The Museum of Natural History and the Jardin des Plantes are equally copious in their respective departments. All these are opened to the public in the most liberal manner. The provincial collections are also respectable, though they do not equal those of the minor princes of Germany; and France is, on the whole, less rich in this species of treasure. The fine arts were zealously promoted by the regent duke of Orleans, and by Louis XIV.; and though they never reached the splendor of the Italian or even of the Flemish schools; yet they could boast several masters of the first class, The French galleries of art have passed through many vicissitudes: before the revolution they were certainly the first out of Italy. During that convulsion, all the collections of the princes and nobles were put up to sale; the entire Orleans collection was carried to England; the Crozat went to Russia; various minor collections shared the same fate. When the French, however, over-run Italy and the Netherlands, they were seized with the desire of enriching Paris with treasures of art, and carried off whatever could be removed from among the master-pieces of the Flemish and Italian masters, and of ancient sculpture. Thus was assem bled in the Louvre a display of all that is most brilliant in art, such as nothing befor6 existing in the world could have rivalled. But a dire re verse awaited the nation. The allied armies who conquered at Waterloo, and thence advanced to occupy Paris, determined to exact full restitution of all this brilliant booty. The Venus, Apollo and Transfiguration were sent off for Rome; the Descent from the Cross for Antwerp; and numberless other master-pieces were restored to their ancient possessors. The unseemly gaps thus left were filled up by native productions and others taken from the palaces; and the gallery presents a coup d'cil almost as brilliant as ever; the intrinsic value, however, is vastly diminished; though since the purchase of the Borghese collection, it still comprises some of the finest specimens of ancient sculpture. Paris still claims to be, as it were, the centre of gaiety to the civilized world. The Parisians go from home in search of amusements much more than their neighbors; almost all their leisure is spent in places of public resort, which are open on terms that render them accessible to all classes. Dancing is an exercise peculiarly French, in which, as to agility, and perhaps grace, they excel most nations. Much of their time is also spent in the open air; and extensive ranges of gardens in Paris are provided with every recreation suited to the tastes of its citizens. Dress is a particular in which the French long claimed, and were allowed to give the law to the rest of Europe. Paris has been for ages the grand magasin des modes. In that capital seems to have originated the 602 FRANCE. system which is termed fashion, and which consists in the continual change, according to a prescribed model, of the form and construction of every part of the human attire. Education in France, though supported by the government, is not general, but is open to all. The University of France embraces the whole system of national education, and includes all the educational institutions of the country, from the lowest schools up to the greatest colleges. The supervision is entrusted to a council and a corps of inspectors, and each commune is obliged by law to support schools of elementary instruction. The number of institutions belonging to the university, was lately as fol lows: 41 national colleges, with 626 professors, 5,779 internal, and 8,870 external students; 318 communal colleges; 146 institutions; 1,114 boarding schools; 54 normal schools; and 42,317 primary schools. The highest rank is that of the " Facultes." There are six " Facultes" of Roman Catholic Theology, and two of Protestant Theology, ortn Lutheran, and one Calvanistic. There are nine Facultes of law; three of medicine, with 17 secondary schools; eight of science, and six of literature. The facultes of Paris are highly distinguished, and are attended by a large body of students. No student is eligible to the facultes of law, physic or divinity, until he has - received diplomas in science and literature. The primary schools throughout France were, in 1840, frequented by 2,881,679 children. (The common schools of Germany are annually frequented by more than six million children.) In 1837 there were 7,682, and in 1840 still 4,196 French communities without schools at all; and, according to the statement of a French statistician (Legoyt, in his " France statistique,") out of every one thousand French, 405 (upon an average) can neither read nor write. In 1843 there were out of 50,352 schoolmasters, not less than 23,048 who had only an annual salary of 200 francs (or little than more than $40) each, while that of the remainder amounted to no more than 300 francs. Now the sum for the suntenance of a galley slave in the bagnos of Toulon, Rochefort, and L'Orient is fixed at 319 francs annually; thus the wants of culprits are indeed better provided for than those of teachers in the public schools. France has constituted herself a Republic, and according to the constitution voted by the National Assembly, 4th November, 1848, democratic, one and indivisible. Its principles are liberty, equality, fraternity; and its basis family, labor, property, and public order. The first article of the constitution recognises that " the sovereignty resides in the totality of the French people." By the 2d, the rights of the citizen are guaranteed: no one can be -arrested except in accordance with the laws-a man's house is inviolable-no one can be removed from his natural judges-the death penalty for political offences is abolished-slavery cannot exist on French ter ritory —all religions are exercised, and the ministers of all supported by the state-the right of assembling and petitioning is secured-the press is free and subject to no censorship-teaching is free, but under the supervision of the state-public employment is open to all —all titles of nobility, class, or caste, are abolished forever-the public debt is guaranteed — every one is to be taxed, but no tax can be levied except according to the laws, and direct taxes can only be accorded for one year. Such are the chief provisions for the citizens. btANO. 50's The legislative power is vested in a single assembly, to consist of 700 members, including those of Algeria and the colonies, which now constitute an integral part of the Republic; but when it is necessary to revise the constitution, it is to be raised to 900 members. Population is the basis for election, suffrage is direct and universal, and votes are taken by ballot. All Frenchmen, 21 years of age, and not disqualified by law, may vote, and all electors, 25 years of age, are eligible for election to public offices. Property neither qualifies nor disqualifies. No member of the assembly is eligible for any remunerating public office during the continuance of the Legislature. The Representatives are elected by Departments, and the duration of an Assembly is limited to three years, when it is renewed in its entirety. The Assembly is declared permanent, and during any prorogation, a commission composed of members of committees, and twenty-five representatives named by the Assembly by ballot, will have the right to call together the Assembly in case of emergency. The President of the Republic has the same right. Members are declared to be not representsa tives of the department in which they were elected, but of all France. They cannot receive instructions-their persons are inviolable, nor can a representative be arrested for crime except by permission of the Assembly. Members must receive pay. The sittings of the Assembly are public, but the Assembly may form itself into a secret committee. The presence of half the members and one over, is necessary to form a quorum. No bills, except in an emergency, can be passed, unless read thrice at intervals of five days-the emergency to be decided upon by the Assembly. The Executive is delegated to a citizen who receives the title of President of the Republic. He must be a native Frenchman, 35 years of age at least, and must never have lost the quality of Frenchman. The President is elected for four years, and is ineligible for the four succeeding years. The Vice President, and his relations to the sixth degree, are excluded for a like term. The President is elected by ballot, by an absolute majority of votes, and by direct suffrage. The Vice-President is appointed by the Assembly, out of a list of three candidates presented by the President. The National Assembly is judge of elections. The powers and duty of the President are as follow: he may, through his ministers, bring in bills before the Assembly-he shall watch over and secure the execution of the laws —dispose of the armed force, but not take immediate commandevery year he must lay before the Assembly a full statement of the condition of the country, &c.-he shall negotiate and ratify treaties, but no treaty is conclusive without the assent of the Assembly —he cannot entet upon a war without consent-he has the pardoning power —he is lodged at the public expense, and receives a salary of six hundred thousand francs a year —he is the general appointing power-he and his ministers are responsible. Intermediary between the president and assembly there is a council of state, of which the vice president is president. This council has advisory and controlling powers over the administration, acting somewhat after the manner of the British privy council. The members are appointed each for six months, by the assembly, and half renewed in the two first months of each new legislature by secret ballot and by an absolute majority. They are indefinitely reeligible, and are not liable to be dismissed except by the assembly, at the suggestion of the president. 504 FRANCE. The several departments, arrondissements, districts, and communes, are to be maintained as preexisting. In each department there is a prefect, general council, and council of prefecture; in each arrondissement a subprefect; in each district a district council; —nevertheless, only a single council is established in a city which is divided into several districts; and in each commune an administration, composed of a mayor, his assistants, and a municipal council. A special law fixes the compensation and duties of these functionaries. The general and municipal councils are elected by the citizens living in the department or district, one member being elected from each district to the general council. The president, with the advice of the council of state, may dissolve these, and order new elections. Justice is awarded gratis, in the name of the French people. All proceedings in the courts are public; but in cases where publication may be detrimental to the state, or to morals, the proceedings may be close, and a formal judgment alone be publicly given. Trial by jury is maintained. The judges and magistrates are generally appointed by the president: the judges for life. The powers of the courts, &c., are specified in the constitution, and in special laws. The public force is composed of the national guards, and of the army by sea and by land. Every Frenchman is bound to be a soldier. The constitution declares that " the public force is essentially obedient. No armed force can constitute a deliberative assembly." Such is a brief outline of the new constitution-it may be altered. It is confided to the keeping and to the patriotism of every Frenchman. The public revenues of the republic are derived from a number of taxes on lands, houses, and other property; personal contributions; licenses on trades and professions, &c., which constitute the direct taxes. The indirect taxes are from excise duties on articles of consumption, stamp duties, lottery and gaming-house licenses, &c. Considerable revenue is also derived from the monopoly of tobacco and gunpowder; from the post office, and from the octroi, or custom-duties on articles entering large towns, onetenth of which is paid into the public treasury, and the remainder is used by the local authorities. The external customs form an important branch of the national income. The average annual revenue from all sources, during the monarchy, was about 1,000,000,000 francs, or $180,000,000 In some years the expenditures have exceeded this amount one-third; and, since the downfall of Louis Phillippe, the expense of organizing the government, and otherwise providing for the wants of the people, has increased it far beyond all precedent. The national debt of France is about $1, 350,000,000, and the interest about $75,000,000. For military purposes France is divided into twenty-one provinces, styled military divisions. The chiefs of these are lieutenant-generals, who have under them as many field-marshals as there are departments in their respective divisions, and under the command of these officers are placed the troops in each department. The administration devolves on a corps d'intendance, and in the capital of each division there is an intendant, and a sub-intendant in each sub-division. The maritime regions are divided into five arrondissements, which are again sub-divided into quartiers. A maritime prefect, who takes charge of the ports, is stationed in each arrondissement, and supervises the whole FRANCE. 505 coast defence of his district. The forts and naval stations are highly distinguished for their efficiency; and some of the strongholds are reckoned among the most secure in Europe. The fortifications of Paris and Lyons are instances of such. The whole number of fortified places is 131; of which, 21 are of the first class, 48 of the second, and 52 of the third. The chief naval stations and dock-yards are those of Brest, Toulon, Rochefort, Cherbourg, and L'Orient. Corvettes are also built at Bayonne, Nantes, and St. Servan. The gradations of military rank are: sub-lieutenant, lieutenant, captain, chef d'escadron, colonel, marechal de camp, lieutenant-general, and marshal of France. Promotion cannot be purchased as in England, and not often obtained by special order: -more than half the promotions take place by seniority. The number of marshals of France, the highest officers in the army, is fixed at eight in time of peace, and may be increased to twelve in time of war. The army in its entirety amounts in general to between 300,000 and 500,000 men; but in time of war every Frenchman is liable to conscription-" every Frenchman is a soldier." The French have of late years been making great efforts to become a naval power. They have never, however, rendered themselves formidable on this, to them a new element. The battle of Trafalgar, and the minor conflicts of the last war, almost annihilated the naval force of the French. Since the peace, however, extraordinary efforts to build up a navy have been evinced. The annexed table will exhibit the number and capacity of each class of vessels in 1845, which comprises the latest returns on this head: In Commission. Building. In Ordinary. Tota. No. Guns. No. Guns. No. Guns. Vessels. Ships of the line............ 1,698.25.. 2,442. 4.....1.46 Frigates................... 1,184. 16..... 810........ 310.......45 Corett............... 444...... 90......6. 124......6 Brigs...... 464........40.......21....270........57 Schooners, cutters, &c.............. 122. 2... 12. 8. 20..47 Transports, &c.......... 132....... 40........ 1..............59 Steam frigates................. 5...... 78.. 2..... 12........-.. 7 Steam corvettes...... 3. 62........ 6..... 54.. -.. 17 Steam vessels of small size.....41....... 209....... 3....... 15........ -........44 Total....................215...... 4,298........72..... 3,515........69....1,120....346 Total guns, when all armcd, 8,928; men and boys in service in 1845, 27,554. The steam navy is to be increased to 100 vessels in the whole. From these statistics it is deduced that France, next to Great Britain, is the largest naval power in the world. As connected principally, though not exclusively, with the army and navy, we may mention the " Order of the Legion of Honor," which was instituted by Napoleon. The usual title to admission is the discharge of important duties, either civil or military, and in time of war the performance of some act of great bravery. PARuIs; the capital of France, has also made pretensions to be considered as the general capital of the civilized world. Population in 1846, 1,053,907. It forms on both banks of the Seine an ellipse of about four miles in length and three in breadth. The principal streets are long, narrow, bordered by high houses, which, like those of Edinburgh, are each occupied by several families. The streets of shops are further encumbered by the exhibition of the merchandise in front of the doors, a practice only tolerated 506 FRANCE. in the most obscure districts of British cities. Paris thus presents generally a more gloomy and confused aspect than Lohdon; nor has it any structure'which can match the grandeur of St. Paul's, or perhaps the beauty of Westminster Abbey; yet some of its quarters contain long ranges of superb and stately edifices, which London cannot rival. The palaces of Paris, in particular, iar excel those of the rival metropolis. The most distinguished is the Louvre, finished with the utmost splendour in the style that distinguished the age of Louis XIV. Its front, 525 feet long, is a model of symmetry, the effect of which is only injured by the want of space before it. The Louvre is not now occupied as a palace, but as a grand depst of the objects of taste and art. The gallery, which is more than a quarter of a mile long, and the walls of which are entirely crowded with paintings, that are still fine, forms a magnificent coup d' ewil. The hall of statues is still adorned with some of the finest specimens of ancient sculpture. The Tuileries, was begun at an earlier period than the Louvre, and carried on at successive times; whence it exhibits varied and sometimes discordant features, but is on the whole a noble and venerable edifice, surrounded with fine gardens and avenues. The palace of the Luxembourg on the south of Paris, and the Palais Bourbon on the west, are edifices of great taste and beauty. The Palais Royal is no longer exclusively a palace, but is in part leased out to sundry persons, for purposes partly of business, but much more of pleasure: it is filled with shops, coffee-houses, taverns, gaming tables, and every form of gaiety and dissipation which can find acceptance in such a city. Notre Dame, the ancient cathedral of Paris, is somewhat heavy and fnassive, but the interior is richly decorated. The modern church of St. G4nevidve, called during the Revolution the Pantheon, was highly ex tolled during its erection, as destined to eclipse both St. Peter's and St Paul's; and such was the expectation entertained in France, till, the scaf folding being removed and the front being thrown open, its inferiority be came apparent: however it is still an edifice of a high class. St. Sulpice is also a modern structure. The Place Louis Qtinze, standing in a central situation among the palaces, presents one of the most brilliant points of view to be found in any city. The capital possesses great advantages in the wide ornamental open spaces which lie in the very heart of the city. The Boulevards, the ancient rampart of Paris, when it was circumscribed within a much narrower compass, are now converted into a walk adorned with rows of trees, and filled with numerous exhibitors and venders of everything that can con duce to public amusement. The gardens of the Tuileries, and the embel lished spot called the Champs Elysees, are also open to the public. The bridges which span the Seine are -twenty-two in number. The prin cipal are those of Jena, Austerlitz, Louis XVI., the Pont-Neuf, (the centre of which rests 0on the Island du: Palais;) the Pont Royal; the Pont des Arts, (made of iron and remarkable for its elegance;) the Pont du Carrousel, (cast iron on stone pillars.) The banks of the river are lined with spacious quays, throughout ifs whole course within the city, and are in some parts ornamented vwith trees. The streets are cleansed by means of 500 sluices, and there are 115 public wells. The water is derived chiefly from the Seine, but partly from the - canal de l'Ourcg. There is no such thing in Paris as the system of under-ground water pipes, which convey so abundant a supply of water to all parts, as in New York, Philadelphia and Bos ton, in America, and in London and Liverpool, in England. RCE. 507 The cemeteries or burial grounds are all without the city. They are five in number, and form large enclosures, laid out in the most picturesque style, with monuments often in good taste, and contariing interesting inscriptions. The cemetery of Pere la Chaise in particular, is one of the most beautiful as well as the most interesting sights in Paris. Formerly the burying places were in the city; but in consequence of becoming extremely crowded and giving rise to pestilential diseases, they were all cleared out; and the bones, carefully collected and cleaned, have been deposited in subterranean galleries, excavated in the course of ages for the stones used in building the city. To these depositories the name of catacombs has been given, in imitation of those of Rome and other places. It is supposed that the remains of 3,000,000 human beings are here deposited. The manufactures of Paris consist chiefly of articles of taste and all kinds of fancy work, such as jewelry, watches, artificial flowers, toys, and the like. Two of the manufactories, those of tapestry and carpets, and of snuff, belong to the government. In the first, called the Gobelins, from a dyer by whom it was instituted about the middle of the 16th century, is manufactured that beautiful tapestry, the reputation of which is spread over the world. With respect to the printing and publishing of books, London alone can compete with Paris. Besides 200 periodical journals, the publishers of Paris give to the world annually between 5,000 and 6,000 works; and the 80 printing-houses, the number fixed by law, employ from 1,200 to 1,300 hand-presses, and 80 printing machines, several of which are moved by steam. The Imprimerie Royale, founded by Francis I., in 1531, is the principal establishment of the kind in existence. Its fonts of type weigh not less than 368 tons, and could compose 125,000 pages. Of late years this establishment has kept 300 presses at work, 60 of them moving night and day. The environs of Paris are not covered with those numerous villas and country residences which have been constructed to gratify the rural taste of the citizens of London. Immediately beyond the gates they present a flat open corn country. They are chiefly marked by the royal palaces; superb fabrics, the works of successive kings, and on which millions have been expended. The most elaborate and most splendid is Versailles. It was begun by Louis XIII., who found it little more than a village; but its chief ornaments are due to Louis XIV., who, during twelve years, expended immense sums in surrounding'it with every kind of magnificence. The front is highly elegant, built of polished stone, and approached by three great avenues. The interior consists of spacious apartments embellished in the most costly manner, and many parts of them, and of the staircases, are covered with frescoes executed by eminent French painters. The interior and the gardens are filled with crowds of statues, partly antique and partly the work of French sculptors. Water was at first deficient; but it has been conveyed in such abundance as to be lavished in fanciful and fantastic forms,- fountains, jets d'eau, cascades, with which Versailles is more profusely embellished than any other royal residence. The two palaces, called the Great and Little Trianon, are in the vicnity, and are celebrated, particularly the last, for gardens laid out in the English style. The long residence of the court at Versailles assembled round it a splendid city formed by the courtiers and great nobles, who considered it necessary 508 PRANCE. to have at least a mansion there. Since the tragic scenes of October, 1789, the palace has never been inhabited; though the Bourbons, after their return, placed it in repair. Hence tle city declined in population, and the mansions of the nobles were in a great measure occupied by English residents. St. Cloud, four or five miles distant from Paris, is particularly admired for its gardens and extensive woods, an excursion to which forms a popular amusement, especially on festival days. It was the favorite residence of Napoleon, whose court was thence called the cabinet of St. Cloud. Fontainbleau was the hunting-seat of the monarchy, being surrounded by a forest of nearly 30,000 acres. The palace, built by successive monarchs, from Francis I. to Louis XV., is chiefly noted for its long and numerous galleries. The northern departments, comprising the provinces of French Flanders, Picardy, and Normandy, compose together an extensive plain, the richest, most flourishing, and most highly cultivated in the kingdom. This region is also the chief seat of manufactures. These provinces have produced many men of distinguished talent, and knowledge is very generally diffused in them. The Flemings retain their national character, distinct from that of the French; heavy, phlegmatic, industrious, addicted to pretty close drinking and long rustic festivals. The Norman still partakes the adventurous spirit of his forefathers; he loves expeditions and journeys, readily engages in any enterprise, and eagerly pursues it. The cities throughout all this part of France are large and flourishing. In Picardy, and the part of the Isle of France bordering on it, there are several large and flourishing cities. Amiens has long been celebrated for its manufacture of coarse woolens, as serges, plush, velvets for furniture, and carpets; also coarse linens. Its cathedral is one of the most spacious and most highly ornamented in France or in Europe. Population 48,000. The ports of Picardy and French Flanders are also very deserving of notice. Dunkirk, being the only one which opens into the North Sea, was always considered one of great importance. It has a good harbor in the centre of the city, entered by a canal of a mile and a half; is rather well built, but for want of springs the inhabitants are obliged to use rain-water. The neighboring territory is low and marshy, only preserved from the inundation of the sea by a ridge of downs, and only cultivated by means of numerous draining canals. Calais is well known as the point of communication with England, which so long held it as the key of France, even after her aims at the entire conquest of that monarchy had ceased. At present, it is chiefly supported by the packet intercourse, its indifferent harbor unfitting it for any commerce on a great scale. Calais is in a very flat country, intersected by canals, by which it might be even inundated. Population, 12,000. Boulogne has more maritime importance; though its port, choked with sand, will no longer receive vessels of any size, unless at high tide. It has lost altogether the forced consequence given to it by the construction of the grand flotilla, destined to subdue the British empire, but now abandoned to rot. Its proximity, however, to the coast has rendered it a great resort of English families, who inhabit it to the amount of several thousands. Population, 26,000. The fishery of herring, mack erel, &c., varies in value from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 francs. FRNCE. 509 The cities of Normandy are larger and more important than those already described. Rouen is one of the noblest in France. Its manufactures are, perhaps, the most enterprising and industrious in the kingdom, and from their vicinity to England have had peculiar facilities in borrowing her processes. The cathedral, commenced by William the Conqueror, was considered one of the finest specimens of ecclesiastical architecture in France, till the disaster which overthrew a great part of it. The streets are excessively narrow and dirty, though those adjoining to the Seine are agreeable. Population, 12,000. Caen is a very ancient city, of great historical name, the favorite residence of William the Conqueror, and the frequent head-quarters of the English armies. It is still a considerable place, rather unusually well built for a French town, containing a handsome castle, the only remaining part of its fortifications, and some fine old churches. Its manufactures are numerous, but none of them very eminent, except that of lace, which gives employment to about 20,000 females in this place and the neighborhood. Population, 43,000. Havre, at the mouth of the Seine, is the port of Paris, and one of the most active seats of French commerce. Population, 30,000. Britany forms a peninsula distinguished by many marked features from the rest of France: its rude surface, composed in a great measure of forests, marshes, and heaths, enabled it not only to preserve a large portion of its original Celtic population, but to give shelter to fugitives from Britain, whence it received its name. The finest city in Britany is undoubtedly Nantes, which seems almost to belong to the rich provinces on the Loire; it is situated on a hill above that river, twenty-seven miles from its mouth, and has the advantage of delightful walks and environs. Its situa, tion, at the mouth of the greatest river in France, is very favorable to commerce, which was carried on to a vast extent, till ruined by the disastrous influence of Napoleon's continental system; but Nantes is beginning again to rear its head. It is connected with the opposite side of the river by a noble bridge, which, uniting five different islands, extends in its entire length more than two miles. In its construction, Nantes exhibits the usual faults of old cities; the most agreeable parts are the suburbs, and the islands are thickly planted with trees and houses. Population, 90,000. Brest, on the western coast of Britany, is the chief naval station of France on the ocean, as Toulon is on the Mediterranean. It was selected for this purpose in 1631 by Cardinal Richelieu, in consideration of its harbor, which is secure from every wind, and of a spacious roadstead, affording anchorage to five hundred ships of war. Population, 31,000. The provinces on the Loire, in its course from east to west, comprehending Orleanais, Touraine, Anjou, to which may be added those of Maine and Perche, adjoining on the north, are the most central and perhaps'the richest in the kingdom. A great part, indeed, especially of Anjou and Maine, is covered with those wide wastes, overgrown with brush-wood and heath, which occupy so much of the French soil. But the banks of the Loire around Orleans are generally considered the garden of France; they consist of unbounded plains, through which the magnificent Loire winds its stately course, and which are variegated with rich meadows, vineyards, gardens and forests. On this theatre were acted many of the greatest events in the history of the monarchy, particularly its rise from the apparent 510 flABNcE. peril of total subjugation, through the inspiring influence of Joan, the Maid of Orleans. The cities of this region are celebrated and magnificent. Orleans, in former times, ranked almost as a second capital: though it exhibits the usual characters of antiquity, it is a superb and beautiful city. A very fine stone bridge of nine arches opens to the rue royale, spacious and handsome, which extends to the fine square in the centre; here is placed a statue of Joan, the sculpture of which, is not altogether so elegant as might be desired. The cathedral is a very fine edifice, the choir of which was raised by Henry IV. From its steeple is an almost unbounded view over the magnificent plain of the Loire. Situated in the centre of France, and dividing as it were the Lower from the Upper Loire, Orleans enjoys a great transit trade. Population 42,000. Blois is almost equal to Orleans in historical celebrity; its ancient edifices, placed on a hill above the Loire, have a most commanding appearance. The castle, on a rock overhanging the river, is an immense and lofty pile, full of windows of all shapes and sizes, balconies, galleries, buttresses and " a strange incongruous assemblage of buildings destined for ornament in peace and defence in war." Population 14,500. The provinces between the Loire and the Garonne, Poitou, Berri, Limousin and the Marche, are of diversified and somewhat peculiar aspect: they pre sent none of those boundless plains which characterise France north of the Loire; they are everywhere traversed by valleys and ridges of hills, never rising into mountains, but giving to the country a broken and variegated aspect. The cities in this range of provinces, though ancient, are neither large nor distinguished by much industry. Poitiers is of high antiquity, and presents some interesting Roman remains; in modern times it is distinguished by the signal victory gained here by the Black Prince. The city is of great extent, but comprises many empty spaces and gardens. Limoges is an illbuilt town, with many houses of timber, roofed with tiles, and projecting eaves, but there are several handsome squares and fountains, and the publie walks command a beautiful view of the Vienne flowing down a charming valley. The two departments of the Charente, watered by the fine river of that name, form a region different in character from those now described; level, and extremely fertile, though in some parts marshy and unhealthful. A great part of the produce of its rich vineyards is at Cognac converted into brandy, which bears an unrivalled reputation, though, probably, the name is applied with a fraudulent latitude to inferior liquors. The most conspicuous features of the Charente are Rochelle and Rochefort, The former is renowned as the grand and last bulwark of the Protestant cause; and its reduction, effected by the almost incredible efforts of the Cardinal Richelieu, fixed the downfall of civil and religious liberty in France. Though no longer a haven of the first magnitude,- its colonial trade, prior at least to the late war, was very considerable. The town is handsome, with broad streets, many of the houses built on arcades, with shops beneath. Popu.lation, 16,000. Rochefort has little trade, but is one of the principal French naval stations. It has a secure harbor, with very safe and extensive docks. Being one of the few towns in France that are not much more FRANCE. 511 than a century and a half old, it is built on a regular plan, with broad open streets. Angoul1me, in the interior, stands on a rock in the centre of a charming valley, through which winds the silver stream of the Charente. It is a clean, well-built town, having a cathedral with five cupolas, and displaying other marks of historical importance. Population, 16,500. Guienne is the most important province, which for several ages formed an appanage of the English crown. It consists of a magnificent and highly cultivated plain, watered by the -Garonne, whose broad stream here resembles an arm of the sea, and by its ample tributaries, the Tarn, the Lot, and the Dordogne. It is distinguished by various rich productions, but more especially by the wines bearing the name of claret, which, though not quite so rich and highly flavored as some, are so light and agreeable that a greater quantity is:draat the tables of the opulent, than of any other. Bordeaux, near the mouth of the Garonne, is one of the grandest emporia in France, and, indeed, in Europe. -Situated at the mouth of the Garonne, which here ajlows' the largest vessels to ascend to its port, it exports all the valuable produce of this great southern plain, of which the wines are said to amount to 100,000, and brandy to 20,000 pipes annually. It is engaged also in colonial trade, and in the cod and whale fisheries. Recent travelers remark a greater display of wealth and prosperity in this than in any other of the French commercial cities. Every thing is on a grand scale, and buildings are in progress which, when finished, will leave it without a rival in Fince. The theatre, designed after that of Milan, is considered a model of architectural beauty. Many of the ecclesiastical structures were fonided by the Englis. A very republican spirit is said to prevail at Bordeaux. Population, 120000. Gascony is a large province, extendig tothe Pyrenees, and consisting chiefly of a wide level surface, of peculiar character, called the landes. These are plains of sand, in some places loose and blowing, but mostly covered with pine trees, sometimes affording pasturage for sheep, and more rarely detached tracts fit for cultivation. The Gascons, long an independent people under their dukes, are a peculiar race, fiery, ardent, impetuous, and proverbially addicted to boasting; hence the term gasconade. Bayonne, though not very large, is one of the strongest and prettiest towns in France. Population 16,000. The Pyrenean departments comprehend some interesting features; Bearn, the little original principality of-Henry IV., which he governed with paternal kindness; and Roussillon, which underwent several revolutions, alternately belonging to France and to Spain, before it was finally annexed to the fAorme. Young Aives a delightful view of the state of this mountain district It is divided into a number of small properties, which are well enclosed, well cultivated, each comfortable cottage being surrounded by its garden well stocked with fruit trees; the inhabitants snugly dressed, like Highlanders, in red caps. The subdivision of property, though great, seems not to have gone so far as to lead to misery. Pau is a considerable town, in a romantic situation, and celebrated as the birth-place of Henry IV., whose cradle is still shown in the ancient palace, now converted into a prison. Languedoc, the ancient Gallia Narbonensis, and afterwards the domain Df the counts of Toulouse, is the pride of France in regard to climate, soil, ---- ----- -— ~ =~Z;=====I===_=-=--_-__ _ -—, r-L;U -— i -- -. —-~-— rz —-c; —-- --- — x — t ~~ — r r ---- j -.;1 -~ _ ~-L~ --I===-_ILt; —LL -- . - —'-I —~ -- -.. ---- L-~ —`'.C-i" —--- L1~ -` —` ------ Ie-.:.. -~ — 2,, I- -----------— r~~ L —_-i~;F- ---— ~ r~ -C.`-''' —---- -— —. --- -..i = —~; ~ ~-frr. - ---— ~ ~: — 111-_ _T_. - — _~- ,=-`--===l-T-CL e r — JcRaup R(illP~IRIIErrr YL'"7Y//I;UIL'Ig,u c —-~ ~-~ -- ---—. LL-`_ —'ILIA apda,// iJ~*f: -4C- —_ — A -~7. *1*1 - c..., —,, MARSEILLES FRLNCE, ~ ~-=~ ~ ~ -~-~,_~-..- -C.........._ "—;-~~~~~~~~~~~A BORDEAUX —FPACE 514 FRANCE. and scenery. The air along its coasts is generally considered the most salubrious in Europe. The plains of Languedoc are celebrated; yet they are encroached upon not only by the Pyrenees on the east, but by the Cevennes, which form their constant northern boundary, and in many places reduce them to a breadth of a few miles. But on the line from Beziers by Montpelier to Nismes, the plain is of much greater breadth, and displays a luxuriant fertility scarcely rivalled in any other part even of this happy region. Every thing flourishes here, even what is most strictly denied to other provinces; not only grain and the vine, but the silk-worm and the olive. The cities of Languedoc are not of the very first magnitude; but they areshandsome and finely situated; and they present some interesting Roman monuments. Montpelier enjoys an unrivalled fame for its mild and salubrious air; but late travelers have declared themselves unabled to discover on what that renown is founded. It is subject to alternations of heat and cold; cloth pelisses must be worn the whole winter, and fires cannot be discontinued till May. It is, however, an agreeable residence; the publie walk commands a view over the Mediterranean and the surrounding country, scarcely equalled in Europe. Population 37,000. Nismes is one of the greatest and most flourishing citids in the south of France. The silk manufacture, as already noticed, flourishes there to a great extent. Population 45,000. The edifice called the Maison carree, supposed to have been a temple of Augustus, is that which has excited the admiration of all travellers, from its extreme elegance and graceful proportions, which render it almost a perfect model of architectural beauty. It remains after so many ages quite entire, " as if savage and saint had been alike awed by its superlative beauty." Near Nismes is the Pont du Gard, an ancient bridge, or aqueduct, forming one of the most remarkable monuments now extant of Roman grandeur. Provence is one of the most celebrated and interesting of the French provinces, first, as the earliest seat of wealth, civilization and poetry; next, as containing the ecclesiastical capital, Avignon, near which is Vaucluse, the favorite residence of Petrarch; lastly, as including Toulon and Marseilles, the greatest naval and the greatest commercial city in the kingdom. The cities of Provence rank, in all- respects, among the greatest and most interesting of the kingdom. Great celebrity attaches to the name of Avignon, for some time an ecclesiastical capital, and still more illustrious by association with the names of Laura and Petrarch. It is finely situated on the Rhone, with many handsome houses; but the streets are crowded and ill-paved. In the centre rises an insulated rock, separated by the river from a range of hills on the other side, and in which are the remains of the palace of the popes, now converted into barracks and prisons. The cathedral had accumulated immense wealth in silver and other offerings, of all which it was rifled at the revolution. It would be profane for a traveller to leave Avignon without visiting the tomb of Laura in the church of Franciscans, and making an excursion to the beautiful fountain of Vaucluse, the scene of inspiration to Petrarch. Population 32,500. Marseilles and Toulon, the two great southern havens, form now the most important features of Provence. The commercial fame of Marseilles dates from early antiquity, when it was a Greek colony, and carried on almost FRANCE. 515 all the commerce of Gaul. In modern times it has been the chief centre of the trade to the Levant; and though its prosperity suffered a total eclipse under the regime of Napoleon, it has since regained much of its former splendor. The harbor is spacious and secure, but it is somewhat narrow at the entrance, and shallow. It is bordered by extensive quays of hewn stone, with spacious warehouses; and is filled with all the shipping peculiar to the Mediterranean, among which are galleys, and beautiful pleasure boats with silk awnings; it is crotwded with all the nations of that sea, Greek, Turks, Jews, Spaniards, Italians, and loaded with the produce of Asia and Africa. Population 160,000. Toulon, though not a seat of commerce, is the chief naval station of France on the Mediterranean. It has two ports, the old and the new: the latter alone receives ships of war, and is bordered by most extensive arsenals, in which 5000 men are constantly employed. This port can contain 200 sail of the line; and without, is a very spacious and well-sheltered roadstead. It is defended by two strong forts, which, however, were occupied in 1793 by the British, who, at the end of the year, were obliged to evacuate the place. This was the first occasion on which Bonaparte's military talent became conspicuous. Toulon is a clean, pleasant town, refreshed by streams of water, running through the streets. Population 37,000. The adjacent country is wild and ro mantic, and interspersed with some cultivated valleys. Dauphiny is a region completely alpine, the two departments of the Upper and Lower Alps occupying the greater part of its surface. The mountains are chiefly calcareous, and broken into the most picturesque, peculiar and romantic forms. Young even considers the scenery of Dauphiny, particularly along the Isre, as surpassing that of any other part of the Alps. In one of the most awful recesses of these rocks and wilds, at a distance from all the smiling scenes of earth, St. Bruno erected the monastery of the Chartreuse, of which Gray has drawn so sublime and imposing a picture. There are other scenes emphatically termed the wonders of Dauphiny; as the burning fountain, the grottoes of Sassenage, &c. Although this part of the republic cannot be considered as productive, yet great numbers of cattle and sheep are reared on its high slopes by a simple race of men resembling the mountaineers of Switzerland; and even the silk worm is bred in its lower valleys. The Lyonnais is a small territory, penetrated by branches of the Alps, in some places rough and stony, in others finely diversified with hill and dale. Its chief interest, however, centres in the great city which is its capital. Lyons is generally considered as the second city in France, and is foremost in regard to commerce and industry. It is on the whole a noble city. The quays along the Rhone are superb; the hotel de ville is held to be second only to that of Amsterdam; the cathedral is highly ornamented in the florid Gothic style; and the squares, especially the Place de Belle cour, with its fountain and statues, are nowhere surpassed. On the other hands the old streets are narrow, bordered by lofty and gloomy walls, and divided by a muddy stream. To turn into them from the quays has been compared to entering subterraneous passages, watered by the sluices of Cocytus. Lyons suffered dreadfully under the sway of the jacobins, who made it a chief theatre of those atrocities that rendered them the horror of mankidnd 516 FRANCE. To say nothing of the massacres perpetrated under the appellation of fusillades and noyades, they studiously broke in pieces all the manufacturing machinery, while with barbarous hands they defaced all the ornaments of the city, filled up the fountains, broke the statues in pieces, and demolished the whole of the cathedral, except the walls. Her citizens have made diligent efforts to restore her prosperity, and not without success. Population 210,000. Auvergne, to the west of the Lyonnais, is the only mountainous pastoral tract which France has peculiarly its own. It consists of a- continuous range of mountains which have evidently been in a state of volcanic action, the country being covered with lava, and the houses built of it. From an elevated and extensive plain rises the great Puy de Dome, nearly 5000 feet high, with about sixty attendant mountains, called in the country the giantess and her children. The country is diversified with many rugged and precipitous rocks, having castles and even towns built on them. Burgundy and Champagne, with the small adjoining provinces of Bourbonnais, Nevernais, form a vast plain extending north of the provinces last described. Burgundy, however, is traversed by branches from the Vosges, forming hilly tracts of moderate elevation. This is the great country for wine, producing the finest in France, and with very few exceptions in the whole world. Of the chief towns, the first in dignity is Rheims, a noble and ancient city, the ecclesiastical capital of France, where the kings were crowned and anointed. The cathedral has been considered the most splendid specimen of Gothic architecture existing, though some of its ornaments are not in the purest taste. The H~tel de Ville is also fine; and the streets, unlike what is usual in old towns, are broad, straight, and well built. Rheims is still the chief mart of that favorite wine called champagne, and from thence the connoisetrs of Paris take care to procure their supplies. The provinces of Lorraine, Franche-comt4, and Alsace are less an integral part of France than a series of appendages obtained by conquest, chiefly during the reign of Louis XIV. They remain still in many points connected with Germany. They are watered by the Meuse and the Moselle, tributaries of the Rhine; they are traversed by the chain of the Vosges, connected with the Swiss Alps and the Black Forest; their surface is rude and irregular; their wines have the same agreeable acid quality as the Rhenish. Even yet Alsace, both as to language and manners, is altogether German. The cities are —Nancy, capital of the dukes of Lorraine, a race of gallant and accomplished princes. It is said to be the most elegant city in Fifance, especially the new town, built in the sixteenth century. The gates appear almost like triumphal arches; the public buildings are numerous; the place royale and the adjoining area are superb. The place is lighted in the English manner. Population, 32,500. Metz is a larger town, and now more important, being one of the strongest of the French fortresses. It is nearly enclosed by the Moselle and the Seille, and entered by successive drawbridges. The usual complement of its garrison is 10,000 men. Metz is celebrated for its long and triumphant defence under the Duke of Guise against the army of Charles V. It is still a flourishing town, with numerous manufuctures, and contains a library of 60,000 volumes. FRANCE. 617 On crossing the Vosges appears the rich and beautiful plain of Alsace, more highly cultivated than any other part of the kingdom except French Flanders. Here Colmar, Haguenau, Saverne, Weisemberg, are agreeably situated and rather thriving towns. But by far the most important place in this part of France is Strasburg. It was early celebrated as an imperial city, enjoying extensive privileges, and enriched by the navigation of the Rhine. Its prosperity was still farther promoted in consequence of the zeal with which, along with the rest of Alsace, it embraced the reformed doctrines. Strasburg and Alsace suffered a severe misfortune, by being, in 1689, subjected to France by Louis XIV. Yet the city retained privileges beyond any other in France, and continued to be distinguished both by wealth and intelligence. Its schools were considered second only to those of Paris, until the revolution, when they were severely injured, and have not yet been fully restored. Strasburg, however, has still valuable institutions, both literary and economical, and is one of the greatest and most flourishing cities of France. Its ancient importance is attested by its cathedral or minster, one of the most splendid existing monuments of the Gothic. Its tower, 470 feet high, is said to be the most elevated structure in the world, with the exception of the great pyramid of Egypt. The Gauls, the ancient inhabitants of France, and the chief among the Celtic nations, were an active, powerful, and ambitious people. Their emigrant hordes repeatedly crossed the Alps, possessed the whole north of Italy, once sacked the imperial city, and even penetrated into Greece and Asia Minor. Both Switzerland and Belgium were then included as part of Gaul. The people, though still barbarous, had made some steps towards civilization. The nobles and druids enjoyed high power and influence, and had reduced the body of the nation almost to a state of vassalage. They combated wit!h obstinacy, and made a long resistance to the progress of the Roman arms; but being opposed to Ceesar, the greatest of the Roman captains, after a war of twenty years, they were entirely and permanently subjected. The conversion of Gaul into a Roman province, though it humbled the chiefs and quelled the martial spirit of the people, was attended with many beneficial changes. Peace was established; cultivation and industry promoted; Roman and even Greek literature introduced; and the people finally converted to the Christian faith. The irruption of the Teutonic tribes, on the decline of the Roman empire, was early felt in Gaul, where the Goths, the Heruli, the Burgundians, and the confederacy called the Franks, overwhelmed and ravaged the whole kingdom, and drove the Celtic population and language into its remote and mountainous corners. From amid a chaos of convulsions, the vigorous hand of Clovis established the undisputed supremacy of the Franks, and founded the monarchy of France. The reign of Charlemagne, son and successor to Pepin, who from mayor )f the palace had occupied the throne, formed the most brillant period in French history. That eminent and powerful prince not only placed on his head the iron crown of Lombardy, but reduced to his dominion, after a long and obstinate resistance, the intractable tribes of Germany, who had defied the utmost efforts of the Roman eagle. He penetrated also into Spain; but the fierce encounter of the Saracens, and the disastrous adventure of Roncesvalles on his return completely stopped his career in that direction 518 PRANCE. Charlemagne, though himself illiterate, made some efforts to rekindle the declining light of science and letters in Europe. The contests among the successors of Charlemagne were attended with the most violent and bloody convulsions, and with continual changes in the position of the three great kingdoms which composed his empire. At length it fell entirely to pieces. Germany retained the title of empire, and the claim to the dominion of Italy; and in France the Carlovingian dynasty, or that of Charlemagne, having become extinct under Louis Outremer, the throne was seized by the Capets, the most powerful among the noble French families. Hugh Capet, having in 987 assumed the title of king, the real power attached to which had already been exercised by his father, Hugh the Great, founded the recent dynasty. The administration, however, was long marked by a strong feudal character, and a high spirit of independence among the great nobles, of whom the counts of Provence and Britany, and the dukes of Burgundy, ranked altogether as separate and often hostile princes. The feudal age of France was also marked by chivalric and eventful wars with England, which long held several of the finest provinces, and whose king, Henry V., was crowned at Paris; but from that seemingly approaching downfall, the monarchy, through the romantic exploits of the Maid of Orleans, suddenly revived, and became more mighty than before. The establishment of monarchical power in its plentitude was chiefly effected by the profound and insidious policy of Louis XI., favored by the circumstances of the age. All France was united under the sway of the kings, who were thus enabled to form great armies, which, under Charles VIII. and Louis XII., overran nearly the whole of Italy. But it wasW under the gay and enterprising reign of Francis I. that its energies were fully developed. It then, however, came into collision with the house of Austria, whose extensive possessions in Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Italy, wielded by a powerful hand, secured to it during this period a decided though not overwhelming, ascendant.: The civil wars arising out of the persecution of the Protestants agitated France for a very long time, and produced scenes of the most bloody and calamitous description. They lasted for a hundred years; for the popular reign of Henry IV. could scarcely be considered as more than a truce. At length Richelieu, by the reduction of Rochelle, terminated the long struggle of the Protestants for religious liberty, which in France alone, of all the countries where it was maintained upon a great scale, had this fatal issue. At the same time, this daring and despotic minister finally crushed the power and pretensions of the nobles, and formed France into a simple monarchy. The reign of Louis XIV., during which a single hand wielded all the energies called forth during the prior struggles, exhibited France more powerful than she had been since Charlemagne. The house of Austria, now divided into the German and Spanish branches, of which the lattei had become weak and inert, was humbled by repeated blows, which at length almost threatened her existence. France seemed advancing in the career of universal monarchy, when the interposition of England and the victories of Marlborough turned the tide of success, and rendered the last days of Louis humiliating and disastrous. The final issue, however, by which a Bourbon was placed on the throne of Spain, and the consequent SPAIN. 519 family alliance, gave to France an increased weight, especially in the maratime concerns of Europe. The French revolution was an event attended with awful and mighty vicissitudes, so fresh in the memory of the world, that it would be quite superfluous to attempt to enumerate them. It deluged the country in blood, and ended with the establishment of a republic; but this wa's speedily succeeded by the elevation of Napoleon Bonaparte, first as consul, and afterwards as emperor. The career of Napoleon closed in 1815, with the battle of Waterloo, and the Bourbons were restored by the arms of Britain, and other allied nations. The Bourbons were again expelled in 1830, and Louis Philippe, a descendant of the brother of Louis XIV. was elevated to the throne. France then became a constitutional monarchy, and so remained until the 22d of February, 1848, when royalty was abolished and the present French Republic established. The consolidation of the government was effected by the promulgationof a constitution,asynopsis of which has been given in the preceding pages. SPAIN$ AmRA, 179,921 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 12,000,000. Spain forms the principal part of a very extensive peninsula; the most southern, and also the most western, Bortion of Europe. It is only connected by an isthmus about a hundr eamiles broad, traversed by the Pyrenees, a chain holding'the second rank among the mountains of Europe. Spain is thus'almost insulated from the rest of the continent. The boundaries of the Peninsula in general are, on the north, the Bay of Biscay, on the west, the Atlantic; but this coast for more than half its.extent is occupied by Portugal, whose interior frontier forms to that extent the western boundary of Spain. The most southern point near Gibraltar is only separated by a narrow strait from the opposite shore of Africa. Eastward from this strait is the Mediterranean, along which the coast winds in a north-easterly direction, gradually receding from Africa, and facing at a great interval the western coast of Italy. From its termination, the Pyrenees stretch across to the Bay of Biscay, and form the lofty limit between Spain and France. The surface of Spain is strikingly irregular. It is traversed by long and lofty ranges of mountains, having plains of vast extent between them and the sea. These mountains may be considered as part of thie great range whiA crosses Europe from the Black sea to the Atlantic. The Pyrenees common to France and Spain, form a long continuous line of lofty summits, the most central and elevated of which is MIont Perdu, near the source of the Cinch, which accurate measurements have fixed at upwards of 11,160 feet. Towards the sea, on both sides, the mountains sink into a more moderate elevation, and the barrier between the two kingdoms is less formidable. The rivers of Spain form as important and celebrated a feature as its mountains. The Tagus and the Duero, rising in the Iberian chain, on the 520 SPAIN. frontiers of Aragon, roll along the two grand central plains, receiving numerous though not very large tributaries from the mountains by which they are bordered. Unfortunately for Spain, they terminate in the somewhat hostile realm of Portugal, and are scarcely navigable above its frontier; so that the commercial benefits arising from them are of little importance. The vegetable productions of the Peninsula are rich and various; the principal of which are wheat, oats, barley, maize, rice, oil, sugar, hemp, cork, cotton, and almost all kinds of fruits. Andalusia is the granary of Spain. The olive is universal, and also the vine; but the eastern and southern provinces yield the best grapes. Forests of beech, pine, oak, and the cork tree, cover the mountain districts of Catalonia; and Biscay is still well wooded. The two Castiles are almost bare of timber. Spain is not excelled by any country in the abundance, variety, and delicious flavor of its fruits; and besides those of temperate climates, it also contains many of tropical origin. Flowers and medicinal herbs grow wild in the mountains, and load the air with the rich fragrance of their perfumes. In short, such is the variety of the climate, occasioned by the difference of elevation, that there is scarcely a vegetable production of any country for which a fitting place may not be found. The animal kingdom presents nothing remarkable. The horse is, however, entitled to particular notice. The Moors, when in possession of the country, stocked it with their finest breeds; and although the race, like everything else in Spain, has degenerated, it still shows many of the points by which it was once distinguished. The other domesticated animals are mules, asses, beeves, swine in vast numbers, sheep in millions, and multitudes of goats; nor are there wanting wild animals, as bears, wolves, and wild boars, which neglect and decay have left the undisturbed tenants of some of the wilder and more sequestered districts. The sea coasts abound with fish, which afford employment to many of the inhabitants, and furnish lawful food during the numerous fasts of the Catholic church. The climate is generally mild and pleasant, except in some tracts along the northern coast. The provinces of Valencia and Murcia enjoy the charms of an almost perennial spring; while in Granada and Andalusia the sugar-cane and other tropical productions thrive. The noxious winds are the cold and rough Gallego from the north, and the scorching and enfeebling Solano from Africa; yet they commonly do not last long. The soil is generally very fertile except in some tracts of the Sierra Miorena, in Estremadura and Asturias, producing in abundance, in most parts of Andalusia, and in the Mediterranean provinces, the vine, the olive, and southern fruits —among them the delicious pomegranate. * The' natural riches of the country consist chiefly of rock-salt, in Cata, lonia; spring-salt, in Valencia; sea-salt, in Valencia, Sevilla, and on the Belearic Isles; olives, and other fruits of southern Europe; wines, (the choicest sorts are those from Malaga, Xeres, and Alicanta); silk, in the southern provinces; horses, (the finest breed in Andalusia, and next in Asturias); mules, which in Spain generally are preferred to the horses; and sheep,- for which Spain has been renowned since the middle ages. Besides the merinos, there are two other less valuable breeds, called Metis SPAIN. 521 and Churros. During summer the sheep feed on the elevated table-lands of Castile and Leon, and are driven in winter to the low plains of Estremadura, and the adjoining provinces. Since the last civil war the flocks have greatly diminished in number; and the Spanish merinos have long since ceased to outdo those of Germany and other countries. From the remotest ages until the beginning of the sixteenth century, Spain was renowned for the richness of her gold and- silver mines, that were worked successfully by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Moors, and finally by the Spaniards, but were closed since the discovery of the exceedingly rich mines of Mexico and Peru. In recent times they have been reopened, and worked again so successfully, especially in Upper Andalusia, that in 1843 they yielded 229,090 marks of silver. The Spanish mines also yield excellent copper, great quantities of lead, quicksilver, iron, cobalt, alum, &c. Agriculture, so flourishing in the days of the Moorish sway, has long been in a backward state. With regard to other branches of industry, there are woolen, silk, cotton, and various other manufactories, to be found in Spain; yet, being unable to rival those of Great Britain, and the English having availed themselves of their political influence, acquired during the last civil war, for the purpose of exercising a kind of monopoly in Spain, the Spanish manufactories are far from being in a prospering state. Since the expulsion of the Moors, (the last remnant of whom were driven away in 1609, and by this proceeding Spain lost 800,000 of its most diligent and most industrious inhabitants,) Spain has ceased to be a manufacturing country. The woolen manufactories of Castile, the damask and silk manufactories of Andalusia, the manufactories of arms in the north-western, and the paper manufactories in the eastern provinces, were prospering in the seventeenth century; the cotton manufactories of Catalonia rose in the eighteenth century. Nevertheless, the woolen and silk looms did not exceed the number of 10,000 throughout Spain; and in 1768, there were in the whole country not more than 2,200,000 operatives, mechanics, husbandmen and others, depending for subsistence on handicraft. Since the beginning of the present century, Spain has been in an almost uninterrupted state of war, political convulsions, and internal commotions, which has proved fatal to most of the existing manufactures, and even to the commerce. The chief articles of export are: wines, fruits of southern Europe, salt, olive oil, corks, quicksilver, and a rather inconsiderable quantity of wool (scarcely one-tenth of the quantity which was formerly exported). Of 2,830 vessels that in 1844 entered the port of Cadiz, 2,060 were Spanish coasters, while of the remainder 480 were English vessels, 75 from the United States, 6 from Hamburg, 4 from Bremen, 4 from Prussia, &c, Besides colonial produce and spices, her imports consist of cloth, calicos, silks, linen, hardware, copper and pewter utensils, glasswares, furniture, fancy articles, timber, corn, flax, hemp, dried and salt fish, salted beef, butter, cheese, poultry, and hogs. According to the statement of 1826, the latest accessible details, the population of Spain was divided into the following classes:-nobility, 1,440,000; citizens, farmers, and others having the qualifications of electors, 1,560,000; citizens and householders, 1,573,686; employed in agriculture, 8,613,470; mercantile and manufacturing, 2,318,256; domestic servants, 522 SPAIN. 276,000; vagabonds, 140,000; smugglers, 100,000; custom-house officers, 40,000; officers of the inquisition, 22,000; wandering beggars, 36,000; convicts, 2,000. Education is greatly neglected in Spain, and for this many reasons might be adduced, among which the natural dread, on the part of a corrupt government, of knowledge and its effects, is not the least. Spain, of all other countries of Europe, however, is the richest in endowed schools, but no where have the objects for which they were founded been so completely disregarded. Individuals, however, have been endeavoring to accomplish what the government will not. A society is now established for educational purposes, but its attention has been chiefly turned to the establishment of infant schools in the metropolis, and it is their intention to form higher institutions. The Roman Catholic faith is exclusively professed in Spain, and in no other country has the church acquired more complete control of both government and people. The hierarchy consists of seven archbishops and 47 bishops. The archbishop of Toledo is primate of the kingdom, chancellor of Castile, and perpetual member of the council of state. The clergy are paid by the state. Before the war of independence, (1808-'14,) the government was an absolute monarchy-and to all intents and purposes is still an absolute monarchy, the cortes having lately been suspended. Spain, however, has a constitution, and the powers of the crown are circumscribed by its provisions. The cortes, when in existence, consists of two houses; that of proceres, or peers, composed in part of hereditary members, and in part of members named by the sovereign for life; and that of procuradores, or deputies, elected by colleges of electors, who are chosen by the principal citizens. The cortes have extensive legislative powers, but their existence and authority have emanated from, and are dependent on, the royal will. There are any number of privileged classes and privileged communities in the kingdom; but the people as a whole have only the privilege of obeying their superiors. Spain, for judicial purposes, is divided into twelve royal courts, viz:The royal chancery of Valladolid, the royal chancery of Granada, the royal council of Navarre, and the royal audiencias of Gallicia, of the Asturias, of the Canaries, of Estremadura, of Arragon, of Valencia, of Catalonia, and of Majorca. These are again subdivided into corregidorias, each under a corregidor, to whom are subordinate a certain number of alcaldes, mayores, and other officers. The expenditure amounts annually to $80,000,000, while the income seldom affords more than 50,000,000. The national debt exceeds $800,000,000, so that the whole revenue is not sufficient to meet the interest; and Spain is virtually bankrupt, without credit abroad, and without the means of raising at home a revenue sufficient to even to meet the ordinary expenses. For military purposes, Spain is divided into 12 great captain-generalcies, and five smaller governments or commands. The army of Spain, once the finest in Europe, has declined since the 16th century, and at the period of the French revolution it was found to be utterly inefficient and useless, and SPAIN. 523 rather an encumbrance than an aid to the allies. The body of soldiers that exists at the present time are a scourge to the nation, and one of the greatest obstacles to its progress in civilization. The navy, though numbering so many vessels, is rotten, inefficient, and an unnecessary burden upon the country. Its force is represented at 21 vessels and 848 guns, all in commission, and four steamers; of the former, three are ships of the line. Previous to the French revolution, Spain owned 68 ships of the line, being at that period the second naval power in the world. Internal communication on which so much depends the developement of a country, is a particular in which Spain actually labors under natural disadvantages, from the obstructed navigation of its rivers, and its long and steep chains of mountains. A few local canals, it is true, exist; but they are purely local. The main roads maintained by government between Madrid and the other great cities are good, but the most of the other communications are mere tracks, worn by the feet of mules, which are chiefly employed in the conveyance of goods. The national character of the Spaniard is marked by striking features. The genuine Spaniard is grave, proud, adventurous, romantic, honorable, and generous. It has been insinuated that this is the Spaniard of the sixteenth century, of whom the Spaniard of the present day is only, as it were the shadow. But though the higher ranks have certainly lost the original stamp, and become frivolous and dissipated, the body of the people, and especially the peasantry, form a very fine race. Even among the former, the war with France brought forward signal displays of heroism, though, as too often happens in such cases, equally base examples of treachery. In the virtue and wisdom of the best Spaniards, there is apt to be something speculative and theoretical, not applicable to the practical purposes of life; a want of the wisdom of action. In prosperous circumstances they readily give way to supineness and false confidence; but in sudden and overwhelming vicissitudes, which sink the spirit of others, their latent energies are roused, and they display unexpected and surprising resources. Although assassination, which was once the reproach of Spain, is greatly diminished, yet a promptitude to fight and to shed blood, characteristic of all nations imperfectly civilized, is still prevalent. It is accompanied with a readiness to rise in tumultuary insurrections, and an unwillingness to submit to the restraints of discipline. Spanish literature, during the era of the national glory, supported itself at least on a level with that of any other nation in Europe. Spain, had as it were, literature to itself, scarcely any of the productions of which, if we except the inimitable satire of Cervantes, become familiar to the rest of Europe. During the middle age, she was rich in chivalric romance, the taste for which, however, was banished by the appearance of Don Quixote, a change which some lament, as having led to the decline of the national spirit. The poetry of Spain, roused by so many vicissitudes of internal revolution and transmarine triumph, took a somewhat lofty flight. But it is in the drana that the Spaniards have been chiefly distinguished. Lope de Vega and Calderon, indeed, construct their plots with an entire disregard of the unities, filled with extravagant incidents, and strained and artificial sentiments. But they display an inexhaustible fertility of invention, and often strong traits of character; so that, though they never 524 SPAIN. could be transferred entire to any other stage, they furnished useful hints to both the French and English dramatist. Mariana's History of Spain ranks among classical productions; while Herrera and Solis, though of inferior merit, have produced valuable histories of the Spanish transactions in the New World. These writers belong to the classic age of Spain, which nearly expired with the seventeenth century; but of late, the intellectual spirit which has spread so actively throughout Europe, has penetrated into Spain, and made vigorous struggles against the night of ignorance and prejudice in which that country was involved. The fine arts, especially painting, could boast in Spain of a distinguished school, marked by features strikingly national and original. It is characterised by depth, force, great truth of nature, and a warm expression of devotional feeling. The Spaniards are fond of music, but delight rather in detached airs for the serenade and ball, than in that higher class in which the Italians and Germans excel. The guitar as an accompaniment for song, and the castenets for the national dance, are characteristic Spanish instruments. The Spaniards have favorite and peculiar diversions. They are most passionately attached to the bull-fight: a large space is enclosed, sometimes the great square of the city, around which the people sit as in an amphitheatre. The bull being introduced, is first attacked by the picadores, or horsemen armed with spears; a desperate conflict ensues; the horse is frequently killed or overturned with his rider, when persons on foot run in, and distract the animal, by holding up different kinds of colored stuffs. He is next attacked by banderilleros, or footmen armed with arrows; not only their skill, but their dexterity in escape, are the subjects of admiration: at last, when the animal is completely covered with wounds, the matador, or slayer appears, and closes the scene. Tumultuous applause or hissing from the populace accompanies every part of this savage performance, according to the respective merits of the bull or his assailants. The comparative excellence of different matadores becomes often a party question, and the subject of keenly agitated discussion in the circles of Madrid. Wounds frequently, and death sometimes, are the result to the actors in this exhibition, for whose benefit a priest with holy water is in regular attendance. Not less is the fondness for the dance, particularly under its national forms of the fandango, the bolero, and the guanacho, performed with the castenet in the hands; and the two former especially consisting chiefly in movements expressive of passion, but so little consonant with the rules of decorum, that the indulgence shown to these amusements by the church cannot but be regarded as a matter of surprise. The dress of the Spaniards is antique, and varies much according to the different provinces; that of the ladies consists chiefly of a petticoat and a large mantilla or veil, covering the upper part of the person. The grandees, and the opulent in general, display a profusion of jewels; the dress of the men is slight, and closely fitted to the body, with the exception of a loose cloak thrown over the whole. The minister, Squillace, under Charles III., having conceived that these cloaks, by concealing the person, served as a cover to deeds of violence, stationed persons at the corners of the streets, who seized the passengers, and forcibly cut down this part of their dress to the legal dimensions; but this measure raised so violent and SPAIN. 525 general a clamor, that the king was forced to appease it by the sacrifice of the minister who had attempted such an obnoxious curtailment. Both in eating and drinking the Spaniards are temperate; the only noted national dish is the olla podrida, in which various meats, vegetables, and herbs are mixed together in a manner which even foreigners admit to be palatable. The pleasures of society are chiefly sought at tertulias or evening parties, where only slight refreshment is presented; but refrescos or dinner parties are given on a large scale upon very special occasions. Of the divisions of Spain, the most prominent is into kingdoms or principalities, each of which, at some period of its eventful history, enjoyed an independent existence, though they are now merged into one monarchy. More recently the country has been split into a number of smaller departments or jurisdictions; but the original distinction into kingdoms, being founded upon natural limits, and maintained by feelings and impressions derived from former independence, is still the most interesting. The kingdoms are New Castile, Estremadura, Old Castile, Leon, Galicia, Asturias, Biscay, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, Murcia, Granada, and Andalusia. MADRID, the capital of Castile, and of " all the Spains," stands on several low hills on the immense Castilian plain, which on the north appears lounded by the high distant range of the Guadarrama, but on every other side has no visible termination. A small rivulet, the Manzanares, flows past the city, and falls into the Tagus. -Madrid is a superb but somewhat gloomy capital; the houses are high, well built of good stone, not defaced by smoke; the streets are well paved, and have broad footpaths. The main street of Alcala,, long, spacious, and bordered on each side by a row of princely houses, attracts particular admiration. The Padro, a wide public walk, bordered by trees, and connected with gardens all open to the public, is equally conducive to ornament and pleasure. There are many public fountains, supplied with pure, light, and salubrious water, filtered through beds of gravel and sand, from a distance of seven or eight leagues. The gates built by Charles III. are uncommonly beautiful, particularly that of Alcala; but in a miserable wall which might be battered down by a three-pounder in half an hour. The royal palace, built by Philip V., is a spacious and magnificent structure, though the taste displayed in it is a subject of controversy. It contains numerous fine paintings, which do not equal, however, those of the Escurial. The Retiro with its fine gardens, was defaced by the French, who made it a military post; an extensive and costly menagerie is now forming within its precincts. The museum of statuary and painting, a new and elegant building, has recently been enriched with some of the finest pictures from the royal palaces. The cabinet of natural history, supported by the government, is also a handsome structure, and its contents valuable. The environs of Madrid are not remarkable for beauty; they are much broken into hills and hollows; so that of the 200 villages situated in them, only three or four can be seen at once. Population 206,714. Toledo, even in its present decay, excites an interest equal or superior to Madrid. Once the proud capital of Spain, it has a commanding site on a lofty rock, almost insulated by the Tagus. A position so strong rendered it a grand national bulwark during the long ages of internal warfare, but 526 SPAIN. occasioned its desertion during peace, when it was felt as extremely inconvenient, the streets being so steep that a carriage can scarcely drive safely through them. Its manufactures of wool land silk, which are said once to have employed nearly 40,000 men, have disappeared; and government has in vain attempted to revive that of swords, of which those formerly manufactured at Toledo were valued above all others. Its population of 200,000 has been reduced to 16,000; and it presents a mere mass of narrow, deserted, winding, and dirty streets.. Toledo, however, still exhibits two grand monuments; the Alcazar or palace, and the cathedral. Merida, the ancient capital of Lusitania, excites interest, from the striking remains which it presents of Roman magnificence. The amphitheatre, baths, a lofty triumphal arch, three votive altars, and a handsome stone bridge, are all magnificent monuments, and in wonderful preservation. Truxillo, an old city, of small extent, was the birth-place of Pizarro, whose splendid mansion is still to be seen, adorned with barbarous trophies of his conquest. Almaraz is distinguished chiefly by the very noble bridge adjoining it. Talavera de la Reyna, once splendid but now decayed, has acquired recent lustre from being the theatre of one of the greatest battles fought during the Peninsular war. In the extensive plain north of the Tagus are the two pleasant little cities of Coria and Placentia; the latter of which was the scene of the singular monastic retirement of Charles V. Segovia presents some interesting monuments of Roman and Moorish grandeur. Its aqueduct of 159 arches, nearly half a mile long, and in one place 94 feet high, is a stupendous Roman work, ranked by Swinburne above the Pont du Gard. The Alcazar, or royal castle, was erected by the Moors on a rock overlooking a wide range of country. After it came into the possession of the Christians, it was employed as a prison, and is now a military school. Five centuries ago, Sagovia had very extensive manufactures of fine cloth; but these, notwithstanding the honor of having the king for a partner, have dwindled to a very small amount. Population 13,000. The palaces of the Escurial and San Ildefonso are striking objects in Old Castile. The "royal monastery" of the Escurial was founded by Philip II. on a plan entirely congenial to his gloomy mind. It unites the charac ters of a palace and a convent; and has the form of a gridiron, the instrument of the martyrdom of St. Lorenzo, to whom it is dedicated. Attached to it is the Pantheon, a classic and somewhat profane structure, in which, however, are interred all the crowned kings and queens of Spain since Charles V. The wealth of the Spanish monarchs has been continually employed in adding new ornaments to this favorite residence, which is considered by the nation as the eighth wonder of the world; and large volumes have been filled with descriptions of it. The church and the great altar have scarcely a rival for magnificence and grandeur of effect. The library is not extensive, but contains manuscripts, especially Arabic, that are of great value. The collection of paintings, it is probable, yields only to that which covers the walls of the Vatican. Besides select productions of Murillo and other masters of the Spanish school, it contains several of the greatest works of Raphael, Titian, and others of the first Italian masters. The environs are wild and naked in the extreme, without shelter from the cold blasts of winter, or the intense heats of summer. SPAN. 527 The cities of Leon are almost solely interesting from the traces which they present of ancient grandeur. Leon itself, by its highly ornamented cathedral, its nine convents, and its ancient palace, testifies the remote period when it was the seat of royalty; but a heterogeneous assemblage of dirty streets filled with beggars, splendid churches, and half-ruined family mansions, are all that it now presents. Salamanca, by its university, has acquired a much greater fame. This seminary, one of the first in Europe, was founded in 1200, and extended during the same century by Alfonso the Wise, celebrated for the progress which astronomy made under his auspices. Valadolid has a great name in history. Charles V. made it his capital, and it continued to be the residence of the Spanish court until Philip IV. removed it to Madrid. In these splendid days, Valladolid was supposed, perhaps with some exaggeration, to contain 200,000 inhabitants, now reduced to a tenth of that number. Yet it covers a very large space of ground; and the numberless spires, domes and turrets of its sacred edifices give it still the appearance of a large metropolis. Ferrol, since 1751, has been made the chief naval station of Spain. Its harbor, besides being one of the safest and most spacious in Europe, has the advantage of being accessible only by a narrow winding passage which can be rendered almost impassable by a chain of forts. A considerable city has been formed, and very extensive docks and arsenals built; but since the extinction of the Spanish navy, these have of course fallen into considerable neglect. Population 13,000. Oveido, the only large town, has more magnificence than; its city might lead us to expect; the cathedral in particular, long the only shrine secure from the rage of the invader, afforded an asylum to many pious treasures scattered through the Peninsula. These, however, consist chiefly of relics, valuable only to devout and believing eyes. Among them are the rod of Moses, the mantle of Elias; the olive-branch borne aloft in entering Jerusalem; thorns from the sacred crown; the milk of the blessed Virgin, &c. Biscay is a small, high, rugged province, on the western slope of the Pyrenees. Streams descending from its numerous heights, combine in forming the channel of the Upper Ebro. The Basques are a peculiar race, preserving the only remnant which revolutions have left in the Peninsula, of Celtic language and aspect. Under the name of Cantabria, this region pre sented a barrier to even Roman conquest; and though the Saracens penetrated through it into the plains of France, it is still boasted that they never could reachthe mountains of High Cantabria. The Basques, amid the general slavery of Spain, hae still preserved some portion of their original rights. They have a cortes of their own; and the taxes, levied by provincial authority, are presented to the sovereign in the form of a free gift. Every native Biscayan is a hidalgo or noble, scarcely owning a superiority of birth in the proudest Castilian. With all this they are excessively industrious; the mountain declivities are cultivated as high as the plough can reach; and while the finest plains of Castile are nearly a desert, Biscay's rude vales are covered with a numerous population. Saragossa, or Zaragoza, the capital of Aragon, is a large and celebrated city, situated amid a fine plain, on the banks of the Ebro and of the canal 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I:; ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —- r=- iE' —i'' SPAIN~ — SALT HIILLS — CATALONTIA. I —-I —--- -I —-- -*I-.-1 —-— ~ —..~ —-.~)' —,uL-?~~rs=ca —-- =-' —=-;I~~~==c.r~r__ _ —-— zz-=-- —-;cu7L,-LS-;;,,..I —, 1,' ~ c-;i —--— *,,I';=;S=====+rr;;-;: -; — —7_- -— ~ — --- . —- -----— s- _. -----------------— ~=Z__ ----— _;L_ - --;=-5L_. —-—;.;-. ——;L=l- _1 I1L — ---— -E —lc- —~ —' —--- -"s;,, —,i;;E_ —~ —---- ---—. - - - -- -' —-— e __ __ ==-=;-f== —F= —-=- --— c=L =-s_,----====-== i —~-~ —-===; —— zlr~_~ -----—; -—. r =r-i,IIBiaa-,-~n:F=rrm-~~Lc .~cigem%ql,si;mar;wa~~niaeP i P~' —-----— LSL — _iC= __PII ~ _ __ I' —1 *r YPBUIJSltCY; -I_L-=~_-.-iL~~~C&E —~IY- I I\\ -52 i-/~ di ~: zzrS: —.2"'-irc.:;':'b;;;;;? —`bascl i3lr;a?bi%-'-ilY,,;llliJ;II'=~. —1 J=~ -cu -- ---— — r C3 =s —— r --- -- -7 —-i —sii:- — ~ i=:iYIZ. - ---- -- 1-4-c`ll —---— —--— ~lc - --- - - -- - ---- — ~ 530 SPAIN. of Aragon. Saragossa has earned an immortal name by her heroic resist ance against the invasion of Napoleon, in 1808. Without walls, except at old one of earth, which could not resist for an hour an attack conducted on modern principles; without army, arms, or artillery, it maintained a long and finally successful conflict with the French, in their first invasion. Afterwards, when assailed by an immense and overwhelming force, the flower of tile French armies, without hope of relief; it made a mighty resistance; and it was only by mining operations, blowing up successively house after house, that the French finally became its masters, after having reduced it to a heap of ruins. Population 50,000. Catalonia, to the east of Aragon, is one of the finest and most extensive provinces of Spain. It presents a remarkable variety of surface, from the steep and rugged heights of the higher Pyrenees, to the elevated valleys of Upper Catalonia, and the luxuriant though not very extensive plains that border on the Mediterranean. The Catalans redeem, to a great extent the Spanish national character, uniting with its loftiness and energy a spirit and activity which are elsewhere wanting. They have been always commercial, industrious, and fond of liberty. Barcelona is, after the capital, the largest city, and at the same time the most industrious and flourishing, of all Spain, containing 150,000 inhabitants. It is situated about the centre of the Catalonian coast, and draws its subsistence from a fertile and extensive plain behind. The ecclesiastical edifices of Barcelona are handsome, particulary the cathedral, though not of so grand a character as those in some other parts of Spain. The convent of the Dominicans has a singular series of ornaments, the sentences of five hundred heretics decreed by the Inquisition, and under each sentence a representation of the sufferer, whom the demons, in various shapes, are torturing and devouring. The walls of Barcelona are strong, but its chief dependence is upon the citadel of Montjuich, which commands it, and is considered almost impregnable, though the Earl of Peterborough took it by surprise. Valencia, beginning from the border of Catalonia and Aragon, occupies an extensive coast running from north to south, and is the first of the southern provinces. The plain ranks as the garden of Spain, and almost of Europe. The fields of corn; the yellow green of the mulberry plantations; the pale hue of the olive; the woods, villages, and convents, thickly scattered over this great expanse, with numberless slender steeples, present, when united, an inimitable landscape. Andalusia, taken in its most comprehensive sense, is the largest of the Spanish provinces, and, we may add, the finest and most remarkable, both as to nature and art. The Guadalquiver, with numerous and large tribu taries, waters its whole extent. Its mountains, covered in many places with perpetual snow, are the loftiest, its valleys the most fruitful, in Spain. Andalusia, indeed, comprises four celebrated kingdoms; Granada, Seville, Cordova, and Jean, and contains great capitals founded by the conquering Moors, which were the seats of science and splendour, when the greater part of Europe was plunged in rudeness and barbarism. Granada, which is sometimes called Upper Andalusia, was the central seat of Moorish power and magnificence. Even amid the general decline SPAIN. 531 of that power in Spain, Granada was still supported by the multitudes who resorted thither from the subdued provinces. Its fall in 1492, was consided the most deadly blow which Islamism ever received; and in all the mosques prayers are put up every Friday for its restoration. Granada presents a wonderful combination of all that is most wild and sublime, with what is most soft and beautiful in natural scenery. South from the capital rises the Sierra Nevada, covered, as its name imports,-with perpetual snow to a great depth. Mulhacen, the most elevated peak, is 11,600 feet above the sea; while the line of perpetual snow begins at 10,000 feet. The city of Granada is in the heart of the Vega, beneath the loftiest heights of the Sierra Nevada. This city still displays ample monuments to attest the period when it was the great western capital of the Moslem world. Nothing can exceed the beauty of its approach. "The rich and populous country well supplied with trees, the clear rivulets descending from the mountains, and artificially contrived to intersect it in every part; the splendid city extending in a half-moon from the river, on the gradual ascent of a hill; the streets rising above each other; the profusion of turrets and gilded cupolas; the summit crowned with the Alhambra; the back ground composed of the majestic Sierra Nevada, with its summit covered with snow; complete a scene to which no description can do justice." Its population, once comprising 400,000 souls, is now reduced to 80,000. But the eye of the curious traveller is soon attracted towards the Alhambra, the ancient palace and fortress of the kings of Granada. It is the noblest specimen existing of Moorish architecture; and nothing perhaps in Europe, out of Italy and Greece, can come into competition with it, On entering the threshold, the visitor seems suddenly transported into a fairy scene. He passes through a range of apartments; the baths of the Court of the Lions; the Hall of the Abencerrages; the Golden Salooi, or Hall of the Ambassadors; the Gate of the Sanctuary of the Koran; the Tower of the Two Sisters; with others, in which the various resources of Oriental pomp are displayed, along with all that can refresh the eye or the sense in a sultry climate. The courts are all paved with marble, and surrounded with marble pillars, in a pure and beautiful taste; and the walls and pavement are profusely ornamented with gilded arabesque and mosaic, the colors of which, by an art which seems to have been lost with the Moors, are as brilliant as when they were first laid on, five hundred years ago. Water is made to spout into the air, or, in smooth sheets bordered with flowers, refreshes the interior of the apartments. The kingdom of Seville, west of Granada, is a still finer region, and perhaps superior to any other in the Peninsula. Its plains are the most productive in wine, oil and fruits; the noble river, Guadalquiver, conveys its products to the sea; and Seville and Cadiz are, in some respects, superior to all other Spanish cities. Seville is situated in the midst of a fertile and delightful plain, and near the mouth of the Guadalquiver, which formerly admitted vessels of large size: it was a great city from the earliest period. Under the Moors it became an independent kingdom; and if it be true that, on its capture by Ferdinand the Catholic, 400,000 Moors marched out at one of its gates, it must have been an immense city. Notwithstanding the depopulation thus occasioned by bigotry and treachery, it soon became more splendid than i -- - -~ - ~ — L-~ll.- ----------— i —-CI — ---- - -C-* —-_-2 —--- ii= —*-c~ --- I ~T'-~ — z --—, r -~ — ---—,L ---— j - ~r L VEJ OF GIBRALTAR —1. ii r~tllt l'i i!1, /i.o ['4 ~ ~iI ~'~1~~ ~~~~~I' 11i 534 SPAIN. ever, in consequence of becoming the emporium of the wealth which flowed in from the western hemisphere. Like other Spanish places, particularly those of Moorish origin, its streets are narrow, winding and dirty; but it contains some splendid public edifices. Foremost stands the cathedral, the largest ecclesiastical structure in the Peninsula, 420 feet long within, and 373 broad; but the most striking feature is its tower, originally erected by the learned Geber or Guever, and used as an observatory, but raised by the christians to the height of 350 feet. Cadiz is in equal degree with Seville, the boast of Spain. In the commercial annals of the world, no city is of higher antiquity. Notwithstanding severe shocks, in consequence of political revolutions, and the war with England, it always revived, and derived a temporary greatness from becomirng the capital of the constitutional government. It received, however, its mortal blow by the separation of the colonies. The merchants deprived thus of almost their only employment, have been reduced to the funds already accumulated, and have in a great measure retired from the confined situation of Cadiz to the pleasant sites and villages which are scattered round the bay. Gibraltar, though no longer Spanish, forms also a striking and important feature in this province. This rock is celebrated from the earliest antiquity as one of the two'" Pillars of Hercules," which guarded the entrance into the Mediterranean; though Mount Calpe, on the opposite side is considerable loftier. In 1704, Sir George Rooke and Sir Cloudesley Shovel carried this fortress by a coup de main; since which time Spain has vainly attempted to regain possession of it. Her grand effort was towards the close of the American war, when the fleets of France and Spain rode masters of the sea. A combined attack was made on the 13th of September, 1782, by the two powers, with 50 sail of the line, 30,000 troops, and ten mighty floating batteries, which were expected to demolish all opposed to them. They kept up a tremendous fire from ten in the morning till midnight, at which time smoke and fire were seen rising from the batteries which before next morning were reduced to ashes, with a dreadful destruction of the assailants. No subsequent attempt has been made; nature, in fact, has rendered Gibraltar almost impregnable. The rock is precipitous on all sides, and is connected with the continent only by a narrow neck of marshy ground. The western front alone towards the sea is in any degree accessible; and this is defended by batteries cut in the solid rock, and by other works so extensive and so well planned as to bid defiance to any future effort. Gibraltar has one handsome street, the houses of which are built in the English-style, with trees and flowers skillfully planted in scanty fragments of soil. The rest of the town is close, crowded and dirty, inhabited by about 20,000 people, chiefly Moors and Jews, the latter of whom have sought refuge here in great number from Spanish bigotry, and have four synagogues. The expense of maintaining Gibraltar is considerable: but it forms an important naval station, a depot for the commerce of the Mediterranean, and a channel for introducing nto Spain great quantities of goods, declared contrabrand by the jealous policy of that country. Cordova, on the upper part of the course of the Guadalquiver, is another kingdom of Andalusia, deriving its chief interest from the celebrated capital of the same name. Corduba, founded by the Romans, was not only a PORTUGAL. 535 provincial capital, but the seat of an university, which could boast the great names of Seneca and Lucan. It displayed, however, a far higher pomp, when, after the Saracen conquest, it became the first capital of the Mohammedan empire in Spain. Under Abdelrahman and Almansor, it is represented as containing 1,600 mosques, and nearly 1,000,000 people. Admitting a certain exaggeration, its past greatness is clearly attested by the vast and now almost empty circuit enclosed by its walls, in a great measure filled with palm trees and gardens, and by the astonishing remains of its mosque. This vast edifice presents nothing very striking in its exterior, which is in a great measure hid by the surrounding streets. But when the stranger enters any one of its nineteen gates, he is astonished and bewildered by the endless labyrinth of columns which stretch before him in every direction. These columns have almost defied the attempts to number them; by one writer they have been estimated at 1,400, but are generally stated as exceeding 400, dividing the mosque into nineteen aisles, and producing a perpetual and surprising change of scene to the visitor. The Balearic Islands, Majorca, Minorca and Ivika, with the minor ones of Cabrera and Formentera, form an appendage to Spain of some importance and celebrity. The Balearian slingers are celebrated in the military annals of antiquity; but the islands in general, followed the political fate of Spain. The history of Spain dates far back into the past. The Phoenecians and Carthagenians successively planted colonies on the coast, and the Romans for a considerable period held the whole country. It was here that some of the mightiest efforts of Hannibal were displayed. On the decline of the Roman empire, the country was overrun by the barbarians-the Vandals, the Alans, and the Suevi. It was afterwards subdued by the Viso-goths, who laid the foundation of the present monarchy. The Moorish dominion over the southern portion of Spain lasted from A. D. 1091 to 1492, when Ferdinand and Isabella drove them from their strongholds. Spain now discovered America, and planted her colonies; few, however, at this day remain to her. Portugal was about this time annexed, but after a captivity of 60 years, again regained its independence. The French revolution, and the events which succeeded it. prostrated this country, and all the power, glory and wealth it attained from the time of the first sole monarchs, vanished. It is now the scene of recurring revolts, and the liberties of the people are only repressed by the sword. PORTUGAL, AREA 36,508 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 3,M25,000. PORTUGAL has by political causes alone, been separated from Spain. There (is no physical peculiarity by which the two kingdoms are distinguished. On the contrary, all the grand natural features of Spain are prolonged into Portugal, and become Portuguese. The boundaries of Portugal are the Atlantic Ocean on the west throughout its whole extent, and also on the south; on the north the Spanish kingdom of Galicia; and on the east those of Estremadura and Leon. The 536 PORTUGAL. greatest dimension is from north to south, or from 370 to 420 10' north latitude, and it extends from 6~ 15' to 9~ 30' west longitude. The mountains of Portugal may be considered as prolongation of those of Spain, chiefly of the chains of Guadarrama and Toledo, and those in the north of Galicia. These ranges, seldom rising to the first magnitude, cover almost the whole country, leaving between them many picturesque and fertile valleys. There are only two extensive plains, one on the south of the Tagus, and the other between the Mondego and the Douro. The rivers of Portugal consist chiefly of the spacious terminations of the greatest streams of Spain in their progress to the ocean. The Douro forms the great maritime emporium of Oporto, and the Tagus that of Lisbon. The Guadiana, also, in its lower course, flows along the eastern frontier of Portugal. The Minho, a much smaller stream, comes down from.Galicia; and the Mondego, alone, is entirely Portuguese, flowing nearly across the breadth of the kingdom. The industry and commerce of Portugal, which presented so brilliant an aspect during her era of prosperity, have sunk lower than those of almost any other European nation. Agriculture did not, until very lately, experience any of the improvements which have become general in the rest of Europe. The chief object of attention is the vine, which, with the olive and other fruit trees, is cultivated with the utmost diligence in the valleys and on the sides of the hills, in the elevated province of Entre Douro e Minho. Here is produced abundantly the port wine, which forms the main basis of Portuguese trade, and finds so copious a market in Britain. The entire produce is estimated at 80,000 pipes. Of white wines Portugal produces about 60,000 pipes; but this is of inferior,quality, and chiefly consumed at home. Sheep are bred on the hills, to a pretty large extent; but not sp abundantly as in Spain, neither is their wool so fine. The manufactures of Portugal scarcely deserve to be named. Little is known beyond the working of their wool for domestic use by each family or neighborhood; all their finer fabrics are imported. The commerce which formed the greatness of Portugal, when her ports interchanged the products of the east and the west, is now a mere shadow. The loss of her Indian possessions, and the separation of Brazil, have re duced her to the common routine of export and import. The staple of the former is port wine, for which the market of England was secured first by favoring duties, and now seemingly by an established predilection. The wine is raised almost solely for the English market, and all of the best quality is bought up by English merchants residing at Oporto. Another staple export of Portugal is salt, evaporated by the heat of the sun in the bay of St. Ubes, or Setubal, which seems as if formed for that purpose. The internal communications of Portugal consist of the several noble rivers which traverse her territory, and which are ~navigable throughout. The intercourse by land is rendered very difficult by chains of mountains extending in the same direction. No nation, as to character, owes less to the opinion of the world, than the Portuguese. They are described as indolent, dissembling, cowardly, PORTUGAL. 587 destitute of public spirit, and at the same time fierce and deeply revengeful. In Spain it is said, strip a Spaniard of his virtues, and he becomes a good Portuguese. From a late minute inspection, however, the peasantry have been pronounced to be a fine people; and, on repeated occasions during the Peninsula war, they displayed energies not unworthy of their ancestors, in an age when their glory resounded throughout both hemispheres. Almost all, however, that floats on the surface is base and degenerate. There cannot be a doubt that this may be greatly ascribed to priestcraft, to the stupifying influence of a sluggish and tyrannical government, and to the general corruption which has pervaded all the branches of administration. The established and exclusive religion is the Catholic. The religious houses, monasteries, and nunneries, were suppressed in 1834. The literature of Portugal, during the period of its glory, was by no means contemptible. The genius and fate of Camoens spread his name throughout Europe, and entitled him to rank among the few modern epic poets. Portugal has two universities. That of Coimbra, founded at Lisbon in 1290, was transferred to Coimbra in 1308. It enjoys some celebrity, is divided into eighteen colleges, and is still attended by several hundred students; but the course of study is of that obsolete description which prevailed during the middle ages. A smaller university was founded at Evora in 1578. LISBON, the capital, is situated near the mouth of the Tagus, which may here be considered an arm of the sea, since not only the tide flows up, but the water is salt, and the swell often tempestuous. The approach to it presents a more magnificent spectacle than that of perhaps any other city of Europe. Lisbon rises direct from the water, crowning the sides and summits of several hills; which, according to the Portuguese, are seven in number, like those of Rome. The palaces, convents, and churches, which crown this amphitheatre of buildings; the dazzling whiteness of the houses; the light appearance of the windows and balconies; the tasteful arrangement of plants, shrubs, and flowers on their roofs and terraces; the golden orange groves which adorn the suburbs, and the stately specimens of Indian or American botany which are scattered through the scene, produce an effect that cannot be described. The noble harbor, also, crowded with vessels; the numerous pilot and fishing-boats, with their large, handsome lateen sails, ascending or descending the river; and, nearer the shore, hundreds of small neat boats, with white or painted awnings, finely vary the scene. The moment, however, that the stranger lands, and enters the place, he finds that he has been imposed upon by a brilliant illusion; and the gay and glittering city is found to resemble a painted sepulchre. The streets are narrow and ill paved; the houses gloomy, with here and there a latticed window; filth and nuisances assault him at every turn. Lisbon does, indeed, appear to be the dirtiest and most noisome city on the face of the earth. In passing through the streets, a stranger encounters at every turn the most disgusting effluvia. Population, 280,000. Lisbon derives an awful interest from the ruins still left of the great earthquake of 1755, the most dreadful catastrophe which ever befell a modern European city. Six thousand houses were thrown down, 30,000 inhabitants killed; and a conflagration kindled which spread a still wider destruction. The ruins are the more dismal, as they portend similar — c~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - =L DE -- PRUALPAAT 1AHRN OLIVES. _ ----- _ ---— ~ —-—; —" r~~T~ —L; OP~~~~tTO~~~ —- P.%UCA 540 PORTUGAL. disasters, which the earth, still heaving from time to time, perpetually threatens. Meantime, Lisbon displays one very grand feature; the aqueduct, to the construction of which, though it conveys the waters only half a mile, peculiar obstacles were presented. It is carried in one place through a tunnel, and in another over a defile 230 feet deep, by arches, which are said to be the highest in the world. Mafra is a royal convent built by John V., in emulation of the Escurial; but though a stupendous pile, 700 feet square, and containing numberless suites of ill-furnished apartments, it ranks far below its model. Only five miles below Lisbon, of which it is considered a suburb, is Belem, the site of a palace and a very magnificent monastery, founded by Emanuel, and in which many of the royal family have been interred. St. Ubes or Setubal lies sixteen miles from Lisbon, on the coast south of the Tagus, on a long interior bay, the waters of which, evaporated by the heat of the sun, leave the excellent bay-salt, one of the national staples. The town is considerable, havting been well rebuilt since the earthquake of 1755, when it was almost totally overthrown. The mountain of Ursabida, here extending into the sea, forms a bold and striking promontory, covered with trees and various vegetation. Population, 15,000. At Batalha, is a church and monastery, which, united, form the finest structures in all Portugal. It is 541 feet by 416, and is considered to be one of the noblest existing specimens of the Norman Gothic. It is constructed entirely of marble, and the front appears to be almost unrivalled in chaste and delicate ornament. Among the different parts, the mausoleum erected in honor of King John, is preiminently beautiful. Oporto, the ancient capital, and still the second city of the kingdom, is situated near the mouth of the Douro on the northern bank, though on the southern are two extensive suburbs, supposed to have constituted the ancient city. The modern town is well built, especially when compared with most others in the peninsula. The river- affords a tolerably secure harbor, without any artificial aid, except an elevated and walled quay, to which the ships' cables may be fastened during the floods. These often come down with such force, that, without such a support, the vessels would be inevitably carried out into the sea. The chief dependence of Oporto is its trade with England, which remains unimpaired amid the general diminution of that with America. Population, 80,000. The foreign possessions of Portugal consist of —1st. The Azores; 2d. Madeira and Porto Santo; 3d. The Cape de Verde Islands, on the western coast of Africa; 4th. Angola, Mozambico, and other territories in South ern Africa; and 5th. Goa, Diu, and other settlements, in the East Indies. The AZORES, or WESTERN ISLANDS, ard situated in the Atlantic Ocean, between 37~ and 39~ north latitude, and 250 and 31~ west longitude. They comprise nine separate islands, named, respectively, Santo Miguel, Terceira, Pico, Fayal, Santo Jorje, Graciosa, Santa Maria, Flores, and Corvo, all of volcanic formation, of a rugged, rocky surface, and producing abundance of wine and fruit. San Miguel, 50 miles long, and from six to ten miles broad, rises in many parts precipitously from the water, but in other parts its rise is very gradual. The more level parts are studded with hundreds of small hills, many of which are perfect cones, while others are truncated, or terminate in crater-shaped tops. The lower parts of the PORTUGAL. 541 island only are cultivated, and houses and villages are scattered along the coast, intermingled with vineyards and orange gardens; the latter, a fiuit for which the island is widely celebrated. In Pico is the small town of Lagens, noted for its excellent wine. In its vicinity rises the great " Pico," or snow-capped volcanic cone, to the height of 9000 feet above the level of the sea. The other islands have nothing worthy of notice. MADEIRA, off the northern coast of Africa, lies in latitude 32~ 30' north, and longitude 17~ west.'It is 35 miles in length, and 10 or 12 broad. Abruptly rising from the Atlantic, it forms a huge mountain mass, interspersed with numerous chasms and precipices, many of which are frightful and inaccesible. Rivulets meander in every direction, and cascades leap from rock to rock, through bushes of rosemary, laurel, and myrtle. Groves of pines and chestnuts stretch along the declivities; the large leaves of the banana wave over the water, and the splendid palm-tree overtops the houses. Coffee trees form hedges and copses, while mimosas and a variety of the most gorgeous palms rise into tall and stately trees, displaying their far glittering blossoms in the most delightful of climates. The uniformity of the temperature is remarkable, seldom ranging to greater extremes than 570 in winter, and 760 in summer; the usual mean being 66~ Fahr. But every variety of climate can be enjoyed, with corresponding changes in scene and vegetation, on the acclivities of the Pico Ruivo, which shoots its snowy crown 6,165 feet above the sea level. Madeira has long been the resort of invalids, and especially of consumptive patients. The Carthaginians and Romans who occupied the Peninsula, did not recognize Portugal as a distinct country. Their Lusitania included a part of Spain, and did not comprise the whole of Portugal: Merida, in Estremadura, was its capital. Portugal, like Spain, submitted successively to the formidable irruptions of the Goths and of the Moors. The existence of Portugal as a distinct kingdom, dates from the commencement of the twelfth century. The fifteenth century, and the reigns of John and Emanuel, formed the true era of the greatness of Portugal, when it outshone all other kingdoms of Europe. Confined on the land side within narrow limits, it opened for itself a vast career of maritime discovery and conquest. Spain, indeed, shared this pursuit; but her first acquisitions were made by private individuals, partly foreign, with only faint assistance from the government; while the Portuguese expeditions were planned, fitted out, and all the resources for them supplied by the government. Their flag, at one time, floated victorious over all the eastern seas; while in the west, by the possession of Brazil, they came into some competition with Spain. A disastrous eclipse of the Portuguese monarchy took place in the sixteenth century, in consequence of the rash and romantic expedition undertaken by king Sebastian into Morroco, where he himself and the flower of his troops were cut off. Hereupon Phillip II. of Spain, a powerful and ambitious prince, raised a claim to the succession, which the superiority of his arms enabled him to secure. Portugal, with all her eastern and western possessions, then became an appendage to the crown of Spain. The restoration of the monarchy, in 1640, was still more sudden than its fall. The deep-rooted indignation of the people was combined into an extensive conspiracy, which, having been concealed to the last moment, 5.42 SWITZERLAND. burst forth at once: the Spaniards were driven out, and the duke of Braganza raised to the throne, under the title of John IV. The elevation of the Bourbons to the Spanish throne, led to a very intimate alliance between England and Portugal, the natural foe of Spain. It was cemented in 1803, by a commercial treaty, in which Portugal secured an exclusive market for her wines, while Britain obtained a market for her woollens, and an arrangement by which the gold of Brazil might find a way into her ports. Regardless of the neutrality which she strictly maintained, Bonaparte) by a most unprovoked aggression, sent Junot, in 1807, to take possession of Lisbon. The king did not attempt a vain resistance, but sailed for Brazil, and established his court at Rio de Janerio. The British arms drove the French out of this part of the Peninsula, and finally out of the whole. Afterwards Portugal imitated the example of Spain in compelling her monarch to grant a representative constitution. SWITZERLAND. AREA, 15,315 sQUARE mnos. POPULATION, 2,400,000. SWITZERLAND, or Helvetia, as it was anciently called, is an inland and mountainous country of central Europe, having Germany on the north and east, Italy on the south, and France on the west. It lies principally between the 46th and 48th degrees of north latitude, and the 6th and 11th of east longitude. Its greatest length east and west is 210 miles; greatest breadth north and south, 140 miles. It is a republic, formed by the union of twenty-two confederated states, or cantons. Simond has not inaptly remarked, that " some idea may be formed of Hielvetic geography by comparing the country to a large town, of which the valleys are the streets, and the mountains groups of contiguous houses." Indeed, by far the larger portion of Switzerland consists of mountains, comprising many of the highest summits of the Alps. There is, however, a considerable extent of flat ground in the north-west, in the cantons of Friburg, Berne, and Solothurn. Two great parallel chains, enclosing the Valais, extend between Mount Blanc, in Savoy, near the south-west boundary of Switzerland, and Mount St. Gothard. To the most southerly of these chains, called the Pennine Alps, belong Mount Rosa, 15,150 feet, and Mount Cervin, or the Miitterhorn, 14,836 feet in height. To the north chain, or the Bernese Alps, belong the Finsteraarhorn, 14,085 feet, the Monch, 13,497 feet, the Jungfrau, 13,717 feet in height, &c. East of 2Mount St. Gothard, which may be considered the central point of the Swiss Alps, the Rhoatian Alps stretch through the Grisons; while on the north, other chains cover with their ramifications most part of the four Forest cantons, (Lucerne, Schwytz, Unterwalden, and Uri). In the west, however, beyond the lakes of Neufchatel and Bienne, the slope of the surface is towards the north-east. The mountain system of this part of Switzerland is that of the Jura; a system composed of several parallel ranges of mountains, inclosing very long and narrow valleys, but nowhere rising to 6,000 feet in height. SWITZERLAND. 548 The great rivers Rhine, Rhone, Inn, Ticino, and Doubs, have their sources in Switzerland; after which, the chief river is the Aar. Switzerland has a greater number of lakes than any other tract of country of equal extent in Europe, excepting, perhaps, the grand duchy of Finland. All these lakes are navigable, and remarkable for the depth and purity of their waters, andttheir great variety of fish. The climate is not only dependent on elevation, but on the influence exercised by the glaciers in cooling the atmosphere, the openings and exposure of the valleys, &c. But, on the whole, Switzerland is a much colder country than its latitude and situation in Europe would appear to warrant. Among the wild animals of Switzerland are the bear, wolf, lynx, wild boar, chamois, ibex, deer, and game of all -kinds, the marmot, ermine, &c. The chamois is becoming scarce. The remarkable variety of the spaniel, so useful, and the breed of which is preserved with such care at the hospice of St. Bernard, is of Spanish descent, and frequently attains the height of two feet, and the length of six feet. The birds of prey comprise numerous species of eagles and vultures, one of which latter, the lammergeyer (lambdestroyer), is said to be the largest native bird of Europe. Salmon, trout, carp, &c., inhabit the lakes. There is only one venomous serpent, the Coluber berus; but the insect tribes are more numerous than we might be led to suppose from the rugged and elevated nature of the country. Switzerland is a country of small proprietors. An estate of 150 or 200 acres, belonging to an individual, worth perhaps from ~90 to ~100 a year, would be considered large everywhere, except in the canton of Tessin, or the Emmenthal, in Berne, and a few other districts, where local customs exist to prevent the too great division of property. Except in certain of these districts, the property of individuals is at their death divided in equal shares among their children, without respect to sex or seniority. Switzerland is almost wholly a pastoral country: little corn is produced, and the crops are scanty and precarious. Cattle, sheep, and goats, constitute the chief riches and dependence of the inhabitants. There are, generally speaking, no farmers; each proprietor farming his own small portion of land, and the mountainous tracts belonging to the different communities being depastured in common. No foreigners can become possessors of land, nor can native Jews in several of the cantons. It is only in the canton of Thurgau that corn is produced in any con. siderable quantity, and even there the home growth does not exceed twothirds the required supply. In Uri no corn is raised; and in certain parts of the Bernese Oberland wheat is treated as an exotic, and trained carefully over twigs! Rye, oats, and barley, are principally cultivated; maize, however, is grown in some parts in considerable quantities. Beans, lentils, potatoes, turnips, pumpkins, flax, hemp, woad, madder, poppies, and tobacco, are also grown, but to an insignificant extent. Vines flourish in several of the cantons.; as on the shores of the lake of Geneva, Vaud, the Valais, Neufchatel, Aargau, &c. The canton of Neufchatel has been estimated to produce, at an average, about 700,000 gallons, 400,000 of which, at least, are sold in the neighboring cantons. The manufacture of sparkling wine, in imitatioai of champagne, has of late years been on the increase in Neufch&tel, and from 120,000 up to 140,000 bottles are now 544 SWITZERLAND. annually exported. Along the banks of the lake of Constance, and in the cantons on the Rhine, apple, pear, and cherry orchards, are numerous; and cider, perry, kirschwasser, &c., are made in large quantities. The total number of cattle in Switzerland has been vaguely estimated at 800,000, of which 500,000 are cows. They are principally of two distinct breeds: one of large size, with branching horns, mostly inhabiting the lower parts of the country; and another called the Oberlander, a small and inferior species, confined chiefly to the Alps. Cows, as well as oxen, are employed for the plow. The horses, though not handsome, are strong and spirited, and well adapted for cavalry and artillery service, for which they are exported to France and elsewhere. Asses and mules are bred in the south cantons, where they are mostly used for the conveyance of passengers and merchandise. The stock of sheep is estimated at half a million, and of goats at about the same number. There are two varieties of sheep: one native, covered with a coarse white wool; and the other a Flemish breed, with fine wool of a dun and yellowish color. But sheep are not a favorite stock, and it is only in a few places that the improvement of their fleeces, by crossing with merinos, has been at all attended to. ~Hogs are of a large but coarse breed, and are principally kept in the Forest cantons. Most part of the agricultural inhabitants are almost wholly occupied during winter at the loom, or in other branches of manufacturing industry; and they also engage in them during the evenings throughout the year, and when their little patch of land does not require their attention. In the districts devoted to hand-loom labor, from one to four looms are usually to be found in a cottage; the weavers being furnished with the warp, woof, &c., by the manufacturers, to whom they return the woven goods. In the French cantons the manufacture of watches, musical boxes, jewelry, &c., are most extensively carried on; while cotton and silk fabrics are the principal employment of the inhabitants of the east and north-east cantons. The watch-making trade in Geneva and Neufchatel is of very great importance. France furnishes to Switzerland about 50,000 Movements annually, and receives all her fine works and watches from the Swiss manufacturers. The watch-making business in France is in reality of no great importance, most of the artisans being employed in what is called the repassage of the works originally produced in Switzerland. Nearly 120,000 watches are made annually in the elevated regions of Neufchatel, and many more, besides jewelry, in the canton of Geneva, a large portion being smuggled into France. Linen fabrics, damasks, &c., rivaling those of Belgium, are made in Berne, in which canton, however, there are few manufactures of consequence except those of linen. Switzerland is a country in which the great principles of free labor at home, and free intercourse with foreigners, have been fully carried into practice. No restrictions exist upon the pursuit of any branch of trade. "' Industry has been left to itself. Wealth has not been diverted, by legislative interference, from its own natural tendencies. There has been no foolish struggle encouraged by the government between the protected monopoly of the few, and the unprotected interests of the many. Two millions of men have made, under every disadvantage, the experiment of free trade as a system. The consumer has been allowed to go to the SWITZERLAND. 545 cheapest market, the producer to the dearest; and activity is everywhere visible alike in the trading and agricultural districts. One element only is wanting to make Switzerland the most prosperous of manufacturing nations. Capital is rapidly increasing, by the action of unrestricted, unfettered, unprotected industry." The general prosperity is also favored by other extraneous circumstances: land is, for the most part, released from tithes and taxes, and the people subjected to very trifling fiscal burthens. In many of the cantons there is no national debt; and some of them, indeed, nearly discharge the expenses of their government out of the interest of the capital accumulated from the surplus revenues of previous years. The 22 cantons are united on equal terms in a confederation for mutual defence; but in most other respects each has its own independent internal administration. The government is wholly republican in every canton, except Neufchatel, in which the king of Prussia exercises the right of sovereignty. The general.diet of Switzerland is composed of deputies from all the cantons, from two to three being sent by each, though each canton has but one vote. The deputies vote according to the instructions received by them from their several governments. The diet declares war, concludes peace, contracts foreign alliances, nominates its diplomatic representatives, determines the amount of military force, and governs the expenditure of the finances of the confederation. A federal chancery, composed of a chancellor and a secretary of state, is established in the directorial canton by the diet. The revenue of the confederation consists chiefly of a money contingent of about 540,000 Swiss francs, contributed by the different cantons proportionally to their military contingent, and of the tolls on imports collected by the frontier cantons, and accounted for by them to the diet. The judicial power of the confederacy is very limited: the diet cannot in any way act as a court of justice, even for the purpose of mediating differences between the several cantons, the decision of which is always referred to special arbitration. If the arbitrators cannot agree, the diet may indeed appoint an umpire; but from his decision no appeal lies to the diet. Judicial tribunals, independent of the executive, are established in all the cantons. They are of three grades, and vested equally with civil and criminal jurisdiction. Besides the Catholic and Protestant population, there are about 600 Anabaptists and 1,800 Jews. The latter enjoy no political rights. Many very bigoted provisions are in force with respect tolreligion in the Roman Catholic cantons. In Basle city, indeed, the Protestants retaliate, ne Catholic being able to acquire in it the right of citizenship. But in Valais it is peremptory that all the children shall be brought up in the Catholic faith; and in Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalden, any native who should marry a Protestant would be deprived of all the rights of citizenship, and banished the canton! In general, according to the religious compact of Aarau, no Protestant minister is permitted to preach in a Catholic canton, and vice versa; though in parishes in which only one church exists, in Glarus, St. Gall, and other cantons, that edifice is used at different times by both Protestants and Catholics. The Swiss Protestant church, as everybody knows, was originally Calvinistic in principle, and is Presbyterian in its form. But the zeal by 35 546 SWITZERLAND. which the Swiss Protestants were formerly distinguished appears, if we may depend on the statements of Mr. Laing and others, to have wholly evaporated; and it is a singular and not easily explained fact, that, in the Protestant cantons, religion is, at present, less cared for, and has less influence, than anywhere else in Europe. The people are not infidels; but are wholly indifferent to, and, in fact, careless about religion! Public education is very widely diffused in the cantons of Zurich and Aargau; for, if we may rely on a parliamentary report of 1837, the pupils in their public schools in 1832 were to their whole population as one to five. In Vaud and Neufchatel the proportion was about as one to six; and in Switzerland at large, in 1834, as one to nine; being consequently, in respect of the attendance at school, before Great Britain, the Austrian empire, Belgium, and France. Parents must give their children some sort, of education, from the age of five to that of eight years; or their neglect may be punished by fine, and, in some cases, even by imprisonment. In every district there are primary schools, in which the elements of education, geography, history, singing, &c., are taught; and secondary schools for youths of from 12 to 15, in which instruction is given in ancient and modern languages, geometry, natural history, the fine arts, music, calligraphy, &c. In both these schools the rich and the poor are educated together, the latter being admitted gratuitously. There are normal schools in several of the cantons for the instruction of schoolmasters; who are subsequently paid, by the cantons, salaries varying usually from ~10 to ~50 a year. Sunday-schools exist in several cantons, and Lancastrian schools in Geneva and Vaud. There are superior gymnasia in all the chief towns.. Basle has a university, which was formerly much frequented; and since 1832 universities have been established in Berne and Zurich. Every parish or community is obliged to support its own poor, who become chargeable on their own commune. But only those having the rights of citizenship have a right to eleemosynary support; the privilege not being extended to others, though born in the commune. The peculiar feature in the condition of the Swiss population, the great charm of Switzerland, next to its natural scenery, is the air of well-being, the neatness, the sense of propriety imprinted on the people, their dwellings, their plots of land. They have a kind of Robinson Crusoe industry about their houses and little properties; they are perpetually building, repairing, altering, or improving something about their tenements. The spirit of the proprietor is not to be mistaken in all that one sees in Switzerland. Some cottages, for instance, are adorned with long texts from Scripture painted on or burnt into the wood in front over the door; others, especially in the Simmenthal and Haslethal, with the pedigree of the builder and owner. These show, sometimes, that the property has been held for 200 years by the same family. The modern taste of the proprietor shows itself in new windows, or additions to the old original picturesque dwelling, which, with its immense projecting roof, sheltering or shading all these successive little additions, looks like ahen sitting with a brood of chickens under her wings. None of the women are exempt from field-work, not even in the families of very substantial peasant proprietors, whose houses are furnished as well as any country houses with us. All work as regularly as the poorest male individual. The land, however, being their own, they have a choice of SWITZERLAND. 547 work, and the hard work is generally done by the men. The female is, in fact, very remarkably superior in manners, habits, tact, and intelligence to the husband, in almost every family of the middle or lower, classes in Switzerland. One is surprised to see the wife of such good, even genteel, manners and sound sense, and altogether such a superior person to her station, and the husband very often a mere lout. The hen is the better bird all over Switzerland. If we divide the people of Switzerland according to their language, nearly 1,500,000 speak a German dialect, 450,000 French, and about 125,000 a corrupt Italian. The Swiss are unquestionably a brave people, devoted to their home and their freedom, for the maintenance of which they have often made great sacrifices and exertions. The situation in which they are placed, their scanty means of subsistence, the necessity of husbanding their resources, and the difficulty of increasing them, have made them sober, industrious, and economical; but also, we must say, mean and mercenary. Though attached to liberty themselves, 2s. 6d. or 3s. a day will make them flock to the banners of its most inveterate enemies. In this respect, indeed, they have no predilections, and the emperor of Russia and the president of the United States may equally command their services: "Man and steel, the soldier and his sword." After the conquest of Helvetia by Julius Caesar, the Romans founded in it several flourishing cities, as Aventicum, &c., which were afterward destroyed by the barbarians. On the decline of the Roman empire, it successively formed a part of the kingdom of Burgundy and the dominions of the Merovingian and Carlovingian kings; while the east part of Switzerland became first subject to the Allemanni, and subsequently it was wholly included in the German empire under Conrad II., in 1037. The house of Hapsburg had, from an early period, the supremacy over all the east part of Switzerland; and it preserved its ascendancy till about 1307, when, Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalden, entered into a confederacy for mutual aid against Austria, which compact was confirmed after the defeat of Leopold, Duke of Austria, at the battle of Morgarten, in 1315. From 1332 to 1353, Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Berne, joined the Confederation. Aargau was conquered from Austria in 1415; the abbey and town of St. Gall joined the other cantons in 1451-54; Thurgau was taken in 1460; Friburg and Solothurn admitted in 1481; the Grisons in 1497; Basle and Schaffhausen in 1501, and Appenzell in 1513. About this time Tessin was conquered from the Milanese; and Vaud was taken from Savoy, by the Bernese, in 1560. The remaining cantons were not finally united to the Confederation till the time of Napoleon; and the present compact, by which all are placed on a perfect equality, only dates from the peace of 1815. Zurich is a country of great beauty and fertility, with a dense population, and highly cultivated. The climate is mild, and agriculture in a more advanced state than in many of the cantons. Vineyards and orchards are very extensive, and the forests of the higher districts abound with stately timber, which forms a source of public revenue. Zurich, the capital, is situated at the north-west end of the Zurcher-see, where the Limmat gushes forth in a broad, impetuous stream. The valley in which it is built is surrounded by high mountains. Zurich has long been 1 - - I 0;- - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —L5P- 1~ 1wrtmr~~r ITALIAN SCENERY- LAKE MAGGIORi ITALIAN SCENERY-LAKE MAGGIOREA~7 SWISS SCENERY-MOUNTAIN PASS. 550 SWITZERLAND. distinguished in science and literature, and hence has acquired the title of the Athens of Switzerland. It has a great number of public buildings, and is replete with curiosities. Berne, the capital of the canton of the same name, lies on the left bank of the Aar, and is 1,708 feet above the sea level. It is one' of the finest towns of Europe. The view from the city extends over a splendid country; numerous fountains adorn the city, and streams of water run profusely down the channels' in the centre of the streets. Population, 20,500. There are many interesting places in this canton, and many striking scenes captivate the eyes of the traveler in this majestic country. Lucerne is situated at the lower end of the lake of the forest cantons, on the Reuss, which divides it into two parts. The town is ill-built, and the streets narrow. Long bridges stretch across the stream, and connect the two sections. Lucerne has a population of 6,000. Mount Pilate rises above the town 5,760 feet, and contains at its summit a small lake in which Pontius Pilate is said to have drowned himself. Altorf, a small town, the capital of Uri, with 15,000 inhabitants, situated near the lake, is noted as the cradle of Swiss liberty. Fluelen, a village on the lake, is the port of Altorf. The road into Italy by the pass of St. Gothard, is carried up the valley along the channel of the Reuss, which it crosses several times; one of the crossings being by the Teufel's Bruck or -Devil's Bridge, noted for a sanguinary conflict between the Russians and the French in 1799. The hospic6 of St. Gothard is 6,808 feet above the level of the sea. Elm is a small village in the Sernft-thal, in the neighborhood of which is Martinslock, a large round hole in the mountain of Falsberg, behind which the sun passes on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of March, and 14th, 15th, and 16th of September, each year. Owing to the great height of the mountain the village loses the sight of the sun for six weeks in winter. Fribourg is a considerable town of a very remarkable appearance, built partly upon the bank of the Sarine, and partly upon the declivity of a steep rock. Its principle buildings are:-the cathedral, whose steeple is the highest in Switzerland, and its organ the finest toned in Europe; the Town House; the new Jesuit's college, capable of accommodating 500 boys, who are educated in all the branches of literature and philosophy; the new Suspension Bridge, thrown across the Sarine, and very remarkable for its great length, and its great height above the river. It stretches across a gorge 160 feet deep, and has a span of 885 feet. The trade and industry of the inhabitants have made considerable progress of late years. —Population, 7,000. In the immediate vicinity, on the banks of the Sarine, is the Grotto de la Madeleine, consisting of a chapel, with its belfy, a large hall, and several other rooms, a kitchen and a cellar, all cut in the rock between the years 1670 and 1680, by the hermit Jean Dusrd. The canton of Graubundten, or Grisons, is, next to Berne, the largest in Switzerland. The whole territory is one congeries of snow-clad Alps, interspersed with valleys not less remarkable for their beauty and fertility, than for the sublime and magnificent framework in which they are set. Chur, or Coire, the capital, occupies a picturesque situation on the Plessour, about two miles from its confluence with the Rhine, and on the great SWITZERLAND. 551 road to Italy by the Spulgen. It is the see of a Catholic bishop, who resides alternately here and at St. Gallen; has about 5,000 inhabitants, and carries on a considerable trade. Vaud includes a part of the chain of Jura, the western extremity of the Bernese Alps. The greater part, however, of the canton, consists of plains intersected by cultivated hills of great beauty and fertility, more particularly along the shores of the Lake of Geneva, which forms its southern boundary. The vines of this canton are considered equal to any in Europe; and the wine enjoys a considerable reputation. Valais is the largest of all the valleys of Switzerland, and is traversed through its whole length by the Rhone. Besides the main valley, there are 13 inhabited lateral valleys on the south side, and three on the north, with others that are not inhabited. It is surrounded by lofty mountains, and the only place where it can be entered on level ground is at St. Maurice, where, however, the passage is so narrow, that the gate of that town serves every evening to shut up the entrance of the valley; and here it is that the waters of the valley are carried off by the Rhone through a narrow gorge, between the Dent de Medi, and the Dent de Morcles, which rise on each side about 8,000 feet above the level. The Valais is indeed one of the most remarkable countries, not only of Switzerland, but of Europe; for no where else can be found so limited a district, combining the productions and climates of every latitude, from the climate of Iceland to that of Sicily and Northern Africa, and offering so inexhaustible a variety of the most contrary objects, so rapid a transition from barren mountains and frightful precipices, to beautiful plains and luxuriant vegetation. In some parts of Valais the harvest begins in May, but in others the corn is not cut till October. In some places fruit will not ripen, but in others the wild asparagus is seen to grow; the almond, the fig, and the pomegranate, to attain the highest degree of maturity; and, with hardly any labor or particular attention, the soil produces vines from which the most excellent wine may be made. In the mountain districts are found the chamois, lynxes, dormice, wolves, sometimes hares, bucks, and many curious wild birds. Martinach, or Martigny, near the confluence of the Dranse with the Rhone, is a small town, from which the road commences that leads over the Great St. Bernard by the valley of the Dranse. This famous mountain is crossed every year by more than 10,000 travellers, for whose accommodation and relief there is a Hospice, near the summit of the pass, until lately kept by Benedictine monks; and is noted for the passage effected over it into Italy by the army of Buonaparte, in the year 1800. In the church of the Hospice is a marble monument, erected by Buonaparte to the memory of General Desaix, who was killed at the battle of Marengo. This Hospice was famous for its.dogs, which were kept by the monks for the aid and preservation of such travellers as might lose their way among the snow in severe weather. Geneva is situated on the slopes of two hills divided by the Rhone, where it issues from the lake, forming in its course two islands, on one of which stands part of the town, and the other contains a fine promenade planted with trees, and adorned with a statue of the noted Jean Jaques Rousseau. The two banks of the river, and the island, are now connected by a suspension bridge; and a handsome quay, lined with fine buildings, has been 552 BEGIU. constructed along the river. The town-house, the hospital, the museum of the fine arts, the museum of natural history, and that of the botanic garden, and the penitentiary, are the principal public buildings. The academy founded by Calvin, may be considered as a university, in respect to the number of its professors, and the variety and importance of its branches of study. The citizens of Geneva are noted for their industry, as well as for their scientific and literary attainments. The most important branches of work are watch and clock making, and jewelry, in which they produce every year about 100,000 watches, and use about 60,000 ounces of gold, 5,000 marks of silver, and $100,000 worth of precious stones. Population, 36,000. BELGIUM, AREA, 11,417 SQUAR MILES. POPULATION, 4,350,000. The kingdom of Belgium is situated between France and Holland, and has been established since the separation of its provinces from those of Holland by the revolution of 1830. Its territory is small as compared with the great European states, being only about one-eighth that of Great Britain, while its population but little exceeds four millions. However, the important position which this country has occupied in the political, military, commercial, and agricultural history of Europe — its former celebrity in manufactures and the fine arts — and its present rapid progress in every industrious pursuit and social improvement, give it a peculiar interest. The borders of Belgium on the side of France, are rugged and rather mountainous, being traversed by a continuation of the Ardennes, and other ridges occupying the northern districts of that country. To the north, however, the surface is low, scarcely, if at all, raised above the sea, and is intersected in every direction by numerous rivers and canals, diversified by woods, arable lands, and meadows, and thickly studded with towns and villages. As in Holland, the country in the north, along the estuaries and rivers, is protected from inundation by dykes, and along the open sea by sandhills or downs, varying in breadth from one to three miles, and in elevation from 50 to 60 feet. The navigation of the sea is rendered intricate by sandy accumulations, and for large ships even dangerous. Belgium is one of the best watered countries in Europe, and all its waters run to the North sea. The Scheldt enters the kingdom near Tournay. It is navigable for large ships to the city of Antwerp, and to a considerable distance inland for smaller vessels. The Meuse or Maas enters Belgium below Givet, and flows through Namur and Liege, and thence through South Holland to the sea. The climate of Belgium is exceedingly damp —less so, however, than that of Holland. In this respect it varies in accordance with the topography of the country, and in the high regions the country enjoys what may be termed a mild climate. There are several extensive forests in which the oak, the ash, and the beech abound; and from the humidity, the pastures are rich and support luxuriantly the domestic animals of the farms. Some wine is produced, but the vine is not adapted to the soil; fruit trees BELGCM. 653 are rare, and wheat succeeds with difficulty; but great advantage is deri ved from the cultivation of rye and oats, and particularly of the potatoe. Tobacco, hemp, madder, and particularly flax, which is a staple production of the country, succeed well, but in Flanders find the most congenial soil. Flanders is destitute of forests, but supplies turf in abundance, which is used as fuel by the inhabitants. About nineteen-twentieths of the Belgians are Rpman Catholics, and the church of Rome is established by law. All other religions are tolerated, yet there are not 10,000 Protestants in the whole kingdom. All salaries are paid out of the public treasury. Education is said to have retrograded since the revolution. The institutions are of three grades; elementary schools, colleges and universities. By the Belgic constitution, education eeased to be compulsory; and the government has no control over it, exept as regards the few schools paid by the state; the rest is left to individual enterprise, or the caprice of the communes. At least one-third of the rising generation are absolutely without any regular instruction. Belgium became a kingdom in 1831, and the constitution, on which it is based, vests the sovereignty in Leopold of Saxe Coburg and his heirs in perpetuity. The kingly power, however, is very limited. The legislature is composed of a senate and chamber of deputies; 45,000 —one deputy. The senators are elected for eight years and the deputies for four years, by citizens paying direct tax. * One-half the deputies is renewed every two and a half, the senators every four years. The chambers assemble annually on the second Friday in November, but the king has the right to convoke, adjourn or dissolve them at will, and in case of dissolution, a new election of the whole is required. The executive is vested in the king, assisted by six responsible ministers. The king's pay is fixed at ~110,053, besides the use of the royal palaces. The judicial system is modeled after that of France. The sources of public revenue are the land-tax, personal-tax, patents, rents of mines, customs, excise, stamps, domains, forests, &c.; tolls, postages, canals, interests, &c., &c. The whole amounts to about 114,000,000 francs annually. About 19,000,000 francs are expended in paying interest on the national debt, which amounts to about ~31,087,200. The army is composed of about 90,000 effective men. This country, during the 17th and 18th centuries, having been the principal battle-field of Europe, most of the towns were fortified to such an extent, that it may be said to have bristled with fortresses of the first rank. Most of these, however, have been demolished, or allowed to fall into decay. Belgium in reference to its size, is one of the most important manufacturing states of Europe. It has long been distinguished for its genius and industry. The laces of Brussels, Mechlin, &c., the cloths of Brabant, Flanders, and Hainault, the printed cottons of Ghent and Brussels, the carpets and pottery of ToVrnay, the papers of Liege, the arms and cutlery of Liege, Namur, and Charleroi; the gold and silver work of Ghent, Brussels, and Antwerp; the iron, steel, and brass articles of Namur and Liege; the steam-engines of Seraing, are all well known to the cominer cial world. 554 BELGIUM With respect to agricultural industry, Belgium has long been distin guished for productiveness and variety, and the Flemish system of farming has been noticed and recommended for its excellence. The industry of the Flemings has, indeed, within 200 years, converted a tract of land, originally a sandy and barren heath, into a rich and beautiful garden; and the crops of wheat and of oats are considerably larger than in the best cultivated parts of England. Nine-elevenths of the soil is under actual cultivation, and about twice the quantity of corn required for home consumption is annually produced.. The cultivators are in tolerably easy circumstances, and this flourishing state of agriculture operates favorably upon manufac turing industry, every branch of which is is full activity. The coal mines of Hainault alone produce more than those of the whole of France, and the annual quantity raised in Belgium exceeds 4,000,000 chaldrons. The iron mines were never worked more extensively than at the present time; more than 200,000 tons of iron are annually founded. The cloth manufactures employ 40,000 persons, and a capital of ~3,500,000 sterling. In the linen mills 400,000 persons are employed, and the value of the annual product is estimated at ~4,500,000 sterling. The cotton, lace and silk interests are in a flourishing condition. The revolution of 1830, impaired in no considerable degree, the commerce of the nation; but since that period this great interest has revived, and already eclipses in extent its former range. The principal exports are the productions of its flourishing agriculture, numerous manufactures, and mineral products. The imports consist of colonial produce, and the wines and fruits of southern Europe. The trade between Belgium and the United States is considerable, and is gradually increasing, as maybe seen from the following figures, which represent different periods: Imports into United States. Exports from United States. 1840........... $274,867........................2,320.655 1850. 1,844,293......................... 2,731,307 Increase............................................... $410,652 The principal commercial towns in the kingdom are Brussels, Ghent, Leige, Namur, Tournay, Ypres, Mons, Louvain, Verviers, and Malines or Mechlin. The seaporttowns are Antwerp, Ostend, Burges and Nieuport. Belgium possesses several large banking establishments, which are of great service to the manufactures and commerce of the country. The prosperity of Belgium is promoted, as well as indicated by its excellent system of railroads and other means of intercommunion and connection with other nations. The railroads are constructed upon better principles, and are better managed than in any other country. The lines of the first and second classes are made and upheld by the state; provincial roads by the provinces; and the smaller by-roads by the communes. The Great Northern Railway which unites Paris and Brussels, is said to be the most gigantic railway concern in the hands of any one company in the world; it requires 3,250 carriages, and 175 locomotives. Belgium likewise contains a great number of canals, the aggregate length of which amounts to 286 miles, besides 593 miles of navigable rivers. The canal of Ostend, which connects that seaport with Ghent, passing Burges, is one of the most ancient and most remarkable. BELGIUM. 555 In the ages immediately preceding and subsequent to the christian era, much of the great plain of Flanders and Antwerp was partially overflowed by the ocean. The soil was so marshy, that an inundation or a tempest threw down whole forests, such as are still discovered below the surface. The sea and rivers had no limits, and the earth no solidity. Many of the inhabitants of this low plain lived in huts placed on mounds of sand, or elevated above the reach of the tides upon stakes. They had fish for food, rain water for drink, and peat for fuel. (Plinii, Hist. Nat., Lib. xvI.) The forest of Ardennes then covered the present country of the Walloons, which extended from the Rhine to Whe Scheldt, and afforded shelter to numerous tribes of the German race, (Cees., Lib. Ir., 4,) who lived by hunting, and by rudely cultivating the earth. In the third, fourth and fifth centuries, the character of the peeple was essentially changed, by the repeated invasions of the Salian Franks, the progress of whose conquest terminated in the Frankish or French empire in all Gaul, under the sway of which the natives were all destroyed. In the time of Charlemagne the physical surface of the country was much improved. Embankments had been raised against the sea, and in the east large forests had been cleared away. The army of William the Conqueror, with which he invaded England, was chiefly composed of Flemings; and a Flemish princess, the wife of the conqueror, embroidered with her own hands the celebrated tapestry of Bayeux, which represents the whole history of that event. At the end of the eleventh century, all the states, except Flanders, had been reduced to waste, by the ravages of the feudal wars. The crusades now spread a frenzy over Europe, and many of thenobles sold their estates to join in the subjection of the Musselman. The wealthy burgesses foresaw their emancipation from bondage, and purchased their independence and a country for themselves. The gradual encroachment of the people, in no long space of time, reduced the whole territory to the condition of a democracy, and while the rest of Europe was sunk in despotism and barbarism, the court of the Count of Flanders was the chosen residence of liberty, civilization and learning, and Burges and Antwerp engrossed all the commerce of northern Europe. But yet there was no collective idea of Belgium —all was disunited, and the cities and scattered principalities recognized no one master. In this state, the provinces remained until they came under the dominion of the Duke of Burgundy, about the middle of the fifteenth century, under whom the low country enjoyed remarkable prdsperity. Luxurious living was now introduced, and the people were clad in velvets, and wore jewelry. This luxurious mode of life, produced deipravity, and crime increased to a fearful extent, so much so, that in the city of Ghent 1,400 murders were committed in one year, in the gambling houses and other places of debauchery. The Flemish school of painting now arose, and literature found a congenial soil. In 1479, Belgium passed under the Austrian yoke, and after many contests between the despot Maximilian and the democratic Flemings, fell to the share of his grand-son, Charles V. of Spain, and emperor of Germany. The prosperity of the nation now attained its acm6, but this prosperity experienced a rapid and fatal decline under the tyran nical and bigotted Philip II., his son. The fury of the Protestant reformation burst forth, and fanaticism ravaged the churches. Philip plied the !il i,?i'?i~ i"':,,~,~i~,,."~'l~"11' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i~l," l t?lA~~ti, ~.04 I?,~ I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~illl J0 - - ------ -----— t-_ Ii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Nillp' i —di"i__z I.~. - -?~-~.~-.~..'-?.~-~......... 558 BELGIUM. Inquisition, which had been partially established by his father, and filling the country with Spanish soldiers, exterminated the heretics with fire and sword. Thousands fled for refuge from the monstrous extravagances of the monarch, and transferred to England the beautiful appliances of the Flanders manufactures. Belgium dwindled away, and could scarcely be said to be peopled. After the memorable victory of Ramillies, in 1706, the country again became subject to Austria, and having been several times conquered and re-conquered by the French, was ultimately, in 1796, incorporated with the first French republic, and divided into departments. By this change Belgium secured many valuable privileges, and the introduction of an admirable public system, and equality in legislation. In 1835 the great battle of Waterloo was fought in the centre of Belgium. By the Congress of Vienna, Belgium was annexed to Holland to form the kingdom of the Netherlands, which existed until the revolution of 1830, when it became independant. BRUSSELS is the capital of Belgium. Considered as such, it is small, yet it is one of the gayest and most elegant cities of Europe. Its situation is fine, in a valley watered by the Senne and the canal to Antwerp. The Allde Verte, consisting of three rows of trees bordering the canal, makes a beautiful approach. The market-place and the park are the two great ornaments of Brussels. The former is of great extent, and surrounded by the town hall, one of the most elegant Gothic structures in Europe, adorned with a tower, 348 feet high, and by the old halls of the different corporations. The park forms an extensive range of pleasure ground, interspersed with rows of lofty trees, and pleasing lawns, ornamented with fountains and statues; and it is surrounded by all the most spacious and sumptuous edifices. The church and chapel of St. Gudule are also distinguished for the elegance of their ornaments. Brussels has an academy of painting, attended by 400; or 500 students; and in the palace there is a library of 12,000 volumes, and a small but valuable collection of paintings. It was on the plains of Brabant, near the little villages of Qatre Bras, St. Jean, La Belle Alliance, and Waterloo, a few leagues from Brussels, that the fate of Europe was decided in 1815. Antwerp, formerly the port of Brabant, has now a province, to which it gives its name. Having a ready navigation into the interior, and communicating by canals with the principal seats of manufacture, it is destined by nature to be the chief emporium of Belgium. Antwerp is still a noble city, containing numerous stately buildings, both private and public, which include some of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture existing. The cathedral, which occupied one hundred years in building, is celebrated ovei Europe. It is 500 feet long, 230 wide, and 360 high. The spire is 466 feet high, of extreme beauty, and from its summit is obtained a magnificent view of the windings of the Scheldt, with the distant towers of Ghent, Malines, and Breda. The interior is adorned with the greatest masterpieces of Rubens and Vandyke, which, after being carried off to Paris, have been again restored. Numerous fine specimens of the Flemish school are found in the other churches, as well as in private mansions. Antwerp has always been the centre of Flemish art; the birth-place of Rubens, Vandyke, Jordaens, Teniers, and all its greatest masters. Zealous patronage is still bestowed upon the art; an academy is supported, at which 400 BDermIU. 559 or 500 students are almost gratuitously taught; annual prizes are given, and crowns placed on the heads of the successful candidates.. This encouragement has called forth some respectable talents, though none, as yet, to rival the fame of the old masters. East Flanders is chiefly an inland district, and is the part of Belgium in which culture has been carried to the highest perfection. It displays an aspect of uniform luxuriant fertility, resulting altogether from the application of art and capital. Even in journeying along the road, the traveler finds the wheels of his carriage sinking in the sand, while beyond the hedge on each side, the soil consists of the richest black mold. The most fertile district is called the Waes, or St. Nicholas. Ghent, even in its fallen state, is still one of the noblest of the old cities of Europe. That vast circuit of walls which, according to the boast of Charles V., could contain all Paris within them, may still be traced. It is built on twenty-seven islands, most of them bordered by magnificent quays, and connected by three hundred bridges. The streets, with a few exceptions, are spacious and handsome, and there are many fine old churches; but the great cathedral does not display the architectural grandeur of that of Antwerp, though the interior is rich in the extreme, adorned with numerous pillars of white marble. This and the other churches, as well as the academy, contain numerous paintings by the old Flemish masters. Ghent, though it can no longer send its 40,000 weavers into the field, is still one of the most manufacturing cities of Belgium. Mons, or Bergen, is very ancient; it is well built, but appears often almost buried under the smoke of the steam-engines employed in working the neighboring coal-mines. It has a very extensive foundling hospital. Tournay, a fine large, old city, with a handsome cathedral, has stood many sieges. Charleroi, besides its military reputation, has that ef making very fine nails, with which it supplies all Belgium. In front of Mons is Gemappe, and eight miles east of Charleroi is Fleurus, both celebrated for signal victories gained by the French during the revolutionary war. Liege, once the seat of a sovereign bishop, is ancient and large, but upon the whole ill built and gloomy; and though some of its buildings are large, they do not display the taste conspicuous in other Belgic cities. The church of St. Paul is, however, admired, as was that of St. Lambert, till it was destroyed during the revolution. Liege has a manufacture of fine woolen cloths, which sell at a high price. The town of Limburg, now included in Liege, has lost much of its population and industry; and a great part of its precinct is in ruini, p, Si,ituated amid romantic rcks, is one of the mx~ot,:cel' brt h::i u:'m:i: The i resort, though much diinid, iif +O3o f S opersn of distinguished rank, 560 HOLLAND. HOLLAND. AREA, 13,227 SQUARE MILES. POPULTION, 8,20000. Holland lies immediately north of Belgium, fronting to the west and north on the German Ocean. and is bounded east by Hanover and Rhenish Prussia, and south by Rhenish Prussia and Belgium. With the exception of some insignificant hill-ranges in Guelderland and Utrecht, and a few scattered heights in Over-Yssel, the whole kingdom of Holland is a continuous flat, partly formed by the deposits brought down by the rivers intersecting it, and partly conquered by human labor from the sea, which is above the level of a considerable portion of the country. Holland is, consequently, at all times liable to dangerous inundations. The west coast, however, from the Helder to the Hook of Holland, is partially protected by a natural barrier composed of a continuous range of sand-banks, thrown up by the sea, of great breadth, and frequently 40 or 50 feet in height. But in other parts of the country, particularly in the provinces of Zealand, Friesland, and Guelderland, the sea is shut out by enormous artificial mounds or dykes, any failure in which would expose extensive districts to the risk of being submerged. In nothing, indeed, is the industry and perseverance of this extraordinary people so conspicuous as in the construction of these dykes. The principal river is the Rhine, which, after receiving the Meuse, divides into two principal arms, called the Maese and Hollands-Diep. Before reaching Nimeguen, it has given off a branch to the north, which, though of- less size, preserves the name of the Rhine instead of the main stream, and itself gives off the Yssel: these two branches discharge themselves into the Zuyder Zee. The Meuse traverses the south-east part of Holland; the Scheldt, its south-west extremity. The Maese (true Rhine) and Scheldt discharge themselves into the North Sea. The oestuary of the Ems forms the north-west boundary of Holland. Lakes are extremely numerous, especially in the north provinces; and there are some extensive marshes. The climate generally is variable, and the atmosphere much loaded with moisture, especially in the west provinces, where intermittent fevers, dropsies, pleurisies, rheumatisms, and scurvy are frequent diseases. Guelderland is the healthiest province, but all the east parts of the country are warmer and more salubrious than the others. Holland is continually subject to strong winds, without wvhich, indeed, to remove the exhalations from the stagnant marshes, canals, &c., the country would be very unhealthy. The soil being almost everywhere alluvial clay and sand, Holland possesses little, if any, mineral wealth. It has no mines of any description. Some bog-iron is met with, but no other metal. No coal deposits are found, but extensive beds of marine peat, of a most excellent quality, abound, especially in Friesland and Holland. The country contains very little wood. There is some timber in the east provinces, and at the Hague, HOLLAND. 561 Utrecht, and Haarlem, there are woods of oak, elm, beech, &c., but, speaking generally, most of the trees have been planted. There is perhaps no country for which nature has done so little, and man so much, as this. The first and greatest of the works of art are the stupendous dykes before alluded to. The construction and repair of these prodigious bulwarks is placed under the control of a particular department of the government (Waterstaat,) and of a corps of engineers especially appointed for this important service. The expenditure of this department amounts to a large sum annually. If there be any danger of an-inundation, the inhabitants, on a signal being given, repair en masse to the spot. There is never any backwardness on these occasions, every one being fully aware, not only that the public interests are at stake, but that his own existence perhaps, and that of his family and friends, would be involved in extreme hazard should the waters break through the dykes. Hence, the most strenuous efforts are made to ward off the impending danger, and every possible device is adopted by which the dykes may be strengthened, and the threatened inroad prevented, or its violence mitigated. In despite, however, of these precautions and efforts, Holland has on numerous occasions sustained extreme injury from inundations. That extensive arm of the sea called the Zuyder Zee, between the provinces of Holland, Guelderland, and Friesland, occupying an area of about 1200 square miles, was formed by successive inundations in the course of the 13th century. The general aspect of Holland is different from that of any other country in Europe. Its surface presents one immense net-work of canals, which are there as numerous as roads in other countries, the purposes of which, indeed, they, for the most part, answer. The greater number are appropriated to the drainage of the land; many, however, are navigable for large vessels. The principal is the Grand Ship canal of north Holland, between Amsterdam and Niewdiep, near the Helder. This noble work, the greatest of its kind in Europe, is about 50i miles long, 125 feet broad at its surface, and 36 at bottom, with a depth of 20 feet 9 inches; it extends from Amsterdam to the Helder, and was completed between 1819 and 1825, at an expense of ~950,000. It has a towing-path on each side, and admits of two frigates or merchant vessels of the largest size passing each other. In sailing along the arms of the sea, the rivers or canals of this singular country, at a considerable elevation above the surrounding fields, one is forcibly reminded of Goldsmith's verses: "To men of other minds my fancy flies, Embosom'd in the deep where Holland lies: Methinks her patient sons before me stand, Where the broad ocean leans against the land; And, sedulous to stop the coming tide, Lift the tall rampart's artificial pride. Onward, methinks, and diligently slow, The firm compacted bulwark seems to grow; Spreads its long arms around the watery roar, Scoops out an empire, and usurps the shore; While the pent ocean rising o'er the pile Sees an amphibious world beneath him smile - The slow canal, the yellow-blossom'd vale, The willow-tufted bank, the gliding sail, The crowded mart, the cultivated plain, A new creation rescued from his reign.'" The facility with which the country may be laid under water, contributes matrialy to its strength in a military point -of view. This, indeed, is not 36 562 IOLLAND. a resource to be resorted to, except on extreme occasions; but it was repeatedly made use of in the war of liberation, and also in 1672, when Louis XIV. invaded Holland. It is said that in 1830-32 everything was prepared for an inundation, had the threatened inroad of the French taken place. Holland contains two distinct people: the Hollanders or Dutch; and the Frisons who occupy Friesland and its islands. A few Walloons, of the Grseco-Latin stock, inhabit Limburg and some other places. Perfect freedom in religious worship is allowed to all. The majority, however, of the Dutch are Calvinists, with a regularly constituted ministry. The Lutherans are next in numbers; the Mennonites and Remonstrants are also numerous, but all these sects taken in the aggregate do not amount to one-half the number of Calvinists. The clergy of all sects are maintained by government; and the expenses of the universities of Leyden, Utrecht, and Groningen, are also defrayed by the state. These are resorted to by all sects, indiscriminately, whose theological studies are provided for, under professors of tfeir own faith. The Dutch system of education is excellent. The institution and regulation of primary schools was commenced under the Batavian Republic, in 1804, but it was not until 1814 that it was in full effect. The great object in view is to educate every child in the simpler branches of general knowledge. General and local inspectors and boards of management superintend the whole, and no teacher is allowed to exercise his profession until properly examined as to his competency. The better class of schools are conducted by teachers at their own risks. The law does not compel parents to send their children to school, but the poor are not allowed any relief from the public funds unless they do send them to the " Armen" or poor schools; and the result is, that there are none without education. The government is a constitutional monarchy. The king shares the legislative power with the states general, which are divided into two chambers: the first consisting of from 40 to 60 members nominated for life by the king; the second of 116 deputies, elected by the people of the provinces for three years. These take the title of High and Mighty Lords, and are assembled one a year at least. Each province has its own "states," composed of members belonging to these orders, viz: the nobility, citizens and the country population. The provincial states assemble once a year at least, or as often as convoked by the king. The government of the colonies is vested exclusively in the king. The revenue is derived principally from a land tax, excise duties and customs. In amount it varies little from 70,000,000 florins. The public debt amounts to 1,253,974,457 florins, or about $500,000,000, and the yearly interest to about $18,000,000, or more than half the total revenue. The army in time of peace consists of one regiment each of grenadiers and foot chasseurs; ten of infantry; two each of heavy artillery, light dragoons, and lancers; two batallions of field, and one of volunteer and three of militia artillery; one corps of flying artillery; two companies of artillery workmen, one division of pontooneers, one batallion of artillery drivers, and one corps of sappers and miners, forming two batallions. The navy consists of eight ships of the line, with 55 frigates and a number of HOLLAND. 563 smaller vessels, mounting altogether 2,274 guns; besides, one exercise ship, six war steamers, six transports, &c. The merchant marine consists of 1,528 ships, and**241,676 tons. Holland is not a manufacturing country. Some linens are made, however, as also woolen and cotton articles, but chiefly for domestic consumption. Tapes and other smaller wares are made at Haarlaem, and bleaching done to some extent. Sugar refining is exclusively carried on in Amsterdam. Gin, of favorite brands, is made at Schneidam and other places, and the breweries are also large and numerous. Ship and boat building seems to be at the present time the chief branch of manufacturing industry. The coast fisheries and the whale fisheries employ many seamen; and there are altogether about 80 vessels employed in the herring fisheries, most of them belonging to Vlaardingen and Maas-Sluis, -two places on the Meuse, below R6tterdam. One of the most profitable branches of the Dutch industry, is the growth and pressing of the seed-oils. Neither so flourishing as in the sixteenth century, nor yet so inconsiderable as in 1814, the commerce of Holland is still far from its natural capacity. The principal imports consists of grain, salt, wines, timber, lean cattle for fattening, millinery, and iron and other raw materials of manufacture, besides sundry manufactured articles for the commission trade. The latter is a very important branch of Dutch commerce, as well as that of exchange. The flower trade still flourishes. The exports are agricultural and dairy produce, salted provisions, spices and other East India staples, madder, tobacco, flowers (bulbs,) oil, gin, seeds, hides, borax and camphor. The Dutch trading towns are, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Middelburg, Flush ing, Briel, Dort, Enkhuizen, Zieriksee, Groningen and Utrecht. The kingdom is divided into ten administrative divisions, called provinces, which are subdivided into districts, and the latter into cantons. Parts of Limburg and Luxemburg have lately been added, but Luxemburgh is not a part of the kingdom of Holland, and only belongs to the king in his capacity of grand duke. It is properly a part of the German confederacy. AMSTERDAM, the capital of the province and kingdom of Holland, is situated at the point of confluence of the river Amstel with the Y, an arm of the Zuyder Zee, Being built in a marsh, the foundations of the city are laid on piles; and it is a common complaint that a house costs as much below as above ground. The three principal streets are parallel to each other, and are not easily to be matched for length, breadth, and the magnificence of the houses; many of which, though antique, are splendid, and are kept in the best possible repair. The ity is intersected by an immense number of canals, communicating y draw-bridges, and having sluices for the purpose of regulating the level of the water; these canals are for the most part bordered by fine trees. The stadt-house, now the royal palace, is the finest building in the city; and is, indeed, one of the noblest anywhere to be met with: it is of large dimensions, and is adorned with pillars, and with sculptures emblematical of commerce and navigation. Above 13,000 piles are said to have been employed in forming its foundation. There is a national museum of pictures, which contains many fine specimens of the Dutch school. The various prisons and houses of correction and industry at Amsterdam are said to be managed on more approved Oili 1 1 I' I: 1I ~t I~~~~~~~ili~~~~~t~~~l~~~l~~i!~"'~~' tltl~~~~~~~~~~~~j!iri' pi~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~it i??J~,~ ~ ~ -—,~~~ ~~~~~~ ----- -~'" ~!!~:!iiii' i''i". i~~l -...!1~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I?1!i!'' ---— =oir5 Pllsii 91] 81 1YBBg o01 BI B 18 -- ROT'I'RDT\;I 566 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. principles than similar institutions in most parts of Europe. The police is excellent; crimes rare; and no beggars to be seen in the streets. The inhabitants seem.vigorous and healthy; but the mortality, though materially diminished within the last thirty or forty years, is still greater than in most European cities; a consequence, probably, of the humidity of the climate, and of the efflivia arising, in summer, from the canals. Rotterdam, the second city in Holland, is more conveniently situated for commerce than Amsterdam, having a readier access to the sea; and the Maese on' which it is situated, being so very deep as to admit vessels of the largest draught of water to lie close to the quays. Its commerce is rapidly increasing. Rotterdam boasts of being the birth-place of Erasmus; to perpetuate whose memory, she has erected a handsome statue. The Hague, though ranking only as a village, is, in fact, one of the handsomest cities in Europe. The streets and squares are well built, bordered with fine walks.and avenues of trees. Neither the old nor the new palace can boast of any splendid architecture; but the former is large, and contains some valuable collections. An avenue of two miles leads to the neat fishing town of Scheveling, whence the dealers are daily seen bringing their commodities in little carts drawn by large dogs. Leyden is a fine old city, situated in the heart of the Rhine-land, where this ancient bed of the river is cut into an infinity of canals, which render this the richest meadow land of Holland. Leyden, during the war with Spain, was the most important city in Holland, and on the event of its siege the fate of that country was supposed to depend. The Spaniards, by a lengthened and strict blockade, reduced it to the last extremity; while the Dutch could muster no force adequate to its relief. It was then that they formed the magnanimous resolution of breaking down their dikes, and admitting the ocean. It was some time before the full effect was pro duced; but at length, impelled by a violent wind, the sea rushed in, overwhelmed all the works of the besiegers, and forced them to a precipitate flight. The little fleet of boats which had been prepared for the relief of Leyden, immediately sailed over the newly formed expanse, and triumphantly entered the city. The Prince of Orange offered to Leyden the option of two benefits, — an immunity from taxes for a certain period, or the foundation of a university in the city. The citizens crowned their former glory by choosing the latter alternative. GERMANIC CONFEDERATION, AREA, 244,875 SQUAiE MILE. POPULATION, 42,000,000. GERMANY is situated in the centre of Europe. On the north it is bounded by the North and Baltic Seas, and by Denmark; on the south by the Adriatic Sea, Italy and Switzerland; on the east by Hungary and the Polish Provinces of Russia, Prussia and Austria; and on the west by France and the Netherlands. The word Germany is as uncertain in its derivation, as it is often vague GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. 567 and indefinite in its application. The Germans call themselves )Deutsche, or Teutsche, and their country Deutschland. The extent of country comprised under the term Germany has varied in every century since it first became known to the Romans; but our limits preclude our attempting to lay before the reader any account of these variations, or of the growth of that complicated and peculiar system of policy under which the country was placed at a comparatively early period. Its surface is much diversified; but its mountain tracts lie chiefly in the south-east and east, while west and north the land spreads in spacious sandy plains, intersected by the rivers which run in the same direction from the higher lands towards the sea. The mountains, which may be considered as a northern branch of the great Alpine system of Europe, bear no comparison with the Alps in point of height, for the loftiest summits are only 5,000 feet high; but they occupy a great space, and diverge in so many various directions through the country, that it is difficult to trace them without the aid of a map. The Fichtel-gebirge, however, in the northern part of Bavaria, may be considered as the centre and nucleus of the mountains in central Germany; and from it branch, in four directions, the ranges composing the watershed that divides the rivers of the Black Sea from those of the Baltic and German Ocean. The rivers of Germany are many and important. The largest of these is the Danube (1800 miles long), which rises in the Black Forest, and is navigable from Pesth to its mouth in the Black Sea. The Rhine, which rises on Mont St. Gothard, flows through the Lake of Constance, and thence west to Basle; navigable from this place, it turns north, in which general direction it runs as far as Bingen, whence it pursues a course north north-east into the German Ocean. The Weser is formed by the junction, at Munden, of the Werra and Fulda, which rise in the iRhongebirge; its course is north by west till the junction of the Allar, at which point it turns north-east, and falls into the German Ocean about forty miles below Bremen. The Elbe rises on the north side of the plateau of Bohemia, which, after receiving the Moldau and the Eger, it leaves at Schandau, and enters the great north-western plain of Germany, which it traverses to the German Ocean. The Oder rises on the northern side of the Carpathian range, near its western termination, and after a general north northwestern course, and receiving many affluents, falls through the Great Haffe into the Baltic Sea. Besides these rivers, which of themselves constitute a most extensive water system, there are numerous lakes connected with the rivers: such are the lakes of southern Bavaria and Austria, and the many sheets of water which lie on the low plain of northern Germany, between the Oder and the Elbe. The climate of Germany is far less variable than the nature of its mountain system, and the range of latitudes in which it lies, would lead us to suppose. If the small strip of Illyria, which borders on the Adriatic Sea, near Trieste, be excepted, scarcely any diminution of warmth is observable between the southern and northern parts. The mines of, Germany are as various as they are rich in products; and are wrought.with much skill and economy. Precious stones are found in many places; rock-crystal, amethysts, topazes are plentiful in Bavaria; chalcedony, agate, petchstein, and porcelain-jasper, in Bohemia; barytes 568 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. in many parts, and abundance of building stone and clays every where. Fossil coal is found in extensive beds. Gold is procured by washing, — though only in small quantities, in Saltzburg in Bohemia, in the Rammelsberg, and in Silesia. Silver and cinnabar are raised in the mines of the Erzegebirge in Saxony. Iron, copper, tin, lead, calamine, bismuth, cobalt, nickel, titanium; arsenic, and almost every other mineral, are much or less abundant. In consequence of this abundance, mineralogy has become a branch of a liberal education. Mineral springs in every variety are scattered over Germany. The Thermal Springs of Aix-la-Chapel, Pyrmont, Carlsbad, Baden, &c., on the Rhine, attract crowds of visitors. Those of Ischel-Baden, near Vienna, and many more, though less frequented, are in no wise inferior. The acidulous springs of Selters, Driburg and Robitsch; the bitter waters of Seidschutz, Seidlitz, &c.; and the long series of salt springs which follow the base of the northern Alps, attest the richness of the under-strata in metalic deposits. Every species of grain is cultivated; but some localities are preferable for the several crops. Wheat and barley are most common in the south; maize in Austria; buckwheat in the sandy soil of the north; and manna is cultivated on the banks of the Oder. The potato is grown extensively in the north, and few countries are so plentifully supplied with excellent roots. The culture of garden vegetables has been carried to a great degree of perfection. Hops find a genial soil; and tobacco, of an inferior description, however, is largely grown. Madder and dyer's weld are partially cultivated. Hemp and lint are staple growths, and furnish material for domestic manufactures. Vines were originally planted by the Romans along the river bottoms, where they still produce wines as highly esteemed as those of any other country. The most valued is the " Hock," from the vineyards of Hockheim, where the best is made. The next in value are the wines of the Meyn and the Danube; and those of the Tyrol and of the Moselle. The Bohemian wines are inferior. The secondary wines are used by the people as a common beverage; and such only as are suitable for preservation are exported. Various wild animals yet inhabit the forests. Wild deer and wild swine are very numerous in many parts of the country, and foxes, lynxes, &c., still afford sport for the country people. A small black species of bear is found in the Tyrol, and a few wolves in the Trans-Rhenish provinces. In some of the mountains the beaver is met with, and some other animals, chiefly valuable for their fur. Myriads of mice are found in Saxony, and do incredible damage to the fields. The German heavy horse is well adapted for draught and warlike pur poses, but is not at all suitable for pleasure. Asses are not common, and except in the Tyrol, and near the Harz mountains, mules are unknown. There are various breeds of cattle. The handsomest are those of the mari time provinces. The Hungarian and Swiss breeds prevail in different parts. The mixture, however, of these, is the best for the dairy. Attempts have long been made to improve the German stock, but with little success. The German sheep is a mixture of the original coarse-woolled race, and a GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. 569 breed from thE ArdCennes. In part of Illyria, they have the sheep of Padua, and the fine-woolled sheep of Spain have been largely introduced. Goats are common, especially in the hilly states, and swine are the most important stock in Bavaria, Hanover, Westphalia, &c. The inhabitants of Germany are of three essentially different families: the Deutsch. the Sclavonic and the Groeco-Latin. Besides all these there are some 300,000 Jews. The prevailing language is the Deutsch, and this is the legal language of the country. The High and Low Germans speak languages somewhat different, but are very similar in habits, character and disposition. The Sclavonic people are found to the east of the Danube; they retain their Sclavonic dialects, but with a great mixture of German words. The Sclavonians are inferior in civilization, but industrious, and much attached to their homes. Germany, especially the northern part of the confederation, contains one of the best educated and most intelligent communities in Europe. The parochial schools are open to all, and few Germans can be found unable to read and write, and understand the first rules of arithmetic. The classical schools, denominated gymnasiums, pedagogiums and lyceums, are found in almost all large towns. The universities are numerous, and well endowed; and have long been famous for their learning and efficiency. Besides these, there are in all the capitals, institutions for instructing pupils in the several professions and national economy. Learned societies spread over all the country, and libraries and museums affird means to those engaged in the pursuit of knowledge. The press of Germany has long been famous; and German authors, for research and talent, head the grand column of literature. Catholicism, Lutherism and Calvinism, are equally the religions of Germany, and enjoy in all the states perfect freedom of worship. For several years past, however, the two latter have been united under the denomination of the Evangelical Church. About one-half of the population is Catholic, about two-fifths belong to the Evangelical Church, and the remainder is divided by the Calvinists, Moravians, Mennonites, Jews, &c. The states comprising the confederation, present every variety of government, from democracy to autocracy, as can be seen by reference to the table on page 391. e After the fall of Napoleon, the states formerly composing the German empire, entered into a confederation. The parties were Austria and Prussia for their German territories, Denmark for Holstein,' the Netherlands for Luxembourg, and 33 independent states and free cities, comprising a territory of 244,375 square miles, and containing at present 42,000,000 inhabitants. The principal points agreed to in this confederation were as follows: That all the members possess equal rights; they bind themselves for the security of each and all from foreign attacks; they guarantee to each the possession of its German territories; any member to be at liberty to enter into any league or treaty, not endangering the security of the confederation, or any of its members, except in case of war declared by the confederation, when no member can enter into any separate negotiation or treaty; the members not to make war upon each other, but to submit all 570 -GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. differences to the decision of the diet, whose final action shall be conclusive. The affairs of the confederation to be managed by a diet, meeting at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, at which Austria presides, and in which the larger states have respectively two, three, and four votes, and the smaller, one each, the whole number of votes being 70; in ordinary matters the diet to be represented by a committee of 17 plenipotentiaries, each of the larger states having one, and several of the smaller being united in the choice of one. The army of the confederation was fixed, in 1830, at 303,484 men, to be furnished by the states in a fixed proportion. The inconveniences of this cumbrous organization are apparent. One member might be at war with any power, while the others were at peace: thus the confederation took no part in the Italian and Hungarian warfare against Austria, for it guaranteed to her only the possession of her Germanic possessions; and in Schleswig-Holstein, Bavarian troops were in the service of Denmark, and Prussian soldiers in that of the Duchies. Then, each state being absolutely independent, could and did establish custom-houses, and levy tolls and duties upon its own frontier, to the great disadvantage of commerce. This at last became so intolerable, that a general Customs-union (Zollverein) was formed, under the auspices of Prussia, by which duties are levied only upon the common frontier, and the proceeds distributed among the states, in the ratio of their population. The Customs-union embraces more than four-fifths of Germany, with the exception of Austria. A strong desire has always prevailed throughout Germany for the construction of a united government, which should take the place of the petty principalities into which the country is divided. Thus alone can the German people, having a common origin, speaking a common language, and possessing common interests, assume that rank in the political world to which their numbers, position, and civilization entitle them. But this desire on the part of the people has, of course, been strenuously opposed by the princes, although circumstances have at times induced the Prussian government to favor the movement, in the expectation of becoming the leading power in the new state, or rather of Prussianizing all Germany. At the present time, Austria wishes to enter the Germanic Confederation, with all her vast and heterogeneous population; thus binding all Germany to assist her in the event of any new Hungarian or Italian outbreak. She also wishes to secure the federal executive. If she succeeds in these projects, the weight of her foreign possessions gives her the preponderance in Germany, while Germany secures to her the control of her foreign territories. The interests of the people and princes of Germany for once coincide in opposing this claim. The vascillating policy of Prussia has arisen from a doubt whether more could be made out of Austria by putting herself at the head of the German states, or out of these states by joining with Austria. It seems probable that Germany will fall back upon the Frankfort Confederation, which, in the "c year of revolutions," 1848, was held to be virtually abolished. k As a manufacturing country, Germany is preeminent, and can supply itself with by far the greater part of all the commodities it needs. Every town, of moderate population, has its woolen, linen, cotton, silk, and iron workshops. Few of these, however, are conducted on a large scale, and, GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. 571 consequently, that minute division of labor, which is so essential to perfection and cheapness of articles, is entirely wanting. Linens are the most valuable products, and are made, from the coarse fabrics of Westphalia, which are used for negro clothing, to the finest shirting and table linen of Silesia and Saxony. Woolens of all kinds are made, and sufficient for consumption. The cassimeres and Vigonia cloths of the Prussian provinces of the Rhine, are preferred in all markets. The cotton manufactures have increased; but not so rapidly as those of other staples. The most considerable districts for these kinds of goods are: Saxony, the Prussian provinces of Juliers, Berg, and Cleves; and along the banks of the Ens, in the Austrian dominions. The chief silk establishments are in Vienna, at Roveredo in the Tyrol,,at Cologne, and at Berlin. Leather, iron, and steel, and wares prepared from them, are made at home. Porcelain and common earthenware are well made; but the best comes from the royal factories of Berlin and Dresden. The glass-ware of Bohemia, though inferior, is that in common use, not only throughout Germany, but in many other parts of the world. Paper is an article very inferior in quality, but it is largely manufactured. In the preparation of chemicals the Germans are excellent. The minor manufactures are too various to indicate. They consist principally of musical, mathematical, surgical, and optical instruments; with watches and clocks, wooden toys, and plaited straw, in all of which a peculiar superiority is discernible. Besides these branches of industry, we may notice also the immense produce of the press, so important in Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemburg, and Bavaria, where very small towns rival in this respect some of the largest cities in Europe, London and Paris excepted. The principal exports of Germany are the manufactures before mentioned and a great variety of agricultural and mineral products. The transit trade is very considerable, and proves a source of wealth to the towns in which it centres. The principal maritime commercial towns are Hamburg, Lubec, Bremen, Emden, &c., and the principal inland trading towns are Frankfort, Leipsic, Augsburg, Nuremburg, Brunswick, Hanover, Cassel, Munich, Carlsruhe, Darmstadt, Weimar, &c., and'generally all those towns where any extensive manufactures are carried on. The fair of Leipsic has no rival in the sale of books; and the trade of Hamburg is so great, as to rival that of some of the largest commercial cities in the world. * Germany is composed of forty sovereign states. The states belonging to Austria, Prussia, Denmark, and Holland, are described under their appropriate heads. Those wholly within Germany are as follows: AREA, 29,708 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 4,450,000. The KINGDOM OF BAVARIA consists of two perfectly distinct portions; the larger situated in the basins of the Danube and the Meyn, and the smaller to the westward of the Rhine. The king is representative of the two electors, viz: the duke of Bavaria, and the Pfalsgraf, or count palatine of the Rhine. The kingdom was constituted by Napoleon in 1804, and received its present extension in 1815. The public revenues amount to about $12,500,000 per annum, raised chiefly from imposts. The army consists of 58,239 men, but of these 17,000 are always on furlough, or absent on leave. The government is a constitutional monarchy with two 572 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. chambers, and the religion of the state Roman Catholic. The kingdomn, for administrative purposes, is divided into eight circles. Munich, the capital, is situated on the Issar, in a flat and sterile plain, entirely destitute of beauty. It is now one of the finest cities in Germany, and contains many wide and straight streets, bordered with foot pavements, and lined with elegant houses and magnificent hotels. The "Hof," or king's palace is one of the largest in Europe, and though irregular in its original plan, has lately been remodeled by Baron Klenze. The picture gallery is a fine building, and contains a magnificent collection of paintings, and the sculpture gallery is equally grand, with a good amount of statuary. Munich has a large number of learned societies, and its buildings dedicated to the fine arts alone are commensurately more numerous and splendid than in any other city. There are many pretty villages around the capital, which are much visited on holidays. Population 95,000. AREA, 7,551 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 1,750,000. The KINGDOM OF WURTEMBURG adjoins Bavaria on the west, and is situated in the middle of the ancient Suabia, extending also into Franconia. It is one of the kingdoms erected by Napoleon, at the period of the dissolution of the empire, in favor of the then Duke of Wurtemburg. It is divided into four circles. There are four garrison towns- in the kingdom, viz: Stuttgardt, Ludwigsburg, Ulm, and Heilbron. The army consists of 19,170 men. Stuttgardt, the capital, is situated on the Nesenbach, not far from its confluence with the Neckar, in a damp, unhealthy valley, surrounded with vine-covered hills. The king's palace is the most imposing edifice. The environs are by far more interesting than the city itself, the surrounding heights affording ample room for recreation and pleasure. Few other towns in this kingdom are worthy of notice, but almost all are intimately connected with some bright pages of history. AREA, 5,932 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 1,379,000. The G~RAND DucHr OF BADEN consists of a long narrow strip of country, extending along the north and east sides of the Rhine, from near Mannheim to the lake of Constance, a distance of nearly 300 miles along the river. The two sides border on Switzerland and France; and the greater part of the remaining border is formed by Wurtemburg. The general aspect of the country is more mountainous than level, the Black Forest and a part of the Odenwald comprising at least one-third. The climate and soil are alike propitious to agriculture. The forests yield great wealth, and the rivers not only diffuse fertility and beautify the landscape, but being navigable, tend to encourage commerce. The Germans compare Baden to a black-pudding (blatwurst), on account of its disproportionate length, but at the same time acknowledge its fertility in regarding it as " das Eden Deutschlands" —the paradise of Germany. The Grand Duchy is divided into four circles. Carlsruhe (Charles' rest), the capital, is a fine modern city, regularly built in the form of a fan, with its principal streets, thirty-two in number, diverging from the Grand Ducal Castle. This castle or palace is a very neat building, with a fine collection of paintings, mostly French; and the GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. 573 pleasure-grounds attached are extensive and well-kept, but gloomy. The streets of the city are broad, well-paved, and clean. Baden, from which the grand duchy takes its name, called also BadenBaden, is a pretty little town, twenty miles south by west of Carlsruhe, and five from the Rhine, celebrated for its mineral waters, which are fre-. quented by thousands of strangers. The town is irregular and ill-built, partly situated on a lofty acclivity, and partly scattered along the banks of a rivulet, in a beautiful valley, adorned with vineyards and enclosed by fine wooded heights, crowned by picturesque ruins. The waters are principally used for bathing, and are calculated to relieve rheumatic complaints, contractions, and skin-diseases. AREA, 458 SQUARE MLES. POPULATION, 66,000. The Hohenzollern possessions are divided into the two principalities of H0oHENZOLT.,ERN-IIECKINGEN and HOHENZOLLERN-SIGMARINGEN, which are almost entirely surrounded by the territory of Wurtemburg, and touch Baden on their south-west side. The government of both are very similar, being limited sovereignties with one chamber, and the Roman Catholic is the public religion. HIeckingen, a small town with 3,000 inhabitants, on the Starzel, is the capital of one of the principalities; and Sigmaringen, a still smaller town, on the Danube, is the capital of the other. AREA, 7,839 SQUARE IMLES. POPULATION, 1,621,000. The HESSIAN STATES lie contiguous to Frankfort, and are divided by the Rhine and the Meyn. All the princes, being descended from a common ancestor, bear his title of Landgrave of Hessen. The family is divided into two branches: the elder of which is subdivided into the branches of Philipsthal and Cassel; and the younger into the branches of Darmstadt and Homberg. The Landgraves of Hessen-Philipsthal are subjects of Hessen-Cassel; but both the branches of younger Hessen are, as well as Cassel, sovereign members of the confederation. The three states are distinguished by the names of Hessen-Cassel, or Electoral Hessen; Hessen-Darmstadt, and Hessen-Homberg. HESSEN-CASSEL is situated between Hanover and Bavaria, on the north; the Saxon duchies and part of the Prussian territories on the east; and Hessen-Darmstadt and Waldeck on the west. It is divided into four provinces. Cassel is a fine city, consisting of two towns, the old and new, divided by the river Fuldatacross which there is a handsome stone bridge. It contains some magnificent buildings, an extensive park, called the " Augarten," &c. In its neighborhood are Wilhelmsthal, a fine palace, and Wilhelmshohe, regarded as one of the most magnificent residences in Europe. The whole valley of Schmalkalden is one vast work-shop, where iron and steel are wrought into articles of every sort. Hanau is a neat, busy, manufacturing and commercial town on the Kinsig, not far from its confluence with the Meyn, twelve miles east of Frankfort. It was here that the French army, on their retreat from the disastrous battle of Leipsic, in October, 1813, were waylaid and attacked by the Austro-Bavarian army, under Marshal Wrede, who, expecting an easy victory over the disheartened fugitives, paid for his presumption by a severe defeat, which cost him 12,000 men. 574 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. HESSEN-DARMSTADT, a grand duchy, consists of three distinct territories, separated from each other by the Rhine and the Meyn; and of a smaller portion between Hessen-Cassel and Waldeck. It is divided into two principalities, which are subdivided into 29 districts, and one province subdivided into 11 cantons. The Landgrave assumed the title of Grand Duke in 1814. 2Darmstadt, the capital, and residence of the grand duke, lies upon the Darm, 18 miles south of Frankfort. It consists of two towns: the old town, a sombre place, surrounded with an ancient wall; and the new town, well-built, with wide and neat streets. The Grand Ducal Palace, the Hall of the States, and some other buildings of a public nature, adorn the place. Maynz, (Mayence or Mentz,) is a large and strongly fortified place, on the left bank of the Rhine, a little below its confluence with the Meyn. Maynz is the principal fortress of the Confederation, and also the centre of a very active commerce. The population exceeds 31,000, besides the garrison, which is never less than 6,000 strong. The citizens have recently erected a statue to John Guttenburg, the inventor of printing. Worms, 27 miles south of Maynz, is one of the most ancient cities of Germany, having been built by the Romans. It was frequently the residence of the Carlovingian kings, and the place of meeting of the diets of the empire; but it is now only the shadow of what it was. Its dom-kirk or cathedral, a very imposing structure, dates from the eighth century. Population, 8,000. HESSEN-HOMBURG, a landgraviate, and an absolute state, is an insignificant principality, consisting of two portions: the one surrounding the small town of Homburg; and the other, the lordship of Meissenheim, between the rivers Nahe and Glan, to the south-west of Bingen. AREA, 1,708 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 420,000. The DUCHY OF NASSAU is situated to the east of the Rhine, in the corner formed by the Meyn, where it joins that river. The greater part of the territory is mountainous, and contains above 120 mineral springs; but of these only about 20 are of much repute. Wiesbaden, the capital, is a pretty little town, well-situated, and a celebrated bathing place. There are a number of springs and baths; the principal of the latter is in a fine building called the Kur-saal. Population,,000. The duke generally resides at Biberich, on the Rhine, where he has a superb castle. Nieder-Selters is much noted for its mineral waters, of which it exports one million and a half bottles annually. Johannesberg, celebrated for its wines and its fine cattle, belonging to Prince Metternich, is in this state. AREA, 468 SQUARE Me. PPOPUTION, 62,000. The PRINCIPALITY OF WALDECK consists of two separate parts —Waldeck, north-west of Cassel, and the small county of Pyrmont. Corbach, on the Itter, a small town with 2,200 inhabitants, is the capital; but the prince generally resides at Arolsen. Pyrmont, a small town, of 1,100 inhabitants, 35 miles south-west from Hanover, is noted for its baths and mineral waters, which attract great number of travelers. Waldeck, which gives its name to the state, is a small town on the Eder, with a castle, six miles east of the capital. GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. 575 AREA, 617 sqUARE mILES. POPUAON, 138,000. The PRINCIPALITIES OF LIPPE are situated between Hanover and the Prussian province of Westphalia, on both sides of the Weser. LIPPE-DETMOLD, the larger of the principalities; contains several flourishing towns. Detmoldt, on the Werra, has about 3,000 inhabitants; Lemgo, 3,800; Lippstadt, (possessed in common with Prussia,) 3,200; and Horn 1,300. Near the latter is the Exterstein, a series of six immense isolated rocks, the highest of which has on its top a large artificial grotto, and another contains a chapel, also dug out of the rock. The road from Horn to Paderborn, passes between the third and fourth, as if through an immense gateway. LIPPE-SCIAUMBURG, the smaller state, contains Buckeburg,'on the Ane, which has 2,100 inhabitants; and Stadthagen, near which is a valuable coal mine, has a population of about 1,600. The possessions of the princes of Saxony, lie all contiguous, along the northern frontier of Bohemia and Bavaria; and include portions of the ancient Misnia, Lusatia, Thuringia, Vogtland and Franconia. They form five sovereign states. AREA, 5,793 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 1,809,000. The KINGDOM OF SAXONY was, until recently, divided into the five circles of Meissen, Leipzig, Erzegebirge, Vogtland and Lautsitz (Lusatia), which were irregularly sub-divided into districts and bailiwicks. It was formerly much larger, but the king was stripped of great part of his dominions for his faithful adherence to the falling fortunes of Napoleon, in 1812, and the dismantled territory was transferred to the king of Prussia. At the present time, Saxony is divided into four circles. The northern portion of the kingdom forms part of the great plain of Germany, but the southern portion rises into and includes the northern spurs and the valley of the Erzegebirge, which divide Saxony from Bohemia. The climate is dry and temperate, though in the mountains the winters are severe. The Saxons are the most industrious people of Germany, and are making great efforts to become a commercial nation. Railroads are springing up every where, and great encouragement is given to trade and manufactures. The state religion is the Lutheran, and education, conducted much after the Prussian system, well attended to. Dresden, the capital, is delightfully situated on the Elbe, at its confluence with the Weisseritz, in the middle of a large rich plain, surrounded by an amphitheatre of low hills. It is one of the first cities in Europe, and highly celebrated for the splendor of its public buildings. The king's ordinary residence is at Pillnitz, a fine palace with superb gardens, on the right bank of the Elbe, seven miles south-east of the capital; and about the same distance north-west, is the old palace of Moritzburg, once the favorite resort of the Saxon princes. Leipsic, is a well built town, in the midst of a charming country. It possesses a great number of scientific and literary institutions, and a university with a valuable library, said to be the most flourishing in Germany. Leipsic is not only a manufacturing town and great commercial mart, but ranks among the first cities of Europe. It is particularly noted for its three great annual fairs, held at New Year's, Michaelmas and Easter, each lasting 14 576 GEtRMAIC CONFEDERAtION. days, and at which, over 1,000 foreign merchants attend. It is the greatest book-selling mart in the world. The town is surrounded with delightful gardens and pastures. It was in the neighborhood of Leipsic, on the 16th, 17th and 18th October, 1813, that the great battle of the people (Vlkerschlacht) was fought, which broke the power of Napoleon, and freed Germany from the yoke of France. To commemorate this event, an annual festival, called the "Allen Deutschenfest," is kept on the 18th October; and at Prbbstheida, a small village in the centre of the field of battle, a colossal cross has been raised. AREA, 788 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 144,000. The DUCHY OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA consists of the two principalities of Gotha and Coburg in Thuringia, on the northern border of Bavaria. Gotha, the capital near the Seine, is a neat trading town with 13,000 inhabitants. It is an unexceptional town, and contains many valuable institutions. "Nature and art," says Dr. Granville, "have made of this city as fair a capital in miniature as can well be imagined." AREA, 980 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 157,000. The DUCHY OF SAXE-MEININGEN consists of a long irregular tract between Gotha and Coburg, besides several separate patches. Some few manufactures are carried on in this state. Meiningea, on the Weser, is a neat town, with 5,000 inhabitants. The duke usually resides at the castle of Elizabethenburg. Hildburghhausen, the seat of the supreme authorities of the duchy, contains about 4,000 residents. Saalfeld contains a mint. Cloth, leather and porcelain are made at Poesneck, and toys at Sonnenburg. AREA, 522 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 127,500. The DUCHY OF SAxE-ALTENBURG adjoins the western border of the kingdom of Saxony, and is divided into two portions, by Weimar and Reuss. Altenburg, on the Pleisse, is the capital, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Porcelain furnishes the great staple of industry, in this state. The duke abdicated in November, 1848, in favor of his brother George. AREA, 1,427 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 25,000 The GRAND DUCHY OF SAXE-WEIMAR consists of six or seven separate parcels of territory interspersed among the several Saxon principalities, but arranged for administrative purposes into the three provinces of WeimarJena, Neustadt and Eisenach. Weimar is the capital. This town is noted for its scientific institutions, and printing presses. The c" Geographical Ephemerides," published here, is one of the most valuable works extant, and the basis of the geographical statistics now used throughout the world. Population 12,000. Jena, Neustadt, Eisenach, &c., are considerable towns, especially the first, which has a celebrated university, and other institutions. The porcelain works and forges of Ilmenau are also celebrated. AA, 5986 sArn mu. POPmULATS, 108,800 The PRINCIPALITIES OF REUSs are held by two several branches of the same family; the elder is named Reuss-Greitz, and the younger Reuss. Schleitz, the latter being sub-divided into the two branches of Reuss-Schleits, GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. 577 and Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf. They possess a very small territory, in Upper Saxony, divided into two separate parts, immediately adjoining the south-western border of the kingdom of Saxony. The division of the family into the two existing branches took place in the year 1535, on the death of Henry Reuss, Lord of Plauen, who left three sons, two of whom were the ancestors of the present princes. AREA, 660 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 128,000. The PRINCIPALITIES OF SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSIIAUSEN and SCHWARzBURG-RUDOLSTADT comprise three distinct portions of territory, intermingled with the Saxon principalities, and the Prussian territory. Both are represented in the Diet. The principal towns are Sondershausen, at the confluence of the Beber and the Wipper, containing 3,600 inhabitants; and Rudolstadt, on the banks of the Saale, with 5,000 inhabitants. Trade and manufactures are well sustained in all the towns, and in some districts mining operations are actively engaged in. AREA, 1,022 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 158,000. The DUCHIES OF ANHALT consist of five separate portions on both sides of the Elbe, surrounded by the Prussian territory. They form three sovereign states, members of the confederation, and are distinguished as AnhaltDessau, Anhalt-Bernberg, and Anhalt-Coethen. The powers of the princes are limited, and the religion of the first is the Reformed, and of the two latter Evangelical. The principal towns are Dessau, with 10,000 inhabitants; Bernberg, with 5,000, and Coethen, with 6,000. They are chiefly employed in small manufactures; and some places in the territories are engaged in mining. AREA, 1,533 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 270,100. The DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK, belonging to the elder branch of the Bruns-. wick family, or Brunswick Wolfenbuttel, consists of a few scattered parcels of territory between Hanover and the Prussian provinces of AMagdeburg and Brandenburg, and is comprised in six districts. Brunswick, the capital, is a well built city, with 36,000 inhabitants, situated on the Ocker, and possesses several scientific and literary institutions. Wolfenbuttel, a small city with 8,000 inhabitants, is the seat of the tribunal of appeal for Brunswick, Lippe, and Waldeck, and possesses one of the richest libraries in Europe. The Duke of Brunswick also possesses the Principality of Oels, in Silesia, with 97,000 inhabitants, under the sovereignty of the king of Prussia. AREA, 14,803 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 1,790,000. The KINGDOM OF HANOVER belongs to the younger branch of the Brunswick family, called Brunswick-Luneburg. Its boundary is very irregular, and a portion on the west is almost divided from the rest of the kingdom by the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg. The surface of Hanover presents an inclined plain, gently sloping from the south-east, and nowhere, except on a few of its eminences, of a greater elevation than 200 feet above the sea. None of the hills in the central provinces exceed 1,400 feet; the Harz, in the south part of the district of Hildesheim, are the highest hills in the country. The culminating point..tie .L~r..-L-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~-;''- -- _.- - _.- ---- *- -1 -" —=, — _l ~~~~~~~~~~.. —.~, c_~ —~-~ ~-.,,. 23...... 2:,r.,... "~ -r tj —1~.i- j —--- r 5 S I i~ _ ~i- t r h Ir--==;=_'= —---— ~ —L br ---- -— lz - -- - I --- -— r- -., -- ar —-~ —--------— c: c;i:Rd;BI;IRTL' --- - -~ —---------— Y —2 ------— ciat,- — R- -I(ll.i&IYli.b;Y —"=jarB1C`6Ei Rjl;EBO';'r-j;'5 ~''~ \`; 7 -4;9YY P ICt5gCC —- I.lllillllllil ~e II I Yi%eaP3la~L'-YLILih'R JILYIIII h3 4 ~I r L —iL= — L ~ ',BsSBc,;WIPlr;3 —%16----"2- t-' i -~ .~ - "'IRi;= —"== --;;aEF~I- --—'p-__. ri`" c.- f-ifj'i: CS:,, r VEVCT AT IEXBADEN —"":' """ ^"';; EATTS —NBSSAU. 580 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. of Kionigsberg is not less than 3,300 feet, and is the highest summit in the kingdom. The northern parts are chiefly diluvial, and the lowlands on the sea coast are below the sea level, and are kept dry by means of dykes similar to those of Holland; these lands, however, are by far the most productive of the kingdom. Three-sevenths of the lands of Hanover are waste, two-sevenths forests, and the remainder arable meadow and garden lands. The waste consists of vast sandy deserts, unavailable to cultivation; this " Arabia of Germany " extends in a broad belt across the kingdom, and is covered with heath, on which a small and hardy breed of sheep find a scanty subsistence; their wool is coarse, but the flesh is well flavored. The richest lands are the alluvial soil and weald-clay, at the mouths of the Elbe and Weser; the soils of a secondary class are those of the limestone districts, and the least productive soil is that of the duchy of Aremberg-Meppen. Much of all the lands is laid out in meadow, and yields good crops of hay, or supports vast herds of cattle. Cattle-breeding is one of the principal occupations of the people. The climate is damp and unwholesome in the low countries about the coast; otherwise, Hanover is a very temperate and healthy country. The mining interests of Hanover are at a low stand, being preserved as a royalty, and controlled by an expensive establishment of officers. The manufactures of Hanover are much restricted, and all enterprise is barred by imposts, which prevents the inhabitants from extending their commerce. Most of their goods are produced at such an expense as to exclude them from the foreign markets. The commerce of Hanover, considering the facilities of harbor and river communication she enjoys, is very small. The exports consist of linens and woollens, linen yarns, flax, wool, lead, horses and cattle, the cereal grains, butter, cheese, &c., to the average amount of $6,000,000. The principal inports are English manufactures, colonial produce, wine and spirits. The merchants of Bremen and Hamburg, however, purchase large quantities of goods of Hanover for exportation, hence a share of the exports from those places may be placed to the account of this kingdom. The most populous towns are Hanover, (the capital,) 24,000 inhabitants; Hildesheim, 15,000; Gottingen, 11,000; Luneburg, 12,000; Celle, 10,300; Stade, 5,700; Oznaburg, 11,500; Emden, 12,000; Aurich, l2,000, and Clausthal, 9,100. The condition of the people is not favorable; they are subject to feudal laws and the abuses of a past age; they are chiefly confined to agriculture, and are industrious and temperate, laboring without ill-feeling for the smallest possible remuneration. They are mostly descended from the ancient Saxons, and as such speak chiefly the Low Dutch language, except in the Harz, where the people are from Upper Germany. The circumstance of the language of the laboring classes differing from that of the educated, in which all intellectual progress takes place, operates powerfully to keep back the former, and is a serious impediment to the admission of thle lower classes to a participation in the government through their representatives. The government is an hereditary monarchy, and until lately the soverigns of England were also kings of Hanover. The salic law being in force at GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. 581 the time of the accession of Queen Victoria, her claim merged into that of the Duke of Cumberland, the present king. The constitution provides for two chambers, who make all laws, which, on being approved by the sovereign, are put in force. The king has a " privy council," which advises him in all state affairs. The population, considered in respect to religious creeds, is thus divided: Lutherans, 1,356,000; Calvinists, 102,850; Roman Catholics, 212,300; Jews, 11,000; Memnonites, 1,850. Education has received considerable attention; but as before stated, it is not carried on in the dialect most familiar to the people, the instruction being given almost universally in the High Dutch tongue. The university of Gottingen is one of the most celebrated in Europe, and a few years back counted from 15 to 1900 students, but of late that number has been sadly diminished on account of the arbitrary measures of the king in expelling seven of its most illustrious professors. The total annual revenue and expenditures vibrates between the extremes of 6 and 7,000,000 rix dollars; the national debt is about 15,000,000 dollars. The king's civil list, chiefly taken from the crown lands, is 513,888 dollars. Hanover is one of the heaviest taxed countries in Germany. AREA, 2,471 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 274,050. The principal part of the GRAND DUCHY OF OLDENBURG is situated to the left of the Weser, and is surrounded by the territory of Hanover, on all sides but the north, where it borders on the North Sea. It is generally a low country, but some heights, extending along the coast, protect it from the encroachments of the waters. The land on the banks is rich and fruitful, but the rest of the country is sandy and unproductive. The Grand Duke also possesses the Principality of Lubeck, consisting of several parcels of land in Holstein, to the northward of the city of Lubeck; and the Principality of Birkenfeld, to the westward of the Rhine, adjoining the Coburg and Homburg allotments. Oldenburg, upon the Hunte, is the capital of the state. Some manufactures and considerable trade are carried on. It contains several public institutions, and a museum of antiquities. Population, 8,000. The LORDSHIP OF KNIPHAUSEN is a small territory in the north part of Oldenburg, and forms one of the sovereign states of the confederation, but without a vote in the diet; its contingent being joined with that of the surrounding state. It belongs to the Dutch family of Bentinck, who have also large possessions in Holland. Kniphausen, a castle, with about 50 inhabitants, is the metropolis; but the prince usually resides at Varel. AREA, 5,968 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 611,000. The PRINCIPALITIES OF MECHLENBURG, possessed by one of the most ancient families of Europe, comprise -1. The Grand Duchy of Mechlenburg-Schwerin; and, 2. The Grand Duchy of Mechlenburg-Strelitz. The possessions of the Mechlenburg princes are bounded on the south by Hanover and Brandenburg; on the east by Pomerania; on the west by Lubeck and Lunenburg; and on the north by the Baltic Sea. MechlenburgStrelitz is a very small state, nearly six-sevenths of the whole belonging to 582 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Schwerin. The country consists of a large sandy plain, interspersed with forests and lakes, the latter of which are numerous, particularly in the neighborhood of Strelitz. Schwerin, with 3000 inhabitants, and Strelitz, with 6000, are the respective capitals. The latter is built in the form of a star, with eight rays or streets, terminating at a common centre; and is noted for its fine collection of Sclavonic antiquities. AREA, 53 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 6,400. The PRINCIPALITY OF LICHTENSTEIN is a very small territory, lying along the right bank of the Rhine, above the Boden-see. It consists of the two lordships of Vadutz and Schellenberg. Lichtenstein, formerly called Vadutz, is the capital, and only town, with about 1,000 inhabitants. The prince's residence is at Vienna, or at his castle of Troppau, in Silesia. The HANSE-TOWNS, or free cities of Germany, now number pnly four, viz: Lubeck, Frankfort, Bremen, and Hamburg. Formerly the Hanseatic League comprised nearly all the large cities, and extended into other countries. Lubeck is built upon a hill, at the confluence of the rivers Wakenitz and Trave, to the east of Holstein. It is very much fallen from its ancient importance, but still possesses a considerable transit trade, and is the seat of the supreme court of appeals for the four free cities. Its territory occupies about 150 square miles, and contains a population of 53,500; of which one-half resides in the city. Travemund, on the Baltic, is its shipping port. Regular steamboat communication is established between it and St. Petersburg, and other places. Frankfort-on-the-Mayn occupies 90 square miles of territory, and contains 68,000 inhabitants. The city is a fine old town on the right hand of the Mayn, 20 miles east of its confluence with the Rhine. It is the capital of the German confederation. The interior of the city has of late years undergone great improvement; the fortifications have been leveled, and their site converted into promenades. The suburbs are adorned with splendid villas; and the river is lined with capacious open quays, which, in some places, are as highly ornamented as those of the Seine at Paris. Frankfort enjoys considerable trade, and its two annual fairs are still much frequented. It has long formed a favorite centre of the banking transactions of Germany. Population about 40,000, including 5,000 Jews. The executive government of the city is invested in a senate of 42 members, from whom are chosen every two years, two burgomasters. The legislative assembly is composed of 85 citizens, elected annually, and a permanent commission of 60 members superintends the finances of the state. The Jews, though enjoying otherwise equality with Christians, cannot vote at elections, or hold any public office. Water from the mountains is copiously supplied to the city through a subterraneous aqueduct. Hamburg, the greatest commercial city in Germany, lies on the right bank of the Elbe, 70 miles from the sea. The old town is a dirty, gloomy place, but the new town presents a very different appearance. None of the public buildings, however, are remarkable. The stadt-haus is a large and heavy structure; and the borsenhall, bank, admiralty, though well AUSTRIA. 583 suited for their respective purposes, exhibit nothing striking in their archi tecture. The finest church is that of St. Michael, which has a tower 460 feet high. The river, opposite the city, is divided into several channels, with intervening islands; communication is kept up by steam ferries. The government is vested in a senate of 36 members. Justice is dispensed by three graduated courts —appeal lying from the lowest to the higher. The revenue is derived from imports, taxes, and a light customs' duty, and amounts annually to about $750,000. The import trade of Hamburg is chiefly carried on by foreign vessels, and from its situation at the mouth of a navigable river of 500 miles, the city enjoys prodigious inland trade, and is necessarily the entrepot for a great part of Eastern Prussia, Saxony and other adjacent states. Manufactures of various kinds also employ the citizens. Schools and charitable institutions are well supported. Hamburg owes its independence to the mutual jealousy of its neighbors, the kings of Denmark and Prussia, neither of whom will consent to the other getting so rich a prize, though they both covet it. Population 168,000. Bremen, the ancient capital of the Hanseatic League, is situated at the confluence of the Wumme with the Weser, about 50 miles from the sea. It consists of an old and new town, on the opposite side of the Weser: the former is gloomy and Dutch; but the latter contains some elegant buildings. The dom-kirk, or cathredral, is reserved for the Lutherans, and the Calvinists, who form more than than two-thirds of the population, have four parish churches. The government of the state is vested in a supreme council the members of which are all Calvinists —the Lutherans being excluded not only from the council, but also from civic employments. Bremen has several flourishing manufactures of linens, cloths, hats, worsted stockings, tobacco, oil and glass. It is also noted for its beer, and its sugar-refineries, but its wealth and importance depend more on its immense commerce than on its manufacturing industry. Next to Hamburg it is the greatest entrepot of German trade. Population 76,000. Bremenhafen is the German depot of the United States Ocean Mail Steam-ships, which sail from New York monthly, touching at Southampton, both coming and going. A USTRIA. AREA, 258,262 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 37,593,125. The EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA is one of the largest, most populous, and most important of European states. It is situated in central and southern Eu rope; and, with the exception of a narrow strip at its southern extremity, projecting along the coast of the Adriatic, its territory forms a very compact mass. It extends from about 420 to 510 north latitude, and from about 80 30' to 26~ 30' east longitude. Its length, from lake Maggiore, in Italy, to the east frontier of Transylvania, is about 860 miles, and its breadth (exclusive of Dalmatia), from the south frontier of Croatia to the most northern point of Bohemia, about 492 miles. On the south, Austria is bounded by Turkey, the Adriatic sea, and the independent states of 684 AUSTRIA. Italy; west, by the states of the king of Sardinia, Switzerland, and Bavaria; north, by Prussia, the free city of Cracow, and Russian Poland; and east, by Russia and Moldavia. The extensive frontier of the empire, upwards of 4,250 miles in length, has the rare advantage of being defined by natural boundaries; such as mountains, large rivers, lakes, and the sea, offering favorable military positions for defence, with the exception of a portion of the frontier of Galicia, towards the Russian provinces, which is open. The Austrian empire is composed of many states, differing widely in extent and population. As the far greater part of the provinces were united under the imperial sceptre by peaceable. means,-that is, by inheritance or by treaty,-the boundaries of all remain as they existed while they formed independent states, with the exception of the Italian provinces, whose frontiers and divisions date only from 1815. The Austrian empire exhibits every variety of surface. Two grand mountain ranges, branching from the central group of the Alps, traverse it in different directions, throwing out numerous and extensive dependent branches. The first of these, which has been termed the Hercyno-Carpathian chain, divides the region of the German ocean and Baltic from those of the Black sea and Mediterranean. The second mountain range, which has much more elevated summits, and covers a larger tract of country, divides the region of the Mediterranean from that of the Black sea: it stretches from the frontiers of Switzerland and Piedmont in three chains, which, through Tyrol, run nearly parallel to each other. The length of the different mountain chains in the empire, when added together, exceeds 3,000 miles. The principal valleys ins Austria are situated in the southern provinces, and run parallel with the Alps, in the direction of west to east. They are found in Tyrol, Salzburg, Styria, and Illyria. Croatia belongs, for the greater part, to the valley of the Save; and Slavonia to the fertile vale of the Drave. Large plains are also found within the empire; they follow, for the most part, the course of the principal rivers. The Austrian empire belongs to the regions of the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, Oder, Vistula, Dniester, and Po. The Rhine forms part of the frontier of Vorarlberg, towards Switzerland from near Feldkirch, until it falls into the lake of Constance. The Danube enters the Austrian territories at Engelhardt's Zell, near Passau, where its depth is 17 feet, and its breadth 650 feet: in its course through the provinces of Upper and Lower Austria and Hungary, it receives all the waters falling from the two grand mountain ranges, described above. The Elbe has its source in Bohemia, which it traverses in a direction from north to south, being navigable for barges from Prague, after its junction with the Moldau, which is navigable from Budweis. The Oder has its source in the chain of hills which connects the Silesian mountains with the Carpathians; it leaves the Austrian states without assuming the importance of a navigable river. The Vistula is formed by the junction of two mountain streams, which fall from the Carpathians, near Jablunka. The Dniester, which rises at the north side of the Carpathians, where they branch off towards the Danube, through Transylvania, is navigable from the little town of Koniuszki, 38 miles southwest of Lemberg. In its course through Galicia, it receives fourteen streams upon its left, and six mountain-brooks upon its right bank. The AUSTRIA. 585 main channel of communication for Lombardy is afforded by the Po, which, in its course through and along the borders of the Austrian territories, receives from the Alps the Ticino, Adda, Oglio, and Mincio, besides smaller streams. The brown bear is indigenous in the Alps and the Carpathians, the wolf in both these mountain chains, and the lynx is found in all the provinces. The chamois, red and fallow deer, roebucks, and wild boars, are objects of chase. The urus and elk are sometimes found in the east Carpathians, but only as stragglers. The ibex is nearly exterminated. Herds of wild horses of a diminutive size range the Hungarian plains; and even where the improvement of the breed is attended to, they are allowed to rove almost in a state of nature. The golden eagle inhabits Slavonia, and other large species are found in the Rhetian and Noric Alps. Herons of various kinds, some of the choicest plumage, abound in the morasses of Hungary; and there also the land tortoise is found in great numbers. The same morasses furnish an abundant supply of leeches, whence they are regularly transported by means of a series of ponds, that serve as so many stations, to Paris and the west of Europe. The vegetable products comprise the different sorts of corn and of cultivated grasses found in Europe, with vines, flax and hemp, tobacco, hops, saffron, wood, some species of indigo, yellow wood or rhus cotinus, galls, and an immense variety of fruits, &c. The forests are of vast extent, and will, no doubt, come to be of great value. The mountain chains of the northern provinces and of the Alps are covered with fir, pine, beech, larch, &c. The proprietors of estates are obliged, in Austria, as all over Germany, to employ foresters, who have been educated in forest schools, and who have passed the necessary examination. Their business is to calculate exactly the quantity of timber that may be felled without diminishing the stock. The simple means at their command in back ranges of mountains are generally applied with great ingenuity to forward the felled trees to the common channels of communication. A kind of hollow railroad of timber, sloping down the side of a mountain, often several thousand yards in length, and down which the trunks of trees are precipitated, is one means of transport. The trunks are raised from a valley to the summit of a neighboring chain, over which they have to be transported, by means of ropes and pulleys, worked by a rude water-wheel temporarily erected by the woodman on a little brook; and the springs near the summits being led into a temporary reservoir on the ridge of the hills, the burden thus raised is received by it in order to be precipitated into the hollow on the other side, when the sluices confining the waters are opened. Materials for making roads abound in every province; and the art is well understood in Austria, where the roads are equal to those of Prussia. Upward of sixty mountain passes, through the most extensive ranges of mountains that any single state possesses, have been made not only practicable, but commodious for traveling and commercial purposes. The Roman Catholic is the dominant religion, but the Greek Church prevails in the eastern provinces. Calvinism is also professed by many in Hungary and Transylvania, and in the latter some Unitarians or Socinians are to be found. Mennonites, Jews, and other sectaries, are to be met with throughout the empire. The Roman Catholics number 25,704,119; 586 AUSTRIA. Greeks, 6,529,300; Protestants, 3,536,840; Jews,,667,129; all others, 48,022. The military, whose religion is not given, numbers 464,972. Every sort of occupation and official places are open to all without respect to creed. The system of primary and elementary schools in all the Austrian states is nearly uniform. In the German portion, the schools are more numerous and efficient than in Hungary, and the more remote parts of the empire. In the lowest grade of schools, the "Volks-Schulen," instruction is con. fined to reading, writing and accounts. Above these are the " Gymnasia," or high schools, for the classics and mathematics, and commercial academies in the towns; and of universities of which there are nine. The clergy have the general supervision of all schools, and the whole are regulated with a view to strict uniformity of system, and to their connection with some one or more of the religious professions recognized by the state. The present empire of Austria was founded in 1806, when the Holy Roman (German) empire having been dissolved by Napoleon, the Emperor, Francis II., assumed the new title of Emperor of Austria. The imperial family are the descendants of Francis, Duke of Lorraine, who married Maria Teresa, the eldest daughter and heiress of the Emperor Charles VI., the last male of the house of Hapsburg, and was through her influence elected emperor in 1745. Dying in 1765, he was succeeded successively by his two sons, Joseph I., who died in 1790, and Leopold I., who died in 1792. The latter was succeeded by Francis I., who was the last emperor of Germany, and first of Austria. Maria Teresa died in 1780, and was succeeded in her hereditary states by her son, the Emperor Joseph, who then became in right of his mother, king of Hungary and Bohemia, Archduke of Austria, &c. Ferdinand succeeded his father Francis in 1835, but being incapacitated for his high duties by mental and bodily weakness, the government was managed by a council until early in 1848, when the revolutionary movements compelled the members, of which Prince Clement von Metternich-Winneburg, was the most able, to absquatulate, and the governmental functions fell to the lot of a popular ministry. On the 25th of April, the emperor and his ministers promulgated a constitution, the leading features of which were sufficiently liberal. The turbulence of faction increased from this time, and the country became a scene of anarchy and disorganization, nation fighting against nation, and party against party. Cities were burnt and pillaged, and ultimately the emperor was obliged to fly from the capital and take refuge in his Sclavonic dominions. Finding himself powerless, and unable longer to cope with the disturbed state of matters, he finally abdicated his throne in favor of his nephew, Joseph Francis, son of the Arch-duke Francis Charles, on the 2d of December, 1848. The Empire of Austria embraces four principal divisions, inhabited by different races, with peculiar laws, customs and institutions. Only about one-fourth of its population is comprehended within the German Confederation, though she now seeks to include within it a great portion of her Slavic territories. The population as laid down in the chart of the "' Direction Imp6riale de la Statistique Administrative," is made up of the following elements: AUSTRIA. 587 Germans......................................................................... 7,980,820 Sclavonians..................1 1....0............................15,10,602 Italians..................................................... 5,063,575 Romano-Valaques and Moldavians.................................................. 2,686,482 Magyars.......................................................................... 5,418,773 Jews.746,89......................... 746,891 Miscellaneous races................................................................ 525.873 Total..................................................................... 37,593,125 The national debt, after deducting the effects belonging to the sinking fund, amounts at the beginning of the present year to 997,706,654 florins, the interest upon which, 54,970,830 florins, absorbs more than one-third of the revenues. The receipts for the year 1848, were 144,003,758, and the expenditures 283,864,674 florins, showing a deficite of about 140,000,000; this, however, is exceptional; the deficit for the first quarter of 1850, reaching only to 18,000,000 florins. The regular army, prior to the revolutions of 1848, consisted of about 230,000 men, which might be increased in time of war to 750,000. But so large a portion of the forces of Austria are required to keep in subjection her discontented Italian and Hungarian territories, that she could not probably detach, if unsupported by Russia, 200,000 men for effective service. The navy consists of 31 armed vessels, carrying 544 guns; 15 steamers, of which two are of 300 horse-power, the others smaller; besides gun-boats. The importance of the Austrian martime traffic can only be appreciated by referring to the extend of her sea-coast, being not more than sixty geographical miles. The contrabrand trade is very active on the frontier, and is said to amount to at least ~2,000,000 per annum. So extensive is the trade, that insurance companies will take risks at 5 to 30 per cent. for the safe delivery of goods at Prague, Vienna, and other places. The rich, well-watered plains of Lombardy and the Danube, present the unest soils in the world, and every portion of the empire is well adapted to a various agriculture. The quality of the land, and the degree of climate and elevation, are ever varying, and the eye wanders over a perpetual succession of rich crops of grain, luscious vineyards and olive groves, intermingling with the lemon, orange, and an extensive variety of the fruits peculiar to each locality. The whole country teems with agricultural wealth. The bulk of the produce consist of wheat, barley, oats, rye, peas, beans, potatoes, flax and hemp. The northern part of the empire is too cold for vines; but in the centre, the culture is extensive, and the wine is sold in large quantities for home consumption. Manufactures have, in the last and present ages, received considerable extension in the Austrian dominions. The are still on a comparatively low footing when compared with those of England and the United States: being conducted in small factories, the requisite division of labor so necessary to perfection is altogether wanting. Woolens, linens, hardware, and of late years, cottons, are made in almost every village. The ARCHDUCHY OF AUSTRIA consists of two nearly equal parts, distinguished as Upper and Lower Austria, and divided by the river Ens. Lower Austria formed the nucleus of the present empire. VIENNA, the capital of Austria and of the empire, is situated on an arm of the Danube, about 400 feet above the level of the sea. The city proper is small when compared with its suburbs. The strong fortifications which formerly surrounded the city have been razed and converted into lofty 588 AUSTRIA. gardens, which afford delightful promenades and facilities for air and exercise. The external circuit of the suburbs is 14 miles. The streets of the city are narrow, the squares small, and the houses lofty. The suburbs are not so splendidly built, but are far better laid out and more elevated. Within the narrow limits of the city, which may be walked around in 50 minutes, is contained every object of interest or importance —the palace, the offices of government, the residences of the higher classes, the best shops, the public museums, libraries and galleries, and, with one exception, all the good hotels. The Imperial Palace, an immense building of irregular form, presents, nevertheless, a rare magnificence and beauty of architecture. The churches are splendid in their grey habiliments of centuries. Vienna is most liberally supplied with scientific and charitable institutions. The University dates from 1237, and is one of the best in Europe, having 42 professors. No city in the world can supply more gratification to the antiquarian and historical students; the imperial library contains 420,000 volumes, and the museums are filled with antique and historical collections of medals, armor and other interesting objects. Vienna is likewise the most important manufacturing town in the empire, and more than 60,000 persons find employment in different branches of industry. The theatres, the opera, the restaurateurs, are all excellent. The streets are crowded with an active, bustling population, and the police regulation are admirable. Vienna has been the scene of many historical events. TYROL lies east of Switzerland and south of Bavaria, and is traversed in every direction by mountains, some of which are very high, while the low ground consists not of plains, but of a succession of long valleys, in which the climate is comparatively warm, and the soil productive in corn and wine. The ingenuity of the people in cultivating the slopes is admirable. Minerals are abundant but not sought for; and spinning, knitting and weaving are the only species of manufacture known. The Tyrolese are great sportsmen, and despise the restraints of civilized life. They have ever been good soldiers and faithful adherents to the imperial house. Their language is German. The ILLYRIAN COAST consists chiefly of the peninsula of Istria, with a small portion of adjoining territory. Its surface towards the sea is low and marshy, rising inland into bare and rocky mountains. The fig, the mulberry and olive flourishes around Trieste; and in the valleys, the people devote themselves to feeding silk worms. The hills, with one exception, are rarely above 200 feet high, but are heaped together in a strange and fantastic manner, with the most singular and continually varying forms, exhibiting everywhere the most picturesque landscape. This territory forms the government of Trieste, a second division of the kingdom of Illyria. Trieste, situated at the south-east corner of the gulf to which it gives its name, at the head of the Adriatic sea, is a most important commercial town. There is nothing very remarkable in the conveniences or appearance of the city. The exchange and theatre are good buildings, and there are some excellent schools and charitable institutions. Population, about 76,000. BOHEMIA, or Bohmen, (the country of the Boii, who possessed it prior to the Christian era,) is comprised in a large valley surrounded on every side by lofty mountains. Its form is that of an irregular square. About AUSTRIA. 589 one-third of the people are Germans, and the majority remaining are of Sclave origin, and named Tchekkes or Czeches. The Germans conduct all the trade and manufactures, while the Tchekkes limit their industry to agriculture. The middle classes speak both the German and Tchekkish languages, but the lower classes use the latter, particularly in the more remote districts. The Bohemians, however, have determined to restore it to its proper place as the public language, and have induced the government to consent to the establishment of academies and institutions for the encouragement of Bohemian literature. The sovereignty has been held by Austria since 1526, and the Bohemians are perhaps the most faithful of the Emperor's subjects. There are, however, provincial states, but their proper powers have been all but nominal. Bohemia contributes full $10,000,000 to the imperial revenue. Area, 20,000 square miles. Prague, the capital of the kingdom of Bohemia, situated on the Moldau, near the centre of Bohemia, is a large and generally well-built town, with a population exceeding 130,000. Prague is divided into four parts: the Alstadt and Neustadt, on the right bank of the river, and the Kleinseite and Hradschin, on the left. The Aldstadt, (old town,) the original Prague, contains the buildings of the university, archbishopric and municipality; the principal churches and public edifices; the theatres and all the best shops. It is the district of trade and general business, and its narrow streets and grand open irregular "' Place," are crowded with a dense and active population. The Neustadt, (new town,) separated from the Alstadt only by a wide street on the site of the ancient ditch, has generally spacious and rectangular streets, but the houses are poor, and the residences of mechanics and the laboring classes. The Kleinseite, (small side,) which occupies a small level space on the bank of the river, is the aristocratic district, and contains the palaces of the ancient Bohemian nobles, and on a lofty ridge rising about it is the Hradschin, containing the vast palace of the Bohemian kings, and several other magnificent buildings. The principal buildings worthy of notice are the Palace, the town house, archiepiscopal seminary, military hospital, the cathedral, a large building of great antiquity, several other churches and palaces, and the two fine bridges across the Moldau, which is here nearly a third of a mile in width. There are several scientific and literary institutions, the principal of which is the university, of great celebrity in the middle ages, and recently restored. There are also considerable manufactures of various kinds, and the city is the principal depot for the trade of the kingdom. GALICIA formed part of the kingdom of Poland, and in its physical aspect resembles the rest of that country, consisting of a succession of plains, with few elevations, except in the south, where it is bordered by the Carpathian mountains. The country is drained by the Dniester, the Pruth, and the San; and the Vistula bounds it on the northwest. The climate is temperate, and even warm. The chief products are grain and wine, and the pasturage is extensive. Agriculture, however, is in a backward state, and the peasantry, until lately serfs, have still the indolent habits of the slave. The KINGDOM OF HUNGARY, (including the provinces of Sclavonia and Croatia,) has well-defined boundaries; the greater portion being formed by the Carpathian Mountains, and by various branches of the Alps, which, extending into the interior to a considerable distance, form a number of r' ~ ~~= -- - = — - =L- --- =- - - j —=- - A - - - --— S~~~~~~- -- by- -_ --- - -- --- r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- _~~~~~~~JIiC _~7~ _B~1i14 _ _ -, ------- - 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-i i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1'....;r~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~S ~ ~VEV~O HIED.NU~-DUNTI -~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ri~..~~i-.c ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~,,.,. C~kEP~OFADESBI~-_~S-iIA 592 AUSTRIA. beautiful valleys, watered by fine rivers and streamlets, which diversify the landscape. On the mountains the soil is dry and sterile; on the terraces, which surround them, it is moderate in fertility; and a considerable portion of the plains consist of deep sand, easily worked, and yielding average crops. The climate of Hungary varies considerably with locality. The products of the higher grounds, which are cold and raw, are oats, barley, and rye; in the plains, where the climate is essentially that of latitude, wheat and maize; and in the alluvial soil of the rivers, rice. The cultivation of the vine is carried on extensively; and also hemp, flax and tobacco. The natural pastures are excellent, and prodigious flocks of sheep feed on the plains, between the Danube and the Theiss. Swine are also abundant; and about 300,000 are annually exported. The Magyars constitute the dominant race; but there are various tribes and colonies of German and Sclavonic origin. The aristocracy and nobility are Magvars. This race forms at least one-third the population, and inhabits chiefly the central districts, while the mountainous ranges are left to the Sclaves. The people are divided into nobles, citizens, and peasants. The nobles are divided into two classes, one of which, the "Magnates," bear titles corresponding to those of the Peers of England; while the other class, comprising the great body of the nobles, are only " Eidelmen," or squires. The magnates have personally a seat and vote in the Diet, and in this respect differ from the Eidelmen, who are entitled to appear only by their representatives. The higher clergy are also considered as nobles. The estates of the Magnates are entailed, and descend to the eldest son, with few exceptions; but, generally, the estates of the inferior nobles are divided among all the sons, the result of which is to produce a swarm of poor nobles, by whom the country is literally infested. The citizens or burghers are the inhabitants of those towns that hold directly of the crown; and their privileges, collectively, are nearly similar to those of the nobility. The peasants generally are serfs, but as such their condition is modified, and they may of their own will become burghers, and are allowed to sell or bequeath their farms. These privileges were granted by Maria Theresa; but, as a counterpoise, the peasants are the only parties who pay taxes, tithes, or are liable to have soldiers quartered on them. Indeed, it may be said, that they alone bear the public burdens of the state. Four Christian sects enjoy equal civil rights, and have similar legal establishments. These are the Roman Catholic church, the orthodox Greek church, and the Protestants adhering to the two confessions of Augsburg and Ge neva. The great bulk of the people, however, are Roman Catholics, who are divided into two classes: one of which uses the Latin ritual, and the other the Greek, from which circumstance they are called the United Greeks. The government is a feudal sovereignty, vested in a hereditary king or queen, and a diet, composed of the magnates and ecclesiastics, and representatives of the minor nobility, citizens and burghers. The crown at present belongs to Austria; but in case of a failure of heirs it is to be disposed of by the diet. Productive industry in Hungary, in all its departments, is in a very primitive state. Agriculture is not known as a science, and all farming implements are rude and uncouth. Rotation of crops is never thought of. AUSTRIA. 593 Barley is rarely found in any part of the country, and green crops, except amongst a few agriculturists who have adopted a better system, are com pletely neglected. The manufactures are alike in an infant state. Buda, the capital, is situated on the right bank of the Danube, near the centre of the kingdom. As a town it has little to recommend it, but an imposing appearance from the river, being built partly at the base and partly along the ascent of a range of low but picturesque hills, which open into a sort of glen. It contains the Palatine's palace, the arsenal, the alaces of several magnates, and the observatory of the university of Pesth, uilt upon the Blocksberg. The town is commanded and overlooked by the castle, a grave, stern and feudal-looking pile, in which is deposited the palladium of Hungary, the crown consecrated by Pope Sylvester, and presented by him to the King St. Stephen, A. D. 1000. Buda communicates by a bridge of boats with Pesth, an elegant modern town, in a low sandy plain, built on a regular plan, with every attention to architectural propriety, and containing wide, clean, well paved streets, shops amply furnished with goods, many handsome public edifices, and a fine quay, which extends for a mile along the Danube. The Magyars made their first appearance in Hungary, A. D. 894, under a leader named Almus; and by the year 900, the people who then possessed it were extirpated or subdued by him or his son Arphad. This chief and his descendants assumed the title of duke, and in the year 973, Duke Geysa, and some thousands of his chief people, embraced the Christian faith. Waik, the son of Geysa, assumed at his baptism the name of Stephen, and for his success in converting his subjects, and extirpating heathenism, was canonized after his death. He sent an embassy to the Pope, Sylvester II., from whom he obtained a crown, the one so carefully preserved, with the royal title; and thus commenced the kingdom of Hungary, in A. D. 1000. Stephen founded numerous churches, convents, and schools. He is said likewise to have given the Magyars a political constitution, but his laws are all lost or forgotten. The crown remained with the family of Arphad till the 14th centuiy. At length, in 1527, the Archduke FEerdinand, of Austria, was elected king, and his descendants have possessed the kingdom ever since. TRANSYLVANIA lies to the south-east of Hungary, adjoining Wallachia and Moldavia, and has an area exceeding 20,000 square miles. Its surface is very diversified, consisting alternately of mountains and valleys, intermixed with numerous small hills. The climate is unstable, and the seasons extreme. The soil is generally poor, badly cultivated, but it is well watered and finely adapted for the cultivation of the vine. The forests are very extensive, and occupy more than one-third part of the country. Minerals are abundant, and as various in character. The gold mines are in the south-west, and are particularly interesting as being the richest in tellurium of any in Europe. The MILITARY FRONTIER is a long and narrow tract of country, extending from the Bukowine, in the east, to the shores of the Adriatic, on the west. When the successes of Prince Eugene had obliged the Turks to cede the country to Austria, a constitution adapted to a frontier country was framed for it, and has ever since continued in force. The inhabitants, instead of paying taxes, are obliged to give personal service in the field. 38 594 AUSTRIA. Every man is liable to military duty, and has assigned to him a certain portion of land, which is cultivated by his family, but the ground belongs to the government, and the occupants are merely tenants in common. They form in short a great military colony, and are governed by military officers. Every man in his turn is obliged to take the out-post upon the frontier, along the military cordon, established to protect the country against the predatory incursions of the Turks, and the entrance of persons suspected of the plague. Along the whole line guard-houses have been built, sufficiently near to communicate with each other, and when a river intervenes they are built on pontoons. Each guard-house is large enough to domicile twelve men, who keep a sharp lookout during the day from its top, and at night push forward their sentries, and so dispose them that each shall be within easy hail of those to the right and left. Behind this chain are the guard-houses of the officers, furnished with bells and other means of alarm, whereby, in case of extreme danger, the inhabitants of the whole line might be under arms in less than four hours. No traveler can pass the line without presenting himself at the nearest station. The consequence of this extreme vigilance is that no commercial intercourse takes place between Austria and Turkey, but at certain points fixed upon for the purpose; and that smugglers and plague-infected persons can only pass by eluding the notice of the guards or forcing the sentries. Peterwaradein, the capital of the Military Frontier, is a strong fortress, built on an isolated hill, on the south bank of the Danube, 170 miles S. by E. of B1uda. It is a most formidable military position, its batteries sweeping every approach by land and water, and is so extensive as to be capable of receiving a garrison of 10,000 men. The KINGDOM OF DALMATIA consists of a long narrow tract of mountainous country and a number of large islands along the north-eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. The mountains are covered with forests, and there are also beautiful and fertile valleys. The agricultural products, maize, vines, olives and silks, are proofs of a genial climate. The country is rich in iron mines and marble quarries, but as yet they have been little wrought. No part of Europe abounds more in good harbors. t The city of CRACOW is situated on the left bank of the Vistula, in a beautiful valley. It has a number of fine buildings, but the streets are narrow, irregular, and ill-paved. Its cathedral, regarded as the finest and most interesting church of Poland, contains the tombs of the kings and great statesmen of the kingdom, from Boleslaus the Frisian, and Casimir the Just, to Joseph Poniatowski and Thaddeus Kosciusko. The ancient royal castle was for some time occupied as barracks, and is now possessed, in part, by a benevolent society; and the bishop's palace is at the present the finest in the city. The university is one of the most 2ncient in Europe, and possesses a rich library and botanic garden. PRUSSIA. 595 PRUSSIA. AREA, 108,214 SQUARE MnLEs. POPULATION, 16,331,187. THE principal part of the Prussian dominions lies continuously along the southern shore of the Baltic, between Russia and Mecklenburg, comprising the northern part of what was formerly Poland, and most part of the north of Germany. The inland frontier of this part of the monarchy on the east and south is sufficiently connected; but on the west side it is very ragged, some small independent states being almost entirely surrounded by the Prussian dominions. But exclusive of this principal portion, there is an extensive Prussian territory on both sides of the Rhine, divided into the provinces of Westphalia and Rhine. This portion is separated from the rest of the monarchy, or from what may be called the eastern states, by Hesse Cassel, part of Hanover, Brunswick, &c. The canton of Neufchhtel, in Switzerland, and some detached territories in Saxony, also belong to Prussia. The disjointed state of the dominions of Prussia detracts materially from her power. The possession of Warsaw gives Russia a position whence she may attack the very centre of the monarchy. An alliance with Savoy would bring an Austrian army within a few days' march of Berlin; and the Rhenish provinces are exposed to be overrun by France. The government, aware of the weakness occasioned by the circumstances now alluded to, have systematically labored to give a more compact form to its dominions.. East Prussia abounds with lakes and morasses, and nearly one-fourth of the whole surface of the country is still covered by forests. Only certain portions near the rivers, and other peculiar situations, can be considered as fertile, or even tolerable soils. The most productive corn land is in the vicinity of Tilsit; and some other parts of East Prussia, and the greater part of Posen, are also productive. The whole central portion of West Prussia, along the Vistula, is an excellent corn country. Silesia, to the east of the Oder, forms a large, slightly undulating plain; but the western portion is more unequal, and rises, towards the south-west, into high mountains. It contains also several extensive meadows and marshes. In Brandenburg the land is low and sandy, frequently inundated, and a great many marshes and small lakes are formed in the neighborhood of the rivers. This province is well-wooded, and some districts are celebrated for the quantity and quality of their grain. Pomerania is mostly formed of lands gained of the sea, and of alluvial deposits; a great part is covered with forests and heaths, and it is only the banks of rivers and lakes that admit of profitable cultivation. In Saxony, Magdeburg, and Thuringia, the soil is favorable for all kinds of grain, and these provinces may be considered as the granaries of the kingdom. The western provinces are far less fertile than the eastern part of the kingdom. Westphalia has little productive soil, and the Rhenish districts are only tolerably fertile. The rivers which run through Prussia, from the highlands of Central Europe to the North Sea and Baltic, form so many valuable outlets of 596 PRUSSIA. commerce. The Niemen, the Vistula, and the Oder, the latter of which is wholly within Prussia, are the largest and most important. The Elbe and the Rhine also pass through Prussia, but debouch from other states. The climate is generally temperate and healthy, but many natural causes except localities form this statement. On the borders of the Baltic the winters are severely cold, and the weather changeable, raw, and foggy. The interior is milder and less variable. The Germans form the preponderating race in the kingdom; but in Silesia, Posen, and the Prussias, the people are of Sclavonic origin, and speak various dialects of the Sclave tongue. In East Prussia there are about 50,000 Lithuanians, who retain their peculiar language; and there are some Wendens or Vandals in Pomerania, East Prussia, and Brandenburg, who also have a distinct language. The Jews are most numerous in Posen, and number altogether about 170,000. All creeds are equal in the eye of the law, though the Evangelical may be considered in some respects as the religion of the state. The system of education in Prussia is the most complete ever established. It is the model on which all other systems are, or ought to be framed; and, indeed, Prussia is now quoted as the standard in reference to the degree of education possessed by other states. The instruction of all classes is carefully provided for, and the law compels all parents to send their children to school. Every parish is bound to have an elementary school, and every town to have one burgh school, or more, according to its population. Above these are gymnasia, synonymous with academies, and in these institutions classical learning and mathematics are pursued, preparatory to admission into the universities, of which there are seven, viz: those of Berlin, Breslau, Halle, Bonn, Konigsberg, Munster, and Greifswald. Normal schools provide proper teachers for these several grades, and in some cases pecuniary assistance is given to poor scholars of good promise. The lower schools are usually supported by the towns and villages, or by school associations; and the gymnasia and the other similar establishments from the general funds of the state, or the province in which they are situated. The normal schools are partly supported by the state, and partly by the departmental funds for schools. The universities are either endowed and have funds of their own, or their expenses are borne by the general fund of the nation. A minister of public instruction superintends the whole. Besides the universities, there are theological academies for the Catholics, Lutherans, and Moravians. There are also establishments for the study of medicine and the collateral sciences, the military profession, and other general objects. The blind, and deaf and dumb, are munificently provided for. The national collections of natural history, philoso phical and astronomical apparatus, and the public libraries, are placed on a very liberal footing, and are all accessible to any person who chooses to avail himself of their assistance. Until very recently the government was an unlimited monarchy, vested in a king. In 1846, however, the king promulgated a species of a constitution, and the first constitutional diet was inaugurated at Berlin, 11th April, 1847, but this was suddenly dissolved on the 26th June, its pro ceedings having infringed on the prerogatives the king was anxious to reserve to himself. PRUSSIA. 597 The ancestors of the reigning family were a branch of the Hohenzollern family in Swabia; afterwards margraves of Brandenburg, and electors and arch-chamberlains of the Holy Roman Empire in Germany; all of which dignities were bestowed upon them by the Emperor Sigismund, in the years 1415 and 1417. In 1594 the duchy of Prussia was united to the electorate by the marriage of the elector, John Sigismund, with the heiress of the last duke of Prussia. Various accessions were subsequently made, and at length the elector Frederick III. obtained from the emperor the royal dignity and title of king of Prussia. Frederick the Great, who ascended the throne in 1740, and died in 1786, acquired Silesia by conquest from Austria, and a part of Poland at the first dimemberment of that kingdom. A larger portion was acquired in 1795, and in 1815 the present limits of the kingdom were determined by the congress of Vienna, and the king invested with a degree of power and political importance which he did not previously possess. The finances are in a very healthy condition. According to the budget of 1850, the amount of the revenue was 91,338,439 crowns; the ordinary expenses of government, including the sinking fund of the public debt, of two and a half millions, were 90,974,293 crowns, to which is to be added expenses extraordinary and accidental, to the amount of 4,925,213, showing a deficit of 4,561,158 crowns. The public debt, of every description, including treasury notes, not bearing interest, is 187,160,272 crowns, of which the interest amounts to 4,885,815, absorbing less than one-eighteenth of the public revenues. The army, upon a peace footing, consist of 121,100 regular troops, and 96,100 Landwehr of the first class, forming a total of 217,200. Upon the war footing the numbers are augmented to 528,800. The Landwehr is divided into two classes, the first embracing every Prussian between the ages of twenty and thirty-two, not serving in the standing army, and constitutes an army of reserve, not called out in time of peace except for drill, in the autumn; but called into active service upon the breaking out of war. The whole country is divided into arrondissements, and no one belonging to the Landwehr can leave that to which he belongs without permission of the sergeant-major. In every considerable town depots of stores are established, sufficient to provide for this force, and a staff under pay, so that they may be at once organized. When assembled for drill, the Landwehr receive the same pay as the regular army. When ordered beyond their own arrondissement, their families become the legal wards of the magistracy, who are bound to see that they are provided for. The Landwehr of the second class consists of all from thirty-two to forty years who have quitted the first class. To them, in case of war, garrison duty is committed. The Landsturm, or levy en masse, embraces all Prussians between the ages of seventeen and fifty, not belonging to either of the above classes; this forms the final resource of the country, and is called out only in the last extremity. Until lately the manufacturing industry of Prussia was confined to domestic articles; but the introduction of railways and the erection of large factories have now carried the production beyond the demand for home consumption. The old practice of home weaving is still, however, extensively pursued among the agricultural families. Weaving, however, is chiefly confined to four materials, viz: flax, cotton, wool and silk. But 598 PRUSSIA. besides what is spun at home Prussia imports largely from Great Britain. Wool is principally supplied from their own flocks, and generally only the coarse kinds are consumed at home, while the fine descriptions are exported via Hamburg to England and other countries. Linen is the largest manufacture —much larger than that of woolens, but the latter is being rapidly increased. Berlin is the centre of the iron manufactures, and has become celebrated for ornamental works in that material. Paper is also largely manufactured, and is furnished in sufficient quantities for home consumption. Leather is made to the full extent of the demand, and copper and brass wares for all domestic purposes. Tobacco, snuff, sugar, soap, candles, cabinet ware, earthen ware, porcelain, tin goods, and almost every article of common use, are manufactured within the kingdom. The establishments for brewing and distilling are very.numerous. In the large cities the type-founders, printers, engravers, musical, optical and mathematical instrument makers, gold and silver smiths, jewellers, watch makers and other artificers, are as numerous and as skillful as in any of the other continental states. Foreign commerce is not so extensive as might be inferred from the facilities of the country, owing no doubt to the restrictions with which it has hitherto been loaded. Prussia possesses no searports but on the Baltic, and as none even of these are calculated to receive large ships, there is very little trade carried on by Prussia beyond the limits of Europe. The commerce by land and by internal navigation is principally with Austria and Russia. From Austria the Prussians receive salt and wine and send linen yarn in exchange. From Russia they import hemp, corn, hides, tallow and other raw produce, and send in return both linen and woolen cloths. The Rhenish provinces carry on an extensive trade with Belgium, Holland and the neighboring German states. The roads throughout Prussia, as in the rest of Germany, were formerly very little calculated for carriage-traveling; but of late years, excellent roads have been built between the important towns, though in the more remote districts they still remain little better than tracks. Many of the rivers have been connected by canals; and railroads now extend through the chief commercial cities, and unite the western portion of the kingdom with the systems of Belgium, France, &c. The kingdom is divided into eight provinces, which are again divided into 25 governments, subdivided into 328 circles. BERLIN, the capital of the kingdom, and official residence of the government, is situated on the banks of the Spree, in the midst of a sandy plain. The nucleus or centre of the city, is formed by the old town, which is divided into three portions by two branches of the river, and surrounded by a ditch, which alone marks the old ramparts. Extensive suburbs occupy three sides of the town. On the west side a new town has been built, on a regular plan, with long, straight, and spacious streets, interspersed with " places" of various forms. The whole city and suburbs are' now nearly enclosed by a high wall, in which there are 15 gates. Few of the houses exceed three stories, and are built with just enough of uniformity to show variety of taste amidst general sameness. The principal street, named "Unter-den-Linden," extends in a straight line, east and west, from the Schloss-brucke (palace-bridge) to the Brandenburg gate, a distance of PRUSSIA. 599 more than a mile, with a width of nearly 100 yards, divided into five roads by four rows of trees, and lined on each side by magnificent houses and public buildings. The schloss, or palace, stands in the centre of an island formed by the Spree; but, as a building, is more remarkable for its extent than splendor. The museums, libraries, university, the arsenal, churches, and several of the gates, are good buildings, but there is something wanting to attract the eye. All is taire, and perhaps nothing is worth the traveler's notice except the Brandenburg-gate, which consists of a much-admired pile of Grecian columns and lodges, built in imitation of thefropylea of the Athenian Acropolis, and surmounted by a bronze figure of Victory on a quadriga. The porcelain factory, however, attracts great attention; and, certainly, it is a most magnificent establishment, and worthy of its royal )wner. Postdam is a large and fine, but desolate town, on the banks of the Havel, where the water is dammed up, and forms a spacious artificial lake. It seems to be one huge barrack, and scarcely a living being is seen without the Prussian uniform. Yet Potsdam is an interesting town, for it contains the tomb of Frederick the Great, whose spirit seems diffused over, within and around every thing. The tomb is a plain sarcophagus, in the garrison church, overshadowed with the flags and eagles taken from the French in the last war. In the environs is the Palace of Sans Souci, the New Palace, and the Marble Palace. Magdeburg, on the left bank of the Elbe, is the citadel of Prussia, and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe. Halle is a busy, old-fashioned city, and is particularly noted for the activity of its printing-presses. It is the seat of one of the most famous of European universities, and has a multiplicity of scientific and literary establishments. Breslau has an extensive commerce, and contains a university and other institutions. It is one of the strongest of the Prussian fortresses. Population, 86,000. Konigsberg, the capital of Prussia proper, lies on the Pregel, not far from its mouth, in the Frische-haf. The town is large, and regularly built, but old-fashioned. It is the seat of a university, and has a famous observatory, and numerous scientific establishments. It carries on a considerable trade through Pillau, which may be considered as its port. Population, 64,000. Dantzick stands in a fine situation, on the left bank of the most westerly branch of the Vistula, near the sea. It is an ancient city, and, until 1795, was a free town, governed by its own laws and magistrates, under the protection and sovereignty of Poland. It enjoys considerable trade in exporting the raw produce of Poland and Eastern Prussia. It is surrounded by strong fortifications, 21 miles in circuit, and has four gates, 19 bastions, and forts and redoubts on the Hail-Stolpen and Bishop's Mounts adjoining. It has endured several memorable sieges. Population, 63,000. Cologne is a large and very ancient city, on the left bank of the Rhine. It is about seven miles in circuit, surrounded with strong ramparts, and is connected by a bridge of boats with Deutz, which is also strongly fortified, and forms part of the system of the fortifications of the city. Cologne contains many churches, noted for their beauty and antiquity. The cathedral is the most magnificent specimen of Gothic architecture in Germany. ~ ----— __ *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:. X _~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~ —_. —___ _~~~~~ELSNR,. _..... _....~-= c~=-==-~ —; —~ - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- C = —- ~ ~~~~~~ - -~ 602 DENMARK. It contains a relic, which is highly valued, in the skulls of the three Magi, or Wise lMen, who visited our infant Saviour at Bethlehem. They are decorated with gilt jeweled crowns, and their names are affixed in ruby characters. The church of St. Ursula is lined with the bones of 11,000 British virgins, who fled with that saint, and landing near the mouth of the Rhine, found their way to Cologne, where they preferred death to the dishonor which awaited them from the Pagan inhabitants. These and the other churches contain the imperishable master-pieces of the old painters, which form the great attraction to all strangers. Aix-la-Chapelle, an ancient imperial city, is situated in a valley nearly surrounded by hills, and has long been noted and much resorted to for its mineral waters. It consists of several respectable, with many dirty and confined streets; and contains several churches, which, from their antiquity and various ornaments, deserve to be visited; but the two most interesting buildings are the town house and cathedral, the latter of which, or at least a part of it, was built by Charlemagne, and contains his tomb; but his earthly particles have disappeared. He was not buried, but placed in a white marble chair, with his imperial robes and crown, in the year 814. After a lapse of two centuries the vault which contained these precious relics was opened by the Emperor, Otho III., who carried off the ensigns of royalty to be used at the coronation of future emperors. It was opened in 1165, a second time, by Barbarossa, who transferred the body to a splendid sarcophagus, and placed.the chair in the church, where it is still preserved. The sarcophagus is now empty, but how or when it became so, is not known; though a skull and an arm bone, said to be those of Charlemagne, are still found in the reliquiary of the church. DENMARK. AREA, 49,927 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 1,800,000. THIS kingdom comprises Denmark proper, or Jutland, and several adjacent islands, and Schleswick and Holstein in Germany. It is bounded on the west and north by the North Sea or German Ocean; on the east by the sounds which form the entrance of the Baltic; on the south by the Elbe. The surface of Denmark is nearly flat; forming, with the exception of Holland, the lowest part of the great plain of Northern Germany. The islands, in particular, in many places, rise only a few feet above the level of the sea. The soil, as in the rest of this plain, is frequently sandy and marshy; the climate humid, though not liable to those severe frosts which prevail in the interior of Scandinavia. Hence it affords good pasturage, and its soil is favorable to the growth of the coarser species of grain. The insular and peninsular character of her territory gives Denmark an extent of coast which certainly does not fall short of 600 miles; and there is said to be no part of the land more than ten miles distant from the sea. This structure leaves no room for the formation of any rivers of the least consequence. DENMARK. 603 During the early period of the middle ages, the swarms of pirates sent forth by Denmark spread desolation and terror to the remotest extremities of Europe. Canute, king of Denmark, even ascended the English throne in 1017. Denmark, at the same time, carried on frequent wars against the contiguous districts of Germany and Poland, and often held sway over large portions of them. But her most brilliant erawas the reign of Margaret of Waldemar, surnamed the Semiramis of the North, who, by her courage, popularity, and address, succeeded in effecting the union of Calmar, which placed on her head, and on that of her nephew Eric, the crown of the three northern kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. The decline of Denmark began in the thirteenth century, under the violent and tyrannical reign of Christian I. The sanguinary course by which he sought to punish an insurrection of the Swedes roused all the dormant spirit of that brave people, who found a deliverer in Gustavus Vasa, and were finally freed from the Danish yoke. During the two following centuries, Sweden, led to victory by a succession of heroic monarchs, rose to the highest pitch of military glory; while Denmark, always defeated, was stripped of many of her most important territories, and sunk into the rank of a secondary state. Still she successfully cultivated maritime commerce and shipping, and obtained some valuable possessions in the East and West Indies. In the great crisis produced by the conquests of Napoleon, Denmark was thrown into an unfortunate predicament. Placed, as it were, at the point of collision between France and Russia, she could with difficulty escape being crushed between them. Circumstances of peculiar hardship threw her into the arms of France, to whose cause she adhered, and, at the great contest which ended at the downfall of Napoleon, she became a victim. First, she was deprived of Norway, that it might be ceded to Sweden, and that Russia might retain Finland. Denmark received in return Swedish Pomerania as an inadequate compensation. Next, she was required to exchange Pomerania for Lauenburg, a territory of still inferior extent and value; but, as it borders on Schleswick and Holstein, it has rendered her dominion more compact, and extended her frontier to the Elbe, so that she is perhaps rather a gainer by the exchange. The agriculture of Denmark is conducted under considerable disadvantages both of climate and soil. The climate, though not subject to severe frost or intense cold, is chill and damp; and the land consists in a great measure of sand and marsh. Every part of the kingdom, however, is capable of some cultivation, and occasional tracts of luxuriant fertility occur. The farmers of Holstein and Schleswick carry on the process of cultivation with great skill and activity. The chill moisture of the climate is less favorable to the cultivation of wheat than of barley, rye, and oats; all of which afford a large surplus for exportation. The rearing of cattle is also an extensive branch of industry, though too little attention has been paid to the improvement of the breeds, unless on the west coast of Schleswick, on whose moist and rich meadows is produced what bears a high reputation under the name of " Hamburg" beef. Over all Denmark, the produce of the dairy forms the basis of a large export trade. The manufactures of Denmark are extremely rude, and consist chiefly in working up the flax and wool of the country in a coarse form for domestic use. A great proportion also of the wool is exported. Government 604 DENMARK. have employed great efforts to raise Denmark to the rank of a manufac turing country; and some fabrics in the different kinds of cloth, brandy, sugar-refining, &c., have, under its patronage, been set on foot in large towns; but these are all languishing, and with difficulty support foreign competition. The commerce of Denmark is in a more active state than the other branches of industry; though it is still not such as to give her a prominent place among the powers of Europe. The basis consists in the exportation of its raw produce. Denmark, from its situation between the northern and middle states, has a considerable carrying trade of the bulky articles produced by the former; and has also a good deal of ship-building. Both the whale and herring fisheries are likewise carried on to some extent. The constitution of Denmark, originally founded on the basis of the most complete feudal independence, to the extent of rendering the monarchy itself elective, underwent a complete change in 1660, when Frederick III. had the address to obtain an act by which the crown was declared hereditary, and himself invested with supreme and absolute power. The sway of the Danish princes has, however, been exceedingly mild and popular, and their despotic power exerted in a manner beneficial to the people, as it limited the oppressive rights exercised by the nobles. These, however, continue to be extremely obnoxious; and it is only within a very few years that the body of the people were emancipated from a state of personal slavery. The nobles are few in number, consisting only of one duke, nineteen counts, and twelve barons. The king himself presides at the supreme national tribunal. The revenue amounts to from about $7,500,000 to $8,000,000. There is a nominal debt of $75,000,000; but the interest paid upon it is small. The military and naval establishments are on a scale suited to a greater country than what remains of Denmark. The Danes are generally quiet, tranquil, and industrious. The inhabitants of the towns, who are chiefly engaged in trade, have a great share of the patient, thrifty, and persevering habits of the Dutch. The peasantry, poor and oppressed, are beginning, however, to raise their heads; and the nobles, no longer addicted to those rude and daring pursuits which rendered them once so formidable, live much in the style of opulent proprietors in other European countries. The Lutheran religion was early and zealously adopted in Denmark, to the extent, indeed, of granting toleration to no other; but the liberal principles now diffused throughout Europe, have made their way fully into that country. Science was at one era somewhat brilliantly patronized in Denmark. The observatory at Orienbaum was-the theatre of many of the most important modern observations; and Tycho Brahe ranks as one of the fathers of modern astronomy. (Elenschlager and other writers have introduced a school of poetry and dramatic literature, founded upon that of the modern German. The government has bestowed a laudable attention on the general education of its people, and has even passed a law, requiring every child, of a certain age, to be sent to school. COPENHAGEN, the capital of Denmark, is situated on the east coast of Zealand, with the island of Amak opposite to it, and several little lakes in DENMARK. 605 its vicinity. Its walls enclose a circuit of five miles, a great part of which, however, is covered with open spaces, and with the harbor and docks. The houses, with a few exceptions, are built of brick, plastered over and painted in different colors. The number of inhabitants is about 115,000; the houses are lofty, and contain many families in each. The city is divided into three parts; the old town, which contains the greater part of the population; the new town, in which are all the finest edifices; and the port, or Christian's Haven. In the midst of the principal square is the bronze statue of Frederick V., weighing 45,000 pounds. This square, with the adjoining one called the King's Mark Place, surrounded by the palace of Charlottenborg, the theatre, the principal hotel, and other statelybuildings, forms the handsomest part of Copenhagen. The cathedral was destroyed during the bombardment by the English, and is left in ruins; but the Frue Kirke is an elegant Grecian edifice, 215 feet by 180, with a Doric portico, and for which Thorwaldsen has executed a statue of the apostles and evangelists. The palace of Rosenborg, though now unoccupied, contains an extraordinary display of jewels, precious stones and porcelain. The collections in science and art are equal to those of the greatest capitals. The king has a library of 400,000 volumes, with numerous manuscripts, illustrative of the history and literature of the north, as well as those brought by Niebuhr from the east; an extensive museum of northern antiquities; a gallery of pictures, comprising some fine specimens'of the greatest masters, and a numerous collection of engravings. The university of Copenhagen, a highly respectable institution, has a valuable library of about 100,000 volumes, and an excellent collection of northern manuscripts. The arsenal is said to equal that of Venice in beauty, and to surpass it in extent. The mint throws off 200 pieces in a minute. *The other towns in Zealand and the islands, are of comparatively small magnitude. Roschild, the ancient capital of Denmark, which contained once thirty convents and thirty churches, is now remarkable only for its Gothic cathedral, in whose vaults are deposited the remains of the kings of Denmark. Several of the monuments are fine. Elsinore, with its castle of Cronborg, is important from its situation on the Sound, which being commanded by the castle, the government is enabled to levy what are called the Sound dues. The passage to Helsinborg, in Sweden, may be made in half an hour. Elsinore, from its favorable situation and good roadstead, carries on a considerable commerce, and contains, among its inhabitants many British, Jews, and even Mahometans. It has a handsome cathedral, with some fine tombs. Population 7,000. At Cronborg, is shown the chamber in which the unfortunate Matilda was confined. This castle commands a noble view over the sea, the island, and the opposite coast of Sweden. The terrace from which these are viewed, recalls to the English reader the first scenes of Hamlet, the tradition of whose story is still prevalent here. Soroe, in the interior, surrounded by a fine country, has a noble academy; and contains the tombs of Eric, Canute, and other princes. Holstein, the most southern province of Denmark, ranks as a part of the German empire, to which it once belonged, and gives to the king of Denmark a vote in the diet. Reaching to the Elbe, and being more in the commercial circle, it has a considerably brisker trade than the northern or 606 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. peninsula territory. Altona, a few miles below Hamburg, is a repetition of that city, on a'smaller scale; having 25,000 inhabitants, busily employed in the commerce of the Elbe, in ship-building, and in several manufactures. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. AREA, 293,280 SQUARE MILE. POPULATION, 4,650,000. SWEDEN and NORWAY, now united into one kingdom, form an extensive region, stretching from the utmost verge of the temperate zone far into the frozen range of the arctic circle. Along the north and west, stretch the wide shores of the Frozen Ocean, so far as yet known. The south-west point of the kingdom, borders on the North Sea or German Ocean. The Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia, enclose it on the south and east; so that it forms an immense peninsula. The isthmus by which it is joined to Russia, is about 200 miles broad, but so closely barred by mountains and frozen plains, that the kingdom is nearly inaccessible except by sea-. Of this large territory, scarcely a half can be considered as belonging to the cizilized world. The Laplander, who derives his whole subsistence from the rein-deer, can hardly be included within the pale of civilized society. Even the southern districts have a rugged and repulsive aspect, when compared to almost any other European state. Forests of tall and gloomy pine, stretch over the plains, or hang on the sides.of the mountains; the ground for five months in the year is buried under snow; cultivation appears only in scattered patches, and was long quite insufficient to furnish bread to the inhabitants. The mountains consist chiefly of the dark and lofty chain of the Dofrines, which were for ages a barrier between the two separate and hostile states of Sweden and Norway, but are now included within the united kingdom. The rivers are numerous, Sweden being a country profusely watered; but as they rise in the Dofrines, and traverse the divided breadth of the peninsula, they seldom attain any material length of course. Lakes form:the grand depository of the surplus waters of Sweden. The Zoology of Sweden, the native country of the celebrated Linnoeus, is so well known to naturalists, by the writings of that great man, that to them the subject is familiar. The rein-deer forms the sole riches of the Laplander, and its care is almost his only occupation. According to the season, he migrates to the sea shore, the plains, or the mountains. The rich often possess 2000 head; and the poorer seldom less than 100. The adult male, in a wild state, is even larger than a stag; but the domesticated races are somewhat smaller: the sight and scent of these creatures are astonishing, and guide them with wonderful precision through the most dangerous passes and in the darkest stormy nights of an arctic winter. To this sagacity the Laplander trusts his life with confidence.; and accidents rarely happen: they draw his sledge with such amazing rapidity, that in twenty-four hours a pair of rein-deer SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 607 have been said to have performed a journey of 100 miles. In a wild state they are gregarious; and, when domesticated, evince an excessive attachment to each other. During the summer they are much tormented by a species of gad-fly; but the old account of the glutton falling upon them from a tree, and devouring them, is now considered fabulous. During life this useful animal supplies its master with labor and milk; and when dead every part becomes serviceable, the skin for clothing and for boots; the horns to make utensils; the sinews for thread, and the flesh for food; the intestines are also used; and the tongue is a well known article of commerce. The early history of Scandinavia is deeply involved in fable and uncertainty. Ptolemy and Pliny, the best informed of ancient geographers, seem to distinguish it from " Great Glermany," off the coast of which they represent Basilia, or Baltia, as a large island, though not nearly approaching to the real dimensions. The Goths were found in early possession of Sweden, and its southern provinces have been denominated Gothland;. but the question, whether they were the native possessors, or entered it as conquerors, is one which can scarcely be now decided. Scandinavia has been called the " storehouse of nations; " and " the blue-eyed myriads from the Baltic coast" are supposed to have been among the most numerous of those who spread war and desolation throughout Europe. Scandinavia first, by a series of formidable expeditions, made a figure in history at the end of the ninth century. Harold Harfager, or the Fairhaired, the first of the great sea-kings of the North, having united the formerly independent districts of Norway under his sway, undertook triumphant expeditions against Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides. For several centuries the Danes and Norwegians held full possession of those islands; gave a king to England, and formed a permanent establishment in Normandy. The union of the kingdoms of Scandinavia, in 1388, under Margaret, called the Semiramis of the North, forms a memorable era. Immediately, however, after the death of that able princess, the Swedes began to struggle for independence. But their repeated attempts to establish a separate kingdom were always defeated, till the cruel and tyrannical reign of Christian II. drove matters to extremity, and brought on a new revolution. Gustavus Vasa, in 1520, hoisted again the national standard in the province of Dalecarlia, and, in three years subsequently, entered Stockholm in triumph. After a long struggle, the Danes were compelled to recognise the independence of Sweden. The reign of Gustavus Adolphus formed a glorious era for Sweden. The Protestant religion having been established under Gustavus Vasa, Sweden began to be looked to as its support when assailed by a formidable confederacy. In 1630, Gustavus took the field at the head of only ten thousand Swedes; but around this gallant band rallied all the Protestant powers of Germany. The splendid victory of Breitenfield humbled the house of Austria, and reestablished the civil and religious liberties of the empire. Even after his fall, in the glorious field of Lutzen, his generals continued to wage that desperate war of thirty years, which was necessary to compel the Catholic league finally to renounce its pretensions. Sweden, at the peace, obtained Pomerania, and other important possessions in Germany; and continued, till the end of the seventeenth century, to exercise a powerful influence on the affairs of Europe. 608 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. The victories and reverses of Charles XII. threw a wild and romantic lustre around Sweden, which terminated, however, in the loss of her station and greatness. Being defeated at Pultowa, by the Czar Peter, and driven to seek shelter from the Turks at Bender, he was obliged to purchase peace by the sacrifice of Livonia, and others of his finest provinces. The influence of Sweden was thenceforth confined within its own barren limits, and it ranked with difficulty as a power of the second order. The election of Bernadotte, one of Bonaparte's commanders, to fill the throne, left vacant through the rash conduct of the legitimate monarch, made a great change in the relations of Sweden. To conciliate his new subjects, he restored in full plenitude the representative constitution, which had been reduced to a mere shadow. Having joined the confederacy against his former master, he received Norway in compensation for the loss of Finland, and had thus a more compact and defensible territory. The Norwegians exclaimed, not without reason, against this compulsory trans ference; yet Denmark had deprived them of their free constitution, which they now regained, and had in so many respects depressed the country, with the view of concentrating every thing at Copenhagen, that the connection now terminated has been considered the bane of Norway. The constitution of Sweden is one of the few in Europe, which has always preserved some portion of that representative system which had been formed in remote ages. Towards the close, indeed, of the last century, it was reduced by Gustavus III. to little more than a form. Bernadotte, however, an elected monarch, without any national claim, was obliged to court the favor of the nation, and, with that view, to reestablish the rights of its ancient diet. This is now rather an antique and cumbrous form of legislature, consisting of four orders-the nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers-who sit and vote in separate houses. The revenue of Sweden arises from a poll-tax, the produce of the royal demesnes, duties on exports and imports, mines and forges, distilled spirits, and some monopolies. The whole produce is about $5,000,000 a year, exclusive of lands assigned to soldiers and sailors, and by which these classes, in time of peace, are chiefly supported. The troops are raised by conscription: they only receive pay when on actual service; remaining, at other times, in the provinces, where they employ themselves in cultivating lands assigned to them for their support. Sweden seems doomed by nature to be a poor country. Her most southern districts are beyond the limits of that zone, in which alone the finer and more valuable kinds of grain, and the richer fruits, come to maturity. IIer scanty harvest consists solely of rye, bigg, and oats, scarcely accounted as food in more favored climates. Scandinavia is described generally as one unbroken, boundless forest, varied only in its aspect by little patches of cultivated land. The manufactures of Scandinavia are inconsiderable, unless we should class their mines as such. Even in the common trades the work is lazily and ill performed, and charged at a high rate, which renders this the most expensive country in Europe for those who live luxuriously. The mines of Sweden are peculiarly rich in important products. Its iron, found chiefly in primitive rocks, is the finest in the world, and is widely diffused. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 609 Fishery appears a pursuit peculiarly appropriate to the extensive coasts of Scandinavia. Yet the Swedes are not much addicted to it, probably because the Baltic during a great part of the year is frozen. Gottenburg had once a herring fishery, now nearly lost, the shoals having taken another direction. The Norwegian fishery is considerable, though bearing only a small proportion to the almost unlimited opportunities afforded by its wide seas, and its deep and commodious bays. Its chief theatre is far to the north, off the Isles of Loffoden. The commerce of Scandinavia is greater than its unimproved agriculture and total want of manufactures might lead us to suppose. But nature has gifted these bleak regions with an almost inexhaustible store of timber and iron, two of the prime necessaries of human life; the main implements in ship-building and in the construction of houses, machinery, and furniture. These articles are indeed the produce of North America; and Britain, which affords the best market, has sought to favor her colonies in that quarter by a great inequality of duties. Yet the superior quality of the Scandinavian commodity always secures it a sale. The national character of the Swedes is usually painted under favorable colors. Their honesty is described as proverbial; and Dr. Clarke considers the contrast between them and the Russian people, in this respect, as most striking. Highway robbery, though it has been known, is exceedingly rare; and charity boxes, which are often set up on the public roads, have never been plundered. " The nation," says Mr. James, " has its singularities: there exists something of a reciprocity between the moral and political constitution of Sweden. Rigidly ceremonious, they make their stiff and measured courtesies the essentials rather than the forms of life; and seem, in a stranger's eye, a people cold in their nature as the very snows they dwell upon. Their characteristics, a passive courage, not unmixed with indolence; a pride not free from ignorance; a disposition that is not illhumored, from having no humor at all, from indifference, from apathy. But a Swede is never in extremes; even these traits are not deeply marked; and if we review the more favorable side of his character, we shall find in him an undaunted spirit of perseverance, and an honest love of freedom, to which the feelings of every one do homage." The religion of Sweden is Lutheran, and the church Episcopal. This country, which stood long at the head of the great Protestant confederacy, is animated with an ardent zeal for the reformed religion. The Catholics, till of late, scarcely enjoyed common toleration, and they are still excluded from the diet and higher offices of state. One of the subjects in which Sweden may most justly exult, is the general spread of education among the lower orders, which seems to equal or exceed that which Scotland enjoys; and to this may probably be in a great measure ascribed their generally meritorious conduct. Norway is not nearly so literary a country as Sweden; Dr. Clarke even states that there is not in the whole country a single bookseller's shop. The fine arts in Sweden have been cultivated amidst considerable difficulties. The opera is conducted with splendor and taste; Lergell, as a sculptor, has. been ranked second to Canova, and even called the Michael Angelo of the North. Breda in portrait, and Fulerantz in landscape, esjoy reputation. 39 610 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. STOCKHOLM is finely situated, at the junction of the extensive and beau tiful lake of Malar, or Miiler, with the sea. It stands partly on some small islands, and two peninsulas, presenting a view as beautiful and diversified as imagination can conceive. Innumerable craggy rocks rise from the water, partly covered with houses, and partly planted with wood; while vessels of all forms and descriptions are seen passing to and fro. White edifices, consisting of public and private palaces, churches, and other buildings, rising from an expanse of waters, produce an effect of incomparable grandeur. When the lake and sea are frozen, they are covered with sledges of all kinds, and exhibit one of the gayest scenes imaginable. The royal palace, begun by Charles XI., and finished by Gustavus III., may vie with any structure of the kind in Europe. It is in the Grecian style, quadrangular, four stories high, built of brick only, but faced with stone-colored cement. Its situation, facing the quay, and commanding a view of all parts of the city, adds greatly to its beauty. It contains some fine specimens of sculpture and painting, curiosities connected with Swedish history, and a range of small apartments embellished by Gustavus III. in a fanciful manner. The most remarkable iron mines are those of Persberg. They are 13 in number, dug in a mountain entirely composed of veins and beds of iron ore. Dr. Clarke, after having, in the course of ten years' travel, inspected many of the principal works of this kind in different countries, declares, that he had never beheld any thing equal to this for grandeur of effect, and for the tremendously striking circumstances under which human labor is here performed. In the wide and open abyss suddenly appeared a vast prospect of yawning caverns and prodigious machinery. Immense buckets, suspended by rattling chains, were passing up and down; ladders were scaling all the inward precipices, upon which the work-people, reduced by their distance to pigmies, were ascending and descending. The clanking of chains, the groaning of the pumps, the hallooing of the miners, the creaking of the blocks and wheels, the tramping of horses, the beating of the hammers, and the loud and frequent subterraneous thunder from the blasting of the rocks by gunpowder, in the midst of all this scene of exca vation and vapor, produced an effect that no stranger could witness unmoved. Christiana, in Norway, is situated at the head of a long interior bay or fiord, and enjoys a situation which Von Buch considers as altogether wonderful. The bay, its islands, the crowds of sails spread among them, with the view of majestic hills rising over hills in the distance, appeared to him equalled only on the lake of Geneva, which, however, has not the vessels and islands. The town of Bergen, at the head of a long interior bay, was formerly accounted the capital, and contains a population of 18,511. Its commerce, which is considerable, is founded on the exportation, less of the produce of the country behind it, than of the northern fishery at Daffoden, of which the produce is brought to Bergen in numerous barks. Drontheim is situated on the shore of a winding fiord, but subsists less by foreign commerce than by the internal communication between numerous valleys and districts to which it forms a central point of union. Of these valleys, that of the Guldal is the most extensive and beautiful, and singularly celebrated in Swedish story and tradition. Here, it is boasted, dwelt the mighty Haco, the noble and wise Olaf Tryggvason. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 611 The vast region of LAPLAND is divided from the rest of Scandinavia by a line drawn across it nearly coinciding with the Polar Circle, so as to render it almost entirely an arctic region. It consists partly of great chains of mountains, some of which are 4000 feet high, while other extensive tracts are level. The Laplanders are a peculiar race, short, stout, brown, with black hair, pointed chin, and eyes rendered weak by exposure to the smoke and snow. They are divided into the mountain or wandering Laplanders, and those who dwell in what are called villages; but Kautokeino, which forms a sort of Lapland capital, when visited by Acerbi, was found to contain not more than four families and a priest. The swift-footed reindeer, which they train to draw them in sledges over the snow, form their riches; the flesh and milk of these animals compose their food, and the skins their furniture. The tents of the Laplanders are formed by six beams of wood meeting nearly at the top, covered with cloth, a flap of which, left between two of the beams, serves as the door. The floor is spread with rein-deer skins, having the hair upwards, and which thus serve for either lying or sitting, the tent being too low to stand in, except in one place. A stone frame is made in the middle, for the fire; and there is a hole at the top, to which the smoke must find its way; but this it does not effect till it has thickly impregnated the whole tent with its fumes. The Laplanders are a harmless race, among whom great crimes are unknown. Only one murder has been heard of in twenty years; and the absence of theft is proved by that of bars, bolts, and other safeguards. They do not show that open hospitality and warmth of heart, for which other rude nations are so often celebrated.. They are cold, shy, mistrustfuil and difficult to treat with, at least unless tobacco or brandy be brought in as mediators. They were formerly very superstitious; and the Lapland witches were famous for their empire over the winds, which they enclosed in bags, and sold to the mariner. The magic drum and the enchanted chain are still in occasional use. Yet the Laplanders have been converted to Christianity, and are attentive to its duties, coming often from vast distances to attend divine service, though the instructions are conveyed to them only through the broken medium of an interpreter. Mageroe, the most northerly of the islands, consists of steep rocks rising perpendicularly from the sea, and ascended as if by stairs. In a rocky rocky recess stands Kielvig, with four or five families, on a level Spot, barely affording a site for the houses, and exposed to the perpetual war of the elements. The tempests here rage with such fury, that it is often impossible to leave the house without danger of being blown into the sea. At the northern point of this island is formed bythe North Cape the grand boundary of the European continent, facing the depths of the Polar ocean. It consists of an enormous mass of naked rok, parted by the action of the waves into pyramidal:clifli, downwhich large fragments are continually falling. Ile,~ ~ ~ ~~~~' h T, LAPLANDERS~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t~ Id'i"/!-, fii I I it' 1,,~,,l,,,r~ i!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iiil'ij I 614 RUSSIA. RUSSIA. ARtA, 8,552,700 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 67,000,Ovo. RUSSIA is the most extensive, and one of the most powerful empires, either of ancient or modern times. It comprises the whole northern por.. tion of the eastern hemisphere, from the frontiers of Posen and the Gulf of Bothnia on the west, to the Pacific Ocean and Behring's Straits on the east, or from 18th to the 190th degree of east longitude, being a distance, on the 60th degree of latitude, of nearly 6,000 miles. Its extent, from north to south, though less vast, is still very great, stretching from the 38th to the 70th, and in some parts to the 78th degree of north latitude, exhibiting an average breadth of about 1500 miles. And. exclusive of this, Russia claims a very large tract in the northwest part of America; and is mistress of Nova Zembla, and some other large islands in the Arctic Ocean, of the Aleutian islands off Kamtchatska, and of the Aland isles, &c., in the Baltic. Her superficial extent has not been determined with any thing like accuracy. The reader may perhaps acquire a better idea of the vast extent of the Russian empire, when he is told that it includes nearly one-seventh of the terrestrial part of the globe, and about one twenty-seventh part of its entire surface. But by far the greatest portion of this prodigious superfices is almost uninhabited, and seems to be destined to perpetual sterility; a consequence partly of the extreme rigor of the climate in the provinces contiguous to the Arctic ocean, and partly of almost all the great rivers by which they are traversed having their embouchure in that ocean, and being, therefore, inaccessible either for the whole or the greater part of the year. Russia is, in general, level, and comprises some of the most extensive plains in the world. That part of the empire which is in the eastern hem isphere is naturally parcelled into the two great divisions of European and Asiatic Russia, by the Oural mountains, which stretch into a N. N. E. direction from the Caspian sea to the Arctic ocean; forming, through the greater part of the course, the boundary between Europe and Asia. The highest points in this chain have an elevation of about 6,500 feet above the level of the Caspian. In all the vast country, extending on the west side of this central chain to the confines of Poland and Moldavia, there is hardly a single hill. The Valdai hills, or elevated grounds, between Novgorod and Twer, where the Wolga, the Don, and the Dneiper have their sources, are nowhere more than about 1200 feet above the level of the sea, the country exhibiting a waving surface, and without any considerable elevations. There is nothing, in fact, save the forests, to break or interrupt the course of the wind, in all the immense space interposed between the Oural and the Carpathian mountains. The only great chain of mountains in western Russia is that of Caucasus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, and this is almost at the southern extremity of the empire. Siberia, or Asiatic Russia, consists principally of a vast plain, slightly inclining to the north. Towards the south and east, however, it is in parts mountainous, being separated from Mongolia and Manchouria by high and little explored ridges, in RUSSIA. 615 which the great rivers that flow through it to the Arctic ocean have their source. The most distinguishing feature in the appearance of Russia is her vast forests. They are so very prevalent in the governments of Novogorod and Twer, between Petersburg and Moscow, that it has been said a squirrel might travel from one city to the other without ever touching the ground. The forest of Volkonski, at the source of the Wolga, is the most extensive of any in Europe. In the government of Perm, on both sides of the Oural mountains, containing eighteen millions of deciatines, no fewer than seventeen millions are covered by forests! The forests of Asiatic Russia are, also, of vast size. In extensive districts, however, the surface is quite free from wood. This is particularly the case in the vast steppes or plains in the governments of Astrakhan and Omsk, which in many parts, indeed, are a mere sandy desert. The rivers of Russia are usually divided into five groups or systems, corresponding to the seas in which they have their embouchure, viz., the Arctic ocean, the Baltic, the Black sea, the Caspian, and the Pacific ocean. The first division is by far the largest. It comprises, in Europe, the Dwina, Mezen, and Petchora; while in Asia it includes, among a host of others, the Obi, Jenisei, and Lena, three of the largest rivers of Asia. All these rivers run from south to north; and the last three have a course of from 2000 to 2500 miles. The rivers which fall into the Baltic, though of far greater importance in an economical point of view, are of very inferior magnitude. The principal are the Neva, which has Petersburg at its mouth, the Duna and the Niemen. The rivers which fall into the Black sea equal those falling into the Baltic in commercial importance, and far exceed them in length of course and volume of water. Among others are the Dniester, Dnieper, Bug, Don, and Kuban. The basin of the Caspian has, however, to boast of the largest and most important of the rivers of Russia, the Wolga. This great river has its sources in the government of Twer, about 180 miles S. by E. from Petersburg: including sinuosities, its course is about 1000 leagues, while that of the Danube is only about 450. It is of vast consequence to the internal navigation of the empire. The Caspian sea, also, receives the Oural and the Emba. Owing to the flatness of the country through which they flow, and the vast length of their course, the rivers of Russia are but little interrupted by cataracts, flow with a tranquil stream, and afford great facilities to internal navigation. The severity of the climate no doubt prevents, during a considerable portion of the year, all intercourse by water; and, as already stated, renders the rivers falling into the Arctic ocean of comparatively little value. Luckily, however, the frost, which interrupts navigation, affords the greatest facilities to land traveling. The lakes as well as the rivers of Russia, are upon a gigantic scale. The lake of Baikal, in the government of Irkutsk, in Asiatic Russia, is one of the most extensive in the world. In European Russia, the lakes of Lado ga, Oneiga, Peipus, Ilmen and Bielo Ozero, are also of great extent, particularly the first. The duchy of Finland is almost every where interspersed with lakes, and they are very abundant in other provinces, particularly in that of Olonetz. 616 RUSSIA. That part of Russia which lies on this side of the Oural mountains, presents an immense plain declining westward by an easy descent. This plain from its vast extent, has a great variety of climates, soils and products. Its northern part, which sensibly declines towards the White and Frozen seas, is covered with forests, marshy, and but little fit for cultivation. The other, and more southerly portion of this vast plain, includes the whole district along the Wolga, as far as the steppes or deserts between the Caspian and the sea of Azof, and constitutes the finest part of Russia: generally it has a fertile soil, and the arable and meadow land preponderating over the woods and marshes. That part of the country which extends towards Vorongje, Tambof, Penza, and Simbirsk, as far as the deserts, is most remarkable for the superior quality of every kind of fruit and other produce. It has every where an excellent soil, consisting of black earth, strongly impregnated with saltpetre. But the tract which commences between the sea of Azof and the Caspian, and extends near the shores of the latter, and between the Wolga and Oural, as far as the Emba, is little better than a desert, being level, dry, high, barren, and full of salt lakes. The country lying on the other side of the Oural mountains, known by the name of Siberia, is generally a flat tract of vast extent, declining imperceptibly towards the Frozen ocean, and rising thence by equally imperceptible degrees, towards its southern border, where at last it is lost in the immense mountain ranges which separate the Russian and the Chinese empires. A country which, like Russia, extends from north to south through about 40 degrees of latitude, might be supposed to have almost every climate; and this is, in some measure the case. When spring commences in one division of this vast empire, another experiences all the rigors of winter. Here the parched camel traverses arid burning deserts; there the rein-deer courses over heaps of snow, under which he finds a scanty supply of moss. The Samoide sleeps in his cabin, where the days are short and cloudy, while the Kirkghisian feeds his flock under a clear serene sky. This variety of the produts and diversity in the manner of living, gives Russia advantages not enjoyed by any other European country. She possesses, in the greatest abundance, all the most necessary articles, and the greater number of those which are reckoned luxuries; and she either furnishes or may procure all the products of different climates. But notwithstanding the heats that usually prevail during summer, especially in the southern provinces, cold, speaking generally, predominates very decidedly in Russia. With the exception, indeed, of the Crimea and the trans-Caucasian provinces, no part of Russia can be said to be generally hot; and even in them the frost in winter is often very severe. The climate of Russia is, in fact, proverbial for its severity; and this increases not only as we advance towards the north, but also as we advance towards the east; the cold being decidedly greater in Siberia than in the same latitudes in European Russia, a difference perceptible in the provinces on the east and west side of the latter. But this severe cold is not unhealthy, and is much less inconvenient than might be supposed. While the frost lasts the air is pure and bracing, and its severity is guarded against by warm clothing, and by having the houses properly constructed and heated. At Petersburg and Moscow the RUSSIA. 617 winter is, in fact, the finest season. The inhabitants seem to revive at its approach. Sledge-roads over the snow render travelling commodious and agreeable; and a winter journey in a moderate frost by moonlight, is a high enjoyment. The Russian peasants care only for warm covering for their legs and feet. At Petersburg, in a frost of 25~ Reaumur, it is common to see women standing for hours together washing their linen through holes dug in the ice over the Neva. Spring can hardly be said to have any place in the Russian calendar. The transition from frost to warm weather is usually very rapid. In a brief period after the snow and ice have disappeared, the fields and trees are clothed in the livery of summer, and vegetation makes an extraordinary progress. At Petersburg the summer is as mild and agreeable as in the south of France; but there and in all the northern provinces it is very variable. The animals of Russia include those commonly met with in the arctic circle, and in temperate climates, as well as some of those belonging more peculiarly to the intertropical regions. Exclusive of horses, oxen, sheep, &c., rein-deer and camels are both met with. The latter is employed in traveling through the deserts in some of the southern provinces, while the former constitutes the principal wealth of the Samoiedes, Tungusians, Ostiaks, Tchoutchis, and other tribes-inhabiting the extreme northern parts of the empire. The dog is common everywhere; and in parts of Siberia, where there are neither horses nor rein-deer, is of the very greatest utility; and besides being employed for draught and burden, is used as food. Bears are abundant; beavers and other fur-bearing animals are also common; and in many provinces the chase forms a principal part of the occupation of the people. The rivers and lakes swarm with fish. The mines of Russia are of considerable importance and value. The principal are situated in the Oural and Altai mountains, and in the vicinity of Nertschink, in Siberia. Gold and platina are both found in considerable quantities in the Ouralian mountains, especially in the mines in the neighborhood of Catharineburg. Silver is chiefly found in the Altai mountains of Kholivano Voskvessenski, and in the Siberian mountains contiguous to Nertschink. Copper is found in the government of Olonetz, and in the Oural and Altai mountains. It is produced to the extent of about 210,000 poods a year. About 40,000 poods of lead are obtained from the mines of Nertschink and Kholivano. The iron-mines furnish a supply more than sufficient for the wants of the empire. The works in the Oural mountains only are said to employ above 50,000 laborers. Cast-iron articles are prepared at most mines where there are forges. There is an important cannon manufactory at Petrozavohsk, in the government of Olonetz, which was brought to a high state of perfection by an Englishman of the name of Gascoigne. But the principal hardware manufactories are carried on at Tula, in the government of that name. A great variety of articles of cutlery are produced; and the royal manufactory of fire-arms is very extensive, employing, it is said, about 7,000 male and 9,600 female workers. Russia is abundantly supplied with mines of salt and brine springs; but as most of them are at a great distance from the Baltic and western provinces, there is a large importation of salt from England and Austria. 618 RUSSIA. Landed property in Russia is generally divided into estates belonging either to the crown or the nobility. Some of those belonging to the latter are very extensive; but, owing to the compulsory division of estates among the children of a family on the death of the father, this is not generally the case; and the non-subdivision of the land is, in fact, one of the evils with which Russia is not threatened. The peasants occupying the crown estates are in a state of predial, and those occupying the estates of the nobility are generally in a state of absolute, slavery. The value of a Russian estate formerly depended more on the number of laborers or slaves belonging to it, and which may be either sold, or let out by the proprietor, than on its extent, or the quality of the soil: but since the increase of population, this, in many districts, is no longer the case; and the proprietor is sometimes burdened with the charge of supporting and maintaining laborers, and paying the tax on them to government, for whose services he has little or no use. Different proprietors adopt different methods in the management of their estates. In the principal part of Great Russia, comprising all the central provinces of the monarchy, the system is very simple. The proprietors rarely farm any considerable portion of their estates, or interfere with the mode in which they are cultivated. They usually content themselves with distributing them among the peasantry; their revenue consisting in the produce of an obrok, or capitation tax, imposed on each male peasant, by way of rent. The vice of this system is that, except on the crown estates, every thing depends on the will of the proprietor, who, though occasionally enlightened and liberal, is too frequently ignorant of his real interests, careless, and embarrassed. The occupier has, in fact, no security whatever. If he improve his farm, or have about him the appearance of getting rich, the chances are that his obrok will be immediately increased; or that a portion will be taken from his farm, and given to another family. Even the predial slaves on the crown estates, from whom only a certain amount of labor or of corv6es can be legally demanded, are frequently exposed to the extortion of those to whom the lands are let, or of the officers employed to superintend them. Hence, in the generality of instances, the peasants invariably follow a routine system; they avoid labor by which they are not to benefit. In Livonia, and the provinces bordering on the Baltic, and also in parts of the Ukraine, the husbandry is very superior, and the implements quite equal to the best that are to be met with in most parts of Germany. But, with the exception of a few estates, it is quite otherwise in the rest of the empire. The plough is there a wretched implement drawn by one horse, and calculated rather to scratch than to turn up the soil. The harrow is made of wood, and rollers and cultivators are entirely unknown. Were it not that the soil is generally light, friable, and very easily wrought, it would be impossible to cultivate it by such means. But these suffice to make it produce more than enough for the wants of the inhabitants. There is not, indeed, another country in Europe where corn crops may be raised at so little expense of labor as in Russia. Corn, in Russia, is very frequently kiln-dried in the sheaf, before it is either stacked or thrashed. Flax and hemp are very extensively cultivated; and, besides what is made use of at home, are very largely exported. RUSSIA. 619 Potatoes succeed almost every where; and this, also, is the case with hops. Tobacco is confined to the southern provinces, where it is an important article. It deserves to be mentioned, to the credit of the government, that it has latterly been exerting itself in the most efficient manner, for the improvement of agriculture. Professorships of agriculture have been established in the different universities, and an institution to which a model farm is attached has been established near Mohilew for educating 120 pupils, so as to fit them to act as stewards or managers of large estates. Horses are very abundant in Russia. Speaking generally, they are coarse and ill-shaped, but hardy and active. In the southern provinces, however, whence the cavalry, horses are brought, the breed is very superior. The khans or cheiks of the nomadic tribes occasionally possess as many as 10,000 horses. M. Storch states that there is no country in Europe where so many cattle are reared as in Russia, and none where they are taken so little care of. (Tableau de la BRussie, ii. 155.) Exclusive of the numerous herds, which constitute a part of the wealth of the pastoral and nomadic tribes, every peasant has a few head, and even the beggar has a cow or goat! The ordinary Russiar ox is small, lean, and bony; but those of the Ukraine, Podolia, Volhynia, and some other provinces, are large, and of a very fine breed. Many thousand head are annually sent from the Ukraine to Petersburg and other Russian towns, and also g6 Silesia and Germany. Tallow is at present, and has been for some years, the most important article of export from Russia: the increase of the exports of this article from Odessa within these few years has been quite extraordinary. The wool of the common Russian sheep is hard and coarse; but latterly considerable efforts have been made to improve the breed by importing the fine wooled sheep from Germany; and wool, notwithstanding the increase of factories at home, is becoming an important article of export. Hogs are everywhere abundant, and, in the northern provinces especially, furnish a principal part of the food of the people, while their bristles are an article of export. Goats are also abundant. The rearing and management of bees is more attended to in Russia than in any other European country, and is, in fact, the principal occupation of several tribes. Individuals among the Baschkirs possess 100 hives in their gardens, and upwards of 1,000 in the forests! Manufactures are not generally in an advanced state. Since the reign of Peter the Great, their improvement and extension have, it is true, been favorite objects with government; and heavy duties and prohibitions have, in consequence, been imposed on such foreign articles as it was supposed might interfere with similar articles of native growth. This, however, was a very erroneous policy. The slavery of the peasantry is an all but invincible obstacle, in so far at least as they are concerned, to the formation of those habits of industry, perseverance, and invention, necessary to insure success in manufactures; while the thinness of the population, the variety of natural products, and the fertility of the soil, all concur in pointing out agriculture, including under that term mines and fisheries, as the natural and most advantageous employment that can be carried on upon a great scale, till civilization be more generally diffused. The versatility of the Russian peasant is astonishing. He is truly a 620 RUSSIA. Jack of all trades, and will turn his hand to whatever may be required. He will plough to-day, weave to-morrow, help to build a house the third day, and the fourth, if his master need an extra coachman, he will mount the box, and drive four horses abreast, as if it were his daily occupation. None of these occupations, except, perhaps, the last, will be as well performed as in a country where the division of labor is more thoroughly understood. They will all, however, be sufficiently well done to' serve the turn,' a favorite phrase in Russia. In certain departments, however, Russia is not merely equal but even superior to other countries. Her leather is excellent; and for some purposes, such as book binding, is decidedly superior to any other material. The process followed in the preparation of this important article has been often described; and foreigners have frequently engaged in the business in Russia, with the view of making themselves acquainted with the details, that they might undertake it at home. But whether it be owing to some thing in the bark or the water, or some other undiscovered cause, none of the attempts to produce Russia leather in foreign countries have ever succeeded, and Russia continues to enjoy a monopoly of this valuable product, and to export it in large quantities. The sail-cloth, cordage and canvass, tick, felt, mats, pot-ashes, soap, candles, caviar, isinglass, spirits, and some other articles produced in Russia, are quite as good, or better, than those of any other country. So late as 1788, almost all the cloth required for the clothing of the army was imported from abroad; but it is now wholly manufactured at home. Cloth of a superior quality is also made at Moscow and its vicinity, at Iamburg, near Petersburg, Serepta, and other places; but generally speaking, it is both inferior to what might be imported and dearer. Linen is principally manufactured in Vladimir, Kostroma, M/oscow and Kalouga; and sail-cloth and cordage in Archangel, Orel, &c. The silk manufacture of Moscow is extensive and thriving, and it iscarriedon to a less extent in other towns. Numerous establishments for the spinning of cotton have been recently founded. Generally, however, they supply only the coarser descriptions of yarn, the finer sorts being almost wholly imported from England. The cotton manufacture has recently made a rapid progress. It is principally carried on in the government of Vladimir; Choula and Ivanova being its chief seats. With the exception of the formidable restraints originating in the slavery of the peasantry, industry is quite free in Russia. There are no internal monopolies, save those of salt, spirits, and playing cards. There is nothing in the guilds, or corporations, to check competition; and all who are free may exercise any art or profession, either in town or country, as may be most agreeable to themselves. Slaves who have obtained a passport, or license from their owners to leave their estates, are, in this respect, in the same situation. The commerce of Russia is already, notwithstanding the paralysing influence of the prohibitive system, very extensive; and will, no doubt, continue to increase with the growing wealth and population of the empire, and according as more liberal principles may be expected to prevail. The principal articles of export are tallow, which is more largely exported from this than from any other country; grain, particularly wheat; hemp and flax; timber, potashes, bristles, linseed and hempseed, linseed and hempseed oils, RUSSIA. 621 furs, leather; fox, hare, and squirrel skins; canvass and coarse linen, cordage, wool, caviar, wax, isinglass, tar, &c. The principal imports are sugar, especially from the Havanna; cotton stuffs and yarn, the latter being by far the most important article sent from Great Britainto Russia; coffee, but not in large quantities; indigo, and other dye-stuffs; woolens, oils, spices, wine, salt, tea, lead, tin, coal, fine linen from Holland and Silesia, &c. The great road from Petersburg to Moscow is justly said by travelers to be a most magnificent public work. It is nearly 500 miles in length, quite level, and about double the width of the Great Northroad in England, and is macadamized throughout, and kept along the whole line in the most perfect repair. But, with the exception of this, and of a few other principal lines, there is a great want of good roads in Russia. This, however, is productive of less inconvenience than might be expected, from the circumstance of the frost rendering the worst roads fit for sledge traveling for a considerable period of the year; and from the number of navigable rivers and the extension that has been given to their navigation by the construction of numerous canals. Few countries, in fact, have so extensive a command of internal navigation. Goods put on board in St. Petersburg may be conveyed to Astrakhan, a distance of above 1400 miles, or to any port on the Caspian, and vice versa, without once being landed. The iron and furs of Siberia and the teas of China are received at Petersburg in the same way; but owing to the great distance of these countries, and the short period of the year during which the rivers and canals are navigable, they sometimes take three years in their transit! Immense quantities of goods are conveyed during winter upon the ice in sledges, to the different ports, and to the nearest pristans, or places in the interior, where barks are built for river or canal navigation. They are put on board in anticipation of the period of sailing, that the barks may be ready to take advantage of the high water, by floating down with the current as soon as the snow and ice begin to melt. The cargoes carried up the river into the interior during the summer are principally conveyed to their ultimate destination by the sledge roads during winter. The conveyance by the latter is generally the most expeditious; and it, as well as the internal conveyance by water, is performed at a very moderate expense. Every Russian carrying on trade must be a burgher, and have his name registered in the burgher's book; he thus acquires an unlimited freedom of trade. All whose names are in the burgher's books are either townsmen who have property within the city, or members of a guild. There are three guilds. Those belonging to the first report themselves to possess from 10,000 to 50,000 roubles; these may follow foreign trade, are not liable to corporeal punishment, and may drive about the city in a carriage drawn by two horses. Those belonging to the second guild declare themselves possessed of from 5,000 to 10,000 roubles; they are confined to inland.trade. A capital of from 1,000 to 5,000 roubles entitles its owner to admission into the third guild, which comprises shopkeepers and petty dealers. The rates paid by the members of these guilds amount to 1] per cent. upon their declared capital, the statement of which is left to the conscience of every individual. Burghers are not obliged to serve in the army, but may provides substitutes, or pay a fine. The g.uests, or foreign merchants who 622 RUSStA. enrol themselves in the city register on account of their commercial affairs, enjoy privileges nearly similar to those enjoyed by the members of the first guild. None but native Russians are allowed to engage in the internal trade of the country; and hence a foreigner who imports goods into Russia, must sell them to Russians only, and at the port where they arrive. Russia, originally divided into a large number of primitive and original nations, and only of late years aggregated into an imperial whole, presents more diversity of races and languages than any other country. There art no certain data for ascertaining the amount of the population, but it may be set down at about 67,000,000, of which 55,000,000 are in European Russia, exclusive of the Caucasus. Of this number 35,000,000 are Muscovites; 6,000,000 the Little Russians, Rusniaks, and Cossacks; 6,000,000 the Poles; 1,000,000 the Servians, Bulgarians; &c.; 1,200,000 the Lithuanians; 500,000 the Lettons; 300,000 the Nures, making a total of the Sclavonic race of 50,000,000. The Fins and their congeners number about 3,000,000; the Germans 500,000, and the Turks 1,000,000. The proportion of males to females is as 28 to 30. The settled population of Russia is divided into six great classes, namely, nobles, clergy, citizens, peasants, serfs and slaves. The nobles, though distinguished by different titles, are all placed upon an equality. They have no political privileges whatever, and, though hereditary, have no rank but what the emperor confers; their persons and lands, however, are free from taxation, from forced military service, and from bodily penalties. But these exemptions are more important than real; for, though their lands and per sons are not taxable, yet a capitation tax may be imposed on their slaves, who form the most valuable part of their possessions; and they are bound to furnish from their estates a certain number of recruits in proportion to the demands of the service. There are fourteen classes of nobility; most of the public employments are filled with nobles; and none is eligible who does not belong to one of the f6urteen classes of rank into which the officers of the civil and military service and the clergy are arranged. The clergy are exempt from taxation and corporal punishment; privileges which are extended to their eldest sons, who are liable, however, to military service. Every inhabitant of a town, who is neither noble nor the property of another, is a citizen; and citizens are divided into four classes, styled notables, and members of the three guilds. The next class is that of peasants, or free inhabitants of the country, distinguished into six classes-first, the old proprietors who cultivate their own lands, but have not the right of possessing slaves; second, the Tartars, Baschkirs, and other races in the southeast, who are all proprietors of the lands they cultivate; third, the peasants of Finland, who are all now proprietors or free-renters; fourth, colonists, of foreign origin; fifth, the inhabitants of the military colonies in the southern provinces; and sixth, the free cultivators, who enjoy immunity from taxes on condition of keeping post-horses for the public service, which they furnish at a charge regulated by government. Below the peasants are the serfs who are chiefly peasants on the crown land, or in the province of Livonia. The crown peasants amount to about twelve millions, some of whom labor in the fields, and others in the mines and manufactories., They may rise to the rank of citizens, and acquire property; they enjoy the protection of the laws, and, under some restrictions, may quit RUSSIA. 623 their residences for a limited time to obtain employment elsewhere; but they are liable to be hired for the service of the mines, or to be sold. The peasants of Livonia, amounting to about 560,000, were slaves until the year 1804, when they first obtained the rights of serfs. They are still subject to some peculiar claims, which, however, are fixed, and they cannot be removed from the soil without their own consent. The last and most numerous class is that of slaves, whose number is about 23,000,000. They are in law considered as chattels, not as persons; are attached to the soil, and incapable of acquiring property in land; may be bought, sold or exchanged with little more ceremony than cattle; and have no other protection against their master than a regard for his own interest in their welfare. They belong to the nobles, or to such civil or military officers as have acquired the right of possessing slaves.' They are divided into agricultural, mining, manufacturing, or domestic slaves, and the only chance they have of improving their condition is their being drawn to serve in the army. A Russian proprietor formerly reckoned the value of his property, not by its annual income, but by the number of male slaves upon it; but the relation in which the agricultural serf or slave practically stands to his master is in most respects that of a small tenant; the principal difference being, that he cannot change his employment or move from home, without his master's leave, which is sometimes obtained for a certain annual sum, called obrok, in lieu of service. As a general rule, he has a house and a portion of land, for which he pays rent in labor instead of money; working three days each week for his master, and having the other three at his own disposal. The slaves are grossly ignorant, undoubting fatalists, and habitually careless and improvident; yet they are contented and happy, and bear about them no signs of oppression; their desires are few and easily satisfied; their fare is coarse and poor, but they seldom suffer from cold or hunger, and they are naturally gay, good humored, and light-hearted. They cannot legally be sold or transferred to another master, except with the whole of their family. All the civil schools in the empire are placed under the minister of public instruction, who is represented in the circuits by sub-delegates called curators. Public education is thus subjected to the direct control of government. But, besides the minister of public instruction, each separate branch of the administration superintends the schools connected with his own department. The schools may thus be arranged in four classes: 1. Schools which depend upon the minister of public instruction; 2. Military schools; 3. Ecclesiastical schools; 4. Special and various other schools. The first class is subdivided into — 1. Parish schools, intended for the lower orders; 2. District schools, which have three classes, intended for the children of shopkeepers, and are restricted in their course of instruction to the catechism, writing, drawing, the rudiments of grammar, arithmetic, geometry, geography, and history; 3. Gymnasia, which are distributed by government, divided each into seven classes, and authorised to embrace higher studies, but accessible only to the children of the nobility; and, 4. Universities, which consist each of three faculties: philosophy, jurisprudence, and medicine, of which the course lasts five years. The military schools are those which chiefly engage the solicitude of the government; and, accordingly, they increase daily, and absorb the greater part of the funds allotted to national education. Nevertheless, there is no 624 RUSSIA. army so poor as the Russian in able officers; a circumstance which can be ascribed only to the bad organization of the schools, which are calculated less to diffuse knowledge than to supply the government with men less unmanageable, and more extensively and variedly effective. The ecclesiastical schools, designed chiefly for the education of the clergy, are divided into three circuits, those of St. Peterburg, Moscow, and Kief. Each circuit is composed of superior schools or academies, of intermediate schools or seminaries, and of lower schools in the smaller districts and parishes. They are under the superintendence of the Holy Synod. In the whole empire 67 newspapers or periodical works are published. The press is under a strict censorship, which, in university towns, is entrusted to committees, and everywhere else to censors especially appointed. The censorship of works relating to religion rests with the ecclesiastical bodies. Every book hostile to the creed of the Greek Church, to monarchial autocratic authority, to decency, to morality, to private honor, is prohibited; and the first duty of the censor is "to consider what is the object which the author has proposed to himself in writing his work." The orthodox Greek church is the dominant religion of the empire; but all other religions are npt only tolerated, but even freely professed, difference of creed being no obstacle to the attainment of public employments. Islamism is professed by almost the whole of the numerous population of the Turkish or Tartar race, and the Arabs. The Jews, of course follow the law of Moses. The Calmucks are worshippers of the Lama; and many of the Samoyedes, and other nomadic races, are idolaters or fetishists. All power emanates from the Czar. The title of Samodemjetz (autocrator), which the czar assumes, indicates the nature of his authority, which he is presumed to derive only from God. He is the central point of the administration. His authority is delegated to the great boards or colleges of the empire, which preside over the central administration and to the governors-general, and other local functionaries. The three great boards of administration are, the council of the empire, the directing senate, and the holy synod. The first is divided into four departments; those of legislation, of war, of civil and religious affairs, and of finances. The ministers and a secretary of the empire form part of this board, which has the charge of all important affairs, with the exception of those relating to foreign policy. The directing senate is considered as the highest council of state. The czar himself is its president, and he names the senators, whose number is indefinite. This senate superintends the execution of the laws, and the receipt and expenditure of the public money, promulgates the laws and edicts authorised by the czar, appoints to public employments, and judges as the last resort in all legal causes. The holy synod is the senate, in which is vested the supreme authority of the GrcecoRussian church, and is composed of a certain number of prelates, named by the emperor, who is himself the sole head of the church, and presents to all ecclesiastical offices. The executive power is confided to ministers and secretaries of state, who form a fourth board, named the committee of ministers, but which is subordinate to the three great bodies already mentioned. Russia is a monarchy, absolute and hereditary, but the various parts of the empire present considerable differences in their administration, and some AuSSIA. 625 of them are governed according to the ancient privileges, which they have preserved, or to the constitution granted to them at the period of their union with the empire. Thus the Cossacks of the Don, and of the Black Sea, form military republics, under a first magistrate, named their hetman, who forms the organ of communication with the emperor; but, by various gradual changes, their privileges have been at last almost annihilated, and their territories reduced to the condition of ordinary, provinces. Finland also forms a grand duchy, with a constitution entirely different from that of the other parts of the empire. Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland, also enjoy considerable privileges; but still these privileges are held at the will of a despot, who may abrogate them whenever he pleases. Poland now forms an integral part of the empire; though it has a separate administration and particular laws, which cannot be all at once superseded by those of Russia. No satisfactory statistics exhibiting the present state of the financial and military affairs of the empire are accessible. The Almanaclh de Gotha of 1851 omits the statistical details previously given; and is unable to furnish more recent details. It is understood that the revenues and expenditures for some years past have been about $81,000,000. The public debt is stated at 336,219,492 silver roubles. The army is given, in round numbers, at 1,000,000. It is supposed that in case of war Russia is able to send into the field not less than 800,000 men. This immense disposable force, absolutely under the control of the emperor, renders the power of Russia imminently dangerous to the peace of Europe. By a course of masterly policy, directed to one end, the influence of the empire has been gradually extended toward the centre of Europe; and the only conceivable means of checking it seems to be a confederation of all the German states, so close, that they shall in effect constitute but one nation. It is this consideration which, underlying the whole current of European politics, renders the present juncture of affairs so critical. The great question of the supremacy of race -the question whether the Teutonic or the Slavic race shall predominate, and direct in the affairs of Europe —rests apparently apon events about to transpire. Generally, the Russian soldiers are, in respect of bodily vigor, inferior, perhaps, to those of England. They have no enthusiasm; and in respect of activity and intelligence, are very far below those of England, France, and Prussia. On the other hand, however, they possess, in the greatest perfection, the two first qualities of a soldier; the most unflinching courage, and the most implicit obedience. Subjected from birth to a master whose will is their law, the habit of prompt and absolute obedience becomes, as it were, a part of themselves. Regardless of dangers or difficulties, they will attempt whatever they are ordered; and will accomplish all that the most undaunted resolution and perseverance can effect. They also endure, without a murmur, the greatest harsbips and privations, and support them5selves in situations where others would starve. The Cossacks, Baschkirs, and other irregular cavalry, are very useful troops, and are well calculated either to improve a victory or to cover a retreat. The Russian navy may be said to be the creation of the present Czar Nicholas. A navy, however, has existed since the times of Peter the Great. Within the last fifteen or twenty years Nicholas has established two large 40 626 RUSSIA. fleets in the Gulf of Finland and the Black Sea, and another in the Caspian Sea. He spares neither cost nor trouble on this, his favorite object. Already he has a navy of upwards of 200 vessels, of all kinds, carrying more than 7000 guns, and 70,000 men. Capital punishments Ire rare in Russia, treason being the only crime visited with death. In cases of murder, fire raising, and other capital offences, the criminal, after receiving a certain number of lashes from the knout, (a heavy thong whip,) under the infliction of which he sometimes expires, is condemned for life to forced labor in the mines of Siberia. The nostrils of criminals used also to be slit, and their face branded with a redhot iron, previously to their banishment to Siberia, but this needless aggravation of punishment was put an end to by the Emperor Alexander. PETERSBURG, the entire creation of its great founder, is built altogether upon a plain; and is the most regular, and in appearance, the most splendid capital in the world. It has no old, dirty, irregular quarter, abandoned to traffic,-and shunned by all the opulent and refined; no straggling suburbs. It is " a city of new palaces;"' wanting thus, however, the solemn and venerable effect produced by structures that belong to a former age. Except, too, a few of the palaces and public edifices, which are of marble and granite, it is built of brick, covered with a plaster resembling stone, but which can never have its rich and substantial effect. Petersburg is built entirely amid the waters; it occupies the south and north banks of the Neva, comprising several large islands enclosed by its channel. The ground on which it stands, being almost on a level with the river, it is exposed to a dreadful danger,-that of inundation. When a strong and continued west wind blows in the waters of the Gulf of Finland, the Neva rises sometimes eight feet, and overflows the whole city. It was supposed that the raising of the ground, and the various precautions, had diminished the hazard of this calamity; but it took place in 1824, on a more awful scale than ever. For two days Petersburg and its neighborhood were covered as with a sea, in which wagons, furniture, boats, provisions, even wooden houses and coffins, floated in confused masses. Eight thousand people were supposed to have perished, and the destruction of property was immense. The streets and edifices are divided into several compartments, separated from each other by the interposed channels of the Neva. The principal is what is called the admiralty quarter. It is situated along the south bank of the Neva, which, here forming a species of elbow, converts the quarter, as it were, into a large triangle. It is faced towards the river by a most magnificent granite quay, extending three miles. Here are grouped all the most magnificent structures of Petersburg, which resembles a vast range of palaces; and to those who enter from the desert country around, produce the effect of enchantment. The admiralty itself, a quarter of a mile in length, presents, perhaps, the longest facade in Europe, richly ornamented, though not throughout, in the purest taste. Three broad and fine streets, about two miles long, branch from this central edifice, which terminates the vista of each. The grandest structure, however, is the imperial winter palace, 450 feet long, 380 broad, and which, with an adjoining wing called the Hermitage, contains the most valuable of the imperial collections. On a smaller scale, but of still richer materials, is the marble palace, resting on a basement of granite, and roofed with copper. The new RUSSIA. 627 bank is also considered one of the chief ornaments of Petersburg. But the greatest of all, is the cathedral church of Kasan, in the second admiralty quarter, one of the most splendid structures that modern art has produced. It was begun in 1800, and finished in fifteen years, at an expense of 15,000,000 rubles. The design, though good, was not the very best that could be presented; but being the production of a Russian slave, feelings of patriotism caused it to be preferred. It was executed entire by Russian workmen, and of materials, which, though of the richest description, were all furnished within the empire. The cupola is criticised as too small, and some other defects are pointed out; but the forest of 150 columns in front, combines with its splendor, a purity of taste, which could scarcely have been expected from a semi-barbarian artist. All.the materials and ornaments are of the richest description. In the same quarter, is the colossal equestrian statute of Peter the Great, chiefly remarkable for the mass of black marble on which it is placed, weighing 1,500 tons, and in this respect incomparable. The Vasili Ostrov (Basil's Island) is the chief insular compartment, containing the custom-house, exchange, and other establishments of commerce; and by a singular combination, the academies of science and art. The island which bears the name of St. Petersburg, and the quarter of Wiborg, on the northern bank, include the remains of what was the original city, or rather village, with large additions, but still retaining more of a rural character than the rest. The foundery quarter is distinguished by the large establishments bearing its name, but still more by a very superb structure of Catharine, called the Taurida palace. At the end of a vestibule and hall, both of immense extent, and adorned with vast ranges of columns, statues, and vases, appear gardens which, in winter, while all the world without is buried in ice and snow, present the most brilliant hues of summer. Being enclosed in a spacious saloon, they may be considered as a vast conservatory. The islands and opposite banks of the Neva, are connected only by pontoons, or bridges of boats, which on the approach of ice, are removed in two or three hours; and the ice then supersedes every other bridge. The ground in the vicinity being barren, the city is supplied from a great distance; with cattle from the Ukraine; grain and even timber fuel from the provinces on the Volga; yet the sure demand produces a steady supply. Petersburg is a place of very great trade. Among the environs of Petersburg, we may mention the palaces of Oranienbaum, Peterhoff and Czarskoje-Selo; which are merely spacious country houses, with agreeable gardens, in the English style, attached to them. A much more important object, is Cronstadt, at the mouth of the Neva, the grand naval arsenal of the empire. The fortifications on the sea side are strong, and form, indeed, the only defence of the capital, which, towards the land, is almost quite open. Moscow, the ancient and interior capital, is, perhaps, the most extraor dinary city that exists, either in Europe or Asia. It presents a singular combination of whatever is most striking in both continents. It surpasses in splendor the greatest capitals in Europe, and in poverty its poorest villages. — " One might imagine," says Dr. Clarke, "that all the states of Europe and Asia had sent a building by way of representative to Moscow: timber huts from regions beyond the Arctic; plastered palaces from Sweden and Denmark; painted walls from the Tyrol; mosques from Constantinople; Tartar temples from Bucharia; pagodas, pavilions and verandas from China; 628 RUSSIA. carbarets from Spain; dungeons, prisons and public offices from France; architectural ruins from Rome; terraces and trellises from Naples; and ware-houses from Wapping. Some parts have the appearance of a sequestered desert, and the traveller is tempted to ask, Where is Moscow? till he is told, This is Moscow." " Here are seen," according to Dr. Clarke, "wide and scattered suburbs, huts, gardens, pigsties, brick walls, churches, dunghills, palaces, timber-yards, ware-houses; and a refuse, as it were, of materials sufficient to stock an empire. In other quarters, the throng is so immense, that the traveller asks, What cause has convened such a multitude? and learns that it is the same every day. At some points, and particularly from the Kremlin, where all its deformed features are hidden, and the eye roves over the towers, domes and spires of its gorgeous temples and palaces, Moscow presents an aspect of rude and varied magnificence, which scarcely any other capital can equal." The sumptuous edifices of Moscow are very numerous, as, notwithstanding the transference of the government to Petersburg, the greater number of nobles still make it their residence. Many of their palaces are, or were, truly magnificent; that of the Pascof family, perhaps the most strikingly so. The Kremlin, however, is the most extraordinary of all the edifices of this extraordinary city. It is a sort of enclosed town, which, besides the ancient palace of the czar, contains the two magnificent churches of St. Nicholas and the Assumption, numerous chapels, government offices, houses of the priests and other public functionaries. Its original style and pavilionlike aspect, are decidedly Asiatic; yet there are extensive portions constructed in the Grecian style. "' Here a pagoda, there an arcade. In some parts richness and even elegance; in others barbarism and decay. It is a jumble of magnificence and ruin; old buildings repaired, and modern structures not completed; half-open vaults, and mouldering walls, and empty caves, amid white-washed brick buildings, and towers and churches with glittering, gilded, or painted domes." A Russian artist presented to Catharine a most superb model, which at the expense of ~7,000,000 o!1 ~8,000,000 sterling, would have harmonized the whole into one palace, the most magnificent in the world; but very small progress was made in the execution. Among the wonders at Moscow, is the greatest bell in the world; 67 feet in circumference, weighing more than 22,000 tons, and worth about ~70,000; but no intention of ever suspending it seems to be entertained. Another wonder is, the great gun, in which a man may sit upright; but from which not a shot was ever fired. The church of St. Basil is, perhaps, the most curious of all the structures, from the completely Tartar style of its numerous and heavy cupolas, surmounted with gilded crucifixes. It is a work of piety for individuals to bestow large sums to gild or paint one of the numberless domes of the churches, each according to his peculiar taste; whence arises a brilliant and fantastic variety. The story of Moscow has been singularly eventful. She has passed through almost unparalleled vicissitudes of war and devastation; but her recent scenes of glory and calamity have surpassed all those which preceded. The burning of Moscow is well remembered as the marking event, which turned against the French emperor the tide of fortune. Napoleon, when he entered Moscow did not find it burning. The Russians, in retiring, left merely the combustible materials deep lodged, and sure to break forth. The flames soon appeared, and aided by strong winds from opposite quarters, RUSSIA. 629 gained hourly new strength, till they wrapped that vast capital in one blaze of fire. Its proud and gilded domes either fell to the ground, or stood solitary amid surrounding ruin. The city thus rendered untenable, Napoleon was forced to commence that retreat, in which a great part of his army perished. It is remarkable that the Russian government still renounce the glory of this sublime sacrifice, and represent Moscow as burned by the French. When Mr. James visited the city in 1814, the whole space of 25 miles' circumference, presented the most gloomy aspect of desolation. "A few shops and inns had been built, and looked like spots in the wide waste; but to repair the mansions of the grandees, was too gigantic a work to be then even begun; and they stood in the most neglected and forlorn condition. Street after street appeared in utter ruin: disjointed columns, mutilated porticoes, broken cupolas, walls of rugged stucco, black, discolored with the scorchings of fire, and open on every side to the weather, formed a hideous contrast with the glowing pictures which travellers had drawn of the grand and sumptuous palaces of Moscow." On the Sparrowhill, Alexander, in 1817, laid the foundation of " a Temple of our Savior," which, if completed, will be the most gigantic structure in the universe. It is to be 770 feet high (the Great Pyramid is only 630,) having three successive churches rising above each other, the lowest of which was to be fronted by a colonnade, 2,100 feet long. Twenty-four thousand peasants were provided, of whom 6,000 were to work at the building, and the rest to till the ground for their support. Among the other cities, the first place, on account of its mighty name, must be given to the Great Novogorod. Few objects convey more melancholy impressions of fallen grandeur than the view of this once proud capital of the North. First the metropolis of Rurick, it became afterwards an independent republic, which, repelling Tartar invasion, held wide sway over the regions round the Baltic, and, uniting itself to the great Hanse confederacy, gave rise to the northern proverb, "Who can resist God and the great Novogorod?" Even after Ivan had subdued it, carried off its great bell, and established his tribunal of blood, it was still the greatest town, though not the capital, of all Russia. The foundation of Petersburg gave it a more deadly blow than all its former calamities; and it is reduced to a third-rate place of 8000 or 10,000 people. Yet the crowd of domes and spires rising from its numerous churches and convents give it still a very magnificent appearance in the approach; but these, on arrival, are found standing solitary on a vast plain, while the inhabited circuit is only about a mile and a half, a great part of which is unoccupied. It is now much surpassed by Nizni (or Little) Novogorod, whose fair makes it the com mercial link between Europe and Asia. Its population varies, according to the season, from 15,000 to 150,000. The situation, at the junction of the Oka and the Volga, (the latter here navigable for vessels of 1000 tons,) is most happy for trade, but exposes it to the danger of inundation. Vla, dimir, once the capital of Vladimir the Great, is still a handsome little city, finely situated, and with the remains of a very magnificent cathedral. The arctic provinces of Great Russia-Vologda, Olonetz, and Archangel -are in the same latitude with Scandinavia, to which they present almost an exact parallel. They are overspread with vast forests of pine and fir, which, in approaching the shores of the Northern Ocean, become stunted 630 RUSSIA. and disappear. The southern tracts produce crops of oats, which are sent down the Dwina to Archangel, in large covered boats that never return, but are broken up for firewood. Archangel, the only Russian port before the acquisition of Petersburg and the shores of the Euxine, was then a flourishing emporium, with 30,000 inhabitants. Its merchants'still provision the whole coast of the Northern Ocean, and carry on the fishery with considerable activity: about one hundred vessels, from England, Holland, and Germany, enter the port. There are several churches and public buildings, on a scale rather suited to its former greatness than to its present decline. White or Malo-Russia, called also the Ukraine, has undergone various revolutions. It was the centre of Russia as first known to the Greeks, when Kiev, its capital, was boasted as a rival to Constantinople. It passed then through the hands of the Tartars and the Poles, till the conquering arms of Russia again reunited it, but as an appendant province. The Malo-Russians are a distinct race, decidedly superior to the Red Russians. They excel in every thing that can exalt one class of men above another; industry, honesty, courtesy, cleanliness, neatness. Their houses are carefully whitewashed, the interior well furnished, and nicely clean. Odessa, on the Black Sea, is the real capital and centre of commerce for all southern Russia. This city, which has sprung up as if by magic, in the midst of a desert, was founded by Catharine, in 1796, on the site of a Tartar village of a few huts. Notwithstanding the efforts of Catharine and of Paul, it did not attain any great importance till the Turks were obliged to open the navigation of the Bosphorus, and Alexander placed it under the able administration of the Duke de Richelieu. From that time it rose rapidly, till it has become the second commercial city of Russia. Wilna, 430 miles S. W. by S. of St. Petersburg, is a large and neat town, at the confluence of the Vilia and the Vilenka, and surrounded by picturesque hills. It is the ancient capital of Lithuania, and was for many years the seat of a flourishing university, which has been recently reduced to two chairs, one of medicine and the other of theology, and stripped of its rich endowments, libraries, and museums. Its cathedral of St. Stanislaus is one of the finest churches in Poland, and occupies the site of the temple of Perkunas, the Jupiter of the Lithuanians. Population, 56,000. Astrakhan, formerly the capital of a Tartar kingdom, is built on an island in the Volga, by which it is accessible for vessels from the Caspian Sea. The houses are almost all built of wood, and the streets are irregular, dirty, and unpaved; but its numerous churches, fine orchards and vineyards, its extensive suburbs, and its kremlin or citadel, give it a fine appearance at a little distance. The KINGDOM OF POLAND formerly included a very large territory, extending from the eastern frontier of Germany to the borders of Muscovy, about 700 miles, and from the shores of the Baltic to the Carpathian mountains and the river Dniester, on the borders of Turkey. While all the other Slavonic nations were subjugated by Turks or Tartars, Magyars, Greeks or Germans, the Poles preserved their independence, and long stood forth as the advance guard of Europe against the Infidels. The kingdom was at last so completely disorganized by its feudal aristocracy and elected king, that its neighbors took advantage of its weakness, RUSSIA. 631 produced by dissensions and anarchy, to divide it among themselves. The first dismemberment took place in 1766, and the second in 1792, when tho Polish territory was finally divided among the empress of Russia, the -emperor of Germany, and the king of Prussia. During the wars of the French revolution, various changes took place in the arrangement and boundaries of their respective divisions; but they were settled at last on their present footing in 1815: nearly two-thirds of the kingdom being then confirmed to Russia. Cracow, the ancient capital, was declared a free city, under the protection, or to speak correctly, under the domination of the three sovereigns; but in 1846 it was taken possession of by Austria, and annexed to that empire with the consent of the protecting powers. Warsaw is situated on the left bank of the Vistula, 170 miles south-east by south of Dantsic, in the middle of a vast sandy plain. The city proper is ill-built; but the suburbs are fine and spacious, with wide, straight, and well-paved streets. Praga, the largest suburb, is situated on the right bank of the river, across which there is a bridge of boats. The royal palace, Zamek Krolewski, is a vast building; and, besides it, there is a great number of other fine palaces and public buildings; a cathedral, dedicated to St. John, and numerous other churches, with many scientific and literary establishments. In the immediate neighborhood of the city is the superb castle of Villanow, which belonged to the great king John Sobieski, and where he died in 1696. Population, 150,000. The southern part of Asiatic Russia was known, under the name of Scythia, to the Greeks and Romans, who applied to it especially that ap pellation which was afterwards so widely extended. The expedition of Darius. showed the Scythians to be exactly what the rudest Tartars now are, —a roving, nomadic race, constantly on horseback; who fought flying, and by their rapid movements baffled, usually in a disastrous manner, every attempt of regular armies to subdue them. The monarchy of Russia seems to have been first formed about the ninth and tenth centuries, under the reigns of Ruric and Yladimir the Great. At that time it held some intercourse with the court of Constantinople, and was converted to the Greek church, which has ever since been the established religion. The invasion by the Tartars, under the successors of Zingis, in the twelfth century, formed a fatal era in the Russian annals. The whole country was overrun, its capital reduced to ashes, and the people completely subjugated under the yoke of Oriental despotism. Despotic ideas, and eastern habits, derived from this source, have ever since continued to prevail in Russia. The reestablishment of the monarchy, under the name of Muscovy, began in the fifteenth century, under Ivan Vasiljewics. The Tartars, however, made a desperate stand; and it was not until after a series of victorious reigns that they were driven beyond'the limits of Europe. During this period, the great republic of Novogorod, which had held the chief sway over northern Russia, was absorbed in the monarchy. A handful of Cossacks penetrated into Siberia, subdued the whole extent of northern Asia, and made the czars masters of an empire equal in superfices to the Roman. But the monarchy, though aggrandised in every direction, 632 ITALY. continued immersed in ignorance and barbarism, and had as yet no place or influence in the general system of Europe. The civilization of Russia began with the reign of Peter, one of the most remarkable eras in the history of the world. The wonderful steps by which that prince succeeded in giving to his kingdom so great an impulse, are familiar to almost every reader. His patriotic magnanimity, in quitting his throne, and laboring as a carpenter in the docks of Amsterdam and Portsmouth; the active spirit of improvement introduced on his return, in defiance of all the prejudices of a people wedded in the most superstitious manner to ancient habits, produced a change the most rapid and striking ever effected upon any nation. Before the death of Peter, Russia had taken her station among the civilized powers of Europe. Since that time, her improvement has proceeded steadily, and her influence has been continually increasing. Under Catharine and her generals, especially, the conquest of the Crimea, the defeat of the Turks, the victorious wars in Germany, and the violent dismemberment of Poland, progressively increased the power of Russia, and brought her more closely in contact with the other members of the European system. But the events of the last war produced this effect in a much more remarkable degree; when Napoleon, after having subdued all the other powers, found in Russia alone one that was able to cope with him. That power, at length triumphing, became the centre of the confederacy by which his empire was subverted, and the independence of Europe reestablished; in reward for which services, she hesitated not to claim a considerable share of the booty. In short, Russia is now, by many politicians, acknowledged as the most )ow erful state on the European continent. ITALY. AREA, 119,706 SQUARE MILES. PoPULATION, 24,573,100. ITALY is an extensive region in the south of Europe, one of the finest in the world as to soil and climate, and noted as the theatre of many of the greatest events in history. It is now in a state of degradation and decline, but is filled with grand monuments, and scenes calculated to awaken the most lofty recollections. Italy is bounded on the north, and partly on the west, by the vast and continuous range of the highest Alps, which separate her from what she disdainfully terms the ultramontane regions of France, Italy, and Switzerland. All the rest of her circuit is enclosed by the Mediterranean and its great gulfs. The surface of Italy is the most finely diversified of perhaps any country on the globe. It has the loftiest mountains, and the most beautiful plains in Europe. All the chains of the Alps, the Cottian, the Pennine, the Lepontine, the Rhoetian, the Julian, which belong only in part to other kingdoms, range along her frontier. Some of their proudest pinnacles, Mont Blanc, St. Bernard, Mont Rosa, are within the Italiatn territory, and their white summits are seen amid the clouds in continuous grandeur along ITALY. 638 the whole extent of the plains of Lombardy and Piedmont. The Apennine is a chain purely Italian. It branches off first from the Maritime Alps on the western frontier, and runs for a long space eastward, leaving on the south only a narrow plain between it and the Mediterranean; while on the north it forms the boundary of Piedmont and Lombardy. On the Tuscan border it gradually bends round to the south and south-east, following, or rather prescribing the form of the Peninsula, of which it occupies the centre, in one unbroken line. It does not aspire to the awful height, or wrap itself in the perpetual snows, of the Alps. Its highest pinnacle in the Abruzzo, called the great rock of Italy, does not rise much above 9500 feet. These mountains are consequently, in this climate, throughout, covered with luxuriant foliage; on the lower slopes are the vine and the olive, higher up, the various forest trees, among which the chestnut affords copious food to the inhabitants. They enclose finely cultivated valleys, and are fill of deep, intricate, and wooded defiles. As their branches, dividing into low hills of varied form, touch upon the fine plains along the Mediterranean, they produce a variety of bright and smiling scenes, which entitle Italy to be considered as the peculiar region of landscape. In the southern quarter they assume a very formidable and volcanic character, pouring deluges of burning lava from the cone of Vesuvius, and convulsing Calabria with the most terrible earthquakes. Their aspect in that country is peculiarly formidable and rugged. Beyond the straits of Messina, where they present to the mariner the perilous forms of Scylla and Charybdis, they cover Sicily with mountains, among which the celebrated peak of Etna rises to a height which only the Alps can surpass, while it throws out, amid the snows, volcanic eruptions as remarkable as those of Vesuvius. The plains of Italy are as remarkable for their extreme beauty as the mountains for their grandeur. The most extensive is that of the Po, or of Lombardy, between the Alps and Apennines, which, being profusely watered, highly cultivated, and under a genial climate, is, perhaps, the richest and most productive region in Europe. The Apennines, in their course southward through the centre of Italy, divide it into two plains, of which that on the east is narrow, and often crossed by branches from the main ridge, which present their bold cliffs to the Adriatic. On reaching the Neapolitan territory, the plain becomes wider and more fertile, being covered with rich pastures and vast plantations of olives. But it is on the western side that Nature most profusely displays her beauties, and that the grand seats of civilization and power have been established. The Tuscan champaign is scarcely considered as composed of more than two broad valleys, those of Florence and of Pisa; but the Campagna Felice of Naples, the voluptuous environs of Capua, appear to unite all the richness of Lombardy with aspects much more varied and picturesque, and are usually considered the most delightful country in Europe, All this side of Italy, however, is subject to a dreadful scourge, the malaria or pestilential influence arising from a marshy and swampy surface. The Pontine Marshes are in this respect so dangerous, that in the hot season they can scarcely be crossed, even hastily, without the peril of death. But it is round the imperial city itself, and at its very gates, that the malaria appears peculiarly desolating. The campagna of Rome, which cultivation and draining rendered formerly one of the finest spots of Italy, has, under the present proud and indolent rule, been so far neglected, that the pernicious influences 634 ITALY. of its low and swampy soil have gained a fearful ascendency. They have rendered it uninhabitable for a great part of the year; and this " storied plain" is become a desert, covered with a few scanty herds; and a deep solitude now encircles the fallen metropolis of the world. The rivers of Italy scarcely correspond to their fame, or to the lofty and classic recollections attached to their names. The Po, which waters the plain of Lombardy, and drains all the waters of the Alps and northern Apennine, can alone be ranked among the great rivers of Europe. Lakes are not a feature very characteristic of Italy. Nevertheless, the waters which descend from the southern face of the Alps, spread into the long and winding lakes, Maggiore, Como, and Garda, which extend into the plain of Lombardy. The scenery of these lakes has not the grand and solemn character of those of Switzerland, which are enclosed in the depth of the highest Alps; but they are beautiful in the extreme. The lower banks are bordered by gentle hills covered with vines and luxuriant verdure; while their heads are crowned by the snowy summits of the Alps. The history of Italy is unrivalled in the magnitude of its events, and their influence upon the general destinies of the world. Our limits and plan can allow only a very hasty sketch of the mighty revolutions of which this country has been the centre. Of the early nations of Italy but little is known. The Etruscans, by the works of art handed down by them, especially in the form of terracottas, appear to have been a civilized as well as a powerful and free people. The south, colonised from Greece, and even denominated Magna Groeca, was the seat of the most celebrated of the early schools of science: Pythagoras taught at Crotona; and the Samnites, by their gallant resistance to Pyrrhus, and afterwards to the Romans, established their name as a military nation. Rome sprung up amid these nations rather as a band of refugees than as a regular state. The Romans then subjected, one after another, first the neighboring tribes, then the whole of Italy; and afterwards crossed the seas, to conquer all the known world. Among their high and energetic virtues, and daring exploits, they retained still a character of rudeness: and the first influence of their conquests was to extinguish in the subject nations the degree of civilization they already possessed. Etruria lost hex early arts, and Carthage that immense commerce which embraced all the known seas of the globe. But as the hardy captains of Rome penetrated to the cities of Greece, and saw the matchless works of architecture and sculpture with which they were embellished, their rugged pride was softened, and they were smitten with the love of these beautiful arts. The orators of the forum sought next to transfer the splendid powers of eloquence which had given dignity and splendor to Athens. At last, Cicerc undertook to transplant the Grecian philosophy. Unfortunately, at tho same time, the chiefs who returned laden with the spoils of so many nations, introduced an unbounded luxury, which vitiated altogether the truth and simplicity of ancient manners. The empire of Rome, the most extensive and opulent ever established. was, after dreadful convulsions, erected on the mighty ruins of the senate and the republic; and the world became, as it were, the inheritance of a single man. On such a trying and perilous eminence, examples were ITALY. 635 presented of the most unbounded cruelty and dissoluteness; yet also of the most wise and enlightened humanity. During the Augustan age, poetry and all the fine arts were patronised and cultivated with ardor, after the Grecian model, and carried almost to an equal pitch of perfection. The oppressive sway, however, of successive tyrants, and the brutal license of the proetorian guards, soon left little more than that barbarous voluptuousness which generally characterises a purely despotic government. The decline of the Roman empire was attended with calamities to Italy and to mankind, still more dreadful than those with which its rise had been attended. The barbarians of the north and east of Europe, allured by the reported wealth and weakness of the empire, pressed continually closer on its frontier. They were kept in check for some time by the Danube and the Alps, and by the remaining strength of the legions. At length they burst all these barriers, and ravaged the beautiful plains of Italy. The transference to the East of the seat of empire, left this portion with an unequal share of the common defence. Rome itself, the imperial capital of the world, became the prey of barbarians; it was successively sacked by the Goths under Alaric, and the Vandals under Genseric. The sceptre was snatched from the feeble hand of Augustulus, and the western empire was extinguished. The kingdom felt a gleam of reviving prosperity under Theodoric the Ostrogoth and Theodosius the Great, but was soon overwhelmed by fresh swarms of barbarians, among whom the Lombards were the most conspicuous, and have given their name to the northern plain watered by the Po. The empire of Charlemagne suspended the troubles of Italy, but formed the commencement of that long series of ultramontane dominion to which she has been subjected. When the members of that empire, France and Germany, separated from each other, Italy fell to the lot of Germany, which retained the imperial name and dignity, but ever afterwards found this country a turbulent and precarious appanage. The spiritual authority of the Popes formed a new species of empire, which seemed to invest Rome with a grandeur almost equal to that which she had displayed under the Coesars. After a gradual progress: it rose, under Gregory VII., to such a height, that Henry IV., the most able and powerful prince of his time, was fain to present himself bareheaded and barefooted, and on his knees implore forgiveness for having ventured to dispute the spiritual authority. From this time these proud pontiffs not only claimed the right of disposing absolutely, throughout the Christian world, of all the officers and ministers of religion, and of exacting from it the regular tribute of " Peter's pence," but even of excommunicating and deposing the greatest kings. As the emperors, however, did not tamely submit to these usurpations from a power which they considered in a temporal sense as subordinate, a series of struggles ensued, which scandalized the church, and distracted Europe. The rise of the commercial republics, Venice, Genoa, and Florence, formed a brilliant era for Italy, enabling her almost to equal the most splendid ages of antiquity. Their navies, both for war and commerce, covered the seas, and set bounds to the all-grasping ambition of the Ottoman, which threatened to overwhelm the whole western world. By degrees, also, the lamp of learning, which had shed for ages only a dim light over Europe, broke forth here into full effulgence. The remains of Greek 636 ITALY. literature were conveyed over by the learned men who fled before the sword of the Turks; the writings of the ancients were drawn from the depth of convents, and eagerly studied and circulated. What was of more consequence, a race of enlightened princes and nobles arose, who sought glory in patronising knowledge, while a general taste for it was diffused among a wealthy and refined community. The arts of painting, architecture, and music, on which the wealth of the noble citizens was lavishly expended, rose to an eminence equalling, perhaps, that of the ancients, and surpassng that of any other modern nation. The decline and degradation of Italy rapidly ensued after this brilliant era. Her great republics lost the liberty which had rendered them so flourishing; their arts and commerce were transferred to the northern maritime states. The great monarchial powers, after long struggles, reduced her territory to a state either of subjection or vassalage; while they continued at the same time to make her soil one of the great theatres of contention. In general the great body of the Italian people manifest a deep sense of the fallen state of their country, and an eager desire to seize any favorable occasion to revive its ancient glories; but as yet the iron hand of Austrian military power has crushed in the bud every tendency of this nature. The political state of Italy presents nothing on which the well-wishers of that country can look with much satisfaction. It is chiefly divided among five potentates: the emperor of Austria, who holds Lombardy and Venice, to which may be added Parma and Placentia, the appanage of Maria-Louisa; the king of Sardinia, who has Piedmont, Savoy, and Genoa; the grand duke of Tuscany; the pope, temporal ruler of the states of the church; the king of Naples and' Sicily. Besides these, the duchy of Modena, and the republic of San Marino, form separate, though they hardly deserve the name of independent, states. The constitutions of all these sovereignties possess an unhappy simplicity; the will of the ruler operating unchecked by any legal or constitutional limit. Neither the great civic nobles of the commercial states, nor the feudal nobility of the country, have any effective influence in the administration. They only exercise, by their immense fortunes, a pernicious influence in checking the operations of police, throwing the public burdens on the industrious classes, and depriving them of the just protection of the laws. The police over all Lower Italy is in the most imperfect state. Bands of almost licensed robbers occupy the mountain districts, and make frequent inroads into the plain; thus rendering a great part of their territory unfit for the residence of the cultivator. The productive wealth of Italy has suffered greatly in the decline of heI other sources of prosperity, Yet such is the felicity of her soil and climate, and so considerable are the remains of her industry, that the entire produce of her land and labor is still ample and valuable. Agriculture is one of those plants which take such deep root, that only extreme tyranny and misrule, and scarcely even these, can eradicate them. Italy is now dependent upon other countries for the superb fabrics with which she formerly supplied them; her ships no longer cover the Mediterranean; her merchants, who were once her nobles and her princes, retain only the shadow of mighty names. But the plains of the Po, the Arno, ITALY. 637 and the Garigliano, are still cultivated like gardens; and the agricultural produce, after supplying a very dense population, affords a large surplus for export. The objects of agriculture in Italy are numerous and important. They include grain of all the most valuable descriptions. The wheat of Sicily, and still more of Sardinia, is reckoned the finest in Europe. Maize is a prevalent grain, chiefly for the food of the lower orders; and even rice is raised with success, and to a considerable extent, in the inundated tracts of Lombardy. Silk is an universal staple, and of very fine quality. The export of it, in a raw or thrown state, since the decline of internal manufactures, has been the main basis of Italian commerce: it is sent to all the manufacturing countries, and shares with that of China and Bengal the market of Britain. The vine finds almost everywhere a favorable situation, and is cultivated: but the juice no longer preserves the fame of the ancient Falernian. The olive grows in very great luxuriance in Naples, on the eastern slope of the Apennines; and-the oil made from it is more highly esteemed than any other, at least for use in the finer woolen manufactures, whence it finds in England a steady demand, under the name of Gallipoli. Cattle are not particularly numerous; but many of them, from their qualities, are singularly valuable. Preiminent among these are the cows fed in the pastures of the Parmesan, and the country around Lodi, which produce the cheese considered superior in richness and flavor to any other in the world. The cattle are of the Hungarian breed, crossed with the Swiss; they are fed in the stall upon mown grass; and numbers of the small proprietors keep a dairy in common, that they may conduct the process on a large scale. The sheep abound in all the mountainous districts, and their wool is generally esteemed. That of the Venetian hills has, by crossing with the merino, been rendered almost perfect; and that of the mountains of Rome and Naples, though not so fine, is valued for the equality of its texture. A great part is black, and woven undied, for the clothing of the galley-slaves and of the friars. Goats are reared in great numbers amid the Apennine cliffs; and their flesh and milk is the animal food chiefly used by the cultivators, with the addition, however, of fresh pork. Hogs are reared also in great perfection: and become even somewhat intelligent and sprightly animals. The hams and bacon thus produced are considered at Rome as a great luxury. The fruits of Italy are various and delicious, but none are of such value as the chesnuts, which in the upper regions constitute the food of a numerous body of mountaineers, who even dry and convert them into bread. The Apennine timber, consisting chiefly of oak and chesnut, is little used except for barrels. The saline plants of Sicily yield a barilla which rivals that of Spain. The manufactures in Italy, once remarkable for their elegance and variety, are now every where in a state of decay, and present only specimens on a small scale of what formerly existed. The great and opulent citizens, after the military revolutions which deprived them of influence and security, seem every where to have retired to the country, and invested their capitals in land. Silk was formerly the grand staple, particularly in the form of vblvets and damasks, richly adorned with gold and silver embroidery. This manufacture still exists in most of the great cities, though on a reduced scale. The woolen manufactures of Florence were once immense, 638 ITALY. giving employment to 30,000 persons; but they are now both few and coarse. Linen is considerable, and is often combined with cotton, which flourishes tolerably in the southern provinces of Naples, where the muslins of Tarento enjoy a.good deal of reputation. Glass, in brilliant and curious forms, was once a celebrated and admired article; and there is still made at Venice, on the Island of Murano, mirrors, glass beads, and tubes; at Florence, the flasks bearing the name of that city. It seems doubtful if the art that pro duced the ancient earthenware of Etruria still exist. The only fine porcelain of Italy is that of Naples, which may vie with any in Europe. The potteries of Terramo, in the Abruzzo, are also very extensive. Some cu rious works, inlaid agate tables, cameos, mosaics, &c., which elsewhere rank with the fine arts, are carried to such an extent, at Florence and Rome, as to be articles of trade. The mercantile transactions of Italy have declined in a still more remarkable degree. The discovery of America, and the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, transferred the most valuable trade of the world into channels from which she was excluded. The restrictive, and, in many respects, oppressive system, adopted by the Spanish and German princes, chilled the spirit of enterprise; and the great capitalists of Venice and Genoa preferred investing their money at high interest in foreign funds. The only great commercial activity now existing is at Leghorn, which carries on not only the commerce of Tuscany, but that of Naples and Sicily, and keeps even a regular depot of all the commodities of the Levant. The canals constructed during the period of the glory of Italy, are very numerous and valuable. The plain of Lombardy is intersected by twelve on a large scale, connected by innumerable minor channels. But, though many of these are navigable, their primary object has been to communicate to the country on both banks of the Po, its unrivalled fertility. The roads of Italy were carried to the highest perfection under the ancient Roman empire and republic. From Rome, as a centre, five great ways branched off to the different frontiers. All obstacles were removed, rocks levelled, hollows arched over, in order to form routes the most direct, level, and commodious. They were constructed in a particular manner with large blocks of stone wedged together so as almost to resemble a fiat surface of rock; and such is the durability thus produced, that several large portions remain, after the lapse of two thousand years, in as entire a state as at their first formation. The national character and the state of society in Italy are marked by prominent and striking features. The people, in some respects, are perhaps the most polished and refined of' any in the world. While the German and English nobles placed their cnjoyment in hunting and the pleasures of the table, music, painting, poetry, and assemblies for conversation, formed the delight of the Italians. The one spends much of his fortune in keeping a splendid table, stud, and pack of hounds; the other in building palaces, and adorning them with masterpieces of painting and sculpture. The French are, perhaps, still more gay and social; but their gaiety is more of a noisy, empty, and animal kind; while the Italian derives his delight from objects of taste, and feels them with deeper sensibility. Being excluded also from all concern in public affairs, and from the administration of the State, they have become estranged from habits of manly and energetic exertion. They ITALY. 639 pass their lives in a restless and lounging apathy, making it their sole object to while away the hour in the most easy and agreeable manner. Their day is spent in a regular routine of attendance on mass, on their lady, on the theatre, the Casino, and the Corso. As the title and rank of a noble descend to all his posterity, the great increase in their number, by reducing them to a miserable and proud poverty, tends still more to degrade them in the public eye. The misericordia, an institution diffused throughout Tuscany, consists in Florence of four hundred persons, many of high rank, who devote themselves to personal attendance on the sick, superintending the hospital, distributing food to the patients, and watching the manner in which they are treated. These duties, indeed, they perfQrm under the disguise of long black vestments, which- cover and conceal the face. There is another society for searching out and relieving the poor who have seen better days, and are ashamed to beg. Temperance must be admitted as another virtue of the Italians. Notwithstanding the abundance and cheapness of wine, intoxication is scarcely known, even amongst the lowest ranks. English visitors complain that, amid the profusion of other forms of courtesy, little food or drink is vouchsafed to them, even by the most opulent. A dinner is an event of the rarest occurrence; and the amusements of the evening, are only those of intellect or society, without any refreshment whatever. The lowest ranks form the mass of the Italian population, with scarcely any intervening class between them and the nobles. They share in some degree, the refined taste and manners of the higher ranks. The common shop-keepers of Florenqe and Rome possess a taste in the fine arts, and sometimes even in poetry, which is unknown in the most polished circles beyond the Alps. Chey delight, also, in conversation, which they support with peculiar animation, and with gesticulations the most varied and expressive of any European people. The peasantry are, on the whole, a poor, quiet, contented and -orderly race; spending, not very wisely, all their little savings in finery for their wives and daughters. But the populace of the great towns display a character peculiarly idle, tumultuary and unlicensed. They seem to combine the characters of citizens, beggars and bandits. The lazzaroni of Naples, in particular, form a numerous body, who exist almost wholly out of the pale of regular society. The climate enables them to live without houses, —almost without clothes, and with only a daily handful of maccaroni. Having obtained this by theft, by'begging, or some little occasional work, they abandon themselves to luxurious indolence, or the indulgence of wa/ywrad humors. They are a set of wild, merry rogues, with all the rude energy of savages, full Of humor, address, ready arguments, and quick rapartee.:Another too numerous class are the bandits, who, established in the recesses of the Apennines, form a sort of separate people, and carry on their avocation on a great and regular scale. The strength of their line of mountain positions, which runs close and parallel to that of the high road through Italy, affords them opportunities of which they know well how to profit. The road from Rome to Naples is their favorite haunt, and even when guarded by piquets of soldiers at the distance of every mile, it cannot always be travelled with safety. Religion still forms a prominent feature in Italy, the centre of that great spiritual dominion, which for so many ages, held unbounded sway over - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l ~~~~~~~~~ITALIAN PEASANTS.l __i —.- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ NEAPOLITANS -THE IMPROVISATOR. - -— w,,==i-_ —~t ~;L-I —fII_ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ —-P_-,L-S;=;_==3. C~L 642 ITALY. Europe. The Pope, as spiritual head of the Catholic Church, maintains an establishment rather suited to his former supremacy, than to the limited and almost nominal jurisdiction which he now exercises. The great council of the church, consists of the college of cardinals, who, according to the regular establishment, amount to seventy: they are chosen by the Pope, and on their part, they elect him out of their body. Every fortnight they are assembled in a consistory, to deliberate on the general affairs of the church. The ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church are exhibited in Rome in all their imposing splendor. Mr. Eustace considers the pontificial service at St. Peter's, and the procession on Corpus Christi day, as, perhaps, the most magnificent spectacles that are exhibited in the universe. All the parade of dress, the blaze of light, and the pomp of music, are united in the magnificent hall of the Vatican, and the vast area of the church of St. Peter, to produce the most imposing and brilliant effect: one of the most striking scenes is said to be in St. Peter's, on the night of Good Friday, when the hundred lamps that burn over the tomb of the Apostle are at once extinguished, and in their stead a stupendous cross of light appears suspended from the dome: in one part of the ceremonies the Pope makes a show of washing the feet of pilgrims, while in another he bestows his benediction on the assembled multitude. These great days are preceded by periods of severe fasting, and followed by a carnival, or interval of almost unbounded license. The gloom of the first period is described by Lady Morgan, as enlivened by busy preparation in draping the churches, clothing altars, and forming festoons: also in preparing crowns, necklaces and cradles for the Madonna and Child of the respective churches. Sometimes the Virgin blazes in pearls and diamonds; sometimes she can only get a tin crown, set off with gilt paper and glass beads. Mary, according to Mrs. Graham, is the goddess of Italy; even the robbers, who are generally devout, never go forth on a marauding expedition, without her image carefully tied round the neck. In literature and science, the world is deeply indebted to Italy; first, for the classical works she has produced during her Augustan age; and then for the brilliant revival of literature, under her auspices, after a long night of ignorance. In the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, she could boast of Petrarch, Dante, Tasso and Ariosto, as standing in the first class of poets; Guicciardini, Fra Paola, Machiavel, unrivalled among the historians of their own and several succeeding ages; and Galileo as attaining the highest distinction in astronomy and physical science. The fine arts in Italy have attained a splendor quite unrivalled in any modern country, and have even flourished in that region as their chosen and peculiar soil. An aristocracy living in cities, and estranged from rural habits, naturally centre their pride and gratification in covering their coun try with this species of embellishment. The houses of the Medici and of Este, with the nobles and senate of Venice, vied with each other in raising such monuments. Painting, in the sixteenth century, and in the Roman and Florentine schools, reached a height of perfection unequalled, perhaps, in ancient times. In all the qualities of form, design and expression, which constitute MrAmLY. 648 the highest excellence of the art, no names can yet rival those of Michael Angelo and Raphael. The sculpture of Italy, even during its happiest ages, did not equal that of the ancient schools; though Michael Angelo and Bandinelli, combining it with painting, produced some very splendid specimens. In the present age, the genius of Canova has burst forth with a brilliancy which has enabled modern times in this art almost to rival antiquity. Thorwaldsen, also, though a Dane, having been completely formed and fixed at Rome, has generally been considered-as Italian. Architecture's another art in which Italy has no modern rival. Though some of the northern nations may have erected more huge and more costly structures, none of them display the same high, pure and classical taste. Besides Palladio and Bramante, who hold the foremost place among professed architects, Michael Angelo employed himself in designing several great edifices, which are stamped with all the grandeur of his genius. Hence, notwithstanding the astonishing magnificence of the architectural remains -of ancient Rome, they are completely matched by St. Peter's, the Lateran, S. Maria Maggiore, and other modern churches. In music Italy has boasted a similar preeminence; and for a long time all the great composers in the high style of art, Pasiello, Cimarosa and Salieri, were exclusively Italian. Of late, however, Germany has come forward as a powerful rival; Vienna especially has produced several composers of the first class. Yet Italy seems still to be regarded as the chief home of the musical art; thither all the students repair; and its vocal performers are considered over all Europe, as superior to those of any other country. The mansions of Italy are celebrated for the splendor and art displayed both in their form and interior decoration. Those built by the nobility in Rome, Florence, Genoa and Venice, are usually dignified with the name of palaces; and their classic exterior, spacious apartments, and the works of painting and sculpture with which they are adorned, render them often more interesting to the spectator than those of the greatest monarchs beyond the Alps. The taste for architectural beauty descends even to the lower ranks. The houses of the little farmers in Tuscany and Lombardy, are adorned with porticoes and colonnades, and often display a classic aspect. The local divisions of Italy are-more than usually prominent; for though the country is united by name, by a common language, and by a strong national feeling, it has yet been partitioned into a number of states, politically independent of each other. Italy is thus divided into five great portions: 1. The Ecclesiastical States; 2. Tuscany; 3. Lombardy, or the Austrian States; 4. The States of the King of Sardinia; 5. Naples and Sicily; to which must be added the smaller states of 6. San Marino; 7. Modena; 8. Lucca; 9. Parma; 10. Monaco. The ECCLESIASTICAL STATES have lost that paramount importance which they-once possessed, and are the least flourishing and powerful of all the divisions of Italy. Nevertheless, as they contain Rome, with all its stupendous monuments, and were the central theatre of all the ancient grandeur of Italy, they still excite an interest superior to that of any other of these celebrated regions. They form a central band, extending entirely across the country, and separating the north from the south of Italy. 644 ITALY. The population of the Ecclesiastical States, is 2,970,000; area 17,280 square miles. Rome is the capital of the Ecclesiastical States. This ancient city, still great in its decline, presents to the reflecting mind a more interesting spectacle, than the proudest capitals of the modern world. It holds enshrined as it were, all the sublimest monuments of history and antiquity. Every spot is rendered sacred by awful names and heroic actions. The memory of those who rose in genius and glory above the rest of mankind, and of those whose nod fixed the destinies of the w8rld, seems to hover around the "eternal city." Gibbon, while he disclaims enthusiasm as a part of his character, admits that it never left him during the weeks which he spent in wandering through the streets and monuments of Rome. Independent even of these high associations, Rome contains the most perfect works in architecture, painting and sculpture, produced in the ages both ancient and modern, when those arts had reached their proudest height. Even now, all who wish to attain taste or perfect skill in those refined and beautiful arts, flock to Rome as their school. To celebrate Rome as it was, and as it is, libraries have been written; but we can merely mention those grand features which render it the admiration of the world. The outlines of ancient Rome, and its relation to the modern city, may be distinctly traced. Forsyth distinguishes three cities called Rome; that which the Gauls destroyed; that which Nero burned, and that which Nero re-built. The walls begun by Servius Tullius, and completed by Aurelian, present specimens of all the successive forms of construction which prevailed in Rome. The modern city is still enclosed by them; but it covers only a portion of that vast site occupied by the mistress of the world. It extends chiefly over the Campus Martius and along the Tiber, forming a curve round thebase of the Capitol. The spectator must turn to the other side of that hill, before he is met by the genius of ancient Rome. There, scattered in vast and shapeless masses over the seven hills, appears its ruins. They stand in lonely majesty, with groves of funeral cypress waving over them. Its palaces, its tombs, its baths, its temples with their pointed obelisks, stand majestic but solitary monuments amid the extensive waste of time and desolation. The Capitol, the Forum, the hills, areastamped with those characters of antiquity, that cannot be mistaken: " a walk from the Capitol to the Coliseum, comprises the history of ages." The leading features in Rome are the ancient edifices; the modern edifices; the works of painting; and the works of sculpture. The Pantheon, whose portico, it is said, " shines inimitable on the earth," preserves uninjured this feature, its graceful dome and its pavement, and the rich fluted marble pillars that line its walls; while the deep tints of age only serves to render it more venerable. The amphitheatre, called the Coliseum, that spacious structure "Which in its public days, unpeopled Rome, And held uncrowded nations in its womb," presents still the most gigantic monument of the Roman world. Fifty thousand people could find seats in it; yet this huge space was, it appears, some times insufficient for the multitudes who thronged to witness the cruel spec tacles there exhibited. This edifice, by its circular form, and the solidity of its materials, was enabled to defy the effects of barbarism; but it fell a victim to the hand of taste. The modem nobles, in seeking to adorn ITALY. 645 Rome with palaces, used the Coliseum as a quarry, out of which the materials might be drawn. Baths form another most superb class of Roman monuments. Those of Caracalla resemble the ruins of a city rather than of any single structure. They afforded, in fact, every variety of recreation; containing temples, porticoes, libraries, and theatre. It is supposed that there might be accommodation for three thousand persons to bathe at a time. The numerous columns, paintings, and statues, have been obliterated; though, of the latter, the Hercules, and the Tofo Farnese were dug up from beneath. The column of Trajan and that of Antoninus sirvive as magnificent examples of this description of edifice. They are of the finest white marble, about 120 feet high, and decorated with a series of sculpture, which winds in a spiral line from the base to the capital of each, representing their respective wars and triumphs. That of Trajan, in particular, contains 2500 figures; forming a complete system of Roman antiquities, and a mine from which all modern painters have drawn materials, The two emperors have been deposed from their lofty shrines, and in their room have been elevated, with very bad taste, representations of St. Peter and St. Paul. Triumphal arches formed with the ancients a favorite mode of commemorating great actions and signal achievements. Of these, Rome still exhibits some splendid remains. The Arch of Constantine is the loftiest, the noblest, and in the purest style of architecture. That of Titus is richer, but is considered by Mr. Forsyth as too much crowded with sculpture. Those of Severus and Gallienus are decidedly inferior. The tombs are lastly to be mentioned,. as an object on which art and pomp were lavished by the ancients. Those of Augustus and of Adrian are on the most gigantic scale, resembling subterraneous cities. The lower vaults of the former are large enough to serve for a modern amphitheatre; but they were tombs on a hospitable system destined to contain not himself and his relations only, but his freedmen and their families. That of Adrian, reduced to half its dimensions, still forms the Castle of St. Angelo, the spacious citadel of Rome. Greater elegance appears in the tomb of Caius Cestius, a lofty pyramid, which rises in lonely pomp looking upon a hundred humbler tombs in the neighboring grove, and supported on either side by the ancient walls of the city in venerable decay. Of the modern edifices of Rome, those devoted to ecclesiastical purposes are by far the most conspicuous; for, though Venice and Genoa may compete in the splendor of palaces, in churches no other city can be compared with this metropolis of the Catholic world. They present also specimens of successive styles of architecture; many of them having been begun in the first centuries, and enlarged and embellished by a long line of pontiffs, till they have become perfect treasuries of wealth and art. Some of these series were not in the very purest taste; but as, even in the dark ages, they were often modelled after ancient structures which were always present to inspire ideas of grandeur, none of them exhibit marks of total degeneracy and deformity. "He, therefore," says Eustace, " who delights in halls of an immense size and exact proportion, in lengthening colonnades and vast pillars of one solid block of porphyry, of granite, of Parian or Egyptian marble; in pavements that glow with all the tints of the rainbow, and roofs that blaze with brass or gold; in canvass warm as life itself, and statues ready to start from the tombs on which they recline, will range ____ I — l ~=~~~~~~~~~~~ —— ~ —ROME —RUINS OF THE FORUM. L' I 7 -- - ~ --;:r —.. -r- --- - _ — 1 -----— —-— I —------- ----- -,- —------— — —-------— = — - _. ___ C -— 1i~ —L —-? —- zr-I _ _z_ -II Z'L= —— =========== —=~= —-===== —-=== -~ ___ ---- - --- ~ -- I- -- -- ~- - _ - ~ ,I======_= —------— ~I: Tji i IBih'"B aOlliE — ~ST. PETER'S. 648 ITALY. round the churches of Rome, and find in them an inexhaustible source of instructive and rational amusement." Foremost among the churches of Rome, and of the world, stands the majestic front and sublime dome of St. Peter's. On its site has always been the principal church of Rome, erected by Constantine, and rendered sacred by containing the ashes of the apostle from whom the bishops of Rome claimed their descent and authority. After being embellished during successive ages, it began to threaten its fall, when Nicholas V. and Julius II. conceived the project of erecting in its stead a new and nobler structure. It was carried on for a hundred years, by eighteen pontiffs, all devoting to it a large portion of their treasure, and employing upon it the talents of Bramante, Michael Angelo, Bernini, and other artists, the greatest of that most brilliant age. It is surprising with what unity the successive artists workbd over each other's plans. The first, indeed, is liable to criticism; but the colonnade and the dome are perfectly unrivalled, and render it the most magnificent structure that was ever reared by mortal hands. The Basilica of St. Paul's is still more ancient, having been built by Thodosius, and presents great vestiges of ancient magnificence, consisting in painted walls, and long ranges of marble and porphyry columns. Though several times repaired, it has still, however, a forlorn, unfinished, and almost ruinous appearance; presenting the aspect of a desolate and melancholy monument. The church of St. John Lateran claims a still higher dignity; being in preference to St. Peter's, the regular chathedral church of Rome; on which ground it assumes the lofty title of mother and head of the churches of the city and the world. It was, in fact, adorned with 3Q9 antique pillars, which would, it is,supposed, have formed the finest pillared scenery in existence; but, unhappily, it came into the hands of a modern architect who seems to have been actuated by an antipathy to pillars, and who walled up a great proportion of them. The S. Maria Maggiore is another church, of which Eustace doubts if any architectural exhibition surpasses or even equals it. The two magnificent colonnades, and the canopy which form its interior, constitute its prominent beauties. Besides these four principal churches, Rome contains numerous others, distinguished by their antiquity and embellishments, especially in painting and sculpture. The other leading ornament of modern Rome consists in its palaces. A fondness, and almost a rage, for erecting magnificent structures generally possesses the Italian nobles, and displays itself peculiarly in their town residences, which are hence usually dignified with the appellation of palace. So vast are those of Rome, that, with their appendages, they cover more ground than the modern habitations. They do not in general display the same lofty style of architecture as the churches or temples. Their place in the street does not allow room for the open gallery and spacious colonnade; and the external ornaments, even of the most splendid consist chiefly in pilasters. Their chief attraction is in the spacious courts and porticoes within, the vast halls and lofty apartments, with the pillars, the marbles, the statues, and the paintings that furnish and adorn them in such profusion. Indeed, they are maintained in a great measure as galleries of painting and sculpture. The pontifical palaces, however, eclipse them all. The Vatican is pre eminent, not only by its external structure, which is simple, and not very ITALY. 649 uniform, but by its vast extent, being 1200 feet by 1000; by the number of its apartments, which have been estimated at 11,000; and, much more than all, by its contents, which are more precious and interesting than those of any other palace or edifice in existence. It contains the most valuable library in Europe, the finest works of Raphael and Michael Angelo, and a vast collection of ancient sculpture, including several of its choicest specimens. The thunders of the Vatican have ceased to agitate Europe, and this palace is now prized only as the great school of the peaceful and elegant arts. The summer palace on Monte Cavello, the ancient Quirinal, is very extensive, but of simple structure, and has spacious and fine gardens. The Lateran is an elegant but smaller edifice, only used when service is to be performed in the neighboring church. The works of painting and sculpture with which Rome is adorned, excel, as already observed, those of any other city in the world. The Roman school surpasses any in modern times in force and expression, the qualities which constitute the highest excellence of art; but, besides the works of Raphael, its leader, and his disciples, the munificence of the pontiffs enabled them to attract the great masters from other cities of Italy. The choicest works of ancient sculpture having been employed to adorn the Roman temples and palaces, were dug up from beneath them to adorn the modern city: these, however, being all moveable, suffered still more than the paintings by the French system of spoliation, and all those which were of any value were carried away, that the Louvre might be made the centre of art. Even in the course of the restoration, several have been with drawn. Rome, however, retains the Laocoon, the Gladiator, and a profusion of other works, still more superior to those found in any other city. The villas in the vicinity of Rome form an additional ornament to the city, especially the extensive gardens which surround them. The gardens of Lucullus, of Maecenas, of Sallust, were peculiarly spacious and magnificent; and those of the modern palaces, though on a scale less vast, partake of the same character. Several command extensive views over Rome, anciently adorned with those stupendous edifices which were the wonder of the world, but now, perhaps, more interesting when the same edifices are lying on the ground, and overgrown with cypress. No spot commands so fine a view over these awful and immortal remains as the Farnese gardens on the Palatine Mount. The more distant environs of Rome consist, in the first instance, of that wide campagna or plain, which its pestilential air has devoted to almost total desolation. In approaching, however, to the branches of the Apennine, a singular variety of picturesque scenery begins to open. Gentle hills, with little lakes embosomed in them, and swelling into bold and lofty mountains, crowned with extensive forests; cascades dashing down their steeps, and smiling plains intervening;-these, with brilliant skies and balmy airs, are common to this region with many others; but derives peculiar interest from the edifices, noble in ruin, which adorn the brow of almost every hill, and from the recollection of the many illustrious ancients who in these shades wooed the Muses, and sought recreation from the toils of war and of empire. Tivoli, the ancient Tibur, the residence of Maecenas, and Horace's favorite haunt, is celebrated over all Italy for its natural beauties. They consist chieflyin the winding of the falls of the Anio, now Teverone; particularly the great fall, whose summit is crowned by the Temple of the Sibyl, t~llp ~/ R ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ~ ~ F~~~~~~RM -- CI I.A en~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _!lI -- -- ~- I- ~. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ L 19 1O111 ark A 11; r HROME -BRIDGE OF MICHAEL ANGELO 652 ITALY. a small edifice, but one of the most elegant and finely proportioned, which has been transmitted from antiquity. The river pouring down in two broad sheets, the rocks fringed with shrubs, and crowned with forests, and with this beautiful ruin, produce a combination scarcely to be equalled. We must not quit the papal territory, without noticing what has been called the freest and most virtuous of all commonwealths, that formed on the insulated rock of SAN MARINO. Founded by a man of low rank, and having become a refuge for those who sought peace amid the turbulence of the feudal ages, it has remained inviolate for thirteen centuries, either respected or overlooked by the proudest and most mighty oppressors of Italy. It has still "Liberty" inscribed on the gates of its little capitol, and exemplifies, in the virtue, simplicity, and happiness of its people, the powerful influence of free institutions. The government is vested in 60 senators, 20 patricians, 20 burgesses, and 20 peasants, chosen for life, and two gonfaloniers chosen for three months. The aringo or general assembly of citizens, is held once every six months. The revenue of the State amounts to $15,000; the army to 60 men. The population of the capital is about 5,000; four villages constitute the rest of the territory of the republic. The duchy of TUSCANY ranks next to the Roman States as the theatre of great historical events, and has surpassed Rome itself as the seat of modern learning. Its first glories even preceded those of the metropolis. The Etruscans, the earliest masters of Italy, were found by the Romans divided into ten powerful, brave, and, in some respects, civilized commonwealths. They were vanquished, however, and so completely destroyed, that the antiquary seeks in vain to fix the site of Veil, Fidenae, and of the other large and strong cities, on which flocks have now fed for more than 2000 years. Little, indeed, remains of the commerce and industry by which Florence was formerly so distinguished; but the vale of the Arno, the plain of Pisa, and the environs of Sienna, are still as highly cultivated and productive as any part of Europe. The arts of painting and architecture are fallen from their ancient eminence, but the monuments of them remain, and are rendered more interesting by the tints which time has thrown over them. Tuscany contains 8,844 square miles; and 1,752,000 inhabitants. Principal towns:-Florence, 80,000; Leghorn, 66,000; Pisa, 20,000; Sienna, 18,000; Prato, 10,000; Pistoia, 12,000; Arezzo, 7,000; Cortona, 4,000. Florence, which attained so great a name under the humane and enlightened sway of the Medici, is still a delightful city. Its situation is peculiarly happy, in the vale of the Arno, which forms one continued interchange of garden and grove, enclosed by hills and distant mountains. Its public buildings are fine, though all modern. Being surpassed by those of Rome, they no longer excite any peculiar interest. The cathedral, however, while St. Peter's was not yet constructed, ranked as the most majestic edifice in Italy; Sad the form of its dome is supposed to have at least suggested that of the other more majestic one. The palaces, also, with the same character, have a similar uniformity; and many of them, erected during the ages of dire and deadly feud, exhibit, in their approaches at least, an attention to strength rather than to beauty. The Gallery is the chief pride of Florence, both as to its structure and contents. It has twenty apartments branching off from it, in each of which the productions of a particular school or class of art are exhibited. In ancient sculpture, this ITALY. 653 collection has perhaps no rival, since it contains the Venus brought from the Medici palace, the groupe of Niobe, the Faun, and many other masterpieces. The environs of Florence are nearly as romantic as those of Rome, and not separated by any intervening desert, but rising in its close vicinity. Vallombrosa, a grand and solemn scene, where "Etrurian shades highoverarched embower," has been rendered classical by the immortal verse of Milton, who is supposed to have drawn from it his picture of Paradise, when he describes it- "shade above shade, A woody theatre of stateliest view." Pisa, situated on a fertile and beautiful plain, was long one of the proudest and most prosperous of the commercial republics of Italy. Subjected by Florence, after a long contest, and now involved in the same common slavery, her wealth has disappeared, and her population has been reduced from 100,000 to 20,000. A, solemn character of fallen grandeur still invests her. Her four edifices, the cathedral, the baptistery, the leaning tower, and the Campo Santo, form one of the grandest existing ranges of architecture, all built of the finest marble. The cathedral is the most spacious and splendid of these edifices; but the campanile, or belfy, is the most remarkable. It is a tower of six successive stories of arches, supported by pillars. But its grand peculiarity is, that it has actually deviated fourteen feet from the perpendicular, yet has thus stood for 300 years, without the slightest tendency towards a fall. The deviation appears to have been in consequence of the softness of the ground, but it is a striking proof of skillful and solid construction, that this lofty edifice has not only remained firm for so long a period, but does not even now give the least menace of ruin. LuccA, though an Etruscan city, is governed by a duke of its own. It is one of the few Italian republics which, amid the revolutions of 800 years, maintained its independence. The Lucchese reaped the benefit of this, in the superior education and more decent deportment of her nobles; in that agricultural industry which, in a degree even beyond what appears in the rest of Italy, has converted a land liable to inundation, and destitute of many natural advantages, into a complete garden. The territory, though only forty-three miles in length, and twelve in breadth, twothirds of which consists of mountain and defile, reckons a population of 145,000. PARMA, PLACENTIA, and GUASTALA, form a complete appendage to Lombardy, and a continuation of its great plain, to the foot of the Apennines. They abound in the richest pastures, from which is produced that most celebrated of cheeses, to which Parma gives its name. The dukes of Parma, and espcially the celebrated Alexander Farnese, have ranked among the first generals of Europe. The city of Parma, on a small river of the' same name, is large, populous airy, and clean. MODENA is a fine small domain, composed of a rich plain at the foot of the Apennines. It is held as a fief of Austria. The city of Modena, the ancient Mutina, is extremely handsome, though without any objects peculiarly striking. It has a population of 27,000 souls. It was enriched by the family of Este with splendid collections of books and paintings; but the latter have been now removed, by purchase, to adorn the Dresden gallery. '" Tr n cl,..., 7 "` I~ -~~ —-- - -~IL= z - ~s -~il ~ —-—.~ —, I=i: ~-LC^,~~C - ii;fY-T "-'nP - I -- - --- — -L-13;:e;;: si ~, ~ i i' \,rdBraP 4erz..PslYrJli;rsL~s~C- q (liZjl ti 1' )iTi: I:j bi'I: I-_;7-- —-;_Zz=;t~;~ _--i;rr;'I —- — .. _ c: —-— = "=-;=;L — —'L.-TCEji- __ L-;-=ei- .S' —---— — = —------ -7-: —— -~; cC — r -rr.;. —;:-~T2 —- -----— L `e a~ *a; —` = I iSS~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i i AIRCtTITECTUaE — LORENUCIE CATHETR A~T 656 ITALY. AUSTRIAN ITALY, or the LOMBARDO-VENETIAN KINGDOM, consists of the great plain of the Po, bordered on one side by the highest ranges of the Alps, on the other by those of the Apennines. It has not the classic sites and monuments of Rome, nor the brilliant skies of Naples; yet it would be difficult to find on the globe a territory of the same extent equally fine. The luxuriant fertility of this vast plain; the grand, almost magic, landscapes presented by the southern declivity of the Alps, and the lakes which spread at their feet; the fine shores of the Adriatic, unite in making it one of the most desirable regions of Europe. The state of agriculture, and of the other branches of national industry in Lombardy, has been sufficiently illustrated in describing those of Italy in general, in which it forms so prominent a part. Area, 17,594; Population, 5,068,000. Milan is a noble city, which ranks almost as the modern capital of Italy. Its situation in the middle of a superlatively rich and beautiful plain, watered by the Po, at a point where all the great canals meet, and on the high road from Germany by the lakes Maggiore and Como, render it a sort of key to the northern part of this kingdom. Its modern greatness preceded that of most of the other cities; and under the Sforzas and Viscontis it became the grand theatre of debate between France and Austria. Its greatest splendor, however, was attained under the r6gime of France, when it became the capital, first of the Italian republic, and then of the kingdom of Italy. Napoleon spared no expense in erecting edifices which might dazzle the eyes of his new vassals. The Duomo, begun in the 15th century, under the Viscontis, and slowly carried on by successive benefactions, had been left more than half unfinished.; so that the French had the greater part of its magnificent front to execute. It is the only very superb edifice of this description which may be said to belong to the present age. In extent and pomp it ranks second to St. Peter's; though the design has been criticised, especially as to the four hundred statues which are ranged along the fagade. It is 454 feet long, 270 wide: the height of the cupola is 232, and that of the tower 335 feet. The French have also erected a very magnificent amphitheatre, completely on the antique model, in which from 30,000 to 40,000 spectators can be accommodated. Chariot races and national games have been repeatedly performed within its precincts. A superb triumphal arch was commenced on the Simplon road, in commemoration of the stupendous labors by which that passage over the Alps was formed; but since the fall of Napoleon no further progress has been made. The theatre Della Scala is the only very fine one in Italy, as it was only in Milan, and during the last century, that the Italian drama acquired any degree of splendor. The opera of this city is accounted inferior to that of Naples; but the ballet is the finest in Italy, and consequently in the world. A more interesting and classical scene is presented by the Brera, or palace, formed out of the ancient convent of the Humiliati. Here the French deposited the finest paintings which could be procured by purchase or otherwise from every part of Italy, including those brilliant productions of the Bolognese schools, which had adorned the Zampieri palace. The Last Supper of Leonardo da Vinci, one of the greatest masterpieces of modern art, and long the pride of Milan, is now almost entirely faded, and scarcely known but by engravings, and by a very fine copy, in mosaic, made by the French. The Ambrosian library, formed by Cardinal Frederic Borromeo, on the basis of the Benedictine collection, consists of 90,000 ITALY. 657 volumes and 15,000 manuscripts, and is well known to the world by the learned researches and discoveries of Angelo Mai. Milan has an infirmary for 3600 sick, and a foundling hospital for 4000 children. It covers a great space of ground, and has some very spacious squares; but the streets'in general, like those of other old cities, are narrow and crooked, and far from handsome. Several of those called corsos, which form the entrance into the city, have been greatly improved. Venice, thcugh now reduced to a secondary rank, compared with Milan, is a more celebrated and still a much more beautiful city. This once great republic, into which flowed the commerce and wealth of the East, which ruled the Mediterranean, sacked the imperial city, and set bounds to the Ottoman power at a moment when it seemed ready to overwhelm all Europe, is now, after a duration of thirteen centuries, forever extinguished.- Its fall without a struggle was, doubtless, prepared by a decay of its moral energies. The nobles who once swayed the councils of Venice, and commanded her fleets, had no longer any object but to attend public processions, to pay court to their lady, to while away the evening at her casinos, and to heighten the gay license of the carnival. The people, enslaved, had lost all national spirit. The republic, with all its bright series of triumphs, is now an empty name; but Venice remains, however, next to Rome, the finest of all the Italian cities. It cannot, indeed, boast of any classic monuments, nor are its churches built in so lofty a style; but its palaces, the gay architecture of Palladio, present a range of the finest private mansions that were ever erected. The effect is greatly heightened by its situation, on seventy islets of; the Adriatic, partly on the rock, partly on piles sunk into the sea, and a marine channel, instead of a pavement, perforating every street. Scarcely is there room left for a foot-passenger; thQ Venetian is conveyed in the gay gondola from palace to palace. Thus Venice appears rising from the waters, with its numberless domes and towers; and, attended by several smaller islands, each crowned with spires,and pinnacles, presents the appearance of a vast city floating on the bosom of the ocean. The row of magnificent but decaying palaces which extend along the grand canal, with their light arabesque balconies and casements, their marble porticoes, and peculiar chimneys, present one of the most superb and singular scenes in the world. They stand in majesty of ruin, and exhibit the most affecting combinations of former splendor and present decay. The most commanding objects are those round the square of St. Mark, the most magnificent public place in Italy. The church of St. Mark rivals in splendor any edifice in that country, or in Europe. But this pomp is gloomy and barbaric: the five domes which swell from its roof, the crowded decorations which cover its porticoes, give it the appearance of an Eastern pagoda. Its mixed orders, Greek, Saracenic, and Gothic, are beautifully but barbarously blended, and glitter with incrustations of gold, gems, and marbles. The interior is enriched with the spoils of Constantinople and the East, the monuments of long ages of glory. The most classic plunder is that of the four bronze horses of Lysippus, which stand on the portico facing the piazza. After remaining there six hundred years, they were removed to the Tuileries, but are now replaced. The figure of a lion, emblematical of the evangelist St. Mark, stands on the second arch. ~ One side of the square is lined by the ducal palace, a fabric of vast extent and solidity, built in the Gothic and Saracenic style. The stranger beholds 42 658 ITALY.'with emotion the halls where the senate, and the dreadful Council of Ten, formerly sat; and which, as well as the other apartments, are adorned with the finest works of the Venetian painters. The Rialto, a bold marble arch thrown over the most magnificent part of the great canal, excites universal admiration. The arsenal occupies an island by itself, and is strongly fortified, spacious, and commodious, wanting nothing but shipping and naval stores. The churches, the palaces, and the scuole, or halls of the different corporations, are embellished with the finest paintings, both in oil and fresco, of the great Venetian painters, Titian, Paul Veroitese, Tintoretto, and the Palmas. This school, as is well known, surpassed all others in coloring, though it did not reach the grand design and expression of the Roman. Venice is the birth-place of Canova, the greatest of modern sculptors, and contains some of his works. The Venetian territory can boast several renowned cities. Padua, which is said to have been founded by Antenor, and to have attained considerable magnitude before the existence of Rome, gained celebrity in modern times as a seat of learning. Its university was only rivalled by that of Bologna, and attracted 18,000 students; yet, though it has still forty-five professors, and affords ample means of acquiring knowledge, the scholars were, in Eustace's time, reduced to 600; and, according to Hassel, in 1817 they did not exceed 300. Galileo, Vesalius, and Morgagni, were among its professors; Livy, and the modern historian Davila, were born there; and Petrarch is buried at Arqua, in the vicinity. The city is divided into two parts: the old, composed of dark narrow streets, and high old palaces; and the modern, adorned with the splendid architecture of Palladio. The university, and the church of Justina, belong to the latter, and are fine edifices. Vicenza, the birth-place of Palladio, has been adorned by him with about twenty palaces, perhaps the most beautiful in Italy, besides other public buildings, among which the Olympic Academy, founded for the cul- tivation of literature, deserves particular mention. Among the other cities of Lombardy, Mantua takes the lead; it is still large, and forms one of the strongest fortresses in Italy. Pre-eminently classical as the birth-place of Virgil, it made a considerable figure in modern times, both as a republic and under its dukes of the house of Gonzaga. Cremona, the birth-place of Vida, is a large and well built city, containing many handsome edifices. Pavia is the seat of an ancient university, supported and attended by 600 or 700 students. It is still better known by the great battle fought in its vicinity between the French and Germans, in which Francis I. was totally defeated and taken prisoner. Lodi is a large fortified town, distinguished as the seat of one of Bonaparte's most splendid victories. The SARDINIAN STATES are of a very dissimilar character, but united by political circumstances under one government. The dukes of Savoy, founders of the Sardinian family, made a conspicuous figure in European history, especially during the war of the Spanish succession. In return for their services to the cause of the allies, they were recompensed with the island of Sicily. That island was afterwards, in consequence, it would seem, of a very bad bargain, exchanged for Sardinia, from which the house assumed the royal title. Under the domination of Napoleon, the king was expelled from all his Italian territories, and owed to British protection ITALY. 659 alone the preservation of Sardinia. After the triumph of the allies, he was not only replaced in all his former possessions in Italy, but the state of Genoa, instead of being restored to its lost independence, was subjected to his sway. The kingdom of Sardinia consists of four distinct partsPiedmont, Genoa, Savoy, and Sardinia. Area, 29,245 square miles; population 5,292,000. Piedmont, or the "foot of the mountains," is the most valuable possession of this crown. It forms a continuation of the plain of Lombardy, somewhat narrowed, and more closely bounded by mightiest ranges of the Alps and Appenines; the former on the north and west, the latter on the south. The Po, running through its centre, divides it into two nearly equal parts, and receives here all its early tributaries; which being so near their mountain sources, are liable to sudden and terrible inundations, distressing to the agriculturist and dangerous to the traveler. Turin maintains its place among the beautiful cities of Italy. Its situation is as fine as possible, amid the rich valley of the Po, surrounded by an amphitheatre of vine-covered hills; while lofty mountains, with their summits clad in perpetual snow, tower in the distance. The streets are long and regular, ornamented with lines of porticos, and opening at their terminations to fine views over the surrounding country. It is a little city of palaces. Genoa, surnamed the Superb, the great naval republic which in the annals of Italian wealth, commerce and splendor, ranked only, and scarcely second to Venice, presents but a shadow of her former greatness. Her navigators were of a peculiarly bold and adventurous character; and she was the native city of Christopher Columbus. Her settlements in the remote peninsula of the Crimea, enabled her to bring into Europe, by a peculiar and circuitous route, the commodities of India. Depressed by a once haughty, and now indolent aristocracy, and eclipsed by the rivalry of the northern nations, Genoa had lost all her principles of prosperity, before her independence was crushed by the revolutionary arms of France. Yet it seems impossible to applaud the conduct of the allies, in annexing her to Sardinia, though with permission to preserve her senate and outward forms of administration. Genoa ranks now below Leghorn as a port; yet her industry is not,wholly extinguished. She still manufactures rich velvets, damasks, and satins, and about a hundred and fifty vessels are employed in exporting these, with the produce of her own territory and of Piedmont. The wealth of the great days of Genoa was as usual embodied in palaces. These are arranged in one continuous line of street, extending under three different names through the city, all the rest of which is a mere chaos of dark and dirty lanes. These palaces are boasted as being, for richness of materials and profuse ornament, the most splendid in Italy, and many of them are every way fit to be the residence of the greatest monarchs. They have one ornament peculiar to themselves, which consists in fresco paintings on the exterior of the walls, many by masters of some eminence; and in this fine climate these remain unimpaired for centuries. The design, however, both here and in the churches, wants that elegance and purity of taste by which the structures of Venice have been rendered so admirable. Ornament and glare seem to have been the ruling passion of the Genoese. Her nobles, though all sunk, and many reduced to poverty, .660 ITALY. would spend their last farthing in supporting the pomp of their ancient mansions. Hence these have now a silent and desolate aspect, and have been compared to the ruined monuments of an excavated city. They are filled with pictures, gilding, arabesques, frescoes, dust, moths and dirt; exhibiting a combination of ancient splendor and present decay. Genoa has not altogether the magical effect produced by the long lines of canal which intersect Venice; but her position, occupying one side of the spacious amphitheatre which forms the harbor, and spreading her streets and churches, and then her suburbs and villas over a vast semi-circular tract of crags, rocks, and declivities, gives her, towards the sea, a highly magnificent and imposing aspect. The city has also the disadvantage of being so closely bounded by rocks, that no level spot is left on which a carriage can drive; and the neighboring villas can be reached only in chairs carried by a species of porters, endowed with singular agility and alertness. Savoy is a province of considerable extent, which in its surface; and aspect is much more analogous to Switzerland than to Italy: it consists of rugged rocks, and mountains rising into regions of perpetual snow; inter spersed, however, with a number of fertile and agreeable valleys. Some of the principal passes over the Alps into Italy are through Savoy, which till lately was the only one from France or Switzerland that was passable for carriages. The Little St. Bernard, by wyhich Hannibal is now generally supposed to have passed, is also situated in Savoy. It was much improved by Napoleon. Many of these rocks, composed of loose limestone strata, are perpetually crumbling. In 1248 a great part of Mont Grenier, near Chamberry, fell, burying a village and church, and overspreading the surface of five parishes, which are still covered with the fragments piled in small conical hillocks. Mont Blanc, the loftiest mountain in Europe, is within the limits of Savoy; but it is approached by way of Geneva, and forms part of the most elevated range of the Alps of Switzerland. The Savoyards are brave, industrious, poor, more social than the Swiss, though less noted for cleanliness. The towns in this elevated district are agreeable and rural, situated in its most fertile and open plains, but do not attain to much magnitude or importance. The island of Sardinia is one of the least valuable portions of the kingdom, though possessed of advantages which should render it very much the reverse: few regions exceed it in natural fertility; the surface is finely variegated with gentle hills, which only along the western coast assume the character of mountains. Grain, notwithstanding the most wretched cultivation, affords a surplus for export. The wines are reckoned equal to those of Spain, and the olives to those of Genoa and Provence. The PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO, comprising 6,500 inhabitants, on 50 square miles, is situated within the Sardinian territory. The capital is Monaco, a village with 1,000 inhabitants. The principality of Monaco is under the protection of the king of Sardinia. The KINGDOM OF NAPLES, or, as it is called, of the Two SICILIES, is the most considerable in Italy for extent and population; in which respects it approaches to the rank of the great monarchies; but the supine and indolent character of its government almost prevents it from having any weight in the political system. Area, 42,110 square miles; population, 8,373,000. ITALY. 661 Naples, the southern extremity of Italy, after forming for some space a continuation of the long narrow peninsula which comprises most part of that country, branches finally into the two smaller peninsulas of Otranto and Calabria. The Apennines fill its interior, shooting out branches to its bounding promontories; they in many places spread wider, and assume still more rugged and awful forms than in the northern part of their line; and they harbor the most formidable troops of banditti which infest Italy. They leave, however, along the coast, wide plains and extended valleys, blessed, with the most genial climate, and the- richest soil of any country in Europe, or, perhaps, in the world. The culture, also, notwithstanding various administrative defects, is so diligent as to support a very numerous and very dense population. Naples is the largest city in Italy, and fully maintains its' place among the most beautiful European capitals; this is not owing to its architecture; for though the edifices are lofty and solid, the streets tolerably wide, particularly the Strada di Toledo, which is a mile in length, yet all the particular buildings are characterized by that bad taste which has always ruled at Naples, and to compensate for which, marbles, gilding, and decoration, have been vainly lavished on its churches and palaces. Taken collectively, however, Naples presents to the sea an immense line of lofty edifices, producing a general pomp of effect, and forming a commanding feature in the matchless landscape. Its bay, occupying a wide circuit of sixteen miles, everywhere bounded with vineyards, hills, woods, convents,'ililages; the golden shores of Baiae, the beautifully variegated islands of Ischia and Procida, with the verdant sides and lofty cone of Vesuvius all'ithese, viewed under a brighter sun than ever shines in the regions: beyond the Alps, have been considered as composing the most splendid picture which nature presents to the human eye. The interior of Naples exhibits a most singular living scene; every trade and every amusement being carried on in the open air. " The crowd of London," says Forsyth, " is a double line in quick motion; it is the crowd of business. The crowd of Naples consists in a general tide rolling up and down, and in the middle of this tide an hundred eddies of men. You are stopped by a carpenter's bench, you are lost among shoemakers' stools, you dash among the pots of a maccaroni stall. Every bargain sounds like a battle; the popular exhibitions are full of grotesque: they consist of Punch held as the representative of the nation; of preaching; sellingAgnus Deis; dancing to the guitar; or listening to old tales." One bright redeeming quality in the Neapolitans is charity: their hospitals. are numerous, richly endowed, and supported by ample benefactions; and persons of the first rank, assuming the dress of religious fraternities, not only superintend these establishments, but watch the sick-bed of the patient. The Neapolitans set an example, which seems worthy of imitation, in having a rural hospital for recovering the health of invalids. They have also conservatorii, or schools, where the children of the lower ranks are initiated in trades, by which they may gain their subsistence. A great part of these is devoted to the teaching of music; and is unfortunately combined with that horrid mode of attaining excellence in it which is peculiar to Italy, and which, though prohibited by the government, continues still to be practised. Naples may be considered as the musical capital of Italy: the greatest composers have been its citizens; and its opera is unrivalled. -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-l e iI { ~~~~~~~~~~~~ ITALIAN SCENERY —FALLS OF TIVOLI, NEAR ROME.:. [i, f ~,,,, -,,~,,__....._ I....... OF~~~_~~~~~~-_L:I;_:1_L, III i ji II\ Z I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~w 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I I.~,0' ~.j I i 11 il,~~~~~~~~~I - I ii 11 1 _ _ Li i iii H"~~~~~~~~~~~ 664 ITALY. The environs of Naples present a combination of all that is most beautiful and all that is most terrible in nature; they extend along the western shore from Naples to Miseno, which forms the termination of the bay. One of the chief ornaments is the mountain of Posilippo, which spreads its varied outline for several miles along these enchanting shores. Its promontory is variously broken into bays, islands, and caverns; but the object which above all attracts the traveler, is the Grotto. In one of the wildest and most picturesque recesses of its romantic defiles opens this famous artificial excavation, which penetrates through the mountains for three quarters of a mile on the way to Puzzuoli. Baiae, viewed by the Romans as the most enchanting spot on the earth, was absolutely crowded with the villas of their great men. Here was the academy of Cicero, the favorite haunt of Virgil, the palace of Lucullus, and afterwards, unfortunately, the scene of the brutal voluptuousness of Tiberius and Nero. The lake of Avernus, and the Elysian fields, are neither so dreadful nor so beautiful as their names would import. The tomb of Virgil, on one of the most beautiful heights of Posilippo, excites, perhaps, stronger emotions than any other of these objects. Vesuvius, about eight miles from Naples, with an arm of the bay interposed, rears her majestic cone, the only volcanic mountain on the continent of Europe, and one of the most active in the world. From the earliest ages on record, its eruptions have occurred at intervals of a few years; and those of 1794 and 1822 caused a considerable diminution of its height, large portions from the sides of the crater having fallen in. On these occasions the lava issues forth in vast streams, overspreading the country for miles, and burying even cities. The town of Terro del Greco was overwhelmed in 1794; but the most memorable catastrophe of this nature was that which, in the first century, befell the two cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, which were completely buried beneath torrents of lava. They remained entombed for ages, till the beginning of the last century, when a peasant, in digging a well, discovered some fragments of marble, and by degrees a small temple, and some statues; but this observation was neglected till thle king, in 1736, designing to erect a palace at Portici, purchased the ground, and began to make large excavations, in consequence of which the entire subterranean city appeared beneath. Numerous paintings, in perfect preservation, and manuscripts written on papyrus, have been found amid the ruins. The operations have been limited by the depth of the lava, and by the city of Portici being built above. About 1750, Pompeii was discovered; and being found much more accessible, very extensive excavations have been effected, particularly by the French; and travelers may now walk through a great extent of the ancient Pompeii. It exhibits the full picture of what a Roman city was: habitations, temples, theatres, baths, the shops of the different trades, the implements they used, and even the materials on which they were employed. Salerno, on the opposite side of the bay, is a pretty large town, in a beautiful and fertile territory, enclosed by ranges of lofty mountains. Considerably to the south, on a plain near the sea, appear the remains of Paestum, the ancient capital of Lucania. They consist of three temples, which form perhaps the purest and most perfect specimen extant of the Grecian ITALY. 665 Doric order. They stand solitary near the sea shore, without the least remains of Posidonium, the city of which they belonged. The northern part of Naples is divided between the Campagna Felice of the ancients, now Terra di Lavoro, and the rough mountain territory of the Abruzzo, the ancient Samnium. Campagna is still both fruitful and highly cultivated, though it no longer produces the Falernian wine, so boasted of by the voluptuous poets of Rome. Capua, which almost disputed the title of capital of Italy, and whose voluptuous pleasures ruined the army of Hannibal, after it had vanquished all the armies of Rome, is now only a considerable but dirty town, with a strong castle. Gaeta has derived great importance from its position on an almost peninsular neck of land, the approaches to which are so strongly fortified, as to render it almost impregnable. Benevento, a town of ancient celebrity, afterwards a seat of a Lombard dukedom, which extended over almost all Naples, is filled with monuments interesting to the antiquary. The people of the Abruzzi, the descendants of the ancient Samnites, who made sucf formidable resistence to Rome, and repeatedly sent her armies under the yoke, are still a brave and laborious race. The capitals, Aquila and Chieti, are considerable country towns, without any thing remarkable. Foggia, in Capitanata, is a considerable market for wool and corn, which are exported at Manfredonia. In the southern provinces, the mountains take an easterly direction towards Cala, bria, and have between them and the Adriatic, the plains bearing the classic appellation of Magna Graecia. This region, once the combined seat of learning, greatness, and voluptuous effeminacy, is now almost unknown to the rest of Europe. Yet the scenery, possesses a softness and beauty, mingled with grandeur, that is scarcely equalled elsewhere; and the towns, though they cannot be compared with the great capitals of Italy, present striking and interesting monuments. Tarento, once rival to Rome, is still a considerable sea-port. Brindisi retains only a small remnant of the importance which it derived from being the port of a passage from Italy into Greece. Bari and Barletta are modern and rather handsome and flourishing sea-ports. Polignano, to the south of Bari, is also considerable, and its vicinity is marked by some very singular and beautiful grottoes. Gallipoli is the chief mart of the oil produced in this region, which is esteemed above every other for the manufacture of fine woollen cloth. Corigliano, nearly on the site of Sybaris, presents an aspect strikingly picturesque. The plain of Sybaris, behind it, the abode of a people noted for voluptuous indulgence, appears by the description and delineation of St. Non, to be of almost unrivalled beauty. It is diversified with rich groves of orange and citron, above which rise finely cultivated hills; while the distance is formed by the mountains of Calabria, capped with almost perpetual snow. Otranto, the ancient Hydruntum, is a small town, distinguished only by its spacious castle, which has been celebrated even in romance. Calabria, on the opposite side of this southern extremity of Italy, is a striking and singular region. The Apennines here tower to stupendous height, and leave between them and the sea only a narrow, but extremely fertile plain. The inhabitants bear in a great measure the character of mountaineers: they are poor, brave, rude, and almost bandit. They are often in opposition to the government in its attempts to maintain order and peace; yet, when they saw it invaded, and even conquered, by a foreign 666 ITALY. enemy, they opposed a formidable resistance, after all the regular troops and ordinary resources had failed. Calabria possesses a fatal distinction, in having exhibited the phenomena of earthquake on a more terrible scale than in any other part of Europe, or perhaps of the old world. During successive weeks the whole ground heaved with a perpetual agitation: hills were levelled, and plains raised into hills; lakes were filled up, and new ones formed. SICILY, the finest and most beautiful island in Europe, forms a valuable appendage to the kingdom of Naples. From the south-western extremity of Italy, this island extends westward in an irregular triangle, about 180 miles long and 150 broad. Immediately beyond the narrow strait which separates it from the continent, the surface begins to raise into the lofty heights of Etna, a mountain higher than any of the Apennines, and which strikes admiration and terror by the streams of volcanic fire which issue from it. Its branches over-spread nearly the whole island, but on the northern and southern coasts, they descend into gentle and cultivated hills. In its historical character, Sicily possessed anciently the highest distinction; and perhaps no country in the world has suffered a greater reverse. Greece early established here the most flourishing of her colonies; Syracuse and Agrigentum vied in power, learning and wealth, with the mother country. Even when no longer able to maintain her own independence, she became the brightest prize for which Carthaginian and Roman contended. Reduced finally under the Roman empire, Sicily became one of its most valuable provinces, and the granary of the capital. In the early part of the middle ages, the Saracens founded here a flourishing state. After the establishment, however, of the Norman adventurers in the south of Italy, Roger, brother to Robert Guiscard, by a series of gallant exploits, drove out that powerful people. Sicily was then united with Naples, to which it has generally continued attached, though held occasionally by Spain and Savoy. It was also separated for a considerable time, when the French became master of Naples, while the old family were maintained in Sicily by British protection; but on the fall of Murat, in 1815, the Two Sicilies became again one kingdom. Palermo, though it can boast neither monuments of antiquity nor classic modern edifices, such as adorn the cities of Italy, is yet a spacious and handsome city. It is traversed by broad streets crossing each other, and producing at their point of junction a striking effect. Many of the quarters, however, are ugly and dirty. The cathedral is a large ancient edifice. with some striking features; but the different styles of architecture are injudiciously blended. The palace of the viceroy is a splendid building, but not in good taste; its most interesting object is the ancient chapel of king Roger. Some of the country seats in the vicinity, command delightful views. The favorite resort of the Palermitans, is a public garden, called the Flora, which is not well arranged, but is rich in flowers and fruit. Messina though small, is almost equal in importance, since from it is carried on almost the whole commerce of Sicily. Its wines, silks, fruits, and other articles produced for exportation, are mostly shipped at Messina. It has also a considerable silk manufactory. The city is beautifully situated on a bay, formed by the opposite coast of Sicily and Calabria, and enclosed by lofty hills on each side. A century ago, Messina was much greater, ITALY. 667 and more flourishing; but it has passed since through calamities almost unparalleled. In 1743, the plague swept off half its population; and in 1783, the great earthquake, which was desolating Calabria, crossed the strait, and in a few minutes converted Messina into a heap of ruins. Most of the inhabitants effected their escape; but the finest streets were overthrown; precious commodities, libraries, works of art, were destroyed in vast numbers. From this fatal blow, Messina has imperfectly recovered. Southward from Messina, the coast begins to display the remains of great ancient cities, which were built chiefly on the eastern and southern coasts. Taormina, the ancient Tauromenum, now a small place, contains among other ruins, a theatre, considered one of the most perfect monuments of antiquity, and in a most commanding site, between the. mountains and the sea. Catania, at the foot of Etna, is the finest city in the island. It is filled with Greek, Saracenic, and modem structures, all handsome. Yet it has passed through fearful vicissitudes. Overwhelmed by the volcano of 1669, almost destroyed by the earthquake of 1693, it has risen from these disasters with undiminished beauty. Proceeding southward along the coast of the Val de Note, we reach Siragusa (Syracuse). This ancient capital, so celebrated for power, learning and splendor, presents now a striking example of the changeful character of human things. Of its vast ruins, only some imperfect fragments can with difficulty be traced, scattered amid vineyard, orchards and cornfields. The present town, which contains nothing remarkable, occupies only a very small portion of the ancient site. Near the south-eastern cape of Passaro are Noto and Modica, two large towns, one well built, the other very indifferently. On the southern coast, Girgeni, now a large poor village, presents monuments worthy of the ancient Agrigentum, when it was the greatest city of Sicily, and fit to contend with Carthage. The Temple of Jupiter Olympus, an immense structure, 368 feet long by 188 broad, is almost quite in runs. It has been called the Temple of Giants, from huge forms of this description that are lying either entire or in fragments. The Temple of Concord, with its thirty-four columns, is considered one of the most perfect specimens extant of the Doric order. Farther to the east at Selinunti, the ruins of Selinus present a scene still more striking and awftil. Here may be distinctly traced three noble temples, of which the materials still remain, but only afew solitary columns are standing; all the rest lie on the ground, in huge and shapeless blocks, forming the most stupendous mass of ruin to be found in Europe. It is generally supposed that an earthquake has been the cause of this extraordinary destruction, —that, as Mr. Swinburne expresses himself, nature has been chiefly concerned in this triumph over the pride of art. Trapani, the ancient Drepanum, poetically distinguished as the place where Anchises died, and where Eneas celebrated his obsequies, is still a considerable town, near the western promontory of Sicily, the ancient Lilybaeum. It is well fortified and has a good harbor, where there is a considerable trade in the export of salt made in its vicinity, and of barilla. It carries on briskly the fisheries of tunny and of coral, which last is obtained both from the coast of the island and that of':Africa. Not far from Trapani is Segeste; a simple, grand, and almost entire edifice, standing on MALTA i —-~_ L ~ —~ ~r~-~....... ~ ~~:~~-~~'~~" —~~~-~~ —~~ —~~~ \~~S'i~~~B~~h, ---------:I- gy;~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~L'-r.'-ENOA-CCITY AND~ HARBOR. 670 ITALY. a solitary hill. Marsala, almost on the very site of Lilyboeum, is a considerable town, exporting wine that is much esteemed. Near it the quarries of Mazarra appear to have furnished the stone of which the edifices in this part of Sicily have been constructed. The ascent of Etna is a general object with Sicilian travelers. In proceeding from Catania, the pass through three successive zones: first that of rich cultivated fields, then that of plants and aromatic shrubs; and, lastly the region of scoriae, ashes, and perpetual snow. On reaching the summit they view the crater filled with vast volumes of smoke, and obtain a fine panoramic view over all Sicily and the adjoining shores of Italy. The Lipari Islands, twelve in number and situated from twelve to thirtyfive miles northward from the Sicilian coast, are entirely volcanic, and appear to have been thrown up from the sea by the action of fire. Lipari itself contains a hill of white pumice, which forms an article of trade, and its crater displays various specimens of beautifully crystallized sulphur. Stromboli has a volcano, remarkable for being in perpetual activity. Every day, at short intervals, the eruptions issue forth like great discharges of artillery, and the sides of the mountain are covered with red-hot stones that are ejected, and rush down: into the sea. The inhabitants of these islands are a bold, active, and industrious race. The activity of submarine fires has been manifested on another side of Sicily, by the recent rise of Graham's Island; only, indeed, a volcanic rock, which has again sunk under water. MALTA, an islet in the Mediterranean, about fifty-four miles to the south of Sicily, though imperfectly connected with Italy, belongs more to it than to any other country. It obtained little notice in antiquity; and, when St. Paul was shipwrecked there, is described as inhabited by a barbarous people. Its importance began in the sixteenth century, when it was ceded by Charles V. to the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, as a compensation. for the loss of. Rhodes. Its fortifications were then greatly strengthened, and it was considered the last maritime bulwark against the Turks. In 1565, Solyman sent against Malta a most formidable fleet and army; and the siege which ensued is one of the most celebrated in history. After prodigious efforts, the Ottoman armament was completely repulsed, and the knights were left in the unmolested possession of the island, till 1798. Napoleon then, with the expedition destined for Egypt, suddenly appeared before La Valetta, and took possession of it without resistance. Britain afterwards reduced it by blockade; and notwithstanding a stipulation in the treaty of Amiens, has since retained possession of it. TURKEY IN EUROPE. 671 TURKEY IN EUROPE. AREA, 185,000 SQUARE Mnms. PoP:uaTow, 12,500,000. The OTTOMAN EMPIRE, partly in South-Eastern Europe and partly in Western Asia, comprises some of the most celebrated, best situated, and naturally finest provinces of the continents to which they belong. The limits of the empire are not easily defined; inasmuch as it is usually represented as including several extensive countries, that are either substantially or virtually independent. Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia, in European Turkey, are governed by their own princes, and connected with the Porte only by the slenderest ties; though, as some of their fortresses are garrisoned by Ottoman troops, and as they continue to pay tribute to the Porte, they may still, perhaps, be properly included within the wide range of the Turkish dominions. Egypt, however, and the other African territories, that formerly belonged to Turkey, may now be considered completely dismembered; and, but for the interference of England and the other European powers, Syria and Palestine would have been annexed to the dominions of the Pacha of Egypt. European Turkey, in its present restricted limits, exclusive of Greece and the adjacent islands, lies between 39~ and 48~ 15' north latitude, and between 160 and 30~ east longitude. It extends, from east to west, in its greatest length, about 700 miles, and from north to south, in its greatest breadth, about 650 miles. The military frontiers of Austria form its northern outline; on the east it is bounded by the Pruth, the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles; on the south, by the Archipelago and the northern border of Greece; and on the west, by the Ionian Sea, the Straits of Otranto, the Adriatic, and the Austrian provinces of Dalmatia and Croatia. Turkey is traversed by several lofty mountain ranges, which form and enclose high valleys and table-lands, leaving only, in some places, a narrow border of lowland along the sea-coasts. Such is its general character between the Danube and the frontier of Greece; but to the north of that great river, the country sinks into a plain, which stretches north-eastward to the frontiers of Russia and the Carpathian Mountains, and includes the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. The mountain ranges are known under the names of the Balkan, the greatest culmination of which is less than 10,000 feet; the Hellenic range; the Dinaric Alps, which may be regarded as belonging to the vast system of the Alps; and the Carpathian Mountains. None are of any great height, and chiefly form table-lands and watersheds, which direct the great rivers. The basin of the Danube includes more than a third part of the country. The other principal rivers are the Maritza, the Drina, and the Morava. The Bosphorus, one of the most important passes of Europe, unites the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora; and the Dardanelles is a strait between the latter and the Archipelago. The Turks have command of both, and, consequently, are dominant in those seas. In the Archipelago are a number of large and fertile islands. 672 TURKEY IN EUROPE. The European part of Turkey enjoys a climate superior to that of almost every other European region. The seasons succeed each other with the greatest regularity, and the atmosphere is extremely salubrious and friendly to the human constitution. Though frequently visited by the plague, that scourge has not its origin in Turkey, but owes its propagation and virulence to the notions of the people, who imagine that every precaution to avoid it is useless, and who consequently expose themselves, without scruple, to infection imported from the east. If the climate of Turkey is agreeable, the soil is in no less a degree fertile and productive. The most valuable of fruits grow spontaneously, and the crops of grain are generally larger than can be consumed at home. Agriculture, however, is little understood, and less practised; for such is the nature of the government, that property is insecure, and industry finds a thousand obstacles thrown in its way. The only roads are beaten pathways, and the only carriages planks laid on rough wheels, drawn by buffaloes. In the northern provinces the pastures are luxuriant, and wheat might be raised in any quantity. In the southern parts rice is common. Barley and a kind of grain called deera, are likewise cultivated. Grapes, dates, and olives are abundant. The domestic animals of Turkey are not different.from those of other European countries. The horses, however, are superior in breed. The camel is common in the southern provinces. Few wild animals exist, but in some parts the jackal is common. Birds and fishes are numerous, though little known to the naturalist. The Bosphorus swarms with myriads of the finny tribe, the most ordinary of which are the scombri, a species of mackerel, dolphins, and anchovies. Copper and lead are the chief mineral products of Turkey. In former times, however, gold and silver are said to have been mined, and it is perhaps owing more to the natural indolence of the Turks that none is extracted at the present time, than to the scarcity of these metals. The Turks, or Toorks, are a numerous race, whose original seat was in the high central regions of Tartary, to the north and east of the Jaxartes, and along the border of the Altai. Their large and handsome persons, and their fair and ruddy complexions, distinguish them from the meagre, diminutive, and almost deformed aspect of the Mongols, the other ruling Tartar race. In the tenth century, having subdued all their neighbors, they were attracted by the rich and beautiful regions of the south, and poured down through Khorassan into Persia. The princes of the Seijuc dynasty had, at the above period, established full sway over Persia. Thence they crossed the Euphrates, to attack the weakened power of the Greek empire and the Saracen princes. They were triumphant; and established in Asia Minor what was called the kingdom of Roum, while other chiefs over-ran Syria and the Holy Land. At this time the whole of Western Asia was subject to Turkish dynasties. But their fall was preparing. The outrages, of which their rude bands were guilty, formed one of the chief motives which impelled the European powers to the great enterprise of the crusades. The Latins nations poured in with a force which the Turks were unable to withstand; and the thrones of Jerusalem and Iconium were speedily subverted. At the same time, the Mongols, under Zingis, having achieved the subjugation of Tartary, TURKEY IN EUROPE. 673 followed the traces of the Turks, wrested from them Persia, and subverted the caliphite. At the end of the thirteenth century, the once proud dynasties of Seljuk were reduced to a number of scattered chieftains, occupying the mountain districts and high plains of Asia Minor, and obliged to own the supremacy of the Mongol khans of Persia. Othman, or Ottoman, one of their chiefs, was the man who, in 1299 erecting an independent standard, founded the mighty Ottoman empire. He appeared first under the aspect of a Scythian chief, a leader of shepherds and bandits; but first conquering and then uniting under his standard a number of neighboring tribes, he assembled a formidable military force. His successor, Orchan, having taken Prusa, erected it into a capital, which almost defied the imperial metropolis Constantinople. His successors continually augmented their force by the peculiar institutions under which they trained to arms the captive youth of the conquered countries. They continued to make acquisitions from the decrepid Greek empire, until the walls of Constantinople enclosed all that remained of the dominion of the Caesars. The Turkish empire was raised to its greatest height by the capture of Constantinople, in 1453, by Mahomet II. The power of the Turks now struck terror into all Europe. In the succeeding century they subdued Egypt, the Barbary States, and all the Arabian coast on the Red sea. In Europe they rendered tributary the Crimea and the countries along the Danube; they overran Hungary and Transylvania, and repeatedly laid siege to Vienna. When affairs came to that crisis, however, the European states took the alarm, and all the princes of Poland and Germany united against the invader, who was repeatedly driven back with prodigious loss. At sea, notwithstanding the gallant resistance of the Venetians and the knights of St. John, the Turks long carried all before them: they subdued Rhodes, Cyprus, and all the Greek islands; and it was only at the little rock of Malta that their progress received a check. The decline of the Ottoman power was perceptible in the course of the seventeenth century, and proceeded rapidly in the eighteenth. The rigor of that discipline, by which they had rendered themselves so formidable, was insensibly relaxed; the grand signior resigned himself to the luxuries and indulgences of the seraglio; and the revolts of the pachas in every quarter distracted the empire. When the European powers began to make war with regular armies, they easily repelled those tumultuary bands which followed the Turkish standard. Above all when Russia began to develope her gigantic energies, the star of Ottoman ascendency rapidly declined. Defeated in every battle, losing several of their finest provinces, and holding the rest by a precarious tenure, the Turks ceased to be formidable. In the last war, indeed, General Diebitsch entered Adrianople, and saw the road to the capital open; though peace was then granted on moderate terms. But Turkey has since undergone a still deeper humiliation, having seen her empire almost subverted by Ibrahim, son to the pacha of Egypt, when she was saved only by the interposition of Russia, her mortal enemy, and obliged to sacrifice Syria and Palestine, two of the finest portions of her territory. The Turkish political system has no analogy with that of any other European power, but is formed upon a purely Asiatic model. Its principle is the subjection of the whole administration, civil, military, and religious, to the absolute disposal of one man. The grand signior, the "1 shadow of 43 674 TURKEY IN EUROPE. God," and " refuge of the world," is considered as reigning by divine com mission, and uniting in himself all the powers, legislative, executive, judi cial, and ecclesiastical. Selim I., by the conquest of Egypt, acquired a right to the title of caliph; but sultan, or grand signior, is that by which the ruler of Turkey is best known. The vizier assisted by the divan, is the person upon whom devolves entire the exclusive power of the state. The grand signior does not even, like some other Oriental despots, make a show of sitting in judgment, but delegates that function also to his minister; who, thus invested with the authority of supreme magistrate, appoints to all civil and military offices, puts to death all who oppose his measures, and commands the army in person, leaving at court in his absence a pacha, under the title of caimacan. He is also accustomed to go disguised through the city, to examine the weights, measures and qualities of the goods; and, on discovering any deficiency, to apply the bastinado, nail the offender by the ear to the door of his shop, or even strike off his head. The divan consisted formerly of six pachas of three tails; but of late has been formed of the principal state officers. The muftis, and ulema, or body of mollahs, form the depository of the laws of the empire, and the only class who approach to the character of a national council. They are not as has sometimes been supposed, ministers of religion; though since the Koran and its commentaries form the only law of the empire, and the mollahs receive their education in the madresses, or colleges attached to the mosques, they bear quite a sacred character. No great measure of state can be regularly taken, or command the respect of the empire, without a fetwa from the mufti, the sultan cannot behead him; and though Murad IV. sought to evade this statute by pounding him in a mortar, the interpretation was scarcely considered sound, and has not been followed. The court and seraglio form not only the most brilliant appendage to the Ottoman Porte, but one of the great moving springs of its political action. In this palace, or prison, are immured 500 or 600 females, the most beautiful that can be found in the neighboring realms of Europe, Asia, and Africa; wherever Turks can rule, or Tartars ravage. The pachas and tributary princes vie with each other in gifts of this nature, which form the most effective mode of gaining imperial favor. Into these recesses only short and stolen glances have been cast by Europeans; but their reports attest a splendor like that which is celebrated in the Arabian tales: the walls and ceilings are of olive or walnut wood, curiously carved, richly gilded, and often inlaid with mother-of-pearl, ivory, and porcelain; the floors spread with the richest Persian carpets. The sultan does not marry, judging his place too high to admit any one to such an equality. From the multitude of beauties, however, he selects seven, who are called kadunis or favorites, while the remaining crowd are confounded under the appellation of odalisques, or slaves. The number seven cannot be exceeded; but when a vacancy is wanted, it can be effected by removing one of them to the old seraglio, a dignified retirement, which receives also the favorites of the prince immediately on his death. These imprisoned beauties are guarded by numerous bands of unfortunate slaves reduced to the state of eunuchs. The gates and outer apartments are guarded by white eunuchs; but black eunuchs, rendered safe by their deformity, are stationed in all the interior recesses. TURKEY IN EUROPE. 675 The revenues arise from various imposts; but as no accounts are published, we have no means of stating correctly the amount which reaches the imperial treasury. All the population, except the followers of the Prophet, are subject to a poll-tax, and each community or township is separately taxed for the property they hold. These revenues are farmed out to Pachas, who pay a stipulated sum to the emperor. Indirect taxes have also been introduced, similar in character to our customs, and certain duties are levied on the export and import, transitsand sale of merchandize. It is asserted that, of late years, the general revenues have been in so flourishing a condition, as to have actually left a surplus over the expenditures. The military power of Turkey, since the suppression of the Janissaries and Spahis, who were formerly the terror of Christian nations, has sadly declined. The cavalry, however, still maintains its ancient reputation for bravery and address, but its organization is greatly altered and now based on the French model. The horses are strong and active, and though not large, have more bone than those of Arabia, and are admirably calculated for light troops. The riders are armed with swords and lances, and are generally finer men than the infantry. The artillery are, however, the best soldiers in the army, and work their guns with great dexterity. No European soldiers are better trained, equipped, fed or paid, and we may add, better treated. The force of the army, exclusive of reserves, is estimated at 94,000 infantry and artillery, with 25,000 regular and 100,000 irregular cavalry. The naval force of the empire is stated at 62 vessels, carrying 2636 guns, in commission; 4 vessels and 24 guns building or in ordinary, and 9 steamers, or 75 vessels in all, carrying 2660 guns, and manned by 26,820 men. One half of this number, however, consists of corvettes and small vessels. The fleet is manned by landsmen trained in the harbors, and is commanded by officers equally ignorant of seamanship and of naval tactics. The Turks are not a manufacturing people, but their fertile territory and genial climate enable them to supply many of the materials for foreign manufacture. There are, nevertheless, several places distinguished for the production of excellent manufactured articles. The carpets of Anatolia are of the most durable and elegant descriptions, and their finer fabrics of silk and cotton have never been excelled in quality, beauty or durability. Silk stuffs are made at Constantinople and Saloniki; the braziers and iron smiths of Shumla have carried their art to great perfection; good steel is made at Scutari, Karatovi, &c.; and fire-arms at Semendria, Grabora and other places. The grand commercial principle of Turkey is free trade; monopolies are prohibited, and commerce only limited and restricted by the extent of supply and demand. The principle articles of export are, horses, beeves and swine, hides, wool, wine, tobacco, cotton, currants, fruits, olive oil, wax, honey, opium, silk, carpets, morocco, leather, metals, drugs, &c.; and the chief articles of import are, corn and every sort of manufactures and West India produce. The British enjoy a large amount of the Turkish trade, and are perhaps more favored by the government than any other nation. The principal ports are Constantinople, Adrianople, Saloniki, &c. The national character and aspect of the Turk is thoroughly Oriental, and in every point contrary to that of the Western European nations. All 676 TURKEY IN EUROPE. the external forms of life are dissimilar, and even opposite. The men, instead of our dresses fitted tight to the body, wear long flowing robes, which conceal the limbs. Instead of standing or sitting on chairs, they remain stretched on sofas in luxurious indolence; considering it madness to stir or walk, unless for special purposes or business. They sit cross-legged, especially at meals. On entering a house, they take off, not their hat, but their shoes; in eating, they use the fingers only, without knife or fork; they sleep not on beds, but on couches on the ground. The females, excluded from all society, remain shut up in the harem, and must not be seen or named by any person of the opposite sex. The grave, secluded, and serious cast, impressed by a despotic government and by the Mahomedan law, is more decided in the Turk than in the Arab or Persian: he is " a solemn solitary being." The abject submission to a master, which is esteemed a religious duty, is combined with the pride of a conquering people, and with the consciousness of being surrounded by subject races on whom he has set his foot. The deportment of the Turk to the rayah is that of the Teutonic baron towards his humblest domestic vassal. Yet, though this fancied superiority prompts to acts of tyranny and injustice to this numerous class, it seems to inspire a sense of personal dignity, which raises him above the system of falsehood and deceit which is, as it were, rooted elsewhere throughout the East. Compared with other Orientals, the Turk is honest, and his word may be trusted. From this combination of the slave and the aristocrat in circumstances of a political nature, of austerity and licentiousness in religion, the character of the Turks exhibits many striking contrasts. " We find them," says Thornton, " brave and pusillan-. imous; good and ferocious; firm and weak; active and indolent; passing from austere devotion to disgusting obscenity; from moral severity to gross sensuality; fastidiously delicate and coarsely voluptuous; seated on a celestial bed and preying on garbage. The, great are alternately haughty and humble; arrogant and cringing; liberal and sordid. Though the Turk be naturally sedate and placid, his rage, when once roused, is furious and ungovernable, like that of a brute." Hospitality and giving of alms are Oriental virtues. Every grandee keeps a sort of open table; and the fragments of the feast are distributed, to the poor at the door. It is rare to hinder any one from plucking herbs or fruit in a garden or orchard. This humanity is even injudiciously extended to the lower creation, which enjoys at Constantinople a sort of paradise. The dogs, though excluded as unclean from the houses and mosques, are allowed to multiply in the streets till they become a perfect nuisance; the doves feed at liberty on the grain in the harbor, which echoes with the crowded clang of unmolested sea-birds. The religion of Mahomet is considered to be preserved throughout this empire in a state of peculiar and exclusive purity. The Turk is imbued from his earliest infancy with the loftiest conceptions of his own spiritual state, and with a mingled hatred and contempt of every other. This feeling is entertained, not only towards the " infidel," but still more deeply towards the Persian Shiite, whose tenets respecting the person of Ali are so detested, that, according to the soundest doctors, it is as meritorious to kill one Shiite as twenty Christians. The chief observances of their religion consist in thk namaz, or prayer, repeated five times a day, preceded by ablution, and accompanied by prostrations; and in the observance of the TURKEY IN EUIOPE. 677 fast of Ramadan, when during a whole month neither solid food nor liquid is tasted before sunset. The mosques have certain officers attached to them; as the muezzin, who, from the top of the highest minaret, calls the neighborhood to prayers; the sheiks and kialibs, who preach and read; the imam, who has the general care of the mosque, and, in the villages, performs alone all the other sacred duties. These functionaries are not distinguished from the rest of the citizens either by habits or deportment; and it is remarkable that there is not an office of religion which may not be regularly performed without a priest, either by the magistrate or by private individuals. The sultan, as grand imam, or head of the church, devolves the duties of this character on inferior officers; and most especially on the kislar aga, or chief of the black eunuchs, who, by a singular arrangement, is intrusted with the superintendence of all the mosques. It has been said, that sound belief and the strict observance of the above ceremonies are considered as securing paradise, without the necessity of repentance or of good works. We find the disuse of wine, the giving of alms, and the founding of caravanseras, practised on a great scale, from religious motives. The first of these is a good deal evaded; yet religion has certainly effected the general substitution of coffee, opium, and tobacco, though even the last is not considered rigidly orthodox. Predestination is celebrated as a Mahomedan tenet, and is indeed ever in their mouth. "It is written," is the resigned comment with which they meet the most severe calamities, and even death itself. Yet, as they take the same anxious and even inordinate care to avoid these evils as others, the dogma perhaps is rather in their mouths than in their hearts; and the formidable valor which, in the career of their victories, was attributed to it, no longer stands in need of such a solution. There are institutions which, though not ordained by Mahomet, have become essential branches of the present system. Such are the dervishes, a body who seek, by fantastic displays of self-denial, and contempt of the outward decencies of life, to acquire the reputation of superior sanctity. The most eminent are the howling dervishes, who scream out the name of God till they foam at the mouth and fall to the ground quite exhausted. In one sect the zealots founded their fame upon getting all their teeth drawn out; but it has not made much progress. The belief in charms, sorcery, magic, and the evil eye, was condemned by the precepts of Mahomet; but as this censure was contrary to the spirit of an ignorant and superstitious people, it has not taken effect, and these particulars continue to form an essential part of the popular creed in Mahomedan countries. The learning of the Turks is comprised within a very limited compass. The torrent of their barbarous invasion buried under it not only the splendid corrupted remains of Greek science, but that of a secondary description which was attained by the Arabs under the caliphate. Yet some of the early sultans were patrons of learning; as, indeed, most conquerors have been. Among these was Orchan, who founded at Bursa a highly celebrated academy; and Mahomet II., whom Western Europe regards as a ferocious tyrant, but who in the east is almost as celebrated for his learning and love of learning as for his victories. It cannot be said that even now learning is left without encouragement. Madresses, richly endowed are attached to every mosque, and in them a long and laborious course of study is provided for those who aspire to form part of the ulema. 678 TURKEY IN EUROPE. Ten degrees are conferred by these madresses, and the student is often forty years old before he can attain the highest, that of Suleymanieh. The misfortune is that the studies there pursued have no tendency to enlarge the mind, or to adapt it for the duties of active life. They consist of the rhetoric and logic of the dark ages; and of discussions respecting the comparative merits of Abubekir and Omar; and of knotty theological questions, such as, whether the feet, at rising, should be washed with water, or only be rubbed with the bare hand. The Turks are ignorant of the most common instruments in natural philosophy, the telescope, the microscope, the electrical machine, which, if presented to them, are merely shown as objects of childish curiosity. Persons of the highest rank scarcely know any thing of countries beyond the boundaries of the empire. Astrology, so long exploded from the list of European sciences, continues in Turkey to influence and direct the public councils. No expedition sails from Constantinople, no foundation of a building is laid, nor public officer installed, until the nunedjen bachi or chief of the astrologers, has named the fortunate day. With all their pride, they are obliged to have recourse to Christian physicians, whose skill they ascribe to necromancy, and who they therefore expect will predict at once, in the most precise manner, the issue of their complaints. All the arts have degenerated into mechanical trades. Neither architecture, painting, nor music is practiced with any degree of taste or genius. The condition of the female sex in Turkey is particularly foreign to our manners and ideas. From the moment of marriage they are immured in the harem, excluded from the view of the public and of all the opposite sex, their nearest relations being alone admitted on occasions of peculiar ceremony. This circumscribed existence, and the necessity of sharing with a multitude of rivals the favor of a husband; or rather master, appear intolerable to our ideas. It is not, however, without compensations, though it seems a great extravagance in Lady M. W. Montagu to allege, respecting Turkish females, that they are the only free women on earth. They are allowed to visit and receive visits, and to frequent the baths; ablution being even obligatory in a religious view; and there they meet with numbers of their own sex. Europeans have not failed to surmise that opportunities are thus taken to elude the vigilance of their guardians, and that the bars of the harem are of little avail. Other well-informed writers doubt if intrigues, which can be carried on only at the hazard of life, and with numerous accomplices, can be very frequent. The advances, in such cases, are always made by the lady, who likewise arranges the mode of meeting, provided the gentleman be willing to risk his head in the adventure. It can admit of less doubt that, by the channels already named, all the news of the city finds its way into the harem, and that gossip is carried on there as busily as in any European coterie. Here also favors are solicited through the channel of female relations, and the harem becomes often the centre of intrigues by which the empire is shaken. Peculiar veneration is attached in Turkey to the parental character, and particularly to that of mother. Even in the fall of a great man, his harem is always respected, and the property belonging to his wives is left untouched, so that they sometimes become his support. Marriage in Turkey has nothing sacred; it is merely a civil contract, fixing the amount of the dower, and perhaps limiting the husband as to the number of his wives. If the iman be present along with the cadi, he is only a legal witness. Those, with respect to whom there is TURKEY IN EUROPE. 679 no such contract, rank as concubines, who are chiefly purchased slaves. In Constantinople there is a bazaar, a vast square building, with an interior court, "where man does not blush to expose to sale the most lovely and interesting part of creation." Infidels are excluded, on account of the dreaded influence of their evil eye; yet French travellers, who have caught some stolen glances, report that the captives were seen seated upon mats, with their legs crossed, in groups of fifteen. Pouqueville did not observe in these fair sufferers any sense of their dismal situation; they were chatting with the utmost volubility, laughing and, singing; but Olivier, in the group which he saw, observed one who was overwhelmed with the deepest affliction. The children of concubines are considered as legitimate. Polygamy is permitted by law, and carried sometimes to a vast extent, but only by the rich. The poor and even others who study domestic quiet, find one wife quite sufficient. Divorce is permitted, but is not common. Disagreement of temper does not bear so hard on the husband, from the separate state in which he lives; adultery is avenged by the poniard; so that sterility, reckoned so deadly a curse throughout the east, is the prevailing motive for divorce. The rayahs, or subject infidels, who form so large a part of the population of Turkey, are chiefly Greeks, Jews and Armenians. The Greeks have been largely noticed, in treating of their native district. The Jews, exposed to every insult, are more degraded, as to character and state, than in Europe. They carry on banking; usury, at enormous rates; and various small trades, despised by others, by which a penny can be turned; and are alleged to have few scruples on any thing by which their gains may be augmented. The Armenians carry on almost all the inland trade of the empire, particularly in Asia; and are an industrious, frugal, sober, and not very dishonest race. According to Pouqueville, the Turk, when he deigns to trade, sells with the air of conferring a favor; the Greek, artful and active, is eloquent in setting forth his commodities, appealing to heaven for their value and his own probity; the Armenian establishes his speculations with coolness and reflection, his eye always fixed on the future; while the Jew buys, sells, offers his agency in business, and is all activity, all attention; nor can the uniform contempt and aversion with which he is treated ever repel his assiduities. The amusements of the Turk are chiefly domestic. His delight is to give himself up to continued and unvaried reverie; to glide down the stream of time without thought or anxiety; to retire under the shade of trees, there to muse without any fixed object, and to inhale through the pipe a gentle inebriating vapor. Stretched in luxurious ease, he takes pleasure, however, in listening to the narrative of the professed storyteller, or in viewing the dances of Greek youths or Turkish balladieres, at which, though by no means remarkable for decorum, he even allows the presence of his wives. The ball, the theatre, the crowded party, all that in Europe can be accounted gaiety, are utterly foreign to Turkish manners. The dress of the Turks consist of long, loose robes, which do not encumber their stately walk, though they would be incompatible with running or rapid motion. The absence of all those bandages and ligatures by which Europeans are shackled must be highly favorable to the development of form, and even to health. The turban is the most characteristic feature of 680 TURKEY IN EUROPE. Eastern dress; and its varied form and ornaments not only discriminate the rich from the poor, but afford a badge to the various professions, to each of which a costume is appointed by government, and strictly enforced. The food of the Turks is not very luxurious. It consists chiefly of stews and hashes, particularly that favorite one called pilau, with salads, olives, and sweetmeats. In wine, though prohibited by their religion, some sultans and great men have deeply indulged; but in general its use is confined to the lowest ranks. Coffee and sherbet are handed about on all occasions. Opium, as a substitute for wine, is taken to excess, and often fatally; those addicted to it usually fall victims before the age of forty. CONSTANTINOPLE occupies perhaps the most commanding and important site of any city in the world. Mistress of the long chain of straits conconnecting the two great seas which separate Europe from Asia, it forms the link between those continents. Hence, even while Thrace was steeped in barbarism, Byzantium flourished as a great commercial republic, until the period when Constantine raised it to higher importance by giving to it his name, and making it the capital of his empire. Even after the separation of the West, it continued the metropolis of the East, and rose in importance during the encroachments on its territory by the invading tribes. As the world was overwhelmed with the prodigious inundation of the barbarians, Constantinople became the refuge of all that remained of ancient science and civilization. Reduced by Mahomet II., it became the capital of Moslem ignorance and superstition; yet it still continues one of the greatest cities in Europe, ranking next to London and Paris. The situation of Constantinople is as beautiful and superb as it is commodious. Seated on the Bosphorus, at the point where it communicates with the Propontis or Sea of Marmora, it is connected both with the Mediterranean and the Black Sea by a succession of straits, easily defensible, yet navigable for the largest vessels. The port is spacious and admirable. On the side of Europe and on that of Asia rich plains spread before the eye, bounded by the snowy tops of Hodmus and Olympus. The city itself, rising on seven hills, along the shore of the Bosphorus, embosomed in groves, from amid which numerous gilded domes ascend to a lofty height, presents a most magnificent spectacle. But the moment the interior is entered, all the magic scene disappears. The streets are narrow, winding, ill paved, and crowded; the houses low and gloomy; and the hills, which appeared majestic in the view, causing steep ascents and descents, prove excessively inconvenient. But the most fatal circumstance in the structure of Constantinople is, that the houses of rich and poor are alike entirely composed of wood, while chimneys are not generally used, but their place supplied by vessels of brass or earth put under the feet. These circumstances, joined to the usual improvidence of the Mahometans, cause most tremendous conflagrations. It is even believed, with or without reason, that the Turkish public employ the setting fire to the city as a mode of communicating their opinion on the conduct of their rulers. The scene is terrible, from the extent of the blaze, the deep rolling of the drum from the top of the minarets, and the crowds that assemble, among whom even the grand signior himself is expected to be present. It is reckoned that Constantinople rises entire from its ashes in the course of every fifteen years; but no advantage is ever taken of the circumstance to improve its aspect. The fallen streets are immediately reconstructed with all thehi TURKEY IN EUROPE 681 imperfections, and the houses rebuilt of the same fragile materials. The city contains, however, some structures that are very magnificent. Among them stands foremost the mosque of St. Sophia, accounted the finest in the world, first built as a church by Justinian, and converted by the conquering Turks to its present use. The mosques of Sultan Achmet and of Suleyman are equally vast and splendid, but not marked by the same classic taste. The numerous minarets are in general airy and elegant, and add greatly to the beauty of the city. Constantinople and its suburbs are peopled by a motley group of Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Franks, and natives of the East, to each of which a separate district or quarter is allowed. The Turks generally occupy Stamboul, but within its walls are also the quarters, of the Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. The Armenians form the busiest, the most valuable, and most respectable part of the population. They are the merchants, bankers, physicians, and general mechanics and men of business of the cities. The Turks highly esteem them. and prefer them to every other nation for the management of their commercial and financial transactions. The Greeks generally reside in a district called Fanar: and they are the rogues and vagabonds of the city. The Jews are found in the suburbs of Baleta and Haskoi, and are scattered in several Christian districts. They do not here, as in most other countries, confine themselves to mercantile pursuits, but are much devoted to mechanical business in all its departments. The Franks form a motley assemblage, and hail from every country of Europe and America. All foreigners, indeed, from the west of Turkey, are known as Franks. They number about 20,000. Pera, their quarter, is a perfect hot-bed of intrigue and villainy, and neither London nor Paris are said to produce such a precious lot of scoundrels and daring ruffians. They seem to be the offscourings of the capitals of Europe, and it is no wonder that the Turks despise the nations of which they are specimens. Of the total amount of the population the most conflicting estimates have been formed, varying from about 250,000 to upwards of a million. Mr. Reid stated the population in 1838, on good information, at 846,000; of which, in round numbers, 500,000 were Turks, 200,000 Armenians. 100,000 Jews, 28,000 Greeks, and 20,000 Franks and other strangers. The dogs of Constantinople, which are not private property, but are fed by the public, constitute the only scavengers, and exist in incredible numbers, being protected by law. So numerous are they, and so untamed, that they are becoming a nuisance; and the mosques have to be sedulously guarded to keep them from joining in the devotions of the faithful. The receptacles for the dead are not the least interesting or important objects in Constantinople; they are far more picturesque and commodious than those of the living, and occupy hardly less extent of ground. The people of every creed have separate cemeteries. Those of the Moslems are distinguished by the dark cypresses with which they are planted, and by their turbaned stones of white marble. A cypress is always planted over each Mussulman's grave; and as no grave is opened a second time, their burial grounds have become vast forests, extending for miles around the city and its suburbs. Multitudes of turtle doves frequent these gloomy abodes, and hold a divided sway with bats and owls. Burying within the city is strictly prohibited. Scutari, an appendage to Constantinople, stands on the Asiatic side, in __ _ _ _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ -':- ___-.__ TU-RKEY —XAHOMEDAN DEVOTIONS .'-r~-...............!e;In.~~~~~~~~~~.. ~,, ~-, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ _ iI~.t!/!~~~~~~~~~~~~t i~~~~ii~~~~il~ ~ i~~'C ~il~~~~~~'-~:ii!.... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —-~_ —— l — 684 TURKEY IN EUROPE. a beautiful and cultivated plain, and presents a picturesque aspect, from the mixture of trees and minarets. It carries on a very considerable caravan trade with the interior of Asia. A great forest near it contains the most splendid cemetery of the empire, as all the grandees of Constantinople seek to deposit their remains in Asia, which they consider as a Holy Land, in the possession of true believers, while Europe is almost entirely the prey of the " infidel." In this vicinity is situated the castle of the Seven Towers, used by government as a state prison. ADRIANOPLE, the city of Adrian, was the European capital of the Turkish empire before the fall of Constantinople, and it is still a large city, five miles in circumference, and containing about 100,000 inhabitants. There are several ancient palaces, and a splendid mosque erected by Sultan Selim out of the ruins of Fanagosta in Cyprus; but the streets, according to Dr. Walsh, are narrow and crooked, the houses ill built of brick and mud. The ancient strength of its fortifications has gone into decay; so that Gen eral Diebitsch, in the campaign of 1829, entered it without resistance. BULGARIA forms a long plain, between HIsemus on the south and the Danube on the north. Some portions are rugged, others marshy; but upon the whole it possesses a large share of beauty and fertility. The Bulgarians, a race originally Tartar, now profess the Greek religion; and are quiet, industrious, and hospitable. Sophia, the capital, at the foot of the mountains, is a large town, with 50,000 inhabitants, and carries on a great inland trade between Salonica and the interior of eastern Europe. The principalities of MOLDAVIA and WALLACHIA, on the north of the Danube, form an extensive region, about 360 miles in length, and 150 in breadth, presenting a very nearly similar aspect and character. They compose a vast plain, reaching from the river to the southern and eastern boundaries of the Carpathian mountains. The districts adjoining to these eminences are varied and picturesque, but towards the Danube become flat and marshy. The plains, particularly in Moldavia, are covered with almost innumerable stagnant pools, which communicate to the air pestilential qualities. The climate is subject to singular variations: in summer extremely hot; while in winter, under the latitude of the south of France, the Danube is for six weeks of the year so completely frozen as to bear the heaviest carriages. The soil, where not actually inundated, is exceedingly productive. Wheat is raised of excellent quality; but the Turks have imposed restrictions on the disposal of it, and the occupation of pasturage is preferred. The peasantry are a laborious, oppressed race, of simple habits, and living in rude abodes. They are of a low stature, weak, with light silky hair, and mostly dressed in sheep-skins. The Wallachians form a considerable part of the population of Transylvania and of all the neighboring countries. These two countries were once governed by native princes, and have not finally renounced all pretensions to liberty; yet the mixture of rude independence with debasing despotism does not cause the yoke to press at all lighter on the body of the people. The boyars exercise over them the same rude tyranny as the European nobles during the feudal ages; while the prince of Moldavia and the hospodar of Wallachia, though they must belong to the Greek nation, do not, on that account, ex ercise any milder yoke over their countrymen. Appointed by the Porte from favor or purchase, they employ their arbitrary sway solely to practice TURKEY IN EUROPE. 685 the most enormous exactions, and amass immense wealth during their short and precarious rule. The body of the people are of the Greek nation and faith; and in these countries the Greeks first raised the standard of independence; they experienced for some time a gleam of success, but their efforts were speedily and completely crushed. The cities in this region are large and rude. Jassy, the capital of Moldavia, is situated in the interior of the country, amid a marshy district, which renders it unhealthy. Galatz, at the junction of the Danube and the Sigeth, carries on most of the trade, and might attain considerable importance, if the navigation of the former river were made free. Bucharest, the capital of Wallachia, is a much larger city, containing about 80,000 souls. It is built in a dismal swamp, to render the streets passable over which, they are covered with boards; but in the intervals, water springs up from dirty kennels beneath. Here, according to Mr. Walsh, European and Oriental costumes and manners unite in nearly equal proportions. The people are clothed half in hats and shoes, half in calpacs and pelisses; the carriages are driven as often by buffaloes as by horses. The nobles live in extravagance and dissipation, while the people are plunged in poverty. SERVIA and BOSNIA are two countries, of smaller extent, reaching westward from Bulgaria, and, like it, situated between the mountains and the Danube. They do not, however, present any similarly vast plain, but are penetrated by lofty ranges, through which flow numerous rivers, of which the most important are, in Servia the Morava, in Bosnia the Drino and Bosna. The territories consist thus, in a great measure, of a succession of fertile valleys, in which wheat, maize, and other valuable grains are reared; and though the people are reproached with want of agricultural industry, Bosnia at least produces grain somewhat more than enough for its own supply. Cattle, however, is the chief product in both; and they possess some valuable breeds. The hills are covered with extensive forests, and abound in fruit trees, and in valuable aromatic herbs and plants. Neither the Servians nor Bosnians are under entire subjection to the Porte. The former are chiefly of the Greek church, and under Czerni Georges made a most gallant resistance to the Turkish power, and extorted extensive privileges. The Servians, though without much literature, have a native poetry, which has attracted admiration. The Bosnians, also, though Mahometans, possess many feudal rights, having thirty-six hereditary captains, and even deputies from the towns. Their language is a dialect of the Servian. Polygamy is seldom practised, and their females appear in public unveiled. Wallachia, Moldavia, and Servia, no longer form an integrant part of the Turkish state, being governed by their own princes and hospodars, and in all respects independent, except that they pay a fixed tribute to the Porte. The capital of Servia is Belgrade, a fortress of extraordinary strength, long considered the key of Hungary, and disputed with the utmost obstinacy between the Austrians and Turks. It is now equally distinguished as a seat of inland commerce, being the great entrep~t between Turkey and Germany, and is supposed to contain about 30,000 inhabitants. ALBANIA is a remarkable and important country. It extends about 200 miles along the Gulf of Venice and the Mediterranean, and has an interior 686 TURKEY IN EUROPE. breadth varying from 30 to 100 miles. It is entirely rugged and mountainous, diversified by numerous streams and lakes, and of an aspect extremely picturesque. The inhabitants, a race of bold mountaineers, have distinguished themselves by their valor from the earliest ages. This was the domain of Pyrrhus, whose victories in Italy made him so formidable to Rome. In the decline of the Greek empire, Albania rose, under its present name, to the character of an independent kingdom. When attacked by the Turks, it made a most gallant resistance; and the exploits of Scanderbeg, its hero, might adorn the pages of romance. Even at the beginning of the present century, Ali Pacha, a native of the country, erected a power almost completely independent of the Porte, extending over several of the surrounding countries. At length he was overpowered, betrayed, his head cut off, and suspended from the gate of the Seraglio at Constantinople. The Turks thus reestablished their dominion, and renewed the division into the four pachalics; those of Scutari, Ochrida, Vallona, and Butrinto. 1 The inhabitants of Albania are estimated at 1,200,000; and though these include a considerable number of Turks and Greeks, the basis consists of a peculiar native race, differing completely from all others in the empire. Their conversion to the Mahomedan creed has been very imperfect: the males of a family go usually to the mosque, while the females attend church, aud no discord arises out of this difference; so that Turks regard them as little better than infidels. The Albanian is of middle stature, with an oval visage, and high cheek-bones; bearing an erect and majestic air. He piques himself on a frank and open demeanor, holding in contempt the art and dissimulation of the Greek. He has nothing, too, of the inert solemnity of the Turk; is gay and active, yet a stranger to the habits of regular industry. He walks constantly armed; his delight is in combat, and even in rapine. The mountainous tracts are infested with numerous bands of robbers, which most of the Albanians join, for at least some part of their lives, without the least shame: it is common for one to speak of the time when he was a robber. They seek military employment also in the service of the sultan, and of the different pachas, particularly that of Egypt. Although they form only a tumultuary assemblage of men, with scarcely any subordination or regular distribution into corps, yet they are so individually active and intrepid, that they have rendered themselves formidable even to highly disciplined troops: they compose the only infantry in the Turkish armies that is at all effective. Joannina, which Ali made the capital, has a very picturesque situation on a lake, surrounded by lofty mountains, and is supposed to contain a population of 35,000. The houses are irregularly built, intermingled with gardens and trees. A great proportion of the inhabitants are Greek. Arta, on a gulf of the same name, is the chief theatre of trade. Scutari, or Scodra, the capital of Upper Albania, is situated in a rich plain, has a population of about 16,000, and carries on some considerable manufactures of cloth. Its pacha is now the most considerable potentate in Albania. GREECE. 687 GREECE. Aaxi, 19,149 SQUAPR MLES. POPULATION, 1,000,000 WREN the greater part of Europe was involved in barbarism, Greece was the favored seat of art, science and literature. In its flourishing period, it comprised the southern portion of the great eastern peninsula of Europe, and extended north to about latitude 420, including Thessaly, and a part of modern Albania, with the Ionian islands Crete, and the islands of the Archipelago. This famous region was originally called Hellas, (EXUxS,) and received the name of Greece from Grcecus, a Thessalian prince. The modern kingdom of Greece, though less extensive than the country anciently so called, comprises the territories of all the most celebrated and interesting of the Grecian states. Continental Greece, is naturally divided into two principal portions: the Northern or Hellas, comprising what has been called east and west Greece; and the southern comprising the Morea, ancient Peloponnesus. Greece possesses, in a high degree, those geographical features which distinguish Europe at large. No country is more remarkable for the irregularity of its shape, its shores, and its surface. The surface of Greece is so mountainous, that scarcely any room is left for plains. Such of the latter, as exist, are principally along the sea shore, or near the mouth of rivers, or else are mere basins, once forming the beds of mountain lakes, enclosed on all sides by mountains, or communicating with each other only by deep and narrow gorges. The mountains belong to the Alpine system, being a continuation of the Julian Alps, so remarkable in their whole extent, for their numerous grottoes and caverns. The principal chain — that of Pindus - runs north-west to south-east, through the centre of Hellas, as far as the isthmus of Corinth. On entering Greece, the Pindus chain is supposed to be nearly 7,700 feet in height. Greece has no navigable river, nor any worth notice, but for the classical recollections which attach to every portion of the soil and waters of this celebrated country. The Aspro Potamos, between Etolia and Acarnania, is the largest. The principal lake is that of Topolias, in West Boeotia, said by Thiersch to be 1000 feet above the sea. It is of a very irregular shape, and in winter is sometimes 15 miles long by 10 miles broad; but in size varies considerably at different periods of the year. Travella.rs in Greece, generally speak in high terms of its scenery. It has everywhere the finest views, and is interesting not less from its natural beauties, than its classic associations, and the ruins of ancient art and splendor scattered over it. " Yet are thy skies as blue, thy crags as wild; Sweet are thy groves, and verdant are thy fields, Thine olives ripe as when.linerva smiled, And still his honied wealth Hymettus yields, There the blithe bee his fragrant fortress builds, The freeborn wanderer of thy mountain air; Apollo still thy long: long sumuier gilds. Sili iu hi, ljbeaUi Menldili's,iuarbles glare; Art, Glory. Freedom fail, but Nature still ix fair. 688 GREECE. " Where'er we tread,'tis haunted; holy ground; No earth of thine is lost in vulgar mould, But one vast realm of wonder spreads around, And all the Muse's tale seems truly told, Till the sense aches with gazing to behold The scenes our earliest dreams have dwelt upon; Each hill and dale, each deepening glen and wold, Defies the power which crush'd thy temples gone: Age shakes Athena's tower, but spares gray Marathon." Childe Harolde, canto ii. The richly wooded and well watered provinces of Acarnania and Etolia, are succeeded towards the east by the lofty, rugged and forest clad chains of Parnassus and (Eta, alternating with the fertile valleys of the Cephissus and Hellada. Bceotia, consisting of two elevated basins, has been uniformly celebrated for its fertility, and was considered the granary of ancient Greece. Athens has been said to surpass all the other capitals of Europe; not only in ancient celebrity, but also in the beauty and variety of the surrounding country. It is much to be regretted, that the fine forests which once clothed the hills of Greece, have been so extensively ravaged, partly by the wanton rapacity of the inhabitants, partly by the Turkish troops, who carried fire and sword into the remote fastnesses of the mountains. Still, however, on Parnassus, Helicon and Taygetus, in Megaris and Arcadia, oak forests and pines are found of great extent. The most common cultivated products, are wheat, barley, maize and rye; oats in small quantities; rice in marshy spots; millet, peas, beans, tares, sesamum, anise, cotton and tobacco; and notwithstanding the most wretched system of agriculture, the produce is large. The olive is cultivated throughout Greece, but the vine is planted on a very limited scale. The Corinthian grape or current, is almost peculiar to the Morea and the Ionian islands. It succeeds best in plains near the sea, with a western exposure, and prefers a dry and light soil. Madder grows wild in abundance, and the mulberry has become an object of increasing importance, and the produce of silk is considerable. The almond, date, melons, oranges and other southern fruits grow in the open fields, and form a considerable part of the subsistence of the inhabitants. Culinary vegetables are in great variety, and the forests produce the oak, the cork tree, pine, ash, aloe, wild olive, chestnut, various dye-woods and plants, and a vast variety of flowers and aromatic herbs. Greece is eminently a pastoral country, and the management of sheep is better understood than any other branch of rural economy. As in Spain, the flocks migrate, at the approach of winter, from the mountains to the low valleys near the sea. Goats are also numerous, and are shorn along with the sheep. Beeves are not very numerous. Buffaloes are the common beasts of burden, especially in the Morea, and when unfit for labor are killed for food. The horse is here an inferior animal, but sure-footed; nor are asses and mules so active and vigorous as in Spain. The Grecians still pay great attention to their bees, and the honey of Hymettus still maintains its ancient preiminence, and is there produced in abundance. Silk worms also receive great care, and silk is produced in considerable quantities. In the low countries the people are infested with troublesome and noxious insects, and in warm weather they become almost intolerable. The seas, lakes and rivers abound with fish, and seals are found on the coasts. The dominant race are the Hellenes, who claim to be the descendants of the ancient people who rendered this country so famous, but they have unquestionably received a large proportion of barbaric blood, particularly by GREECE. 689 intermixture with the Sclavonians. They are a rude and unenlightened people, with all the vices of slaves and few redeeming virtues, but they are ingenious, active, enterprising and restless; and now that they have received some degree of national independence and civil liberty, they may be able to tur turn their talents to account in reacquiring a portion of that civilization and learning they formerly diffused over western Europe. Their language is ~the Romaic, which they acquired during their subjection to the Roman Empire of Constantinople, and from which their Turkish name, Roumi, is derived. The Romaic bears a much closer resemblance to the ancient Greek than the Italian does to the Latin. The Hellenes all belong to the Greek church, but the priests freely admit and thankfully receive the bible. This circumstance and the general progress of education will, no doubt, soon be productive of the happiest effect on the character of the nation, which at best is rather equivocal at the present day. The Arnauts or Albanians are very numerous, and have generally preserved their national manners, dress and language. They chiefly dwell in the cities of Hellas and in some portions only of the Morea. The Mainotes, who boast that they descend from the ancient Spartans, inhabit the mountains of the south. They are a wild and lawless race, living under a sort of patriarchial feudal government, exercised by hereditary chiefs, and seem to be really the descendants of the free Laconians, who were enfranchised from the dominions of Sparta by a decree of the Roman senate. The government is a constitutional monarchy, but the elements of its political system are in a very disorganized condition. The present king is a scion of the house of Bavaria. Greece formed a part of the Turkish empire until 1821, when the people revolted, and after a long and severe struggle, succeeded, with the aid of the Europeans and the sympathy of the whole world, in achieving their independence. The council of the state is composed of three vice-presidents, seventeen councillors in ordinary, and fourteen special councillors. In 1834, Athens was declared to be the capital. For administrative purposes the kingdom is divided into twentyfour " nomoi " or governments, and seven sub-governments. The defensive means of the nation are -ample, and consist of 12,000 men of all arms, besides the militia; and they have a navy which numbers 32 small vessels, carrying 190 guns and 2400 men. The revenue amounts to about $2.500,000; but the expenditure in most years exceeds this sum. The public debt is about $35,000,000. Education, until lately, has been entirely neglected; even the priests were illiterate; bet under the new regime a respectable system of instruction has been established. At Athens there is a university, with thirty professors; a gymnasium, with eight professors; a high school; a normal school for the education of teachers; and three Lancasterian schools. These are all supported by government, and the scholars are promoted from the lower to the higher on certificates of competency, for which there appears to be great competition. In the other parts of the kingdom there are four gymnasia, and about 250 or 300 primary and Lancasterian schools, partly paid from the treasury. The system as yet, however, has not been much extended, but in no country is education more highly prized; and in a short time it is probable that a thorough revival will bring out the literary genius of the people, and place them in this respect on a common footing, 44 -- X — - -- - - - ------ - 6 —__ - ---- - ~- - -- -- -~ =~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~= - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~- -- - - vs: - - - — ~~~ONTNTNOL z=-~~~~~~~~~~~~;~~~~~~~=s~~~~~ - _ _:-_-= - = ---- [, —~ —~. —- C-~ ---— 2 _ -.=~. -"7-"7:'-"'-~ — _- _ -— ~' ---:-'-' --- I-~- __=~ _I~7~.. = —--—.-~ —:-=__._z~=.:-~_=..........-.~-5 —= —~ —-'-o...;- ~ ~- - -.:..... // J~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J 2~- =-L~-;;- -~:-I-~;;_~ -'-"~'~....:~.,,,,,,. -,,,,,,.,-. - ~ ~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~ --- -- C-' -~ ~ —~ti~ (JITAIDEL OF R~O1VAIqI-GIBMULTAR~ OF GR~EECE 692 GREECE. at least, with the inhabitants of other European countries. Since the 4th of August, 1833, the established religion of the state has been that of the "Orthodox Oriental Apostolic Church," of which the king is the head. Manufactures on a large scale do not exist. The people in their present circumstances do not require them, and such as do exist are necessarily confined to the rude necessaries of life. Coarse cloths, implements of husbandry, furniture, &c., are made with more or less skill. The position of Greece, and its outline, however, seem to point it out as naturally adapted to commerce, but hitherto the disturbed state of affairs has prevented it from assuming its proper position in the world. The people, however, are a sagacious race, and already have considerable trade with foreign countries. The CITY OF ATHENS still holds its place among the principal towns of modern Greece, of which it is the capital. It no longer sways the destinies of surrounding states, nor pours forth the crowd of philosophers, poets and heroes who illustrated its ancient state. Athens is extinct, both as a seat of dominion and a school of learning. It presents still, however, objects of the most lofty interest; for here are maintained, in wonderful preservation, the grandest existing monuments of sculpture and architecture; the works of a Phidias and an Ictinus, which raised those who planned them to the pinnacle of renown. The edifices of Rome, indeed, are more extended, more varied, the result of ampler wealth and resources; but those of Athens are in a style of purer and severer grandeur, and bear the stamp of loftier genius. So durable, as well as beautiful, are the materials of which they are composed, that they have survived all the ravages of time and barbarism; and their partial decay, in many instances, has only given to them a more solemn and affecting character. The Acro. polis, crowned with the Parthenon, forms the most conspicuous object with which Athens is adorned. It is seated on an almost precipitous hill, commanding all the surrounding country. The Parthenon, or Temple of Minerva, was erected by Pericles during the most classic age of Athens. It was of the finest white marble, encompassed with fluted columns of the Doric order, and adorned with the sculpture of Phidias. It did not sustain any deadly injury till 1687, when the Venetians under Konigsmark threw a bomb into it, demolished the roof, and much injured the whole fabric; after which, the Turks began to hew materials out of it, and to convert the interior into a mosque. It is now mouldering in all the solemnity of ruin. To Dr. Clarke the edifice appeared an eminently satisfactory proof of the decided superiority of Athenian design over anything that Rome can boast; a masterpiece of architecture, uniting the greatness and majesty of the Egyptian or ancient Etruscan style, with all the elegant proportions, the rich ornaments, and the discriminating taste of the most splendid era of the arts. In graceful proportion, in magnificence, in costliness of materials, in splendid decoration, and in everything that may denote the highest degree of improvement to which the Doric style ever attained, it has no equal. In all that relates to grandeur, harmony, elegance, and beauty, the Parthenon is universally acknowledged a model; even the minute details of the sculpture by which it is so highly decorated have the delicacy of a cameo. These sculptures, of which such fine specimens are now exhibited in the British Museum, rank perhaps as the very noblest examples of that GREECE. 693 art. Dr. Clarke notices, in particular, the immense frieze, on which the whole Panathenaic festival was represented in one continued basso-relievo design, originally 600 feet in length. The multitude of grand objects in Athens is too great for our limits to allow us to enter into more than a very general enumeration. Among the foremost may be named a range of sixteen superb columns, believed to be the remains of one hundred and sixteen which belonged to the temple of Jupiter Olympius. In 1676 there were seventeen; but a few year's before Chandler's visit, the pacha had, with incredible labor, leveled one to the ground, for the purpose of raising a mosque out of the materials. The others are still standing, sixty feet high, and about six feet in diameter, a splendid example of the Corinthian order, and built of the very finest marble. The Erechtheum, though it consists of the two temples of Miierva Polias and of Pandrosus, is less extensive than the two just mentioned; but perhaps surpasses them in the extreme delicacy of its sculpture and.ornaments, and is considered the finest existing specimen of the Ionic. The caryatides which support the Pandroseum are of particularly exquisite workmanship. The treatment of this beautiful edifice. has been severe. The Turks made its portico a powder-magazine; and though the Greeks had passed a vote to rescue it from this dishonor, their funds have been hitherto insufficient. A dwelling-house of rough brick has been profanely erected between the caryatides, and the smoke from it has blackened some of the most delicate ornaments; but, on the whole, this beautiful monument has suffered less than could be expected from such unworthy usage. The Temple of Theseus, a fine Doric structure, somewhat resembles the Parthenon, and is, perhaps, as to its general outline, the most entire of all the Grecian edifices. Though the sculptures are greatly injured, enough remains to attest their original excellence. They represent the exploits of Hercules and Theseus. This edifice seems to present a striking example' of that freshness " which continued to bloom upon the erections of Pericles, which preserved their faces uninjured, as if they possessed a neverfading spirit, and a soul insensible to age." There are other structures of less magnitude: the Propylaea, or columnar entrance of the Acropolis; the Lantern of Demosthenes; the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus; the marble Tower of the Winds; the monument of Philopappus; which excite the admiration of the traveler. There are others of which only the site and outline can now be traced: such is the Stadium, " the most wonderful of all the marvellous works of HIrodes Atticus." It is formed by an excavated mountain, the ranges of seats occupying its lofty sides. The structure, on which quarries were exhausted, has now been stripped of its marble covering, and the area, 650 feet long, has been subjected to the plough; yet in Dr. Clarke's opinion every thing which is necessary to impress the mind with an idea of the grandeur and prodigious nature of the work survives, as if it existed in its most perfect state. The merely ornamental parts are not missed in a structure necessarily simple as to its form, but inexpressibly great and striking in its aspect; not merely from its artificial character, but from the grandeur of its appearance as a work of nature. The Odeum, built by the same opulent Athenian, roofed with cedar, and unrivalled in Greece for extent and magnificence, presents now only the inner front of the proscenium, and three rows of circular arches. Besides the edifices of Athens, there are 694 GREECE. some spots, which the visitor imbued with classic lore cannot contemplate without peculiar emotion. Among these is the Areopagus, the highest seat of judgment, and the great resort of the Athenians. The site is described by Clarke as peculiarly commanding, with a noble prospect of mountains, islands, seas, and skies; while behind rises the lofty Acropolis, crowned with all its marble temples. The visitant seeks also, but does not find, the grove of the Academy, where ancient wisdom delivered its noblest precepts. The site even can scarcely be conjectured; yet, according to Chandler, that man would still be subject to the anger of the Muses wvho should omit the search. The Athens of modern times has been a city of some distinction; even before the revolution, its inhabitants, in number about 12,000 or 13,000, displayed a superior polish and intelligence; and a society called Philomuso had been instituted for the cultivation of the arts and sciences. The Turks themselves had laid aside somewhat of their pompous barbarism. It is remarkable that, after having been formerly so distinguished as a maritime city, it had not a single ship belonging to it. It became, however, an important military position, the Greeks having found a spring of water in the Acropolis: after this discovery it was considered nearly impregnable, yet it again fell into the power of the Turks. While the ancient edifices nearly defied the ravages of war, about a third of the modern houses have been destroyed during the contest. The territory of Attica is still interesting to the traveler, from the many scenes of classic celebrity which it presents. The stream of the Ilissus does not answer the expectation raised by its fame; it is only a torrent, which in the depth of winter rushes down from the mountains. Chandler, even after rains, watched in vain for a moment when its bed would be covered with water. Mount Hymettus, rich in aromatic herbs, still produces, as already observed, the honey for which it was always celebrated. The quarries of Pentelicus, affording the materials of so many magnificent structures, exhibit vast humid caverns, over which the wide roof awfully extends, adorned with hollow icicles, while a small transparent petrifying stream trickles down the rock. On the southern frontier extends the plain of Marathon, long and narrow, covered with rich crops of grain; but the traveler looks in vain for the columns, on which were recorded the immortal names of its heroes. The great tumulus, or barrow, however, with a bush or two growing on it, still towers above the level of the plain. On the north-west extremity of Attica is Eleusis, the seat of those thrice sacred mysteries in which almost every nation, Greek or barbarian, came in such crowds to be initiated. The mystic temple planned by Ictinus, the architect of the Parthenon, offers only broken fragments to attest its ancient place as one of the grandest edifices of Greece. Opposite to it is the island of Salamis, or Colouri, separated from the continent by those narrow straits, the scene of that grand naval battle so glorious to Athens, which completely broke the tide of Persian invasion. The isthmus of Corinth, four or five miles in width, unites the Morea with the continent. The ancients had built a wall across, of which some vestiges still remain. Corinth itself was the most conspicuous object in this part of Greece. It derived great wealth from the fertile surrounding plain, and from the large quantity of merchandise conveyed across the GREECE. 695 isthmus, to avoid the circumnavigation of the Morea, which the ancients dreaded. Preserving its ancient name, it occupies a wide area but thinly filled with houses; and, with the exception of a group of fine Doric columns, few only of those monuments remain which must have adorned it during the days of its splendor. It presents, however, a most distinguished natu ral object-the citadel or Acro-corinthus, which towers to the height of upwards of 1000 feet and commands an almost matchless view over the sea and the finest regions of Greece. Sicyon, with its fine plain covered with villages, presents itself as we turn to the right into the Peloponnesus. This ancient seat of Grecian power is now dwindled from its high preeminence to become one of the most wretched villages in the Morea. Few traces also remain of the arts, of which this opulent and voluptuous city was considered as the school. The chief is the theatre, which remains almost entire, and appeared to Dr. Clarke to surpass every other in Greece, in the harmony of its proportions, the costliness of its workmanship, the grandeur of the Koilon, and the stupendous prospect presented. Argolis, a more extended plain to the left of the isthmus, forms a long peninsula parallel to that of Attica. It consists chiefly of a plain, bordered by very high mountains, and of very peculiar beauty. It is divided into delicious valleys covered by cultivated fields, or filled with myrtles, flowering shrubs, and trees, and each of which appears to be secluded from the rest of the world. The shepherds from the mountains are heard playing on their reed pipes, as in the ages of poetic fiction. The cities of Argolis are the most ancient in Greece, and their monuments bear the stamp of the Egyptian and Doric style, marked rather by stupendous magnitude than by the refinement of art. It was even believed in Greece that they were the work of a Cyclopean race of giganlitic stature; a notion, as Dr. Clarke observes, which every nation has entertained respecting its ancestors. Mycenm, Argos, and Tiryns rank as the most memorable of these antique cities. Mycenoe, the early capital of Greece, and the proud seat of " the king of kings," still presents specimens, wonderfully entire, of the architecture and sculpture of the heroic ages. Its Acropolis, perhaps the most ancient in the world, has admirably withstood the ravages of time; and its walls, composed of huge unhewn masses of stone fitted to each other, follow the sinuosities of the rock on which'it stands. The entrance is by the Gate of tlhe Lions, the same by which "' the king of men" issued forth to the conquest of Troy. It is supposed that the two sculptured lions, or rather panthers, which surmount it, were mythological figures, and that the whole edifice possessed the same sacred character which was ascribed to the Acropolis of Athens, and the temples of Egypt. Another monument consists of a tumnulus of vast dimensions, which Dr. Clarke has given much reason to think was the actual tomb of Agamemnon. The entrance, built with all the colossal grandeur of Phoenician architecture, is surmounted by a mass of breccia, 27 feet long, said to be the largest slab of hewn stone in the world. All the monuments of Argolis bear an Egyptian character, and Dr. Clarke almost fancied himself again among the ruins of Memphis. Argos itself succeeded Mycenve as the capital of the plain, which place it continued to hold till the late revolution, when Napoli rivaled it. The antiquities of Argos are few, and consist only of terra 696 GREECE. cottas and architectural fragments. Dr. Clarke discovered here one of those secret hollow passages from which the oracular responses were delivered by the unseen priest in the name of the god, the sound being heightened by the rocks so as to produce a striking effect. Argos has been, in modern times, a large straggling place, the houses rather commodious, though not well built. The new government had formed there at one time a sort of capital, particularly marked by establishments for education; but according to the most recent accounts, the war had reduced it to a state of almost total desolation; from which, however, it is beginning to revive. The ruins of Tiryns form a still more striking mass than those of Mycense, and carry back the mind into a still more solemn antiquity. The only structures remaining are the walls of the Acropolis, enclosing a space of 244 yards by 54. Their strength is gigantic, however, like that of Hercules, from whom they are named; being 21 feet to 25 feet thick, and 43 feet high. As an example of human power, they have been placed in competition with the pyramids of Egypt. These walls existed before Homer, by whom they are celebrated; they have remained entire since his age, and are likely to brave the attacks of time for a much longer period. Nauplia, which the Venetians have Italianised into Napoli, is situated at the head of the Gulf of Argos, and possesses every requisite of a great naval capital. It stands on a long narrow promontory, surrounded by impregnable heights, which would render it, like Corinth, another Gibraltar, were it held by sure defenders. The port, though its depth has diminished, is still the best and most secure in the AMorea. It has carried on in modern times a very considerable trade in the export of wine, oil, and sponges; the staples of Argolis, and of the interior Morea. After the revolution, the Greeks made it their capital and seat of government, but Athens has recently become the royal residence. Argolis contains other spots that awaken interesting recollections. Epidaurus, now Pithauri, is at present only a village, situated in a narrow, but fertile and beautiful vale. Near it, however, the Greeks held their first constituent assembly, to which they gave this classic name. A few miles from it is the grove, held saced by the ancients as the birth-place of ~sculapius; adorned also by the temples of Diana and Venus, and some other edifices. These are now level with the ground, which is strewed with elegant fragments of the Doric and Ionic orders. The theatre is in tolerable preservation, and, though tenanted by hares, partridges, and tortoises, justifies the description of Pausanias, who characterised it as one of the most beautiful in Greece. Darnala, a small but rather thriving village, now covers the site of Troezene, of the ancient ruins of which fesw fragments remain; but there are numerous churches, which, though mostly dilapidated, mark its importance during the lower ages. The high plain of the ancient Arcadia occupies the centre of the Morea to the, west of that of Argolis. This celebrated seat of the pastoral muses presents some rugged and gloomy features. It is traversed and bordered by the steep chains of Maenalus and Lyceus; it is in many parts bleak and marshy; and the cold of winter is somewhat severe. In spring and summer, however, while the lower plains are scorched by the rays of the sun, it enjoys a delicious and salutary coolness; gentle clouds collect among GREECE. 697 the mountains, and descend in fertilizing showers; springs and rivulets without number, descending to form the Alpheus, irrigate the fields; the vine yields abundantly its delicious fruit, and numberless flocks still feed in its valleys and mountain sides. This country was once the chosen seat of poetry and fable. Every forest, every cavern, had its gods and its altars. The woods were inhabited by fauns, and every oak had its dryad. Diana wandered among the groves, the nymphs sported among flowers; the god of the shepherds animated every spot with his presence. Here lingered long, very long, it is said, the innocence and simple manners of the first ages, when they were banished from every other part of the globe. These fond remembrances are still not altogether belied in the more sequestered districts, which continues the abode of peace, where the shepherd enjoys in tranquillity the Zlelights of a pastoral life. The population consists here chiefly of Albanians. Tripolizza, the Turkish capital of the Morea, is situated in.the eastern part of this plain, at the foot of Mount Molnalus, and in a region which even the ancients characterised as the abode of winter. Sir W. Gell is surprised that the pacha should have fixed his seat in the only ugly spot of his dominions; a large, dirty, gloomy city in the most uninviting country, and under the worst possible climate. The Albanians, wvhen they overran the Peloponnesus, and cut off here 3000 in two hours, raised round it a high strong wall, which rendered it an important military post, and exposed it to many vicissitudes during the contest. First, after a long siege, it was stormed by the Greeks, who incurred a deep and lasting reproach for the massacre of which they were guilty on this occasion. Afterwards it yielded to the arms of Ibrahim Pacha, and the fortifications suffered so much, that it could no longer stand half an hour's regular siege. The palace of the pacha, a vast wooden building, capable of containing 1200 men, and forming a sort of suburb to the town, has been demolished; and the same fate has been shared by most of the principal houses, which were spacious, but devoid of taste. The four large mosques contain may precious fragments and bas-reliefs, profaned by the barbarous manner in which they are inserted. The Turks have either placed them inside, or covered them over, that their eyes may not be wounded by such profane representations. The other cities of the Arcadian plain present few monuments of their ancient fame; these, indeed, have been demolished by the people of Tripolizia, which, though not itself ancient, has been built out of them. Sinano, a miserable collection of clay huts, covers the site of the once proud Megalopolis, which the Theban hero raised into the military capital of Peloponnesus. Only its theatre, the largest in Greece, can still be traced, its seats covered with earth and overgrown with bushes, and a few fraginents of its walls facing the Helisson. Pouqueville sought in vain for Mantinaea, its eight temples, and the site of the great battle in which Epaminondas conquered and fell; but Sir W. Gell could trace, in its flat marshy site, the regular circuit of its walls, washed by the Ophis, and the line of some of its streets. Tegea is, as of old, strewn with fragments, and it is conjectured that a rich treasure of ancient sculpture might be found under ground, if it were duly sought. Orchomenos occupied a commanding situation on the flat summit of a steep hill, at the foot of which -~~~~~~~~~~~atc -: —--— ~~~~~~~~~_;;~~~~;_=-~~~~~-~~~,~~~,~~,=~~~~== —-=I~~~~~~~''-1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 4 ------ cl ~ 1 _)'i A /1 i INTO.-PETRIFID -CASCAD ,.,,,.,.<,'.'.,.!::;,'("-'~~2U'L~C;,',. i —-I CR, E T.A.N SHEEP. Bel I —r~~~~- ---,~~~~~~~g~~Cc'Wr~~~~-s~~~_~~,-rr~~~c~~ —~~~s~~===s~~~~-~~~F_;= ~i~~~~~;JI r.-:r~~',~=.~=:-~-~~-~~ ~-vj ~-^-~-~~ —~-~^-~-~-~~=~,M M` I~III~C~'~~Pi~~e-z - c-Y -~-a~ —- ~ -~-, ~~~1ZRi'IIL5' ~ —- ---- r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 ~~~~-CRTANSHEP 700 GREECE. the modern village is built. There are no remarkable ruins, but some in dications of them might tempt the antiquary to undertake an excavation. Cantena, a town of the lower ages, and Dimizance, where the Greeks had founded a school of some eminence, are the chief existing towns in the interior of the Morea. On the coast is Arcadia, a flourishing little port, with 4,000 inhabitants; but, notwithstanding the name it bears, it is not an ancient city, nor does it present ancient monuments. Ascending the river of Arcadia, and passing the agreeable village of Sidero Castro, the traveler comes to the remains of Phigalia, once a large city, of which only the circuit of the walls is in any preservation. Near it, however, stands the temple of Apollo Epicurios, by much the best preserved ancient edifice in the Morea, and which was even esteemed second in beauty only to that of Tegea. It is placed in one of the most romantic situations'that poetry could imagine, on the ridge of a hill surrounded by old trees, and in complete solitude. The frieze representing the combats of the fabulous ages has been removed, and deposited in the British Museum. It is curious as a relic of art, but is much eclipsed by the sculptures of the Parthenon, with which it is there confronted. The south of the Morea consists of three peninsulas, formed by the nearly parallel gulfs of Messenia or Coron, and Kolokthya; the peninsulas of Messenia, of Maina, and of Laconia. Messenia, oppressed under the iron svway of Sparta, did not possess any important monuments till the time of Epaminondas, who emancipated it from those proud masters.. It still displays a noble circuit of walls and gates, the most magnificent in all Greece. On the coast of the peninsula have risen several modern ports of consequence: Navarino, one of the best harbors in the Peloponnesus, in a fine plain, and of considerable strength, though it could not withstand the Egyptian arms; Modon, the ancient Methone; and Coron, on or near the Corone of Epaminondas; neither of which places are now of muchb consequence. The peninsula of Maina is almost entirely filled with the branches of the rugged Taygetus, which rises from the sea as it were by steps, and shoots up into lofty and snowy pinnacles. Though not so elevated as those of the Alps, they are seen under a bright sky, and display, it is said, especially from the coast of Laconia, tints more beautiful than on any other European mountains. The rocks are naked, hard, and sharp; and fragments of them are often employed as hones. This rugged region is inhabited by the Mainotes; a Greek race, who, if not genuine descendants of the Spartans, have inherited at least all their hardy spirit. They have ever been the defence of the Greek nation in war, and its scourge in peace. The Mainotes, quite unlike other Greeks, have a bold and manly air, which awes even a Tunk. The population is distributed through upward of one hundred villages, ruled by seven or eight capitani, who somewhat resemble the Highland lairds during their fullest period of clannish independence. The Mainotes have all the barbarous virtues; the stranger who trusts to their hospitality finds it boundless, and may pass in safety from one end of Maina to the other. The women, who are uncommonly handsome, and of fair complexion, are much better treated than females are in the rest of Greece or Turkey. They are neither confined nor degraded; and, in return, they distinguish themselves by their eonjugal fidelity and active househ(ld GREECE. 701 management; and, not content with the virtues of their own sex, they emulate those of the other; sallying forth at the head of warlike bands, and setting examples of masculine prowess. The weapon of the Mainotes is the rifle, to which they are trained from their infancy, and which they use with matchless dexterity. They are the very best of light mountain troops, in which capacity they have repeatedly cleared the Morea from enemies, and oppressed it themselves. The rocky southern extremity, towards Cape Teenarus or Matapan, is held by the Caconvionotes, a race who seem a sort of caricature of the Mainotes, having all their fierceness, without any of their redeeming qualities. The towns of Maina are little more than villages; of which Dolus, in the interior, containing five hundred houses, is said to be the largest. Marathonisi and Kibrees are small sea-ports, the occasional residence of the beys. To the north-west opens the beautiful plain of Calamata, with the large flourishing village of that name, which, though recently destroyed, must in due time revive. The third peninsula contains the country of Isakonia, which seems evidently a corruption of Laconia. Its north-western head receives thc Eurotas, on whose banks the traveler has to seek for the remains of Lace daemon. In approaching them his eye is struck by Misitra, or Mistra, a more modern capital, which seems to have arisen under the Greek empire. Mistra, extending by successive stages up the sides of an extensive hill, has a magnificent appearance, and might be taken for the metropolis of a large empire, rather than that of the deserted vales of Laconia. The entrance into it produces disappointment; the streets being narrow, winding, and dirty, and presenting no important edifice, ancient or modern. At a few miles' distance, however, is traced the site of Sparta, covered with extensive ruins; but these, to our disappointment, are found to be not those of the austere votaries of Lycurgus; they are the " theatre and other gay structures erected by Rome after Sparta was reduced to. subjection. Only one small building, partly of brick, might be a tomb of one of the ancient kings." Laconia is a long level woodland, from which rise, in romantic and fantastic forms, the summits of Taygetus. It has, however, one important port, Napoli di Malvasia, whence a much esteemed wine is exported, and some other trade is carried on. The northern coast, extending along the Gulf of Lepanto, and comprehending the ancient Elis and Achaia, alone remains to complete the picture of the Morea. It is a very fertile plain, producing the best wine in Greece, and the finest currants in the world. In the classic antiquary it excites the deepest interest, as containing the sites of Elis and Olympia, or rather Pisa, the scenes of those games to which Greece thronged from her remotest valleys, and those sacred precincts, on entering which the most hostile bands deposited their arms. This region was under the protection of Jupiter Olympius, whose statue, sixty feet in height, presented the utmost perfection of painting and statuary, with every display of wealth which gifts could accumulate. What barbarian hands destroyed Olympia has not been filly ascertained, but the wreck is so complete, that travelers have passed over it, and believed that not a trace existed. Mr. Dodwell, however, was able to identify the grand temple of the Olympian Jupiter, and dug up some fragments of columns, exceeding in dimension those of the Parthenon at Athens. Elis presents only a confused wreck of 702 GREECE. scattered blocks; but near it is the modern Gastouni, a smnall town, one of the richest in Peloponnesus, though at this moment also lying in ruin. The modern capital, however, of all this district, is Patras; a large commercial, dirty, ill-built place, possessing but little of a classic character. Boeotia and Phocis consist of several plains enclosed by very lofty mountains, and above all by those which are most sacred in the annals of poetry, the heights of Helicon, Cithoeron, and Parnassus, accounted ever the chosen haunt of the Muses. Dr. Clarke considers their grand aspect and romantic valleys as having had a powerful influence in prompting the high flights of the Grecian muse. Thebes, in a plain surrounded by these snow-clad summits, makes still a noble appearance; but only some coins and fraginents are now to be discovered within the circuit of its walls. It suffered severely in the late contest; prior to which it was a considerable place, of firom three to five hundred houses, and has been celebrated for the beauty of its females. Southward is the plain of Platea, in which the traveler searches for monuments of the splendid victory which finally baffled the power of Xerxes. Dr. Clarke seems, in fact, to have discovered the site of the city, and near it some ancient sepulchres, which may be supposed to have been erected immediately after that great event. On the opposite side of a ridge of hills is the plain of Leuctra, the scene of that other battle which finally subverted the dominion of Sparta over Greece. The site is still covered with huge masses of marble and stone, which the inhabitants have long labored to demolish, with the view of introducing the plow; but the attempt has hitherto proved fruitless. Above this plain rises Helicon, the solitudes of which are in the highest degree beautiful: every declivity of the mountain is covered with luxuriant shrubs, or tenanted by browsing flocks; while the pipe of the shepherd, mingling its sound with that of the bells upon the goats and the sheep, is heard at intervals among the rocks. Dr. Clarke conceived that he could here ascertain the fountains of Aganippe and Helicon, and the Grove of the Muses. Beyond Helicon lie the plain and city of Livadia, the latter of which has been the capital of this part of Greece, and the seat of an extensive jurisdiction. It contained 1,500 houses, and carried on a considerable trade in the productions of this part of Greece. Lebadia was said to be as richly adorned with sculptures as any Greek city; but every trace of them has vanished, and it is now only distinguished by the mystic spot of the cave and shrine of Trophonius, and the two streams Mnemosynle and Lethe, Memory and Oblivion, flowing through the former. A few nmiles westward is the plain of Cheronea, shut in by Parnassus, with its bleak and rugged masses of gray limestone rock, covered with shrubs and coppice. This was a great battle-plain, on which was repeatedly decided the fate of Greece; first through the defeat of the Athenians by the Boeotians, afterwards through that of the combined Greek forces by Philip, and lastly of Mithridates by Sylla. A most conspicuous tumulus still exists, a monument of the ensanguined field. Delphi, at the foot of Parnassus, is separated by a branch of that mountain from the plain of Cheronoea. This was the most celebrated of the ancient shrines to which mankind went in crowds to be deluded. The temple has disappeared, and its exact site cannot be conjectured. Its position, however, in a deep circular vale, built along the sides of Parnassus, whose GREECE. 703 vast precipices rise behind in towering majesty, cannot, independent of all recollection, be viewed without the deepest emotion. The Cyclopean masonry may still be traced, in which the streets, rising in terraces behind each other, were made to form a part of the awful features of the mountain. At the foot of a precipice, above which the rock shoots up into two pointed crags, the visiter sees the fountain of Castalia, that grand source of ancient inspiration; and the scene itself combines great picturesque beauty with all the circumstances of local interest. A square shallow basin at its foot was doubtless the Castalian fount in which the priestess was accustomed to plunge before she mounted the tripod, to pronounce the thrice-sacred oracle. The prospect from the summit of Parnassus is striking. It overlooks all the mountain tops, except Olympus, which appears with its many summits clad in shining snow. Western Hellas, the ancient 2Etolia, and Acarnania, displays neither the same grand features of nature nor the same ancient magnificence; but it has been distinguished in modern military history. Naupactus, its ancient port, has been modernised into Lepanto, and has given its name to a gulf, which was the grand theatre of naval conflict between the Turks and the Venetians, and of that in which the Spaniards, bly a signal victory, finally broke the Turkish maritime power. Salona, on the site of the ancient Amphissa, still retains considerable importance, being considered as the capital and military rendezvous of Western Greece. It communicates with the gulf by its port of Scala. Galaxidi, farther up the gulf, was rising into some importance before the late struggle. But Missolonghi, though of recent origin, has now eclipsed the fame of all the western cities. Its position, at the the mouth of the gulf, had enabled it to rise into some commercial importance. During the late contest, its peninsular site in a shallow sea which admitted only boats, though its only defenses on the land side were a low wall and a paltry ditch, inspired the Greeks with the design of converting it into a strong-hold. Missolonghi, accordingly made a long and glorious resistance, and became the rallying point of all Greece without the Morea. Thessaly formed an exterior portion of Greece, severed from the rest by the lofty and rugged barrier of Mount (Eta, which runs across the entire breadth, till it locks in with the chain of Pindus. The interior consists of almost boundless plains, formerly celebrated for the manoeuvres of the Thessalian cavalry. It is girdled by mountains still loftier than any yet surveyed: Olympus, the proudest of all the Grecian summits, on which fable and mythology placed the celestial mountain and the throne of Jupiter; Ossa and Pelion, next in magnitude, piled up by the giants who hoped to have scaled heaven. The towns are much more Turkish than in Hellas and the Morea; but the mountains are held by Greek plunderers (klephtes), a bold and warlike race, who have made considerable efforts to establish their independence. The entrance into Thessaly from. Greece is by one of the most celebrated and sacred spots consecrated by antiquity, the pass of Thermopylse, which the patriotic devotion of "the three hundred" has stamped with the most sublime recollections. The narrow passage lies between the eastern extremity of (Eta and a marsh reaching to the sea. A tumulus is here discovered, on which appear the broken remains of a massy pedestal, originally formed for supporting, as Dr. Clarke believes, the simple but affecting monument erected to their memory. 704 GREECE. The islands form a prominent and interesting appendage to Greece. Cyprus, Rhodes, and a considerable number of smaller isles ranged along the coast of Asia Minor, have been always considered as Asiatic. The Greek European islands are Candia, the Cyclades, and those termed the Ionian Islands. Candia is one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, being reckoned about 500 miles in circumference: it is of much greater dimensions east and west than north and south; and forms, as it were, a base upon which the whole Archipelago rests. It is perhaps more favored by nature than any other part of Europe. The interior is covered with mountains, of which Mount Ida towers to a very lofty height. The plains and valleys along the sea-coast are covered with myrtle groves, spacious plane trees, and other beautiful woods; and the soil, though merely scratched by a wretched plow drawn by two sorry oxen, yields luxuriant crops of wheat and barley. The olive grows in high perfection; though the oil, for want of care and skill in preparing it, is unfit for the table, and only used for soap and other manufactures. Crete was rendered famous in early antiquity by the laws of Minos, and by institutions of a very peculiar nature founded upon them. The Cyclades, a numerous and celebrated group, are interposed between Candia and Asia Minor, but nearer to the continent, from which they recede in a south-east direction. Their aspect, bold, rocky, yet richly verdant, presents to the vessels sailing through it scenes of varied beauty. The rocks are of different and sometimes singular composition, embedding the finest marble in the world; and there are many striking indications of that interior heat which breaks forth in earthquakes and volcanoes. Their wines were celebrated in antiquity, and have not altogether lost their reputation. Among the most remarkable of these isles is Paros, whose quarries of precious statuary marble lie now neglected, not a single block having been removed since the dominion of the Turks. It is still easy to see the extreme nicety, and the care to avoid waste, with which each portion was cut out; and from the cavity left, the very destination of the block may be conjectured. The Pentelican marble was of equally original beauty, but it had not that faculty of hardening by exposure to air, and resisting decomposition through a series of ages, which caused the marble of Paros to be at last exclusively adopted in sculpture. The small contiguous island of Antiparos presents a phenomenon the most singular in the world of its kind; a prodigious grotto, or rather series of grottoes, the roof, the floor, and the sides of which are entirely covered with a dazzling incrustation as white as snow. Columns extend from the roof to the floor, with diameters equal to that of the mast of a frigate. Separated from Paros by a narrow channel is Naxos, celebrated for the worship of Bacchus, of whose statue fine sculptured fragments may still be discovered; and on a rock opposite there is a noble Doric portal of one of his temples. The wine of Naxos is still good, and is consumed in abundance; the emery stone is almost entirely obtained from this island. Delos, so celebrated in ancient mythology as the cradle of Apollo and Diana, and to whose shrines even the people of the East repaired in crowds, is now only a heap of ruins reduced to rubbish. The remains of its temples have unfortunately been resorted to as a quarry, the fragments being formed into those little GREECE. 705 turbaned pillars which serve as tombstones. Santorini, the ancient Thera, not much noticed in antiquity, has attracted attention by some extraordinary effects of volcanic action. About a century ago, a new island was seen tc arise out of the sea. It was first announced by the emission of a thick smoke, which, spreading over Santorini, destroyed vegetation, discolored metals, and caused headache and nausea; a long succession of reports ensued, similar to those of cannon or the loudest thunder. Myriads of ignited substances rose like sky-rockets into the air, and fell down in showers of stars. Rocks and fragments were carried to the distance of two miles, and clouds of ashes to that of twenty-five miles. After this series of shocks had continued for a year, the darkness ceased, and there appeared an island five miles round, and about 200 feet at its highest point. There has since been no violent shock, though a subterraneous roaring is still heard, and smoke is seen rising from the rocks and from the sea. Milo (the ancient Melos, celebrated for its abundance) and Argentera, though not subject to such violent convulsions, exhale perpetual vapors, which were formerly employed for medicinal purposes, but have now rendered them so unhealthy, that they are almost deserted. Syra is a fertile island, the capital of which is singularly arranged along the sides of a conical hill, causing it to resemble a sugar-loaf covered with houses. Andro, and Tino, are considerable islands, susceptible of great improvement. Negropont or Egripo, the ancient Euboea, is a long narrow island separated from Abtica by the narrow channel of the Euripus or Egripo, from which it derives its modern name. It is diversified by rugged mountains and fertile valleys. It was supposed to contain about 60,000 inhabitants previous to the revolution, but does not probably at present contain half that number, the Turks, who were more numerous here than anywhere else in southern Greece, having been expelled the island. The capital, Chalcis, or Negropont, has a population of 10,000 or 12,000. Two islands, Hydra and Spetzia, though little favored by nature, and unknown to antiquity, have, in a singular manner, taken the lead of all the states and islands of Greece. Hydra, a rugged mass of rock, with scarcely a spot of verdure, remained without an inhabitant till Turkish oppression, and the desolations of the Morea, drove a few fishermen to build their hutE on its precipitous sides. The same causes in which the settlement originated were favorable to its incFease; and as it appeared too insignificant to excite jealousy, it was allowed to compound with the Turks for a moderate tribute, and began that brilliant commercial career, which was opened to it by the influence and concurrence of circumstances already mentioned. It now contains about 40,000 inhabitants, many of whom have attained to considerable wealth, and rule the republic with a sort of aristocratic sway. The energies of Hydra have been for some time exclusively turned to war, and perhaps she will never regain her former extensive commerce. Spetzia is a sort of outwork of Hydra, with only 3000 inhabitants, yet with somewhat more of cultivation. The historical ages of Greece, include one of the most splendid portions of the annals of mankind, and, if treated in any detail, would far exceed our limits. We can but rapidly indicate the leading epochs. These are, — The early heroic ages, when the different valleys of Greece were ruled 45 706 oREc. by petty princes, afterwards called tyrants. To this age belongs the exploits of Hercules, Theseus, and other chiefs, exalted into demigods, for the zeal with which they redressed and punished oppressions, of which many of these petty chieftains were guilty. The Trojan war collected together the scattered portions of the Grecian people, made them known to each other, and gave a great impulse to the national mind. The era of the freedom and glory of Greece, began when the different little states threw off the yoke of their tyrants, as they now called them, and erected themselves into independent republics. The enthusiasm produced by this event was wonderfully heightened, when all the armies of the East, united under the standard of the Great King, were vanquished in a series of battles the most glorious which history has ever recorded. Greece now took the lead among all the nations of the world; and in the succeed ing period, though her strength was unfortunately wasted by dissensions, she added to her military glory that of carrying eloquence and the arts to a perfection which has served as a model to all succeeding ages. The conquest of Macedon subverted the liberty of Athens and Sparta, and with it all their greatness and glory. Yet Greece, as identified with Macedon. saw her conquests carried to the most distant regions; and Greek kingdoms, Greek laws, and the Greek language prevailed from Egypt to the borders of India. Even Greece itself, especially at the period of the Achoean league, threw out some brilliant sparks of her ancient flame; and letters and arts continued to be cultivated, though not with the same ardor. The conquest of Rome terminated the political existence of Greece; yet in some respects she subdued even her conquerors. Her fame in arts and eloquence remained undiminished; and the greatest of the Romans, and all who aspired to eminence in learning, came to study in her schools. Athens continued still to be the intellectual capital of Greece, and even of the civilized world. The conquest by the Ottomans finally extinguished in Greece everything that remained of her ancient greatness. The Greeks were made "the slaves of slaves," and even their character became deeply tinctured with the degradation which, in such circumstances, can scarcely be avoided. The mountains, however, still afforded shelter to numerous bands, who, under brave and hardy chiefs, not only maintained a practical independence, but carried devastation into the neighboring plains. Attempts at emancipation were not wanting, even in the periods of the greatest depressions of Greece. Supported by Venice, the Mainotes rose, in the end of the seventeenth century, and maintained the contest for several years. Another insurrection was raised in 1770, in consequence of the landing of 2000 Russians; but this was soon suppressed. In. 1790, the Suliotes, roused by the same instigation, performed prodigies of valor; but being encountered by the energies of All Pacha, they were nearly exterminated. Lastly, in 1820, came the grand insurrection, with its strange vicissitudes, which must be fresh in the recollection of the reader. Internal dissension, worse than the foreign sword, had repeatedly brought the cause to the brink of destruction; but the treaty concluded at London between Britain. France and Russia; with its consequences, the battle of Navarin, and the expulsion of Ibrahim Pacha, obliged the Porte to consent to the independence of at least those portions of Greece which were most IONIAN REPUBLIC. 707 decidedly Grecian. The nomination of Otho of Bavaria, to the throne supported by the great powers with money and troops, affords the hope that the new state has now permanently obtained a tranquil and settled condition. IONIAN REPUBLIC. AREA, 1,108 SQUARE MILES. POPULATION, 220,000. The IONIAN ISLANDS is the name given to a range extending chiefly along the coast of Albania. The principal ones are Corfu (the ancient Corcyra), Santa Maura (formerly Leucadia), Theaki (Ithaca), Cephalonia, Cerigo, celebrated under the ancient name of Cythera, but situated at a considerable distance from the others, off the southern coast of Laconia. These, as detached islands, occupied frequently a conspicuous place in ancient history; but their political union took place in modern times, in consequence of being held by the Venetians, and defended by their navy against the Turks, who had over-run the whole of the adjacent continent. When France, in 1797, seized the territory of Venice, she added these as an appendage tc it; and even after the cession of Venice to Austria, endeavored still tc retain them attached to her, under the title of the Ionian Republic. She was unable, however, to maintain them against the superior force of England, which, at the congress of Vienna, was nominated protector of the Ionian Islands. The Lord High Commissioner, who is at the head of the government, is appointed by the king of Great Britain. The legislative assembly consists of 29 elective and 11 integral members, all of the class of syncletie or nobles; the former are chosen for the term of five years by the nobles; the latter are virtually, if not directly, nominated by the High Commissioner. The senate consists of a president, nominated by the commissioner, and five members chosen by the legislative assembly from their own number. These islands, like the opposite coast of Albania, are rocky, rugged and picturesque, though none of the peaks rise to any great elevation. This surface renders them ill fitted for the cultivation of corn; but wine and fruits, especially the latter, are raised in great perfection. The species of small grapes which, when dried, are called currants, are largely exported from these islands. Zante produces annually about 60,000 cwt.; Cephalonia about 50,000. The total annual produce is estimated at about 14,000,000 pounds. Olive oil is also largely exported, about 100,000 barrels being annually produced. Honey, wine and flax, are the most important articles of agricultural industry. The annual value of the exports is about $1,200,000. The public revenue, independent of the military establishment, which is supported by the British government, is $700,000 per annrum. Zante is the richest and most flourishing of these islands, but Corfu con tains the seat of government, which is strongly fortified. Argostoli, Corfu, and Zante are the principal ports. ASIA. AR&A, 17,500,000 SQUARN MLIES. POPULATIONt, 429,000,000. AsIA is an immense continent, the largest in the ancient world: and, perhaps, equal to Europe and Africa united. It is surrounded by sea through much the greater part of its outline, which, though broken by large gulfs and peninsulas, presents generally a huge unbroken mass, formed into a kind of irregular square. Its most northerly point is Cape Ceverovostochnoi, on the frozen confines of Siberia, in latitude about 77~ north; its most southerly is the terminating point of the Malayan peninsula, in about 2~ north latitude. To the east it terminates in East Cape, about longitude 170~ west from London; to the west in Cape Baba, the most westerly point of Asia Minor, in 26~ east longitude. On a general estimate, and omitting the most prominent points, we may state Asia at 6,000 miles in length, and 4,000 in breadth, having an area of 17,500,000 square miles, and a population of 429,600,000. The boundaries of Asia are chiefly formed by the great oceans. On the north it has the Arctic or Frozen Ocean, which, for a great portion of the year, presents an unvaried expanse of ice and snow. To the east and south it faces the great Pacific, which separates it from America by almost half the breadth of the globe. On the south, however, this ocean is enclosed by the Oriental Islands, so as to form a gulf of vast dimensions, called the Indian Ocean. The western limit alone touches on the other continents, and constitutes a very varied line of land and sea. From the north, opposite Nova Zembla, a chain of mountains, called the Urals, breaks the uniformity of the great northern steppes. From the termination 6of that chain to the river Don the line is somewhat vague; but thence, that river, the Black Sea, the straits connecting it with the Mediterranean, and the Mediterranean itself, form a distinct boundary. Asia is joined to Africa by the isthmus of Suez, and separated from it by the long canal of the Red Sea. The immense expanse of its territory presents every possible variety of site and climate, from the dreary confines of the polar world to the heart of the tropical regions. Every thing in Asia is on a vast scale; its mountains, its table-lands, its plains, its deserts. The grandest feature, and one which makes a complete section of the continent, is a chain of mountains, which, at various heights, and under various names, but with very little, if any, interruption, crosses Asia from the Mediterranean to the Eastern Sea. Taurus, Caucasus, and the Himalaya are the l:est known portions of this chain. On one side it has southern Asia, the finest and most extensive plain in the world, covered with the richest tropical products, watered by magnificent rivers proceeding from this great storehouse, and filled with populous nations and great empires. On the other side, this chain serves as a bulwark to the wide table-land of Thibet, which, though under the latitude of the south of Europe, has many of' the characteristics of a northern region. To the north, the observations of Humboldt exhibit three parallel chains; the Kuenlun or Mooz Tagh, the (708) ASIA. 70c Thianchan or Celestial Mountains, and the Alta'ian. These also support table-lands; but not, it appears, so elevated as has hitherto been supposed. They are not believed by that traveler generally to exceed 4,000 or 5,000 feet in height, and in many places enjoy a mild and temperate climate, yielding not only grain, but wine and silk. Elsewhere they are covered with rich pastures, and tenanted by numerous wandering races, at once pastoral and warlike, whose victorious bands have often overrun and subjugated the empires of the south. The Altaian chain separates Middle Asia from Siberia; a long range of the bleakest land on the face of the earth. Some of the southern districts have been found by the Russians capable of supporting numerous herds of cattle; but the rest is abandoned to wild animals, not generally of a ferocious description, but by the beneficence of nature covered with rich and precious furs, which afford a great object for hunting and trade. One grand feature of middle Asia consists in large lakes or inland seas, salt like ocean, receiving considerable rivers, and having no outlet. These are, the Caspian, the Aral, the Baikal, and several others of lesser magnitude. No continent has so many rivers of the first magnitude, some of which yield in length of course only to the amazing waters of the New World. We may distinguish in Asia three systems of rivers; one, comprising the most distinguished and important streams, descends from the principal chain of mountains, fertilises the great southern empires, and falls into the Indian Ocean. The most remarkable streams of this class are the Euphrates, the Indus, the Ganges, and the Menam, or river of Siam. Again, from the parallel chain which separates Tartary from Siberia is another series of rivers, which direct their course to the northern Ocean; the Obi, the Irtish, the YeniseY, the Lena,- gloomy streams of vast length; but flowing in this inhospitable region, and bound by almost perpetual frost, they afford little aid either to agriculture or the intercourse of nations. A third system consists of the rivers which, rising in the high mountain centre of Asia, flow across the empire of China, to whose prosperity they mainly contribute, and fall into the Eastern Pacific. The Amour runs in the same direction through Northern Tartary, but without any profit to that barren district. Lastly, the Jaxartes, the Oxus, and others of great magnitude, though secondary to the above, flow along the great plains of Western Tartary; but, unable to reach the ocean, expand into the Aral, the Caspian, and other inland seas. Asia, besides its vastness as a continent, is distinguished by its archipelagoes of islands, of an extent sufficient to constitute kingdoms. Such are those of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines, which, with many smaller ones, comprise the Oriental Archipelago, distinguished by its brilliant metallic products and rich spices; and exhibiting a singular mixture of barbarism and civilization. The two contiguous islands of Japan comprise a state dignified with the title of empire. Ceylon, bordering on the extremity of Hindostan, almost rivals the beauty and fertility of that celebrated region. We do not here include under Asia those huge insular masses, New Holland, New Zealand, &c., which have of late received the name of an Australian continent; nor the endless groups scattered over the Pacific, and which have also, with somewhat questionable precision, been made a separate quarter, under the title of Polynesia. 710 ASIA. The Zoology of this great division of the earth is as vast as the climate of the regions it comprehends is diversified. Inhabited by nations jealous and superstitious, or lawless and barbaric, obstacles of no ordinary difficulty, have long debarred the European from a full investigation of those productions of nature characteristic of the Asiatic continent. That intellectual development which leads the Caucasian to discern his God, and adore his Creator in the contemplation of his works, does not appear in the Mongolian, a race long sunk in' gross idolatry and in a senseless superstition on tt e divinity of perishable beasts. Hence it is, that the interior of China anlld Thibet, those vast regions forming the centre of Asia, have never been trodden by the naturalist or the man of science. The few and very imperfect ideas, therefore, that can be formed of their zoology, have been merely gathered from partial gleanings made on the confines of European India, and of the neighboring provinces. In regard to animal life, the country may be divided into three great zones, co-terminate with the mountains, which form the barriers. In the northern zone the river banks and the vast forests of Siberia harbor innumerable troops of reindeer, elks, foxes, bears, gluttons, and several species of martens and squirrels. Along the shores of the Arctic sea, the great polar bear preys on every thing living, and in the ocean are found seals and various kinds of cetacea. In Central Asia, which is composed of high mountains and extensive sandy plains, we find the Bactrian or doublehumped camel, the wild horse, several kinds of horse-tailed beeves (whose flowing tails are the ensigns of military rank throughout the East,) the antelope, and the yellow buck. Panthers are found in the western regions, and also a singular species of cat, the manul, the original of the Angora cats. The Indian tiger has been seen as far north as the head waters of the Obi, and the Alta'a mountains. Tigers also abound in Mongolia, where they are hunted every year by the Emperor of China. Troops of several species of dogs, jackals and wolves, prey upon the antelopes, asses and horses. All the mountains are inhabited by the musk animal: the Alta'ia by the " argali," or Siberian sheep; the southern mountains by the wild goat; and Caucasus by, the egagre and the chamois. The western prolongation of this zone, which extends over Persia and Arabia, is overrun by antelopes and gazelles, lions, panthers, caracals and other sorts of cats, jackals and monkeys. The mountains and table lands produce also the " onager," or wild ass, the original of those beautiful and fleet asses so much esteemed in the East. In the southern zone, however, animal life is the most prolific. Here various species of the antelope and deer are found, and in Thibet the blue antelope, whose horns, which fall annually, have more than once reminded travellers bf the fabulous unicorn. There is also the "'chitkaru," with four horns. In Begal, is the charming white-spotted axis, and in the forests is found the " jungle cow," the wild original of the domestic beeves of India. Fierce tigers ravage Hindostan and the warm countries east and south. In the same region is found the black-skinned buffalo, with horns turned back, both wild and tame, delighting in the muddy banks of the rivers, lakes and seas. Between the Gauges and the Indus, the forests abound with squirrels, peacocks, pheasants and jungle-cocks. Several species of bears inhabit the forests among the Ghauts. The Elephant and onehorned rhinoceros also inhabit the forests; but it is in the countries southeast of Hindostan that these animals attain their largest size. The tapir is ASIA. 711 found between Malacca and China; and ourangs, gibbins, and various other kinds of monkeys. In the Ganges alone, 250 kinds of fish have been described by Buchanan, which furnish abundance of food for the aligators, with which its waters abound. The seas of India swarm with myriads of the finny tribes of every species, and the testacea contribute many luxuries to the inhabitants. The whole number of known species of birds is 937, of which 621 are peculiar to Asia. Every zone has its peculiar species, and many are of the most beautiful plumage. Gigantic vultures tyranize over the banks of the Ganges, where are likewise found great numbers of eagles, falcons, buzzards and screech-owls. Swarms of paroquets, of every variety of color, inhabit the continent and neighboring islands. The southern countries of Asia produce reptiles, many of which are armed with the most fatal poisons; they are are all hideous to the sight, and some are of prodigious size and muscular strength. Beyond the Alaia chain, however, they are scarcely ever found. All sorts of insects, some very noxious and destructive, swarm in the southern regions; and even in Siberia, during its short summers, the mosquito and other troublesome species abound. But the most mischievous of all these winged creatures is the locust, which appears occasionally in the sandy regions of northwestern India, and is found in countless swarms in Arabia and Syria, and often penetrates into southeastern Europe, spreading destruction wherever it goes. The elephant is pre-eminent among the domestic animals, but it is rarely found in the mountain regions of the north. The camel is found over a far wider range of country. The Bactrian camel is comparatively rare, and seems to be confined to the great deserts of northeastern Asia. The one-humped species, usually misnamed the dromedary, but in fact the real camel, is spread over Arabia, Persia, Western India and northern Africa, where it is the common beast of burden. The dromedary properly so called, or the racing camel, is only a variety of the latter species, of lighter form and better suited for rapid travelling. Tr he other domestic animals of southern and western Asia are horses, asses, buffaloes, beeves, sheep and goats; of the central and eastern regions, chiefly horses, cattle and sheep; the " yak" of Thibet and Paieir, and the bushy-tailed bull of Thibet, seem to supply the place of the camel among the mountains. In the rigorous climates farther north, the reindeer furnishes the people with food and transport, and also in one part of the year with dress. In Kamtschatka, and other northeastern regions, dogs are trained to draw sledges over the snox Not only the numerical majority of the human race, but also its greatest variety in the species, is found within the limits of Asia. The tribes andll nations into which mankind is here divided are very numerous, but of these the five principal races, the Hindoos, the Chinese, the Tartars, the Arabs, and the Persians, seem to have divided among them, as a kind of inheritance, the continent and its adjacent islands. The origin of these races is buried in the remotest antiquity. The Hindoos and Arabs are generally considered as belonging to the Caucasian or white race of mankind. Tlfe modern Persians are a very mixed race, formed by the commingling of Persians, Arabs, Turks, Tartars, Mongols, aud natives of the Caucasiar isthmus. The Tartars differ entirely from the Hindoos and Arabs in feature, complexion, and form, as in manners and language. The Chinese, iacording to the institutes of Menu, were originally a military tribe of the 712 ASIA. Hindoos, who, abandoning the ordinances of Brahma, migrated eastward, and laid the foundation of the Chinese Empire. STATES OF ASIA. Names of States. Sq. Miles. Population. Capitals and Population. Turkish Empire — Asia Minor....................... 250,000 4.350,000 I Armenia.......................... 36,000 2,300,000.Aleppo. 250,000 Mesopotamia.............. 160,000 5,400,000 Syria............................ 48,000 1,500,000 Arabia................................ 834,400 10,000,000 Mecca.............. 40,000 Persia — Iran............................. 480,000 9,500,000 Teheran............ 25,000 Affghanistan...... 240,000 8,000,000 Cabul. 60,000 Beloochistan...................... 180 000 1,200,000 Kelat. 25,000 Hindoostan - British India - Bengal Presidency............ 351,894 60,000,000 Calcutta..... 230,000 Madras............ 121,982 16,000,000 Madras..... 700.000 Bombay " 62,542 7,00J,000 Bombay..... 230,090 Subject and Protected States. 510,750 38,875.000............................. Independent States................ 248.944 10,250,000 French Colonies..... 530 210,000 Pondichery. 40,000 Danish ".................. 93 35,00 Serampore.......... 13,000 Portuguese ".. 1,200 500,000 Pangi Ceylon.... 24,664 1,250,000 Columbo............ 31,549 Maldives and Laccadives................................................ Further India — Birmah.......................... 200,000 8,000,000 Ava................ 150,000 Siam...........,..... 220,000 2,790,000 Bankok............. 100,000 Anam. 120,000 10,000,000 Hue. 30,000 Laos, Country of the. 280,000 2,800,000 Zemmai............. 25,000 Malay States.. 72,000 200,000....................... British Territories................. 35,160 242,000 Amherst............ 1,000 Chinese Empire - China Proper. 1,300,000 363,000,000 Manchuria... 700,000 7,000,000 Mongolia. 1,400,000 14,000,000 Pekin...............2,000,000 Ili 900,000 9,000,000 Tibet......................... 700,000 7,000,000 Corea............... 80,000 15,000,000 King-kai-tao......... Ladak................................ 30,000 180,000 Leh................ Loo-choo Islands....................... 1,200 50,000 Kien-ching.......... Turkestan - Bokhara...,................... Bokara.............. 150,000 Khunduz.................................Khunduz......... 1,500 Badakshan..................... Fryzabad......... 2,000 IIizar, Koolab, &c............700,000 7,000,000 Hizar, &c........... Kokan........... Marghilan........... Khiva...... IKhiva............. 20,000 Turkmania....................... J............................. Asiatic Russia — Georgia........................... Teflis........... 30,000 Shirvan...............Baku........... 3,500 Armenia and Aberbijan............ Erivan............. 7,000 Imeritia, Mingrelia................ K'houthaissi... 1,500 Abassia.......................... 5,200,000 7,011,300 Anapa. Circassia..................................................... Daghestan, &c.................... Derbent............. 22,000 Caucasus...................... Siberia......................... J Tobolsk. 18,000 Japanese Empire....................... 260,000 25,000,000 Miyako..... 500,000 Viewed in an historical light, Asia, to the south of the great ridge of mountains, has been always a wealthy and populous region, the earliest seat of civilization, and those great monarchies which, absorbing into one a number of the small original communities, openly aimed at universal empire. The revolutions of Western Asia were alone known to the Greeks; and here the lead was successively taken by Assyria, Babylon, Persia. This last empire, extending far beyond the dimensions of the others, included Egypt and part of India, to which Xerxes in vain attempted to add Greece. On the contrary, the Greeks became, under Alexander, the conquerors of all the regions over which the Persian sway had extended. All the activity ASIA. 713 of this great prince, however, and of the learned men who accompanied him, obtained only very imperfect ideas of the extent of Asia, and of the nations which composed it. India was still deemed the most eastern country of the world. The ocean which terminated Asia to the north was imagined to run along the head of the Caspian, then regarded as one of its gulfs; and thence in nearly a direct line to the Ganges, which was represented as falling into the Eastern Ocean. This line cut off all Siberia, Eastern Tartary, and China, nearly' two-thirds of the entire continent. Thus Europe was at this time considered as larger than Asia. Ptolemy, by means of the caravan merchants, who supplied Rome with the luxuries of the East, obtained more correct and enlarged views. He learned the existence of China, and could estimate the extent of Asia eastward; but was unable to penetrate the Altai, or gain any knowledge of the frozen regions of Siberia. The Roman empire, and the states of modern Europe, were soon involved in darkness by the irruption of the barbarous nations, and lost even the knowledge already acquired. New light was obtained by the learned men who sprung up under the caliphate, and who, by the conquests of their countrymen, and the wide diffusion of their faith, gained more extensive knowledge of the interior of Asia than the ancients ever possessed; and even than what, with regard to some districts, modern Europeans have since attained. In modern times, as soon as Europe breathed from the agitations which accompanied the downfall of the Roman empire, peculiar circumstances called her attention strongly towards the East. Such, especially, was the effect of the crusades, undertaken to recover the Holy Land, and to repress the progress of the infidel arms. These celebrated expeditions gave a deep interest to the accounts of Asia and the East; but there was no science to collect or arrange the intelligence which they afforded. The crusading geography regards little except Palestine, and the theatre of the wars for its recovery; it places Jerusalem in the centre of the world, and presents only vague notions of any remote countries. A more distant alarm was given by the rapid conquests of the Tartars under Zingis; and his posterity, after subduing Tartary, China, and Russia, over-ran Poland, and invaded Germany. To avert a danger so pressing, a series of embassies was sent, under Carpini, Rubruquis, and other monks of the Romish church, with commission from the pope and the Christian princes. These envoys were received at the frontiers, and carried far into the heart of Tartary, through regions hitherto untrodden by any European. In these vast plains they beheld the uncouth pomp and barbarous array of the Great Khan; and, besides the vast extent of hitherto unknown land which came under their view, they learned particulars respecting the most remote extremities of Asia. Again, the revival of commerce and industry in Europe was accompanied with an almost unbounded curiosity to explore the vast and opulent regions of the East. Under its influence, a single Venetian citizen, Marco Polo, stimulated, it would appear, almost solely by individual enterprise, penetrated across the whole of Asia, reaching even to the eastern coast of China. His narrative conveyed an idea of the vastness of the continent, and of the splendor of its distant regions, surpassing the most magnificent conceptions hitherto formed. Several adventurers followed in the same path, but with inferior success; and the celebrated narrative of the traveler Sir John Mandeville, is, we fear, a mere tissue of imposture. The mixture, or at 714 ASIA. least the appearance, of fable in these narratives, caused the public to doubt; until the Portuguese, in the reigns of their great kings, John and Emanuel, under the conduct of Vasco da Gama, dispelled the mystery, by passing the southern cape of Africa. They soon arrived in India; and in the course of twenty years, in the pursuit either of commerce or conquest, explored all the shores of Asia from Arabia to Japan. A full view was thus acquired of the extent of the continent in the principal dimensions. Its northern expanse and limits, however, remained still hidden in obscurity. Even Tartar conquest had never penetrated beyond the Alta'ia, or discovered any objects worthy of its ambition in these frozen regions. This career was reserved for Russia. Notwithstanding its poverty, this region, by its wide extent, and the facility of such a conquest, tempted her ambition. Her first operations were made from the north and the province of Archangel. Anika Strogonoff, an enterprising merchant, penetrated by his own exertions to the northern Obi and the country of the Samoieds; and, by the valuable furs, and the specimens of a new and singular people which he brought thence, roused the curiosity of the court. But Siberia was chiefly made known by the romantic adventures of Yermak the Cossack, who, setting out with a small body of his countrymen, found it easy to drive before him the undisciplined forces of the Tartars, and was soon unexpectedly at the head of a great kingdom. The czars accepted him as a vassal, and after his death steadily went on in the career of discovery and conquest. In 1639, about 50 years after the first entrance into Siberia, Dimitri Kopilof reached the shores of the Eastern Ocean. Thus an empire, nearly 4000 miles in length, was added to Russia by a handful of Cossacks and hunters. The questions, however, whether Asia be everywhere bounded on the north by the Polar Ocean, how that ocean communicates with the Pacific, and whether the continent of Asia and America be conjoined or separated, have been anxiously enquired and disputed among geographers. The English and Dutch made it one of the first efforts of their infant navigation to seek by this course a route to the East Indies; but when they formed such a hope, they were ignorant of the vast extent and desolate character of these shores, and of the huge masses of ice with which they were almost perpetually obstructed. Accordingly, the boldest navigators who made the attempt, if they did not perish, were arrested at or near Nova Zembla, and thought themselves fortunate in being able again to reach home, leaving their object unfulfilled. The Russians, however, by land, or in small barks, gradually crept along these shores, and found their territories everywhere bounded by the Frozen Ocean. At length the united efforts of Behring, Shalaurof, and Cook, discovered a strait separating the two continents, and beyond which, on each side, they rapidly diverged. There remained still, however, on the Asiatic coast a portion, not fully explored, which some alleged made a great circuit, and rejoined that of America. According to Captain Cochrane's account,.the expedition of Baron Wrangel has settled this question, and ascertained that there is a continuous ocean along the whole north of Asia. In regard to its social and political state, Asia presents, of course, a most varied scene; and yet there are some features which at once strike us as generally characteristic of this continent. Among these, is the trans mission of institutions, usages, and manners unaltered from the earliest ages. ASIA. 715 The life of the patriarchs, as described in the earliest of existing historical records, is still found unchanged in the Arab tent. The courts of Nineveh and Babylon seemed to have been marked by features of pomp, nearly similar to those of Delhi and Ispahan. Asia, at a very early period, anterior even to the commencement of regular history, appears to have made a vast stride in civilization; but then she stopped, and has suffered herself to be far outstripped by the originally less advanced nations of Europe. The despotism to which the people of Asia are generally subjected, is connected, probably, with this stationary character. A republic, an hereditary aristocracy, a representative assembly, a regular control of any kind, are, except in some local or peculiar circumstances, ideas altogether foreign to the mind of an Asiatic. While, however, the general principles of government remain so fixed and immutable, the change of ruler and of dynasty is much more frequent than in Europe. As the ideas of hereditary right and of primogeniture, are much less deeply rooted, a younger son, or even an uncle, of the reigning sovereign, if more able and popular, finds it easy to dispute, and even to wrest the sceptre from his feebler hands. Oriental sovereigns, even the greatest, still maintain the primitive institution of sitting and administering justice in person. Though immutable in their forms of court and maxims of government, they are changeable as to their place of residence and seat of empire. Every successive prince usually selects some favorite city which he either creates or raises from insignificance, and lavishes his wealth in adorning it. The abode of his ancestors are neglected; and hence Asia is covered all over with decayed capitals and ruined palaces. The number of communities, of chiefs, and even of princes, making a regular trade of robbery, is another feature that strongly characterises Asia. They carry it on in no clandestine manner, but avowedly, even boastfully, and as a calling which they consider as honest and respectable. If they have accepted a composition similar to the old English "' black mail," or if they have pledged their faith to an individual, they inviolably maintain it. The numerous tracts of mountain and desert, afford them holds in which to maintain themselves; and these are seldom far distant from some rich plain, or commercial route, on which to exercise their depredations. Arabia, from the earliest times, has been a hive of such plunderers. The aspect and manners of the Orientals are different from those of Europeans, and in many respects exhibit a decided contrast. Instead of our tight short clothes, they wear long floating robes, wrapped loosely round the body. A light turban supplies the place of the hat, and sandals are worn instead of shoes. In entering the house, or wishing to show respect, when we would take off the hat, they take off the sandal. They make no use of chairs, tables, plates, knives, forks or spoons. At meals they seat themselves cross-legged, on the floor, and eat out of a large wooden bowl, placed in the middle, and filled not with our solid joints, but usually with stews or sweatmeats. The dish is common to the whole company, and each thrusts in his hand without ceremony, and carries the morsels direct to the mouth. In return, they are very scrupulous about the washing of the hands. They use no beds, or at least nothing that we would call a bed. An Oriental, going to sleep, merely spreads a mat, adjusts his clothes in a certain position, and lays himself down. Their household furniture is thus exceedingly simple, consisting of little more than carpets covering the room, 716 ASIA. and sofas set round it, both which are of peculiar beauty and fineness. Their attire is also simple, though composed, among the rich, of fine materials, and profusely ornamented with jewels and precious stones. Their arms and the trappings of their horses are also objects on which they make a studied display of magnificence. The beard, over all the East, is allowed to grow, and is regarded with reverence. In their disposition and temper, the people of the East show striking peculiarities. They are grave, serious and recluse; they have no balls, no theatres, no numerous assemblages; and they regard that lively social intercourse in which Europeans delight, as silly and frivolous. Unless when roused by strong incitement to action, they remain stretched on their sofas, and view as little better than madmen those whom they see walking about for amusement and recreation. Their moral qualities cannot be very easily estimated, but may be generally ranked below those of Europeans. Their domestic attachments are strong, and their reverence for ancestry deep; their deportment is usually mild and courteous, and they show themselves capable of generous and benevolent actions. On the other hand, among the subjects of the great empires, the obligations of truth and honesty are habitually trampled under foot; the statesmen and chiefs are usually designing, treacherous and inhuman; devoid of honor, and capable of the most enormous crimes. The smaller tribes, who display a greater manliness and energy of character, are rude, coarse, and addicted to predatory habits. The sentiments and conduct of the Asiatic towards the female sex are such as cannot exist without a general degradation of character. The practice of polygamy, with the jealous confinement to which it naturally leads, seems to be the radical source of this evil. The exclusion of the sex from society; the Hindoo maxim which prohibits them from reading, writing, and being present at religious ceremonies, are evidently parts of a general system for reducing them to an inferior rank in the scale of creation. It is true there is one local example (in Thibet) of an opposite system,female sway, and a plurality of husbands; but this evidently is more than a capricious exception to the general rule. A high and even ostentatious profession of religion generally distinguishes the Asiatics, and the name of God is continually in their mouths. Their creeds, however, are all marked by that deep tincture of superstition which seems naturally connected with a crude and imperfect state of knowledge. In many parts of the continent, the most savage and degrading rites are practiced; and in all, the favor of the Deity is supposed to be gained rather by splendid donations, costly structures, and elaborate outward observances, than by purity of heart and life. The pure and refined system of christianity, though it was first communicated to Asia, has not maintained its ground against these superstitious propensities. Two systems of faith divide Asia between them: one is that of Mahomet, which by the arms of his followers and of the conquering Tartars of central Asia, has been thoroughly established over all the western tracts as far as the Indus. It even became, for centuries, the ruling religion -in India, though without ever being that of the body of the people. The other is the Hindoo religion, divided into its two great sects of Brahma and Boodh; the former occupying the whole of Hindostan, the latter having its centre in Thibet, filling all the east of Asia and Tartary, and penetrating even north of the Altai. TURKEY IN ASIA. 717 The useful arts are cultivated in the Asiatic empires, with somewhat peculiar diligence. Agriculture is carried on with great industry and care, though by less skillful processess, and with much ruder machinery, than in Europe. A much smaller amount of capital, particularly in live stock, is employed upon the land. The cultivators scarcely rise above the rank of peasantry. The chief expenditure is upon irrigation; for, in all these tropical regions, water alone is required to produce plentiful crops. Asia has also a number of manufactures, which, though conducted with small capitals and simple machinery, are not equalled in richness and beauty by those of any other part of the world. All the efforts of European art and capital have been unequal fully to imitate the carpets of Persia, the muslins of India, the porcelain of China, and the lacquered ware of Japan. Commelee, though fettered by the jealousy of the great potentates, is very active throughout Asia. The commerce of Europe is principally maritime; that of Africa principally inland. Asia combines both. Her interior caravan trade is very considerable, though much diminished since Europe ceased to be supplied by this channel. The native maritime trade on her southern coasts is also considerable, but the foreign trade, particularly that carried on by the English nation with India and China, has now acquired I superior importance. The Asiatic languages are classed in seven groups. I. The family of Shemitic languages.. II. The languages of the Caucasian region. III. The family of the Persian languages. IV. The languages of India. V. The languages of the region beyond the Ganges. VI. The group of the Tartar languages; and, VII. The languages of the Siberian region. In dividing Asia into parts, we may view it as consisting of Southern Asia, Middle Asia, and Northern Asia. Southern Asia comprises Asia Minor, Syria, and the other Asiatic parts af the Turkish empire; Arabia, Persia, Hindostan, India beyond the Ganges, China. To this division are appended the great Oriental archi. pelago, and the archipelago which constitutes the empire of Japan. Middle Asia consists almost exclusively of the vast regions of Tartary, divided into Chinese and Independent Tartary. To this may be added the Caucasian territory, situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian. Northern Asia consists wholly of an immense uniform plain, subjected Vto the sway of Russia, and bearing the name of Siberia. TURKEY IN ASIA. ASIATIC TURKEY is a very extensive region. We have seen several of the finest portions of Europe, and some of the principal seats of ancient civilization, subject to the Turkish yoke. It is also extended over a number of the finest and fairest regions of Asia. No countries in the world are more favored by nature, or more marked by grand historical features. Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, Lydia, Syria, Judea: all these once renowned empires and kingdoms are now mostly included in Asiatic Turkey; 718 TURKEY IN ASIA. which consists not so much of any one single country, as of several detached and dissimilar states, which the sword, wielded by fanaticism, has combined into one vast heterogeneous mass. The extensive territories thus united are bounded on the west by the Mediterranean and the long succession of straits which connect it with the Euxine, and divide Asia from Europe. On the north they have the Black Sea and the Caucasian territory, where Turkey is conterminous with Russia.. To the east is Persia, separated by a line varying with the fortune of war, but which at present nearly coincides with the course of the Tigris, beyond which the mountains of Kurdistan afford a doubtful and debatable ground. To the south a portion of the empire, nominally at least, touches the Persian Gulf, but is circumscribed by Arabia. Of that vast region, at the time when all Asia was yielding to the Ottoman power, the leading positions, particularly along the Red Sea, were occupied by Turkish garrisons; but it now defies them at every point, and pours its desolating bands over the fine plains of Syria and Bagdad. These vast precincts, taken in their greatest length from east to west, comprehend about 220 of longitude, making in that parallel 1,200 miles; from north to south, 110 of latitude, or nearly 800 miles in breadth; but it is so irregularly formed, and branches into so many angles, that the superficial extent is less than 500,000 square miles. In particular, a vast encroachment is made, and an almost complete separation of parts effected, by that great expanse of Arabian desert which runs up between Syria and the Euphrates. This wide region presents a peculiar variety of culture and aspect. Its ranges of mountains are numerous, of great celebrity, and second in magnitude only to the gigantic chains of Andes and Himalayah. Above that chaos of mountains, valleys, and torrents, which constitutes the kingdom of Armenia, primeval Ararat rears its snowy peaks, reminding mankind of the most memorable event in the physical history of the globe. The peninsula of Asia Minor is entirely girded with chains of mountains, leaving between them and the sea sometimes only narrow passes, sometimes broad and fertile plains; and enclosing wide ranges of high table-land which form the interior. Lebanon, the pride of Syria, though no longer crowned with its majestic cedars, contains in its recesses villages, culture, and varied vegetation, while its summits are crowned with perpetual snow. Judea is entirely a country of mountains, some wooded and cultivated, as Bashan and Carmel, others naked and rocky, as those which encircle the Dead Sea; but none of them rivalling the lofty heights of Lebanon and Ararat. These high and numerous chains give birth to many large and celebrated streams; but none attain the character of rivers of the first magnitude, except the joint and boundary course of the Euphrates and Tigris. Both spring from the depths of Ararat, and in their early course dash through its dark and rocky glens, till they swell by degrees into great rivers. The Euphrates takes a long course westward, till by a wide circuit it becomes parallel to the Tigris, which has proceeded direct from its origin with a rapidity which is expressed by its ancient name of Teer, the arrow. Thenceforth the two rivers pursue a parallel course southwards, enclosing that large and celebrated plain, the Mesopotamia of the Greeks, within which were situated Babvlon and Nineveh, the most ancient capitals of the world, At length, above Bassora, the two streams unite their mighty waters, andt TURKEY IN ASIA. 719 form a broad channel, called Shat-ul-Arab, which, after a course of about 150 miles, pours itself into the Persian Gulf. The numerous branches, however, into which it is represented as separating, are said to belong not to it, but to the Karoon and other rivers of Khusistan, connected with it only by an artificial channel. If we consider the whole course, from its source to its mouth, as the Euphrates, it will possess a length of 1,400 miles, forming, indeed, a very great river, yet not equal to its renown, derived chiefly from the ancient fame and civilization of the regions through which it flows, and of the cities that have been founded on its banks. The course of the Tigris is not more than about 800 miles. All the other rivers of Asiatic Turkey are of secondary magnitude, and only distinguished by the brilliant historical and poetical associations connected with their names. The mountains among which they rise extending in long ranges parallel to and near the sea, they have not sufficient space to expand. The Kizil Irmak and Sakaria, far better known under the classic names of Halys and Sangarius, cross nearly the whole of Asia Minor, in their course to the Black Sea. The most Twestern tract is still adorned by the beautiful windings of the Meander. The Scamander and the Granicus, notwithstanding their high place in history and song, can scarcely be named as geographical features. Orontes and Jordan, the rivers of Syria and Judea, attain a considerable course by flowing north and south alone the back of Lebanon: the former falls into the Mediterranean; but Jordan terminates in the Dead Sea. Turkey in Asia cannot be said to be a country of lakes, though in some provinces they are a characteristic feature. Asphaltites lays claim, with some plausibility, to the appellation of sea. Tiberias, or the Lake of Galilee, enclosed by cultivated lands and wooded mountains, forms a rich and picturesque object. The beautiful lakes of Antioch and Damascus attract little notice on the great scale. Chains of saline lakes, of considerable magnitude, extend through some parts of the interior table-land of Asia Minor. To detail the revolutions of the countries now comprehended in Asiatic Turkey, would -be little less than detailing those of the world. Down to the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453, they were the scene of the greater part of the events which decided the fate of mankind. These revolutions, indeed, are so well known, that it is scarcely necessary even to indicate them to the intelligent reader. First to be noticed are the numerous little states in Canaan subdued by the Jews, and those which continued as their neighbors. At last Judea absorbed nearly all these states, and had for its enemy only Syria, and for its friendly neighbor, Phoenicia, with its splendid commercial capital, Tyre. In Asia Minor we find a similar multitude of small states - Ionia, Eolis, Lydia, Caria, and many others. Then comes the era of the great empires, commencing with Assyria, and continued by Babylon, both founded in this region, and both yielding to the Persian empire, which, under the conquering arms of Cyrus, extended itself beyond any former state; reaching over all western Asia, including Egypt, and attempting to overpower Greece. But its contests with this last power had a fatal issue.'The phalanx of Macedon, trained by Philip and led by Alexander, overthrew at one blow this colossal but ill-compacted and enfeebled power; and a Greek empire was established fiom the Nile to the Indus. When that mighty mass of conquest went 720 TURKEY IN ASIA. to pieces with the sudden disappearance of its head, the kingdom of the Seleucidae was formed, which included nearly the whole of what is now termed Asiatic Turkey, with the exception of some portion of Asia Minor. Amid the confusion of wars and contests which ensued among Alexander's successors, Asia Minor became not only independent, but the seat of some very potent and celebrated monarchies — Pergamus, Pontus, Armenia; each of which might have even aimed at general monarchy, had not a mightier foe appeared in the field. To Rome all the nations that had ruled Asia were destined to bow; yet none maintained a harder struggle, or fell with greater glory, than Antiochus, Mithridates, and some others of these kings newly risen to greatness. Asia Minor, Syria, Judea, were completely reduced to the condition of provinces; but whenever her legions attempted to pass the desert, and were involved in the wide plains beyond the Euphrates, they were enveloped by the flying clouds of Par thian cavalry, and their career was closed with signal disaster. Western Asia, under the Roman government, enjoyed for many centuries a peaceful and voluptuous repose. This was broken, in the seventh century, by that mighty revolution which has changed the whole aspect, moral and political, of the Eastern world. The empire of the caliphs, established at Bagdad, soon ruled, with absolute sway, Syria and Assyria. Even after this original kingdom had yielded to the pressure of those numberless hordes, who, under the appellation of Turks or Toorks, poured down from the northern interior of Asia, they all equally fought under the law and standard of Mahomet. The vanquished were either compelled to embrace his religion, or reduced to a subject and degraded class, deprived of almost all the rights of humanity. These successive irruptions continually hemmed in more closely the Eastern Empire; and, even after the Turkish power seemed completely fallen, it broke forth under the Ottoman dynasty with increased vigor. At this era, however, the progress of Moslem domination received a temporary check, by that series of powerful expeditions from Europe so celebrated under the title of crusades. The crescent was, for the time, humbled; Jerusalem was rescued, and erected into a kingdom, which-subsisted for about a century. At length all the Christian powers in the East gave way before the victorious arms, first of Saladin, and afterwards of Mahomet and Selim. In the course of the fifteenth century, all that part of Asia of which we are treating, terminated its long series of revolutions by becoming a portion of the Turkish empire: it has ever since been subject to the degrading and brutalizing sway of this empire, and of the austere and bigoted religion on which it is founded. Under this influence, that grandeur and prosperity which rendered it the most celebrated region of the world, has entirely disappeared. Volney, who traversed it with the eye of a philosophic observer, has painted its downfall in the most eloquent and affecting terms. " Everywhere," says he, " I saw only tyranny and misery, robbery and devastation. I found daily on my route abandoned fields, deserted villages, cities in ruins. Frequently I discovered antique monuments, remains of temples, of palaces, and of fortresses; pillars, aqueducts, and tombs: this spectacle led my mind to meditate on past times, and excited in my heart profound and serious thought. I recalled those ancient ages, when twenty famous nations existed in these countries; I painted to myself the Assyrian on the banks of the Tigris, the Chaldean on those of the Euphrates, the Persian reigning TIUREY IN ASIA. 721 from the Indus to the Mediterranean. I numbered the kingdoms of Damascus and Idumea, of Jerusalem and Samaria, the warlike states of the Philistines, and the commercial republics of Phoenicia. This Syria, said I, now almost unpeopled, could then count an hundred powerful cities; its fields were covered with towns, villages and hamlets. Everywhere appeared cultivated fields, frequented roads, crowded habitations. What, alas! is become of these ages of abundance and life? What of so many brilliant creations of the hand of man? Where are the ramparts of Nineveh, the walls of Babylon, the palaces of Persepolis, the temples of Baalbec and Jerusalem? Where are the fleets of Tyre, the docks of Arad, the looms of Sidon, and that multitude of sailors, of pilots, of merchants, of soldiers? Where are those laborers, those harvests, those flocks, and that crowd of living beings, which then covered the face of the earth? Alas! I have surveyed this ravaged land. I have visited the places which were the theatre of so much splendor, and have seen only solitude and desertion. I have sought the ancient nations and their works, but I have seen only a trace, like that which the foot of the passenger leaves on the dust. The temples are crumbled down; the palaces are overthrown; the ports are filled up; the cities are destroyed; and the earth stripped of its inhabitants, is only a desolate place of tombs." Although this picture is overcharged in some of its features, its general character applies but too truly to the region now before us. The principles and mode of government are exactly the same in Asiatic as in European Turkey. The pachas, invested with the command of extensive territories, receive entire the power of the original despot from whom they derive their appointment. Their distance, indeed, affords them much more ample opportunies of acting independently, and of merely transmitting to the Porte such an amount of tribute and military aid as they can conveniently spare. Even Asia Minor, which is now the centre of Turkish power, has been the seat of formidable rebellions; and Paswan Oglou long governed an extensive tract of its eastern districts with little or no control from the Porte. The more remote pachalics of Acre and Bagdad have almost completeiy shaken off the yoke. The independence of the former dates from Daher Omar, in the middle of the last century, and was maintained still more completely under the ferocious Djezzar. Since the period first mentioned, the Porte has derived neither force nor revenue from an appanage which includes nearly the whole of the ancient Judea. A similar independence was earned by Ahmed, Pacha of Bagdad, after his gallant defence of that city against Nadir Shah, and afterwards against his successor Solyman. In 1810, indeed, the Porte succeeded in supplanting the reigning pacha by a creature of its own, who, however, effected the expulsion of his rival only by collecting a band of hardy Kurd mountaineers, who form at present the ruling power in Bagdad. In general, after a year or two of possession, a game begins between the Porte and the new pacha; the latter endeavoring to shake off his dependence, while the former strives to terminate the refractory vassal's life by the bowstring; and notwithstanding the decayed and decrepit state of the sultan's power, yet, by incessant perseverance, and by throwing his weight in the scale of a rival candidate, it has usually succeeded in the end. This imperfect and precarious independence is, generally speaking, the reverse of an improvement in the condition of the unfortunate people. The 46 722 TURKEY IN ASIA. pacha rules with as complete and tyrannical a sway as the sultan: he is rendered cruel by the dangers by which he is surrounded; and careless of the welfare of his district by the precarious tenure on which his place is held. In order to maintain his power, he takes into pay the brave but fierce and predatory inhabitants of the mountains, and must secure their attachment by allowing them liberty to commit plunder and outrage. According to Volney, they raise a prosecution in one place against a rich man, and strip him under a specious pretext; in another, they hire false witnesses, and impose a contribution for an imaginary fault; they foment everywhere the enmities of sects, and encourage them to give informations against each other, in order to afford a pretext for avanies. Thus their imprudent avarice collects into one heap all the riches of a country. When the government pretends to avenge the oppressed people, it snatches to itself the spoil from the hands of the oppressor, and sheds his blood uselessly for a crime of which itself is the accomplice, and by which it profits. The causes which have rendered abortive the vast capacities given by nature to this region for the production of almost every species of wealth, have been sufficiently explained. It is true that all these countries have, from the earliest ages, been distinguished rather by agricultural industry, and the rearing of cattle, than by the finer manufactures, which they have oeen accustomed to receive by caravans from the great empires of the East. In most of its districts, however, culture is rendered insecure by the oppression of the pachas, and the ravages of the Arabs, against which the government cannot, or at least does not, afford protection. Hence, in many parts, particularly in the tracts behind Jordan and Lebanon, and in Mesopotamia, which were formerly covered with the richest harvests, no trace of fertility remains, except only in their overgrown and deserted pastures. The upper tracts of Asia Minor and Armenia, where horses and cattle ar6 reared, are both less exposed to inroad, and better able to defend themselves, though they too often abuse their strength to plunder the inhabitants of the neighboring plains. Here, however, is produced the fine goat's hair or Mohair of Angora, which is sought in Europe as a material of some valuable manufactures. The manufactures of Asiatic Turkey are chiefly of an ordinary kind, coarse, and for internal consumption only. Yet silk, cotton, leather, and soap are staples of the Levant; and the two latter find a place in the markets of Europe. Finer specimens, however, of all these commodities seem to be afforded from the cities of Barbary. The manufacture of Damascus blades, so famed in the middle ages, ceased from the period when Timour carried to Tartary the artisans employed on them. At Tokat there is a great fabric of copper vessels. The women among the wandering tribes in the upper districts weave the admired Turkey carpets; but the finest are made in the mountain districts of Persia. No part of the world appears more expressly destined to be the seat of an extensive commerce. The command of the Mediterranean, the numerous coasts and islands by which it is surrounded, its position at the connecting point of the three continents, and its contiguity to countries whose dissimilar tastes and productions peculiarly fit them to supply each other's deficiencies, are advantages which naturally rendered it the earliest and most favored TURKEY IN ASBA. 723 seat of commerce. The splendor of its ancient emporia excited the astonishment of the world; and they continued for a lengthened period, notwithstanding the hostile influence of revolution and oppression, to preserve a considerable portion of their early commerce and magnificence. These, however, have at length almost totally disappeared. Only Aleppo and Smyrna survive; the former supported by Syria and the caravan trade of interior Asia, by which at one time it received even the muslins and jewels of India. Since the discovery, however, of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, the Indian trade has taken almost wholly a different route. The internal distractions which agitated Persia for half a century rendered the intercourse with that empire both dangerous and unprofitable. Through these causes Aleppo, once the chief seat of commerce in the Levant, has suffered a great decline. Smyrna, as it carries on merely the local commerce of Asia Minor, the part of the empire which has suffered least by anarchy and rapine, still maintains a respectable place as a trading city. It exports raw silk, goat's hair, Turkey carpets, raisins, drugs, and gums, in exchange for cloths and hardware. The state of social existence, religion, learning, and manners, so far as respects the ruling people, is precisely the same in Asiatic as in European Turkey. They present that austere, uniform, and gloomy character, which the precepts of Mahomet tend to form, and which is produced in its utmost purity in'the cities of Turkey. The native and subject races, however, exhibit marked distinctions. The Greek population, which in Europe makes the prominent feature among the conquered people, exists only to a limited extent on the coast and islands of Asia Minor. In its room all the mountainous Asiatic tracts contain bold and hardy tribes, who, availing themselves of their distance and the declining power of the pachas, admit little control over their internal proceedings, and establish independent and sometimes almost republican governments. The high and uncultivated table-lands in the interior of Asia Minor are occupied by a wandering and pastoral race called Turcomans, either because they are really descended from the people of that name on the east of the Caspian, or perhaps, because a similar situation, producing similar habits and aspect, has caused the two to be confounded. They drive their flocks in summer into the most elevated tracts, and, as winter approaches, lead them down into the lower and sheltered valleys. All their habits are decidedly Tartar; and with the domestic simplicity of this race they combine its love of war and booty, with no nice consideration how this latter may be obtained. When summoned, however, to fight under the banner of the empire, and to unsheath the sword against the infidels, they are prompt in obeying the call, and form the main military strength of Turkey. They serve a short campaign without pay, but with little ardor, and with full license of plunder. Though they cannot meet disciplined troops in the shock of battle, they make excellent irregular cavalry. Syria, Palestine, and Bagdad have attracted great numbers of Arabs from the vast deserts by which these countries are bordered. Besides those who make inroads for the sale of plunder, or who drive their flocks, with or without permission, into these more fertile pastures, there are many who have obtained a fixed settlement m the fields or the cities, and have become regular subjects of the empire. These conform to established 724 TURKEY IN ASIA. manners, and have a more gay and polished address than the Turks. Many of them become thriving merchants; but they never forget those long genealogies, that respect for the beard, and admiration for tile horse, which form the pride of the Arab in his native desert. The steep and rugged heights of Lebanon have given shelter to races of quite a different character from the wandering or the settled Arabs. Those high slopes, unfit for pasturage, are made by the laborious culture of the people, to yield them subsistence; they fight onfoot with the musket; they have, what is most rare in Asia, national assemblies, with some form of republican government. Among these mountain tribes, the chief are the Maronites and the Druses. The Maronites were originally the proselytes of Maron, a saint of the fifth century; but being stigmatised as heretics, they, in the seventh century, sought refuge, under a distinguished leader called John the Maronite, in the hilly country of Kesrouan, behind Tripoli. Here, when the Saracens overran Syria, carrying on a war of fierce persecution against the Christian name, the Maronite territory became the retreat of many who were willing to sacrifice all for the free exercise of that religion. Having procured arms, they bravely defended themselves, and the Mahometans were unwilling to waste their time and resources on a territory so difficult and so poor. By degrees they not only freed themselves from subjection of every kind, but, availing themselves of favorable occasions, made inroads into the surrounding territories, and carried their arms even as far as -Jerusalem. At length Amurath III., a fierce and active prince, became indignant at seeing his power thus braved. In 1588 he collected a large force, penetrated into their territory, and compelled them to acknowledge the supremacy of the Porte, and to bind themselves to the payment of an annual tribute, which has ever since been paid, or at least owned as due. In every other respect, they endure scarcely any control. The Catholic rites are celebrated as publicly in Kesrouan as in Italy. Of the numerous villages built on the sides of the hills, each has its priest, its chapel, and its bell. The Maronites, notwithstanding their deviations from strict orthodoxy, have been received into the communion of the church of Rome, which nothing could ever induce them to renounce, and which connives at their retaining a patriarch of their own, who resides at the monastery of Kanobin. Kesrouan contains upwards of two hundred convents; but as the monks till the ground, and have brethren capable of carrying on all necessary handicraft trades, they cannot be ranked as useless members of society. The numerous priests are supported solely by the bounty of their flocks, which they are obliged to eke out by the cultivation of land, or the prosecution of a trade; even the bishops do not usually enjoy a revenue of more than sixty guineas a year. For this poverty, the clergy are compensated by the great respect paid them by the people, who kiss their hands whenever they meet them. The Maronites, generally, live in a happy simplicity, in rude hamlets or solitary houses, among the acclivities of Lebanon. They recognise no distinctions of rank. Those, indeed, whom they call sheiks, or, as we would say, little gentry, have a few advantages of dress and food, but live in a most frugal manner; while very few are in want of the absolute necessaries of life. fThey have scarcely any form of government; the villages forming so many little communities, secured by simple and peaceful habits from those evils which, elsewhere, TURKEY IN ASIA. 725 the sword of justice must remedy. When, however, any outrage is committed, they unfortunately assert and exercise the Arab right of private vengeance. The Maronites are all armed, and, when their strength is called out, can muster 35,000 men, on which Volney estimates the entire population at 115,000: we would rather suppose it 150,000. The Druses, who occupy the more northern and still loftier heights of Lebanon, are a people of much rougher aspect, and all the religion they have is of the Mahometan species. The notions that they derive their origin from the crusaders, and their name from the Count de Dreuse, are now completely exploded. Their creed is traced to Hakim, one of the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt, who, in the tenth century, commenced a radical reform of the Mahometan religion. In this career, he cut off at once all its peculiarities; the prohibition against eating pork and drinking wine, the pilgrimage to Mecca, the observance of fasting, and the recital of the five prayers. Unfortunately he extended this latitude to essential points of moral duty, permitting even incestuous marriages, and finally erecting a worse superstition than that which he had overthrown, by setting himself forth as an incarnation of the Deity. He finally fell a victim to the enraged multitude, whose opinions he trampled upon; but his dogmas, and even his wildest personal pretensions, spread throughout Syria. They were proscribed, however, as monstrous and heretical by the prevailing part of the Mahometan world; and their adherents, like the Maronites, were obliged to flee into the recesses of Lebanon. Being reinforced by other heretical sectaries, they proved extremely formidable, till Amurath III., in the same expedition in which he reduced the Maronites, compelled the Druses also to bind themselves to the payment of an annual tribute. He stipulated, moreover, that, instead of living in a species of anarchy under their sheiks, they should choose, subject to the approbation of the Porte, a prince or emir, who should be responsible for their peaceable deportment, and the regular payment of the tribute. This arrangement, however, had a result opposite to what was contemplated. It gave to the nation an union before unknown; the consequence of which appeared very obvious, when Fakr-el-din, or Facardin founded a sort of kingdom of the Druses. Having taken Bairout, he made it the capital, and such it has ever since continued. Having been induced, however, to visit Italy, he contracted voluptuous habits, unsuited to Oriental ideas, which weakened his influence, and led, finally, to his captivity and death. The Druses, however, continued to be ruled by his family, till it became extinct, when another was established in its place. The Druses derive from their independence an energy and a vigor of character unknown to the other nations of Syria. A considerable part of the land is in the possession of a few great sheiks, whose factions often embroil the natives, but at the same time maintain a spirit of liberty and activity. All the great affairs of the nation must be decided in an assembly of these sheiks, at which even peasants are allowed to be present, and to give their voice; so that this government presents a mixture of powers somewhat similar to that existing in the British constitution; but it wants the fixed laws and established order which secure the latter against anarchy. The Druses are prompt in flying to arms. As soon as a hostile resolution is formed by the assembly of the nation, the criers, from the tops of the mountains, sound " To war! to war!" at which signal 15,000 726 TURKEY IN ASIA. Druses speedily muster. They have no bayonets, are strangers to tactics or discipline, and are merely a crowd of peasants with short coats and naked legs; brave almost to excess, and entertaining a proverbial contempt of death. They never encounter an enemy face to face in the open plain. They are a sort of rude chasseurs, firing behind rocks and bushes with such accuracy as seldom to miss their aim. Thus, when met on their mountain ground, they are nearly invincible. In regard to religion, although by no means wholly devoid of it, as their enemies allege, they show a singular absence of that ostentatious and sectarian zeal which pervades the Oriental world. They pray indiscriminately in a church or in a mosque, and appear to view Christianity with less aversion than Mahometanism. Any strict outward observance is chiefly confined to an initiated class, called okkals, or doctors, who consider themselves as alone holy and learned among an ignorant people. Europeans, after long and vain attempts, have at length obtained a sight of their sacred books, but without being much the wiser. Amid an obscure mystical jargon, it only appears that Hakim is still regarded with the same boundless veneration, and that his pretensions to a divine origin are fully admitted. In practice they adhere to his rejection of circumcision. fasting, and all the characteristic Moslem observances; they even admit his permission of incestuous connexion, to the extent of marriage between brother and sister. They have the virtues and the vices of barbarous life; the same boundless hospitality, the same deadly feuds, as among the Arabs. A general levy of the nation produces 40,000 fighting men, from which we may probably estimate the entire population at 200,000; a number which, on this small and poor district, denotes a superior density of population to that of the plains beneath, and fully illustrates the beneficial effects of liberty, even in this rude form. Heresy in Lebanon has given birth to other national distinctions. In a part of its most elevated interior, towards the south, dwell the Motoualis, a race of the most bigoted Mahometans, but who adopt the sect of Ali, which prevails also throughout Persia. They are therefore designated by the Turks as shiites, or heretics, while they call themselves by a name -which expresses the fullest confidence in its truth. This deadly schism, which has caused so much blood to flow in the Moslem world, has rendered the Motoualis hated by all their neighbors, Christian and Mahometan. They will not even drink out of a vessel which has been used by either of these sects, till it has undergone a purification. At holy seasons they are said to study to wash away their sins by shedding the blood of a heretic. They fight with such intrepidity, and even desperation, that, though not mustering above 7,000 fighting men, they have remained always unconquered, and this handful has put to flight armies of many thousands. The Ansarians dwell along a range of northern heights towards Antioch. They live in a sort of anarchy both as to religion and government; but they are very little known. It would be improper to conclude without mentioning the Latins or Franks, who are almost all monks, and act the part of ciceroni to strangers in the Holy Iand; but, as their character is essentially European, and only modified by local circumstances, their peculiarities will be better distinguished whei: we come to treat of Jerusalem and its vicinity The mountains of the ea;lern frontier of Turkey produce races exhibit ing decided peculiarities.'The great and ancient kingdom of Armenia, situated in a mountainous ou;nmer of Western Asia, has remained compara TURKEY IN ASIA. 727 tavely little affected by that mighty train of revolution which has swepc. over that region. Here, too, religious schism has given its stamp to tht, character of the natives. In the famous controversy of the two natures the Armenians followed the dogma of Eutyches, who admitted in the Saviour only one, compounded of divine and human. The character of tht Armenians, however, has been formed, not so much by a dogma transcending human comprehension, as by habits of religious quietude and politica. exclusion. Their course of life much resembles that of the Jews, with whom they are often found in conjunction. But what in the latter is sordid and grasping parsimony, appears scarcely in the Armenian to exceed the limits of steady and meritorious industry. This people, in fact. carry on all the trade, and many of the manufactures, of Persia and Turkey. Ispahan, in the days of its greatness, had Julfa, a large suburb, expressly appropriated to the Armenians. They have penetrated into India, central Asia, Africa, and the east of Europe; and have been sometimes, though not often, seen in France and England. In general they lead a peaceful and orderly life, under the government of heads of families. The court of Rome, by indefatigable efforts at conversion, has succeeded in effecting a species of schism, by drawing over to her communion 20,000 out of the 170,000 families of whom the nation consists. The great remaining majority adhere to the Eutychean creed, and revere, as their head, the patriarch of Erzeroum. They admit the marriage of priests, and are free from other Catholic regulations; but in return they carry fasting and ablution to a pitch unknown to any other Christian sect. The Koords, or Kurds, inhabit a long and rugged chain stretching south east from the mountains of Armenia, parallel to the Tigris, along the frontier of the Turkish and Persian empires. They are the same people known under the ancient name of Carduchi, through whom Xenophon fought his way, when conducting the famous retreat of the Ten Thousand. They. have still the same name, and are the same people; the boldest and rudest in all Asia. Those pastoral pursuits, which, on the high table plains of Tartary and Persia, vary and soften the habits of war and plunder, are impracticable in a region which presents nothing but rugged steeps, frightful ravines, and narrow valleys. Here every chief is seated in his castle, where he meditates, and whence he attempts, the plunder of the rich plains which lie beneath him. The Koords have, however, the characteristic virtue of barbarians, a frank hospitality, and also a pride of pedigree, founded'on a national existence, which may be traced to high antiquity. The deep interests which attach to this region of Asia depend little on the divisions established by the Turkish government. It calls them pachalies, from each being governed by one of its modern satraps. This circumstance often very seriously affects, for a time, the destiny of the people' but it does not form any permanent or distinctive features. We know these territories, not under the name of pachalics of Acre, of Tripoli, of Istchil but under others, which refer to the memory of their departed glories, an: to what they were when they presented to the eyes of mankind the Itolr Land, Troy, Tyre, Syria and Babylon. We seek on these shores exclisively the monuments and traces of the period when they bore these immorta. names; and we gaze on the modern inhabitants and their abodes, chiefly L. wonder at the sad and surprising contrast which they exhibit. In surveying, on this principle, the Turkish Asiatic empire, we sha. 728 TURKEY IN ASIA. divide it into four parts:-Palestine, or the Holy Land; Syria; Asia Minor; provinces on the Euphrates. PALESTINE. PALESTINE, a name supposed to be derived from the ancient Philistine coast, has been applied, from the earliest of modern ages, to the territory anciently assigned as the portion of the twelve tribes. The dimensions of this country do not correspond to its fame: it may be 150 miles in length north and south, and nearly as much in extreme breadth. It is bounded on the west by the Mediterranean; on the north it ranges along the southern skirts of Libanus; while on the east and south, it passes into the Arabian desert, amid long ranges of rocky hills. Judea is a high country, rising by successive terraces from a shore that is, in many places, bold and lofty. Its princial eminences, Carmel, Bashan, Tabor, do not ascend into bleak and rugged heights: they are covered with villages, rich pastures, and luxuriant woods; on their slopes are copious vineyards, and in the clefts of the rocks numerous bees, feeding on their aromatic plants, deposit their honey. Traces are even found of a cultivation, by artificial terraces, equal to that which prevails in the most improved parts of the East. There has been here, however, a busier work of rapine and oppression than even in any other part of this suffering empire. A line, however, drawn from north to south through Judea, attaches a large part of it to the pachalic of Damascus, which has long been, perhaps, the very best governed part of the Turkish empire. Within these limits, reaching from the sea of Galilee through Napolut, to the vicinity of Jerusalem, the region displays much of its ancient fertility. The declivities of the mountains are even formed into terraces, that they may retain the moisture, and be fit for bearing ample crops: This part of Palestine, however, and still more the other, is cruelly infested by bands of Arabs, who not only carry on habitual incursions, but have regularly established themselves on the line of the principal highroads, where they cause every traveller deeply to rue his temerity if he proceed without the security of a strong armed body, or without having propitiated by liberal gifts the favor of some great thief of the desert. In such a vicinity, the husbandman, of course, reaps his harvest in little or no security; and Judea, on the whole, groans under the double evil of being at once ill governed, and not governed, or at least defended, at all. Entering Judea from the south, after passing the confines of the desert, we come first to Gaza, called by the Arabs Razza (with a strong gutteral sound on the r.) This celebrated capital of the Philistines, still derives some importance from its situation, which renders it a connecting point between Palestine, Syria and Arabia. The surrounding country, a wide fiat expanse, covered with date trees, is more than half Arabian; but the immediate vicinage, consists of a black and fertile soil, the produce of whose gardens is valued even at Constantinople. Gaza has about 500 looms, which manufacture coarse cottons for the neighboring Arabs. They collect from them the strong alkaline plants which grow in the saline and sandy soil, from which a soap of superior quality is manufactured. Its main dependence, however, is upon the caravans to Sinai, Egypt and Mecca, which entering here upon a long route where no provision can be found, must lay in at Gaza a large stock of every necessary. PALESTINE. 729 Coasting to the north, along a rocky coral shore, where navigation;: attended with some danger, we come to Joppa, now called Jaffa, so conspicuous as the port of Judea, and the only point of communication which David and Solomon had with the Mediterranean. At present, the port is one of the worst on that sea, being so encumbered with rocks and shoals that vessels can anchor only at the distance of a mile from the shore. There is, however, an ancient harbor, now choked up, but which might be made to contain ships of 800 tons. Great antiquity is ascribed to Joppa even by the heathen writers. In the middle ages it rose into fame, from being chosen as the nearest point to Jerusalem, for the landing place of the great crusade under Richard Ccoeur de Lion and Philip of France. Jaffa continued the head-quarters of the Christians in that celebrated campaign; and to the south extends the wide field of Ascalon, where the arms of the Crescent sustained so signal an overthrow. In the history of the present day, Jaffa has obtained a dismal celebrity from its capture by Bonaparte, and the subsequent massacre of the prisoners made there. Jaffa is now a collection of poor huts, built round the amphitheatre of a hill, with no military strength, though from its situation, and the two fine springs within its walls, it might be converted into a very strong fortress. At Jaffa is a convent of the monks of the Holy Land, a plain wooden building close to the sea, where Christian travellers and pilgrims meet a hospitable reception; but the fathers themselves, live under continiual apprehension for the safety of their property, and even their lives, from the bigoted enmity of the savage race, to whose absolute sway they are subjected. As soon as the pilgrim has secured a convoy, he hastens towards the mountainous region before him, in the centre of which is Jerusalem, the main object of his expedition. He sees the;icinity stripped by the passage of hostile armies, at various periods, of the trees which once adorned it; but there are still a number of well-watered gardens, enabling Jaffa to make a considerable export of fruits, among which the water-melons appeared to Clarke the finest he had ever seen. The Vale of Sharon, which next presents itself, is still remarkable for its rose, celebrated in Hebrew poetry. After passing a number of villages, mostly in ruins at the foot of the dark hills which ascend towards the rugged centre of Judea, we enter Rama or Ramla, the ancient Arimathea. No part of the Holy Land is more fertile than the plain around Rama, which resembles a perpetual garden. The Christian army found it a fenced city; strong, populous, and abounding with all the luxuries of the East. It is now only a collection of plastered huts, interspersed with olives, figs and nopals, and overshadowed by fine palm trees. Three miles to the north of Ramla is Lydda, now Loudd, a place of some fame in scripture history, but much decayed, though a weekly market is held for the cotton spun by the neighboring peasantry. From Ramla we ascend at once-to the hill country of Judea, a dreary and gloomy region, the aspect of which appeared fully to explain to Chateaubriand why Jephtha's daughter and the prophets of sorrow repaired thither to pour forth their lamentations. Bands of Arabs have formed fixed stations in these rocky fastnesses, and render this the most dangerous part of the journey through the Holy Land. In what is called the Terebinthine Vale may still be traced the scene of the great combat between Israel and the Philistines; the brook in which David collected the stones, 7830 TURKEY, IN ASIA. with one of which he laid in the dust the gigantic boaster who had struck terror into the Jewish army. After passing through about thirty miles of such territory, the exclamation is made El Kods! (the holy city!) and the traveller sees Jerusalem. ZRUSALEM, in its greatest extent, stood upon four hills, some of which mibht almost be termed mountains, were it not for the loftier elevations with which it was encircled. Mount Sion was the upper or principal quarter-the Mount of God, the City of David-on which were situated the finest edifices and strongest fortifications. To the east was Mount Acra, to the east and west Moriah, and to the north Bezetha. From the last, a broad and fine valley stretched towards the ancient Samaria. On the other side the deep valleys of Jehoshaphat, Hinnom, and Siloe penetrated to the awful rocks which stretch towards the Dead Sea. These valleys are still watered by the brook Kedron and the pool of Siloam; and the rocky sides ofthe hills immediately bordering on them have been excavated into tombs; but they have never been built upon, and the inhabited part of the city has been always upon the summits and along the sides of the hills. The walls were formerly four miles in circuit, but this is now reduced to two and a aalf; and a part of what is commonly supposed to be Mount Sion is now covered with ruins. Of the remaining circuit, a great part presents little more than the remains of a city. The gloomy desolation which pervades it is described by Chateaubriand as extreme. "The houses are heavy square masses, very low, without chimneys or windows. They have flat terraces or domes on the top, and look like prisons or sepulchres. The whole would appear to the eye one uninterrupted level, did not the steeples of the churches, the minarets of the mosques, and the clumps of nopals, break the uniformity of the plan. Enter the city, you will there find nothin:g to compensate for the dullness of its exterior. You lose yourself among narrow unpaved streets, here going up-hill, then down, from the inequality of the ground, and you walk among clouds of dust or loose stones. Canvas stretched from house to house increases the gloom of the labyrinth; bazaars roofed over, and fraught with infection, completely exclude the light from the desolate city. A few paltry shops expose nothing but wretchedness to view, and even these are frequently shut, from apprehension of the passage of a cadi. Not a creature is to be seen in the streets, not a creature at the gates, except now and then a peasant gliding through the gloom, concealing under his garments the fruits of his labor, lest he should be robbed of his hard earnings by the rapacious soldier. The only noise heard from time to time in this deicide city is the galloping of the steed of the desert; it is the janissary who brings the head of the Bedouin, or returns from plundering the unhappy fellah." Two splendid objects shine conspicuous amid the gloomy picture, which is probably, however, a good deal overcharged, and place Jerusalem on a level with whatever is most splendid in the East. These are, the Church of the Sepulchre, and the mosque of Omar. The former has long been the grand object of pilgrimage and visitation to the Christian world. It was erected by the empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, upon a site which was supposed to include the scene of all the great mysteries of our religion-the crucifixion, the entombment, the resurrection. It consists properly of three churches or chapels, connected together by three walls and covered passages. The first and most extensive is termed the Churlch PALESTINE. 731 of the Holiy Sepulchre. The rock, however, in which -the tomb was excavated is allowed to have been almost entirely cut away, and that part which contains the sepulchre now rises above the ground in the form of a grotto covered with slabs of beautiful verde antico, rendered rough by the numberless fragments furtively broken off by crowds of devout pilgrims in search of holy relics. Close to the entrance is a block of white marble shown as the stone on which the angel sat, and in the interior lamps are continually burning. The two other churches consist of large apartments, one above, the other below. The lowest is called the Church of the Three Crosses, which were supposed to have been there miraculously discovered: it contains also the tombs of Godfrey and Baldwin, the Latin kings of Jerusalem; and a rent is shown in the natural rock, supposed to be that produced by the earthquake at the crucifixion. The upper church is called that of Mount Calvary, where the rock appears again with the same rent, and with holes supposed to indicate the place of the Three Crosses. Small apartments along the sides of the walls of these churches, both within and without, are occupied by monks belonging to the different nai:ons of the East and West; Latins, Greeks, Abyssinians, Copts, Armenians, Maronites, &c. According to Maundrell, the possession of these sacred places was often furiously contested. From abuse and vituperation, the combatants proceeded to wounds and blows; and the sacred floor was not unfrequently stained with blood. The guide showed to the abovementioned traveller, scars which he had himself received in these unholy contests. In 1690, however, the French king is said to have secured for the Latins the exclusive command of these sacred places, the occupation of which is now distributed by them at will among the other sects. The monks are continually engaged either in keeping 200 lamps constantly burning, in preserving every spot in these churches strictly clean, or in celebrating the mysteries of their worship. "From the arches above, where they nestle like pigeons, from the chapels below, and subterraneous vaults, their songs are heard at all hours both of the day and night. The organ of the Latin monks, the cymbals of the Abyssinian, the voice of the Greek caloyer, the prayer of the solitary Armenian, the plaintive accents of the Coptic friar, alternately or all at once assail your ears; you know not whence these concerts proceed; you-inhale the perfume of incense without perceiving the hand that burns it; you merely perceive the pontiff who is going to celebrate the most awful of mysteries on the very spot where they were accomplished." By much the most splendid edifice in Jerusalem, however, consists of the mosque erected by Omar on the site of the temple of Solomon. It is an octagon surmounted by a lantern of the same shape, and is considered superior to any other structure in the Turkish empire, not excepting the mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople: it yields only to the matchless boast of Saracenic art, the Alhambra. The walls are externally lined with painted tiles covered with arabesques, and with verses from the Koran in letters of gold. Its numerous arcades, its capacious dome, with the rich costume of eastern devqtees passing and repassing, render it, even from without, one of the grandest sights which the Mahometan world has to boast. The interior is in general rigorously shut against Christians; but Dr. Richardson contrived to effect an entrance. He found it a magnificent square 1489 by 995 feet, the floors and walls of marble, and the 732 TURKEY IN ASIA. sakhara, or inner shrine, 60 feet square, of the& finest materials, and coy ered with sentences from the Koran. The manufactures of Jerusalem consist chiefly of objects accounted sacred, and sold much above their real value. Among these are shells of mother-of-pearl, held as badges of pilgrimage, crosses, and beads made either of the stones of dates, or a species of hard wood, or of' the black fetid limestone of the lake Asphaltites. - These holy toys are largely purchased even by those who do not hold them in much account, but who know that they will form the most acceptable of all presents to the Greeks, and even to the Catholics. The Latin monks receive, lodge, and guide the pilgrims for a month, leaving it entirely optional with their guests, whether they shall bestow a gratuity at parting. The highest and most desolate tracts of Judea occur southeast of Jerusalem, and lead to lake Asphaltites. The cultivated and smiling valleys of its lower stage, appear no longer. The surface is broken only by deep and dreary glens, hemmed in by precipices so lofty as to exclude the sun; the chalky summits of rocks, rent as by a convulsion, shoot into a thousand fantastic shapes. Their sides are perforated by deep caves, which served as a retreat to the saints and prophets of the Old Testament, and to the Christians of the middle ages. Every spot here recalls some of the great events of sacred history. "Extraordinary appearances every where proclaim a land teeming with miracles: the burning sun, the towering eagle, the barren fig-tree; all the poetry, all the pictures of scripture, are here. Every name commemorates a mystery; every grot proclaims the future; every hill re-echoes the accents of a prophet. God himself has spoken in these regions: dried up rivers, riven rocks, half-open sepulchres, attest the prodigy: the desert still appears mute with terror, and you would imagine it had never presumed to interrupt the silence, since it heard the awful voice of the Eternal." (Chateaubriand.) The monastery of St. Saba, rising perpendicularly from the ravine of the brook Kedron, appears in the heart of this desolate region. Once the refuge of the saints of the wilderness, it is now a scene of quiet monastic seclusion. In continual danger from the surrounding tribes of Arabs, it has less the aspect of a convent than of a fortress, the abode of some bold and ruthless crusader. Its immensely strong and lofty towers, frowning over hill and glen, are seen from a great distance, and one of the fathers, by turns, walks his nightly round on the top of the towers. Yet the Arabs, though continually hovering about in a menacing attitude, usually content themselves with levying a tithe of fine white bread, baked in the convent, and allow the convoys to pass unmolested. Somewhat to the south is Hebron, so venerable by its antiquity, and still a considerable Arab village. The court of Constantinople supports here a temple, built over the supposed sepulchres of the patriarchs, which are covered with magnificent carpets of green silk, embroidered with gold. These awful heights terminate in an object still more awful, the expanse of the Dead Sea. This lake, whose waves engulfed the guilty cities of the plain, presents, perhaps, the most dreary and dismal scene to be found in the circuit of the globe. The rocks by which it is enclosed present quite a different aspect on the eastern and on the western shores. On the former, which is that of Arabia or of Moab, a prodigious black perpendicular wall, in which there is not a summit or the smallest peak, and ix which the least PALESTINE. 733 bird of heaven could not find a blade of grass, throws its perpendicular shadow over the waters. On the western or Judean side the limestone and sandy cliffs tower in varied and fantastic forms, suggesting often the ideas of piles of armour, waving standards, and rows of tents. The gloomy sea which these rocks encircle has been clothed by fancy with awful and supernatural characters. Every thing around, in short, bears that dead, dreary and fearful character that ought to mark a country struck by the malediction of Heaven. The shores of the Dead Sea, and the valley to the north of it, consist of an expanse of salt, dry mud, and moving sand. In proceeding through the plain, Chateaubriand discovered what at first appeared to be sand in motion. On drawing nearer, he beheld a yellow current, scarcely to be distinguished from the sands on its shores. It was deeply sunk below its banks, slowly creeping towards the pestilential lake by which it is engulfed. This was the Jordan. In its higher course, however, as it descends from the Lake of Tiberias, it is bordered by trees and shrubs, and its banks are often picturesque; and in spring, when " the swelling of Jordan" takes place, the river fills its deep banks, and flows with rapidity. Its vicinity is dreadfully infested by Arabs; notwithstanding which, the visitants of Jerusalem make crowded pilgrimages, for the sake of bathing in its sacred waters. Between the Jordan and Jerusalem is the wide, flat plain of Jericho, twenty miles in length and ten in breadth, walled in on all sides by the high mountains of Judea and Arabia. It is, for this reason, very hot, and in many places parched; but the skill of the ancients conducted through it, with such skill, all the waters on its circuit, as to render it the most luxuriant spot in Judea. Even in its present neglected state, it yields good crops of wheat and barley; also the balm, for which this country has always been famous, though not equally with Arabia; the palm, and the zaccon, seemingly the myrobalanum of the ancients, which yields an oil superior to that of the olive. In this plain, the city of Jericho, famous through so many ages, is recognized, with some doubt, in the village of Ribha, a collection of about fifty Bedouin tents, that present no vestige of a city. Mr. Buckingham, however, noticed some ruins, at the distance of three or four miles, that appear to mark more precisely the real site of Jericho. Before quitting Jerusalem, it may be advisable to make an excursion south-east to Bethlehem, which ranks high among the sacred places. Bethlehem is still a considerable village, containing, according to Volney, six hundred men capable of bearing arms. It is chiefly visited for the sake of the convent built by Helena over the manger of the nativity. The identity of the spot, we shall not dispute; but the taste which has paved this humble scene with white marble, supported it with Corinthian columns, and hung it with blue satin embroidered with silver, may well be questioned. From Jerusalem, the road northwards to Samaria is through a rugged and stony country, which the industry of the people has, however, so formed into terraces, and so covered with vine and fig trees, and even with millet, cotton, and tobacco, that Dr. Clarke ranks it in many parts as the Eden of the East. Its flourishing state is the result of the beneficent influence of a better government, that of the Pacha of Damascus, within 784 TURKEY IN ASIA. whose domain it was included. Here the traveller passes Bethel, the scene of Jacob's dream, and a fine valley called Kane Leban, the Letl nah of Scripture. After a march of sixteen hours, he reaches Naplous, or Napolose, near the site of the ancient Samaria. This city is one of the most beautiful and flourishing of the Holy Land. It stands in a bold and fertile valley, surrounded by hills, and embosomed in stately groves and rich gardens. The inhabitants, about 10,000, are.employed in manufacturing for the extensive country around. Soap is the chief staple. Here may be seen, seemingly well authenticated, the tombs of Joseph and Eleazer, and of Joshua, cut in the living rock. A small remnant is found of the ancient Samaritans, adhering to their worship upon Mount Gerizim, to their sacrifice of the ram, and to their peculiar version of the Pentateuch. Before proceeding onward to the fine regions of Galilee, it will be necessary to descend towards the coast, and notice some prominent features which it presents. Almost in a line with Napolose, occurred Csesarea, the magnificent capital of Herod, long the seat of Roman government, and where Paul made his eloquent appeals to Felix and Agrippa. During its glory, no city of Palestine, scarcely any of Syria, could vie with Coesarea. Its marble palaces, theatres, and temples, looking towards the sea, struck with astonishment the passing navigator. Its temple rivalled that of Jerusalem; and its games, celebrated every five years, attracted a concourse of all the nations of the East. Plundered by Baldwin, in 1101, and subjected to various turns of war and fortune, it was gradually deserted, and its materials have been employed in the ornament of modern capitals. Only a few remnants of marble walls and some porphyry columns remain scattered over its site. Quitting the ruins of Coesarea, we approach the heights of Carmel, which, after running for a considerable space north-west, terminate in a rocky promontory about 2000 feet high, projecting into the sea. It contains a considerable number of grottoes, once occupied as cells and chapels by the austere order bearing the appellation of Carmelites. A very few still remain, who lead a recluse life, and are venerated even by the Ma hometans, who supply their wants. The mountain bears the traces of an cient aqueducts, and of plantations of vines and olives; and on the top are the ruins of a considerable monastery erected by Helena. On the opposite side of the bay, partly enclosed by Mount Carmel, is Acre, which now ranks first in political importance of any town in this neighborhood. Though often considered as Syrian, its position within the domain of the ten tribes, and its modern relations, appear to attach it to Palestine. During the crusades, it exchanged its ancient obscure name of Acron for that of Ptolemais, celebrated as a scene of seige and contest, and for the repeated change of masters which it had to endure. These vicissitudes reduced it almost to a desolate state, till, in the seventeenth celtulry, the celebrated emir Facardin began to rebuild it. In later times it became the capital both of Daher Omar and of Djezzar Pacha; and this last tyrant, while he desolated the rest of his dominions, made it his pride to restore and embellish Acre. It became still more famous when the Turks, fighting behind a mere garden wall, but guided and seconded by Sir Sidney Smith and a few British seamen, set bounds to the hitherto irresistible career of Napoleon, and forced him to retreat to Egypt. Acre is how a considerable place, though its streets, like those of most Eastern. PALELMNE. 735 towns, are narrow and dirty; yet Djezzar, by collecti g all the remains of Cmsarea and other surrounding ruined cities, erected the most elegant mosque and the finest baths that exist in Syria. More useful works are those of a bazaar and of a fine fountain for the supply of water, which was much wanted. He was even induced, by motives, the urgent policy of which was obvious, to extend to commerce some measure of that protection which was elsewhere withheld; still even here it was cramped by the blind cupidity witlr which he imposed duties and monopolies. There is, however, a considerable export of corn and c'otton, the produce of the flat and fertile plain by which Acre is surrounded. The port, though it has lost much of its former importance, in consequence of being partially choked up with sand, has been in a good measure restored, and the best on any part of this coast. The route from Acre into the interior, is across the delightful plain of Zabulon. On the other side is Sephoury, anciently one of the principal towns of Palestine, and augmented by the Romans under the appellation of Diocaesarea. A great part of its church, one of the stateliest edifices in the Holy Land, still remains; it is adorned with some very curious ancient paintings. The place itself is reduced to a miserable village. Between Sephoury and Nazareth a hilly and stony tract intervenes. This last spot, distinguished by the early residence of the Saviour, was raised to considerable importance during the crusades, and, after falling into almost total decline, was re-built by Facardin, and enlarged by Daher Omar. It now contains 2000 or 8000 inhabitants, who were reduced to great poverty under Djezzar; but since his death, have enjoyed some tranquility. The convent is large, resembling a fortress, and almost forming a little town by itself. It contains fourteen inmates, usually with a good many visitants. Nazareth ranks second to Jerusalem among the holy places, and the scenes of all the events in the life of Joseph and of the Virgin are carefully pointed out. The church, composed of t]rc< naves, is very handsome, adorned with magnificent stair-cases, and ta. beautiful columns of oriental granite. The most venerated spot is tL'/ Grotto of the Annunciation, the descent to which is by a flight of marblt steps. The natives believe that when sick of the plague, they may, by rubbing themselves against the columns, assuredly obtain restoration of health. Hence its approaches are continually crowded by the sufferers under this distemper; a circumstance which renders it very unsafe for other visitants. East from Nazareth is Mount Tabor, a grand natural feature, rendered doubly celebrated by the transfiguration, of which it has, perhaps erroneously, been supposed the theatre. It is a very fine hill, about four miles in circumference, but rising so gradually, that it may be ascended on horseback. On the top is a circular- plain, about a furlong in length, which appears to have been at one time surrounded by a wall, when it formed a strong fortification; and the traces of this wall are reported to have been discovered by some modern travellers. From the summit, the view is truly magnificent, extending over the richest and most picturesque tracts of Judea; the plains, the hills, and the sea of Galilee; the mount of Gilboa to the south, a high narrow ridge, famous for the signal triumph of the Philistines; and to the west, towards Nazareth, the plain of Esdraelon, which has been described as a portion of the Holy Land gifted by nature 736 TURKEY IN ASIA. beyond any other. Abandoned, however, to oppression and misrule, it rs nowhere turned up by the plow; it forms one vast meadow, of the riches; pasture, sustaining only a few scattered herds, guarded by trembling shep herds. This plain was the scene of the defeat of Sisera by Barak; of thai of Josiah by Pharaoh Necho, and of many great encampments formed bt the crusaders or the defenders of Palestine. Near its northern extremity, is the small neat village of Cana, celebrated for the miraculous conversion of water into wine. After passing Mount Tabor, and the range of which it forms the loftiest pinnacle, we enter the fine region of Galilee, a varied and fertile scene, extending along the western shore of the Lake of Tiberias. This large sheet of water, traversed by the Jordan in its early course, presents a different aspect firom the dreary sea, begirt with naked rocks, in which that stream terminates. Enclosed by fertile valleys, and by verdant hills, some times wooded to their summits, it presents, on a greater scale, the beauties of the finest lakes of England. It is seventeen or eighteen miles long, five or six broad; its waters clear and transparent, with the current of the Jotdan visible through them. On its shores were once many prosperous and flourishing cities, of which few traces remain. The only one which retains any importance, is Tiberias, a Roman city founded by Herod the tetrarch, in honor of the emperor whose name it bears. Herod made it a splendid city, where he received with festive pomp, deputies from many of the Asiatic princes, and entertained them with naval games upon the lakes. Tiberias afterwards became the seat of a rabbinical university, in which character its fame was so great, that notwithstanding its recent and Roman origin, the Jews still account it one of their four holy cities; Saphet, Jerusalem and Hebron, being the other three. As it continues to be a received opinion, that unless suitable prayers were addressed twice a week in each of these cities, the world would return to chaos, a just ground is afforded to solicit the contributions of all the wealthy disciples of Moses to avert such a disaster. Tabaria thus retains a population of 4,000, of whom a large proportion are Jews. The present city is modern and Turkish; and though its site and fortifications have externally a grand and imposing aspect, the interior is very poor, and a great part of it deserted. The old city, at a little distance south, is marked by many fragments of walls and columns, but without any definite feature, or any great building in an entire state. In this quarter are baths, which retain their ancient reputation. Being very hot, and strongly impregnated with mineral substances, they are found of great virtue in rheumatic and eruptive diseases. Remains of other great cities may be found along the western shore; but the precise positions of Capernaum, Chorazin and Bethsaida, remain a subject of con troversy. In ascending to the high regions of the Upper Jordan, and turning some what to the westward, we find the town of Saffad or Saphet. It is not mentioned in Scripture, and occurs only in the apocryphal book of Tobit; nor is it till the time of the crusades that it begins to figure as a place of importance. Notwithstanding this comparatively late origin, the Jews, influenced by its being the seat of a famous university, and the burial place of some of their most learned rabbins, attach to it a degree of sanctity, sometimes exceeding that of Jerusalem itself. It has been supposed that 150 years ago, it was inhabited by 12,000 Jews. It became alse SYRIA. 737 principal seat of the power of Daher Omar, who founded there a Mahometan college. After this time it was much neglected, and Volney represents it as dwindled into an almost deserted hamlet. Burckhardt, however, found it containing 600 houses, built on several small hills, in a high and commanding situation. To the east of all these countries, is a territory less closely attached to Palestine; that of the Hauran, called anciently the country beyond Jordan, which insensibly partakes of the character of the Arabian desert, and becomes identified with it. For a considerable space, however, being traversed by Mount Gilead, it continues to be wll watered, and contains a great extent of ground well fitted either for culture or pasturage. At present it suffers severely from the ravages of the Arabs; but under the Roman sway, it appears to have been prosperous and flourishing. SYRIA. After passing the northern boundary of Palestine, we enter SYRIA, a great kingdom, equally famed in history, and presenting nearly a continuation of the same natural features: on one side of the Mediterranean coast extending north and west; the high mountain chains parallel to it; the fine intervening valleys; and the great desert boundary on the east. Syria cannot boast an equal breadth of level territory; it may be considered in this respect, almost a pyramid, of which Judea is the base. The mountains, however, are on a grander scale. Lebanon towers to a height unrivalled by any of the southern chains; its summit crowned with perpetual snows, its sides still presenting the remains of those majestic cedars, with which they were anciently covered. The plains of Syria, though narrower, are richer, and have been more highly cultivated; and more striking contrasts have thus been produced between the extremes of civilized and savage existence. Her cities have always outshone those of the neighboring countries; her capitals of Damascus and Antioch, have been the most brilliant; her marts of commerce, Tyre, Sidon, Aleppo, the most flourishing and wealthy of any in the west of Asia. Notwithstanding the strong natural barriers of Syria, she has always with difficulty maintained an independent political existence. The early kingdom of Damascus is best known to us by its wars with the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Being more'directly on the road- from-the Euphrates, it was absorbed earlier into the empires of Assyria and Babylon. Following its successive destinies, Syria, after the death of Alexander, attained, under one of the heirs of his divided empire, a separate though not a native government. The powerful and -warlike monarchy of the Seleucidoe endured until, after some brilliant efforts, and with some glory, it was absorbed in the wide-spread empire of Rome. Syria was reduced completely to the condition of a province; but it formed always the centre of the Roman power in Asia, and Antioch was considered the eastern capital of the empire. On the decay of Rome, Syria was early occupied by the Saracens; although, as subordinate to Palestine, immense efforts were made by the crusaders to wrest it out of their hands. Syria, however, never assumed any independent aspect, and at last fell wholly under the Mahometan dominion. For the last three centuries, it has continued subject to the Turks, except when agitated by the turbulent ambition of some -47 MOUNT SINAI —]MONASTERV X- I ~ --- — ~~-r~^ —~ -—.L _ _. I_ I~~~~~~~-~- -~ == —; —C I - 5~~~~~~~~~~ SEA 0F —------ GAILE l —---------- t~~~~~~~ —;;-=~S — --------- — ~ 740 TURRKEY IN ASIA. of the pachas. Real independence has been achieved only in a certain partial degree by some of the mountain tribes, alluded to as inhabiting the ruder recesses of Lebanon, and who there, even in the very bosom of despotism, secured by their valor the enjoyment of the realities as well as the forms of liberty. Syria, divided through its whole length by Lebanon, like a huge spine, is formed into two portions, entirely distinct; one bounded by the coast, the other by the desert. Both are narrow and fertile; they contain many great cities, both ancient and modern. Tyre and Antioch, in the maritime district, are preeminent among the: former; while, in modern times, the interior cities of Damascus and Aleppo have preserved, or acquired, a superior importance. A grand feature is the Orontes, which, rising near the southern extremity of Syria, flows behind Lebanon through its whole length, until it turns its northern point, and passes by Antioch into the sea. Perhaps, however, it injures the fertility of interior Syria, by receiving and conveying away all the waters which flow eastward from the mountain, and which otherwise might have spread out, and watered a considerable portion of the sandy desert. The little fishing town of Sour, or Tsour, is all that remains of ancient Tyre. Modern times have seen the dread sentence fulfilled, that the queen of nations should become a rock, on which fishermen were to dry their nets. The accomplishment of that doom, however, has been modern; for even in the time of the crusades it had some importance, and, what is singular, was distinguished for its zeal in the cause of Christianity. It was under Mahometan sway that its ruin was completed. Maundrell found it a mere Babel of broken walls, pillars, vaults, &c., without one entire house left. Only a few wretched fishermen harbored in the vaults, and plied their trade on the rocky coast. Of late, the governments, which had their seat at Beirorut and Acre, have made some efforts to revive Tyre. A few tolerable houses have been built for the offices of government; and some of the Maronites, Motoualis, and other inhabitants of the neighboring mountains, have been induced to settle there, and to undertake some trade. For this, scope is afforded by the grain, tobacco, and dried figs, which are grown in the flat and somewhat fertile district by which Tyre is surrounded. The grain is sent to the islands; the other articles find a market in Egypt. Even under this faint revival, however, Tyre presents no image that can recall the memory of its ancient magnificence. From Tyre we proceed northwards by a very flat plain, which becomes continually narrower till we arrive at Sidon, the sister city of Phoenicia, superior, it is said, in antiquity, yet second in greatness and fame. Though there is nothing corresponding to its ancient name, it has never suffered so total a downfall. A considerable trade is still maintained by the export of silk, and also of cotton, the spinning of which employs a considerable number of inhabitants. Sidon forms the principal port by which is carried on the maritime commerce of Damascus, from across the mountains. The vast moles, of which the ancient harbor was composed, are now entirely destroyed, though some of those huge stones which filled their entire breadth, may still be seen lying on the shore. Saide, like other Turkish towns, dirty and ill built, contains from 5,000 to 7,000 inhabitants. Northwards from Saide, the level plain of Phoenicia ceases. Lebanon, here towering to its loftiest height, throws down its branches to the sea, SYRIA. 741 between which only deep and narrow valleys intervene. This is the seat of the power of the Druses. Their capital, or, at least, the residence of their prince or emir, is at Dair-el-Kamar, merely an extensive rough village, with from 15,000 to 18,000 inhabitants, and a large serai or palace, which has no pretensions to elegance. Their most important town is Beirout, the ancient Berytus, now almost wholly in their possession. The mountains here enclose a fine plain, covered with mulberry trees, on which is reared the finest silk in Syria. Its export, and that of cotton, cause some trade at Beirout, and support a population which Volney and Jolliffe estimate at 6,000. The next place of any importance is Esbele, called by Europeans Gibele, or Djebail; names which recall at once the Byblos of the Greeks, and the Gebal, whose ancient inhabitants, according to Ezekiel, were the calkers of Tyre. This place was the chief seat of the worship of Adonis, whose beauty and tragical history gained for him so conspicuous a place in the classic mythology. About a mile from Esbele flows the Ibrim, the ancient Adonis, the periodical reddening of whose waters, " supposed with blood of Thammuz yearly wounded," gave occasion to a wild and fantastic Phoenician festival. The circuit of the walls, about a mile in extent, was traced by Pococke, as well as the remains of a beautiful church of the Corinthian order, which must have been built in the fourth or fifth century. Volney reckons 6,000 inhabitants. Behind Djebail is the hilly district of Kesrouan, a lower and extended branch of Lebanon, on which the Maronites have formed their establishment. Considerably in the interior, and far up the ascent of Lebanon itself, is the monastery of Kannobin, the residence of their patriarch. It consists merely of a number of grottoes cut in the rock, the largest of which has been excavated into a tolerably handsome chapel. Beneath rolls a river between two very high ridges of pine-covered mountains; so that the scene is awful and romantic. The ascending road becomes continually more wild and rugged, with numerous cascades dashing down the rocks; yet a few villages still occur, delightfully situated, and surrounded with groves of olive and mulberry. At length the inhabited part of Lebanon is terminated by a Carmelite convent, dedicated to St. Sergius, which, in summer, forms a cool and delightful retirement; but the rigors of winter compel the monks to remove to Tripoli. Although, however, human habitations be passed, the wonders of the mountain are not yet exhausted; for in a plain, enclosed by its highest summits, is found the small but precious remnants of the cedars of Lebanon. About fifteen large old trees alone survive of that mighty forest, which recalls so many sacred and poetical ideas. The trunks are ample, one of them measuring twenty-four feet in circumference; but they soon part into several limbs, which rise parallel to each other for some space, till they begin to extend horizontally. The foliage is wide-spreading, like that of the oak. The wood is fragrant and white, but not materially unlike common timber. The young cedars, which, with the old, form a grove of about a mile in circumference, appear to be quite of an inferior race, scarcely to be distinguished from the pines with which they are intermixed. Although the remnant be so small, yet Volney, in pronouncing the view to be wholly unworthy the fatigue of reaching it, appears rather insensible not only to the influence of associations, but to the magnificent scenery 742 TURKEY IN ASIA. which the traveler discovers on this route. An ascent of three hours from the cedars brings him to the snow-covered pinnacle, whence he discovers all the varied aspect of its mountain regions; the rich plains at its feet, and the distant shores of the Mediterranean. Before reaching this point, however, vegetation has expired, with the exception of a few stunted cypresses, which lose their spiral form, and, throwing out their branches sidewise, have the appearance of small oaks. Tripoli is supposed to contain 15,000 inhabitants, about a third of whom are Catholic Christians. It is one of the few Turkish towns which have any pretensions to neatness, the houses being in general tolerably built, and of good stone. It is said to have been originally founded by three successive colonies from Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus; whence the Greeks called it Tripoli, or three cities. Some of the lower branches of Lebanon approach, and enclose round it a triangular valley, covered with the finest gardens and fruit trees. The situation is thus not only beautiful, but happily formed to command the advantages of every climate. About forty miles north of Tripoli is Tortosa, or Tortousa, once a very strong city, showing still the remains of two walls half a mile in circumference, the inner of which is fifty feet high. It contains also a beautiful church of the Corinthian order. Nearly opposite to Tortosa is the island of Rouad, the ancient Aradus, the Arad of Scripture, whence Tyre is said to have drawn her mariners. It is a mere naked rock, in which the spring of water by which the inhabitants were anciently supplied can no longer be discovered; but its position protected it from the despotism of the princes on the continent, and drew to it a great number of inhabitants, to accommodate whom the houses were raised to a surprising height. Only a few strong masses of wall, and numerous cisterns cut in the rock, attest the former existence of this thriving commercial state. In crossing from Sidon to the plain of Damascus, the great mountain appears separated into two parallel portions, distinguished by the ancients as Libanus and Anti-Libanus. These enclose between them a broad valley, anciently called Ccelosyria, or the hollow Syria; by the moderps it is named the Valley of Beka. The reflection of the rocks and mountains renders it intensely hot; but it is extremely well watered, and yields abundantly either pasturage or grain, according to the industry of the occupants. Of late, Turkish oppression, and the inroads of the Arabs, have almost entirely annihilated the peaceful labors of the husbandman, and converted great tracts of this fine territory into a desert. This valley presents, however, one grand and important feature, the ruins of Baalbec. Baalbec is situated at the northern head of this great valley, near to where the two Lebanons, uniting together, close in above its termination. From a town of some importance, it has dwindled into a decayed village, containing not more than 1000 or 1200 inhabitants. But Baalbec is famous for a mass of classic ruins, which, those of Palmyra ecxepted, nothing in Asia can rival. At the very entrance of the town, lofty walls and rich columns indicate the site of an ancient temple. The principal gate, obstructed by stones and rubbish, enters into a court 180 feet in diameter, strewed with broken columns, mutilated capitals, and various fragments; around it is a row of ruined edifices which display all the ornaments of the richest architecture. At the end of this court, another gate introduces the spectator to the view of a still more extensive range of ruins. The court SYRIA. 743 nere is enclosed by chambers, seven of which may be reckoned in each of the principal wings. It is difficult to discover their use; but this does not diminish the admiration excited by the beauty of the pilasters, the richness of the entablature, the large foliage of the capitals, and the sculpture of wild plants with which they were ornamented. At the end of this court appears the grandest feature of the edifice: six lofty solitary columns, formerly the peristyle of the chief shrine, to which all the rest of this temple was only subordinate. The square marked out by their foundations is said to be 268 feet long, and 246 wide. The shafts of the columns are 58 feet high and 21 in circumference; their entire height 71 or 72 feet. The order is Corinthian, and the workmanship of the richest and most splendid description. To the left is a smaller temple; the walls of which, and the peristyle, composed of thirty-four columns, are still entire. After passing over trunks of columns, ruined walls, and other obstacles, the gate may be reached, and a view obtained of the interior, now roofless; but instead of the grand spectacle of a prostrate and adoring people, and of sacrifices offered by a multitude of priests, the light of heaven shows only a chaos of ruins covered with dust and weeds. Nature and barbarism have combined in demolishing this noble fabric. After traversing all the branches of Lebanon to the eastern border of Syria, we arrive at the noble plain of Damascus. The environs of this city rank as the paradise of the East. Ranges of hills, branching off from the high chains of Lebanon, enclose it, and pour down numerous waters, which unite in forming the boasted Abana and Pharpar of the ancients. These waters, indeed, cannot penetrate beyond the desert boundary on the east, where they are soon evaporated in a large lake; but before reaching it, they irrigate every portion of the plain and even of the city, and communicate to the former its matchless beauty and fertility. There is, perhaps, no city which has had a longer duration. From the earliest ages the existence of Damascus has been recorded, and always as a great capital. It is named in the history of Abraham; it is celebrated for its wars with the kings of Israel; it has survived all the variety of desolating revolutions which have passed over this part of Asia. Under the Turkish empire it has maintained a high importance, being on the route of the great caravans -to Mecca, whence even the Turks esteem it holy, and call it the "gate of the Caaba." This causes not only an immense resort, but a great trade, which the pilgrims are careful to combine with the pious objects of their journey. Damascus has lost the manufacture of sword-blades for which it was famous in the middle ages; but it has still considerable fabrics of silk and cotton; and the fruits of the neighboring plain, dried and prepared into sweetmeats, are sent to every part of Turkey. It is at present the most flourishing city in Syria; a distinction which it owes to the excellent character of several successive pachas, through whose exertions the whole of their territory has assumed an improved and cultivated aspect, which strongly contrasts with the desolate condition of that of Acre. Damascus is built of brick, and its streets are narrow and gloomy, like those of all other Turkish cities, the people reserving their magnificence for the interior courts and palaces. The great mosque, of which Europeans can obtain only stolen glances, is very splendid, and the bazaar has no rival in the East for convenience and beauty. Several of the streets have rivulets running through them, which afford plentifully the great eastern luxury of water. 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The delight of the Damascenes is to make excursions into the environs of the city, adorned with numberless gardens, and to the " plain of roses," covered with that beautiful flower in its utmost perfection. The Hebrew name of Damascus, or Demesk, is not now known to the Orientals, who call it Sham, or El Sham. The inhabitants, amounting to about 100,000, have a bad reputation in the East, where Sham Shoumi, " the wicked Damascene," has even passed into a proverb; but perhaps the alliteration may have had some share in promoting its currency. Almost all the remainder of the plain of Eastern Syria is watered by the Orontes, in its long course from south to north along the foot of Lebanon. Though it has not the brilliancy and beauty of that of Damascus, it is yet well fitted for grain and pasturage, and anciently produced them in abundance. In modern times, from its exposure to the plundering Arabs, against whom the government has not energy to defend it, it has been in a great measure abandoned. That we may visit Palmyra before quitting the Orontes, we must make an excursion into the depth of the Syrian desert, which extends far to the eastward. The traveler sets out from the small village of Hassia, to the south of Hems. He finds himself on a great naked plain, where the stunted shrubs afford but a scanty browsing to the antelope. At the distance, however, of every three or four hours of march, occur little villages, or rather clusters of huts, where rest may be obtained: Sodoud, Houarein, Karietein. From the last place Palmyra can be reached only by a march of twenty-four miles over an expanse of uninterrupted desert. When this weary route has been passed, the hills, which have hitherto run in parallel lines about ten miles distant from each other, close in, and form a narrow valley, traversed by a ruined aqueduct, and on whose sides appear a number of tombs. At length the valley opens, and the eye is struck with a most amazing extent of ruins, covering a wide expanse of the desert; behind which, towards the Euphrates, stretches a level waste, as far as the eye can reach, without any object manifesting either life or motion. In this surprising scene, the front view presents a range of Corinthian pillars, occupying a space of more than a mile, and behind which, crowds of other edifices appear in dim perspective. The grandest, and also the most entire structure, is that called the Temple of the Sun. The court of this temple has a wall nearly complete, in which appear twelve noble windows. Behind rise the ruins of the temple itself, almost wholly composed of magnificent ranges of Corinthian columns, supporting a rich entablature, which has, partially at least, resisted the injuries of time. The eastern gateway, on which all the resources of Grecian art have been lavished, is still in a tolerably perfect state. A noble arch, farther to the right, forms the commencement of a truly superb colonnade, which, even in its shattered and broken state, may be traced to the distance of 4000 feet. The vacuities left by the fallen columns open a view to the other ruins; and the remains of magnificent structures are seen through the intercolumniations. Sometimes a group of three or four columns, standing entire, indicates some grand edifice, of which they are all that is left. But besides these ruins, from which definite indications may be drawn, a vast number of scattered columns cover the plain, some with and some without their entablatures; SYRIA. 747 and the ground is everywhere strewed with broken pillars, scattered capitals, defaced sculptures, and large marble fragments, all lying prostrate in the dust. The early and high importance of Palmyra, or Tadmor, appears evidently derived from its being the channel by which Indian commodities passed across the desert to the countries of the west. Solomon, who occupied and enclosed it with strong walls, is reported as its founder; but was probably attracted by the wealth which commerce had already drawn to this desolate spot. The historical greatness of Palmyra, however, began only in the reign of Aurelian, when the spirited and high-minded Zenobia ventured to establish it as an independent kingdom, and to set at defiance the master of the Roman world. The issue of this daring attempt was fatal; Zenobia was carried in chains to Rome; and Palmyra never again recovered its prosperity. At present, beneath these hallowed monuments of a polished people are seen about thirty mud-walled cottages; the inhabitants of which, poor in the extreme, obtain a subsistence by cultivating a few detached spots, and feeding some flocks of goats and sheep. Two small tepid streams, impregnated with sulphur, which traverse the ruins, and are absorbed in the sand, might to ancient industry have afforded facilities for considerable culture. Another portion of Syria still remains, which has long been preeeminent over the rest in power and commerce. It constitutes the pachalic of Aleppo, a sort of division which we have not much regarded, but which here coincides with that formed by nature. The vast mountain chain which has hitherto crossed Syria from north to south, sinks gradually, until it entirely disappears; but the mighty range of Taurus, projecting from Asia Minor, and crossing towards the Euphrates, here forms the northern boundary of Syria. It leaves, however, an interval of luxuriant plains and groves, which long rendered this region the pride of Syria, and the chosen seat of pomp and pleasure. Antioch, both under the Greek kings and under the Roman dominion, was celebrated as the gay capital of the East. Under the Turkish government it has yielded precedence to a rival of later origin. Aleppo, the modern capital of Syria, is, as it were, only an outpost of that country, and half belongs to the desert. From a number of low hills, however, which surround the city at a few miles' distance, streams descend,. which water the chalky soil of the environs, and enable them to be formed into those beautiful gardens, with which the inhabitants of the East studiously surround their cities. Those of Aleppo are chiefly filled with fruit trees, of which the pistachio is the special boast. The city has some marks of antiquity, though none of them striking, and is usually supposed to be the ancient Bersea. It is built on several hills, above which are seen towering numerous minarets and domes which command a delightful prospect, especially to the eye fatigued with the monotony of the brown and parched plains that stretch around. Aleppo is generally accounted the third city in the Turkish empire, yielding only to Constantinople and Cairo. This greatness it owes to the vast extent of its inland trade, for which it is most favorably situated, in front of Syria, and in close vicinity to Asia Minor, Armenia, and Persia. It is also a rendezvous for pilgrims from all these countries to Mecca. Although it contains no grand monuments, nor even any very magnificent modern edifices, it is yet reckoned the neatest and best built of the Turkish 748 TURKEY IN ASIA. cities. At least its streets have those negative qualities which are almost all that can be expected ir an Eastern city. They are less narrow, less dirty, and the walls, built of a species of white stone, have not quite so gloomy an aspect. The society is also represented as displaying more of toleration and urbanity than that of other Mahometan cities. This may be chiefly owing to the many strangers, of all religions, who are attracted by its commerce; since the Christian population alone is reckoned at 31,000, and the Jewish at 5000. A violent principle of schism had, however, always subsisted between the janissaries on one side, and the pacha with his adherents on the other. While the Ottoman power remained entire, the latter easily maintained their predominance, and the discontent of the janissaries was vented, in occasional tumult or impotent growling. In 1804, however, after a somewhat bloody contest, they succeeded in making themselves masters of the city. Aleppo thus, like Algiers and Tunis, became subjected to the sway of a turbulent soldiery. It suffered, but not in an equal degree. The janissaries preserved a good police, and chiefly employed themselves in systematically extorting as much money as possible from the inhabitants. Each of the latter was obliged to purchase, at a high rate, the protection of a janissary, and having paid this price he was secure in the possession of his remaining property. On the night of the 13th of August, 1822, not only Aleppo itself, but every town and village in the pachalic, were shaken almost to pieces by an earthquake, which was felt from Diarbekir to Cyprus. The most appalling picture is drawn of the horrors of that dreadful night; the awful darkness, the quick repetition of the most violent shocks, the crash of falling walls, the shrieks, the groans, the accents of agony and despair, with which the city resounded. Twenty thousand persons are supposed to have been killed, and the same number bruised and maimed. Those who, amid falling houses, through heaps of rubbish, and stumbling over dead bodies, succeeded in reaching the open fields, found themselves destitute even of food and shelter. Exposed to a tropical sun and to nightly damps, and scantily fed, a large proportion became a prey to disease. Antioch, or Antakia the ancient queen of the East, is only a poor, illbuilt, little town, containing, according to Colonel Squire, not more than 11,000 inhabitants. This city was built by Antiochus and Seleucus Nicanor, and was the capital of the Grxeco-Syrian dynasty. Under Rome its wealth and distinction were still further augmented; and it became, at an early period, the seat of the most flourishing of the Christian churches. In the great crusading expedition, Antioch was the first place which fell into the hands of the Christians; and it continued a main centre of their power till 1269, when it was taken by Bibars, the sultan of Egypt. All the fury of Mahometan bigotry was then let loose upon a city long supposed a main bulwark of the Christian power. Its churches, accounted the finest in the world, were razed to the ground, and the site of those edifices, once the boast of Asia, can now with difficulty be traced. The environs of Antioch have been particularly famed for their luxuriant and romantic aspect. Indeed, the banks of the lower Orontes, for a considerable space, are said to equal any thing in the world in point of picturesque beauty. Mount Casius, the termination of Lebanon, towers above it to a very lofty height, and the inferior mountain ranges run along the river, presenting broken precipices, rocks, and caves overhung with a ASIA MINOR. 749 luxuriant variety of foliage; myrtle, laurel, fig, arbutus, and sycamore. Travelers have particularly sought the groves and fountains of Daphne, celebrated for the temple of Apollo, and the dissolute superstitions of pagan Antioch. The site is usually fixed about five miles from the city, on the road to Latakia, and on a spot where a number of fountains, bubbling out of the earth with a loud noise, terminate in two beautiful cascades which fall into the valley of the Orontes. Instead, however, of magnificent temples and stately groves, it exhibits only a few clay-built water-mills surrounded with dwarf myrtles. ASIA MINOR. ASIA MINOR, another of the great divisions of Asiatic Turkey, derives a deep interest from sources unconnected with the degraded race by which it is now ruled. Its physical features, indeed, are not on so sublime a scale, nor does its past history recall events so awful and solemn as those which distinguish the banks of the Jordon and the Orontes. Still, Mle scenes of nature which it presents are full of grandeur, and its antiquities are replete with historical interest. Asia Minor forms a large oblong peninsula, about 700 miles in length, and somewhat more than 400 in breadth. It is almost completely separated from the rest of Asia, not only by the sea, which surrounds the greater part of it, but by the almost impassable mountains and elevated wastes which closely bar the broad isthmus by which it is joined. The structure of this country is remarkable. Its interior is completely encompassed with a girdle of lofty mountains. They run parallel to the sea coast, sometimes closely approaching it, sometimes leaving intermediate plains and valleys of considerable extent. On the south runs the celebrated chain of Taurus, which extends across to the Euphrates, and was supposed by the ancients to intersect the whole of Asia. On the west it is continued by Timolus and Sipylus, and these lock in with the northern chaii, of which the most remarkable summits, are those of Ida and Olympus. These mountains enclose a vast interior hollow, which is, however, considerably elevated, and into which they pour almost all their waters. We must, indeed, except those of the east, which are conveyed by the Halys, the modern Kizil Irmak, into the Black sea; and part of the western waters, which find their way by the Sangarius into the same receptacle_ But Mr. Leake calculates that there is an interior space, of 250 miles in length and 150 in breadth, of whose copious waters no part finds its way to the sea. They terminate in a long chain of little saline lakes, and during the rainy season, cause wide inundations. It is even supposed, that at that period, the whole region would be laid under water, but for some elevated ridges by which it is penetrated. A territory covered with such profuse moisture would require a more industrious people than the Turks, to render it fit for the production of grain. It forms an immense range of pasture, over which are fed numerous flocks of sheep, droves of horses, and in the hilly tracts, herds of goats; while the inhabitants lead nearly the same irregular and nomadic life which prevails among the Tartar hordes. The part of Asia Minor which intervenes between the mountains and the sea, presents a smiling aspect. This is particularly the case with the western tracts of the peninsula. The Cayster, the Caicus, the Meander and 750 TURKEY IN ASIA. the Hermus, roll through enchanted valleys stored with the richest gifts of nature. Taurus, on the south, presses closer upon the sea; but it still leaves ranges of finely watered, though not extended, valleys. On the northern shores, also, which extends along the Euxine, the interval between the mountains and the sea is often very narrow; though the plains of Sinope, of Amisus, and of Trebisond have been the seat of great and powerful kingdoms. They are marked, however, rather by the substantial productions of grain and pasturage, and in the mountains by the useful minerals of copper and iron, than by the gay fruits and smiling luxuriance of the south and west. In history, the interesting transactions connected with Asia Minor have been so numerous and varied, that we can attempt only a very rapid enumeration. The first picture is that of its nation, when arrayed against Greece in the Trojan war. Trov, in that great contest, drew auxiliaries from Caria, Lycia, Mysia, Phrygia, and Mpeon a, so that it became almost a contest of Greece and Asia. Even the Gieek pencil of Homer seems to delineate on the Asiatic side a people more polished and humane, though less energetic and warlike, than their invaders. Afterwards in the republics of the refined and effeminate Ionia, we find an early perfection of the sciences, poetry, music and sculpture, then unknown to Greece, though that country, in arts as well as in arms, soon eclipsed the glory of its masters. Here, too, the kingdom of Lydia was early famous, first for power, but much more afterwards for wealth and luxurious effeminacy. These unwarlike states soon yielded to the arms of Persia, were included within its empire, and their arts and resources served only to swell the pomp of its satraps. In this humiliating situation, they lost all their former high attainments; and it became of little importance that they passed sometimes under the sway of Athens, and were ruled by Greeks instead of barbarians. After the conquest of Alexander, however, and when his rapidly formed empire fell so suddenly to pieces, some of the most conspicuous among the fragments were kingdoms established by his successors in Asia Minor. It was there that Antigonus and Demetrius collected a great portion of the resources with which they made such a mighty struggle for the supremacy among the Macedonian chiefs, After their fall, the kingdom of Pergamus was founded, whose princes by their own ability, and the alliance of the Romans, became for some time the most powerful in Asia. Their glory, however, was surpassed by that of a kingdom formed in the opposite quarter of the peninsula, that of Pontus, by the powerful character and high exploits of Mithridates, under whom the last stand was nmade for the independence of the world, which with him finally sunk. Asia Minor was reduced completely into a Roman province, and made few and feeble attempts to shake off the yoke. It was chiefly distinguished in ecclesiastical history by the formation of apostolic churches, and the assemblage of general councils; of which those of Nice and Chalcedon, in particular, had an important influence on the belief and worship of the Christian world. Protected by its distance from Arabia, and by the mountain chains of Taurus, this peninsula escaped in a great measure the tide of Saracen invasion. That great succession of hordes, however, who, under the appellation of Toorks or Turks, poured down from the north-east of Asia, after conquering Persia, crossed the Euphrates, and established a powerful kingdom in Caramania. Being divided, and crushed under the first successes of the. ASIA MINOR. 751 crusaders, the Turkish power sunk into a languishing and almost expiring state. Suddenly, however, from its ashes, rose the family of Othman, who, collecting the Turkish remnant, and combining it with the neighboring warlike tribes, allured or compelled to this standard, formed the whole into a vast military mass, which there was no longer any thing adequate to oppose. This power continued to have its principal seat in Asia Minor, until Mahomet II. transferred to the Ottoman Porte the dominion of the Caesars, and made Constantinople the capital of his empire. The ancient Celicia, now the pachalic of Adana, consists of two districts; the mountain range, composed of some of the most lofty and rugged branches of Taurus; and the level tract, composed of the two considerable and extremely fruitful plains of Adana and of Taurus. Adana, situated on the Sihoon, the ancient Sarus, is a very ancient capital, and still a flourishing town, surrounded by extensive cotton plantations, tolerably built, and presents, in testimony of its former magnificence, some walls and a magnificent gateway. Its situation is agreeable, on a declivity above the river, which is larger than the Cydnus, and enclosed by fruit trees and vineyards. Tarsus retains its name and its position on the Cydnus; but Mr. Kinnier sought in vain for any monuments corresponding to its great name. The materials of all its ancient structures seems to have been taken down to build the modern city, which has thus a neater appearance than is very usual in Turkey; but as these fine hewn stones are merely built into houses of one story high, the place has no air of magnificence. Tarsus was not only the capital of Cilicia, but, under the auspices of Rome, rose to be one of the principal cities of the empire, both for wealth and for the cultivation of science and literature. It may be recollected as being the birth place of St. Paul; and there is still an ancient church which bears his name. Tarsus continues a populous and stirring place. Its population, as well as that of Adana, is estimated at about 30,000 each; to a great part of whom, however, these cities afford only winter quarters. The Turcoman shepherds, who, in summer, pasture their flocks on the heights of Taurus, during the rigorous season seek shelter for them in the rich plains around these cities. That of Adana, is of exuberant fecundity, and, being tolerably cultivated, yields wheat, barley, sesame, and cotton, not only for home use, but in large quantities for exportation. To these are added copper from the northern districts, and gall-nuts from the mountains. The returns are taken in coffee, rice, sugar, and hardware. Tarsus, however, is seven or eight miles from the sea. At the western boundary of Cilicia, begins the coast of Pamphylia, to which the moderns gave the name of Caramania, from an early Turkish kingdom formed upon the coast, of which Karaman, in the interior was the capital. This tract consist of a succession of valleys separated by ridges that branch from the lofty heights of Taurus. These valleys, though often narrow, are usually watered by fine streams, and very fertile. The ridges often terminate by presenting to the sea, in the boldest and most picturesque forms, lofty perpendicular cliffs of limestone or marble. Looking from Kelendri, on the opposite side of a small bay, a grand feature presents itself in Cape Anemour, the most southerly point of Asia Minor, presenting to the Mediterranean a bold, and on one side inaccessible cliff., The other side is secured by a castle, and a double range of lofty walls, within which are the remains of the ancient Anemuria. It appears 752 TURKEY IN ASIA. to have been considerable; but scarcely a block or fragment of marble re mains. Only the abodes of the dead remain entire, exhibiting a remarkable proof of the durability of their materials, compared to those which formed the habitations of the living. These tombs, many of which display considerable magnificence, have all been opened; but their walls are still standing. The spot is entirely deserted; but about six miles distant is the modern castle of Anemour, a large edifice, now going to ruin. Winding round the interior of a deep and circuitous bay, we find at its eastern head Macri. This town, having an excellent harbor, is employed by the government as its medium of communication with Egypt. It exports firewood to that country; timber, tar, cattle and salt to Rhodes. It is, however, rendered extremely unhealthy by an almost constant malaria, arising partly from the damps of ancient edifices, partly from its situation, in a pit, as it were, amidst overhanging mountains which produce confined air and frequent chilling breezes. Nothing can exceed, in gloomy grandeur, the aspect of this part of Asia Minor, presenting and unbroken range of mountains, the tops of which are covered with perpetual snow. iNear Macri are the ruins of the ancient Telmessus, which rank with the grandest and most perfect of any in Asia Minor, and have been de scribed by Dr. Clarke in a manner peculiarly careful and interesting. The first object which strikes the spectator from the sea, consists of the remains of a spacious theatre built on the side of a mountain, to whose shelving sides the structure was adapted. Several of its portals are yet standing, of enormous magnitude, and built of stones eight or ten feet long, put together without any cement. Dr. Clarke observes, that " in the plans of Grecian architects, the vast operations of nature were rendered subservient to works of art; for the mountains on which they built their theatres, possessed naturally a theatrical form, and towering behind them, exhibited a continuation of the immense koilon which contained the seats for the spectators, giving a prodigious dignity to their appearance. Everything at Telmessus is Cyclopean; a certain vastness of proportion, as in the walls of Tirinthus or of Crotona, excites a degree of admiration mingled with awe; and this may be said to characterize the vestiges of the Dorian style all over Asia Minor." Peculiar care has here been taken in adorning the tombs both with sculpture and architecture. The greater have both their interior chambers and the columns in front excavated out of the solid rock; and the stones are joined together so nicely, as to make it almost impossible to discover the entrance. Other tombs represent the Grecian sbros, consisting of huge single stones pitched often on the summits of high rocks. As we approach the confines of Ionia and the western coast, the monuments of antiquity become more numerous and striking. The two deep bays of Symi and Cos, which follow almost immediately after that of Marmorice, are nearly unexplored by the moderns. At Cape Crio, however, the point of separation between them, are found the extensive ruins of Cnidus. No Greek city is said to present more varied specimens of ancient architecture; and in none has the work of destruction been more active. The whole area of the city is one promiscuous mass of ruins, amongst which are numbered three theatres, one of them 400 feet in diameter; several temples, many tombs, and some superb fragments of sculpture. The white marble steps of one of the theatres may still be ArSA MINOR. 753 found buried under the grass and bushes, and near it are the fragments of a Corinthian temple of the same materials. The remains of two artificial harbors, formed by long piers projecting into the sea, may still be traced. At the head of the Gulf of Cos is Melasso, rather a considerable modern town, the residence of an aga, though ill built; but it is distinguished as occupying the site of Mylasa, once a capital of Caria. The temples of this city were in ancient times so numerous, that a crier, entering the market-place, instead of the usual exclamation, "Hear, ye people!" called out, " Hear, ye temples! " They are now almost entirely demolished; and of one very fine portico, of the Composite order which was found by Pococke, there remained in Chandler's time, only the basement. The tombs are extremely numerous, and some are of peculiar structure. About ten miles to the south-east, Eskihissar, a poor modern village, stands on the site of Stratonicea. Lower down the same gulf, to many parts of which it gives its own name, is Boodroom, on the site of Halicarnassus. It is still a considerable Turkish cruising port, with a modern castle and palace that possess strength and magnificence. There are no remains at all entire, except that of a theatre overhanging the town; but the attentive eye of the traveler soon discovers numerous fragments indicative of the former existence of a magnificent city. A traveler of the sixteenth century asserts that he saw some vestiges of the mausoleum of Artemisia; aud the exquisite beauty of several of the fragments now transferred to modern buildings seems to characterize them as having belonged to some celebrated structure. Friezes inserted into the walls of the castle have been considered as specimens of sculpture equal to those of the Parthenon. Turning the head of the bay of Boodroom, we find on a smaller bay, Asyn Kalesi, the ancient Jassus, marked by many monuments, chiefly sepulchral. Across a broad neck of land, on the Latonian Gulf, travelers sought, but have scarcely found, the still more celebrated site of Miletus. On the opposite side of the same gulf is the village of Palatsha, the con siderable ruins adjoining whose beautiful site have been supposed by Spon and others to be those of Miletus; but a different opinion now prevails. We have reached the finest and most celebrated region of Asia Minor; at the mouth of the Meander, whose winding stream waters the most extended and fertile of all the vales of Ionia. At every step we ascend occur the remains of magnificent cities. Those of Magnesia, on the Meander, are usually supposed to be found at Guzelhissar, itself a large town, and the Turkish capital of this district. It is about four miles in circumference, built on a hill which commands an extensive and beautiful view over the valley of the Meander, reaching downward as far as the sea. Even the city itself, though composed of the usual Turkish materials, presents considerable beauty in its exterior aspect, containing numerous courts and gardens, filled with orange and cypress trees, whose foliage mingles with its lofty minarets; the streets are broader and better disposed than usual in Turkey. Laodicea is situated on a hill of dry, hard porous earth, which resounds under the feet; at the base of which flows the Lycus, a tributary of the Meander. It was founded by Antiochus, but did not rise to high importance 48 754 TURKEY IN ASIA. until under the Roman empire, and about the Christian era. It presents, in shattered profusion, all the monuments which gave grandeur to a Grecian- city; and its columns appear to have been formed of the most precious materials. These remains cover the whole surface enclosed within the walls. At present the desertion is complete: there is neither house, church, nor mosque; a fox passing from behind a wall was found by Di. Chandler the only inhabitant of Laodicea.'On the opposite side, and nearer the Meander, is Hierapolis, whose mineral baths were formerly so celebrated. The mountain'above it has been completely petrified by the streams flowing down its sides, which have given it, when seen from a distance, the appearance of chalk, and, on a nearer view, that of an immense frozen cascade. The incrustation is alkaline, without taste or smell, and effervesces with acids. The ruins are extensive; a very beautiful and perfect theatre, the marble seats of which are still standing; two large churches; and, as might be expected, most ample and magnificent baths, composed of marble, combined with the petrified substances, and formed above into huge vaults, the appearance of which is almost awful. Ephesus, once the pride of Asia, is now represented by Ayasaluk, a poor village, of a few cottages, fallen even from what it once was as a Mahometan town. This is attested by a large castle and mosque, containing beautiful stones enriched with the finest sculpture: the traveler soon discovers, however, that these are not Ephesus, but fragments taken from its ruins. At the distance of half a mile, the traces of the city may be clearly recognised. The stadium, now converted into a corn-field, the theatre, the odeon, and the gymnasium, may all be distinguished in outline, and their area is strewed with fine fragments. There is a particular part of the entablature of a Corinthian temple, delineated by M. Choisel Gouffier, which, in the richness and variety of its ornaments, as well as their fine execution, has, perhaps, never been surpassed. But it is not without difficulty, and even doubt, that he can determine the spot where stood that proud boast of antiquity, the temple sacred to Diana of the Ephesians. All that constituted the splendor of this edifice; its columns, of which 127 were the gifts of kings; its works of art, comprising the masterpieces of Apelles and Praxiteles, have disappeared. After the temple had been repeatedly pillaged by the barbarians, Justinian removed the columns to adorn the church of St. Sophi:X at Constantinople. It can now be identified only by the marshy spot olh which it was erected, and by the prodigious extent and magnitude of the arches raised above as a foundation. The vaults formed by them compose a sort of labyrinth, and pure water is knee-deep underneath. There is not an apartment entire; but thick walls, shafts of columns, and fragments of every kind, are confusedly scattered. Smyrna, the modern capital of Asia Minor, and emporium of the Levant, presents almost the only remnant of that prosperity which was once so widely diffused. The situation is such that Smyrna could scarcely fail to be a flourishing place. It has a fine bay, with good anchorage, a secure and capacious harbor, and behind, a plain watered by the Meles, which produces abundantly fruits and vegetables. Although Smyrna be not placed in any of the great western valleys, it is so near, and in so central a position with respect to them all, that it can easily draw from them every valuable product. With so advantageous a site, this city rose early to ASIA MINOR. 755 eminence. Its first boast was to have given birth to Homer, and it was received, though somewhat late, into the Ionian confederacy. It was destroyed by the Lydians, but, having been rebuilt by Antigonus, rose then to its highest prosperity; so that Strabo pronounces it the most beautiful city of Asia. This praise it owed particularly to its gymnasium, its temple dedicated to Homer, and the general elegance and arrangement of its streets. Of the ancient edifices which stood on the hill above the city, only the ground plan can now be traced, the whole materials having been removed for the purpose of building the modern Smyrna, which extends along the bay four miles in length, and one in breadth. Its groves and minarets make a magnificent appearance from the sea; and the hill, though stripped of its classic edifices, has still a large Genoese castle on its summit. Within are gloomy walls, narrow and ill-paved streets; but the houses along the shore are very delightful, having gardens stretching down to the water, and summer-houses at their verge. The city is liable to earthquakes, which, unless in 1739, have caused more fear than injury; and, what is worse, the plague seldom allows a year to pass without committing serious ravages. The population has been estimated from 100,0-00 to,120,000, of whom 30,000 are supposed to be Greeks, and 8,000 Armenians. Upwards of 2,000 Europeans, chiefly French, are settled here for the Levant trade, and form a numerous society within themselves, which enlivens the gloom peculiar to a Turkish city. The exports of Smyrna are those of Asia Minor; raw silk, cotton, carpets, mohair, raisins, drugs, and a few precious stones. The returns are chiefly in wrought silk, woolens, tin, lead, and glass. Passing round the Gulf of Adramyti, with a small town of the same name at its head, we enter on a scene adorned by nature and art, and surpassing in fame any of the splendid regions of Asia Minor. This is the "campi ubi Iroja fuit,"-an interesting and mysterious subject; on which, in recent times, volumes have been written. Such a controversy would evidently be beyond our limits. It is soon obvious that all the grand outlines of nature, as delineated by Homer, remain unaltered. The island of Tenedos, the neighboring straits of the Hellespont, the plain traversed by several small and rapid rivers; and behind the lofty summits of Ida and the rugged steeps of Gargarus-these still form the characteristic features of the Troad. The details are involved in much greater perplexity. Perhaps, in regard to these, Homer may have been less exact, and may have taken such liberties as suited the objects of his poem. In a plain often inundated, considerable changes of surface and boundary may probably have taken place; and the parties in controversy have assumed the right of supposing such as might best accord with their hypotheses. The leading data given by Homer are, the Scamander rising almost under the walls of Troy, from two fountains, one hot, the other cold; the Simois afterwards flowing into it from the right; a plain between the Scamander and the Simois; and Troy from a height overlooking that plain. The actual features are, the Mendereb, a considerable mountain stream, which rises, however, as Dr. Clarke has shown, not near any possible site of Troy, but forty miles up the country, amid the heights of Ida. It receives, on the left, a rivulet from the height of Bonarbashi, the site of some hot springs, and several remarkable tombs; on the other, a small sluggish stream, called the Kallifat Osmack. A larger one, the Ghiumbrek, runs parallel to it on 756 TURKEY IN ASIA. this side, but falls into the sea. The first hypothesis was that of Chevalier, according to whom Bonarbashi is the site of Troy, and the stream flow ing from it the Scamander. He thus obtained for the site of the city a hill, the fountains, several large tumuli, and other ancient remains. Dr. Clarke, however, having clearly proved the Mendereh to be much the greater stream, and bearing still the ancient name, rejected the rivulet of Bonarbashi as unworthy of notice. The Simois appeared to him to be found in the Killifat Osmack, which has a course of fifteen miles, and a tolerable body of water, but a slow current: floods, however, might render it " the rapid Simois." Between these rivers is the village of Tchiblak, which may, he conceives, have been the site of Troy. A late ingenious writer has sought to fix the Simois in the Ghiumbrek, supposed then to have fallen into the Mendereh, though its course is now changed. The intervening plain would afford ample room for the contending armies, and such as no other hypothesis presents; while within its circuit is a spot on which Troy stood. Mr. Leake, again, has revived the almost forgotten hypothesis of Chevalier. He imagines that the Bonarbashi, in consequence of coming from Troy, was honored with the principal name, while the Mendereh, above the junction, was considered merely as a tributary. In its height, in the two fountains, and in every other particular, it will then correspond to the description of Homer. Dr. Clarke scaled the heights of Ida, where he found the most rugged and romantic scenery, and obtained from its summit a splendid view over a great part of Asia Minor. In the interior, on a fine plain, he found the village of Aene, recalling the name of 3Eneas; and Beyramitch, a populous town, the modern capital of the Troad. Below, opposite to Tenedos, ap pear the remains of Alexandria Troas, built by Antigonus and Lysimachus in honor of Alexander. Even at the present time, when it has been robbed of most of its ornaments to enrich Constantinople, all the splendid appendages of a Greek city are traced on a great scale; Gymnasium, aqueduct, theatre, baths, and a very fine building, erroneously called the palace of Priam, the marble of which appears to have been covered with a coating of metal. We now enter the narrow strait of the Hellespont (the modern Dardanelles), forming the entrance into the Propontis or Sea of Marmora. The passage is defended by two opposite forts, called the Castles of Asia; a little to the north of which are the remains of the ancient cities of Sestos and Abydos, rendered famous by the tragic loves of Hero and Leander. As the Propontis approaches its eastern boundary, it shoots up the long and narrow Gulf of Moudania, about fifteen miles inland from which, to the south, is Boursa, or Brusa, the ancient Prusa, capital first of Bithynia, and afterwards, for a short time, of the Turkish empire, till the conquest of Constantinople, when the seat of government was transferred thither. Boursa is still a great and flourishing city, containing probably not fewer than 60,000 inhabitants. Its situation is noble, in a plain 20 miles in length, covered with magnificent forests, behind which, to the south, rise the snowy pinnacles of Olympus. The air is considered by Browne as very salubrious, with which quality, however, the ravages committed by the plague during Mr. Kinneir's residence seem ill to accord. The ancient structures have been entirely taken down, and reconstructed in the shape of modern mosques, which amounts, it is said, to the number of 365, and some of them ASIA MINOR. 757 are very splendid. The ordinary houses are of wood; the steets very narrow, but clean; the Boursa is altogether a very fine Turkish city. Cloths are extensively manufactured out of the excellent silk and cotton produced in the neighborhood; and a constant intercourse is carried on with Smyrna and Aleppo. These manufactures are chiefly in the hands of the Armenians, who inhabit the city to the number of 7000. Moudania, which is situated on the gulf of that name, and may be termed the seaport of Boursa, is a town built of wood, inhabited chiefly by Greek sailors. Passing the Bosphorus, or channel of Constantinople, we reach the Black Sea and the coast of the ancient Bithynia. It is described as a romantic and beautiful country, intersected with lofty mountains and fertile valleys; rich in fruits and wine, and abounding in noble forests. Through this region the Sakaria, the ancient Sangarius, after traversing a great extent of the high interior plains, rolls a full and rapid stream into the gulf of Erekli. A great part of its lower course is through a gloomy and intricate defile, bordered on each side by rugged perpendicular precipices. To the east of this river the country becomes very lofty, and presents an aspect like that of Sweden, being covered with noble pine trees, above which rise the snowy tops of the mountains. These rugged and gloomy tracts enclose a large plain, in the heart of which lies Boli, the ancient Hadrianopolis, now a poor town of about 1,000 houses and twelve mosques; noted for the mineral baths in its vicinity. Proceeding eastward, we enter the ancient Paphlagonia, an elevated, rude, and naked region, with detached cultivated spots, but chiefly occupied by the pastoral tribes. The commerce is carried on by Amasserah, formerly Amastris; by Gydros, once Cytorus; by Ineboli; Inichi; but above all by Sinope. This celebrated capital of Pontus, and emporium of the Euxine, though destitute of its former wealth and extensive fisheries, retains still a population of 5,000 souls, carrying on an export trade in rice, fruits, and raw hides. Docks for the imperial navy are also maintained there, though no longer on a great scale. The modern metropolis of all this country, however, is Kostamboul, or Kastamouni, situated about thirty miles in the interior, in a bare dreary region, bounded on the south by the lofty ridges of Olgassus, one of the highest parts of the great encircling chain. It contains about 15,000 Turkish and 3,000 Greek inhabitants, thirty mosques, and numerous baths. On a high perpendicular rock, in the centre, is a ruinous castle, that once belonged to the Comneni. The ancient kingdom of Pontus consists, in a great measure, of a very flat plain along the searshore, in many places highly cultivated; in others, the streams, unable to reach the sea, spread into swamps and morasses. About- thirty miles east of Samsoun, the Yeshil Irmak, the ancient Iris, pours into the sea nearly as large a body of water as the Kizil Irmak, though after a much shorter course. A little beyond is the Thermodon, now called Termeh, only famous as the spot on which history or fable has placed the female warriors memorable under the name of Amazons. Farther on, a fine wooded ridge, which has formed a vast amphitheatre round the plain of Pontus, approaches the sea at Unieh, the ancient.Enos, a dirty wooden town, most beautifully situated, and carrying on a thriving trade in cotton stuffs, fruit, and wine from the interior. To the east, through a rugged and difficult country, is Keresoun, the ancient Cerasus, a town of 700 houses, with a ruinous aspect; and Tereboli (Tripolis), about half this irlr:,ri& ~";" —''-~~-~_ —~ i i~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ii,Ir.:~ ~-~~ f —c I — ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ 3c-~ _-~.....; --- _. ~' —~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ——.- ~ — -~ —~'. —-~.'~ ~Iz, l / ~~~~~~~~~~~ _~2 —-~~ — - _-l' T- _ ~~~~- _- -— = -— I —- -,-~-~~ -~~~~~~~~~~~ - r=;~;~LZe-I ~ ANTIOCX~~= —-- ANCIENT CITY. —---- — L ----------—:-i -— ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —-- ~~~~~ —.;~~~~~~. -=====r;=_~~~~~~~~~-=_~~~~-~~_~~= ——, --- — ~~~~~~~~ 760 TURKEY IN ASIA. size, but in better condition. At length we arrive at Trebisond, the ancient capital of the Comneni, and the chief emporium of this part of Asia Minor. Xenophon called it Trapezus, from the oblong form which it still retains. The houses are built of stone, but are as usual crowded and gloomy. The lofty ancient ramparts, also built of stone, extend along two deep ravines, by which the city is defended; and considerable ruins show the site of the place. The inhabitants are estimated at about 50,000, consisting of all the races that inhabit Turkey, mixed with the more varied tribes from the Caucasus. They carry on considerable trade in fruit and wine, and in silk and cotton stuffs of their own manufacture. The high and wide expanse of interior Asia Minor is the most extensive, though by no means the finest or most productive portion. The general character is that of a high bare table-land, begirt with lofty ridges of mountains. Being for the most part destitute of trees, it has a naked aspect. Though capable of successful cultivation, the indolence of the natives, and the insecurity of property, prevent the raising of any adequate supply of grain. On the banks of all the rivers, however, are rich pastures, which, with the open country in general, are occupied by the nomadic tribes called Turkmans, whose habits are almost wholly Tartar. They are subject to little princes, who, according to circumstances, do or do not pay a small tribute to the Porte; and, according to immemorial Scythian usage, combine their pastoral pursuits with that of plundering the unprotected traveler. Interior Asia Minor may be divided, though without any precise demarcation into two portions, western and eastern. The former comprises the wide range of the ancient Phrygia, with the smaller bordering districts of Galatia on the north, and Lycaonia on the south. In modern times it is divided between Anatolia and Caramania, forming the interior of both. The eastern division consists of the ancient Cappadocia, now the pachalic of Sivas, or Sebaste, reaching almost to the Euphrates. The western division contains several large cities. Kutaiah, reckoned the capital, is situated amid the mountains which give rise to the rivers of Ionia; and the whole country around forms the vast mass of those mountains. Even in its decay, the population, amounting to between 50,000 and 60,000, of whom 10,000 are Armenians, carry on a lucrative trade. The houses are large, built on the model of those of Constantinople; and the streets adorned with many handsome fountains. There are fifty mosques, thirty public baths for the use of the people, and twenty large khans for the reception of travelers. About fifty miles to the north is Eskishehr situated on two rivers that fall into the Sakaria. Around it is an extensive arid plain, the same on which Sultan Soliman was defeated by Godfrey of Bouillon. It was the ancient Dorylaeum, celebrated for its warm baths, of which an ancient one, adorned with columns of jasper, still remains; it is so hot as to be intolerable for more than two or three minutes. The modern town is of considerable extent, but the houses are poor and ruinous. On the other side, about sixty miles due south from Kutaiah, is Afium Kara Hissar. It is placed at the western limit of the great chain of Taurus, called here Kalder Dag, and is a large city, containing about 12,000 families, almost entirely Turkish, who are extensively engaged in the manufacture of black felt, and the culture and preparation of opium; both of which form articles of export. ASIA MINOR. 761 The great road through Asia Minor runs now in a direction nearly south-east towards the southern coast. On this route is Akshehrv (the white city), the ancient Antiochia ad Pisidiam, at the foot of Taurus, whence cold winds blow, and torrents rush down upon the city; yet it contains 1,500 houses, is adorned with many beautiful gardens, and with a mosque and college consecrated to the memory of Bajazet. Farther on is Ladik, the ancient Laodicea Combusta; but this is now a poor mud village, presenting only some fragments of marble columns, which the Turks have converted into tombstones. Proceeding on this route, and approaching, the southern line of mountains, the traveler reaches Konieh, long one of the grand scenes of Turkish magnificence. It was Iconium, the capital of Lycaonia; but its splendor dates from the period when it became the residence of the powerful and warlike sultans of Roum; which it continued to be till that kingdom sunk beneath the arms of the Tartars. Konieh still displays superb specimens of all the edifices that constitute Turkish grandeur; mosques, colleges, baths, gradually crumbling into ruins. There are twelve large and above 100 small mosques: those of Sultan Selim and Sheik Ibrahim are spacious and magnificent structures; the marble gates also of the Capan Madressa and other old colleges, richly adorned with fretwork and entablature, afford some of the finest specimens extant of Moorish architecture. The ruins of the ancient Greek city, however, had contributed largely towards its ornament. Among these, Mr. Kinneir remarked a colossal statue of Hercules, which appeared to him fully equal to any ancient sculpture he had ever seen. The modern city, destitute of commerce, is built of wretched brick huts, and is not supposed to contain above 30,000 inhabitants. In the heart of Phrygia, and nearly in the centre of Asia Minor, is a considerable city, Angora, the ancient Ancyra, capital of Galatia. The surrounding pachalic consists of a vast plain, abounding in fruits and pasturage, but scantily supplied with grain. It is covered with Turkmans, from whose roving hordes the Porte in vain attempts to exact even any regular tribute. Their principal chief can muster, it is said, 30,000 horsemen under his banner. The most curious product of this region is the Angora goat, the hair of which rivals silk in fineness. This beautiful animal thrives only within a limited tract to the westward of the Halys, immediately beyond which it degenerates. The city crowns a range of small eminences, one of which, having on its summit the now ruinous castle, resembles the castle rock of Edinburg, being perpendicular on three of its sides. The foundations and fragments of great ancient edifices may still be traced, but nothing more. / The eastern interior of Asia Minor does not materially differ in its aspect from the western: it consists of wide plains, bare of trees and grain, but rich in' pasturage. Subject to its roving tenats, the Turkmans, the frontier districts are also exposed to inroads from the Kurds, a fierce people, whom we find in their native seats on the upper Tigris. The people of Cappadocia were considered by the ancients as rude, stupid, and uninformed; but distinguished as rearing a breed of excellent horses: they still retain their reputation in both respects. *Arund61 has shown tha:t the site of Apamea is to be found at Decnare; and that of Antioch at YaJobat. The ruins at Ashkehr are those of Phi!ovnelium. 762 TURKEY IN ASIA. The finest city in this part of Asia is Tokat, about forty miles to the north-west of Sivas, rising in the form of an amphitheatre round the banks of the Yeshil Irmak. Vessels of copper are here made to a great extent, from the mines in the neighborhood; to which is added the manufacture of blue morocco and of silk stuffs. It is the great channel of the inland commerce of Asia Minor, communicating by caravans with Diarbekir and with Smyrna, and sending others to Boursa and Sinope. These resources support a population of 60,000, among whom, as in all the commercial cities, the Armenians form a large proportion. Proceeding seventy miles in the same direction, the traveler reaches Amasia, romantically situated on the banks of the same river, which here flows in a narrow valley enclosed between rocky mountains. The surrounding country is finely wooded, and produces excellent silk. Changing our direction to the south-west, after a course of eighteen miles we arrive at Uskut or Ooscat, a city raised to celebrity in modern times by the residence of the powerful chief, Paswan Oglu. He long maintained an independent dominion over all the east of Asia Minor, which was greatly improved under his auspices. His palace occupied an immense space in the middle of the town; and though the exterior presented, as usual, only a mass of dead wall, the apartments were richly furnished, and profusely adorned with painting and gilding. The place was then supposed to contain 16,000 inhabitants, chiefly Turks; but since the death of this chief, and the fall of his house, it has probably sustained a considerable diminution. Nearly due south from Uskut, at the foot of the stupendous and snow-capped mountain of Argish, stands Kaissaria, capital of ancient Cappadocia, and called then Mazaca; but the name was changed to Caesarea, in honor. of Tiberius. When sacked by Sapor, it was supposed to contain 400,000 souls. It still flourishes by the product and export of cotton, which occupies within a very narrow circuit a population of 25,000. At the close of August, 1835, 2,000 houses were destroyed by an earthquake, which injured, destroyed, or swallowed up, a great number of villages in the neighborhood. To complete the picture of Asia Minor, we have still to survey its isles, once celebrated for wealth, beauty, and power, now reduced to a more complete state of desolation than even the continent. CYPRUS, interposed between Syria and Phoenicia, is the most extensive, and was in ancient times the most beautiful, as well as the most voluptuous. It is 140 miles in length, by 63 in breadth. The Cypriotes boast that the produce of every land and climate will flourish on their soil in the highest perfection. Its wheat is of superior quality, and notwithstanding the imperfect cultivation, a' good deal is exported. Wine, however, may be considered as the staple product. The grapes contain the richest and most luscious juice of any in the world; and the wines made from them are peculiarly famed for their generous and restorative qualities. Its fruits are also delicious, particularly the orange and apricot; and game is abundant. All these gifts of nature, however, are rendered abortive by the deplorable system under which the island is at present governed. The inhabitants, two-thirds of whom are Greeks, are considered just objects for oppression of every kind. The governor, who resides at Nicosia, is changed every year; and, having obtained his place by purchase, is impelled to indemnify and enrich himself by every form of extortion. Thus, Cyprus, from a fertile and ASIA MINOR. 763 populous island, has been reduced nearly to a desert, not containing more than 60,000 or 70,000 inhabitants, and even these are sensibly diminishing. Such was the case, even before the Greek insurrection had afforded the pretext for letting loose upon this unfortunate island a horde of banditti, who exercised on anunresisting people every form of plunder and cruelty. Till then, Cyprus retained still a remnant of what was rich and beautiful in its ancient aspect. Its females still display that finest model of the Grecian form and features, for which they were anciently celebrated. These charms they seek to heighten by artificial and often meretricious decoration; and their conduct often accords but too well with the ancient ideas, which represented Venus as born on this coast, and as choosing Paphos for her favorite shrine. They still carry on the staple Turkish manufactures of leather, carpets, and cotton; all of great excellence, the colors being particularly fine and durable. Nicosia, chief of the cities of Cyprus, is situated in the centre of the island, in a noble plain, bounded by lofty mountains. Its fortifications appeared to Dr. Clarke the grandest he had ever seen; and their extent and solidity, with the domes and minarets rising amid the trees, give it an air of grandeur which, in Mr. Kinneir's apprehension, even Shiraz cannot rival. These fortifications are neglected, and indeed would not now be of much value, since the place is commanded by neighboring hills. The church of St. Sophia, a very ancient Gothic structure, retains its magnificence; but the palace of Lusignan is almost entirely in ruin. The place contains about four thousand families, of whom half are Christian, divided between the Greek and Maronite churches. They carry on the three manufactures above mentioned, and are also engaged in the collection of medals and other antiquities, of which the neighborhood is full. Larnica, on the southern coast, is the seat of Cypriote commerce, and the residence of the consuls from the different European powers. The ancient harbor is choked up; but the roadstead is good, and there is a considerable traffic carried on with Malta, Egypt, and Smyrna, by Levantine ships under English colors. The inhabitants amount to 3,000, chiefly Greeks. A neighboring cape, still called Chitti, exhibits the ruined fragments of the ancient Citium. Famagosta, the capital, held by the Venetians till it yielded to the arms of Selim, shows its former grandeur by a number of old churches, and by a handsome palace, now partly converted into a mosque. Cerina and Baffo (Paphos), though only villages, are the most agreeable parts of the island, particularly the latter, distinguished by ancient fable as the birthplace and residence of the goddess of love. Another island, still more celebrated in antiquity, and still more completely fallen, is RHODES. It was at an early period renowned as a commercial power; but its existence as a great republic commenced under the successors of Alexander. It then alone asserted that independence which had been lost by the other Grecian states; extended its commerce to the most distant regions; and rivalled the splendor and power of the greatest kings. Demetrius, the first captain of the age, not only exhausted against it all the ordinary resources of war, but invented the helepolis, an immense machine, to batter its formidable walls. IHe was completely baffled, and suffered before Rhodes the wreck of his military fortunes. Even when this island was merged in the Roman empire, her commercial code was adopted by that wise people; and she acquired in after-times a high 764 TURKEY IN ASIA. military glory, when the knights of St. John, expelled from the Holy Land, made Rhodes one of their last retreats, where they long baffled the arms of Mahomet and Solyman. Of all these glories the Turkish sway has obliterated almost every vestige. The city of Rhodes presents no longer a fragment of its colossus, one of the wonders of the world, or any trace of the numerous fine edifices with which it had been adorned by the taste and wealth of its inhabitants. It exhibits only some massy Gothic churches converted into mosques; and contains within about a fourth of its former area a population of about 5,000 Turks and 1,000 Jews; for, in consequence, probably, of the jealousy inspired by its former obstinate resistance, no Christian is allowed to reside within the walls. The Greeks occupy, however, almost all the remainder of the island, but are not supposed to exceed fourteen thousand in number. Rhodes enjoys a delightful climate, the heats being cooled by the lofty mountain of Artemira, which rises in the centre, and is covered with those noble forests of pine, out of which the Rhodian navy was anciently constructed, and which are still conveyed in large quantities to the arsenals at Constantinople. The lower hills still produce a little of that wine, so much celebrated for its delicate perfume by the ancient writers. Industry and cultivation, however, are now nearly extinct, and Rhodes is obliged to import corn from Caramania. Proceeding in our circuit of the coasts of Asia, we find Stanco, the ancient Cos, the birth-place of Hippocrates and Apelles, and producing, in abundance, that stone which serves as a whetstone; Stampalia, Amorgo, Patmos, where St. John wrote the Apocalypse. Samos, a larger and more important island, which gave birth to Pythagoras, has been always celebrated for its industry, of which striking antique vestiges remain. Scio had become a great centre of that intellectual regeneration at which the Greeks lately aimed. A college had been established, to which resorted the youth of opulent families from every quarter of Greece, and which could number many eminent professors and scholars. All this prosperity and these fair prospects were in one day destroyed. A landing having been effected by part of the fleet from Hydra and Samos, the Sciotes made a general rising in the cause of liberty. Unfortunately, their habits had been those not only of peace, but of effeminacy; while their shores, unlike those of Samos, presented no barrier against invasion. They were unable, therefore, either, to stop or resist the hordes of Asia, who poured across the narrow strait which separates Scio from the continent. The immediate consequence was, not a fight, but a dreadful and general massacre; the unfortunate Sciotes fleeing for shelter to the ships or to the rocky caves in the interior. Only a few escaped; 25,000 are supposed to have perished. For the survivors was reserved a fate, if possible, worse than death; the whole, including opulent citizens and ladies of high rank, being bound, and put on board the ships, to be sold as slaves in the mar kets of Smyrna; and Scio became at once a desert. Mytilene, or Metelin, the ancient Lesbos, of voluptuous and poetic fame, the country of Sappho and Alcoeus, in later times gave birth to that daring piratical chief Barbarossa. At present it is in great decay, though still supporting a populationoof 40,000, half of whom are Greeks. These it maintains by the trade in oil, of which are exported 50,000 quintals, not, however, of very superior quality. Tenedos is a small rocky island, chiefly PROVINCES ON THE EUPHRATES. 765 memorable from the position in which it stands with regard to the plain of Troy. It derives also some maritime importance from its proximity to the entrance of the Dardanelles; and it produces a wine more highly esteemed than any other in the Archipelago. PROVINCES ON THE EUPHRATES. The provinces on the Euphrates have been one of the least secure appendages of the Turkish empire. Besides forming a sort of debateable ground with Persia, and being beset on all sides by fierce and independent tribes, they have presented, in their remoteness and the difficulties of approach, a strong incentive for the usual ambition of the pachas to assume independent power. Although they possess a still greater name in history than the more western divisions, they do not attest it by the same magnificent monuments. No Greek or Roman kingdom ever possessed such a firm hold of this region as to rear on it structures marked by that high architecture and those durable materials which elsewhere excite the admiration of the world. The palaces of Nineveh, of Babylon, and of Bagdad, were composed of earth and brick, and have crumbled into dust. Nature, however, retains all her grandeur and original fertility, and presents her features of mountain, river, and plain, on a vaster scale, though not, perhaps, under such happy and beautiful combinations, as on the shores of Syria and Ionia. We need scarcely name the great empires, which established their seat in the plain between the Tigris and the Euphrates. Nineveh, the earliest, and Babylon, perhaps the most splendid in history, erected here their vast capitals, and endeavored to reduce the world to subjection. They did not, however, nearly equal the extent of that established by the caliphs of Bagdad, which during its brief existence connected the remotest extremities of Africa, Asia, and Europe. Internal dissension, and the tide of Turkish and Tartar invasion, had reduced it to a mere shadow, before Hulaku made himself master of, Bagdad. This event extinguished the lustre of this region as a seat of empire and power, and converted it into a mere frontier and provincial dstrict, in a great measure laid waste and neglected. It has since been viewed by the contending powers of Persia and Turkey rather as an outer bulwark of'their respective dominions, than an integral or valuable portion of them. Armenia is one of the most ancient kingdoms of Asia, and has almost always maintained a respectable and even independent rank. Though on the route, as it were, of all the great conquering potentates, its inaccessible site prevented it from being entirely absorbed by any one of them. They merely passed by, demanding tribute and military aid, and allowed it to be governed by its native kings. Only once, under Tigranes, Armenia came forward a conquering power, and its career might have been prolonged, had it not encountered the disciplined legions of Rome, led by Lucullus and Pompey, who soon reduced it to the rank of their humblest tributaries. When Parthia set bounds, however, to the Roman arms, her rivalry enabled Armenia again to rear its head; and amid all the subsequent revolutions, it preserved a native government, until it was finally reduced into a pachalic by the Turkish power. A part, however, was severed, and appropriated by Persia. 766 TURKEY IN ASIA. Crossing to the eastern bank of the Tigris, we find ourselves in the rude and mountainous region of Koordistan, occupied by the proudest, fiercest, and most predatory race of all who infest the Turkish dominions. They inhabit castles rather than cities; but Betlis, on the northern frontier, forms a sort of capital. This city is built on a number of narrow ravines, branching out from a perpendicular rock in the centre, on which the castle is erected. The streets are steep, but the houses are well built of hewn stone, surrounded by gardens, and each so constructed as to form a sort of petty fortress. The city is well supplied with fruits and provisions; but few merchants venture on the perilous tracts which lead to and from this mountain capital. Although Betlis is nominally in the pachalic of Moosh, the real power is possessed by the Khan of the Koords, the descendant of a long line of feudal princes. About fifty miles to the south is Sert, the ancient Tigranocerta, so named from Tigranes, who made it the capital of his short-lived empire. At present Sert is a large mountain village, where each house is a castle, surrounded by a wall, and even a moat. These chiefs resemble the ancient heads of the Scottish clans: they possess the power of life and death over their vassals, whom, however they treat with kindness and familiarity, and are regarded with reverence and affection. They feel unbounded pride in their pedigree, which they trace back to the age of Noah, cherish a rooted attachment to their native soil, and a hatred of strangers, towards whom they observe neither faith nor humanity. Descending from these heights, we come to the great plain between the two rivers called at present Algezira, and by the ancients Assyria and Mesopotamia. Though partly rocky and sandy, it is in general capable of being rendered productive; but being in many places occupied by the Arabs, and in others exposed to the inroads of the Kurds, less cultivation is bestowed upon it than on the mountain valleys to the north. Mousul or Mosul, the capital, is a large, ancient, gloomy-looking town, in a state of sensible decline. It contains about 35,000 inhabitants, with the remains of some fine Arabic structures; and carries on a little trade. On the opposite or eastern side of the Tigris, the village of Nunia appears to occupy a part of the vast circuit of the ancient Nineveh. The only monuments are mounds of earth, nearly a mile in circumference, similar to those of Babylon, though not nearly so lofty or so perfect. A rampart may still be traced some miles in circumference, surrounded by a fosse, and covered with grass, which gives it the appearance of one of the old Roman entrenchments. On a vast plain to the east was fought the battle of Arbela, in which the fate of the Persian empire was finally decided. Mosul, with a territory of two miles round it, has been formed into a pachalic by itself. Between Anna on one side, and the ruined fortress of Tekrit on the other, the rivers approach to within fifty, and sometimes twenty-five miles of each other, enclosing between them that magnificent plain called, successively, Babylon, Chaldea, Mesopotamia, and now Irak Arabi. As it is completely a flat surface, and the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, during the wet season, rise to a level with it, the irrigation of the whole region is practicable, and during its prosperous era was completely effected. Hence arose an extensive and luxuriant fertily, which was rivalled only by the Delta of Egypt, and rendered it the early seat of wealth and civilization. Even under Persian dominion a tribute was drawn from it equal to a third of that paid by all the rest of Asia. At present, the luxuriant harvests PROVINCES ON THE EUPHRATES. 767 which once covered this plain have entirely failed, for want of the simple processes necessary to produce them. The inundated banks of the rivers are overgrown with impenetrable brushwood; the interior, deprived of the canals which formerly watered it, is reduced almost to the level of the bordering deserts. " The humble tent of the Arab now occupies the spot formerly adorned with the palaces of kings; and his flocks procure a scanty pittance of food, amid the fallen fragments, of ancient magnificence." Notwithstanding, however, the desolation to which this region is now consigned, the traveler still eagerly seeks in it the trace of those mighty capitals, which, both in the ancient and middle ages, gave to it a lustre unrivalled by any other part of the world. Of these, Bagdad alone retains any actual existence, and is still a large city, the metropolis of the extensive pachalic which bears its name. It exhibits, however, scarcely any remnant of the gay and romantic splendor of the court of the caliphs. Not even a vestige of their palace remains; and the same may be said of most of the costly edifices with which they embellished Bagdad, when it was the capital of the Mahometan world. The chief monuments of that period are the gates and towers, which, even in decay, far surpass any of modern erection. To these may be added the tomb of Zobeide, with one or two colleges and minarets. Almost all that is modern of Bagdad is mean, and foreign to the ideas which the name excites. The streets are so narrow that two horsemen can scarcely pass; and the bazaars, though containing accommodation for a very extensive trade, are by no means handsomely fitted.up. Bagdad, since its capture by Hulaku, in 1258, which finally extinguished the caliphate, has passed through many viscissitudes. Being the greatest of the debateable subjects between the empires of Persia and Turkey, the most strenuous efforts of both were exerted for its possession. From Bagdad, we proceed by a direct line almost due south to the Euphrates, in search of Babylon, a spot to which recollection gives an almost unrivalled interest. Here, over a space extending five or six miles in every direction, are spread the undoubted remains of that ancient " glory of nations," which none of the proud capitals of the ancient world ever rivalled in magnitude and the grandeur of its structures; and which is rendered still more imposing by the awful antiquity to which its origin ascends. It owed its foundation, or a least its splendor, to Semiramis, whose era is that of the formation of the first of the great empires. Large additions were made, particularly by Nebuchadnezzar; and Babylon was thus the work of successive ages; but we have now no means of tracing the share taken by each in its erection and embellishment. The walls, according to Herodotus, were sixty miles in circumference, and, by the most moderate reports, at least forty-five. They were 365 feet high, and so broad that six chariots might drive abreast along the top. The form of the city was that of a regular square, with twenty-five gates on each side; and the streets ran in straight lines from gate to gate. Among the structures three were preeminent, and ranked among the wonders of the world. One was the palace, eight miles in circumference, enclosed within three successive walls, the interior of which was covered with paintings. Near it was the second wonder, that of the hanging gardens. These were raised, it is said, by Nebuchadnezzar, to gratify a Median spouse, accustomed to the bold scenery of her native country, and disgusted with the tame uniformity of the Babylonian plain. Having undertaken to transport thither the landscapes 768 TURKEY IN ASIA. of her own land, he raised masses of huge extent, supported by arches upon arches, and covered with deep earth, which not only produced plants and flowers, but presented a range of wooded steeps, similar to those in the mountains of Media. Thirdly, the gigantic tower of Babel, or Belus, was a still more celebrated structure, respecting which tradition, fable, and history are strangely blended. Though dedicated by the Babylonian kings to an idolatrous worship, it traces its first origin to a much earlier period, when men, intoxicated by their first successful achievements, formed the daring project of an edifice reaching to the skies. Converted into the shrine of Belus, it was adorned by colossal images and statues of solid gold, the value of which has been rated by Herodotus, doubtless much too high, at 5000 talents, or ~21,000,000 sterling. Equally exaggerated has been its reputed height, which some Jewish authorities fix at twelve miles, and even Jerome quotes contemporary authority for its being fobur miles high. These ridiculous estimates give way before the sober testimony of Strabo, who states the height at a stadium, or 660 English feet, exceeding only a little that of the highest pyramid. Even after the downfall of Babylon as the capital of an empire, it continued to be the most splendid city in Asia. Alexander was strongly attached to it, and, if he had lived, would, perhaps, have made it his residence. The gradations of its utter decay are not distinctly traced by history. It seems to have been slow, as the powers which held sway in this neighborhood chose other positions in the vicinity for their seats of empire. The kings of Syria chose Seleucia; the Parthians, Ctesiphon; the Saracens, Bagdkd; and each, according to the custom of the East, sought to aggrandise his favorite city by transporting to it the inhabitants of Babylon, and the materials out of which it was built. Babylon is at present the scene of utter desolation: -" The wild beasts of the forest lie there; the dragons howl in her pleasant palaces." Yet even now, after so many ages of desolation, and after so many great capitals have been built out of its ruins,, enough remains to attest the fidelity of those who described it as the greatest capital of the ancient world; "' the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency." Its mighty structures, indeed, are resolved nearly into their original elements: instead of walls and towers, we see only confused heaps of earth, bricks, and rubbish; but these are piled almost in mountain masses; and, seen afar along the Mesopotamian plain, proclaim still the wonders of a distant age. The banks of the Tigris, down to its junction, cannot boast a single village; butto the west of the Euphrates, and even in the desert, occur several remarkable places. Meshed Ali was founded by Alexander; but its fame in the East rests on its being, as its name imports, the tomb of Ali, the great Mahometan prophet. This tomb forms a handsome structure in the centre of the city; and infidels are forbidden on pain of death to enter its walls. An elegant dome which surrounds it was gilded by order of Nadir Shah. It is supported by a constant influx of pilgrims, and by the number of Persians of rank, whose bodies are transported from the most distant quarters to be interred in this holy ground. Between Meshed Ali and the river is Koufa, a place of such antiquity that, from it the Arabic characters have been termed Koufic, or Cufic. It was enlarged by Omar, who made it the residence of the caliphs; but after the transference to Bagdad, it fell soon into decay. At present there remains little more than ARABIA. 769 the mosque where Ali was assassinated; a plain building, which the Mahometans, however, hol4 in peculiar veneration. Both banks of the Euphrates are here possessed by Arab tribes, among whom the most powerful is that of Montefidge, which can bring four thousand horse into the field. Among them are some of the finest specimens of the Arabian breed. The Euphrates and the Tigris, after having for so long a space enclosed this majestic plain in their parallel course, unite a little below the village of Coma. The combined stream receives the name of Shat-ul-Arab, and presents still some remnant of the fertility of the plain of Babylon, its banks abounding with grain, dates, and a variety of other fruits. On this branch is situated Bassora, or Bussora, a great city, which absorbs nearly all the foreign commerce of Persia and the Euphrates. It is seven miles in circumference, a great part of which space is laid out in gardens and plantations; and intersected by canals navigable for small vessels. Its most important trade, being that with India, is carried on partly by British, but chiefly by Arabian vessels, of which those of 500 tons burden can ascend the river to this point. The inhabitants are estimated at 60,000; a heterogeneous mixture of Arabs, Turks, Indians, Persians, and all the people of the East. ARABIA. ARABIA forms an extensive country, or rather region of Asia. It is a peninsula comprising nearly the whole southwest portion of that great quarter of the globe. The boundaries of Arabia are, on the west, the Red Sea, called also the Arabian Gulf, which separates it from the opposite coast of Africa. On the south it has the Indian Ocean, part of which separates it from Berbera. As the coast changes its direction, it has still for some time this ocean on the east, opposite to the distant shores of Malabar: but this great sea is soon narrowed into the Persian Gulf, which divides Arabia from the south of Persia. A line drawn from the head of the Persian Gulf to the head of the Arabian Gulf, would seem the natural boundary of Arabia, were it not for the vast desert which stretches to the northward, and is of a character so decidedly Arabian, that it has always been referred to that part of Asia..This wilderness forms a gulf, as it were, between two of the finest portions of the continent-Syria and Palestine on the west; and the once great empires of Babylon and Assyria, now sunk into the Turkish pachalic of Bagdad, on the east. This tract of Arabia, continually narrowing to the northward, is finally closed at an angle, as it were, by the lofty mountain heads of the Euphrates and the Tigris. The boundaries of this vast region are somewhat imperfectly defined, especially towards the north; but if we close it, as seems reasonable, about Palmyra and Anna, we shall then have a length from north to south of somewhat more than 1500 miles. The greatest breadth across from Mecca is not less than 1200 miles; but this is narrowed by the Persian Gulf to 49 770 ARABIA. little more than half that dimension, and gradually diminishes to the north ward. With these dimensions, under such a climate, and in a position so central, Arabia would have been the finest country'of Asia, had it possessed one essential element, that of water. Deprived of this, it has, for the most part, ever borne the character of desert, for which its very name has become proverbial. There are, however, some brilliant exceptions, particularly the country of Yemen, which has been called the happy Arabia; but in general, over all the vast expanse, naked rocks and arid sands predominate. In all Arabia scarcely a river can be said to exist. Torrents alone are seen dashing down the rocks; and, after diffusing verdure over a valley of small extent, are absorbed in the sand. They seem never so copious as to form any thing that can properly be called a lake. Arabia, in common with the whole extent of Northern Africa, Persia, and Western India, possesses the camel and the dromedary, to which travellers also add lynxes, jackals, hyenas, monkeys, jerboas, and various panthers. The Arabian horses are known to be the finest in the world; but the idea that they ae found wild in the deserts, as asserted by the old writers, is now justly exploded. Major Smith is of opinion, that this noble animal was aboriginal in Great Tartary. In no country is he more esteemed, or are his faculties in consequence more developed, than in Arabia. The wandering Arab of the desert places his highest felicity in his horses, and is so attached to them, that they are more his companions than his servants. An Arabian will generally carry his master from eighteen to twenty leagues in the day. They perspire little, and possess, in the most eminent degree, the qualities of endurance, vigor and admirable temper. In taking a retrospective view of former periods of Arabian history, we find reason for surprise at the little change that has taken place in the social life and manners of the people. By the aid of Scripture, we are enabled to ascend to a period long anterior to the commencement of ordinary record; and in the patriarchal ages, we find a mode of existence precisely similar to that of a modern Arabian sheik. In the Ishmaelites and Midianites, on the.borders of the desert, we find the same combination of plunder and traffic which has ever since formed the occupation of the countrymen. The borders of the desert, however, where it merges into the fertile territory, became ultimately the seat of several demi-Arabian states, which attained to considerable power and even opulence. Foremost among these were Ammon, Moab and Edom or Idumea; countries which, besides their other advantages, appear to have been enriched by a portion of the transit trade with India. The most brilliant and distinguished part of Arabia, however, was that designated " The Happy," and called Sabsea, and in Scripture Sheba. Adding to its own productions the myrrh and balsams, of the opposite coast of Berbera, it seems also to have been a depot for the gold, spices, and other precious commodities of India and tropical Africa, which appear even to have been often considered by the ancients as its native products. The Arabs, indeed, of this and of the eastern coast of Oman, appear to have always been the most active mercantile navigators of the Eastern seas. Thus, during the whole of that long era which belongs to ancient history, Arabia preserved its interior pastoral state, while its relations with foreign nations were confined to commerce and to petty marauding. It also: ARABIA. 771 preserved its independence unaffected by those great events which changed the fate of the surrounding nations. It was not until the seventh century of the Christian era, that, after a singular revolution, it came forth with a mighty sweep to change the destinies of the world. The decline of the Roman empire, the corruption and distractions of the Eastern church, all favored the impulse given by a fierce and warlike fanaticism. Mahomet, after being for years an exile and a fugitive, at length succeeded in uniting under his standard all the nomadic and warlike tribes of central Arabia. In less than fifty years, that standard waved triumphant from the Straits of Gibraltar to the hitherto unconquered regions beyond the Oxus. Wherever it came, it stamped on mankind a new character,dark, gloomy, severe,-combining a hard austerity with a voluptuous indulgence, and, except in some transient instances, hostile to all the improvements of arts and science. The caliphs who first succeeded Mahomet, and ruled the most extensive empire on the globe, still retained the rude simplicity of the Arab pastoral life, with the ascetic self-denial of saints and religious teachers. The messenger who brought to Omar the tidings of the capture of Alexandria, found him sleeping among the beggars on the steps of the temple of Mecca. The wealth, however, which flowed in from every quarter, soon produced their usual effect of exciting a taste for pomp and pleasure. The court of the caliph acquired an almost magic splendor; while poetry and the sciences, regarded with contempt and horror by the earliest of these militant apostles, were raised -to the highest pitch under the patronage of Haroun al Raschid and Almamoun. By that time, however, the rude rocks and desert sands of Arabia, had ceased to be regarded as a fit residence for the opulent commanders of the faithful. They had transferred their residence to Bagdad, within the old and favorite seat of empire, on the rich Mesopotamian plain. Thus left to herself, Arabia seems to bave resumed her natural and original character, even-long' before the court of Bagdad had been swept away by the torrent of Tartar invasion. Arabia was thus again detached from other countries, and restored to her pristine state of rude and roving freedom. Her coast, however, suffered severely from the extended domination of the Turks, who two centuries ago had occupied its western ports as far as Mocha, and established a system destructive of the commercial prosperity which they had so long enjoyed. The decline of that empire, first felt in its extremities, enabled the Arabian sheiks to regain their independence. A fresh fermentation, similar to the former, during the last contury agitated the interior of Arabia. A prophet of obscure birth, Abdul Wahab, appeared about 1720, and drew numerous followers. His first aim seems to have been, to eftect a reform in the Mahometan religion, to remove the traditions which had been engrafted upon it, and to prevent divine honors from being paid to any human object, even to Mahomet. Ultimately, perhaps, he has only, by becoming a prophet himself, added one to its superstitions. He does not appear in the first instance to have contemplated the diffusion of his tenets by force. But Ibn Saoud or Sehoud, a young and warlike prince, inspired either by religious proselytism or political ambition, not only espoused the Wahabite tenets, but undertook by the sword, to compel mankind to embrace them. Successively conquering and incorporating the little surrounding communities, he at length united under him WELL, WITH CAMELS. PILG~~~~~-I=tIS TO i~EC-ECMM t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~= 774 ARABIA. all the warnors of the Nedsjed, the central and purest seat of the Arabian manners. He made himself master of the sacred cities of Mecca and 5Medina; and, extending his conquests, threatened at once Mocha, Cairo and Damascus. Perhaps he and his successors might have established a new empire over the East, had they not been encountered by the kindred enerergies of Mohammed the Pacha of Egypt. That chief, directing with equal vigor more regular resources and more disciplined troops, proved an overmatch for the militant apostles of the desert. He drove them from RMecca and Medina, and obliged them to sign a humiliating treaty. Ibrahim, his son, pursued them down to Deraiye, the capital, which he took, making prisoner Abdallah, the son of Saoud, who was conveyed to Constantinople and put to death. A situation so remote, however, girt with so wide a circle of desert, rendered it impossible to extirpate the Wahabites, who watch probably a more favorable moment, if such should arise, for another invasion of the more favored regions by which they are on every side surrounded. Arabia is, and has been from the earliest ages, ruled by a number of princes and petty lords, independent of each other, and exercising within their own territory a sort of supreme independent power, founded on patriarchal principles. The sway of the father of a family, the first source of subordination among men, is that of which the influence is still most strongly felt among the Arabs. Each little community is considered as a family, the head of which exercises paternal authority over the rest. These, in the course of succession or migration, are split into several branches, that still form one tribe, without being dependent on each other; but their genealogies are carefully counted, and the representative of the senior branch is always regarded with a high degree of respect and deference. The republican form, which originated in the bosom of cities, has never been known or even attempted in Arabia; but a certain form of confederation is made by the election of a great sheik or "' sheik of sheiks," +w-ho holds the supremacy. This dignity belongs to a certain family, but out of that family the election is made by the inferior sheiks, from general favor or the opinion of merit. This sway, however, can never be said to assume a feudal aspect, or enable him to summon the other chiefs as vassals. Each, entrenched in his rocky castle, or roaming with his camels and flocks over the expanse of the desert, holds himself independent of every human power. Individual followers, however, are always ready to flock in considerable numbers to the standard of some successful warrior, who promises either daring adventure or rich booty. Hence it is no difficult matter to collect some thousands of freebooters, sufficient to lay under contribution all who pass by the route near which they hover. On that between Egypt and Palestine, the borders of Syria, and the tract along the Euphrates, large moving encampments continually pass to and fro, observing the progress of the traveller and the caravan, and ready to avail themselves of any favorable juncture. In the interior among the Bedoween camps, this warlike temper vents itself in almost perpetual petty conflicts with each other. Twice only, men of powerful and aspiring genius have succeeded in uniting together these multitudinous tribes, who then formed armies which the mightiest kingdoms of Asia attempted in vain to resist. These eruptions, however, were only transient, and even that of the followers of Mahomet, though it altered the aspect of the rest of the world, left Arabia itself al most wholly unchanged. ARABIA. 775 The Arabs, notwithstanding their natural disadvantages and their wandering life, display in some quarters considerable industry in cultivation, particularly in turning to account the scanty rills with which their valleys are refreshed. In Yemen, the contrivances for this purpose are elaborate and extensive. Terraces are formed, and dikes constructed to retain the waters, which are also raised from wells by the labor of the hand, to irrigate the fields; for the use of water-wheels, which answer this purpose with so much more ease and effect, has never been imported from Egypt. But the most interesting culture of these upland tracts consists in the coffee tree, which has now become a necessary of life over a great portion of the civilized globe. This plant grows at a considerable height, where it can be well watered and enjoy even a measure of coolness; to promote which, it is often fenced round with other trees. The date is extensively produced, and forms a great part of the food of the people. If the vegetable culture of Arabia be thus scanty, its natives, a race wholly pastoral and wandering, have cultivated with care and success the breed of the nobler species of animals. The horse of Arabia, as to swiftness and beauty, enjoys a higher reputation than any other species in the world. This, as already observed, is maintained by an almost fantastic attention to their birth and training. The camel, which seems created expressly for the soft soil and thirsty plains of Arabia, is indigenous to that country, and seems to have been transported thence to the wide tracts, of similar character, which cover so great a part of northern Africa. Even the ass is here of a very superior breed, tall and handsome, generally preferred for travelling to those proud steeds which, reserved for state and for war, cannot be subjected to any species of drudgery. Manufactures can scarcely be said to exist, with the exception of some quite common fabrics for domestic use. But for commerce Arabia enjoyed an early celebrity, of which only faint traces are now to be found. At all periods anterior to the discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, the greater part of the rich commodities of India were transported either up the Red Sea, or across Arabia from the Persian Gulf. The desert glittered with pearls and gems; and majestic cities, that lie now in ruins, arose amid the waste. Now that the whole of this trade has taken a different channel, the maritime commerce is almost wholly limited to the export of coffee, in exchange for the manufactures of Hindostan. Besides this maritime trade, the pilgrimage to Mecca forms a commercial tie between the remotest extremities of the African and Asiatic continents; for the numerous devotees, who, from every part of the Mahometan world, resort thither, scruple not to combine with their pious object a good deal of profane traffic, which is made at least to pay the expense of the journey. The social existence of the Arabs, is, in one respect, remarkably interesting, as it presents, almost unaltered, an image of what human society was in the earliest ages. The whole going out and in of the patriarchs, their feelings and habits, as described in the book of Genesis, are found unchanged in the tent of the Arabian sheik. A recluse and monotonous life, in the midst of the desert, distant from great cities, and from all the scenes where rivalry and the eager pursuit of pleasure inspire the spirit of a change, has left the veneration of ancestry, and the love of antique habits to operate in full force. The Arabs are of small size, spare, and even meagre. They are less 776 ARABIA. distinguished by strength than by extreme agility. Few nations surpass them in horsemanship, and they are alike intrepid and skillful in the management of the bow, th.e javelin, and latterly of the musket, since its manifest superiority has introduced that weapon. Their complexion is sallow; a defect which some endeavor to cover by staining their whole body of a brownish yellow color with the juice of the plant henna. The dress of the.Arabians is, in its outline, extremely simple, though set off, among the rich, with ornaments somewhat varied and fantastic. A piece of linen over the shoulder, another round the middle, a girdle, with a jambea knife, form the attire of ordinary Arabs during the day, and their bed-clothes when asleep. Some wear only drawers and a shirt. Their sandals, sometimes of wood, cover merely the soles of the feet. The head-dress is the part on which they bestow a lavish profusion of covering and ornament, regardless of comfort, convenience, or any adaptation to the climate. Persons of fashion wear often as many as fifteen caps, piled one above another, and some of thick cloth. This mass is surmounted with one very splendid cap, embroidered with gold, and having always a sentence of the Koran worked into it. A muslin turban is then wrapped round the whole, the ends of which, flowing loosely upon the shoulders, are ornamented with gold and silver fringes. The chiefs of the desert are deeply imbued with aristocratic feelings, and dwell on their high descent with a pride as lofty as ever prevailed in feudal Europe. This dignity is the more flattering, as it is never conferred or withdrawn at the will of any monarch. It is founded on ideas thoroughly rooted in the mind of the nation, who, like the Highland clans, view every sheik as the natural head of a race so ancient that its origin is traced back for thousands of years. A sheik of an ancient Arabian family would not exchange his title for that of sultan. Another hereditary Arabian dignity is that of sheriffe, or descendant of iMahomet, marked by the nearly exclusive privilege of wearing a green turban. This is a distinction of a different class, more widely diffused, and descending often to the poorest among the people. When the green turban is worn by the head of an ancient tribe, it denotes the highest dignity that can exist in Arabia. Such are the twelve families of the Koreish, who can establish by undoubted proof their descent from the immediate office-bearers under Mahomet. In general, however, the inhabitants of cities are viewed by the chiefs of the desert, as a mixed and debased race, whom they scarcely own as belonging to the same nation as themselves. The most prominent feature in the Arab character consists in the combination of hospitality and robbery, which are practised, the one most liberally and generously, the other in the most deliberate and merciless manner. It is towards strangers that these opposite dispositions are exercised; and the alternative of good or evil treatment often depends on very nice particulars. A rich traveler, who journeys in caravan over the open plain, is considered as a rightful prey; while he who approaches singly, and soliciting protection, acquires an irresistible claim to it. The being once admitted to partake of common bread and salt is a sure pledge of safety and protection; and he who, by whatever means, has penetrated into the tent of the Arab, has reached a sanctuary. A change of circumstances often renders the same person an object of the most opposite feelings. He who, under the domestic roof, has experienced the most lavish kindness, may, if met ARABIA. 777 on the open plain, be robbed and murdered; and he who, after being plundered of everything, enters with confidence the tent of his enemy, will be commiserated, and his distress relieved. In the daily habits of life the generous feeling predominates. A Bedouin, as he sits down to his meal before the door, hesitates not to invite the passenger to share, without con sideration that he himself is poor, and the provision scanty. The right and practice of private vengeance, always prevalent among rude tribes and in irregular governments, is carried by the Arabs to the greatest height, and reduced to the most regular system. The fastidious pride of the high Bedouins lays them open to many fantastic wrongs unfelt by others. To say to su6h an one, " Thy bonnet is dirty," or, " The wrong side of thy turban is out," forms an insult which only blood can efface. Even for one to spit in the presence of another is deemed a provocation that calls for vengeance. In case of murder, the right and duty of inflicting punishment are supposed to devolve upon the friends of the deceased; and they seek to exercise it, not against the guilty individual, but against the head of the tribe, or at least the highest whom their swords can reach. Thus the distinguished Bedouins, especially when they visit the cities, must be armed at all points, and cannot for a moment sleep in security. This fierce pride, however, tolerates and admits a composition not very consistent with itself, which yet is not very peculiar to the Arab. It is "' the price of blood," upon the acceptance of which the deadly feud is appeased. Such a compensation, however, is of course considered as very little honorable, when compared with the exaction of the bloody vengeance for which it is substituted. The Arab is ceremoniously and ostentatiously polite. When two Bedouins meet, they shake hands more than ten times, often with fantastic and peculiar ceremonies. The common salutation is " Salam aleikun!" (peace be with you!) to which the aged commonly add their blessing. Coolness, command of temper, and a great exterior gravity, are considered as the only deportment becoming manhood, and are even affected by children at an early age. Although this studied decorum, and the habits of an ascetic religion, estrange them from every thing which in Europe is called gaiety, they are of a curious and social disposition. This they indulge by frequent resort to coffee-houses, the only public places known in the East: the markets, also, in which all business is transacted, are frequented, as affording opportunities of entering into social intercourse. The right of polygamy, and the seclusion of the, female sex, are estab-' lished principles in Arabia, as in all Mahometan countries; but not to the same extent as among the great in Turkey and Persia. Niebuhr assures us, that the idea which has been held out, of the whole sex being for sale, and going off to the best bidder, is altogether chimerical. Only the poorest and least respectable submit their offspring to that degradation. Such, on the contrary, as are at all in easy circumstances, make it their ambition to provide a dowry for their daughters. Even in the rude tents of the desert, two apartments are provided, of which the inner is reserved for the females. Here, unless when the husband receives visits of ceremony, they go about almost as freely as European females. In the cities, on the contrary, they never appear in public without a veil, like that of the Egyp tians, having only two holes for the eyes to peep through. It is a remark, that Arabian women often maintain great sway over their husbands, and even hold them in open subjection. ;E —— —---— _-- —------— —- __ _ =;_S=F —2-c=J3 —-------—; —------ — —~ ----- - ~ —-- — i-_ — c_ — —c eszi- —— " - ----—.-. —- —-- — I — -t —---— — =I — --- ----------------------- ---- -- --- — —--- s; —---- ------- 13-;/=_L -- --------- ----- -— r — — —-- re =h —== — - — 7--L___ ---— /c-' —— —-IF -- —— _. — —- ----— ~ L=tL-j a -------- t`;`3 -~ri =z-- i I; — *;J-=2= —— =-15.tzr;ucr, -i T;-ti B ij M mUUII'CI7 LV (L~,, -''YLNnrlrq~43;;f;;-=~J;S1JLiY -Y -CC _3 MARCH: OF A CARAVAN. I ......~~~~~~~~- -~_ —-I __:~ — ~ CARAVAN- MARCH.Z -=p-l-~ — ~ -rJ.... r80 ARABIA. The religion of Mahomet, which originated in Arabia, still maintains undisputed sway; and Christians, who were once numerous, are now so completely extirpated, that Niebuhr could not hear of a single church existing. The Sunites and Shiites, who divide between them the empires of Turkey and Persia, and wage such mortal hostility about they know not what, have also their respective districts in Arabia. The Sunites rank foremost, having always had in their possession the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The Zeidites and the Beiari, two native sects, reign in the eastern territory of Oman. These, though they unite in acknowledging the authority of Mahomet and the Koran, have, like other religious sects, some differences, in virtue of which they account themselves the only acceptable worshippers, and all others as heretical and pr6fane. A much more mild and tolerant spirit, however, animates the sects peculiar to Arabia, and is thence communicated to those of foreign origin. They are not affected by the same hostile feelings towards those of other religions, and are strangers to that furious spirit of proselytism which rages among Mahometans in general. Contempt towards foreign sects has with them three gradations; it falls lightest on the Christians; on the Jews next; and heaviest of all the Banians. The Christians,-when they appear in the character of merchants, the only capacity in which Europeans of any consideration usually resort to this country, experience little difference of treatment on account of their faith; and even the Banians, on the same footing, are allowed to settle, and carry on, in Oman, extensive traffic. Lately, the Wahabite sect, whose political influence has already introduced them to our notice, had absorbed nearly the whole of central Arabia; but their contest with Mohammed All, and his triumphant success, have now reduced their influence to a very low ebb. The Arabic, akin to the Hebrew and the Persian, ranks among the classic languages of the East. The distinguished works, however, which have raised it to this eminence, were produced out of the limits of Arabia, in the splendid courts founded by the Mahometan conquerors. Yet the spirit which breathes in them is still to a great extent Arabian. The perpetual movements among this multitude of little tribes, their wanderings, their feuds, their wars, the comparative estimation of the female sex, have generated a spirit of romance and of adventure affording scope for the imagination. The tale, in listening to which the Asiatic, as he reclines at ease in the coffee-house, finds his most refined and animating amusement, seems to be the form of composition carried on by their writers to greatest perfection. The stories, indeed, so celebrated under the name of the Thousand and one Nights, were produced at Bagdad, under the brilliant reign of Haroun al Raschad. That work has, however, a basis of Arabian ideas mingled with those inspired by a splendid and mercantile capital. Schools are attached to every mosque; and there are others, by means of which many, even among the lowest of the people, learn to read and write. The schools are merely sheds, open toward the street, in which the scholars repeat their lessons aloud, undisturbed with what is going on without. The region at the head of the Red Sea, is one of the most desert tracts of this desert land; yet a celebrated and sacred spot, where rise the holy mounts of Horeb and Sinai. The wilderness in which they are situated is most gloomy, presenting long ranges of rugged and precipitous rocks, intersected by deep valleys, at the bottom of which are found the only ARABIA. 781 traces of verdure. Sinai is ascended by a very steep route, which in many places is rendered practicable only by steps cut in the rock. The summit is marked both by a Christian church and a Mahometan mosque; and this combined veneration is further cherished by a pretended impression made in the rock by the foot of the camel on which Mahomet was conveyed up to heaven. Sinai can boast of two spacious convents erected on opposite sides of the mountain, for the reception of the numerous pilgrims by whom it was once visited. The largest, called the Monastery of the Forty Saints, is now entirely in the hands of the Arabs, who have driven out the monks, its former tenants. The convent of St. Catharine, however, is still supported by the contributions of the faithful from the East. It is really a handsome building, 120 feet long, having a church paved with marble, of which the altar is encircled with gold and jewels. At a little distance is an excellent garden, accessible from the convent by a subterraneous passage. This precaution is necessary, as the roving Arabs, who keep the place in constant blockade, are always on the watch to kill and carry off whatever they can. A little to the west of Sinai is Horeb, a mountain neither so lofty nor so rugged, but containing on its top some springs and verdure. Proceeding southeast, along the Red Sea, we come to the -Iedjaz, or Stony Arabia, a region sacred over the East as the birth-place of Mahometan superstition. It consists of a sandy and barren plain, behind which, in the interior, rise chains of mountains, rugged indeed, but yielding some valuable products, especially the balm of Mecca. Amid these mountains are situated the metropolitan cities of MECCA and MEDINA. An awful prohibition against any infidel foot which should attempt to approach these sacred spots rendered them almost unknown ground until very recently, when the daring curiosity of European adventurers triumphed over every obstacle. Mecca was then found to be a considerable city, one of the handsomest in the East. It stands in a narrow valley, enclosed between rocky hills, following their sinuosities, and partly built on their declivities: the fronts of the houses, instead of presenting, as in some Eastern cities, a long range of dead earthen wall, are of stone, raised to the height of three or four stories, and ornamented with columns and architectural ornaments. This gay aspect seems assumed in a great measure to attract pilgrims and lodgers, and with the same view the apartments are made neat and commodious. The resort of devotees of so many nations, from the extremities of Tartary to the banks of the Senegal, rendered Mecca, in peaceful times, a very flourishing city; and it has been supposed, probably with exaggerar tion, to contain 100,000 inhabitants. Burckhardt reckons now only 30,000. The Wahabite war, from which it suffered deeply, rendered the avenues to it no longer secure, especially as the Wahabites, though they themselves reverenced the holy places, shut them against the approach of those whom they deemed heretics; but since they came into the possession of Mohammed Ali, they have been thrown open to the Mahometan world. The temple of Mecca forms a very spacious square, about a quarter of a mile in each direction, with a triple or quadruple row of columns. A number of steps lead down into the interior, containing the object sacred to a Mahometan eye, the Kaaba, or house of the prophet, and within it the black stone, brought down by the angel Gabriel to form its foundation. To kiss this sacred stone, to go round it seven times, reciting appropriate hymns, 782 ARABIA. form the completion of that religious service for which thousands of miles have been travelled. The last ceremonial is ablution in the well of Zemzem, which, though itself not the purest water, is supposed to cleanse the votary from all sin. A pilgrimage, often tumultuary to Mount Arafat, completes the round of religious observance. A very active commerce in Mecca is combined with pilgrimage, consisting in the exchange of the richest commodities from the most industrious countries of the Mahometan world. Mecca, till it was conquered, first by the Wahabites, and then by the Pacha of Egypt, was almost a free city under its own sheriffe. The Meccaways are proud, gay, and somewhat dissolute; they are enabled to live in pomp by the gifts and sums paid for lodging and attendance by the numerous pilgrims. Medina, notwithstanding its high claims as the burial-place of Mahomet, has never rivalled Mecca in the veneration of the East. To visit it is not even considered as an indispensable duty, and is little practised, unless by the Turkish pilgrims, in whose route it lies. Hence Medina contains not more than five hundred houses, few of which show any degree of elegance or splendor. The great mosque, however, which encloses the tomb, is described as very splendid, being surrounded by numerous pillars of marble, jasper, and porphyry, on which letters of gold are in many places inscribed. The tomb itself is rather remarkably plain, conformably to the simplicity still affected in the age of Mahomet; and on each side of it are those of the two early caliphs, Abu Beker and Amar. Of the ports along this coast, Tor, once an extensive seat of the commerce with India, now scarcely exists. Its harbor is still good, and in its vicinity are several populous villages. Yembo, the port of Medina, is of moderate size, like the city to which it is subservient; yet has a population of 5,000 or 6,000. Jedda belongs to Mecca, and is the main emporium of the Hedjaz. It is mainly supported by the caravans which, from motives of religion, trade, or both combined, come across from Suakin to Mecca. This route is followed by almost all pilgrims from the interior and centre of Africa, while those from Barbary take the way of Egypt. Jedda serves in a great measure as the port of Egypt as well as of Mecca. The annual Indian fleets here unload their cargoes, which are transported by the merchants of the place to Suez and Cairo. Jedda has thus a population of 12,000 or 15,000 inhabitants, and Burkhardt understood it to contain individual merchants worth nearly ~200,000. The town is neatly built of madrepores, and is, on the whole, a flourishing place. The entrance is obstructed by dangerous shoals, but upon a signal given, pilots hasten out, and guide the vessels through all those perils. After a protracted voyage along a dreary coast, the navigator at length reaches the celebrated shores of Yemen, or the Happy Arabia. It does not, however, at once present that smiling aspect, nor waft those gales of perfume, which have been described by the fancy of the poets. A belt of flat, sandy, barren territory still forms the immediate border of the sea; and the traveler must penetrate a considerable distance into the interior before he reaches those fertile valleys, and those hills richly crowned with aromatic shrubs, for which Yemen is famed. This, like other fertile countries, has been subjected to a despotic yoke; the government being exercised by the Imam, in the capacity of priest or servant of Mahomet. He maintains an army of 4,000 foot and 1,000 horse; but his revenue is not ARABIA. 783 supposed to exceed ~80,000, produced chiefly by duties on the export of coffee. His power, as already observed, is considerably checked by some controlling bodies; and the Djebal, or mountainous district, contains many little tribes by whom it is set at open defiance. Yemen contains some considerable cities. Sana, the capital, is one of the neatest in the East. It is built of brick and stone, and contains several handsome mosques and palaces, as well as spacious caravanseras for the reception of travelers. The vicinity abounds with fruits, but scarcely affords wood sufficient for fuel. Taas is another city, about half the size of Sana, surrounded by a mountainous territory, supposed to be the richest in the world in botanical productions. It is by its ports, however, that Yemen is best known. Loheia, the most northerly, though situated in a poor country, with a shallow harbor, and bad water, exports a good deal of coffee, but of secondary quality. A better sort is found at Hodeida, to which has been transferred the trade of the once flourishing port of Ghalefka, now entirely choked up with sand. All these are secondary to Mocha, the chief mart for coffee, and superior to all others on the Arabian Gulf. It has declined, however, very considerably from the period when that favorite beverage could be procured only on the hills of Yemen; but now that the maritime nations of Europe derive their supply chiefly from their own colonies, recourse is had to Mocha only for some of very superior quality. It is situated on a flat sandy plain, over which hot winds continually blow. From the sea, its whitewashed houses, variegated by handsome minarets and tombs, make a pleasing appearance. On entering it, however, the filth of its streets, and the decayed appearance of many of the walls, built only of unburnt brick, produce a much less favorable impression. Moosa, in its vicinity, the ancient emporium of Yemen, though now decayed, presents still a noble appearance. Beyond the straits is Aden, also a famous port, usually considered part of Yemen, but recently erected into a separate kingdom. Its commerce rests upon the export of myrrh, frankincense, and balsams, drawn in small quantities from Arabia itself, but largely from the opposite African coast of Berbera. The coast of Arabia, after extending north-east more than one thousand miles facing the ocean, and passing Ras Masera, changes its line to the north-west, and runs parallel to southern Persia. From this point to the entrance of the Persian Gulf is the coast of Oman, or Ommon. Though not the most celebrated, this appears to be the most flourishing and prosperous part of the whole Arabian peninsula. It is destitute, indeed, of the aromatics of Yemen; but its rich soil produces in abundance grain, fruits, and dates. Muscat, the capital, was taken by Albuquerque in 1507, and remained subject to the Portuguese until 1648, when they were driven out by an insurrection of the natives. It is now governed, like Yemen, by an Imam, or spiritual chief, who seems to exercise his power much for the benefit of his people. The government of the Imam is the most tranquil and protecting of any in the maritime parts either of Persia or Arabia. The Imam, who is the most powerful and intelligent prince in these regions, has some large ships of war, and his subjects possess some of the finest trading vessels met with in the Indian Seas. A treaty of commerce, between him and the United States, was concluded in 1835. Muscat is frequented as a sort of general depot for the merchandise of Persia, India, I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,, I~~~~~~~~~~ ~ I ll I I I I II l jilt /j I I iii' -HOUNT SINAI —MONASTERV 786 PERSIA. and Arabia, which, from the excellent police, lies open and unguarded in the streets, without dancer of depredation. All the ports upon this coast are tributary to the Imam, and he has subjected Socotra, Brava, Zanzibar, and other important points on the eastern coast of Africa. He also holds the islands of Kishma and Ormuz in the Persian Gulf, and a considerable extent of the Persian coast, around Gombroon. A considerable trade is also carried on by caravans with the interior. The ancient Edom or Idumea, contains some well watered valleys, and presents monuments of the power and commerce for which it was anciently celebrated. The ruins of its capital, Petra, lately discovered by Burckhardt, display considerable magnificence. He found 250 tombs cut in the rock. The monuments were partly of Greek and partly of Egyptian architecture. Along the Euphrates, the desert and the river touch immediately on -each other. Its banks form necessarily a great and crowded caravan route, and there the plundering tribes expect their richest harvest. They are found, accordingly in large bodies, and of the most hardy and desperate character. A number availing themselves of the decayed state into which the Turkish government has sunk, have penetrated into the rich Mesopotamian plain, between the Euphrates and the Tigris, where they feed their flocks, set the government at defiance, and, tempted by the exuberant fertility of the soil, have, in many instances, gradually, acquired industry and agricultural habits. PERSIA. PERSIA extends from the mountains of Kurdistan to the Indus, and from the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf to the borders of Turkestan, the Caspian Sea, and the Russian provinces of Caucasus. It is divided politically into three several independencies, viz: the kingdom of Iran, or Persia Proper; Affghanistan, formerly the kingdom of Cabul, and Beloochistan. THE KINGDOM OF IRAN is situated between 25~ 40' and 39~ 40' north latitude, and between 44~ and 62~ east longitude, occupying the western half of geographical Persia. It measures diagonally, from Mount Ararat to Cape Jask, about 1,250 miles, and its general breadth from north to south, is about 850 miles, with a superficial area of 480,000 square miles. The country presents a singular succession of low arid plains, deserts, mountains and table-lands. The south and south-west, along the shores of the Persian Gulf, forms a long, narrow tract of level, dry and arid country, without rivers; but in traversing which, the eye is sometimes relieved by plantations of date trees, and patches of cultivation, which are found near the wells and fresh water rivulets, which are thinly scattered over the barren country. It is very hot, and the country is termed " Dushtistan " or " Gursmir," i. e. warm region. Along the shores of the Caspian, there is a corresponding narrow tract, but the climate, though extreme, is more moist, and in winter comfortable. The vegetation is here most luxuriant. The sugar cane is cultivated with success, while the slopes of the mountains are covered with forests of acacias, lindens, oaks and chesnuts, and KINGDOM OF IRAN. 787 their summits with cedar and pines. Between these two lowland belts lies the extensive table-land, from 2,500 to 4,000 feet above the ocean. It is, generally speaking, an immense dry salt plain, traversed by ranges bf mountains, and including many corresponding valleys, which are indeed the only cultivated and populated parts of the district. Persia is singularly destitute of water. It has scarcely a river deserving of the name, but it has one or two lakes which may here be noticed. The largest is "Lake Ooroomiah," in the western portion of Azerbijan, about 83 miles long and 17 where broadest. Its greatest depth is generally 45 feet, but it is subject to great variations both in depth and extent at differ ent times. The water is so salt C2at no fish can live in it, and is so buoyant that a man can scarcely stand,n a depth of three feet, and will actually float on the surface. The "' ake of Durrah," on the eastern border of the kingdom, is 60 miles in length and 35 in breadth. It receives the river Helmund from Affghanistan near its south-east corner. The water is slightly brackish, but abounds with fish, and great multitudes of waterfowl inhabit its shores. In the dry season, it is shallow and overgrown with reeds. In the middle of it is a fertile island, named " Koh-i-zur," where the chiefs of Seistan used to take refuge when their country was invaded. The table-lands are entirely destitute of trees, and only in a few places covered at all with vegetation. The soil is generally a hard clay, quite unproductive without irrigation, but wherever water can be procured vegetation is most luxuriant. Wheat is the chief produce; barley, millet and oats are also grown, and on the Caspian shores rice is cultivated with great care. The gardens of Iran are highly celebrated, and few countries surpass it in variety and the flavor of its fruits. Poppies, which produce opium, are cultivated all over the table-land, and in many places saffron is also raised; but the most remarkable vegetable produce is the plant from which assafoetida is produced. The silk worm is extensively reared, and the annual produce of silk has been estimated at 20,000 bales of 216 pounds each. Hemp, tobacco and a great variety of gums, medicines and dye-stuffs are also among the rich products of Persia. The domestic animals of Persia, are horses of several breeds, some of which are considered the finest and the handsomest in the East; camels of the tBactrian and Arabian species, and a mule breed between the two; horse-ass-mules, asses, wild asses, and beeves. Numerous flocks of goats and sheep constitute the wealth of the nomadic tribes, while antelopes, hares, zebras, foxes and deer afford amusement to the sportsman. Boars, bears, lions, and the smaller kinds of tigers lurk inr the forests and in the mountains, and hyenas and jackals infest the southern provinces. Speaking, generally, of the Persians, says Sir John Malcolm, we may describe them as a handsome, active, and robust race of men; of lively imagination, quick apprehension, and agreeable and prepossessing manners. As a nation they may be termed brave, but their vices are still more prominent than their virtues. There being no such thing as a census in Persia, the amount of its population can only be conjectural. The inhabitants are estimated at 9,500,000. The religion of the Persians is the Mahometan, but the people of the several provinces profess it in various forms. Jews are met with in all the great towns; Armenians and Nestorians are also to be found, and a few 788 PERSIA. Sabeans, or star-worshippers. It has been conjectured that there are between 250,000 and 300,000 professed Suffees or free-thinkers. The clergy consist of several orders, the highest of which is that of Mushteheds, of whom there are seldom more than three or four. Next in rank is the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the supreme judge of the written law. Besides these, there are in every city, and connected with all seminaries of learning, a crowd of Mollahs, who, like the French abb4s of old, live by their wits, and have little of the priestly character but the name, and are generally a licentious multitude. The only remains of the ancient fire-worshippers, or followers of Zoroaster, called Guebres or Infidels by the Moslems, reside principally at Yezd, Kerman, Shiraz, Ispahan, and Kashan; but they are very few in number, there being only about 2,300 families in the whole of Persia. The Persians received their arts and sciences from Arabia, and still exhibit all the characteristics of their origin. Modern science is to them as yet a dead letter; and although every mosque has its colleges, and schools are thickly distributed over the whole country, nothing approaching to the character of a liberal education is open to the people generally. The government is an unmitigated military'despotism. The nomadic tribes, however, are ruled immediately by their Khans, whose authority is sometimes very limited. The civil and criminal laws are founded on the Koran, and administered by the Sheik-ul-Islam and his deputies. There is also the "1urf," or customary law, administered by secular magistrates, of whom the king is the chief; but the respective powers of the two branches have ever been a matter of dispute. Justice, however, is here, as in all eastern countries, sold to the highest bidder, and the judges seem to consider their subjects as fiefs for their own aggrandizement and amusement. The army of Persia is small, and consists chiefly of irregular troops taken from the nomadic tribes; and besides the regular and irregular troops, the king has a sort of body-guard named " gholams," or slaves, who are Georgian or Circassian captives, intermingled with the sons of the nobility. This body amounts to three or four thousand. They are well mounted and armed, and generally carry a shield on their shoulders. The situation is one of honor as well as contingent emolument. The whole amount of the Persian army has been as high as 100,000 men, with twice the number of camp followers. Persia is not insignificant in productive industry. Agriculture and the manufactures employ the people, but mining is almost unknown. The great mass are agriculturists, and the nomadic tribes are herdsmen and shepherds. All the Jews and many Armenians are wholly devoted to commerce. Agriculture is followed in many places with industry and intelligence, and in spite of numerous physical obstacles is in a flourishing condition. The people of Iran have a natural talent for the mechanic arts, some of which they have carried to high perfection. They excel particularly in making sabres, in copper and brass work, perfumery, dressing of leather, pottery, silk cloths, carpets, felts, and painted cloths and shawls. TEHERAN, the capital of the kingdom, stands in a gravelly plain, 3,786 feet above the level of the sea, which is bordered by a high range of mountains. It is four miles in circuit, and fortified with a mud wall, towers, and a wide and deep ditch; but its only important edifice is the ark, a fortified palace or citadel. The population varies with the season, from 10,000 to AFFGIANISTAN. 789 60,000. About ten or twelve miles south-west of the city are the extensive, but almost obliterated remains of the Rhe or Rhages, a contemporary of Nineveh and Ecbatana, the capital of the Parthian kings, and the birthplace of the great caliph Haroun-al-Raschid. Ispahan, the ancient capital, formerly a very large and splendid city,. with one million inhabitants, is now in ruins. It stands on a plain, 4,140 feet above the sea, upon the banks of the Zeinde-rufd, which is crossed by three fine bridges, and is surrounded by a mud wall twenty-four miles in circuit. Nothing can exceed the beauty of the surrounding valley, and the first view of the city is still imposing. A nearer view, however, dispels the illusion, though much still remains of wealth, if not of splendor. Ispahan has yet considerable trade, and a population of 150,000. On the south side of the river are the suburbs of Isfahanuk, or Little Ispahan, and Julfa. Tabriz, the chief town of Azerbijan, is a great centre of commerce, with a large but very fluctuating population. It is about 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, and is bordered on three sides with mountains, while on the fourth side the plain extends, without interruption, to Lake Ooroomiah, which is distant about thirty miles. The city is about four miles in circuit, and is surrounded by a brick wall; and the citadel, a high and massive structure of brick-work, is visible from a distance, rising above the broad screen of gardens, which mask the approach to the city, and which, being cultivated with great care, yield every kind of fruit in the utmost perfection and abundance. AFFGHANISTAN, the most eastern portion of Persia, is bounded on the north by the ridges of the Himalaya and Hindoo-koh mountains; on the east by the Indus; on the south by the northern frontier of Beloochistan; and on the west by the eastern border of Iran. From west to east it measures 630 miles, and from north to south 450, and contains an area of 240,000 square miles. The country consists of a succession of lofty valleys and table-lands, separated and supported by immense mountain chains. The spurs of the Hindoo-koh and other mountains occupy the north, decreasing in elevation towards the south. The sides of these mountains are well wooded, and the valleys are rich in vegetation, and even the rocks are rendered beautiful from the rich verdure of the mosses which cover them. This region is called Kohistan or hill country. All the valleys of the range open ultimately into the great valley of the Cabul river, which extends east and west about 200 miles, and carries their waters to the Indus. Gold does not seem to be found in Affghanistan, except in the streams which flow from Hindoo-koh. Silver is found in small quantities, and whole cliffs of lapis-lazuli, overhang the river of Kashgas. There are also lead, antimony, iron, sulphur, rock-salt and alum. Saltpetre is made everywhere from the soil. The mountains around Cabul are especially rich in minerals, and the sand of the Kerman is washed for gold. The most common species of trees on the mountains are pines, oaks, cedars and cypresses, also walnuts, wild olives, wild grapes, &c. In the plains are the mulberry, the tamarask, the willow, plane and poplar. The gardens are profuse in roses, jessamines, poppies, hyacinths, and an innumerable catalogue of indigenous and foreign fruits and flowers. 790 PERSIA. Lions, tigers and leopards are found in several districts, and wolves, hymenas, jackals, foxes, and hares are common everywhere. Bears are found in all the wooded mountains; wild boars are now rare, and wild asses appear to be confined to the sandy country to the south of Candahar. Elks and deer are found in all the mountains, but antelopes are found only in the plains. The wild sheep and goats inhabit the eastern hills, which contain also porcupines, hedgehogs and monkeys, ferrets and wild dogs. The principal domestic animals are horses, ponies, mules, camels, buffaloes and humped-back beeves. The great stock of the pastoral tribes, consists of sheep. Of birds, there are eagles, falcons, herons, cranes, storks, wild fowl, and game in plenty, and a great variety of the smaller species of singing birds. The snakes are generally harmless, but scorpions of great size and venom, exist in some districts. Flights of locusts are not of unfrequent occurence. Bees are common; and mosquitoes, which are however, less troublesome than in India. The term of Affghan is not known to the natives. The name they give to their nation, is " Pushtun." They consider themselves to be descended from Affghan, the son of Irmia or Berkia, a son of Saul, king of Israel. They call themselves, accordingly, " Beni-Israel," though they consider the term "' Yahudee," or Jew, as one of reproach. They say they were transported by Nebuchadnezzar, and continued to observe the Jewish ritual until the first century of the hedjira, when they were converted to Islam. They have the appearance of Jews, and by some are in reality considered to be a part of the lost tribes. They are divided into small tribes, and their chiefs or khans are elected by the people of each. The internal government is conducted by these khans, and assemblages of the heads of division called "jirgas." The khan presides in the principal jirga, which is composed of the chiefs of the great branches of the tribes. Each of these presides in the jirga of his own division, which is formed in a similar manner of the chiefs of the subdivisions, who again hold their jirgas. The khan, though supreme, is not looked upon as a master but as a father, who has the welfare of his children in view, and is consequently secure only in the affections of his people. Accordingly the power of life or death is rarely possessed by a khan, and it is seldom that his personal interests would lead a tribe to take any step inconsistent with its own honor or advantage. An assemblage of many such commonwealths compose the Affghan nation. Each tribe possesses its own territory, and exercises its own local powers, but there is sufficient affinity and national sympathy among the several tribes to keep the whole in a sort,of unity and position of common defence. The northern parts of Affghanistan are occupied by the " Hazarehs " or Huzaras, a simple people, who differ much from the Affghans, and in some respects resembles the Chinese. They are quite independent since the subversion of the kingdom of Cabul, owing their safety to the natural strength of their mountain country. They are mostly a pastoral people, and their subsistence depends chiefly on the produce of their flocks. There cannot be said to exist such a thing as national industry. The people from necessity engage in such pursuits as afford them the necessaries of life, and raise crops and herds; but little in the nature of manufactures is undertaken. In this respect they are far behind their neighbors on all sides. Perhaps this may be in a great measure owing to the constant BELOOCHISTAN. 791 revolution and force that has harrassed the country; but there is no doubt that it equally originates in the constitution of the people themselves, who are little removed from the savages in their modes of life. Cabul, the principal city, is situated in a plain 1,000 feet above the level of the adjacent country. It is surrounded by a lofty wall of towers and curtains, and a broad ditch, and with one exception of a suburb, stands all on the right bank of the river. The houses are built of sun-dried brick and wood, but few of them are more than two stories high. The great bazaar is an elegant arcade nearly 600 feet long and 30 broad. There are few such bazaars in the East, and wonder is excited by the silks, cloths and goods arranged along the sides, and at the quantity of dried fruits piled up in endless profusion. Each trade has its separate bazaar. The population amounts to about 60,000, who all converse in the Persian as their mother tongue; but the Paishtoo or Affghan language is spoken in the neighboring villages. The city suffered greatly from the British in 1842. Candahar is another fine city with an equal population. It is considered as the western capital, and is surrounded by a brick wall. The streets, lined with houses of sun-dried brick, start from each of the four principal gates, and meet in the centre of the city, under the vast dome of a circular bazaar, filled with shops, and crowded with people from morning to night. The mosques are neither numerous nor splendid. Candahar is the centre of a great trade between India and Persia. It is supposed to be one of the Alexandrias, built by Alexander the Great; but the present city is quite modern, and the ruins of the older city are about three miles to the westward. Ghuznee, the capital of a powerful kingdom in the 12th century, is now completely in ruins; there is a new town of small extent' on its site, but of little consideration. BELoocIHSTAN, the remaining portion of Persia, lies between Affghanistan and the Indian Ocean, extending along the latter almost 600 miles, and comprising altogether an area of 180,000 square miles. The greater part of the country is mountainous, and especially so in the east and west divisions, which consist of two elevated table-lands. A large portion of it is entirely desert, being a continuation of the desert of Kerman, and the sea coast is covered by flat, barren sands, which are destitute of water, and produce no other vegetation than date trees. Little is known of the geology of the country; but gold silver, and some other metals, with sulphur, naptha, and rock-salt are found in different places. The climate is generally healthy, and the vegetable products diverse and luxuriant. The wild animals are much the same as those of the countries of Persia, already described, and industry is not on a higher level. The people are almost equally divided into two distinct nations - the Belooches, who are found in the west, and the Brahoes, who occupy the east. The " Belooches " are almost entirely a rude, nomadaic, and pastoral people, living in tents, and moving from place to place with their flocks and herds. Their language is a corrupt dialect of the Persian, but they attribute their origin to the Arabs. The " Brahoes" inhabit chiefly the district of Kelat, and are inferior in personal appearance to the Belooches: they are more unsettled in their habits, but bear a better character with 792 MINDOSTAN. travellers. A people called " Gewahrs," probably of Gheber descent, are found in different places, and speak Persian. The Hindoos monopolize most of the trade of the Eastern provinces. Kelat is the chief city, and the residence of a khan who claims sovereignty over the whole country, but whose authority extends little further than the precincts of his own town. It has a population of about 25,000 HINDOSTAN. THE region known to the ancients by the name of India, to the Arabs by that of Al Hind, and now most commonly by the Persian appellation of Hindostan, has always been the celebrated country of the East. In every age it has been the peculiar seat of oriental pomp, of an early and peculiar civilization, and of a commerce supported by richer products than that of any other country, ancient or modern. The nominal limits of Hindostan have varied at different times. In the west, especially, it has sometimes been extended over a great part of Afghanistan, which was often the seat of its ruling potentates. The real Hindostan, however, seems clearly marked by both precise natural boundaries, and by the fixed and deep-seated character of its native population. The boundary on the north, but running in a north-westerly direction, consists of that unbroken and amazing range of mountains, which receives in India the name of Himmaleh, or HIimalayah, and separates its fine plains from the bleak table-land of Thibet. On the west, it is the Indus, from the point where it bursts through the northern mountains, to that in which it joins the the Indian Ocean. Into that ocean, southern Hindostan projects, in the form of a vast triangular peninsula, which presents two opposite coasts, Malabar to the southwest, and Coromandel to the southeast, both terminating in the southern extremity of Cape Comorin. Thence India is prolonged by the large contiguous island of Ceylon. The coast of Coromandel, with the opposite shore of Arracan and Malacca, enclose a large sea, called the Bay of Bengal. Between this bay and the termination of the Himalayah occurs a short interval, forming the most eastern and the least accurately defined boundary of Hindostan. Amid the grand features of nature in this region, the extended mountain range of Himalayah, which forms its northern boundary is pre-eminent. After crossing the Indus, and enclosing the beautiful valley of Cashmere, this range, which, in bounding Afghanistan, under the name of Hindo Koh, had an almost due easterly course, takes a southeast line, which it nearly follows till it passes the frontier of Hindostan. The name, which is derived from the Sanscrit term Hem, snow, is evidently suggested by that long range of pinnacles, white with eternal snow, that is seen far along the wide plain of central India, which luxuriates in the perpetual summer of the tropics. Central Hindostan, below its great mountain boundary, consists generally of a vast expanse of plain; but the southern part, composing the great peninsula between the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, though it cannot HINDOSTAN. 793 comparatively be called mountainous, is a very hilly country. Two great chains extend along the opposite coasts parallel to each other, or rather diverging, and leaving between them and the sea only a plain of forty or fifty miles in breadth. They rise in few places above 3000 or 4000 feet high; but are very rugged and steep, and the entrance into the interior is only by very narrow and difficult passes. The name of Ghaut, which, through the Teutonic languages, has come to ours in the word gate, being applied to these passes, has been gradually extended to the mountains themselves. The rivers of itindostan form a feature no less important and celebrated than its mountains. The Himalayah, from its lofty magazines of tempests and snow, pours down a world of waters, which, every where descending its steeps, unite at length in the two great branches of the Indus and the Ganges. These, with their tributaries, even before they reach the plain, present the mass and breadth of great rivers, while they retain the rapidity of mountain torrents. It is somewhat remarkable that, in so large a region, with so many mountains and waters, there should not be a lake, with the exception of Chilka, on the Coromandel coast, which is a mere salt marsh, like the Mareotis or AManzaleh, and a few very small lakes in the territory of Rajpootana. To find this feature on a great scale, we must penetrate its northern barrier into central Asia. A brief notice of the following quadrupeds, will be interesting or instructive:-the Rhinoceros, the Tiger, the Ichneumon, and the Antelope. The Indian one-horned Rhinoceros of the continent is distinct from that of the islands. Thicker and more unwieldy for his size than the Elephant, he exhibits in confinement much of the singular sagacity observed in that gigantic animal. A young one described by M. Cuvier, and which was lately alive in Paris, evinced many such habits. He smelt at every thing, and seemed to prefer sweet fruits, and even sugar itself, to any other food. Like the elephant, he collected and held every thing intended for his mouth with the moveable upper lip; and when he ate hay, he formed it first into little bundles, which he placed between his teeth by means of his tongue. The nature of its hide has been much exaggerated by old writers. The whole body is covered with a very thick tuberculous grayish skin, nearly naked, and disposed in irregular folds, under which it was flesh-colored; over this, particularly on the tail and ears, were scattered a few stiff thick hairs. But it is in a wild state only that the bodily powers of this creature can be fully estimated: and these are frequently displayed in a surprising degree. A few years ago, a hunting party of Europeans, with their native attendants and elephants, met with a herd of seven; apparently led by one, much larger and stronger than the rest. This boldly charged the hunters. The leading elephants, instead of using their tusks as weapons, suddenly wheeled round, and received the thrust of the rhinoceros's horn on the posteriors: the blow brought them and their riders to the ground. No sooner had they risen than it was repeated, and in this manner did the contest continue, until four of the seven were shot, when the rest retreated. This anecdote shows the tremendous power of the rhinoceros, sufficient to overcome the active ferocity of the lion and the ponderous strength of the elephant; but this is only exerted in self-defence. The rhinoceros derives all his food from the vegetable kingdom, and is quiet and peaceable if left to himself. 794 HINDOSTAN. The Bengal or Royal Tiger, is the scourge of Asia and the Indian islands. Equal in size to the Lion, though generally inferior in strength, it wants not courage or ferocity to attack the king of beasts; a temerity which generally proves fatal. Ferocity cannot be more horribly developed than in the Tiger; it may indeed be termed a sanguiverous animal, for it will suck the blood of its victim previously to eating it, and will sieze on any other that may come in sight; treating it in the same way. Its horrid avidity is such, that, while so engaged, it will almost bury its head and face in the reeking carcase of its prey. According to Marsden, the tigers in Sumatra are so abundant, that whole villages are sometimes depopulated by them. Yet, from a superstitious prejudice, it is with difficulty the natives are prevailed upon, even by large rewards, to use means for their destruction, until revenge for some loss in their own family bursts the shackles of fanaticism under which they habitually sink. The Indian Ichneumon has some resemblance to the weasel, and is called by the natives Mangouste. Its total length, with the tail, is about two feet. It feeds entirely upon small animals, particularly birds, and, for its size, appears as voracious as the tiger. Although capable of being tamed, and even taking pleasure in the caresses of its master, it becomes extremely ferocious at sight of those little animals which constitute its prey. If within reach of a bird, it will spring forward with a rapidity which the eye cannot follow, seize its victim, break its head, and then devour it with the utmost voracity. This animal lives in holes, or burrows, near habitations. The four-horned Antelopes, (for there are probably two species), are peculiar to India. That which is named Chickara inhabits the forests and hilly tracts along the western provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa. It is a delicate-shaped, wild, and agile little creature, measuring about twenty inches and a half high from the shoulders. Its general color is bright bay above, and whitish beneath. The form of the horns is simple; the largest pair being three inches long, and the others only three quarters of an inch. The name of India has always been celebrated in the Western world, not only as a region abounding in rich products, but as an early seat and fountain of civilization and philosophy. Whatever literary talent or application, however, the Hindoos might possess, none of it was turned to history; of which only some faint traces appear, amid the most extravagant fables. The first authentic notice is afforded by the invasion of Alexander; but that event, so celebrated in Greek history, was a mere partial inroad, producing no lasting effects. Yet the narratives of the expedition are precious, in so far as they show that the Hindoos were then precisely the same people as now; divided into castes, addicted to ascetic superstition, religious suicide, and abstruse philosophy. It does not appear that India was then the seat of any extensive empire; but it was divided among a number of smaller states. The expedition of Seleucus and the embassy of Megasthenes brought to light the existence of a great empire, of which the capital was Palibothra, on the Ganges; but the histories neither of the East nor of the West convey any details of the dynasty which reigned in that mighty metropolis. The interposition of the hostile monarchy ef the Parthians cut off all communication between Rome and India, though one embassy from the latter country is said to have reached the court of Augustus. The Mahometan conquest by the Gaznevide dynasty formed the era at HINDOSTAN. 795 which a regular series of authentic history commences for India. The bold and rough population who inhabit the mountains of Afghanistan enabled Mahmoud the Great to unite all the west of India, with Khorasan and great part of Tartary, into one empire. His dynasty, indeed, was subverted by that of Ghori, which was followed by the long series of the Patan emperors. In 1398 they were vanquished by Timour; but it was more than a century afterwards that Baber founded the Mogul empire, which, extended under Akbar and Aurengzebe, displayed a power and splendor scarcely equalled by any monarchy even of Asia. Along with Afghanistan, it included nearly the whole of Hindostan, except some obscure corners and mountain districts; and even all these, more or less, owned its supremacy. The sway of Aurengzebe extended probably over 80,000,000 souls, while his treasure was estimated at ~32,000,000; a sum equal in value to nearly triple the same amount in this quarter of the world. The empire of Aurengzebe was soon undermined by disputed succession and effiminate habits among his descendants; it was shaken by the rise of the Mahratta power, and in 1738 it was overthrown by the successful invasion of Nadir Shah. Nadir carried off all the treasures of Delhi, estimated by the lowest computation at ~70,000,000 sterling. Yet he returned to Persia, leaving to the Mogul all the territory east of the Indus; but from that moment the Mogul empire remained the mere shadow of a mighty name. All the tribes which, during its day of power, had taken refuge in the mountains, now descended to dispute its finest provinces; even private adventurers raised themselves into sovereigns. Among those tribes were preiminent the Mahrattas, who, from the Vindhya mountains, and the head of the western Ghauts, had already over-run the north of the Deccan, and now penetrated to the imperial provinces of Delhi and Agra; while, in the south, Hyder Ali erected the powerful kingdom of Mysore. A shadow of the Mogul name was preserved only by the policy of rival chiefs, endeavoring each to draw round himself the reverence which that name still commanded. A new power appeared in the field. Ahmed Shah, who had raised himself to the throne of Cabul, entered India, and completely defeated the Mahrattas in the great battle of Panniput. But while these chiefs contended thus fiercely for empire, a new power was rising, beneath which they were all destined to bend. The European powers, in exploring through many dangers the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, had made it their first object to gain access to the splendid commerce of which India had always been the theatre. To carry it on with security, and protect themselves against the violence and extortion of the native powers, fortified factories were perhaps indispensable. This step, once made, soon led to further acquisitions. The Portuguese, under Albuquerque, began a career of conquest, and founded, at Goa, a specie of kingdom, which, however, fell soon into decay. The other nations long confined themselves to commercial pursuits. The vast commerce of England was protected, in Bengal by Fort William, in the Carnatic by Fort George, and in the West by Bombay, on the Island of Salsette; while the French fixed the chief seat of their power at Pondicherry. The triumphant war of 1756 gave to England a decided preeminence in India over the other European powers. About the same time she began to acquire territorial possessions in Hindostan. Her first enterprises were on the side of the Carnatic; but there she was long held in 796 HINDOSTAN. check by the vigor and power of Hyder Ali. In Bengal her military career opened under the darkest auspices. Surajah Doulah, the soubah, invested Fort William with a large army, and; having forced it to surrender, threw the small garrison into that horrid dungeon, named the Black Hole of Calcutta, where the greater part of them perished. Soon after, however, Lord Clive arrived with a reinforcement, and, having taken the field, proved, in the battle of Plassy, how superior a small body of English were to the undisciplined numbers of the East. The soubah was deposed, put to death, and succeeded by his general, Meer Jaffier, who was destined to rule altogether as the vassal of the English East India Company. Not being found sufficiently compliant with the tenure, he was superseded, as were others in succession, until 1765, when the Company assumed to itself, under a nominal reference to the Mogul, the entire sovereignty of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa. At the same time the victories gained over the Nabob of Oude extended the virtual dominion of Britain nearly to the Jumna. Meantime the Carnatic was a scene of the most bloody and obstinate struggles, especially with Hyder, by whom the British dominion was repeatedly brought to the brink of destruction. Being threatened, however, by the Mahrattas, and vigorously pressed by Sir Eyre Coote, that chieftain at length entered into a treaty of peace. His son, Tippoo, though brave, did not inherit the policy or experience of his father; and., after two obstinate wars, his career was terminated in 1799: Seringapatam was taken, himself killed, his kingdom appropriated by Britain in full sovereignty, or divided among her vassals. Such vast acquisitions, however, placed that country in open rivalry with the Mahrattas, whose power, now completely preeminent above that of the Mogul, extended over all the central provinces. In 1803, while the Marquess Wellesley was governor-general, this rivalry broke out into open war. The bold and comprehensive plan of the campaign formed by that statesman, seconded by the military talents of Lake and Sir Arthur Wellesley, who, on the field of Assaye, conspicuously displayed those talents which afterwards made him one of the first captains of the age, completely broke the power of that formidable confederacy. The Peishwa, its nominal head, was indeed replaced in his supremacy over the military chiefs who had assumed independent power; but an auxiliary force stationed at Poonah, his capital, ensured the administration of every thing according to the mandate of the council at Calcutta. The British, after making a pecuniary provision for the last representative of the Mogul dynasty, took into their immediate sovereignty Agra and Delhi, the once proud capitals of India; and there remained only in the northern and western extremities a few states who were not their subjects, allies, or tributaries. In 1817, a new war was undertaken for the reduction of the Pindarees, a rude, lawless tribe, harbored in the recesses of the Vindhya mountains. Though attempting only a flying and predatory warfare, they spread so wide, and caused such desolation, that the Marquess of Hastings conceived their suppression to be indispensable for the tranquillity of India. The opening of the campaign, however, gave occasion for the great Mahratta chief Holkar, the Peishwa, and the Rajah of Berar, to shake off the yoke, on which the contest assumed a very formidable character. The Peishwa was at length vanquished, and obliged to retire upon an annual stipend of ~100,000; while the other two chiefs were reduced to a state of entire vassalage, and the British sway over Hindostan was more firmly established than at any former period. HrNDOSTAN. 797 The power which for many centuries ruled over Hindostan was Mahometan. The votaries of Islam, as usual, entered India sword in hand, announcing proscription and desolation against all who should profess a faith opposite to their own; but while by these unlawful instruments they had converted the whole west and centre of Asia, in India their religion never made the slightest impression. The Hindoos opposed to it a quiet and passive, but immoveable resistance. The conquerors, finding in them such a fixed determination upon this point, while on every other they were the most submissive and peaceable subjects, allowed their own bigotry to be disarmed. With the exception of Aurengzebe and Tippoo, they have long left the votaries of Brahma in the unmolested possession of their faith, and of the various observances with which it is connected. The Mahometans have been reckoned at nearly 10,000,000, or about a tenth of the population of Hindostan; but in this number we suspect that those of the kingdom of Cabul have been included, and that it is only in the provinces on the western frontier that they enter largely into the mass of population. They do not appear to have employed themselves as cultivators, or in the fabrics of the country. They consisted almost solely of the troops maintained by the Great Mogul, and officers employed by him, who, with their families and posterity, swelled gradually into a numerous people. The residence of the Mogul was rather a great moving camp, than a fixed metropolitan city. Delhi, Agra, or any other places, which his abode caused to rank with the most splendid cities of the East, when deserted by his army and train, sunk into towns of secondary magnitude. The great lords who were once his courtiers, counsellors, and the commanders of the troops, were called omrahs, of whom there were four principal. They were supported, not by pay, but by certain portions of land assigned to them, of which they drew the revenues. The provinces were governed also in a military manner by soubahs, who, like other despotic viceroys, exercised within their own limits all the authority of the Mogul. In many cases, they came gradually to regard those territories as belonging to them by a sort of hereditary right; and, on the breaking up of the empire, openly erected themselves into independent rulers. The family of Hyder was Mahometan. That dynasty, however, and almost all the others, have been crushed, by the power either of Britain or by the Mahrattas; and there is now scarcely any other sway in India. The Mahometans have become a subject race. In contemplating lindostan, as it now exists, the power of Britain appears entirely predominant. This absolute sway of an island comparatively so small, over an empire of 100,000,000 inhabitants, situated nearly at its antipodes, and accessible only by so vast a circuit of ocean, presents one of the most remarkable phenomena in the history of the world. Yet the subjection is complete, and almost universally peaceable. We have already observed that profoundly passive disposition which prevails among the great body of the nation, so long as no violence is done to their faith, and their ordinary habits are not interfered with. The number of Europeans by whom such vast dominions are held in subjection very little exceeds 30,000. But this number is multiplied by that peculiarity in the character of the Hindoo, which makes it easy to train him into an instrument for holding his own country in subjection. He has scarcely the idea of a country to fight for. " The Asiatie," says Mr. Fraser,' fights for 798 HINDOSTAN. pay and plunder; and whose bread he eats, his cause he will defend against friends, country, and family." Accordingly, the sepoys (Indian troops commanded by British officers, and trained after the European manner,) are found nearly as efficient as troops entirely British; and, so long as nothing is done to shock their religion and prejudices, they are equally faithful. The government of British India is vested in the, Court of Directors of the East India Company, under the control of a Board of Commissioners, consisting of several of the chief ministers of the crown, and commonly called the Board of Control. The country is divided into the three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. The president of Bengal is styled the Governor-General of India. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to legislate for India, under certain limitations, and subject to the revision of the Board of Control and the Court of Directors. The council consists of four members, besides the governor, appointed by the directors with the royal sanction. The business of the executive is divided among five boards: viz., of revenue; of customs, salt, and opium; of trade; of military affairs; and of medical affairs. The other Presidents in Council possess the same authority within their respective governments, but subject in all matters of general policy to the Governor-General, who has the power of declaring war, making peace, and concluding treaties, and, as captain-general, may head the military operations in any part of the country, and who may suspend the governors of the other presidencies, and sit as president in their councils. In surveying the political state of Hindostan, its population may be estimated at about 140,000,000. Of this vast multitude, nine-tenths are still believed to consist of that native original race, who, though subject to a foreign power during so many ages, have remained always unmixed, and have retained unaltered their ancient habits and institutions. This people, who have attained a considerable degree of civilization, though in a form quite different from the European nations, present a highly interesting subject of contemplation. In their external form, the Hindoos, though, by the action of the climate, rendered as black as the negro, have otherwise nothing of the negro aspect. Neither do they exhibit the broad and flat visage, nor the other distinctive marks, of the Mongol race who people China and Eastern Tartary. Their form belongs to that variety termed, by Blumenbach, the Caucasian, and which includes also the people of Europe. Even from them they are distinguished by a peculiar delicacy and exility of shape, suggesting the idea of a refined, and even effeminate people. The races, however, bred to war, who inhabit the mountains and the western tracts, are of a bodily constitution much more hardy and athletic. -The manners of the Hindoos, still more than their persons, bespeak peculiar refinement. They are described as in a remarkable degree polished, graceful, and engaging; and in the whole intercourse of society, a politeness and urbanity reigns, much beyond what is observed in European circles. The impression made by them upon a stranger i that of a benevolent and amiable people. Those gentlemen, however, who have of late communicated the results of more intimate inspection, present a much less favorable picture. That outward politeness, it is said, soon resolves itself intO the smooth and interested servility which men acquire in courts and HINDOSTAN. 799 under despotic governments, by habitual intercourse with those on whom they are dependent. It is entirely prompted, therefore, by self-interest, which forms the basis of the Hindoo character, and is cherished without regard to any feelings of honor and dignity. These are entirely broken down by the influence of that despotism which, according to Mr. Grant, " is not only the principle of the government of Hindostan, but an original, irreversible, and fundamental principle in the very frame of society." In such a government, where men are excluded from the pursuits of ambition, and checked at least in any public or lively amusements, selfishness turns almost entirely into avarice; and this is described as quite the ruling pas sion in the breast of the Hindoo. It appears to be indulged with an almost total disregard of the principles of honor or honesty; the grossest breaches of which are so common, as to cause no surprise, and scarcely any indignation, even in those who suffer by them. In the same light do they regard that deliberate and systematic violation of truth, which seems rooted in the Indian character.' It is the business of all," says Sir John Shore, " from the ryot to the dewan, to conceal and deceive; the simplest matters of fact are designedly covered with a veil which no human understanding can penetrate. This extends even to a form of guilt, from which the religious, or rather the superstitious, habits of the nation, might have been expected to secure them. Perjury, the most deliberate and complete, marks every deposition made before an Indian court of justice. What involves the tribunals in particular perplexity is, that even those who mean well, and have truth to tell or to attest, think not that they do enough, unless they enforce it by false additional particulars; and it would thus be impossible for courts of justice to carry on their investigations, if they should reject evidence because it was combined with the most palpable falsehoods and perjuries. On a close inspection, too, much disappears of the mildness and quietude which are so conspicuous on the surface of the Hindoo character. Deadly feuds reign in the interior of villages; and, between those who have no motive to be on ceremony or on terms of courtesy with each other, violent wordy altercations often take place, seldom, however, proceeding to blows. After all, the Hindoo certainly possesses some good qualities; and, per haps, the late very unfavorable pictures are drawn chiefly from the populace of great cities, and from men otherwise placed in situations trying to human virtue. It is admitted that, in fidelity to a master or chief from whom they have received treatment at all kind, they are surpassed, and indeed equalled, by very few nations. Their religion enjoins, and it is admitted that they perform, very remarkable acts of beneficence; and to assert that these proceed merely from a mercenary view of purchasing heaven, would be to judge with rather a scanty measure of charity. The habits of Hindoo life are preeminently domestic. Respect for old age is carried to a great height; and, when parents are no longer capable of labor, they are supported by their children, and never allowed to become a burden on the public. Marriage is held as a perfectly indispensable part of life, without which a man would not be considered as possessing a regular place in society, or as qualified for exercising any important function. His marriage, and his marriage festival, are regarded as the most critical and splendid eras in the history of a IHindoo. Yet the wife, when obtained, is the object of very slight respect or regard. She is considered 800 HINDOSTAN. wholly unfit to be the companion of her husband, or even to be spoken to; and indeed care is taken to render her so. It is deemed disgraceful for her ever to open a book, to be able even to read a syllable, or to know anything of what is passing in the world. She is regarded merely as a sort of privileged slave, created only to obey and reverence her husband, and bound to view him with the most reverential awe. The religion of India, such as it is, reigns with unrivalled sway, and forms the basis of all its laws and institutions. It is not merely the object of internal meditation or occasional observance, but the guide in all the actions, outward and inward, small and great, of human life. This, however, which, in an enlightened and rational sense, might be considered as marking a peculiar excellence, is combined, in the vulgar at least, with habits of ignorance and superstition. Yet the Hindoo system fails not to comprise some very lofty elements; but these, being chiefly confined to the sacred books, which are inaccessible to the vulgar, have little influence on the general ideas of the nation. The Hindoo mythology is a system so vast and multifarious, that to introduce even a sketch would, within our limits, be scarcely possible. It is founded on the grand and philosophical idea of an immense all-pervading mind, from which the universe derived its existence. To this Nature, which is called the Brahm, or Brihm, they ascribe the most exalted attributes of power, wisdom, and beneficence. This being, however, is not represented as the active ruler of the universe, but as fixed in sublime and perpetual repose. IIe did not even, strictly speaking, create finite natures, but emitted them, as it were, out of his own substance, into which those which are most perfect will again be absorbed. Thus sprung the Hindoo triad, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, the supreme objects of popular worship. Brahma, though the highest in dignity, and manifesting even the qualities of the source from which he emanates, is comparatively little regarded, has no temples raised, and no national worship paid to him. Vishnu is the most active member of the triad. His nine fulfilled incarnations, and his tenth expected one, are prominent epochs in Hindoo mythology. On these occasions he appeared sometimes as a man, sometimes as a boar, a lion, or a tortoise, to deliver oracles, to destroy giants, and deliver the earth from the evils which oppressed it. In two of them he appeared as Rama and as Krishna, names which have almost superseded his own; and under the last appellation, by his extravagant amorous adventures, he has afforded ample theme to the luxuriant fancy of the Hindoo poets. As Vishnu is called the preserver and savior, so Siva bears the title of a destroyer, and in that character has a numerous class of reculiar worshippers. He is usually represented under a form calculated to inspire terror, of gigantic size, naked, riding on a bull, his eyes inflamed, and serpents hanging from his ears like jewels. Wars with the gods and extermination of giants form the leadingsevents of his history, which, as well as his worship, comprises some peculiarly indecent adventures and observances. Among inferior deities, the first place is held by Indra, bearing the lofty title of "king of heaven." This high place is maintained only by perpetual contests with Asuras and Raksasas, the giants and Titans of India. He is even liable to be ejected by Bramins skilled in mighty magic, or by a king who can sacrifice an hundred horses that have never felt the rein. Other objects of worship are Kartikeya, god of war; Surya, the sun; HINDOSTAN. 801 Pavana, the god of the winds; Varuna, of the waters; Yama, the holy king who judges the dead-a green man in red garments, and of terrible aspect, who keeps his court in the deepest mountain recesses, and at the hour of death extorts shrieks of terror from the guilty Hindoo. Juggernaut, or Juggannatha, considered an earthly deity, is distinguished by crowded pilgrimages, and by the frightful character of the worship paid to him. The rivers of India are also accounted divinities, particularly the Ganges, which is supposed to descend from heaven, and the affusion of its waters to purify from all sin. That the lowest forms of superstition may not be wanting, the worship of animals is extremely prevalent. The cow, above all, is held in deep and general reverence, and by many families one is even kept for the mere purpose of worshipping it. The religious observances of the Hindoos do not tend to give a higher idea of their wisdom than the creed on which they are founded. India is covered with temples, but those recently erected display nothing of that art or even of that magnitude, which astonish us in those of Egypt and Greece. A temple may be built for ninety dollars; and the largest does not cost more than five hundred, or contain above three apartments. The rich seek to distinguish themselves by planting a number together; one pious lady has covered a plain near Burdwan with no less than 108 temples. Every temple must have its image, made of gold or silver, or in default of these, of iron, brass, lead or tin, sometimes even only of clay and pottery. The deity is manufactured by the workers in these metals and materials, and without the display of any skill in the art of sculpture; after its completion, the Brahmins, by sundry ceremonies and invocations, are supposed to infuse the spiritual character. The person who builds the temple makes a grant for the support of its servants, among whom, besides Brahmins, it is necessary, in many parts of India, that there should be a certain number of courtezans; a truly singular instance of depravity in a people among whom female virtue is otherwise respected. The religious festivals are often prolonged for several days, with music, dancing, revelry, and various excesses which are proscribed by Hindoo manners on all other occasions. The rage for pilgrimage is universal, and is in itself, indeed, rather the most venial form of superstition, since it affirds considerable opportunities both of information and, commerce. The great periodical festivals at Hurdwar and Juggernaut attract millions, but are often accompanied with considerable sacrifice of human life. The bloody scenes at Juggernaut are well known; in these the frantic victims of superstition throw themselves under the wheels of the car in which that idol is drawn furiously along, and fondly imagine that they thus secure a happy futurity. Another mode of religious suicide is by drowning in holy waters, particularly those of the Ganges, and at the island of Sagur. Parents sacrifice their children to the Ganges, or to any power whom they wish to propitiate; but this savage practice was prohibited by the Marquis Wellesley, and his order has been obeyed without resistance or murmur. It is not known from what motive a race of Rajpoots, in the west, have been induced to immolate all their female children. The number of these victims has been estimated at nearly 20,000; and the effects of the benevolent exertions of Colonel Walker for the suppression of this horrid practice, which were, at least in a great measure, successful, have not been permanent. Religious feeling, however, certainly enters into that fatal sacrifice by which the 51 802 HINDOSTAN. Indian tvidows are induced, and sometimes even compelled, to sacrifice themselves on the funeral pile of their husbands. This practice also, was, in 1829, prohibited by a proclamation of Lord William Bentinck; a measure applauded by all the enlightened IIindoos, though it has excited considerable discontent among the bigoted adherents of the ancient superstition. The various forms of penance and self-infliction, form another mode cf propitiating the favor of the Deity, and of obtaining with the vulgar the character of sanctity. These, always more or less prevalent among superstitious nations, are carried by the Hindoos to an extent elsewhere unparalleled. The Indian Yogues, or Fakers, bury themselves in the depth of woods, allow their hair and their nails to grow, and their persons to be covered with filth, till they almost cease to present any vestige of humanity. Others remain for years fixed in one painful position, with the arm raised above the head, till the limbs become shrivelled or distorted. Instances have been given of persons who buried themselves under ground, leaving only a narrow tube by which they might breathe, and by which food might be introduced. A long course of such austerities is imagined to invest them not only with the highest character of sanctity, but even with power over the invisible world; and stories are related of mortals who have thus ejected potent deities from their place in the sky. A more obvious advantage is derived from the admiration of the multitude, who lavish not only homage but gifts on these uncouth devotees; and, as a certain period is supposed to complete the merit of the penance, they obtain time to enjoy its fruits, and often abandon themselves to every species of licentious indulgence. The ideas of a future state present also a strong and peculiar character under the Hindoo mythology. The human mind being considered an emanation from the Brahm, or supreme mind, they have adopted, to account for its pre-existence, the doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls, which is diffused over the whole East. Under this system, the souls of all animals are supposed to be those of men thus degraded, in punishment of their sins, but capable, after many ages, of regaining their pristine condition. In a cow, or a dog, they recognize, perhaps, a deceased friend or ancestor; and are thus led to treat them with a tenderness characteristic of the nation. This weak-ess they often carry to a ridiculous hleiht, keeping hospitals for aged and even noxious creatures. Their cr.eeds afford also, for the reward of the good, a variety of heavens, glitterincg with gold and precious stones, watered by crystal streams, and affording in abundance pleasures not always of the purest nature. The places of future punishment are in like manner multiplied, and filled with various species of torture; such as being burnt with hot irons, dragged through thorns, bitten by snakes, or thrown into vessels of liquid fire. The deeds, a-cording to which these rewards or punishments are awarded, compose the moral code of the Hindoo. As it includes all the elementary principles of hmnan duty, it has, no doubt, to a great extent, a salutary influence. Too great a proportion, however, of the actions to which merit is attached, consists merely of outward idle ceremonies and absurd penances; and, in particular, the bestowing of gifts upon Brahmins, is a duty diligently in culcated by these reverend instructors. Religion has evidently been the main agent in causing that distribution into (castes which forms the most prominent feature in Hindoo society. In HINDOSTAN. 803 all half-civilized communities, aristocratic distinctions are carried to an ex treme height; but nowhere is the distinction between man and man ren dered so broad and so monstrous as by this institution. In Egypt, and other ancient countries, a similar distinction appears to have existed, but was never so strong nor so permanent. A greater variety are enumerated by the Greek writers, as existing in their time among the Hindoos; but at present there appear to be only four prominent castes-the Brahmins, or priests; Cshatryas, or military class; the Vaisyas, or merchants; and the Sudras, or laborers. The functions and station of all these are fixed by their birth in the most decided manner. The Brahmins hold, beyond all comparison, the first place in point of dignity, and are regarded by the other classes with profound and spontaneous veneration. Yet no established provision is made by the public for supplying them with even the means of subsistence. Their ordinary dependence is upon alms; and to this mode of support they have given such a lustre, that over all India he who receives alms is considered as ranking higher than he who bestows them. This situation, at once powerful and dependent, is not favorable to the character of the Brahmins, who are led to employ their influence over a superstitious people entirely to the furtherance of their private views. The bestowal of copious gifts upon a Brahmin, and his consequent benediction, are represented as effacing every sin, and securing the most ample blessings. His curse is the forerunner of the most dreadful evils: it has been represented as sufficient to strike its victim dead on the spot. At marriages, funerals, and on other great festal occasions, the rich Hindoos strive to distinguish themselves by large donations to Brahmins, of cloth, cows, rice, gold, and whatever is esteemed most valua ble. Their influence is augmented by the use of mantras, or mighty words, deemed to have power even over invisible creatures, as well as by the discernment of the lucky and unlucky times and modes for doing all things. A prince or great man, thus reckons it indispensable to keep near him some eminent Brahmins, to be his guide in all the actions and emergencies of life. The Cshatryas, though inferior to the Brahmins, rank high in public estimation. The name signifies " sons of kings," and implies a boast of their descent from the ancient Rajahs. In their persons, they are handsome, tall and athletic; but they are generally destitute of principle; and many of them practice the trade of robbery on a great scale. The Vaisyas, or mercantile class, are numerous in the cities, particularly of the coast, where they bear the title of Baniang. Though their character is often disgraced by deceit and low cunning, some of them maintain a high character for mercantile talent and probity, and accumulate im mense fortunes. In the interior their situation is more equivocal; they are found acting in various capacities, and many even serve as mercenaries in the Mahratta armies, or in the British service. The Sudras include the ryots, or cultivators of the ground, and also most of those engaged in handicraft trades. Though generally ranked below the Vaisyas, they do not altogether admit their inferiority; many of them acquire considerable wealth, fnd maintain a respectable place in society. There are, moreover, a number of small detached classes formed by the mixture of the four primary ones, and called the Burrensuniker, by whom most of the handicraft trades are exercised. 804 HINDOSTAN. A class of outcast beings yet remains, whom Hindoo society excludes, and to whom it denies the common rights of humanity. These consist of those persons who, from a neglect or violation of any of those minute observances which are necessary to preserve caste, have been expelled from any of the four classes above mentioned. From that moment the individual is deserted by his nearest relations, is excluded from all the charities and social connections of life; he forfeits even his property, and is commonly forced to flee into distant exile. The Pariahs in the south, form a class ot hereditary outcasts. No human beings exist in a more lost and deplorable state. It is contamination to enter their house, or eat any victuals prepared by Pariahs; nay, some consider themselves polluted by their very touch. They are confined in the towns to separate quarters, and employed, in the rudest and most disgusting labor. In this degraded condition, it is but too natural that they should lose all sense of character, and, by filth, intoxication, and other excesses, justify, in some degree, the contempt in which they are held. The strictness and uniformity of the Indian system does not wholly prevent the rise of sectarian distinctions. The Vishnuvites and Sivites, without an absolute separation, have each adopted a train of opposite worship and observances. Contrary to the toleration generally prevalent in India, they engage in violent quarrels, which often come to blows, on the merits of their respective systems. The Vishnuvites lead a wandering, irregular life, like gipsies. The Jains are entire separatists. Instead of one supreme being, they worship mortals exalted into deities; but their habits of life are strict and austere. The Boodhists, or followers of Boodh, profess a creed somewhat similar, but with a much more entire separation. Originating in or near India, they have been almost expelled from that country, but have obtained the supreme religious sway in Thibet, Tartary and the whole east of Asia. Considering the Hindoos as a refined and wealthy people, it seems surprising that their architectural monuments should at present be of so humble a character. Even their temples, on which a superstitious people might have been expected to spare neither cost nor art, are immensely numerous, indeed, but both small in size and rude in structure. This character does not apply to the ancient religious edifices. The pagoda of Tanjore, and the mighty excavations of Ellora and Elephanta, present features which may rival the most splendid of those found in other Oriental empires. Temples erected even in the small Rajpoot principalities, display a beauty rivalling those of ancient Egypt and even of Greece. Colonel Tod conceives, indeed, that Hindoo art has undergone a progressive degeneracy; and the more ancient the specimens are, they are always the more valuable. Since the sway of Mahometan nations was established in India, all the finest structures have been reared by them, and in their own peculiar style. The mosques and tombs constructed by Akbar, Shah Jehan, and Aurengzebe, rank with the most splendid specimens of Saracenic art. The palaces are also magnificent, yet built in a light and airy style, rather resembling pavilions. They are contrived for the admission of air from every point of the compass: they have spacious halls, long galleries, projecting roofs, and terraces open to the sky, with accommodation for sleeping there when the weather permits. They enclose shaded courts, gardens full of trees, marble baths, jets d'eau, arbors; everything which can prevent HINDOSTAN. 805 the heat from being painfully felt. The great display of wealth is in the furniture, particularly in the fabrics of silk and cotton ornamented with gold, which are either spread on the floor and seats, or hung round the walls. The throne of the Mogul was estimated at ~4,000,000 sterling, made up by diamonds and other jewels, received in gifts during a long succession of ages. Meantime the habitations of the ordinary class are of the humblest description, rudely composed of canes and earth, and roofed with thatch. Irregular collections of these hovels, like clusters of villages crowded together, form the main composition of the greatest Mogul capitals, the splendor of which consists wholly in a few great streets or squares, formed by the houses of the grandees. The vestments of the Hindoos are suited to the climate, and composed of the manufactures of the country; they consist of long flowing robes of cotton, both loose and light. In some of the higher regions only, coarse woollens of home manufacture are preferred. The clothes worn by the higher ranks do not differ much, unless in their superior fineness; but the rank of the wearer is indicated by a profusion of jewels, embroidery, and gilding, the display of which caused the Mogul court in its glory to be regarded as without a parallel in the world. The fallen princes and soubahs, who have risen upon its ruins, console themselves by maintaining as much of this parade as their reduced revenues will support. In regard to the diet, the Hindoos practice abstemiousness more than any other nation; and this from feelings not merely of duty, but of pride. The man who consumes, or even tastes, animal food or spirituous liquors, is considered by all the higher castes as an impure and degraded being, who must be thrust out from among them, and doomed to mingle with the vilest of his race. Rice and water suffice for the food of the purest classes, and scarcely any who have the slightest pretension to caste will admit within their lips a morsel of beef. The scruple diminishes as we descend; but it is only among the outcast classes that intemperance is found to prevail. The Mahometans, though by no means so scrupulous, are yet temperate. Their chief luxury is fruit, the best of which, being brought from the mountainous regions round India, is seen only at the tables of the great. The more important of the vegetable productions of India are cotton, indigo, sugar-cane, cajeput oil, caoutchouc, rice, wheat, barley, pepper, ginseng, sandalwood, spikenard, and gigantic bamboos and palms. The chief rice country is Bengal, which produces a surplus for exportation; but rice of superior quality is also grown in smaller quantities elsewhere, particularly in the western provinces. Timber of all kinds is every where abundant; the forests are numerous and magnificent, and cover a large portion of the country. The maritime provinces produce teak, ebony, and many other species of trees; the interior produces the saul, sissor, bamboos, and rattans, with a great variety of plants which yield excellent materials for cordage. The northern and hill provinces yield at one season European grains, and at another those that are peculiar to the tropics. ]But the most remarkable vegetable production of India is the banyan tree, (ficus nladica,) the branches of which send out shoots, which fall to the ground and fix themselves there, becoming in time large trunks, and forming a grove around the parent stem. A famous banyan 806 HINDOSTAN. tree has been often mentioned as growing on an island in the Nerbuddah; and one in Mysore is said to cover an area of 100 yards in diameter. India produces many of the most interesting forms of animal life. The elephant ranges wild in the deep forests and jungles of the eastern and southern provinces, and is domesticated throughout the peninsula, where it is still used to swell the gorgeous parade of the court, and to form the humblest of drudges. Wild elephants are particularly numerous in Assam, where they move about in large herds; and from 700 to 1,000 are yearly exported from that province. Its huge rival, the rhinoceros, is also found in the thickest parts of the forests of Bengal, but has never been trained to any useful employment. The camel abounds in the sandy regions of the northwest; where it is used as the ordinary beast of burden. Deer, of many species and varieties, are found among the mountains and forests; also antelopes, wild boars, hysenas, jackals, foxes, hares, squirrels, porcupines, hedgehogs, andmonkeys, the last being met with in great variety, and multiplied to a vast extent through the superstition of the Hindoos, who consider them as sacred animals. Bears abound in all the wooded mountains; wolves are also numerous in the northern provinces. The wild dogs of the Himalayas are remarkable animals, in form and color like a fox, though larger; they hunt in packs, give tongue like dogs, have a very fine scent, and by force of numbers they are said at times to destroy the tiger. But, of all the animals of India, those of the feline tribe are the most remarkable, as well for their beauty as for their size, strength and fierceness. The lion is found chiefly in the northern provinces, near the borders of the plains; but the tiger abounds in all the forests and jungles throughout the country, even up to the glaciers of the Himalayas, and is the grand object of pursuit with sportsmen. Leopards, ounces and panthers, of different varieties, are also numerous; one species of leopard, the chittah or cheetah. is employed for hunting wild deer. The birds of India are, in many cases, both splendid and curious. Those of the parrot tribe are the most remarkable for beauty, and for the variety of species; eagles are numerous among the Himalayas, also vultures, hawks, and falcons; many other birds are common, as herons, cranes, storks, flamingoes, pea-fowl, pheasants, geese, swans, partridges, quails, pigeons, gulls, plovers, wild ducks, and the common domestic fowls; the jungle-cock of India is believed to be the original parent of the common cocks and hens of Europe. Reptiles are numerous; serpents swarm in the gardens, and even intrude into the houses; some are comparatively harmless, but of others the bite is speedily fatal. Water snakes are so particularly numerous along the coasts, that seamen used to ascertain their approach to land by the appearance of those animals. Alligators abound in the rivers and tanks, and particularly among the creeks of the Sunderbunds, along with a great variety of amphibious animals and fishes; the shark infests the mouths of the rivers, as well as the sea-coast, and grows to an enormous size. Agriculture throughout India is in the lowest condition; the implements used are of the rudest kind, and the cultivator follows the routine of his forefathers, without ever dreaming of improvement. The great fertility of the soil generally insures a sufficient supply of food; but so dependent is vegetation, in this hot climate, upon the supply of moisture, that an unusual continuance of dry weather sometimes occasions HINDOSTAN. 807 dreadful famines. Tanks or artificial ponds, and wells, are spread in countless numbers over every tract of cultivated country; and the former being often of great extent, and maintained by strong dams, present an interesting proof of the power of human skill and industry in averting an evil so incident to the climate, and supplying the thirsty soil that moisture of which it is deprived by the long droughts of a tropical region. European skill and capital are now, to a large extent, applied to the production of indigo and opium, principally in Bahar and Malwah; and tea is cultivated in Upper Assam, where it is already grown of good quality, and may be raised to almost any extent which the market may require. The cultivation of the indigo plant occupies above a million of acres, yielding an annual produce of the value of two or three millions sterling. Silk is the next important article. There are in India three species of mulberry-tree, and two kinds of silk worm; the silk districts, which are in Bengal, are all situated between the parallels of 220 and 260 N. and longitude 86~ and 900 E. Opium is produced in Molwah and Bahar; and in 1836 was exported, for the purpose of being smuggled into China, to the enormous extent of 26,018 chests, valued at 17,106,903 dollars. For many ages India was famous for the weaving of silk, cotton, and goat's wool, particularly for muslins and calicoes; but since the opening of the trade in 1813, the introduction of British manufactured goods has almost entirely ruined the Hindoo manufacturers, without supplying a substitute for their employment. In woollen textures, iron work, and earthenware, there are few nations more rude or less successful. The maritime trade centres in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras; but the people of Mandivee, in Cutch, likewise carry on a great trade; and from Curachee, in Sinde, caravans of camels convey large quantities of goods towards Cabul, Candahar, and other places to the northwest of India; bringing back in return the produce of these countries for exportation. Upwards of 1,000 Arabian ships also arrive annually in India between the monsoons; by which an extensive commerce is maintained in a quiet imperceptible manner, through the means of obscure native agents, who freight the Arab boats; and thus many thousand tons of British manufactured goods are bought from the merchants, and find their way into the heart of the most remote and most barbarous countries. But besides the commerce of Europe, a considerable trade is carried on with the Persian Gulf and Arabia; and with China and the Asiatic Islands the trade is also great. A large quantity of wool is now exported from Bombay, the produce of the sheep pastured along the Indus and other districts beyond the British frontier. The increased safety of communication which now exists throughout all India is fast producing its natural results, in a rapidly increasing internal commerce. Inland customs are also now abolished, and traders may carry their goods from one extremity of the country to the other, without being pillaged at every step, as formerly, by custom-house officers. India is divided politically into a number of states, which may be arranged into five classes: —1. Territories under the immediate government of the East India Company; 2. Subject States, left to the rule of the native princes, but under the protection and complete control of the Company; 3. States under British protection, or alliance, but without interference of their internal governments; 4. Independent States; and 5, Colonies of other nations except the British. 808 HINDOSTAN. CALCUTTA, from a few straggling cottages in a wooded marsh, has been raised by Britain ta be the capital of India. In 1696, the English were allowed by Aurengzebe to establish a factory, and in the following year to secure it by a fort. In 1757, it had not above seventy English houses, when it was taken and destroyed by Surajah Dowlah. Lord Clive, having become master of Bengal, made Calcutta the capital, and founded a fort, which has cost about ~2,000,000, and is very strong, though requiring at least 10,000 troops for its defence. Calcutta has from that time been perpetually increasing, and is supposed to contain 500,000 inhabitants; while, within a radius of twenty miles, there are upwards of 2,000,000. The situation was originally very unhealthy, being on the midst of forests and swamps; and though these have been in a great measure cleared away, it still suffers by the damp breezes from the Sunderbunds. The English town, or suburb, called Chouringee, consists of 4,300 houses. Though built only of brick, it is elegant, and even superb: the houses are handsome, covered with fine plaster, called chunam, each being detached, and surrounded by a wall. Strangers ascending the river are particularly struck by the number of elegant villas, with which all the environs are studded. The Black Town, comprising much the greater part of Calcutta, consists, as in other parts of India, of miserable cottages of mud and bamboo. The government house is a very splendid and costly structure; and considerable state is maintained, though not to that degree, which can rival the parade of Asiatic courts. Serampore is a neat thriving little town, at which is a Danish settlement. This place is interesting as the seat of the Baptist missionaries, who have distinguished themselves by such learned and extensive labors in the pious task of translating the Scriptures into all the languages of India, and even of China. About twenty miles above Calcutta is Chandernagore, noted as the capital of the settlements belonging to the French in Bengal. It surrendered, however, to Lord Clive; and, though restored, has never regained any importance. Six miles higher is Hoogly, for several centuries the port of Bengal, and the seat first of the Portuguese, and afterwards of the British and Dutch factories. It ranked at one time among the greatest Indian emporia; but, on the rise of Calcutta, gradually lost its splendour, thongh it is still populous and considerable. The city of Benares is universally accounted by the Hindoos to be ancient and holy beyond all others. It may be said to form the grand depository of the religion and learning of this vast country. Its sacred character, which is supposed to insure the salvation of all who die within its precincts, cannot fail, in a nation devoted to pilgrimage, of rendering Benares a scene of extensive and crowded resort. Its own population, long supposed to exceed 500,000, has been found by a late census not to be more than 200,000; but it is augmented, at solemn seasons, by pilgrims, to a much greater number. Benares, in fact, presents a more lofty and imposing aspect than any other Indian city. Its houses, instead of being a mere collection of mud and straw huts, are most of them built of brick, and some of them five or six stories high; so that they make a very magnificent appearance, especially from the opposite side of the river. Partly, however, with a view to coolness, the streets are very narrow, with small windows, and terraced roofs. Benares contains also temples and mosques in vast numbers; though, as in the case of other modern Hindoo structures, not on a scale commensurate with the grandeur of the country acd city. HINDOSTAN. 809 The city of Allahabad is extensive, but not distinguished by any peculiar magnificence or ornament. Its chief feature consists in the fortified palace begun by the emperor Akbar, on which upwards of 12,000,000 rupees are supposed to have been expended. It is of surprising extent, having one side on the Jumna, and the other near the Ganges, which rivers here unite. It was considered by the Hindoos as impregnable; but, not being found proof against cannon, the English have fortified it in the European manner, and have made it a grand military depot for the upper provinces. On the banks of the Jumna, near the northern frontier, is found, mouldering in decay, the city of Delhi. It was, in early times, a great Hindoo metropolis, under the name of Indraput; but Shah Jehan, in the middle of the seventeenth century, made it the chief seat of Mogul dominion, and such it afterwards continued. Here, in 1806, died Shah Allam, the last of that mighty dynasty, who could be said to enjoy any portion of real empire. His son Akbar is still allowed by the British to bear that great name, and to receive a considerable proportion of the revenues of the province, which enables him to live in some splendor. What remains of Delhi is still rather a handsome city; the streets, though narrow, contain many good houses, built of brick and partly of stone. It contains some manufactures of cotton cloth, and is the rendezvous of caravans which maintain the communication of India with Cabul and Cashmere. Delhi contains the most splendid modern edifices by which any part of the empire is adorned. The mosque called the Jumna Musjeed, erected by a daughter of Aurengzebe, of red stone inlaid with marble, is considered decidedly the finest structure in India dedicated to Moslem worship. The Cuttub Minar, reared by one of the Patan emperors named Altumsh, is 242 feet high, and considered by Bishop Heber the finest tower he ever saw. It rises in five stages, the three lowest of which are of fine red granite, the fourth of white marble. The summit commands a most extensive prospect. Lahore was one of the most beautiful cities of India, when, under the early Mogul princes, it was made an intermediate residence between Cabul and the interior. Akbar, Jehangire, and Ferokshere successively contributed to its embellishment. The mausoleum of Jehangire, only surpassed by the Taje Mahal at Agra, is still nearly entire; and there are ample remains of the palace adorned in the highest style of eastern magnificence., Its terraced roof, covered with a parterre of the richest flowers, suggests the idea of-the hanging gardens of Babylon. All, however, went rapidly to ruin, under the multiplied desolations which Lahore has suffered; though its situation, on the fertile banks of the river, and on the high road from India to Persia, must always secure to it a certain degree of population and wealth. Surat, at the first arrival of Europeans, was the greatest emporium of India, and at present it ranks scarcely second to Calcutta. The population is usually, though perhaps with some exaggeration, rated at 600,000. It has suffered by the desolation which has overtaken many of the neighboring districts, and by the British having established the chief seat of commerce at Bombay. It still, however, carries on extensive manufactures of silks, brocades, and fine cotton stuffs; while it exports also the fabrics of other parts of Guzerat and even the shawls of Cashmere. 810 HINDOSTAN. Bombay is the western capital of British India. This city is situated on a small island connected by an artificial causeway with the larger one of Salsette. It commands a beautiful view over a bay, diversified with rocky islets, and crowned by a back-ground of lofty and picturesque hills. Tanna, in Salsette, was the original settlement of the Portuguese. Attracted by the fine harbor of Bombay, they erected a small fort there; but none of their establishments on this coast were allowed to rival Goa. In 1661, Bombay was ceded to Charles II., as part of Queen Catharine's portion; two or three years after, a settlement was established, and in 1686 the chief seat of English trade was transferred thither from Surat. Since that time, Bombay, notwithstanding considerable vicissitudes, has continued on the whole in a state of constant increase, and.has become the great emporium of western India, with a population of 220,000. Of these, about 8000 are Parsees, the most wealthy of the inhabitants, and by whom its prosperity is mainly supported. The vicinity of Bombay is distinguished by the most ancient and remarkable of the religious structures formed by the Hindoos. The most celebrated is that of Elephanta, on a small adjoining island of the same name. It is situated about three-quarters of a mile up the side of a mountain, from the rocks of which it is entirely excavated. The entry is by four rows of massive columns, forming three magnificent avenues. The interior is 220 feet long by 150 broad, but little more than fifteen feet in height. The most remarkable object consists in three colossal heads, which have been supposed to be those of the Hindoo Trinity; but it seems now agreed that they are only different representations of Siva. The cave of Kenneri, on the larger island of Salsette; and those of Carli, on the opposite shore of the continent, present phenomena almost equally striking. The mountain of Kenneri, according to Mr. Forbes, appears to have had a city hewn in its rocky sides, capable of containing many thousand inhabitants. There are tanks, terraces, flights of steps; every thing that could conduce to their accommodation: yet the ground is now never trodden by a human footstep, except that of the curious traveler. There is a cavern-temple, the interior of which, though less spacious than that of Elephanta, is loftier, and adorned with more numerous ranges of columns. The cave-temple at Carli is on a still greater scale than that of Kenneri. Social life, throughout Malabar, presents a varied and often very peculiar aspect. The original structure of Hindoo society has not been altered by foreign conquests, though varied by some casual migrations; but it has assumed within itself some forms decidedly in contrast with those which it elsewhere exhibits. The tyrannical prejudices of caste are carried to a more violent and inhuman pitch than in the rest of India. If a cultivator (tiar) or fisherman (mucua) presume to touch one of the nairs, or military class, the nair is considered fully justified in killing him on the spot. The same fate befalls the paria who ventures even to look him in the face, and does not, on seeing him at a distance, instantly take flight. This last race are all slaves; a condition not common in the rest of Hindostan. But there is another class of sufferers, whom a barbarous pride has stripped beyond any other of the most common rights of humanity. The niadis are excluded from all human intercourse, forced to wander in unfrequented places, without any means of support, except the alms of passengers. HINDOSTAN. 811 These they endeavor to attract, by standing at a little distance from the public road, and " howling like hungry dogs," till the charitable wayfarer lays on the ground some donation, which, after his departure, they hastily carry off. While these unhappy races are kept in the lowest misery, the nairs, or nobles, revel in extravagant pomp and gaiety. This remarkable body are, in the Hindoo system, classed as sudras, though they rank immediately under the brahmins, the intermediate classes being here wanting. Indeed, they are manifestly equal in dignity with the cshatryas of North-western Hindostan. Their most peculiar but least honorable characteristic consists in the arrangements with regard to the nair females. For them a system of the most shameless profligacy is marked out, and enforced even by sacred sanctions. They are married at ten years of age, and have an aliment transmitted to them by their husbands, whom they must not, however, see, or hold any intercourse with: a single instance of such connexion would be considered scandalous. They reside with their mother, and, after her death, with their brother; and they are allowed, and regard it an honor, to attract as many lovers as possible, provided they be of equal or superior rank. It is thus considered a ridiculous question to ask a nair who is his father. The only real parentage rests with the brother of the wife, whose children are considered as belonging to him, and to whom all his property and titles are transmitted. Madras has no harbor; but a mere road, through which runs a strong current, and which is often exposed to dangerous winds. On the beach breaks so strong and continual a surf, that only a peculiar species of large light boats, the thin planks of which are sewed together with the tough grass of the country, can, by the dexterous management of the natives, be rowed across it. For the conveyance, also, of letters and messages, they employ what is called a catamaran, consisting merely of two planks fastened together, with which they encounter the roughest seas with wonderful address, and, when swept off by the waves, regain it by swimming. The sums, however, now invested in the various edifices of Madras as the capital of the presidency, are so great, that to transfer the seat of government to another place would be out of the question. Fort St. George, planned by Mr. Robins, a celebrated engineer, and placed at a small distance from the sea, is a strong and handsome fortress, not nearly on so great a scale as Fort William at Calcutta, but more advantageously situated, and defensible by a smaller number of men. The public offices and storehouses form a range of handsome buildings along the beach, their upper stories being adorned by colonnades resting on arched bases. With this exception, European Madras is merely an assemblage of country houses situated in the midst of gardens, and scattered over an extent of several miles. The houses consist usually only of one story, and are of a light and elegant structure, having porticoes and verandas supported by columns covered with that fine polished composition of shell limestone called chunam. The diligent hand of art has covered with verdure a somewhat arid and ungrateful soil; but fruits and flowers are still raised with some difficulty. The Black Town is extensive, and the scene which it presents, of minarets and pagodas mixed with trees and gardens, is striking from a distance; but the interior, like that of most Asiatic towns, consists of poor bamboo cottages thatched with leaves. There are, however, some great native merchants, who have splendid mansions in the Oriental style. 812 HINDOSTAN. Proceeding southwards, we arrive at Pondicherry, the seat of French empire in India. This empire, founded in 1749 by M. Dupleix, presented for some time a brilliant aspect, and, seconded by native alliances, threatened to subvert the foundations of British power in the East. Although the French were, however, skillful in their negotiations with the native powers, their intolerant spirit led them to refuse to the people the free exercise of their religion, which must have rendered it next to impossible for them to hold any large territorial possessions. In fact, towards the close of the war of 1756, Pondicherry fell into the hands of the British; and, though restored by subsequent treaties, never, on the renewal of war, made any effectual resistance. Pondicherry was raised by the French from a village to be the handsomest European city in India. It contained many fine houses in the European style; and the high culture of the vicinity, the numerous canals crossed by neatly constructed bridges, the roads planted with trees, and partly adorned by statues, gave to the surrounding district the appearance of a great garden. The inhabitants have suffered much by repeated hostilities, and, being unfavorably situated for trade, have been unable to retrieve their affairs. In this last respect, Pondicherry is surpassed by Cuddalore, a well-built town, at the mouth of a considerable river. In war, it has followed the fortunes of Pondicherry; though its capture in 1783 was not effected without very great loss on the part of the British. The kingdom of Tanjore is an important territory, consisting of the delta of the Cavery, a large river, which, rising in the western Ghauts on the borders of Malabar, traverses MIysore, and falls into the sea, after a course of 400 miles. The Hindoos attach to its stream a peculiarly sacred character. At Trichinopoly, about 100 miles above the sea, it separates into two great branches, one retaining the original name, and another called Coleroon. Numerous channels derived from these convert the region into a delta, not surpassed by any part of Egypt or Bengal in culture and fertility. Art has been industriously employed to improve these natural advantages. Immense mounds have been erected, to prevent the tendency shown by the two channels at one place to reunite; and artificial canals convey to every quarter the benefits of irrigation. The chief produce consists of rice, grain, cocoanuts, and indigo, which are largely exported. The population introduced by Mogul conquest has never reached Tanjore, and the only Mahometans consist of a few refugees from Arabia. This country, therefore, has retained, almost entire, the ancient religion, constitution, and manners of India. It is particularly distinguished by the splendor of its pagodas and other edifices destined to religious worship. The city of Tanjore may be considered as the native capital of Southern India, and the rival of Benares in learning, splendor, and antiquity. Its pagoda is greatly celebrated, rising from the ground by twelve successive stages, and considered the finest specimen of that species of structure existing in India. A college is also attached to it. The place is six miles in circumference, and contains two large and strong forts, the smallest of which is about a mile in circumference, surrounded with a broad and deep ditch, cut in the solid rock. In one of these forts is the pagoda, and in the other the palace of the rajah, who is allowed at present to garrison both. Among other cities, our attention is arrested by Seringapatim, long the celebrated bulwark of Mysore, and the centre of its power. It is situated HINDOSTAN. 818 at the upper end of an island formed by the Cavery, here a large and rapid river, and is properly called Sri Ranga Patam, or the city of Sri Ranga, an appellation of Vishnu. Tippoo transferred hither the seat of government from Bangalore, the favorite residence of Hyder; but he did not display much skill either in strengthening or embellishing the place. Naked rock and dirty mud walls are the predominant features of the island; and the citadel forms an immense, unfinished, unsightly, and injudicious mass of building. The streets are narrow and confused, most of the houses mean, and even those of the chiefs not proportionate to their wealth, as Tippoo would allow no property in houses. Having no manufactures, it was almost entirely supported by the court and camp, the residence of which may have raised the population in its days of splendor to about 150,000. It did not appear to Dr. Buchanan to exceed 32,000. Bangalore was founded by iHyder, and rendered by him a place of considerable trade, consisting chiefly in the export of betel, pepper, and sandal wood. It manufactures also a considerable quantity of cloth for internal use. Neglected and oppressed, it has recovered its prosperity under the protection of the reigning dynasty. The fortifications, upon Indian principles, are accounted strong, but proved inadequate to resist the attack of British troops; a circumstance which disgusted Tippoo with the place; though he was unable, as we have seen, to establish another of greater strength. Bangalore, though a royal residence, contains no trace of any splendid building, except the mahal, or palace, which, only composed of mud, displays in its halls and courts a certain spacious magnificence and superficial ornament. The accommodations, however, are in many respects imperfect and inconvenient. The gardens appear to have been laid out with very great care. They are divided into square plots, each of which, according to the Mussulman fashion, has some plant or flower allotted to it, with which it is exclusively filled. The great and difficult operation is to water these gardens; and Tippoo, in the machinery for this purpose, employed such masses of masonry as to leave nothing but holes, as it were, through which the trees grow. The vine, the cypress, even the apple and peach, have been here cultivated with success. The town of Mysore, about nine miles from Seringapatim, had been the seat of the native dynasty, but was neglected under the Mahometan sovereigns. Since their downfall, both the fort and palace have been rebuilt, and, the rajah having made it his capital, a new and increasing city has been formed around them. The city of Cashmere, called anciently Serinagur, is the largest in the Afghan dominions, containing from 150,000 to 200,000. It extends three miles along the banks of the Jelum, in a situation, the beauty of which has been widely celebrated, particularly its lake, studded with numberless islands, green with gardens and groves, and having its banks environed with villas and ornamented grounds. Ceylon, an extensive, somewhat wild, but beautiful island, forms a close appendage to India, lying to the east of its southern extremity, whence it is separated by the Straits of Manaar. It is nearly three hundred miles in length, and 160 in its greatest breadth. The territory, along the western coast, is occupied by a somewhat extensive plain; beyond which, ranges, first of hills, and then of mountains, rise successively behind each other, and with their rugged surface cover a great extent of the island. They '\;fCc Ia'YeicTT \\ lirir: I!; \ \\ \\\\\\111 111 r \\\\\\\\11!' 1)! 3,;IhC\\Zn\\\\\iYEKilliiEWB ~rry\ -+7r53';t :_--\la""-""";Il~ —c-s=-pc ' W4 0;"' h t\ ii'"\STS1Qy: II rq, )I( / TNDIA LEOPA3ED -~-:~~~~~~~~~~~ i iRM -V IC - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -- - - - - - - - - ~ ~ ~ ~ -~3 —-~ a —- e- -- cLc- - - - ---— s` --— " —- L: -- - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ___ - - - - - - - - - -IP VIEVV~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ IN -: - 816 HINDOSTAN. do not, however, rise to any very lofty height; since Adam's Peak (the most elevated) is only 6,152 feet above the sea. These steeps are gener ally covered with extensive forests and dense underwood, which give to a great part of the island the character of jungle. The history of Ceylon is scarcely at all known previous to the arrival of the Portuguese in 1505, at which time they found the native sovereign defending himself with difficulty against the attacks of the Arabs. They at first merely exacted a tribute, but soon engaged in a series of warfare, which ended in driving the natives from Colombo and most of the other stations on the coast, and obliging them to take refuge in the interior. They settled in considerable numbers; and a pretty large body of their posterity, mingled with the natives, still survive. Ceylon, however, shared the lot of their other Indian possessions; and, in the course of the seventeenth century, after a series of bloody struggles, was wrested from thein by the Dutch. It remained in their possession, with the exception of a short occupation of Trincomalee by the British in 1782, till 1796, when an English expedition entirely subdued it; and by the peace of Amiens it was finally ceded to that power. In 1815 the British beat the king of Candy, occupied his capital in the mountainous interior of the country, and thus became entire masters of this fine island. It has been made a royal colony, not subject to the rule of the East India Company. The produce and wealth of Ceylon are not in proportion to its natural capacities. Much of its surface, indeed, is mountainous and craggy; and there are large sandy tracts along the coast. Rice, though almost the only object of native culture, is not raised in sufficient quantity for the support of the inhabitants. The most peculiar product is cinnamon, one of the most delicate of spices, and for which there exists an extensive demand in Europe. It is a species of laurel, from four to ten feet high, with numerous branches, and with a light porous wood. It grows spontaneously over a great part of the island; but that reared in gardens in the vicinity of Colombo is considered the best. The bark, which is the valuable part, is taken off when the plant is three years old, and requires no preparation except being spread out to dry. The cocoa-nut tree is also in great abundance; and its fruit, as well as coir, a species of rope manufactured from its husk, are staple exports. A great quantity of arrack is distilled from its juice. Animals, chiefly wild, are abundant; but the only valuable one is the elephant, which, in Ceylon, is considered of better quality than in any other country in the world: it is not, indeed, as tall as on the continent, but peculiarly active, hardy, and docile. No elephants are reared in a tame state; but they are easily caught in pits prepared for the purpose, and are tamed in eight or ten days. An uncommon variety of precious minerals are found in Ceylon; the ruby, the amethyst, the topaz, and even the diamond: but none of them are of fine quality. The population of Ceylon was estimated at about a million and a half, till, in 1814, a census of all the part then in possession of Britain gave only 49Q,000; and another, in 1825, of the whole island, exhibited only 754,000. These enumerations were probably somewhat defective, and the numbers are supposed to have since increased, and to amount now to about 900,000. The natives, called Cingalese, appear to partake of the character of those of Hindostan, Birmah, Siam, and the Oriental islands, with all of whom they hold intercourse. They are a fine and handsome race, FURTHER INDIA. 817 And in their manners polished and courteous; but they are indolent, and very little advanced in the arts and sciences. As in all countries border ing on India, the religion of Boodh is established. FURTHER INDIA. THis extensive region lies to the south-east of Hindostan, and south-west of China, is possessed by several distinct nations, and divided politically into various independent states and foreign settlements. It forms one geographical region, and as such, we shall first describe its general physical features, and then proceed to the particular description of the countries which it comprehends. This region forms a large peninsula, projecting from the borders of India and China southward into the Indian Ocean, and terminates in the long narrow promontory of Malacca. The surface is occupied with several ranges of mountains, which extend from north to south, forming between them wide valleys and maritime lowlands, which are drained and watered by large rivers, the remote sources of which are found in the mountain regions between India and China. The principal rivers, are the Irawaddy, Saluen or Thaluen, Meinam and May-kuang or river of Cambodia, all flowing in a general direction, from north to south, and emptying into the gulfs and bays of the southern coast. The shores are very irregular, and being lined with innumerable small island, some of them very small, the adjacent seas are difficult to navigate. With the exception of the Malays, who inhabit the southern promontory which bears their name, and the negro tribes who inhabit the interior of the same narrow tract, the whole of this extensive region is peopled by many nations of the same physical type, forming a sort of intermediate variety between the Mongol and Malay races, but more near resembling the former. They are in general, shorter than either the Chinese or Hindoos; they are robust, active, and well-proportioned, but not so graceful as their neighbors of the west; their complexion is a light brown; but in this there is great diversity. The face is flat, with high cheek bones; the hair abundant, black, lank and coarse, but the beard is scanty; and their language exhibits the same simplicity, poverty and deficiency with the monosyllabic languages of China and Thibet. The governments of all the native states are pure despotisms. Even the names of their emperors must not be pronounced during their lives, under pain of death; and these dread names are only confided to a small number of favorite courtiers. In Birmah, Siam and Anam, every man above twenty years of age, except priests and public functionaries, is obliged to devote not less than every third year of his life to the public service, either as a soldier or as laborer. The administrative forms among the Birmese and Siamese are of interminable slowness; but in Cochin-China the activity of the government is equally vigorous and rapid. The emperors of Anam and Siam acknowledge themselves vassals of China, and as such pay tribute to the emperor; but this is merely formal, for China has never interfered in 818 FURTHER INDIA. the affairs of either government. The savage tribes live under their respective chiefs, who are more or less oppressive; but some of them enjoy a considerable degree of liberty. The people have made but little progress in the useful or fine arts. They excel, nevertheless, in gilding; in a kind of varnished work, ornamented with rich mosaic; in mother-of-pearl; idols, from the smallest size to the most colossal; in certain kinds of gold and silver work; in common pottery, and in the building of ships and boats. The Cochin-Chinese are adepts in naval architecture and navigation; and in everything pertaining to the military art, in which they have been encouraged by the French. In all other respects, they are inferior; they cannot make cotton cloths, like the Hindoos; porcelain, like the Japanese; or silks, like the Chinese. The commerce of this region has of late years been rapidly developing itself, and its connection with foreign states has become much closer than formerly. The commerce of Siam, has long been monopolized by the Chinese, who are the merchants, navigators and seamen of the empire. Further India may be divided into six political regions, the names, extent and population of which are exhibited in the following table: States, Area in Square Miles. Population. Capitals. BiIRMA OR THE BIRMESE EMPIRE...........200,000........ 8,000,000...... Aa........150,000 KINGDOM OF SM.......................220000.......... 2,790,000......Bankok.....100,000 EMPIRE OF ANAM..........................120,000....... 10,000,000...... Hue......... 30000 COUNTRY or THE LAo....................280,000.......... 2,800,000......Zemmai.... 25,000 BRITISa TERRITORIES...................... 35,160......... 242,000......Amherst.... 1,000 MALACCA, OR THE MALAY STATES........... 72,000......... 200,000............ 9297,160 24,032,000 BIRMAH, OR THE BIRMESE EMPIRE. This country lies between 15~ 45' and 27~ 20' north latitude, and between 93~ and 99~ east longitude, being about 800 miles in length, and 300 in breadth, and containing an area of about 200,000 square miles. The southern portions of the country are low and champagne, the middle region elevated and hilly, and further north it is decidedly mountainous. It is watered by the Saluen, Setang, Irawaddy and Kyen-duen, all of which have a southerly course, marking the character of the country as a plain, inclined from north to south. Birmah has a sea coast of about 240 miles, extending from Cape Negrais to the mouth of the Saluen. It contains a large number of lakes, but the most extensive are situated at the north. Birmah is inhabited by many distinct nations and tribes, of whom so many as eighteen have been enumerated. Though differing in language, customs and religion, they have the same physical type, which is common to all the tribes which possess the country between Hindostan and China. The practice of tattooing obtains among the Birmese and Talains. With respect to dress the Birmese are well and not unbecomingly clad, but much of the body is left naked. The priests wear no hair on their heads, and are clad in a yellow garb, which for the laity to assume would be considered as nothing less than sacrilege; so peculiarly sacred, indeed, is this color, that it is not unfrequent to see a Birmese pay his devotions to an old garment of a priest hung out to dry, after undergoing a washing. A superficial education is general, and there is probably not more than one man in ten who is unable to read, an accomplishment indeedl'which is required by their religion. Science, however, is ih its lowest state of development KINGDOM OF SIAB. 819 and alchymy usurps the place of practical knowledge. Among the Birmese there may be said to exist seven classes of society, distinguished by their privileges and employments, viz: the royal family, the public officers, the priesthood, the merchants or "rich men," the cultivators and laborers, slaves and outcasts. The only hereditary class are the Thaubwas, the tributary princes of the subjugated country. The rest of the chief officers are appointed and dismissed at pleasure. Any subject, not a slave or outcast, may aspire to the first offices. The priests, called Phungyi or Rahan, are bound to a rigid celibacy, and are interdicted from intermeddling in politics and state affairs. As a body, they are virtuous, and extremely simple in their mode of life. The priests form an important and numerous order, and along with them may be classed the Thi-la-shau or nuns, who are generally old women. The temples and monasteries are splendid. structures, being covered profusely with carvings and paintings, varnished and gilded, but the materials consist principally of brick and mortar. The Birmese empire consists of two great divisions —Pegu, which comprises all the sea coast and the mouths of the rivers; and Ava, or Birmah Proper, which comprehends the upper country, and is the seat of the dominant people. Ava, the capital, stands on the left bank of the Irawaddy, and is surrounded by a brick wall 15} feet high, 10 feet thick, and 5z miles in circuit. The houses are generally mere huts, thatched with grass. Some of the dwellings of the chiefs are of wood, and tiled, and there are probably not more than half a dozen of brick or stone. The town has many temples, the tall, white and gilded towers of which give, in a distant view, a splendid and imposing appearance. Ragoon stands on the north bank of the eastern branch of the Irawaddy, twenty-five miles from the sea. It is the chief port of Birmah. About two miles from the river, is the great temple of Shwe-Dagong, of the shape of a speaking trumpet standing on its base, which is built of brick, and richly gilt all over. Its height is about 278 feet, and it is really a noble object. Pegu, the ancient capital of the country, when a separate kingdom, is nearly sixty miles further north, but is now almost entirely deserted. Itcontains the famous temple of Shoemadoo, or the Golden Supreme, a structure of the same kind as the Shwe-Dagong, and 331 feet high. THE KINGDOM OF SIAM. THIS kingdom is composed of Siam Proper, a portion of the country of Laos, a part of Cambodia, and the Malay States of Quedah, Patani, and Ligor. It is situated between 5~ and 290 north latitude, and 97~ and 105~ east longitude; measuring about 900 miles in length, and from 50 to 400 in breadth. The greater portion of the country is mountainous, but it contains also valleys, and near Bankok a rich alluvial plain, watered by the Meinam. The soil is fertile, yielding in abundance fruits, dye-wood, medicinal gums, and timber; but it is badly cultivated, and thinly inhabited. The coast on the Gulf of Siam is lined with many small islands, and that on the Bay of Bengal, extending in length 260 miles, includes the islands of JunkCeylon, Panjang, Langkawi, and Boutung. Siam Proper consists of the valley of the Meinam, which at the southern extremity does not exceed 60 820 FURTHER INDIA. miles broad, but it extends inland about 360 miles, and is bounded on both sides by high mountains. The climate and natural productions are much the same as those of Birmah. The government is a despotism of the most absolute kind. The name of the sovereign is confined only to a few individuals; in public he is mentioned as the c" sacred lord of heads," "sacred lord of lives," "the owner of all," "lord of the white elephant," " most exalted lord," infallible and infinitely powerful. Even the members of his body are spoken of in terms of adulation; everything belonging to or attached to his person is styled golden; to visit him is to approach to his magnificent majesty's golden feet, to speak to his golden ear, &c. The country is divided into districts, each of which is governed by a minister appointed by the king, aided by a governor and other officers; and the more distant provinces are placed under viceroys or rajahs. There appears to be no written law. All the people, except foreigners, are virtually slaves, and are obliged to give one year out of every three to the public works. The religion of Siam is Budhism, and the talapoins or priests are said to amount to 10,000. The services are read in the Palli language, which, however, is not understood by the people, and, indeed, scarcely by the priests themselves. But the most curious of their customs is, that every Siamese must be a priest for at least three months of his life. The Siamese belong to the Mongol race, and exhibit all the distinguishing features of that great division of the human family, physical and moral. Though active they are not warlike; they possess an inordinate selfesteem, which places them above all nations except the Chinese, whom they acknowledge as superiors, and to whom they have sometimes paid tribute, and the Birmese, whom they rank as their equals. All their superfluous wealth they devote to their temples, in order to secure the salvation of their souls. They have many vices; but they have also one cardinal virtue, filial affection, which is maintained through life with scrupulous exactness. The son never stands in the presence of his parents, nor takes a seat on a level with his father. Even his magnificent majesty humbles himself once a month, and appears before his mother on his knees and elbows. BANKOK, the capital, is situated on the Meinam, about twenty miles from the sea. It is irregular in plan, and everywhere intersected by car nals; the streets are narrow and filthy; the houses are only bamboo huts; but there are several richly gilt temples; and the palaces of the king, and his gardens, are large buildings in the Chinese style. Many of the people live in large boats ranged along the sides of the river and canals. Bankok is the principal seat of commerce. THE EMPIRE OF ANAM. The components of this empire are Tonquin, or Anam proper, CochinChina, the eastern and southern parts of Cambodia, and several islands in the Chinese Sea, along which it extends upwards of 1,200 miles. The country is naturally divided into two long narrow strips by a range of mountains which extend \in a direction parallel to the coast, from the borders of China to the mouth of the May-Kuang; Tonquin and CochinChina being to the east of the range, and Cambodia to the west. Cambodia occupies the lower part of the valley of the May-Kuang, with the EMPIRE OF ANAM. 821 alluvial plain or delta at its mouth, and a small portion of the coast of the Gulf of Siam. It is said to be a fertile champaign country, but no geoographical details respecting it are known. Cochin-China consists of a long narrow strip of land, extending more than 600 miles along the Chinese Sea, but nowhere exceeds 150 in breadth. It is a series of small transverse valleys, divided by so many spurs from the long range of mountains which forms its western boundaries. The coast is beautiful and grand; the shore is indented with numerous bays, and the mountains, which rise several thousand feet in height, are broken into numerous valleys and ravines. Tonquin expands to a much greater width than Cochin-China, and consists chiefly of a large alluvial plain watered by the Sang-Koi and other rivers. It is the only part of the empire that is rich in minerals, and produces large quantities of gold, silver, copper, and iron. The forests produce every kind of scented woods and most of the products of British India. Tea also grows between 100 and 160 north latitude. Cambodia produces gamboge, cardamoms, anise-seed, areca, indigo, pepper, sugar-cane, &c. Tonquin yields many kinds of varnish trees, areca, palms, &c. Cotton, rice, and mulberry, are almost universal. There is also a great variety of fine fruits, gingers, and spices. The principal animals are the elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, buffalo, bear, horse, deer, goat, monkey, baboon, dog, cat, &c.; also, peacocks, parrots, and a variety of other birds of the richest plumage, curlews, plovers, and aquatic birds of all kinds. Alligators infest the large rivers; hooded snakes and several other noxious reptiles infest the land; the sea and rivers abound with fish; and the whole country is swarming with mosquitos and a thousand species of insect life. The people are of several races. The Tonquinese and Cochin-Chinese are a short, squat, and ill-favored race, in features nearly resembling the Malays. Their countenances exhibit, however, an air of cheerfulness and good humor. They are much in the same state of civilization and comfort as their neighbors. The Cambodians are a distinct race, and speak a language unlike any of their neighbors; but in civilization, customs, religion, &c., they resemble the Siamese. Besides these, there are some Anamese and other races, and many Malays, Chinese, and Portuguese. The almost universal religion is a species of Budhism intermixed with the traditions and tenets of the Hindoos, Chinese, &c. Politically, however, the empire contains but two classes: the people, and the nobility or mandarins. Advancement is open to all; and lately all the great mandarins, chiefs of the five great columns of the empire, were common soldiers. The government exhibits despotism in its worst form; the only rich man is the king: he has fine palaces, large treasures, excellent fortresses, and vessels far superior to those of the Chinese. His officers are merely his tools, and share but little in his splendor. The nation at large is in the most abject condition; the people are poor, wretched, and filthy in the extreme, and are forced to give more than one-third of their labor, or an equivalent, to the king. The country is disturbed by frequent insurrections and rebellions; and emigration, though punishable as treason, has lately prevailed to a vast extent. The empire is at present divided into three great civil dominions: Tonquin and Cambodia, which are governed by viceroys, and Cochin-China, which is under the immediate government of the emperor himself. The 822 FURTHER INDIA. whole territory is subdivided into twenty-two provinces, of which six are in Cambodia; seven in Cochin-China; and nine in Tonquin, — the last of which is the most populous and most valuable division of the empire. HUE, in Cochin-China, the capital and residence of the emperor, is a large and strongly-fortified city, nine miles from the sea, upon the bank of a wide navigable river, which falls into the Gulf of Tonquin. It is of a square form, about six miles in circuit, surrounded by a rampart three feet high, which is cased with brick, kept in excellent order, and protected by bastions, all in the European style. One side is washed by the river, and the other three by a deep, wide canal. The interior is laid out in squares, but the town is rather paltry. The palace is surrounded by handsome barracks. The population is 30,000, and it is said that it would require 40,000 men to garrison the fortifications. THE COUNTRY OF THE LAOS. Laos is a mountainous region situated to the north of~ ambodia and Siam, occupying the upper valleys of the Meinam and the May-Kuang, with Anam on the east, Yun-nan on the north, and Birmah on the west; and measuring about 800 miles in length and 400 in breadth, with a superficial area of about 280,000 square miles. The climate is well sheltered from the physical effects of the latitude, and is in general free from the excessive power of the monsoons, which expend their force against the mountains on its east and west borders. In winter, snow and ice form in the northern districts, but the south is very temperate and healthy. The appearance of the country is magnificent, and the scenery beautiful. The soil is in general fertile, except on the higher mountains, which present an arid, rocky aspect. The country is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron. The vegetation is nearly the same as in Siam, and the country contains all the wild animals for which India is famous. The inhabitants are called Shyans by the Birmese, Lao or Low by the Chinese, but they call themselves Tai or Tie. They seem to be the parent stock of both the Siamese and the Assamese. They are divided into three distinct families, with many sub-divisions of tribes, and their language has a corresponding number of dialects. They are said to be more civilized than the Birmese; mild, humane, intelligent, and prosperous. Each tribe is independent in itself, and forms a member of a mutual confederacy of the whole. Anciently they practised demon-worship; some still adhere to it, but most of them are Buddhists. Zemmai (Changmai,) on the Meinam, 400 miles north of Bankok, is the residence of the prince of the southern Laos, and contains about 25,000 inhabitants. Within a circuit of 50 miles are the cities of Lagong and ~Moungpai, each with 20,000 inhabitants; Lubong with 14,000, and several smaller towns. The Singphos, a kindred people, occupy both sides of the upper region of the Irawaddy. They are a wild and lawless race, worship demons, and have a great hatred to Buddhism. They have several towns. THE BRITISH PROVINCES. The Possessions of Great Britain in the peninsula of Further India, consist of several detached provinces and islands: MALACCA, OR THE MALAY STATES. 823 Provinces. Area in Sq. Miles. Population MARTABAN or MOULMIEN............ RE or Y............................. On the Gulf of.33800........ 11200 TAVOY..........................Martaban....................... MIERGUI or TENASSERMI............... MALACCA, (in lat. 2 deg. 14 min. N. and 102 deg. 12 min. E.)..................800........37,000 WELLEBLEY, (continental dependency of Penang)............................140...... 25,.000 PENANG, (island of Penang)............................................... 160........40,000 SINGHAPRUL, (Sincapore Island, &c.)...................................... 360.........28,000 Total........................................................... 35,160........242,000 MALACCA, OR THE MALAY STATES. The peninsula of MALACCA is a long, narrow tract, of about 750 miles, and 170 where broadest, but narrowing to less than 60 miles. The range of mountains which demark the eastern boundary of the British provinces on the Gulf of Martaban, extends without interruption to the southern point of the peninsula, occupying a great part of its breadth. The whole territory is of primitive formation, and produces a considerable quantity of gold, but the staple production of the whole territory is tin. Pepper, and other aromatics, and several kinds of gums, are produced in abundance. Vast forests occupy the greater part of the interior. Vegetation, indeed, is everywhere rank and luxuriant. The northern districts belong to the kingdom of Siam. The southern portions are chiefly inhabited by Malays, and are divided into a number of petty states or kingdoms. The Malays, who have given its name to the peninsula, migrated in the twelfth century from Sumatra, to escape the subjugation of a king of Java. They seem to be a branch of the indigenous population of that great island, and probably of Java also; but are now settled along the coasts opposite to these islands. They are generally of a ferocious character, and celebrated for their piratical habits. There is, however, something highly romantic, and even interesting, in the national character of the Malays. They are not wholly illiterate, for they possess letters, and as Mahomedans, are acquainted with the Koran. They show great ingenuity in several of the mechanic arts, and in some of the principal settlements they carry on a considerable trade, and can boast of wealthy inhabitants; but nowhere is slavery and slave-dealing more common. " A bull-dog does not differ more in form and quality from a greyhound, than a Malay from a Hindoo;" and their mental dispositions, and other natural qualities, are in equal opposition. The laws and institutions of the Malays are said to exhibit the worst forms of Islamism, mixed up with certain superstitions of their own. They practice circumcision, and believe in witchcraft. They buy their wives, and often give so large a price for them that they run themselves in debt, and are kept in slavery by the creditor until the debt is liquidated. They have fines for theft, and even for murder; but, in most cases, the punishment depends on the power of the injured party to exact it. The government is in the hands of sultans and rajahs, whose power is extremely limited, and chiefly confined to the precincts of their own residences. Every village has its chief, and as these potentates seldom agree upon any common ground, warfare between and among them is perpetual. Justice is administered according to the caprice of these functionaries. They are honored with high-sounding titles; but it is difficult to conceive a greater caricature of royalty than a Malay sovereign, in his wooden palace, or barn, naked except round the waist, squatted on a mat, and eagerly bargaining for the sale of cattle and fowls, or vegetables. ~~~~~~n ---- -U- -0~~ r~ 824 CHINA. CHINA. THIS vast empire, containing the greatest amount of population, and, perhaps, also of wealth, united under one government, occupies a large portion of the south-east of Asia. China composes a broad expanse, nearly square, two sides of which are bounded by sea and two by land. The sea is the great Pacific Ocean, which, however, does not here present a well-defined outline, but is broken into great gulfs. Of these, the chief is denominated the Sea of China, enclosed by Borneo, the Phillippines, and Formosa; and the Yellow Sea, bounded by Tartary and Corea. The interior boundary consists of a range otthinly peopled tracts, occupied only by wandering and barbarous'tribes, Mandshur Tartars, Mongols, Kalkas, Eluths, and the eastern tribes of Great Thibet. These regions have usually given rulers to China; but at present the empire, or, at least, its reigning dynasty, comprehends within its sway upwards of 1000 miles in every direction of these rude territories. It holds them, however, as tributaries only, or under loose military occupation, and without any attempt to impose on them the police, the laws, or the general character of China itself. At the same time, the whole of this vast frontier is guarded with equal care against the approach of foreigners. Communication is left open at two solitary points: only one, the port of Canton, to the maritime nations of Europe; the other, Maimatchin, on the Siberian frontier, to the subjects of Russia. The south-western angle alone touches upon civilized territories, partly the Birman empire, partly Tonquin, now included in the empire of Anam, or Cochin-China. The Chinese empire, stretching from 18' to 560 of north latitude, and from 70~ to 1400 of east'longitude, covers an area of about 5,350,000 square miles, or one-tenth of the whole land-surface of the earth. The population of this vast region, according to the most probable modern com putation, is about 183,000,000, as follows: China Proper............. 148,897,000 Corea...............................................::.......... 8,463,000 Thibet and Boutan........................................... 6,800,000 Mandshuria, Mongolia, Zungaria, Chinese Turkistan, &c............ 9,000,000 Colonies........................................................ 10.000,000 Total.................................................... 183,160,000 Of this vast expanse of territory, the China Proper of our maps, Mandshuria, and the eastern part of Little Bucharia, form the political China of the imperial administration. The other regions are merely tributaries or protected states; the petty chiefs of Thibet, the country of the Deb Rajah or Boutan, and the kingdoms of Corea and Loo Choo, belong to the latter class. The ruling race is the Mandshur or Mantchoo, which over-ran and subdued China two centuries ago. The Mantchoo is the language of the court, and of a rich literature. China Proper, now exclusively under consideration, may be generally stated as extending from 20~ to 410 of north latitude, and from 1010 to 122~ of east longitude. Of this vast surface, the greater part consists of a level plain, alluvial, and sometimes marshy, but in general capable of the highest cultivation, which it actually receives. CHINI. 825 Close observers, however, have traced considerable chains of mountains traversing the empire. Of these, the most important seems to be that which runs through the southern provinces, and forms a continuation, though on a much lower scale, of the Great Himalayah. In Yunan, on the eastern frontier, where it first enters the empire, its ridges, which appear to be very steep and lofty, nourish bands of lawless and predatory tribes. But in the eastern provinces, their pinnacles seldom rise above 3000 or 4000 feet; and, being covered with noble forests, crowned with pagodas, and with cities along their sides,#they give to the country a magnificent aspect, without interrupting its culture and populousness. The ground also rises rapidly as it approaches the northern frontier, which is formed or crossed by mountains of considerable height, and over which that stupendous bulwark, the Great Wall, has been carried with incredible labor. These chains also, according to Chinese maps, which form here our only authority, penetrate at different points into the interior provinces. The pride of China, and the exuberant source of her wealth and fertility, consist in the mighty rivers by which, through its entire breadth, the empire is traversed. The two great twin streams of the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, and the Kian-ku, or Yahg-tse-kiang, rise from distant and almost unknown sources in the heart of Tartary. The former, as it enters China, is bent by the frontier mountains into a northerly course, which it follows for several hundred miles, until it reaches the desert depths of northern Tartary. Fortunately for China, it then again bends, and, after making a circuit, flows, opposite and parallel to its former course, into the interior of the empire, and fertilises several of the finest provinces in its progress eastward to the Yellow Sea. Its banks here are entirely alluvial, and the quantity of mud and earth brought down with it give its waters the appearance of diluted clay. According to Mr. Barrow, it pours into the sea, every hour, 2000 feet of solid earth, sufficient in seventy days to accumulate an island of a mile in circumference; and, in fact, the depth of the Yellow Sea has been observed very sensibly to diminish. The Yang-tsekiang rises in Thibet, very near to the Hoang-ho; but in approaching China it takes a great contrary bend to the south, till it is at one point about 1000 miles distant from the other. Then, bending northward, it approximates to the Hoang-ho, and, after watering all the great central provinces, reaches the sea by an estuary scarcely 100 miles distant from it. The two rivers appear each to flow upwards of 2000 miles; but the *Yang-tse-kiang is rendered the noblest, both by the magnitude of its stream, and by the superb cities with which its banks are adorned. It is called by the Chinese " the first-born of Ocean," and appears to be without a rival, unless among the waters of the New World. Both have great and numerous tributaries, which serve important purposes of commerce and irrigation. The Peiho, or river of Peking, the Kan-kiang, and the river of Canton, afford also valuable means of internal communication. Of lakes, China comprises in its central region the Tongting, about 300 miles in circumference, and covered with a numerous population, who subsist by fishing; the Poyang, surrounded by picturesque and finely wooded hills, and by considerable cities; with several others of less magnitude; but these, on the whole, do not cover any very great proportion of her vast surface. 826 CHINA. No country has experienced fewer revolutions than China, or has sustained so little change from those to which it has been actually subjected. The brief notices of the Roman historians, in the first centuries, represent the Chinese to have been precisely such a people as they now are —quiet, peaceable, industrious; and to have had, even at this early period, silk, and perhaps tea, as their staple productions. The Chinese, indeed, possess a much more complete and connected series of annals than any other nation of Asia. Some of these, indeed, are manifestly fabulous, ascending to a period of 49,000 years. The Shoo-king, holever, the first strictly official portion, begins only at the credible date of 3000 years before Christ. At that time, the country is represented to have been in a state of almost complete barbarism, and the invention, first of the necessary and then of the ornamental arts, is ascribed, in these regal documents, to successive early kings of China. It appears, however, that, about five centuries before the Christian era, China was divided among a number of petty princes, who acknowledged in the emperor little more than a feudal supremacy. About this time arose Confucius, whose master mind, improving probably, on the ideas of his predecessors, established those principles of law, manners, and government which have since predominated in China. A series of struggles continued during many ages. These being at length suppressed, a complete despotism, tempered, indeed, by institutions and customs calculated to give it a mild and protecting character, was established. Thus situated, the nation lost its military energy, and became an easy prey to those barbarous neighbors who roam over the high table-lands of central Asia. But China has civilized her invaders; and the manners and institutions of the empire have survived the shocks of successive conquest. The most perilous was that made in the thirteenth century by Zingis Khan, a ferocious chief, who committed destructive ravages, and even formed the dreadful design of converting all China into a pasturefield; but this project was happily renounced. His successors made it their study to maintain, restore, and reform the abuses of the Chinese institutions. They were supplanted by a native Chinese dynasty, bearing the appellation of Ming; but in the middle of the seventeenth century, the Mandshur Tartars, from the northern side of the great wall, again overran the empire, which, however, they appear from the first, to have governed mildly, and according to its ancient laws and institutions. This dynasty has greatly extended the foreign dominion of China. Retaining and enlarging their northern possessions, they have extended their empire so as to be in contact with that of Russia, for the space of sixty degrees of longitude. They have added to it all Eastern Tartary, to Cashgar, inclusive; and, within the last one hundred years, Thibet, formerly a sacred and independent territory, has been compelled to own their sway. There is not, and perhaps never was, on the face of the earth, a government more purely and entirely despotic than the Chinese. No power, honor, or distinction exists, except that which centres in, and emanates from the sovereign. In China, no distinctions are owned between man and man, except those conferred by office; and to these, the highest and the lowest are permitted equally to aspire. This supreme power of the monarch is claimed for him as the representative of the Deity on earth, and the sole representative; for the Chinese, proud of the extent and populousness of their own empire, and very ignorant of all beyond it, are easily CHINA. 827 persuaded that the world does not contain a nation which is not subject or tributary to the " son of heaven." The relation of a parent to his children is another image under which the supreme power of the Chinese monarch is represented. Corresponding with this, the parental authority is uniformly held forth as entirely paramount. A parent may sell his children for slaves; and if he kills them, he incurs only a moderate penalty; but if a child addresses even abusive language to his father or grandfather, he is liable to be put to death. Although, however, the despotism of China be thus entirely raised above any direct and positive check, it is yet in practice the most mild and protecting of any that exists. The monarch is held within a circle of laws, institutions, and ideas, by transgressing which, he would lose the very basis on which his authority rests. The doctrine, that he is the son and vicegerent of Deity implies that he will use this high descent and power in securing prosperity to the nation over whom he thus holds a higher than earthly sway; and this is so fully recognized, that even when his people are suffering under evils of nature, famine, earthquake, or inundation, he takes the blame, humbles himself, fasts, and strips himself of his costly attire, as a penitent under whose sins his people are groaning. The paternal character equally implies an anxious concern for the welfare of his people, who, amid the veneration with which they view these relations, are not forgetful of'the accompanying obligations, or indisposed to revolt when they suffer severely from the non-observance of them. All prudent emperors, therefore, are at considerable pains to impress the idea that they govern consistently with their lofty pretensions. Above all, usage from time immemorial, has established a certain regular system of administration peculiar to China, and which the most barbarous conquerors, after the first license of victory was over, have found it wise to sanction and support. In this system, the fundamental, and certainly, highly laudable maxim, has been, to make knowledge the sole ground of official rank and public employment. The examinations for this purpose are conducted with the greatest apparent impartiality, and, as seems to be generally believed, with much real fairness. Strict precautions are adopted for this purpose; such as, that every piece of composition that is to be judged, must be given in sealed and anonymous. There are three degrees, which the missionaries, in lieu of the uncouth Chinese appellations, designate by the European titles of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor. The first seems to be merely preparatory; the second qualifies the successful candidate to enter into the class of mandarins, in which is vested the whole administration of China. The mandarins are divided into nine degrees, rising from the lowest, who are collectors of the revenue, to the highest, who are viceroys and governors of provinces. As usual with the officers of an absolute government, each mandarin exercises within his sphere an authority as uncontrolled as that at the head of the state. His duty is not only to govern the people, but also to preach to them; and much importance is attached to the due exercise of this function. The tenor of the official prelections turns chiefly upon industry, peace, order, and respect to parents, the favorite Chinese virtues; and especial stress is laid upon their duties as faithful subjects and as payers of taxes. A portion of the mandarins are employed in carrying on those examinations according to which the several dignities are bestow ed. Those for the lowest degree are conducted by a special class migrating for 828 CHINA. that purpose from place to place. The second degree must be the result of an examination in the capital city of the province, and under the eye of the governor. The highest rank of tsintse, here translated doctor, must be the result of a triennial examination at Peking. It is considered necessary for all high and independent command, even for the governor of a city of the second or third rank. A few doctors, under the appellation of han-lin, obtain superior distinction and respect. According to an established regulation, each individual who attains any of the prescribed ranks in literature is promoted, according to seniority, and as vacancies occur, to the corresponding places in the government; and though there appear to be many instances of favor, fraud, and even bribery, the general practice is conformable to this rule. Various and strict regulations are also made, to restrain each mandarin within the limits of his duty. No one receives office in his native province, or even in the adjoining one; and the same functionary is rarely continued in the same place more than three years. A triennial survey is performed, and reports are made by the higher officers on the conduct of their inferiors. All these precautions are not, it is supposed, sufficient to guard against much corruption and misgovernment; which in so extensive a system, may be readily believed, not only from the unfortunate propensity of human nature to abuse power, but from the degraded character which despotism naturally produces in its agents. Yet, that a system which maintains by much the greatest mass of population anywhere united under one government, in a state of uninterrupted indus try, order, and well-being, should be radically bad and corrupt, seems a very rash and hasty conclusion. The laws of China have been compiled not with any large or statesmanlike views, but with a minute and elaborate care to lay down the various descriptions of offence, and apportion to each a suitable punishment. The cane is the grand instrument of government; and all China has been compared to a school, kept in awe by the rod of a master. For its application, the law specifies two distinct dimensions of length and thickness, and more pointedly fixes the number of blows to be inflicted on the offender. For crimes of a deeper die than those which the cane can chastise, banishment in different degrees is inflicted; and for those still more flagrant, death is awarded. Mercy, however, may be, and is exercised by commuting punishments of every grade with different sums, according to a schedule, which the law carefully fixes. The Chinese have not improved so far in legislation as to abolish the barbarous practice of endeavoring to extract confession by torture, and that of visiting the crime of the guilty upon the innocent family. The objects of punishment are, generally speaking, reasonable, and resemble those of other civilized nations; but there is an attempt minutely to detail the various shades of guilt, and to fix a degree of punishment corresponding to each. which is vain and even ridiculous. This detail is peculiarly copious in cases of bribery and corruption, the extensive prevalence of which is thus proved, and at the same time is probably very imperfectly guarded against. The Chinese laws have also the infirmity common to some early codes, of interfering in concerns beyond their province; such as forms, ceremonies, dress, and little transactions beneath the notice of a legislator. The manner in which an inferior bows to, or salutes his superior; the terms of the card written to him; the mode in which it is folded; the ceremonial of visiting, are all fixed by statute. Whether a CHINA. 829 Chinese sits down or rises up; whether he receives company at home or walks abroad, there is a rule fixed; and the cane is always at hand to punish its violation. The revenue is derived chiefly from the land tax, or rather rent; for the sovereign, as in other Asiatic despotims, is held to be the general proprietor. According to the usual Oriental scale, one-tenth of the produce is levied. There is no lease, but ejection is unusual. The inferior kinds of grain are exempted. The produce is paid chiefly in kind, and is coveyed to Peking in the imperial barges through the canals and rivers. The tax on salt is also very heavy, and its produce reckoned at about a fourth of the land tax; and another fourth is supposed to be constituted by the duties on imports and exports, the transit duties from province to province, and a variety of minor sources. The military force of China has been represented, in regard to numbers at least, as very imposing: it has even been made to amount to millions. Grosier and Van Braam, however, seem to agree in fixing the actual number at 800,000. The greater part are a mere militia, in which the population, when called upon, are liable to serve. Their appearance and habits are most unmilitary, and they are scarcely called out except for purposes of police; to pursue robbers, and pass muster on state occasions. Their paper helmets, wadded gowns, quilted petticoats, and clumsy satin boots, exhibit nothing of the aspect of war. It appears from ancient records that the Chinese and Tartars made use not only of gunpowder, but even of something resembling cannon; but artillery does not at present constitute any part of the effective force of the empire. The Chinese government have, as already observed, very numerous barges, for the conveyance of tribute, and other accommodations; also a few armed vessels to suppress smuggling and piracy; but nothing which can be called a navy. An American frigate would beat the whole of their maritime force. No nation is so famed for industry, in all the arts that minister to human subsistence. The lands in particular, which are at all capable of culture, are tilled with a minute care, without example among any other people. The peculiar importance attached to agriculture is testified by an annual festival, in which the emperor exhibits himself to his subjects guiding the plough. It is not, however, supported by any large application of skill, science, or capital. The Chinese carry on farming on a small scale, with rude instruments, and almost no cattle. Their chief exertions are employed in irrigating their fields; and by the aid of their chain pump, they draw water out of their numerous rivers and canals, and inundate the crops of rice as soon as they are sown. This is done twice a year, and two crops are in general raised annually, without intermission or rotation. The highest mountains are formed in terraces, so constructed as to retain the requisite quantity of water, and allow what is superfluous to pass; and reservoirs are formed on the summits. The Chinese steep the seed-corn in liquid manure, and use the drill husbandry in order to avoid the waste of seed in broadcast; and the crop, when reaped, is placed on bamboo frames, and carried home on men's shoulders. Great care is also taken in transporting soils, and tempering them by mixture with those of an opposite character, as sand with a thick and adhesive clay, and marl with soils that are too light. But the Chinese are, above all, noted for their expedients in collecting 830 CHINA. manure, which, from the small number of cattle employed, is an object of great scarcity. A grand and peculiar object of Chinese industry is the tea plant. It flourishes on the hills of southern China, chiefly between the tropic and the latitude of 30~. It is a bushy shrub, somewhat resembling the rose or myrtle tree, and which shoots leafy branches almost from the bottom of the trunk. The plants occur wild; but when cultivated, they are set in rows, four feet from each other, and, for the convenience of collecting the leaves, are artificially prevented from rising beyond a certain height. The black teas grow chiefly in Fo-kien, and part of Canton; the green, in the more southerly districts, of Kiang-nan, Kiang-si, and Tche-kiang. They are raised in elevated and hilly districts, and generally in small compartments, like gardens. The earlier the leaves are plucked they are the more valuable and highly flavored, though, of course, the produce is smaller. In black tea. a few leaf-buds, plucked early in the spring, constitute pekoe. The successive latter pluckings form the congou, souchong, and lastly, bohea. Green tea is similarly divided into gunpowder, imperial, hyson, and twankay. The leaves are rolled into the usual form by being passed through the fingers of a female, and then dried on thin earthen and iron plates over a charcoal fire. The merchants arrive at the end of harvest, give it a second drying, separate the different qualities, and, after packing it in large chests, convey it to Canton. Among other important agricultural products is the sugar-cane, which appears to be taller and more juicy than that of the West Indies; but, as it is cultivated on the same scale as all other articles, single proprietors cannot bear the expense of a mill on their grounds. The cane is boiled, and its juice expressed by migratory dealers, who bring machinery of a character very inferior to that used in our plantations, yet sufficient for its purpose. Mulberry trees are necessary for the production of silk, the staple manufacture of the empire. These trees, which do not appear to differ from those of Europe, are reared with the greatest care, in rows ten or twelve feet asunder, and on beds of a moist loamy earth. They are frequently pruned or dwarfed, in order to make them produce young shoots with tender leaves, which are supposed to be much more nutritious than those upon older branches. The insects are nursed in small houses erected in the heart of the plantations, in order to be removed from all noise; for the Chinese have an idea that they will be injured even by the barking of a dog. After the silk is wound off. the aurelius become an article of food. That no ground may be lost, the intervals between the trees are planted with rice. Cotton is raised in the middle provinces in large quantities, yet still not sufficient to dispense with importation from Bombay. Tobacco is largely grown and consumed; and we may also mention camphor. ginseng, and a variety of leguminous plants. As a manufacturing people, the Chinese are also eminent. The fabric of porcelain, so superior in beauty to every other species of earthenware, originated entirely with them; and, though the taste of their imitators in Europe has produced more elegant patterns, they are still unrivalled as to its whiteness, hardness, and the transparency of its colors; the materials of which they possess a peculiar art in extracting from a vast variety of animal, vegetable, and mineral substances. Silk also is a fabric which the western world has learned from the Chinese; and the silks of China are CHINA. 831 still unequalled as to richness. The Chinese ornamented papers, so much admired, it is unnecessary to describe. Their lackered ware would be highly distinguished, were it not eclipsed by that of their Japanese neighbors. A number, however, of little ornamented trinkets and toys are made with the simplest instruments, and by the hands of single individuals; yet with a beauty which we in vain attempt to rival. Such are their ivory fans and baskets; their ornaments of tortoise shell and mother of pearl; their silver filigree and lackered cabinets, chests, &c. Their paper and printing are both good, and their ink, for some purposes, superior to European. Trade must be considerable in a country so extensive, and abounding with so many valuable commodities; yet it has the peculiarity of being almost wholly internal. China supplies within itself nearly all the commodities which minister either to the use or the pleasure of her inhabitants. Her foreign trade is permitted only at two points, and under the narrowest restrictions: and though it be considerable with the nations with which it is carried on, by China herself it is scarcely felt as a national object. The commerce of China is thus chiefly confined to the operation of bartering the productions of its different provinces; and these are sufficiently various to afford room for a very extensive traffic. The most ample facilities are afforded by the great rivers and their numerous tributaries, and also by the canals, which are constructed on a greater scale than in any other country. One of the great objects is the conveyance to the capital of the imperial land-rent, which is paid in kind, and consists chiefly of rice. Van IBraam was told, that the barges' engaged in the conveyance of it amounted to 9,999, which, with the Chinese, is an even number, and that there were 200,000 sailors employed, who worked much more at their ease than the rest of the nation. The foreign trade of China in her own bottoms, though bearing no proportion to the wealth and greatness of the empire, is not altogether inconsiderable. It is carried on in large unwieldly junks, whose structure can never be improved, as the slightest deviation from their present clumsy structure would subject the owners to the high duties imposed on foreign merchants. The viceroy of the provinces fixes the number of junks that shall sail to each particular country, and the species of cargo which they shall carry. Mr. Crawford reckons that there sail annually to Japan ten junks, making two voyages; thirteen to the Philippines; four to the Sooloo isles; thirteen, Borneo; two, Celebes; seven, Java; ten, Sumatra; nine, Sincapore; six, Malacca; eighty-nine, Siam; twenty, Cochin-China; nine, Cambodia; twenty, Tonquin: in all, 222; which, with a number of smaller ones, make the tonnage of the celestial empire about 80,000. These vessels are partly built and owned in foreign countries, but by Chinese natives. They have numerous owners, each of which has a compartment divided by strong plank from the rest of the vessel. In return for the staples of China, they receive gold, tin, and the gelatinous substance called sea-slug, and a peculiar species of birds'-nests, which, when made into soup, are reckoned peculiarly delicate and nutritious. The over-land foreign trade of China, carried on by caravans, is also extensive. The principal stations for this trade are as follows: Maimatchin, opposite to Kiakhta on the Russian frontier, where the value of the merchandise imported and exported is about $2,000,000 annually; Yarkand 832 CHINA. and Cashgar, near the frontiers of Bucharia; Leh, or Ladak and Lasse, in Thibet, for the over-land trade to Hindostan; Yongtchangfou in Yunan, near the Birman frontier; and Koeilinfou, near that of Anam. The fishery that exists in China is inconsiderable in a national or commercial point of view; but, as the means of individual subsistence, no nation carries it to such an extent. All the lakes, broad rivers, and sheltered bays of China, are covered with floating cities, the crowded population of which have no home but on the water. Staunton and Barrow suppose that the waters of China are as densely peopled as the land, and that they sustain a floating population equal to that of the whole British empire. Chinese invention has discovered modes of ensnaring the finny tribes quite peculiar to itself. One most singular resource consists in the employment of the fishing-bird, a species of cormorant, which dives into the water, seizes the fishes with a long bill, and brings them to its master, accepting in recompense such portion as he chooses to bestow. Others fasten fo the side of the vessel a board painted white, which, by moonlight, has the appearance of glittering waves, and attracts the unwary tenant of the stream. Many, also, of the owners of these watery mansions keep large flocks of ducks, which go out and return, obedient to a signal. In some of the still waters are to be seen floating islands, composed of broad rafts on which houses are built, and some parts are even laid over with earth, and crops raised upon them. In public works2 undertaken for purposes of utility, China stands without a rival. Ancient Egypt, indeed, exhibits monuments of equal labor; but these were mere displays of vain and superstitious pomp, and cannot come in competition with those canals which form the foundation of the prosperity of China. The labor and ingenuity are the greater, as they are seconded by little science; for the Chinese are unacquainted with the construction of locks, or other means by which a stationary supply of water can be ensured. Their canals are merely artificial rivers, formed by changing the direction of those constructed by nature. By that called, emphatically, the Great Canal, an uninterrupted communication of five hundred miles is maintained between the Peiho, or river of Pekin, and the great central stream of the Yang-tse-kiang. A considerable river is arrested as it flows over the high land of Shantang, and the divided stream, turned into opposite directions, forms the basis of this great watercourse. In connection with the rivers, this canal completes, with only one short interruption, a line of one thousand miles of navigation from Pekin to Canton. On the other hand, the roads are narrow, and unsuited to vehi cles of any magnitude; there being little ground to spare, and cattle being equally scarce. The only mode of traveling in state is in palanquins, which, as well as the baggage, are conveyed on the backs of coolies or porters. Among the mighty works of China, may here be mentioned the Great Wall, though it was constructed entirely with a military object. Perhaps it is unrivalled among the productions of human labor. The wonder is not merely in the continuity of the rampart for upwards of one thousand miles, but in the difficulties which have been surmounted in carrying it over so rugged and mountainous a country. One elevation, near the place where the British embassy passed, was calculated at upwards of five thousand feet. It was seen, however, extending along the ridges of hills, over CHINA. 838 the tops of the highest mountains, crossing the deepest valleys, continued upon arches over rivers, and doubled or trebled in many parts, to take in important passes. Its usual height is thirty feet, though a smaller and even half that elevation suffices where it is carried along declivities. The top is paved, and so broad that a carriage can drive along it. Square towers, sometimes forty feet high, are erected at very short intervals. Their history describes it as completed in the third century, but without mentioning the period of time employed in its construction. As a defence against invasion, on a great scale, such barriers have always been found nugatory; but this was probably-useful in repelling the predatory inroads of those little wandering tribes who filled a great part of the surrounding deserts. Since the Tartar conquest, which incorporated them all into the Chinese empire, its use is no longer felt, and by the Chinese themselves it is now little regarded. One of the most remarkable features of China is its population, which is certainly much the greatest that is in any part of the world united under one social and political system. The whole of this immense multitude composes, in the strictest sense, one people, cast in one mould, both of form and mind. Their external aspect marks them generally as belonging to the Mongol race, and seems to indicate them as having originally come across the high pastoral table-land of middle Asia. It has been softened down, however, by pacific and regular habits, as well as by some features strictly Chinese. "The broad, irregular, and half-closed eye; the linear and highly-arched eyebrow; the broad root of the nose; the extension of the upper eyelid a little beyond the lower; the thin straggling beard, and the body generally free from hair; a high conical head and triangular face," are given as their peculiar characteristics. Their complexion is of a sickly white, or pale yellow, like that of a faded leaf, or the root of rhubarb, Their hair is universally black, and if it fail at all in that color, the defect is supplied by painting: it is so thick and strong, that they compare that of Europeans to the pile of the finer furs. They are generally of the middle size; few tall men, and still fewer dwarfs or deformed persons, are found among them. The female sex are seen with difficulty, and almost only those of the lowest ranks, who are not distinguished from the men by any delicacy of feature or complexion; on the contrary, their persons are pronounced the reverse of what is generally considered as elegant or beautiful. The national character of the Chinese has been very differently regarded, and perhaps there has of late prevailed a disposition to rate it somewhat toolow. Quietude, industry, order and regularity, -qualities which a despotic government seeks always to foster,- seem to be peculiarly conspicuous. A general good humor and courtesy reign in their aspect and procedings; even when they jostle and come into collision with each other, the extrication is effected without any of that noise, and exchange of turbulent and abusive language, which are but too often witnessed on such occasions in European cities. Flagrant crimes, and open violations of the laws, are by no means common. The attachments of kindred are encouraged and cherished with peculiar force, particularly towards parents and ancestry in general. The support of the aged and infirm is inculcated as a sacred duty, which appears to be very strictly fulfilled. It is surely a phenomenon in national econoimy very worthy of notice, that, in a nation so immensely 53 834 CHINA. multiplied, and so straitened for food, there should not be such a thing as either begging or pauperism. The wants of the most destitute are relieved within the circle of their family and kindred. It is said to be customary, that a whole family, for several generations, with all its members, married, and unmarried, live under one roof, and with only two apartments, one for sleeping, and the other for eating; a system, the possibility of maintaining which, implies a great degree of tranquility and harmony of temper. Within the domestic circle, however, and that of ceremonious social intercourse, seems to terminate all that is amiable in the Chinese disposition. In every other respect, they show no interest in the welfare of their fellow creatures, nor even the common feelings of sympathy. Repeated instances have occurred of Chinese dropping into the sea, and being rescued by the English, while their own countrymen did not take the least notice, or make a single effort to save them. Their propensity to fraud, has been amply noticed by travellers, but appears to have been somewhat exaggerated. To the hong merchants belong the merit of having established a character of very strict honesty; and many even of what are called "outside merchants" appear to be highly respectable. The custom of the Chinese to write upon their signs, " Here no one is cheated," —though we may be rather harsh in concluding, with De Pauw, that it implies a pre-determination to cheat all the world, manifests pretty clearly, that the thing is considered neither unprecedented nor improbable. According to the Dutch embassadors, females in that country may be considered universally as objects of traffic. Those who promise to be handsome are purchased in early youth by the class of dealers above mentioned, and trained for the harems of the great, where they pass the rest of their days, according to Eastern custom, in splendid seclusion. The confinement, if less rigorous than in some other of the Asiatic states, is yet strictly ensured by infirmity arising out of the fantastic taste which prescribes, as indispensable to female beauty, that the feet be reduced to the most minute possible dimensions. This, by compression from an early age, is effected to such an extent, as to leave them barely able to totter from place to place, holding by the wall or other supports. The lower ranks, on the other hand, after being purchased by the husband, are treated almost as slaves, and subjected to the hardest labor: they have even been observed by travellers yoked to the plow. In regard to religion, China has none connected with or supported by the government. No creed is made a matter of state, except the abstract belief in the existence of a Supreme Being, and of the emperor as his sole vicegerent on earth. As to every further creed and rite, the nation adopts any or none, as it may judge most expedient. The learned, indeed, generally affect indifference on this subject, and limit themselves to the above simple belief, joined to superstitious reverence for ancestry and for the ancient sages of the empire. The people, however, require some more sensible objects of worship; and the vacant place has been chiefly occupied by the sect of Fo, essentially the same with that of Boodh, which rules in Thibet, and has spread thence through all the neighboring regions of Tartary. It appears there with its doctrine of transmigration, its numerous images, its monastic institutions, its bells and beads, its noisy music, and its peculiar dress; all giving it such resemblance to the Catholic worship, that the missionaries of the church of Rome fill their journals with perpetual cmEN. 835 lamentations on the impossibility of distinguishing the two. Although jeal ous, in general, of every foreign system, the Tartar dynasties have been inclined to protect this religion of Tartar origin. The same favor has not extended to christianity, which has repeatedly made some progress. The Jesuit missionaries, in particular, have always rendered themselves necessary at court by their knowledge, contrasted with the Chinese ignorance of the astronomy requisite to predict eclipses, and to form a correct calendar. As soon, however, as conversion begin to be effected, complaints were always preferred, that the new sects were changing the customs, and even the fundamental principles, of the empire. The prohibition of the almost divine honors paid to ancestry; the congregational meetings attended by females, and the representing celibacy as a meritorious state, were the points of objection most forcibly dwelt upon. Repeated persecutions have, in consequence, taken place, by which this faith has been almost entirely extirpated. Such also has been the fate of Islamism, though there are still mosques in some of the principal cities. The superstitions usual among the vulgar in all countries, prevail also in China; as witches (quey-shire,) good and evil supposed to be locally attached to particular spots, lucky and unlucky times. In the ports on the ocean, pagodas were found chiefly erected to a mysterious being, called the " King of the Eastern Sea;" a worship, obviously suggested by the grand object which nature there presented to them. Learning, in China, must form a leading pursuit, and might be expected to be found in a very flourishing state, since it is held in almost exclusive honor, and forms the sole road to rank, distinction and power. Yet this very circumstance is, perhaps, the cause of the limited and stationary state in which it actually exists. Notwithstanding, also, the paramount importance attached to objects of utility, the Chinese have made no progress in the application of the mechanical powers: they cannot even construct a common pump; and all their great works are the mere result of indefatigable labor performed by a multitude of human hands. The Chinese language, arrested between hieroglyphical and alphabetic writing, presents a singular phenomenon. The simple picture of the object, which appears in some of the early writings, has been changed, for facility of writing, into the letter; but the next step, which should have been to make each letter express a simple sound, and thus a small number by repetition represent all the words in the language, has never been taken. Every word, or rather every idea, continues to be represented by a separate character; and such characters, in the most copious Chinese dictionaries; amount to no less than 40,000. The literature of China appears to be extensive, though little known to Europeans. The perusal of written books, being the high road to honor and distinction, becomes a fashionable and favorite occupation with all classes. No nation of Asia can boast of such a mass of historical annals; but, though these are compiled with care, they evince not that philosophical spirit and fearless research which give lustre to the great historians of the West. The works on laws and on statistics are also very extensive. Like those on history, they are composed by the han-lin, or doctors of the first class, and are sent as presents to the great mandarins. For the amusement of the people, there appear in quick succession sundry dramas, poems, and tales, a few select specimens of which have lately been translated. 886 cNra. The state of subjection in which the people live, and the narrow circle of their ideas, are unfavorable to any lofty flights of original thought; but their writings are often judicious, pleasing and natural. Many of their poems are didactic, composed of short maxims or sentences; and the incidents in their stories are chiefly of a domestic nature. Printing was practiced in China long before it was known in Europe; not, however, by employing moveable types, which would be ill fitted to represent their innumerable characters; but by cutting these characters out of wooden boards, of which, consequently, there must be one for each page. The missionaries, however, by taking the keys instead of the letters, have succeeded in printing according to the European style. Theatrical exhibition, in its various shapes, appears to be a favorite Chinese amusement. Mr. Barrow heard, that there were in Peking about 100 companies, each consisting of 50 persons and upwards, conveyed from place to place in passage-boats. They perform not, as in Europe, to crowded and public audiences, but are sent for by the rich to act at their own houses. The foreign embassadors, have not, upon the whole, been very much edified with those presented for their entertainment. The Dutch declared that the spectacles exhibited for the entertainment of the court of China would not have attracted an audience in Europe at a country fair; and Staunton remarks on the grotesque nature of the exhibitions, and the presentation of scenes which taste and delicacy would have elsewhere withdrawn from the public eye. It is to be observed, however, that the selection of objects of mere show and buffonery was the only way in which those could be amused who knew nothing of the language. Recent research has made us acquainted with dramas having a regular plot, and by no means destitute of interest and character. The fine arts in China are deficient. Her painters, indeed, can express with minute accuracy, the forms and colors of natural objects; and can produce, on the whole, a light and pleasing effect. Being wholly ignorant, however, of perspective, and of the distribution of light and shade, they can accomplish no effects of foreshortening or distance; neither can they imitate that depth and blending of tints which nature actually presents to the eye. They give groups of individual objects; but not a picture. Their music, notwithstanding the mighty effects which they ascribe to it, is, in fact, still more defective. It is perfectly simple, and has been compared to the Scotch, but without possessing its plaintive tenderness. In the architecture of the Chinese, there is little either of elegance or of that magnificence which we denominate Oriental. The most solid material is half-burnt brick; and the mansions of the highest as well as of the lowest, are formed on the model of the primitive Tartar dwellings; but even in the greatest cities, a traveller might fancy himself, from the low houses with carved overhanging roofs, uninterrupted by a single chimney, and from the pillars, poles, flags and streamers, to be in the midst of a large encampment. The fronts of the shops are covered with varnish and gilding, and painted in brilliant colors. The gardens of China have been celebrated, and are constructed on an opposite principle to ours. With the view of escaping from the monotony of a country entirely subjected to art and culture, the Chinese seek to exhibit the wildest and rudest aspects of nature; lakes, dells, hanging woods, and natural forests. In the great imperial gardens of Yuenmien and Zhehol, CMINA. 837 where an extent of country is ornamented in this manner, a great deal of really fine scenery is included. In private gardens, on the contrary, where objects of which the value depends on their grandeur, are attempted to be comprised within a space of one or two acres, a ludicrous effect is often produced. The Chinese are more completely and substantially clothed than the other nations in the south of Asia. The men wear long gowns and petticoats, which would give them a feminine appearance, did they not add boots; while the women, with short jackets and trousers, might pass for men, but for the elegant ornament of braiding their hair with flowers. Silks, satins, and occasionally fine cottons, form the material of dress for the higher ranks: the lower are clad in coarse cottons. The button forms the attribute of rank, and by its various shapes and sizes expresses at once, to a Chinese eye, the dignity of the wearer. The Chinese differ from the other Orientals in their food, and in the mode of taking it. Instead of squatting on the floor, and eating with their fingers, they sit on chairs, eat off tables, and raise the food to their mouth with a species of chopsticks. Their dishes are placed on small tables, but piled in successive stages over each other. They consist in a great measure of confections and fruits, the latter of which are iced. One favorite luxury of the rich, consists of soups made with the gelatinous substances, sea slug, birds' nests, &c., imported from East India islands. The mandarins live luxuriously, and have several meals a day, with numerous dishes at each. The ordinary Chinese can have only rice, with a little seasoning; but they eat heartily of it, and scarcely any thing, Mr. Barrow says, puts a Chinese out of humor, except being interrupted at his victuals. Tea is the well known universal beverage, presented at and after meals, and on all occasions. It is drunk without cream or sugar, hot water being poured over the leaves. Their wine is bad, but they have an ardent spirit distilled from grain, of which they sip pretty largely in private. Even convivial excesses occasionally take place. PEKING, the celebrated capital of this great empire, stands almost in a corner of it, only forty miles from the Great Wall. It consists of two very distinct parts, the Chinese and the Tartar cities, of which the former is the most elegant and populous, but the latter is adorned by the imperial palace and gardens. The united city is about twelve miles in circumference, surrounded by walls, like every other in China; but those of Peking are peculiarly lofty, and completely hide the city from those who are without. Peking is divided into two regular streets, the principal one of which crosses the whole city, and is about 120 feet wide, unpaved, but carefully watered. It consists chiefly of shops, which, though, like every other edifice in the empire, seldom exceeding one story in height, are adorned with flags, varnish, painting, and lanterns of a peculiar and elegant construction. The streets are immensely crowded, as the Chinese spend much time in the open air. Other towns in Petchelee are Tongchoo and Tiengsing, the ports of Peking; one on the Peiho, and the other lower down, at its confluence wit the Queyho. This last was stated by the mandarins to contain 700,000 souls; an estimate which seemed to agree with the crowds it put forth; and its length is nearly equal to that of London. Paoting, the residence of the viceroy, has an agreeable inland situation in the heart of a fertile district. 838 CHINA. Shantung, to the south of Petchelee, is traversed in the west by the Great Canal on its way to the Yellow River, and in the east stretches into a great peninsula. This province is mountainous; many parts of it are bleak, and thinly inhabited; and, instead of rice and wheat, yield only the inferior articles of d'hourra and millet. Valuable mines of coal are found here, which serve for the supply of the whole empire. Tsinan, the capital, is an ancient city, with the tombs of many kings in its neighborhood; it has, at present, flourishing manufactures of silk. Proceeding southwards along the Great Canal, we enter the Kiangman, the pride and the boast of China. Here all the grand communications of the empire meet: the Hoang-ho and the Yang-tse-kiang flow into the sea, and are connected by the Great Canal. Mr. Barrow describes with admiration the scene which appeared at their junction:-"the multitude of ships of war, of commerce, of convenience, and of pleasure; some gliding down the stream towards the sea, others working against it by sails, oars, and wheels, and others lying at anchor; the banks on either side, as well as those of the canals, covered with towns as far as the eye can reach; the continuance, along the canals, of cities, towns, and villages, almost without interruption. Nanking, the most ancient capital of China, is, in extent, considerably superior to Peking. The exterior wall, enclosing the suburbs, resembles rather the boundary of a province than of a city. Since the government and tribunals, however, were transferred to Peking, it has greatly declined, and about a third part of its area is now uninhabited. It still continues to be the most manufacturing city in China. Its silks, its paper, the cottons bearing its name, are preferred over the empire to those made elsewhere. Learning also continues to flourish in an unrivaled degree; the booksellers' shops are nowhere so amply furnished; and a greater number of doctors are sent forth from it than from any other city. Nanking contains, also, in its pagoda, or porcelain tower, the chief architectural monument of the empire. It consists of nine stories, ascended by 884 steps. The material is a fine white tile which, being painted in various colors, has the appearance of porcelain; and the whole is so artfully joined together as to seem one entire piece. The galleries are filled with images, and set round with bells, which jingle when agitated by the wind. On the top is a large ball, in the shape of a pine apple, of which the Chinese boast as consisting of solid gold; but on that point foreign observers seem to be sceptical. In this province, also, the traveller who proceeds southward along the Great Canal, finds the large and beautul city of Soutcheoufou, which the Chinese extol as their terrestrial paradise. Branches from the Great Canal traverse it throughout, and render it? like Venice, a city on the waters. The small lake of Taihoo, in the neighborhood, surrounded by picturesque hills, affords a scene of delightful recreation. Here all the classes whose function is to minister to pleasure, lawful or unlawful, are trained to their respective vocations; comedians, dancers, jugglers, and the females destined to fill the harems of the great. The latter are judged to be fairer and more gracefully attired than those of the northern cities; and paint, both red and white, is lavished to heighten their beauties. To the south, Kiangnan has on -its left the maritime province of Tchekiang, one of the finest in China, and covered in particular with extensive plantations of mulberries. The surface is very picturesque, its rich plains CHINA. 839 being varied by irregular hills and rugged rocks. It is distinguished by containing the great city of Hangchoo-foo, situated at the point where the Great Canal joins the river Chiang, which here, in approaching the sea, spreads into an ample lake. This is the city described by Marco Polo under the name of Quinsai, as the capital of southern China, and as the most splendid and delightful he ever saw. Even in its present decline, its magnitude, rivaling that of Peking; the varied beauties of its lake, the numerous pleasure parties which cover its surface, the gilded barges, with floating streamers, sailing to and fro, and the airial pavilions with which its margin is studded, form a magic scene, which acquits of all romance the glowing descriptions of that celebrated traveller. Kiangsee, to the west of Tchekiang, is a province bordered and traversed by mountains of considerable height; but as these mountains, wherever it is possible, are cultivated to the summit, and have many fine intervening valleys, it is almost as fertile and populous as any of the other provinces. It is traversed by the Poyang lake, a noble piece of water, surrounded by mountains of considerable height, whose sides are highly cultivated and peopled. Nanchang, the capital, on a river which falls into it from the south, presents monuments characterizing a city of the first rank, but is now reduced to a state of poverty. Yaotcheou-foo, and several other cities, rise on the borders of the lake. The place most worthy of notice in Kiangsee is Kinteching, which the Chinese, indeed, account only a village, which, according to some, contains 1,000,000 inhabitants. It is the centre of the manufacture of porcelain, and its site is marked by the clouds of flame and smoke which rise from it, and make it appear at night like a great city on fire. No foreigner has ever been admitted into its precincts, lest he should discover the secret of the processes there carried on. A river which falls into the Poyang, lake affords the means of exporting the produce of Kinteching, and exchanging it for that of the rest of the empire. Interposed between Kiangsee and the ocean is the maritime province of Fokien, or Footchien, a region of considerable resort to early European navigators, while the southern ports of China continued open to them. It is now little noticed; but is described as a very fine province, covered with hills, usually such as Chinese industry can cultivate to the very summit. It abounds not only in grain, but in fruit, particularly, oranges; and the tea plant is reared on a great scale. Foutcheou, the capital, situated near the mouth of a great river which admits the largest vessels, and is crossed by a superb bridge of 100 arches, makes an ample display of whatever is splendid or beautiful in a Chinese capital. Amoy, on an island upon the coast, affords a very fine habor, whence the Chinese carry on a great part of their foreign trade. The southern frontier of Kiangsee is bounded by a lofty and naked barrier of mountains, which interrupts the water communication, hitherto continued from Peking. On the other side is the province of Quangtong, the northern approach of which consists, in a great measure, of naked and rugged mountains, diversified by fantastic rocks, and on many parts of which even Chinese industry can impress only a very limited cultivation. The interior, however, beyond the city of Chaucheou-foo, equals any of the other maritime provinces. It is traversed by the river Pekiang, to which goods, from the great water communication, are conveyed by a land carriage 840 CHINA. of some days, and which, during a course of 250 miles, is covered with barks transporting merchandise to and from Canton. Canton, the best known city of China, and with which alone foreigners carry on habitual intercourse, is situated at the confluence of the Pekiang with the Taho, a much larger river coming from the west. Their united streams spread below this city into a broad estuary, called, by Europeans, the Bocca Tigris, which extends about fifty miles in length, and twenty in breadth, to its junction with the ocean. Canton itself is about five miles in circumference; besides which, its extensive suburbs compose, as it were, another city. The great estuary of the Bocca Tigris also is covered with floating mansions arranged in streets, the tenants of which have no home on land. The hongs, or factories, are handsome buildings, situated in the suburbs, and arranged in a line along the water. The streets are narrow, and the front of almost every house is a shop; but the suburbs and vicinity contain many agreeable sites, in which the wealthy inhabitants have erected their mansions. Near the mouth of the Bocca Tigris is the Island of Macao, separated from the continent only by a narrow river channel. It was once a place of high importance, whence the Portugese, in the days of their pride, carried on most of the commerce between Europe and China. It has more than shared, however, in that supine sloth and decay which have involved all their Eastern empire. The town contains, at present, a population of about 12,000, including about 4000 Portuguese, who still fit out a few vessels, or give their name to those whom it benefits in trading with this jealous government. Thirteen churches, four convents, and fifty secular eaclesiastics, are supported by this decaying town. West of Quangtong is Quangsee, which does not rank high as to wealth and population, a great part of its territory being covered with thick forests and rugged mountains. In the south, however, are plains that yield abundance of rice, of which a supply is even sent to Canton. The river Taho, which traverses it throughout, has its navigation obstructed by rocks and cataracts. Considerable mines are said to exist in this province, which the jealousy of the government prevents from being worked. Neither Queyling-fou, the capital, nor any of the other cities of Quangsee, rank with those of the rest of China. West of Quangsee is the frontier province of Yunan, situated on a still more lofty portion of that great chain which traverses the southern portion of the empire. Though the site be elevated, and the climate consequently temperate, it is well peopled, and yields many valuable products. The upland tracts are occupied by a hardy highland race, called Lolo, of a totally different temper from the other Chinese. Such are their valor, and the strength of their haunts, that even this jealous and despotic government has been, after long effort, obliged to content itself with a formal acknowledgment of homage, leaving the internal government to be entirely conducted by hereditary chiefs, to whom their clans pay almost implicit submission. The metallic wealth of the province is said to be considerable, and even to include gold. The capital, of the same name, once handsome and considerable, has been injured by civil war. From Yunan, tracing the frontier northward, we find Koeitchoo, a still ruder province, filled with turbulent and refractory tribes. Its cities are small, being little better than military posts with strong garrisons, which, CHINA. 841 as the revenues of the province are unequal to support them, prove burdensome to the imperial treasury. It contains, however, a number of valuable metals, particularly copper. Setchuen, the next frontier province to the north, presents a much more favorable aspect. Its mountains are only of moderate height, and it is traversed and fertilised by the great river Yang-tse-kiang. Along with the silk, sugar-cane, and grain of China, it unites the Tartarian commodities of musk and rhubarb, and is also distinguished for a small and active breed of horses. The capital, Tching-tou-fou, though much injured during the civil wars, is still very populous, and carries on a great trade. The north-western angle of China is composed of the province of Shensee, which is very extensive, and throws out, as it were, even a long promontory into the Tartarian desert. Its aspect is mountainous, and somewhat rude; but it is highly productive of wheat and millet, and contains copious pastures, on which large herds of cattle are fed. The inhabitants, exposed to perpetual incursions from the Tartars, are trained to arms, and are of a more hardy and courageous character than in other parts of the kingdom. Its capital, Singanfou, is a fine city, strongly fortified, and always well garrisoned. Between Shensee and Petchelee, with which our survey began, the interval is filled by the small province of Shansee, which presents an aspect very similar to its western neighbor. The climate is healthy; yielding wheat, millet, and even good grapes, which are not, however, employed in making wine: it has also considerable mines of iron. Tay-yuen-fou, the capital, is distinguished for splendid palaces belonging to a former dynasty, now, however, allowed to go to ruin. After making this complete circuit of China, we have still left the interior provinces of Honan and Houquang, which compose the centre of the empire. They rank among its finest portions, being watered by the two great parallel rivers, and by numerous tributaries with which they are fed. Houquang has been called the granary, and Honan the garden, of the empire. The former is particularly marked by the vast number of lakes which it contains, and which are signified by its very name. That of Tong ting is described to be 300 miles in circumference, and covered with numberless vessels, the tenants of which derive their subsistence from its waters. Vouchang, the capital, is an immense city, especially when viewed in combination with Hang-yang, only separated from it by the broad channel of the Yang-tse-kiang. The French writers compare the former to Paris, and the latter to Lyons. Thousands of barks along the whole length of these cities form a continued forest. The towns of Honan are not so distinguished, though that bearing the name of the province has been reckoned by the Chinese the centre of the earth. Kay-yong, the residence of the governor, is defended from the inundation of the Hoang-ho only by strong dikes, which were broken down by the enemy in the last war; a disaster from which it has never fully recovered. China, generally speaking, is a country strictly continental, composed of a rounded range of coast, little broken into bays and promontories. There are, however, several insular appendages to it, which deserve notice. Of these, the most interesting are the islands called Loo-Choo, or Leu-cheu. The great Loo-Choo is about fifty-eight miles in length, and from twelve to fifteen miles broad; and it is the principal of a group of thirty-six, situated 842 TURKESTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY. about 400 miles from the eastern coast of China. It is at present tributary to the latter country, though the supremacy has been sometimes disputed by Japan; and from China it also derives its literature. The great island itself is represented as one of the most delightful spots on the globe. According to Mr. Macleod, " the verdant lawns and romantic scenery of Tinian and Juan Fernandez, so well described in Anson's Voyage, are here displayed in higher perfection, and on a much more magnificent scale; for cultivation is added to the most enchanting beauties." The sea breezes, blowing over it at every season of the year, preserve it from the extremes of heat and cold; and numerous rivulets, which seldom or never stagnate into marshes, render it at once pleasant and healthy. The population could not be conjectured; but, from the extent and state of cultivation, it must be considerable. The character of the inhabitants appears every way to harmonise with the charms of their climate and scenery. They are gay, kindly, hospitable, and intelligent. They exhibit none of the recluse and contracted habits of the Chinese, but meet frequently together at little festivals in the open air, and appear peculiarly alive to social enjoyment. TURKESTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY. TURKESTAN is an extensive country lying between 36~ and 510 north latitude, and 450 and 780 east longitude, extending from east to west 1,350 miles, and from north to south 1,260. It is bounded on the north by the Russian provinces; on the south by Affghanistan and Iran; on the east by the Chinese colony of ni; and on the west by the Caspian Sea and the river Oural. The greater part of the country is composed of sandy plains, intersected by a few rivers, and studded with small lakes. It generally rises from the shores of the Caspian and Aral seas towards the south and east, on both of which sides it is enclosed by high mountains. The great plain at the foot of the mountains has an elevation of 2,000 feet, but the elevation of the desert is much less. The steppe of Kirghiz, in the north, has not everywhere a uniform surface, nor does it constitute a vast plain, as the name might be thought to imply: it is on the contrary intersected by many chains of hills, and nowhere exhibits those boundless expanses which are met with elsewhere. It is nowhere fertile, and the want of water renders the herbage scant and poor, and the general appearance is unvaried and fatiguing to the eye. It may, however, be divided into several regions, of various degrees of fertility. The most fertile district is in the north, where the meadows are rich, and the forests produce magnificent timber. The south is generally sterile; and the central regions, though containing many well-favored spots, are upon the whole unfit for an agricultural population. Shells, pebbles of diverse colors, petrifactions, mollusca, and other marine remains, spread over this region at a distance from the sea, are sufficient evidence that at no very remote period the whole has been submerged, and the salt lakes everywhere studding the surface bear evidence to the same fact. * TURKESTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 843 The climate of the plains and steppes of Turkestan is subject to extremes of heat and cold; the sandy face of the country producing intense heat in summer, while, on the contrary, in winter the same deserts are sometimes covered with snow, and are always cold during the night. In the steppe of Kirghiz the extremes are remarkable. Nor are these extremes the only evil: severe storms, hurricanes, and whirlwinds, blow over the steppes, carrying everything that is moveable before them. Wolves inhabit caverns in the gypsum mountains and the sandy districts, and the canis corsac roams among the herds of the antelope saiga. Horses are the most valuable domestic animals in almost all the grassy steppes. Among these, the beautiful race of Argamats supply the cavalry of Khiva. Camels of both species, and sheep, frequently of good breed for wool (and some of them fat-tailed), beeves and goats, constitute the wealth of the wandering tribes. Fine-wool goats are bred in Bokhara. The tiger has been found in the vicinity of the Aral, on the banks of the Sir, and the Kouvan. The wild boar is found in great numbers in the vicinity of all the rivers. The country is inhabited by a great variety of races or tribes. The Usbecks are the most numerous race occupying the low country, and consist of thirty-two tribes. They are of the Toorkee stock, and generally short and stout, with broad, flat foreheads, high cheek bones, thin beards, small eyes, clear and ruddy complexion, and generally black hair. The aborigines of the country are the Taujiks, or Tats. They are devoted to commerce, speak the Persian language, and are probably of Persian or Arabian origin. There is, besides, a great number of Persians in Turkestan, and many Jews, Hindoos, Armenian and Russian slaves. The northern parts of the country are occupied by nomadic tribes, formed by an intermixture of Kalmucks, Kazaks, and Kirghiz. Many of the tribes, however, have adopted the habits of the more improved districts, and have fixed dwellings. The northern hordes own the supremacy of Russia, which pensions their chiefs; and for greater security against their inroads, a line of strong posts is kept up between the Oural and Irtish. The Usbecks and Taujiks of Bokhara, Khiva, Balkh, and Khokand, are Sonee Mahometans, very strict in their profession, and even fanatical. Several tribes on the eastern borders are Shiahs, and some are idolaters. There are also Jews and Hindoos, who profess of course their paternal faith. In all the states of Turkestan the governments are more or less depotic; but each nation or body politic is generally composed of an aggregation of clans, or urughs, of which the chiefs are in many instances elected by the people. The chief administers the internal affairs of the clan, and arranges the quota of tribute and military service exacted by the general government. But these heads of clans do not unite in any assembly, nor claim the right of exercising any control over the measures of the sovereign. The people are mostly devoted to agriculture, and are said to be industrious; but the Bokharians are distinguished above all their neighbors as manufacturers, and excel in fined cotton and silk-stuffs, hats, paper, and other articles which they produce. Bokhara has always been a great mart for Central Asia, and numerous fairs are held in the chief places. The Russians and British have a great share in this trade, and direct and extensive commercial intercourse is kept up with Cashgar, Yarkand, &c 844 TURKESTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY. With Persia the trade is inconsiderable. The shawls of Kerman form the principal article of import. Silk, cotton, and wool, are exported. The wool of Turkestan is sent across the mountains to Cabul and the Punjab, where it is made into a coarse kind of shawl. It is procured from the Kazaks, and wandering tribes about Bokhara, who were long ignorant of its value, anti still use it for the common ropes for their horses and cattle. The lamb-skins of Bokhara are celebrated in the East, and are exported to Persia, Turkey, and China. There is, however, great difficulty in transporting merchandise, owing to the unsettled state of the roads, which are infested with wandering Turcoman robbers; and the hatred which subsists between these and the peaceful population, being fostered by different religions, adds to the difficulty. The merchants purchase their goods for ready money, being afraid to risk a commercial investment across the deserts. BORKIRA is a place of great celebrity, tradition assigning its foundation to the age of Alexander the Great. It lies embosomed among gardens and trees, and cannot be seen from a distance. Its shape is triangular, exceeding eight miles in circuit, surrounded by a wall of earth about twenty feet high, and pierced with twelve gates. Few great buildings are to be seen from the outside; but internally lofty arched bazaars, and ponderous and massive buildings, colleges, mosques, and minarets, everywhere meet the eye. The city contains about twenty caravanseras, and one hundred ponds and wells, and is intersected by canals shaded by mulberry trees. It contains several large mosques, and not less than 366 madresses or colleges, a third part of which are large buildings, and contain upwards of seventy or eighty students. The students are supported by a public allowance, and are entirely occupied with theology, which has here superseded all other subjects. They are quite ignorant of the history of their own country; a more perfect set of drones, says Byrnes, were never assembled together. Population, 150,000. Samarcand, the Maricanda of the Greeks, 120 miles east of Bokhara, is as ancient as the era of Alexander. It was the capital of Timour, and is still regarded with veneration by the people, and though now containing only 8,000 inhabitants, its splendid ruins of mosques and temples attest its former grandeur. The tombs of Timour and his family still remain; and the ashes of the conqueror rest beneath a lofty dome, the walls of which are beautifully ornamented with agate. TURKMANIA, or Turkestan Proper, is the country lying north of the Amoo, stretching from Balkh to the Caspian, and occupying the space between the sea and the Aral. On the south it is bounded by hills; and on the south-eastern shore of the Caspian, where Turkmania adjoins Persia, the country is mountainous, and watered by the rivers Guirgan and Attruck, which fall into that sea. In all other places it is a flat and sandy desert, scantily supplied with water. The country contains no towns or villages; for the Turcomans are an erratic tribe, who wander from one well to another with their herds and flocks, taking their conical khirgahs, or huts, with them. The Turcomans boast that they rest under the shade neither of king nor tree. They acknowledge the patriarchal sway of their aksakals (whitebeard) or elders, and now and then fall under the power of some neighboring nations. JAPAN. 845 The life of a Turcoman is passed in the most reckless plunder of property and human beings; and a proverb among them boasts that a Turcoman on horseback knows neither father nor mother. They have fortunately no supreme ruler to guide and direct their united efforts, a circumstance which lessens their power and the effecfts of their barbarity. They belong to the great family of the Tookee, or Tartar race, and differ from the Usbecks in being exclusively a nomadic people. They all claim a common lineage, though they are divided into different tribes. Their total number is reckoned at about 140,000 families. They have neither science nor literature; they are even without mosques, though not altogether without religion; they are a warlike people, and their domestic habits fit them for battle. Their food is simple, consisting of milk and the flesh of their flocks and herds. They bestow great care on their horses, and exhibit the most patient solicitude in their breeding and food, so that their best qualities are fully developed. The Turcoman horse, however, is a large and bony animal, more remarkable for strength and power than for symmetry and beauty. JAPAN. JAPAN bears an affinity to China, in the nature of its institutions, the character of its inhabitants, and the physical and moral circumstances which separate it from the rest of the world. Asia, in general, forms a vast continent of broad and unbroken dimensions; but to the east and southeast, it presents archipelagoes of islands, so large as to constitute entire kingdoms. The three which constitute Japan have, not without plausible grounds, claimed the title of empire. The empire of Japan is in fact so great, so populous, and marked by such striking and peculiar features, that, notwithstanding the complete state of insulation in which it holds itself from other nations, it justly attracts a large share of the curiosity of Europe. Japan consists of three principal islands, one very large, and two smaller, which, being separated from each other only by narrow channels, form altogether one long, winding, irregular range of territory. The entire length, in an oblique line, from point to point, scarcely falls short of 1000 miles; while the breadth, in some places not more than forty or fifty, seldom exceeds 100, and never, unless in its most expanded central point, amounts to 200. Niphon, by much the largest, is about 800 miles long; Kiusiu, or Ximo, 150 miles long by 120 broad; Sikokf, or Sicoco, 90 long by 50 broad. The other islands are mere detached and local objects. The southern part of the large and continuous island of Jesso, comprehending all of it that is valuable and improvable, is completely colonized and possessed by the Japanese. The stormy seas which dash around Japan form the most prominent feature in its geographical position. To the east it faces the entire breadth of the Northern Pacific; which, with the intervention of scarcely a single island, reaches fifty degrees across to the coast of America. The southwestern point of the range comes almost in contact with Corea, from which it is separated only by a strait of about eighty miles. Proceeding to 846 JAPAN. the northeast, it recedes continually from Asia, till it leaves an expanse nearly 700 miles broad, called the Sea of Japan. At the northern extremity this sea is narrowed by the large islands of Jesso and Saghalien, till it is formed into a species of close bay. The aspect of Japan is bold, varied, abrupt, and striking, without any single feature that is very prominent. Rugged chains traverse its interior, from several of which volcanic fire is thrown up; and Fusi, the highest, is covered with almost perpetual snow. On the whole, however, these inequalities of surface are no more than necessary to supply the moisture requisite in so hot a climate; and an ample proportion of the surface of Japan consists of rich valleys and extended plains, on which all the articles of tropical produce grow in the utmost abundance. Streams, pouring down from the interior heights, traverse the plains in endless numbers, and in every direction; but, in this narrow belt, the receptacle of the sea is every where too near to allow them to acquire the character of great rivers. There are no lakes of any magnitude; but the coast is indented with many deep and broad bays, which penetrate the interior, and afford the most im portant aid to internal commerce. Japan was entirely unknown to the ancients, and is not mentioned by any of their historians. The empire, however, has records, which affect to detail its revolutions for a period long anterior to that which we are justified in assigning to the origin of human society. Of the seven celestial spirits, who ruled it for more than 1,000,000 years, nothing need be said. The second dynasty, though it commenced 15,000 years before the creation, includes, probably, a considerable admixture of truth. The emperors were mere human beings, and they are represented, according to the probable course of things, as having come from China, and introduced among a yet barbarous people, the useful arts, medicine, and a tincture of the sciences. The third period, which may be considered as fundamentally genuine, is referred to the sixth century before the Christian era. It was marked by the accession of the dairis, who laid claim, not indeed to divine attributes, but to a descent from the early celestial rulers; and they, as " sons of heaven," and ministers of the Deity, continued to exercise over Japan a mingled civil and ecclesiastical sway. It appears probable, however, that their power over the greater part was little more than spiritual; and that its varied districts were held by civil princes in almost independent possession. The dairis, as they sunk into voluptuous insolence, devolved into the hands of the cubo, or general, that military power which can with such difficulty be prevented from becoming paramount. This, in the course of the sixteenth century, gave rise to a complete revolution in the political situation of Japan. A succession of brave and able cubos found means to reduce all the petty princes under subjection to the general government, and at the same time to monopolise the supreme direction of affairs. The profound veneration, however, entertained by the nation for the dairi, and the sacred character with which they supposed him to be invested, rendered it impossible that he should be wholly superseded. He still enjoyed ample revenues to maintain his dignity, with an absolute control over all spiritual concerns, leaving the solid and temporal power to the cubo, who has ever since maintained it without interruption on the part of the dairi, and, by a course of severe and determined measures, has held all the for merly independent princes in a state of complete vassalage. JAPAN. 847 The intercourse of Europeans with Japan is to us the most interesting part of its history, though it has scarcely affected the destinies of the empire itself. The Portuguese, who were'che first explorers of this as well as of every other part of the Asiatic coast, did not at first encounter that deadly jealousy with which Japan was afterwards closed against Europeans. Not only were they allowed to establish a factory, and carry on a great trade at Firando, but no opposition was made to the introduction of missionaries, for diffusing the Catholic religion. St. Francis Xavier, the celebrated apostle of the East, made Japan the great theatre of his preaching. After some obstacles, considerable progress was made; several of the princes or tributary kings, with a considerable proportion of their subjects, embraced the new faith; and an embassy was even sent to Philip II. and the Pope. In no long time, however, these fair promises began to be clouded. The nobles became impatient of the restraints imposed by their new profession; and the perpetual jealousy of a despotic government was kindled by the introduction of new doctrines, habits and ideas, from a foreign nation, who might employ this change as a prelude to conquest. Some rash steps taken by the missionaries, and, probably, the report of Portuguese proceedings in other parts of Asia, raised this hostile disposition to the utmost pitch. A general persecution was commenced against all, both native and foreign, who held the new faith; and it was carried on with an unrelenting severity characteristic of the nation. The series of studied torture employed was not, perhaps surpassed by that which the Roman emperors inflicted on the early converts. The Japanese Christians suffered long, with a constancy peculiar to themselves; but at length, having to do with a government which knew not pity, they were either exterminated or overawed. The Portuguese, at the same time, were put to death or expelled. That nation, in 1640, made a last attempt by sending an embassy of seventy-nine individuals, to open a new commercial intercourse. But these, by orders from the Japanese court, were all put to death, with the exception of thirteen, whom the magistrates sent back with the following mandate:-" You are to inform your fellow-citizens, that henceforth the citizens of Japan will not receive either money, merchandise, or presents from them; you see that we have burnt the very clothes of your dead countrymen. Let your people use in the same manner any of ours who may fall into their hands; we make them welcome, and desire they will think no more of the Japanese than if there were not such a nation in the world." And on the chest containing the dead bodies was written:- " Henceforward, so long as the sun shall shine upon the earth, let not any Christian be so daring as to set his foot in Japan." The Dutch were too fully possessed with the spirit of commercial enter prise to be checked by these deadly warnings. Assuming the most submissive deportment, and, as has been alleged, denying the faith on account of which their predecessors had been expelled, they succeeded in establishing a factory at Firando. This being soon considered too wide a field, they removed to the smaller spot of Nangasaki, where they have ever since been allowed to remain under restrictions progressively severe. They have at length been circumscribed as in a prison; allowed, indeed, to carry on a certain portion of trade, but without ever passing the allotted boundaries. All attempts made by other European states have completely failed. The most persevering have been those of Russia, which, after the possession 848 JAPAN. of Kamtchatka and Kuriles, became the immediate neighbor of Japan. Russia was exceedingly desirous of opening this intercourse, and even established a school at Irkoutsk, for the education of Japanese youth. In 1804, Captain Krusenstern sailed to Nangasaki on an official mission. Although a Dutch vessel was just sailing for Batavia, the two nations were not allowed to speak to, or even look at, each other. The Russians were well supplied with provisions and repairs, but were allowed to land only after a long interval, and then put upon a narrow neck of ground, where they were watched as closely as they would have been in the Seven Towers o. Constantinople. After being detained for many months, and their solicitations for permission to proceed to court evaded under various pretexts, a deputation came down from the capital, announcing the irrevocable decision, that no Russian vessel could be allowed to enter Japan. Some years afterwards, a Japanese vessel having been saved from shipwreck on the coast of Asiatic Russia, hopes were entertained that this circumstance might open the way to friendly communication. With this view, Captain Golownin was sent to Matsmay, the Japanese capital of Jesso. If he was invited on shore, however, it was only to be thrown into close and rigorous durance, in which he was detained for many months. Orders were then sent to liberate him; but, as might be expected from such a prelude, they were unaccompanied with the slightest concession in favor of Russian commerce or intercourse. Golownin learned, during his confinement, that the utmost jealousy was felt at the court of Jeddo respecting the progress, both of Russia by land through northern Asia, and of the English by sea along the southern coast. Impressed with an extravagant estimate of their own importance, the Japanese imagined that the ultimate object of both these movements was to reach and finally conquer their empire. The division of power between the ecclesiastical and the military potentate is the most remarkable peculiarity in the government of Japan: the one holds the highest rank, and the first place in the veneration of the whole nation; the other absorbs all the solid realities of power. In this relative position they have remained for several centuries, wishing, but not venturing, the one to recover the lost reins of sovereignty, the other to dispel the phantom which holds dominion over the minds of the people. The dairi, who resides at Meaco, appropriates the whole revenue of that city and its rich adjoining territory. In order, also, that he may maintain the full pomp of a sovereign, a liberal allowance is held due to him out of the general revenue. This, however, is all in the hands of the cubo, who often finds it inconvenient to make the payment, and has recourse to apologies, which, whether satisfactory or not, the other has no means of disallowing. Thus, a proud poverty reigns in this sacred court, which is greatly increased by the circumstance, that all the members of the blood royal, sprung from the early divine rulers of Japan, now amounting to many thousands, must be so maintained as not to bring contempt upon the race. A considerable number find employment in religious functions, and in the numerous monasteries; but others are reduced to great straits, and the descendants of the celestial spirits are obliged to support their outward dignity by privily manufacturing straw hats, horse-shoes, and other humble handicraft productions. Every nerve, however, is strained that all around the dairi himself may present the most imposing aspect of magnificence. Fantastic attributes are ascribed to him, which may appear to raise him JAPAN. 849 above every tincture of mortal imperfection. His foot is never to be profaned by touching the ground, and he is never to be moved from one place to another, unless upon men's shoulders. It is considered unlawful for him to cut off his hair, nails, or anything which can be held as forming part of his person; but the extreme inconvenience of this rule has led to the somewhat poor evasion of taking them from him during sleep. On his death the next heir succeeds, whether male or female, at whatever age. Yet the strictness of this hereditary principle did not prevent disputed succession, while the sovereign power centred in the dairi; but in his present humbled state, the courtiers are studious to adjust all discussions in a quiet manner, in order to prevent any external interference. The cubo, or temporal sovereign of Japan, rules with an authority which admits, in principle, of no limitation. In fact, however, it stands on a very different footing from that of the despotic monarchies of Asia. The provinces are ruled, not by satraps appointed and removeable at pleasure, but by princes, once warlike and independent, and only reduced, after a hard struggle, to bend to the will of a conqueror. They thus form a sort of feudal aristocracy, residing in large and strongly fortified castles; but have no right to meet in council, nor any legal control over the actions of the monarch They retain, however, lofty sentiments of independence, to guard against which, the most rigorous precautions are taken. They are obliged to leave the greater part of their family at court as hostages, and themselves to reside there for a great part of the year. When discovered or believed to be engaged in any measure hostile to the government, death is the immediate and irrevocable sentence; and the only mitigation granted is that of being allowed to procure it by their own hands. The laws of Japan, in general, may be said even more emphatically than those of Draco, to be written in blood. They seem to struggle against a spirit in the nation hostile to the despotic principle, and which is made to bend to it only by the most powerfill impulse of terror. Cutting in pieces, piercing the belly with a knife, immersion in boiling oil, are common modes of punishing the guilty. The parent saffeirs for the crime of the child, the child for that of the parent. A remnant of republican constitution is preserved in the division of cities into wards, to which the maintenance of the police is intrusted, but under the penalty that each ward must be responsible for the crime committed by any of its memnbers. Of these violent measures, however, the result really, is, that the security of person and property is very complete, and that capital punishments are even rendered more rare than in most other nations. Around Nangasaki only, examples of this unrelenting severity continue more frequent, in order to) extirpate every remnant of Christianity, and also to punish the instances of contraband traffic which private interest prompts, in the face of the most rigorous prohibitions. The Japanese rank with the richest and most industrious nations of Asia, though they confine themselves so entirely to their internal resources. In particular, their fertile soil, and even those parts of it to which nature has been least bountiful, are improved with the most exemplary diligence. Thunberg, in traveling through tracts the site of which was most favorable for the production of rare and curious plants, flattered himself with ample means of indulging his taste for botany; but his hopes were completely baffled by the laudable exertions of the Japanese farmers, who, classing all 54 850 JAPAN. such productions in the rank of weeds, had waged a successful war of extermination against them. The basis of their culture is Chinese; and they resemble that people in the extreme care with which manure is collected. The husbandmen must, indeed, be hardly treated, if, according to Kmempfer's statement, they are obliged to pay to the landlord six parts out of ten. Rice is the pride of Japanese agriculture, and the main staff of life. That which is raised on the best soil is said to be finer, whiter, and more easily preserved, than any other in Asia. Next in utility ranks the daidsu, a species of large bean, which, being made into a pulp, serves like butter, as a condiment to season many of their dishes. Wheat and barley are also standard grains, though not to an equal extent. Turnips are the culinary product which serves most for the support of the people. Of trees, the mulberry is considered the most valuable, and affords the material of the staple manufacture, though none of it is equal in quality to the finest produced in China. Tea, being in as universal demand in that country, is cultivated all over Japan, but with care that it do not encroach on any more esssential product; for which reason it is planted only in hedges, or in spots unfit for the spade or plough. One of the most valuable trees is the arusi, from which distils the precious varnish employed by the Japanese in the rich lackered ware peculiar to the country. The fig and chestnut are their principal fruits. Fir and cypress furnish the timber chiefly employed for ships; but the bamboo, for the beauty of its growth, and the various forms into which it can be manufactured, is the wood most prized by the Japanese. The manufacturing industry of the Japanese, though not so remarkable as that which they display in agricultural pursuits, is still considerable. It is exerted on the same branches, and after the same models, as with the Chinese —silk, cotton, porcelain; but none of them is carried to equal perfection. There is one process, however, that of covering their vessels with a rich dark varnish, and raising above it artificial flowers and ornaments, which derives its name from Japan, and in which that nation excels all all others. They are well acquainted with the art of working metals, and particularly the fabrication of arms; and also with the making of glass. Perhaps no nation so large and so rich is so great a stranger to foreign trade. The Chinese, though so much limited as to intercourse with strangers, have yet huge junks, which sail through all the Oriental islands; but nowhere is a Japanese flag ever seen.. Theix vessels, little better than boats, and of a clumsy construction, are unable, notwithstanding the use of the compass, to do more than creep along their own coast. Commerce, thus confined almost entirely to the interior of the empire, is very active within that sphere. All the shores and bays appear crowded with barks, conveying from place to place the various products of the provinces. The roads are excellent, and thronged in an amazing degree; they are kept clean by the mere anxiety of the people to collect the mud as manure. The broad and rapid torrents in the mountainous districts are crossed by hand, some bridges of cedar, well fenced, and always kept in the most perfect repair. The population of Japan cannot be estimated on any precise data. Its superficial extent has been rated at about a tenth of that of China, and, according to all appearance, the population must be nearly as dense. JAPAN. 851 The Japanese seem, in personal appearance, to be a somewhat altered and improved variety of the Mongols and Chinese. Their eyes are even in a greater degree small, pointed, oblong, sunk in the head, with a deep furrow made by the eyelids; they have almost the appearance of being pink-eyed. Their heads are in general large, and their necks short; their hair is black, thick, and shining from the use of oil. They are, however, robust, well made, active, and easy in their motions. Their complexion, yellow and passing into brown, appears to be entirely produced by the climate; since ladies who are constantly protected from the heat of the sun are as white as in Europe. The national character is strikingly marked, and strongly contrasted with that which generally prevails throughout Asia. The Japanese differ most especially from the Chinese, their nearest neighbors, notwithstanding the resemblance in form and lineaments. Instead of that tame, quiet, orderly, servile disposition, which makes them the prepared and ready subjects of despotism, the Japanese have a character marked by energy, independence, and a lofty sense of honor. Although they are said to make good subjects, even to the severe government under which they live, they yet retain an impatience of control, and a force of public opinion, which renders it impossible for any ruler wantonly to tyrannise over them. Instead of that mean, artful, and truckling disposition so general among Asiatics, their manners are distinguished by a manly frankness, and all their proceedings by honor and good faith. They are habitually kind and good-humored, when nothing occurs to rouse their hostile passions, and they carry the ties of friendship even to a romantic height. To serve and defend a friend in every peril, and to meet torture and death rather than betray him, is considered as a duty from which nothing can dispense. Good sense is considered, by Thunberg, as a prominent feature; and it appears particularly in their dress, which they seek only to render substantial and suitable, despising those glittering ornaments which are so eagerly sought over all Asia. The greatest defect seems to be pride, which runs through all classes, rises to the highest pitch among the great, and leads them to display an extravagant pomp in their retinue and establishment, and to despise every thing in the nature of industry and mercantile employment. It has the still worse effect of giving rise, on any injury, real or supposed, to the deepest and most implacable resentment. This passion, which decorum and the rigor of the laws prevent from breaking into open violence, is brooded over in silence, till the opportunity of vengeance arrives. Forced often to bend beneath a stern and powerful government, they are impelled tj suicide, the refuge of fallen and vanquished pride. Self-murder here, like duelling in Europe, seems to be the point of honor among the great; and the nobles, even when condemned to death by the sovereign, reserve the privilege of executing the sentence with their own hands. This people differs also from the Chinese, in being of a deeply religious character. There are two religions in Japan; one native, called the Sintos, at the head of which is the dairi; the other, the Boodh, called here Budso, the same which prevails over all eastern Asia. The Budso gains ascend ency by mingling with the original system those attractive accessories which it possesses in common with the Catholic,-monasteries, processions, beads, drums, noisy music, and the belief of purgatory; which, though condemned by the pure and orthodox Sintoists, has a general influence over the people. 852 JAPAN. The Sintos profess to believe in a supreme ruler of the universe, and among their number is distinguished a class of pure and philosophic worshippers, who entertain lofty conceptions of the Deity, and cultivate the practice of virtue as the chief means of gaining his favor. Their belief, however, being thought to resemble the Christian, fell into some discredit, when the latter became the object of such deadly persecution. The mass of the nation, for whom such tenets were far too refined, have always been addicted to gross and varied superstition. Deified kings and heroes, rulers of the respective elements, local genii, who preside over woods, form the usual and natural elements. Amid the paucity of real animals, they have invented also a number of fanciful and mythological creatures, who are the objects to them of a species of worship. The dragon, also a Chinese monster; the kirin, a winged quadruped, and the foo, a beautiful bird of paradise, are all accounted peculiarly sacred. The religion of the Japanese deals much in festivals, of which they have five great annual ones, besides three smaller. celebrated every month, rather with visiting, eating, drinking, and somewhat disorderly mirth, like the bacchanals of the ancients, than with any observance that can properly be called religious. But pilgrimage is the custom to which they adhere with the greatest zeal, and from which they promise themselves the greatest benefit, temporal and spiritual. No one can be accounted at all eminent in sanctity, or have any assurance of the forgiveness of his sins, who has not been once a year at Isje, the grand temple of the Tensio Dai Sir, or first of the celestial spirits, situated in a province of the same name. The roads in summer are completely choked with the crowds of devout worshippers, on their way to the sacred shrine. As many have not the means of paying their own way, a large proportion betake themselves to begging, and, prostrate on the ground, call out to the rich passengers,'" A farthing to carry me to Isje! " In order to draw notice and favor, they exhibit images of a many-headed idol, called Quanwan; of Amida, the judge of departed souls; of Temacco, keeper of the prison of condemned souls; of Driso, supreme commander of purgatory; and of other deities. Others seek to gain acceptance by praying, singing, playing on fiddles, guitars, and other musical instruments, or by the performance of juggling tricks. On meeting with success in any of these departments, they often betake themselves wholly to the pursuit, and make a permanent increase to the crowds of beggars with which the country is infested. tBuch a step they consider themselves fully privileged to take, after they have shaved their heads, and devoted themselves to a particular religious order. Among these shaved beggars are prominent a class of bikerni, or nums, who appeared to Kaempfer the handsomest females he had seen there. Many of them had exchanged for it an employment the least honorable to their sex, which they were suspected not to have wholly relinquished. lsje, the object of all these pilgrimages, presents nothing that corresponds to its fame, or the magnificence of the empire. It is rather held forth aq a monument of antique poverty and simplicity. It is a mere low wooden hut, with a flat thatched roof, and the interior contains only a looking-glass of cast metal, and some cut paper, to both of which a mythological import is assigned. In the surrounding plain are about 100 chapels, equally of poor materials, and so small that a man cannot stand upright in them. To each of these is attached a canusi, or priest, underone of whom the newly arrived pilgrim places himself. After a due round of prostrations, supplications, JAPAN. 868 and above all, of gifts, to the utmost amount of his real or supposed ability, he is presented with an ofarrai, or indulgence, consisting of a small oblong box, filled with little pieces of wood wrapped in white paper, which is supposed to ensure the pardon of sins, and exemption from temporal evil for a year to come; at the end of which period, no zealous Sintoist is satisfied unless he can undertake another pilgrimage. Even those who are not so fortunate carefully preserve their ofarrai, and consider it through life as a valuable possession. The Budso temples are much more magnificent than those of the Sintos. They are placed usually on an elevated spot, surrounded with beautiful groves. Their ornaments, but for the peculiar form of the idols, would make the traveller imagine that he was in a European cathedral. Of the progress of the Japanese in arts and sciences our knowledge is very scanty. Their mode of printing, and their ideas on speculative subjects, are fundamentally Chinese. They are far, however, from displaying that proud indifference and disdain of every thing foreign, which bars all approach to improvement. Their minds are active, and imbued with the most eager curiosity on all subjects. On the few occasions allowed to them by the jealous rigor of their government, they have harassed Europeans with multiplied questions, respecting those branches of knowledge in which they felt and admitted their superiority. The buildings in Japan are of excessively slight materials,-the walls of clay; so that a smart kick would beat a hole through them. The interior is divided into partitions with pasteboard, and the walls covered with paper, which, in the houses of the great, is elegantly painted and varnished. As the natives sit on the floor, there is no occasion for chairs, tables, or that variety of furniture which graces a European apartment. Pomp is chiefly displayed in the number and beauty of the mats with which the floor is spread; and the great imperial hall is called " the hall of the thousand mats." Every thing is kept nicely clean and fresh as if new. Such habitations, however, are little better than matches to kindle fire; so that, notwithstanding a large depot of water kept at the top of every house, the cities are often desolated by the most dreadful conflagrations. The diet of the Japanese is remarkably simple. They surpass the Hindoos in abstinence; not only avoiding animal food, but even milk and its productions. Hot rice cakes are the standard food, and are kept ready at all the inns, to be presented to the traveller the moment he arrives, along with tea, and occasionally sacki, or rice beer. Tobacco affords the chief and constant social indulgence. Their dress is equally plain. It consists merely of a large loose robe, resembling our bed-gown, made of silk or cotton, and varying in the different ranks only as to the degree of fineness. They have straw shoes, which they put off at the door. They shave their head, leaving only a tuft on the crown, and usually have it bare, unless on their journeys, when they cover it with an enormous cap, made of plaited grass or oiled paper. In travelling, the Japanese spend more time than perhaps any other nation. The tokaid or main road, is described by Kaempfer to be usually as crowded as the streets of' the most populous cities in Europe. This is owing to their numerous pilgrimages; to the extent of the inland trade; and most of all, to the immense retinues which attend the princes in their annual journeys to and from the court of the cubo. The retinue of one of 854 JAPAN. the very first rank is computed to amount to 20,000, and covers the roads for several miles. First appears a crowd of outriders, cooks, clerks, and other inferior functionaries. Behind is the heavy baggage, which is followed by a number of secondary nobles, also attended with numerous retinues. The prince then appears, surrounded by a varied and splendid train, composed of led horses, servants richly dressed, bearing lackered chests, pikes ornamented with feathers, rich scimitars, and other arms. The household officers, with considerable trains of their own, close the procession. That such a retinue may pass without inconvenience or collision, all the inns are engaged for a month before; and in all the towns and villages on the route, boards are set up to announce that on such a day, such a great lord is to pass through. JEDDO, now the seat of the ruling power, and the real capital of Japan, lies at the head of a deep bay on the eastern coast of Niphon, and at the mouth of one of the few rivers which possess any considerable magnitude. It is seven miles long and file broad, and contains many splendid palaces of the great lords, all of whom must reside in it for a great part of the year. These mansions are surrounded by wide enclosed courts and extensive gardens; yet they cannot be said to possess much architectural grandeur, since they are only one story high; the walls of clay, the partitions of paper, and adorned merely with painting, varnishing, and fine mats spread on the floor. The palace, however, though equally low, is built of freestone, and is five leagues in circumference, including a wide exterior area occupied by the spacious mansions of the princes and great lords of the court. Its grand apartment, the hall of the thousand mats, is said to be 600 feet long by 300 broad, and is brilliantly adorned by pillars of cedar, painted papers, and gilded dragons on the roof. The city is subject to dreadful fires, one of which, in 1703, consumed 100,000 houses. It is the seat of varied branches of industry, and carries on also a great internal trade. Meaco is at a considerable distance from Jeddo, near the southern extremity of Niphon, at a little distance in the interior. This spiritual capital of Japan is still the chief seat of polished manners, refined arts, and intellectual culture. The finest silk stuffs flowered with gold and silver, the richest varnishes, the best painted papers, and the most skillful works in gold, silver and copper, are here manufactured. It is likewise the centre of literature and science, and most of the works which are published and read in Japan issue from its presses. Although there is no longer the means of supporting the same display of pomp and wealth as at Jeddo, yet there is a greater display of architectural ornament. The palace or enclosed city of the sovereign, is on a similar plan; but the religious structures, though built only of cedar, are, some of them, truly splendid, richly gilded, and placed in the most picturesque and commanding situations. Koempfer calculates that there are, in and around Meaco, not less than 3,893 temples, served by 37,093 suikku or priests. Of these, however, the greater part are only wooden huts, and have nothing within but a looking glass and some cut white paper. Nangasaki, that interesting point at which alone this empire comes in contact with any foreign nation, must be noticed in closing our account with Japan. It is a large, industrious trading town, containing sixty-one streets, arranged without much beauty or order. On the small adjoining island of Dezima, separated from it only by a narrow channel, the Dutch are allowed JAPAN. 855 to carry on their scanty commerce. They have here a space of 600 feet long by 120 broad, on which they have erected several large store-houses, and rendered them fire-proof. The most unheard of precautions are taken to prevent any contrabrand transaction, commercial or political. The pockets of the officers and crew are turned inside out, and the hands passed over the clothes, and through the hair. The trunks and chests are emptied, and the boards struck, lest they should contain any secret cavity. Long wires or pikes are thrust through the cheeses, butter-tubs and jars of sweetmeats. Dezima is to the Dutch a complete prison, the gates of which are locked every night, and a guard set over them. Buried in this dungeon, they remain ignorant of all that is passing in the world, and gradually lose all curiosity on the subject. Even the faculty of the will becomes extinct, for want of exercise; so entirely are they under the control of the Japanese. Yet it is confidently asserted, that these accumulated precautions are insufficient to guard against the powerful impulse of self-interest, and that contrabrand trade is carried on to a considerable extent. Among the remarkable places in Japan, we must not omit to notice the island of Fatsisio, the most extraordinary place of exile in the world. It is a small island in the open sea, 230 miles south by east of Iedo, and its coasts are so precipitous that there is only one landing place. The grandees, who have fallen under the Kubo's displeasure, are sent hither, where they are employed in different kinds of handiwork, and manufacture stuffs so precious for their beauty,that his majesty reserves them for his own use. The large island of Ieso, called also Mo-sin and In-su, to the northward of Niphon, and separated from it by the Straits of Sangar, though possessed and colonized by the Japanese, is also inhabited by an aboriginal people who call themselves AXnos, but are called by the Japanese, Mosfns, (hairy bodies.) They are distinguished from the Japanese, says Malte Brun, by a somewhat taller stature and more robust frame; they have large, thick, black beards, and black and somewhat frizzled hair. They live chiefly by hunting and fishing, and pay their tribute to the governor of Matsmai, in skins and other natural productions of their country. Their arms are bows and arrows. They live without laws, and almost without religion; have no alphabet and no coin, and trade entirely by barter. They live in tribes, which are just so many family associations, though they seldom form mutual alliances. Their language seems to be equally foreign to the Japanese, the Manchu, and the Kamtschatdale. The island presents on all sides lofty mountains, covered with beautiful verdure and magnificent forests, which abound with wild animals. AFRICA. AFRICA, a spacious continent, cqmprising nearly a third of the world known to the ancients, composes a peninsula about 4,320 miles in length, from north to south, and 4,140 in breadth, from east to west. Its shape is an irregular pyramid, at the southern extremity diminishing almost to a point; so that it has, properly speaking, only three sides. Its western coast, by far the most extensive, faces the Atlantic, which on the other side is bounded, at several thousand miles' distance, by the parallel coast of America. To the east, Africa looks upon the southern Pacific, but chiefly that mighty portion of it called the Indian Ocean, which has for its remote opposite boundaries, Hindostan, the Eastern Archipelago, and New Holland. From Europe, Africa is separated by the Mediterranean, and from Asia by the Red Sea. Both of these gulfs communicate with the ocean by narrow straits, at which Africa comes almost in contact with the opposite continents; but it is at their interior extremities that they are separated by that celebrated isthmus, only 60 miles in breadth, which connects this vast continent with that of Asia. Africa, in all respects, except its vast extent, is the least favored portion of the globe. Its prevailing aspect is rude, gloomy and sterile. The character of desert, which elsewhere is only partial and occasional, belongs to a very great portion of its widely extended surface. Boundless plains, exposed to the vertical rays of a tropical sun, are deprived of all the moisture necessary to cover them with vegetation. Moving sands, tossed by the winds, and whirling in eddies through the air, surround and continually threaten to bury the traveller, in his lengthened route through these trackless wilds. The watered and cultivated districts consist of little more than belts, with which this huge expanse of desert is begirt. The best known, and perhaps the finest, is that which borders the northern coast along the Mediterranean, and stretches for 50 or 100 miles inland. The famous range of mountains called Atlas, which ancient fable represented as supporting the heavens, with numerous chains branching from it across the continent, diffuses moisture and fertility over sands which would otherwise have been totally unproductive. Then follows the immense ocean of desert, nearly 3,000 miles in length, and 1,000 in breadth, reaching across the whole continent from east to west, and from north to south, between latitude 15~ and 300. The sterility of the scene, is only interrupted by a narrow line, of not above half a mile, formed by the course of the Nile through Nubia, and by a few islands, or, as they are termed, oases, scast tered at wide intervals over this immeasurable waste. These spots, affording springs, verdure, and a few dates, support a scanty population; but are chiefly valuable as affording places of rest and refreshment for the caravans. The traveller who has crossed this dreary interval is cheered by the view of a long line of territory exhibiting a different and much more smiling aspect. Lofty ranges, celebrated under the name of the Mountains of the (8O6) AFRICA. 857 Moon, cross the central part of the continent, and form, perhaps, an almost unbroken girdle round it. Thence descend many rivers of the first magnitude; the Nile of Egypt, the Senegal, the Gambia, and the famed mysterious stream so long sought under the name of the Niger. These set bounds to the empire of sand, which would else overspread nearly all Africa; they inundate their banks, and fertilise extensive regions, which are covered with rich harvests, and peopled with nations that have made considerable advances in civilization. A great part of this tract has been recently explored, though much still remains for discovery; but farther south, the greater part of the interior, as far as the Cape of Good Hope, a space of 40~ of latitude, has never been trodden by any European. The districts on the east coast, however, are very well known, and still more those on the west. They present a totally different aspect from that of northern Africa; profusely watered by great rivers, in many places luxuriant with tropical products; in others inundated and swampy, overgrown with huge forests and underwood. Some late observers, however, in travelling inland from the Cape, have caught a glimpse of vast expanses of desert, reported almost to rival those at the opposite extremity of the continent. Lastly, the southern angle presents to the stormy seas of the Pacific, broad table rocks and high rude plains, covered, however, in many places, with good herbage and vegetation. Africa, bold, rude, and perilous to the traveler, has always been held in the other quarters of the globe as a region of wonders, which only the most daring enterprise durst atempt to explore. The Greeks were well acquainted with the tracts on the Mediterranean, containing the once flourishing regions and states of Egypt, Carthage, and Cyrene; but whenever they reached their southern limit, they saw nothing but boundless sands scorched by the intensest rays of the sun. Hence it appears that the ancients drew the early hypothesis of a torrid zone, within whose limits it was impossible for men and animals to exist. Historians mention several attempts to penetrate it, which had the most disastrous issue. The first were prompted by views of conquest. Cambyses, after subduing Egypt, endeavored to cross the Nubian desert into Ethiopia. He soon, however, experienced a failure of means for the support of his army. Elated with victory, and obstinate in his purpose, he refused to retreat; and the troops, after killing all their cattle, and then feeding on such scanty herbage as the ground afforded, came at last to the region of pure sand, on which was seen neither shrub nor blade of grass. In this dreadful extremity they began to devour each other; and at length Cambyses, struck with horror, renounced his enterprise. Another expedition, sent against the oasis of Ammon, never returned nor was heard of, and was believed to have been buried entire in the vast ocean of sand. These examples struck the world with terror, and prevented all further attempts, till the wild and enthusiastic daring of Alexander impelled him to seek a divine character at the shrine of Jupiter Ammon. The march was accomplished, but not without dreadful sufferings and extreme peril on the part of the army, and the danger of perishing before they reached the verdant groves and flowing rivulet which enclosed that celebrated temple. If the mightiest monarchs were thus baffled in their attempts to overcome the barrier of these awful solitudes, it was not likely that private adventurers should be more fortunate. Yet the natural desire of man to 858 AFRICA. penetrate into what is unknown and mysterious seems early to have had a powerful influence even upon individuals. Herodotus gives the narrative of an expedition undertaken by some young Nasamonians of distinction, inhabitants of a territory occupying part of the modern Tripoli. They described themselves as passing successively through cultivated tracts, then through a region inhabited by wild beasts, and lastly arriving at the great desert of sand. Having reached one of its verdant oases, and begun to pluck the fruit which was growing on the trees, they were surprised by a party of little black men, who took them prisoners, and conveyed them to a city far in the interior, traversed by a river flowing from west to east. These particulars seem strongly to point at central Africa and the course of the Niger. The Romans, when they had accomplished the final overthrow of Carthage, and established their empire over northern Africa, would doubtless be impelled both by ambition and curiosity to make some inquiry as to what lay beyond. Their expeditions, however, having gained for them no extension of power, have escaped the notice of history. There occurs only in Ptolemy an incidental notice that a detachment under Septimius Flaccus, and another under Julius Maternus, had reached the country of the Ethio pians, after successive marches of three and of four months; and the latter called the region Agysimba: but what they saw and what they found there is nowhere reported. The expeditions to explore the coast of the African continent formed the grandest object of ancient maritime enterprise. The successive efforts to explore the interior, made by the African Association, by Parke, Homemann, Denham, Clapperton, and Lander, have at length lifted up, from a great portion of this continent, the mysterious veil by which it had so long been covered. Africa has scarcely any trade, except that which is carried on overland and across its oceans of desert, by caravans, consisting chiefly of camels. It is truly astonishing with what facility these companies now make their way to the remotest interior of the continent, in defiance of obstacles which might have been deemed insuperable. By these immense journeys, they procure considerable quantities of gold and ivory; but the importance of these articles is merged in a cruel and iniquitous traffic, of which Africa has always been the main theatre. Other parts of the globe have for ages depended upon its oppressed and unfortunate inhabitants, for supplying their demand for slaves. Whoever, throughout Africa, has the evil power of selling any of his fellow-creatures, is sure to find purchasers who will give in exchange the best products of Europe and the East. Some are condemned to slavery under a criminal code, framed by legislators who make it a study to multiply the number of such offences as may be made punishable in this lucrative manner; others are captives taken in war; but a large proportion are procured by mere slave-hunting expeditions, undertaken even by the most civilized states against neighbors whom, with little reason, they account more barbarous than themselves. The number thus conveyed across the desert, to fill the harems of Turkey and Persia, has been rated at 20,000. These, however, serve merely as domestic slaves; and, though subjected to many humiliations, they are, on the whole, mildly treated. A much severer lot awaits those who, from the western shores of Africa, are carried off by the polished people of modern Europe. After AIRICA. 859 suffering through the passage under a confinement and pestilential air which prove fatal to a large proportion, they are sold to taskmasters whose sole object is, under a burning sun, to extract from them the utmost possible amount of labor. It is calculated that, during the flourishing period of the slave trade, 80,000 were annually transported across the Atlantic. At length, however, the wrongs of Africa were heard; Britain, roused by the voice of some generous philanthropists, took the lead in the cause of humanity. The resistance was powerful, and it occasioned many years of debate, signalized by the long labors of Wilberforce, Clarkson, and other friends of Africa, till, in 1806, Mr. Fox moved and carried the bill for the final abolition of the trade of importing slaves into the British colonies. It has since been declared felony for a British subject to engage in this trade. America and France afterwards followed the example; and thus the export of slaves from the northern part of Guinea has been in a great measure prevented; though the numbers still procured from the southern quarters of Benin and Congo, by the Spaniards and Portuguese, are but little diminished. This vast continent is almost universally in a state of barbarism; yet in ancient times its northern states rivalled Europe in civilization. Egypt and Carthage, when in their glory, ranked among the most civilized and opulent states then existing. Even after the first ravages of the Saracens, learning and science distinguished the splendid courts established in the west of Barbary. The continued influence, however, of a gloomy superstition, and the separation cau y it from all the refined modern nations, have induced among these state'sa general relapse into barbarism. The population of the continent may now, in a large view, be divided into Moors and Negroes. The Moors, including the descendants of the original Arab invaders, and those whom conquest and religion have assimilated with them, fill all northern Africa and the Great Desert. They reach the banks of the Senegal and the Niger, which may be considered as the boundary of the two races, though they mingle and alternate on the opposite sides, where sometimes one, sometimes another, hold the chief sway. The Moors are a rough roving race, keeping numerous herds, chiefly of camels, with,which they perform immense journeys through the most desolate tracts, and across the greatest breadth of the continent. Africa is indebted to them for all the literature she possesses; at least, few of the Negroes can read or write who have not learned from them. The Moors, however, at least all that scour the desert, are a race peculiarly unamiable. A furious bigotry, joined to the most embittered hatred of the Christian name, renders them mortal foes to every Christian traveler who falls into their power. The Negroes on the contrary, though inferior in arts and attainments, are generally courteous, gay, and hospitable. Like all barbarous nations, they are fond of war, and cruel to their enemies; but their domestic intercourse is friendly, and they receive with kindness the unprotected stranger. They are led away with fantastic superstitions, charms, witchcraft, ordeal, &c.; but these errors never impel them to hate or persecute those who entertain the most opposite belief. 860 EGYPT. EGYPT TEE whole north-eastern part of Africa consists of a mighty expanse of desert sand, extends for upwards of a thousand miles in each direction. The chains of arid and rocky mountains by which it is traversed, give only a more rugged and dreary character to this immense waste. One vast feature alone breaks its terrible monotony. From the high chains of Abyssynnia, and from the still loftier Mountains of the Moon that traverse central Africa, descend numerous and ample streams, which, long before entering Egypt, unite in forming the Nile, a river of the first magnitude. Although the Nile, in its whole progress through this desert, does not receive the accession of a single rivulet, it brings so vast an original store as enables it to reach and pour a mighty stream into the Mediterranean. For many hundred miles in the upper part of its course, confined between high and rocky banks, it is merely bordered by a brilliant belt of fertility, the sandy waste stretching indefinitely on both sides: this is Nubia. After traversing the barrier of the cataracts, it passes through a broader valley between mountains of some height, and on its banks are many shaded or inundated tracts, which yield products of considerable value; this is Upper Egypt. Emerging from the mountains, the Nile enters a flat and extensive plain, where it separates, and by two great and divided streams, with various intersecting branches, enters the Mediterranean: this is called Lower Egypt. In this last part of its course, the Nile is nearly on a level with the district which it intersects, and, when swelled by the autumnal rains of central Africa, overflows it entirely. The waters begin to rise about the 18th or 19th of June, attain their greatest height in September, and subside as gradually as they rise, and within about an equal space of time. The land thus covered with the fertilizing alluvial deposit, collected during so lengthened a course, becomes the most productive perhaps on the face of the globe; and, notwithstanding its limited extent, and the mighty wastes on which it borders, has always maintained a numerous population. Thus Egypt exists solely by the Nile, and within the sphere of its action. The encircling desolation is only broken, to the west of Upper Egypt, by one large valley called Favoum, into which the mountains open; and by several oases, or cultivated spots, which, at wide distances break the uniform waste of sand. There is no kingdom more distinguished in history than Egypt, or the name of which excites more awful and solemn ideas. The dim records of her ancient story are coeval with the origin of social union, and of all the arts which improve and embellish human life. Yet her early dynasties are involved in deep obscurity, and the descriptions of their pomp and grandeur might even have been treated by modern scepticism as fabulous, had not such astonishing monuments remained almost entire to attest their truth. The reign most celebrated by tradition is that of Sesostris, who is represented as having subjugated Asia, even to its central regions; and in fact the sculptured monuments of Thebes are representative of triumphs, EGYPT. 861 not only over the Ethiopians, Jews, and Syrians, but over the natives of Assyria, Persia, and even Bactriana. Greece has always owned herself indebted to Egypt for her civilization, which began much later, though it proceeded with more rapid steps, and rose to a much loftier height. At length, in 525 A. c., Psammenitus, the last native king, yielded to the arms of Cambyses, who endeavored, but with little success, to push his own conquests into Ethiopia and the Oases. Egypt, however, proved a turbulent member of the Persian empire, the authority of which was disputed by Nectanebis and other usurpers. This antipathy to the Persian yoke caused Alexander to be welcomed as a deliverer. That great monarch appears to have highly estimated the importance of Egypt, especially in a commercial view, which his comprehensive imind could fully appreciate. Alexandria, the mest celebrated of all the cities founded by him, proved by its subsequent greatness the judgment with which its site had been chosen. The benefits projected by that conqueror were, even after the partition of his empire, in a great measure secured by the dynasty of the Ptolemies, which was established in 430 A. c. Its intelligent princes rendered Egypt the seat of Grecian learning; and, by promoting every species of public improvement, made her probably more flourishing and enlightened than she had been amid the tyrannic pomp of the Pharaohs. The subjection to Rome, therefore, which was completed in 29, A. c., was a misfortune to Egypt; though industry and civilization were still protected, and Alexandria continued a great seat of leaning, and the second city in the empire. A harder fate awaited her in:oeventh century, when she was over-run by the Saracen hordes. The ferocious bigotry of Omar impelled him to exult in the destruction of that library which had been the pride of the Ptolemies, and unrivalled in the ancient world; and it led him to inflict upon Egypt evils still more deeply felt. By degrees, however, the conquerors imbibed the arts and humanity of their new subjects; the Saracens became a polished people; and, under Saladin, the soldans of Egypt held the first place, as to power and splendor, among Mahometan princes. An unfortunate reverse, however, awaited this dynasty. The Mamelukes, a race of slaves whom they had imported from Georgia and Circassia, revolted against their masters, and set up a lawless and turbulent sway, which long crushed in Egypt all the seeds of order and improvement. They were destined, indeed, to bend beneath the dominion of the Turks, after the capture of Constantinople had rendered them masters of the Eastern Empire. In 1516, Selim subdued and put to death the Mameluke soldan, and appointed a pacha in his room. The Mamelukes, however, retained many privileges, particularly that of bearing arms; and, as they formed the bravest cavalry in the empire, they were always the rivals of the Turks, and often their masters. From that time Egypt continued to vacillate between this tumultuary aristocracy and the gloomy despotism of the Porte. The extraordinary and unjustifiable invasion of the French in 1798, had no permanent effects. The new order of things, however, afforded to the Turks an opportunity of establishing their power more firmly than before. The Pacha, Moham med Ali, succeeded, certainly by very violent means, in cutting off the principal leaders of the Mamelukes, and expelling the rest from Egypt. That chief afterwards rendered himself independent of the Porte, and governed the country with such vigor, and in such a spirit of improvement, as promised in some degree to restore to Egypt the prosperitv of her best days. 862 EGYPT. Egypt, since the earliest ages, has been governed despotically. As soon as the Turks obtained possession of it, they claimed the right of ruling it by a pacha, invested with all the prerogatives of the Sultan, and responsible to him. It has, however, as we have already observed, been always a loose and turbulent appendage of the Ottoman empire. This insecurity was occasioned, not only by its distance, and the difficulty of communication, but by the share in the administration still left to its former rulers, the Mamelukes. This share was, in theory, vague and slight, but in practice extensive; since they composed the best cavalry in the empire, and were ever ready to enforce with the sabre their own claims, just or unjust. The undefined limits between their power and that of the Pacha necessarily caused a constant collision. Sometimes the Pacha was expelled by the Mamelukes; and the Porte, when pressed by other concerns, was obliged to connive at the revolt. If the people were ever able to mingle in these contests, it was in a tumultuous manner, which produced no benefit to themselves, and only augmented that reign of disorder, which was so fatal to all improvement and regular industry. The Mamelukes now belong to history. They appear to have made their final exit from the political scene; and, notwithstanding some brilliant qualities which they possessed, their fate can be no object of regret. Their expulsion left Egypt almost wholly subject to the sway of Mohammed Ali, who had received from the Porte the appointment of pacha, but who, profiting by the distractions of the Ottoman empire, established a power wholly independent. His administration w'as a blessing to Egypt. Besides the supreme authorities, there is a sort of interior political system, existing particularly among the Arabs, who form the chief population of the villages, especially in Upper Egypt. These, with their surrounding territory, are governed each by its sheik, whose office is hereditary. The accession of a new sheik, indeed, must be confirmed by the Pacha, who requires on this occasion to be propitiated by a large sum of money. When, however, these sheiks pay their tribute, and perform the military services demanded, they are little molested in their internal administration. Like the rest of the Arabs, they are divided among each other by deadly feuds, and sometimes carry on private war. The revenues of Egypt arise from three sources, the lands, the miri or poll-tax, and the customs. All the lands are judged to belong to the Grand Signior, and this claim has been made good by Mohammed Ali. The polltax is levied only upon Christians and Jews, and is not nearly so considerable. It is paid by all males arrived at the age of sixteen, and varies, according to their property or favor, from 2* to 11 piastres. The next branch consists of the customs on all goods imported at Alexandria, Damietta, and Suez; and also at Cairo, on their transit to Upper Egypt. The army, which formerly consisted only of an undisciplined and turbulent though brave militia, was placed by Mohammed Ali on the most efficient footing. By the aid of French officers, he disciplined a large body of troops in the European manner, and rendered them decidedly superior to any force which the East can oppose to them. Egypt was distinguished at an early period for the cultivation of the useful as well as of the fine arts. Agriculture, the primary art, for which her situation and soil peculiarly fitted her, appears to have been carried to great perfection, at a time when the finest of the bordering countries were EGYPT. 863 under common and pasturage. Those earliest authentic records of the human race, contained in the sacred writings, represent Egypt as greatly resorted to, in times of scarcity, for a supply of grain. When high cultivation has once been established in a country, it is scarcely eradicated, even by long periods of anarchy and misgovernment. After all the calamitous revolutions through which Egypt has passed, and notwithstanding her deep political degradation, her fertile lands continue to be cultivated with skill and care, and to yield copious harvests. In all hot countries, but more especially in Egypt, irrigation is the first recourse of agriculture. The periodical inundation of the Nile, when swelled by the rains of Abyssinia and central Africa, is the primary cause on which her fertility depends. This is so fully admitted, that, in the years when the Nile does not rise beyond a certain height, the miri, or tribute, is not exacted. The whole of the Delta, during the autumnal season, is laid entirely under water. To effect this object, a number of intersecting canals were formed by the provident care of the ancient government; and the utility of these is so urgent, and the consequences of their interruption so immediately fatal, that they have not been wholly neglected, even by the supineness of modern administration. The number of canals in Egypt has been stated at 6000; but this, at all events a loose estimate, cannot be true, unless we include those minor channels conducted by private industry through every tract, and almost every field. The great canals, which are maintained by the public, do, nQ9 exceed eighty or ninety.. In a great part of Upper Egypt and of F,, machinery is employed to convey the water to grounds which,-from t' elevation above the river, cannot, without artificial means, be inundated. -Buckets raised by pulleys are sometimes sufficient; but at other times recourse is had to more operose and ingenious machines, moved by oxen. This successive rise and retiring of the waters produces a singular variation in the aspect and surface of Egypt. According to the description of Amrou, in his report to the Caliph Omar, it presents in succession an appearance of a field of dust, that of a fresh-water sea, and that of a flower-garden. Few countries unite in a greater degree than Egypt the products of various and opposite climates. On the borders of the tropical and temperate zones, it yields, in almost equal abundance, the vegetable productions proper to each; while the variation from overflowing moisture to extreme dryness greatly extends the range of cultivation. Rice, which was first introduced by the Saracens, has been found peculiarly adapted to those lower lands which at one season are thoroughly submerged by the Nile. On these it is sown in June, grows amid the water, and yields a harvest in October. Wheat and barley grow better in the higher grounds, and particularly on the well-watered districts of Upper Egypt. Those tracts which obtain but scanty irrigation by artificial means are only fit for the coarser product of the Holcus d'hourra, the grain generally consumed in Nubia, which combines the qualities of a shrub with that of bread corn. Its stalk contains a juice which the natives suck, and when it is dried, it serves the purpose of fuel; above grow leaves, which afford food for the cattle. Oats are not an Egyptian product; but beans are raised for the use of the camels. Maize, flax, and sugar are also objects of some culture; and, in a smaller degree, indigo. Cotton, which, till lately, was scarcely ranked as a product, has, through the exertions of Mohammed Ali, become an article of the greatest importance, *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i ~~~~~~~~EGYPT -VIEW ON THE NILE. ;L-L--= —i.r, —.. — -;1 —=-71 ~-- —1--= —-__- - -— -;LTS — —I= — r=_-,-i ~ —-rt;_ i,''' -,Z —-- I -- "'"?"''1;' ~ jj;i ii II'1'1111 I:I I,,,/II /111 i: III ";iili'"" I iljI!II : I;lilli''l!111liilII''' ji i~,~ ili!liii jii!Ii;" I;`iiiilljl i i r i IrS!1 11:11 I j i' 9 o i Ijl'I!;;ji ii i c — -— ar;-i —- —j —;e;r=-===_~==. —.,- __-pi V3 E GYP T -- IRRIGATION 866 EGYPT. supplying the home manufactures, and affording the materials of a large export. Egypt, in its fertile tracts, exhibits a blooming and verdant aspect; yet it is not, on the whole, a wooded country. The foliage which embellishes it, is derived chiefly from fruit and garden trees. The palm, the sycamore, the tamarisk, and some species of acacia, are the most prevalent. For timber and firewood it is almost entirely dependent upon Syria. Some Egyptian wines were celebrated in antiquity, though the country seems by no means well adapted for this product; at present the vine is cultivated chiefly for its grapes. Fruit is generally abundant, but apt to be watery. The apricot, the citron, the lemon, are reckoned the best. Domestic animals are not numerous in Egypt. Cultivation is performed by the aid of cows and oxen of a large breed, and also a species of tame buffalo, which is sometimes excited to fury by the strange vesture of Europeans. A small number of cattle suffice for the easily cultivated soil; and as Egypt is nearly destitute of natural grass, they are fed upon clover. The great have very fine horses, imported chiefly from Barbary; though, since the expulsion of the Mamelukes, who took especial pride in these animals, their numbers must have diminished. Their paces are only suited for military mnanceuvres: they can do nothing but walk or gallop. In Egypt, as in Syria, the animal used for travel is the ass, of which there is a breed very superior to any seen in our climates.,- As the Orientals ride much, asses are very numerous; there are said: t:.e in Cairo 40,000. Camels are seen in great numbers; but they are &t/her for journeying over the vast surrounding deserts, than for the inteAor of the country. Large swarms of bees are bred in Upper Egypt; while Lower Egypt is reinarkable for a process of hatching fowls by artificial heat, of which, however, it is difficult to perceive the advantage, and which does not produce such sound or healthy chickens as the natural process. The bordering deserts contain the lion, the hyena, the antelope, and other wild animals generally found throughout Africa; and in Upper Egypt, a considerable number of crocodiles and hippopotami are found in the Nile. Egypt is not, and never was, a great manufacturing country. With the produce of her soil, she purchases the fabrics of neighboring nations, particularly at Constantinople; and generally speaking, every thing which is imported thence is better and more valued than what is made in the country. There are, however, extensive manuflact'ures of linen, though not of that fine linen for which Egypt was anciently famous. Muslin and cotton dresses are now preferred, as more suited to the climate. The linen at present manufactured consists chiefly of the coarser kind, for sheets, curtains, towels and sackcloth. There are also manufactures of carpets for sofas at BeLlisuef, and of embroidered silk handkerchiefs at Cairo; but nor! of the articles there produced, equal those brought friom India or Asia Ainor. The potteries of Egypt are extensive, the mud or slime deposited by the Nile being well fitted for this purpose. From it the Egyptians fabricate a species of porous jars, which are highly prized for the property ascribed to them of cooling and clarifying the water; every thing which tends to improve that simple beverage, being held in these climates especially valuable. These jars appear to have been used from the earliest ages, representations of them being found on the most ancient monuments. Egypt is more favorably situated for foreign commerce than most other EGYPT. 867 countries, as it may be said to form the connecting link between Africa, Europe and Asia. It is only, however, at particular periods that its government has afforded the necessary encouragement and protection. The Pharaohs, like other Oriental despots, were averse to navigation and foreign intercourse of every description. The Persian policy was similar. The sovereigns of the Greek dynasty were the first who turned their attention to the means of improving the vast natural capacities of Egypt. Alexander, in founding the city to which he gave his name, had evidently formed the design of making it a grand commercial emporium, which it soon became. Under the Roman empire the supply of the capital of the world, and its rich dependencies, with the commodities of central and eastern Africa and still more of India, occasioned an immense traffic; but on this the conquest of the Saracens inflicted a blow from which the country never recovered. The Venetians and Genoese, indeed, who first revived commercial enterprise in Europe, formed factories in Egypt, which they made the entrept for Indian goods. But the natives had no share in these transactions; and after the discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope, the land carriage, the difficult navigation of the Red Sea, the exactions and persecutions to which Europeans were exposed, rendered it no longer possible to compete with those iTwho conducted the traffic even by that circuitous route. Egypt, however, possessed natural advantages, which, under an improving and protecting administration, might again enable it to engross a large share of the communication between Europe and India. The most active branch of Egyptian commerce, and that which has re mained unaffected by political vicissitudes, is carried on by caravans with the interior of Africa. The journeys on every side must be made through immense tracts of desert, where they could penetrate only by the aid of the camel. The caravans which go westward from Cairo do not penetrate beyond Fezzan, at which einlorium they obtain, imported by the merchants of that country itself, the variedt produce of Soudan. This caravan goes annually, unless prevented by peculiar circumstances, and performs its journey in fifty days. Those which proceed southwards depart chiefly from Siout; and their destination is Darfour and Sennaar. The caravans to the former country are the most numerous and frequent, though still inferior to the Fezzan caravan. Their departures are very irregular: sometimes there are two in the year; at other times, two or three years pass without one. A caravan is reckoned large, if it number 2,000 camels; some amount to no more than 500, or even 200. The imports from all these quarters are much the same. Gold, ivory, senna, ostrich feathers, gum, are secondary objects; but the main staple is always slaves. Egypt supplies with this unlawful commodity not only its own harems, but those of Turkey, Persia, and all the East. These slaves, being employed chiefly in a domestic capacity, are not doomed to the same severe and oppressive labors as those transported to America, and though the services in which they are employed are often of a nature peculiarly degrading, yet being brought near the persons of the great, they are often raised to favor, and even to power. The pilgrimages to Mecca and Medina, from the Mahometan states of the West, form another branch, or at least an auxiliary, of commerce. Those from the interior, indeed, go by Nubia, and cross the Red Sea at Suakim; but from Barbary, and particularly Morocco, the most populous and zealous Mahormetan countries, the direct route is by Cairo and th 868 * EGYPT. isthmus of Suez. In all the countries where pilgrimages are customary, it seems the system that they should be so far turned to profit, as to pay their own expenses. Traffic becomes, thus, a joint object with religion, and is carried on probably for more moderate gains than if its dangers and hardships were undertaken solely for the beneAts accruing from itself. The hostile occupation of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, by the Wahabees, interrupted for some time this intercourse, which was re-opened, however, after the occupation of that territory by the viceroy of Egypt. The estimates of the population of Egypt have been extremely various; nor are we aware that it has ever been the subject of any accurate census; but the most careful recent estimates, seem to fix it at about 2,500,000. Egypt has long been occupied by races of various origin, who have retained their distinguishing characteristics with the constancy peculiar to Oriental nations. The Mameluke, making his boast of being a purchased slave, lived for centuries by the side of the Arab, proud of his freedom and ancient family. The Mamelukes, however, are now expelled; and the leading races consists of the Copts, the Arabs and the Turks. The Copts, though not supposed to exceed 160,000 individuals, and of no political importance, are much the most ancient, and strictly speaking, the only native race. The sculptures on the most ancient monuments, represent under the same form and features the original Egyptians, when that country was ruled by its native kings. The word Copt seems even a corruption of the middle syllable of the word Egyptian. Some authors, and Volney among the rest, have represented their features to be substantially the same with those of the negro; but this seems refuted by the observation of Brown, and the minute anatomical examination of Baron Larrey. The latter considers them as exhibiting, with a few variations, the characteristic features of the Nubian and Abyssinian-their skin of a dusky yellow; their countenance, full without being puffed; their eyes fine, limpid, opening in the form of an almond, and with a languishing look; the nose almost straight, rounded at the tip; the nostrils dilated; the mouth middle sized; the lips thick, but less so than those of the negroes, and not like theirs, thrown back; the beard and hair black and bushy, but not woolly. In their character, they too much resemble those, who being treated with scorn by others, can with difficulty respect themselves. As usual with degraded races in barbarous countries, they are employed in those branches of trade and accounts which are repugnant to the turbulent pride of the ruling people. For want of others who possess the requisite capacity or application, their oppressors are under the necessity of employing them as stewards, superintendents, collectors of revenue, keepers of registers, &c.: and various branches of trade are in their hands. They cannot, however, be expected to exercise these functions in the same honorable and respectable manner as if the employments, and those who practiced them, were the objects of public esteem. The Copts are represented as crafty, covetous, cringing, and addicted to mean sensual indulgencies. They are, however, a peaceable race, and are said to be remarkable for the warmth of their domestic attachments. Though they are found in every part of the country, their chief seat is in Upper Egypt, where whole towns are peopled by them. The most numerous part of the population, being that almost exclusively employed in agriculture, consists of Arabs, whom the fertile soil of Egypt EGYPT. 869 has attracted from all the surrounding regions of desert. Lower Egypt has been peopled chiefly from Arabia and the shores of the Red Sea; Upper Egypt from the tracts of Africa which lie to the west and south. These cultivating Arabs, called Fellahs, retain much both of the features and character of their original tribes; an oval countenance, dark skin, large forehead, and small sparkling eyes. Neither have they, by any means, lost that pride, attachment to kindred and ancestry, and vindictive spirit, which distinguish the independent sheiks of the desert. On the whole, however, their conduct is much more settled and peaceable; indeed, in the large towns of the Delta, they have contracted dissolute and irregular habits, which seem to have prevailed from antiquity in that part of Egypt. The Mamelukes can claim little notice here, since the vigorous though cruel policy of Mohammed Ali has finally rooted them out of Egypt, and scarcely allowed them to find refuge in the remotest depths of the African continent. This extraordinary race, without kindred, without progeny, consisting of slaves imported from a remote country, and raised by the illearned favor of their masters to the most distinguished posts, formed the most prominent part of the Egyptian population. Their bravery, their splendor, their incessant conflicts with each other and with the Turks, gave to Egypt a stirring and picturesque aspect, which no other part of the Ottoman empire exhibited. This sort of interest, however, very poorly compensated for the license and disorder with which they continually afflicted the country, and for the interruption which they occasioned to all regular industry. Their extinction, therefore, may well be considered as a fortunate circumstance, and an omen of better times. The Turks, though the least numerous part of the population, are highly important, as having been always nominally, and as being now really, the masters of the country. In their general features they do not differ from those who inherit the rest of the empire. This small portion, however, the instruments of a despotic government, and who all either possess or aim at political power, do not afford a favorable specimen of the Turkish character. Among no description of men, perhaps, exists a more entire disregard of principle, than among the officers of a despotic government, who, in seeking to rise, are accustomed to resort to every means of violence or fraud. Spending most of their time in a gloomy retirement, they brood in silence over their dark machinations, and are continually revolving schemes for circumventing and destroying each other. There are Jews, Greeks, and Armenians in Egypt, but scarcely in sufficient number to be considered otherwise than as strangers settled in the country. The Jews are, in a great measure, supplanted by the Copts, a similarly oppressed race, in all those branches of traffic which usually devolve upon them in Mahometan countries. The religion of Egypt is the Mahometan, exercised with all its accustomed bigotry and intolerance. The Copts, who profess Christianity, are subjected to a special tribute or poll-tax, and are excluded from all public employments, except those in which their exclusive qualifications render it absolutely necessary to employ them. They belong to the Eutychian sect, or that of the Jacobites, who differ in several respects from those professing the Greek religion, whom they regard with peculiar antipathy. The patriarch of Alexandria is considered as the head of this sect, the religion 870 EGYPT. of which is also that of Abyssinia. The Copts have a considerable number of convents, particularly in Upper Egypt and the desert of the lakes of Natron. The only language peculiar to Egypt is the Coptic. Unlike the Oriental tongues, which appear little more than dialects of one original language, the Coptic has only faint analogies with any other. Its basis appears to be that of the ancient Egyptians, who in every respect were much insula-r lated from the surrounding nations. Science and literature throughout Egypt were lately at the lowest ebb. In their loftiest flights the Egyptians made no higher attainments than those of reading, writing, and casting accounts. Even these humble elements were disdained by the ruling powers, and only taught to a few of their domestic slaves, in order to fit them for transacting certain branches of business. Some improvisatory reciters of tales and verse, and some practitioners in astrology, formed the only members of the society who employed themselves in anything that partook of intellectual exertion. Oriental manners, by the gloomy seclusion which is inherent in them, greatly circumscribe what are called public amusements. The coffee-houses are much resorted to by the middling classes, who there spend their time in listless indolence, beguile it by occasional conversation, or by listening to the story-tellers, with which Arabia supplies all the countries on which it borders. The baths are places of habitual resort, both for health and pleasure, and the ablution, being accompanied with skilful and gentle friction, has been described as producing the most voluptuous sensations. The Egyptians are not much encumbered with dress. The most comrn mon and seemingly the most ancient article of apparel, consists of a linen or cotton shirt with wide sleeves, over which is a brown woollen cloak or coat. The rich throw over all a fine white vestment, of the form of a surplice, which, being worn on solemn occasions, is supposed to have served as a pattern for the upper vestment of the Christian priesthood. Among the ancient Egyptians, linen was the only material used for stately and sacred apparel; but cotton now, to a great extent, supplies its place. Some of the poorer classes wear nothing but a blanket or wrapper of wool or cotton cloth. The dress of the women is nearly similar; but much of it is made of silk, and they cover the greater part of the face with a gauze veil. The usual head-dress is the turban, confined, however, to the higher ranks, and not allowed to be worn by the inferior classes, who merely cover their heads with the red woollen caps common all over Barbary. The Egyptians of every class are temperate in respect to food, and even the richest take no pride, nor perhaps much delight, in the luxury of the table. Their dishes consist of pillau, soups, stews, made particularly of onions, cucumbers, and other cold vegetables, mixed with meat cut in small pieces. The Barbary cuscosoo, which is a dish of this description, is not unfrequent. On great occasions, however, a whole sheep is placed in the middle of the festive board. The poorer classes content themselves with dipping their bread in oil or sour milk. The fasts in general are rigidly observed, and, during several of the hottest months, even the rich restrict themselves almost entirely to vegetable food. The use of opium, so general in Turkey, is superseded in a great measure by that of wine, in which the people in this country, even the Turks, indulge with much less scruple than those of the other parts of the empire.. The lower ranks make a EGYPT. 871 preparation from the buds of hemp, which produces effects nearly similar to those of opium. They prepare also from barley a species of beer called bouza, to which, as an ancient Egyptian liquor, an allusion of Herodotus seems to apply. The only division of Egypt which can be considered as permanent or important is that made by nature into three great portions: — 1. Bahireh, or Lower Egypt, composed of the Delta, or territory on the coast, and including the great sea-ports of Alexandria, Rosetta, and Damietta. 2. Vostani, or Middle Egypt; where the Nile, though no longer spreading into branches, flows through a broad and fertile valley. In this quarter are situated Cairo, the capital, the Pyramids, and Fayoum. 3. The Said, called partly als6 the Thebaid, or Upper Egypt, where the Nile, bordered by hills, flows through a narrow valley, containing not any great cities, but the most remarkable of the ancient edifices and monuments. We shall begin our survey with ALEXANDRIA, once the splendid capital of Egypt, and one of the most celebrated cities of the ancient world. Even now it forms the link by which Egypt is united with the states of Europe. Its founder, the celebrated conqueror whose name it bears, chose this site as the most favorable for commerce; and it became the emporium of the most splendid and important of the then existing branches, that with India. The merchandise being brought up the Red Sea to Berenice, thence transported across the desert, was carried down the Nile to Alexandria, and thence distributed throughout the West. Alexandria, when it became the splendid and polished capital of the Ptolemies, almost superseded Athens as a literary metropolis. Even when subjected to the yoke of Rome, it was still the second city in the empire, and a grand centre of religious and political faction. It received a mortal blow from the invasion of the Saracens, who not only crushed the general civilization of Egypt, but showed an early preference for Cairo, which connected them with Syria, Arabia, and their other Eastern kingdoms. Alexandria, however, still continued to flourish, so long as it was the channel of the Indian trade; but when this took the direction of the Cape of Good Hope, it sunk altogether, and exists now only as the medium of that limited intercourse, carried on between Egypt and the Frank or Christian states. The new Alexandria is built entirely outside the walls of the old city, to which it forms only a suburb. The traveler finds here nothing correspondent to those magnificent ideas which history had led him to form. Its aspect is mean, gloomy, and dirty; and it presents no striking or ornamental edifice. A number of granite pillars have, indeed, been brought hither from the ancient Alexandria; but they are only employed to adorn the interior courts of the principal houses. Immediately on quitting these modern precincts, however; all the grandeur of ancient Alexandria bursts upon the view. A vast plain is seen covered with ruins; broken walls, fronts crumbled down, roofs fallen, battlements decayed, ancient columns, and modern tombs. These objects are intermingled with palm trees and napal; while owls, bats, and jackals, are the only living creatures to be met with. The remains may still be traced of those immense reservoirs which supplied the city with water, both for drinking and for gardens. The whole ground on which Alexandria stood was excavated to form them, and the waters of the Nile were at a particular season solemnly admitted into them. Only twelve now remain, which are sufficient for modern 872 EGYPT. supply. From the extremity of the old city extends for upwards of a mile along the coast a range of tombs cut in the rock, each of which appears to have contained three bodies. These monuments, however, to which has been applied the name of Necropolis, or City of the Dead, have been almost entirely stripped of their contents, probably by the Arabs, inspired with the hope of finding treasure. Amid the general ruin which ancient Alexandria presents, three objects, remaining still entire, arrest the attention. The most celebrated is Pompey's pillar. It seems clear that this title is modern, and that it was probably erected under one of the emperors; perhaps Diocletian. The general impression of its loftiness seems in a great measure owing to its insulated position on a level plain. Pococke does not reckon the height at more than 117 feet; and more modern estimates reduce it to 94 or 95. The pedestal, the shaft, and the capital, consist each of the finest granite. Some travelers have described it as the finest column in the world as to workmanship. The other objects worthy of particular notice are the two obelisks, fancifully called Cleopatra's Needles, of which only one is standing. They consist each of a single block of granite, about fifty-eight feet high, and are entirely covered with hieroglyphics, whence it has been inferred that they could not originally belong to a Greek city, but were brought down from some of the ancient capitals of Upper Egypt. Rosetta is situated at the mouth of the most westerly of the two branches of the Nile, which enclose the province of Garbieh, the only portion of Egypt which is strictly Deltaic. Rosetta is better built than Alexandria; the materials are of brick; and though the streets are, as usual in Egypt, narrow and gloomy, it has, on the whole, when compared with other oriental towns, a neat and pleasing appearance. In ascending the Rosetta branch, we come first to Metoubis, a large town, noted for the dissolute character of its inhabitants. Farther up is Foua, once distinguished as the entrepot between Alexandria and Cairo. On this branch, at a village, still called Sa el Hadjar, are the ruins of the ancient Sais, once the residence of the Pharaohs, and the original seat of the colony by which Athens was said to have been founded. An enclosure of more than half a mile square, covered with rubbish and fragments of every description, still attests its ancient grandeur. Farther to the south, about ten miles east from this branch of the Nile, is Tanta, considered the most populous town in the Delta, though it does not contain above 10,000 inhabitants. It is chiefly supported by the pilgrims frequenting the tomb of Seid Ahmed el Badaouy, who died in the thirteenth century, in such an odour of sanctity as rendered his shrine one of the most sacred in the estimation of Oriental devotees. There, at a particular season, an assemblage takes place, from Egypt, Barbary, Abyssinia, and even from Darfour, of not less than 150,000 persons. According to the eastern custom, trade is combined with superstition; and, when the acts of devotion terminate, a most extensive fair succeeds. A tumultuous and often disorderly festival closes the scene. The mosque, built by the Sultan Melik el Nasser, in honor of the saint, is one of the most splendid edifices of modern Egypt. This city is observed to be nearly at an equal distance from Cairo, Damietta, and Rosetta. The upper extremity of the Delta, consisting of the angular space formed by the junction of the two branches, is called Menoufieh, and forms one of EGYPT. 873 the most agreeable and fertile portions of Egypt. It is traversed by a broad canal from one branch to the other; and though at each inundation it is completely overflowed, the waters do not remain so long, or prove so in-;urious to the health, as in the lower districts. Menouf, the capital, is a town of some importance. In descending the branch of Damietta, we find it, like that of Rosetta, accompanied by a parallel canal, called, in its early course, that of Karinein, and afterwards that of Melyg. The shores of the Nile are still more fertile and beautiful here than on the opposite branch; and at the distance of every two or three miles occurs a large town or village, embosomed in palm trees. Four miles above the mouth of the river is the city of Damietta, which, though on the eastern bank, belongs properly to the interior Delta, as forming the chief market for its productions. Rice, of excellent quality, and in great abundance, is grown in its vicinity, and, with coffee brought up the Red Sea, forms the staple article of export to Syria and the Levant. Tobacco and soap are imported from Syria; and luxuries of all kinds from Constantinople. The town is large, but ill built and without ornament. It is chiefly inhabited by fishermen and janissaries, and devoted to trade, of which a great part is contraband. The people are said to be the very worst in all Turkey, and to have a particular hostility to Christians, which seems to have descended from their ancestors in the time of the crusades. After passing the angle formed by the two divergent branches of the Nile which form the Delta, we ascend to what is called Vostani or Middle Egypt. Here, about a league to the east of the river, appears the village of Matarieh, to the north of whose site are the ruins of the celebrated Heliopolis, the On of the Scripture, and the great seat of Egyptian learning. Though almost in complete ruin, it has still some interesting antiquities; an obelisk sixty-seven feet high, several sphynxes, and large stones covered with hieroglyphics. Cairo the Great, or, as it is popularly called, GRAND CAIRO, attracts the attention of the traveller sailing upwards, and he gazes with wonder on the numerous minarets which distinguish the capital of Egypt and Africa. Throughout that continent and Arabia, Cairo is considered as the queen of cities, as the city without a rival; its splendor forms one of the great themes of Eastern romance. Old Cairo appears to be of very great antitiquity, being built on the site of the fortress of Babylon, which derived that name from'being assigned as a residence to some Babylonish captives, brought, probably, by Sesostris. The new city, however, which has alone risen to the rank of a capital, was founded in 973, by the first of the Fatimite Caliphs. Saladin surrounded it with strong walls and magnificent gates; and it soon eclipsed the splendor of the now neglected Alexandria. Europeans, however, in the aspect of Cairo, find little corresponding to the ideas raised in them by Eastern description. The streets are narrow and winding; the principal one, which traverses the whole area of the city, would be considered in Europe as a mere lane. As they are not paved, a most disagreeable dust is raised by the crowds of men, dogs, camels, and asses, which press through them. The houses are two or three stories high, which is not usual in the East; but almost all their light is derived from interior courts, and they present to the street only a mass of dead wall, which makes them appear like prisons. There are, however, several 874 EGYPT. extensive open squares, round which are built the houses of the principal persons. Into these, when the Nile rises, the water is conveyed by the canal called the Kalisch, and converts them into lakes, which, being traversed by pleasure-boats, present at this period a gay scene. On the retiring of the waters, these lakes become so many plains of mud, which is soon completely dried, and covered with excellent vegetation. The chief ornament of Cairo consists in its gates, several of which are built in a style of simple magnificence, and its mosques, of which that of Sultan Hassan displays all the splendor of Saracenic architecture. Many of the baths have their interior very richly ornamented. The tombs of the Mamelukes, also built of white marble, and with painted or gilded domes, are very beautiful. The Pacha resides in the citadel, where he has magnificent apartments. The pyramids next claim our attention. Scarcely has the traveller ascended above Cairo, when he comes in sight of those far-famed structures, to which the world presents nothing comparable, and which cannot be contemplated without the most awful emotion. These mighty monuments seem to look with disdain on every other work of human art, and to contend with nature herself. They form an uninterrupted range for about twenty leagues, on a declivity sloping down towards the river; but the first two, the pyramids of Cheops and Cephrenes, from the union of magnitude and skill in their construction, have almost exclusively attracted the attention of the world. The first or great pyramid, is 693 feet square, covering upwards of eleven acres, and rising to the amazing height of 599 feet. In an age when machinery was imperfect, and every thing was done by manual labor, it is said to have employed 100,000 men for twenty years. The destination of this and all similar colossal structures appears evidently to have been sepulchral. The original entrance, as well as that into each successive gallery and chamber, is studiously concealed, by being made exactly similar to the surrounding wall; and it is carefully barred by huge blocks of granite, which cannot be cut through without great labor, but which, to the experienced eye, afford a sure test of the sought-for entrance. The opening of the first pyramid has been long ago effected; it is ascribed to the Caliph Mohammed, in the ninth century. Several long galleries have been traced, leading to two chambers, the largest of which is 32 feet by 16; and contains a sarcophagus now empty. The second pyramid, or that of Cephrenes, is about 400 feet high. It had defied all attempts to enter it, till the enterprize was recently achieved by Belzoni. His attempts were long unsuccessful; but at length, by the position of the block of granite, placed to bar the entrance, he was enabled to trace its real direction. At the end of a long passage, he found a chamber 46 feet by 16, in which was a sarcophagus containing a small quantity of bones. These bones were supposed by him to be human; but on being brought to London, and examined by the Royal College of surgeons, they were pronounced to be those of the bull, that base object of Egyptian worship. Indeed, it seems every way improbable that structures so stupendous should anywhere, and most of all in Egypt, have been undertaken without a religious impulse and motive. About three hundred paces from the second pyramid is the gigantic statue of the Sphynx, that singular object, in the delineation of which, Egyptian art so much delighted. It has been overthrown, and till of late, only the.ead, the neck, and some part of the back, were visible above the sand. EGYPT. 875 The length, from the fore part to the tail, was found to be 125 feet. Mr. Belzoni, having succeeded in clearing away the sand, discovered most singular appendages, consisting of two temples, one of which it holds between its legs, and the other in one of its paws. Except the pyramids, this tract contains few remarkable objects. Along the Nile is a succession of tolerably large, but ill-built villages. Benisouef, somewhat more handsome than the rest, is a brick town, containing a considerable manufactory of coarse carpets. Near Metrahenny appear extensive though faint traces of the ancient Memphis, the capital of Egypt at the era of the construction of the pyramids. To the west of Benisouef appears the province of Fayoum, truly remarkable by its physical character, even in Egypt. An opening in the elsewhere continuous Libyan chain, aided by a vast artificial cut, has let in the river upon this tract, and converted it from a desert into the most fertile portion of this most fertile land. Fayoum appears to enjoy a pre-eminence, as to soil and products, over every other tract of Egypt. According to Jomard, the eye is never weary of contemplating its smiling fields, watered by a thousand canals, which maintain a perpetual freshness, and whose aspect forms the most striking contrast with the bordering deserts of Libya. Besides yielding rice and grain in equal abundance with the other provinces, it abounds in dates and flax, and produces almost exclusively fine fruits. Here the olive and the vine come to perfection, and the plantations of roses afford materials for a perfume highly valued throughout the East. The objects, however, for which this country has been chiefly visited by travelers, are its antiquities; for, besides the lake of Moeris, tradition assigns to it the famous Labyrinth of Egypt, which held so high a place among ancient wonders. Great difficulties, however, have occurred in tracing its site. Returning to the Nile, and ascending above Benisouef, we pass through a tract, still very fertile, more varied and beautiful than the Delta; and where towns and villages occur everywhere at short intervals. Minieh, or Minget, capital of an extensive district, is a very pretty town, whose mosques are adorned with magnificent columns of granite and porphyry, of Greek architecture. To the west of the city, there are also vestiges of antiquity, entirely, however, converted into rubbish. We now approach antiquities of a more classic character. As yet, Egypt has presented to us monuments which astonish by their immensity, and by the incredible labor bestowed on them; but in those to which we allude, that vastness is combined with a high and peculiar architectural skill. About ten miles above Minieh, we pass between two of these grand masses of ruins. On the eastern bank are those of Antinoe, bearing a very different character from any others which Egypt now presents. They are remains of a Greek city, founded by Adrian, with the design of uniting the elegance of classic architecture with the colossal grandeur of the Egyptian. In order to produce the same impression of grandeur, he made streets extending the whole length of the city, and forming one continued and immense colonnade. Here are no colossal statues, obelisks, palaces, temples and tombs of gigantic dim'ension; but amphitheatres, triumphal arches, thermse, and hippodromes. The ruins of Antinoe extend about a mile in every direction, amid a wood of date trees, above which its columns are 876 EGYPT. seen towering; they form a grand picture, to which the lofty and naked Arabian rocks form a noble background. The other side of the river presents the site of Hermopolis Magna. where Greek, Roman, and Egyptian ruins are mingled on a most extensive scale. Their length is about 7000 feet, their breadth 5000, and their circuit nearly three miles. The greater part of this space is covered with rubbish, detached stones, and fragments of columns. The only part which remains entire is the portico of the great temple, a most magnificent monument, rivalling the greatest of which Egypt can boast. It consists of twelve columnns, but there are indications that twenty was the original number. The whole length is 120 feet; the architrave and frieze consist of five stones which are 20 feet long; and the single stone which remains of the cornice is 34 feet long. The shafts are 8 feet 10 inches in diameter, and 60 feet high. At one extremity of these ruins is situated Achmounein, a large and populous village, containing 5000 souls. Its territory, of about ten miles in breadth, between the river and the mountain, is under peculiarly high cultivation, being watered by numerous channels from the Nile and the canal of Joseph. Six miles above is Melawi, also a neat and considerable town, having some manufactures, and exporting a good deal of grain to Mecca. Considerably higher is Manfalout, still more important from its extent and beauty, and which combines considerable manufactures of cloth with a trade in grain. After Manfalout, Middle Egypt, the Vuestani or Vostani of the moderns, the Heptanomis of the ancients, terminates, and Upper Egypt, the Thebaid of the ancients, the Said of the moderns commences. Egypt, which in the Delta was a wide inundated plain, which in the Vostani became a broad well-watered valley, is here little more than a mountain glen. Still, however, though less fertile and populous, it presents objects which, in interest and grandeur, surpass all the most remarkable in the lower and more level tracts of this extraordinary country. Siout is the first large town of Upper Egypt, which has not here assumed the narrow and contracted aspect peculiar to other parts of the Thebaid. On the contrary, this part of the valley of the Nile is upwards of twelve miles broad, though the river itself has not a breadth of more than 750 feet. Siout has a large district attached to it, which is very fertile in wheat, barley, dhourra, flax, and contains very fine gardens. The population is reckoned at 200,000. The first great monuments of the Thebaid which strike the eye of the traveler are those of Anteopolis, situated at the village of Kau, or Gau, on the eastern bank of the Nile. Traces are here found of a temple 230 feet long,.and 150 broad; but the only part at all entire is the first portico, about 50 feet high. The columns produce a peculiar effect, their capitals being composed of the leaves of the date palm tree, and being surrounded with groups of those trees, of which they present a faithful copy, and with which they are confounded. After passing the two small towns of Tornieh and -Tahta, we come to Akhmym, or Ekhmim, a neat town, with wide streets, though built only of unburnt brick, and containing several handsome mosques with lofty minarets. The population is estimated at 10,000; the full half of wbam v~e EGYPT. 877 Christians, and even the Sheiks have been suspected of Christianity by the government of Cairo. About eighteen miles south-east of Akhmym is Girgeh, or Girshe, the capital of Upper Egypt. Notwithstanding this proud distinction, it is not so large as Siout, being about the size of Manfalout, Minieh, and other secondary towns. Neither is it particularly handsome; but it is situated in a very fertile country, and all provisions are extremely cheap and abundant. During Denon's residence, 3000 Frenchmen were quartered there for three weeks, without causing the least appearance of scarcity. Near this city, five miles west from the Nile, on the canal of Joseph, and on the borders of the desert, the French discovered the remains of Abydos. This city was accounted by the ancients the second in the Thebaid; it contained a palace of Memnon, and the tomb of Osiris; works by the same hands which constructed those of Thebes. It had the misfortune, however, of being situated at the end of a long valley crossing the mountains, and through which the sands of the boundless western deserts were blown in upon it. Plantations, canals, and all the expedients which were employed during the prosperous times of Egypt to preserve Abydos from the encroachments of these sands, could not avert its destiny. Not only is it in ruins, but these ruins are almost buried. They may be entered, nowever, by the roof, where spacious interior apartments are found entire, and adorned with hieroglyphics and paintings, of which the colors are as fresh and brilliant as in the first day they were painted. Jomard particularly admired the lower part of a kneeling statue, of human size, in black granite. This fragment appeared to him perhaps the most beautiful that had ever come from the Egyptian chisel. Only two miserable villages now exist on the site of these great ruins. The ruins of Tentyra cover a space of about a mile in length, and half a mile in breadth. The greater part of this ground is overspread with mere fragments and rubbish; but one part presents a temple which, though it cannot cope in grandeur with the monuments of Thebes, surpasses in art and skill every thing else in Egypt. The spectator feels, as it were, trans ported into a fairy scene of enchantment; he sees monuments which have no affinity with the products of Grecian architecture, or with those created by the taste of modern Europe, yet which present exquisite beauty, and a magnificence the most imposing. The length of the temple is 265 feet, and 140 broad. The portico, above all, inspires astonishment by the grandeur and singularity of its aspect. It consists of six columns, the capitals of which are formed of colossal heads of Isis, the deity in whose honor this temple appears to have been reared, and to whom almost every thing in it has reference. The height of the portico is sixty feet; but that of the general wall of the temple not more than seventeen. The whole is entirely covered with those mystic, varied, and often fantastic sculptures, which characterize Egyptian architecture; hieroglyphics, groups, figures of dei. ties, and sacred animals; the whole of the manners and mythology of ancient Egypt embodied. The workmanship is of the most elaborate exe cution, and highly finished. The interior of the portico is equally beautiful and striking. It composes a rectangle 120 feet by 67, and is supported bv 24 columns, ranged in six rows of four deep. The ornaments are equally profuse and varied; but the roof formerly presented a feature which strongly fixed the attention. Divided into twelve compartments, it -EGYPT. —THEBES. -~~~ ~~_, - - - - E G-YPTIAN RUINS.. iI I i ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ijc i 880 EGYPT. exhibited, by a variety of mythological figures, many of which coincide with those employed by the Greeks, a representation of the twelve signs of the zodiac. This remarkable monument has been detached from the roof and conveyed to Paris. About ten miles above Keneh and Dendera is Keft, the ancient Koptos; and higher still, Kous, the ancient Apollinopolis Parva. These, under the Ptolemies, and even under the Saracen princes, were places of great wealth and importance; for opposite to each is an opening in the mountains, through which is the caravan route to the ancient Berenice and the modern Cosseir. Above Kous, for some miles, is a sandy plain, after which the rocks ap proach close to the river. Beyond a projecting point, however, the view opens upon a scene to which the world presents nothing parallel; an extensive plain, covered almost throughout its whole extent with the most amazing ruins. This is Thebes; the city of the hundred gates, that mighty capital, the foundation of which is unknown in history, and belongs only to the dim ages of traditionary poetry, whose report would have been denounced as fabulous, had not such mighty monuments proved that it fell short of the reality. This work of the first age of the world almost eclipses, as to grandeur, all that art and power have since produced. At first, the observer sees only a confusion of portals, obelisks, and columns, all of gigantic size, towering above the palm trees. Gradually, he is able to distinguish, on the eastern or Arabian side, the palaces of Karnac and Luxor; on the western or Libyan side, Medinet, Abu, the Memnonium, arid the tombs cut in the mountain behind. Karnac surpasses in grandeur every other structure in Thebes and in the world. The French engineers on horseback were an hour and a half in performing its circuit, which they therefore conceive, cannot be less than three miles. On the north-east entrance the Egyptians appear to have lavished all their magnificence. The approach is by a long avenue of sphynxes, the larges of any in Egypt, leading to a succession of portals with colossal statues in front. These structures are distinguished, not only by the grandeur of their dimensions, but by the variety of the naterials. A calcareous stone, compact like marble, a variegated siliceous limestone beautiful rose-colored and black marbles of Syene, have been severally used. Not only the general extent, but all the particular features, of this extraordinary structure are distinguished by a magnitude elsewhere unparalleled. There are two obelisks of 69, and one of 91, feet high: this, the loftiest of any in Egypt, is adorned with sculptures of perfect execution. The principal hall is 318 feet long, and 159 broad, having the roof still supported by 134 columns. These are about 70 feet high, and 11 feet in diameter; and a long avenue of others have all, except one, fallen down entire, and lie on the ground, still ranged in their primitive order. All the sculptures are adorned with colors, which, though they ought, it should seem, to have most experienced the ravages of time, shine still with the brightest lustre. Of the large sphynxes, fifty are still remaining, and there are traces which show that the whole avenue once contained 600. The palace itself is entered with great difficulty, and its interior, being dark and filled with rubbish, presents few objects to attract the attention; but on reaching the roof, the spectator enjoys a distinct and most magnificent EGYPT. 881 view of the whole range of surrounding ruins. All who have visited this scene describe the impression made by it as almost superior to that caused by any other earthly object. According to Denon, the whole French army, on coming in sight, stood still, struck as it were with an electric shock. The scene, according to Jollois and Devilliers, appears to be rather the produce of an imagination surrounding itself with images of fantastic grandeur, than any thing belonging to real existence. Belzoni, in particular, declares that the most sublime ideas which can be formed from the most magnificent specimens of our present architecture, would give a very inadequate picture of these ruins. It appeared to him that he was entering a city of departed giants. He seemed alone in the midst of all that was most sacred in the world. The forest of enormous columns, adorned all round with beautiful figures and various ornaments; the high portals seen at a distance from the openings to this vast labyrinth of edifices; the various groups of ruins in the other temples; these, altogether, had such an effect upon his mind, as to separate him in imagination from the rest of mortals. For some time he seemed unconscious whether he was on terrestrial ground, or on some other planet. If Karnac is unrivalled in the grandeur and extent of its remains, the temple of Luxor, as a single and beautiful object, seems superior to any thing else in Egypt. The view from the river is peculiarly beautiful, when, across the verdant islands with which it is studded, appears a white plain covered with palm trees, over which these colossal masses throw their shadows; while, behind, the Arabian mountain chain forms the boundary of the landscape. The approach is through the village of Luxor, whose crowded and miserable huts form a strange contrast with these monuments of ancient splendor. At length the portico appears, by the sides of which are seen the two most beautiful obelisks in the world, each rising to the height of eighty feet, yet composed of a single block of the finest granite, from the quarries of Syene. By what means such colossal masses were conveyed to so great a distance, and placed in their present position, surpasses the conception of modern art. Behind them are two colossal statues, now studiously defaced, and deep sunk in the sand, but which must have been forty feet high, and composed of a single block of the same granite. The propylon is 200 feet in height, rising fifty-seven feet above the present level of the soil. The interior is equally grand. It presents to the view upwards of 200 columns of different dimensions, many of them ten feet in diameter, and most in an entire stte. But nothing is more remarkable in this edifice, than the profusion of sculptures with which the obelisks, the walls, and all the apartments are covered. These, indeed, are favorite ornaments on all the the Egyptian edifices, and remarkably frequent in the palace of Karnac; but they occur here in unexampled profusion, and executed with as much care and delicacy as if they had been the work of the most skillful seal-engraver. They appear to represent the history and triumphs of an ancient Egyptian sovereign, probably the founder of the edifice. The western or Libyan side of the Nile presents monuments of the grandeur of Thebes, which, though not of the same stupendous magnitude, are, perhaps, equally interesting. The Memnonium, or, as the French writers seem rather to show, the tomb of Osymandyas, and the temple of Medinet Abu, present, though on a smaller scale, architecture and painted 56 882 EGYPT. sculpture of the same character; equally excellent, and in many cases still better preserved. This is particularly observable in regard to the brilliancy of the gold, ultramarine, and other colors. The Memnonium is distinguished by three colossal statues, one of which is within the edifice, and the two others are in the plain adjoining. The former is entirely broken into fragments, which, being dispersed through the court, cover a space of sixty feet square, giving it the resemblance of a quarry. The form of the head, however, may still be traced, though the face is entirely mutilated; a foot and a hand have been found among the fragments. The ear is three feet long; the distance from shoulder to shoulder is twenty-two feet; and the entire height of the statue appears to have been about fifty feet. It was composed of a single block, which must have weighed 2,000,000 lbs. The French writers, in the Description Historique, adduce strong reasons for judging it to be the statue of Osymandyas. The two statues placed on the plain, and called by the country people Iama and Chama, are still standing, but mutilated to such a degree that it is impossible to judge of the merits of the sculpture. One of them, from the numerous inscriptions, appears evidently to have been the vocal statue of Memnon, celebrated by the ancients as emitting a musical sound at sunrise or when struck at particular times of the day. No modern visiter, however, has been able to elicit more than the usual sound made by percussion upon granite; and there seems no doubt that the musical tones were produced by some contrivance of the Egyptian priests. The tombs of Thebes remain to be noticed. The rocks behind conceal in their excavated bosom these monuments, less vast, indeed, than those now described; but of a still more striking and peculiar character. In all the Oriental countries peculiar honors are paid to the dead; but no nation appears to have equalled the Egyptians in monumental works. Wherever the remains of a city have been investigated, the mountains behind have been found excavated into sculptured tombs; and those of Thebes, as might be expected, surpass all the others in number, extent, and splendor. The Libyan chain, which presents for about six miles a perpendicular height of 300 or 400 feet of limestone rock, has appeared peculiarly suited for such elaborate sepulchres. These subterranean works of the Egyptians almost rival the monuments which they raised on the surface of the earth. Entrance galleries lead into large apartments, in which are placed the sarcophagi, and which are profusely decorated with that species of colored sculpture with which they lavishly ornamented their walls. The decease'd lies surrounded with representations of all the objects which formed his pride and occupation while living. A complete picture is thus exhibited of the domestic life of the ancient Egyptians; and many of the customs there indicated have been transmitted unaltered, and are still characteristic of the nation. Festivals, agricultural operations, commercial transactions, hunts, bull-fights, fishing and foviing scenes, vineyards, ornamented grounds, form the varied subjects of these representations. The chambers and passages adjoining contain numerous mummies, in that wonderful state of preservation which the Egyptians had the art of securing to the mortal remains of their ancestors. They are found wrapped up in successive folds of linen or cotton cloth, impregnated with bitumen, and so skilfully applied, as to preserve almost unaltered the form of the features and of the minutest parts of the body. Many of them contain, wrapped in their folds, papyri EGYPT. 883 covered with hieroglyphical writing, an object of eager research to the European antiquary. Belzoni gives a very lively description of the difficulties attending this search. "A vast quantity of dust rises, so fine that it enters the throat and nostrils, and chokes the nose and mouth to such a degree that it requires great power of lungs to resist it and the strong effluvia of the mummies. You must creep through narrow passages, sometimes not more than a foot wide, after which you come to a more commodious place, perhaps high enough to sit. But what a place of rest! surrounded by bodies, by heaps of mummies, in all directions." These monuments of private individuals, however, are far surpassed by the tombs of the kings. At a small but highly finished temple, called El Ebek, a narrow gorge or ravine leads by a winding track into the heart of the Libyan mountains. At the end of two miles, a narrow chasm between rocks opens into " the valley of the tombs," a gloomy solitude, presenting the arid and desolate aspect of the most frightful desert. High mountains with rocky summits bound the horizon on all sides, and allow only part of the sky to appear. The heat reflected by them is so violent, that, in 1799, it killed two of Dessaix's escort; and there would be no possibility of enduring it, but for the shelter which the tombs afford. In this awful solitude, the ancient Egyptians sought to seclude from every human eye the magnificent monuments of the kings of Thebes. Avarice and curiosity, however, have triumphed over every precaution. All had been done to secure the entrance. The huge mass of stone which bars it, opens, when penetrated, into a narrow and intricate passage, closed by successive gate after gate. At length, entrance is found into a spacious chamber, in the middle of which is the sarcophagus, commonly empty, while the walls are adorned with painted sculpture, in the highest style of Egyptian magnificence. The subjects are of a different character from those found on the walls of the temples. They frequently consist of funeral processions, religious mysteries, sacred animals; a globe, the emblem of eternity; and Osiris judging the dead. The village of Erment, about six miles above the southern limit of Thebes, on the site of Hermonthis, contains still a temple of second-rate magnitude, dedicated to Typhon. It gives, in some respects, a better idea of ancient Egyptian architecture than any other, no part being either sunk into the ground or covered with rubbish. It has also remained uninjured by time, and might have been still entire, had not great part of it been studiously demolished by human hands. About twenty miles above Erment is Esneh, capital of the most southern district of Egypt, and the last great town which occurs in ascending the river. It is situated in a plain of considerable extent, formerly watered and rendered fertile by canals derived from the Nile; but, these being now neglected, cultivation is confined to the immediate vicinity of the river. The town itself displays a luxury and industry not usual in Upper Egypt. It has manufactures of fine blue cotton, shawls, and pottery, and carries on a considerable trade with Sennaar. A great part of this industry is in the hands of about three hundred Coptic families. The portico of the temple of Esneh, belonging to the ancient Latopolis, is remarkable for its beauty, which surprises even those who have seen the grandest of the monuments of Egypt. Its chief merit consists in an antique purity of 884 EGYPT. style, peculiar to itself; and it was viewed by Denon as one of the most perfect ancient monuments. At Edfou, thirty miles higher, towards the extremity of habitable Egypt, is found still another monument, which, according to Jomard, may be compared, for the happy conception of the plan, the majesty of the composition, the execution and richness of the ornaments, to whatever is most magnificent in architecture. Above Edfou, the plain of Egypt narrows extremely; the rocks on both sides in many places overhang the river. In these rocks, to which has been given the name of Gebel Silsili, are seen the immense quarries, out of which the Egyptians constructed that astonishing range of monuments which we have now surveyed. Some of the subterraneous quarries form grottoes, which have been adorned in a manner nearly similar to the temples. The whole of this part of Egypt presents the most dreary aspect, consisting of naked rocks, whose fragments are mingled with the sand at their feet. The Nile, which elsewhere diffuses such luxuriant fertility, has no power over these spots doomed to eternal sterility. The narrow band of verdure, which sometimes bounds one of the banks, mingled with a few earthen huts and stunted palms, seems only to make more sensible the surrounding barrenness. The Nile immediately opposite Assouan encloses Elephantine, an island, the beauty of which strikes all travelers with an admiration, which they express by terming it the " Island of Flowers " and " the Garden of the Tropic." It presents, indeed, within the space of a mile in length and a quarter of a mile in breadth, a verdure and fertility equal to the finest spots of Egypt. This, in so savage a region, which elsewhere offers nothing but naked peaks and glittering sands, makes an extraordinary impression. The cataracts of the Nile, so celebrated in antiquity, commence about three miles above Elephantine. The picture drawn of them, however, as forming a prodigious fall, whose sound deafened the neighboring inhabitants, and obliged them to remove their dwellings to a distance from the roar, has not been verified by modern observation. It does not appear that there is at present any considerable fall: and though some change might be possible, one so entire cannot be imagined. A most picturesque and extraordinary scene is, however, produced by the Nile dashing through a wild confusion of granite rocks, with which its bed, for several miles, is thickly studded. The island of Philae, above the cataracts, and at the very gate of Ethiopia, constitutes still another striking feature. Within a space of a quarter of a mile in length, and half that breadth, it exhibits a confusion of grand and beautiful monuments, rivalling those left by the greatest cities of Egypt; and their elegant forms and white color strikingly contrast with the embrowned tints and the wild and rugged peaks of the surrounding mountains. Denon distinguished eight different temples, built apparently at different periods, and quite separate, though some pains had been taken to combine together those which were contiguous. Philm is far from presenting the smiling aspect of Elephantine; but a few dates and cultivated fields on the island itself and the opposite shores, placed as they are upon this burnming soil, and amid this immensity of arid rocks, produce an agreeable impression, and soften somewhat the extreme severity of the site. ]EGYPT. 885 Having thus traced the Nile in its entire course through Egypt, we have gone over the main body of that country; but some wild appendages remain, which she claims as belonging to her. Among these is that peculiarly desolate tract, which extends from the Nile to the Red Sea, through the whole extent of Middle and Upper Egypt. No district of it appears to produce anything which can afford food for man. The soil is sand, intermingled with rocks, through which, however, are interspersed trees and shrubs, affording pasture to the camels and sheep of the Ababdeh, a rude and independent race, who hold undisturbed possession of these wilds. At the head of the Red Sea is Suez, by which Egypt carries on nearly all that remains of its once immense trade in that sea. This trade is now insufficient to give any degree of wealth and importance to Suez. It is a poor, ill-built town, which derives all its provisions from Cairo, and has to send sevqral miles for water, and even that is bad. Almost its only intercourse is with Jidda, from which it receives cofee, and supplies it with grain for Mecca. A few vessels also come from Yemen. Those of any considerable burden are obliged to lie in the road, as only small boats can enter the harbor of Suez itself. The canal which anciently united the Red Sea and the Mediterranean was traced by the French engineers, who, after considerable search, conceived that they had ascertained its whole line. It extended across part of the isthmus of Suez, and by Belbeis, into the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. Although the work appears to have been continued successively by the native princes, the Greeks, and the Romans, there is no record that the canal was ever actually used, unless in the seventh and eighth centuries, under the Saracenic princes; and then probably only on a small scale. It is conceived quite possible to renew the work; though the necessary dependence on the rise of the Nile, and on the variable winds of the Arabian Gulf, renders it difficult to secure a regular navigation. The region to the west of Egypt consists of an equally dreary and still more unvaried plain, or rather ocean of sand. Interspersed in it, however, are oases, or cultivated islands, of considerable extent. The principal is the one called El Wah, or the great Oasis. It must be of tolerable magnitude, since Browne was eight hours in travelling from Ain Diseh, the first spring, to Khargeh, the capital. Poncet describes it as a delight. ful spot; but it may have derived additional charms from contrast with the dreary wilderness around. The governors of Upper Egypt keep a garrison here, and consider it of importance, as affording to the caravans that proceed to the south, an opportunity of renewing their supply of provisions and water. Khargeh, the capital, contains about 2,000 inhabitants, who subsist on rice and dates. The continual blowing of the sand is provided against by the singular precaution of a flooring formed above the streets, which renders them almost like a dark chamber. Near this place is a truly magnificent temple, 191 feet in length, and containing, in high perfection, all the ornaments peculiar to those of the Thebaid. The little Oasis, called likewise that of El Cazar, of Kasr, not being in the route of any caravan, remained almost unknown, till Belzoni made his way thither. It consists of a plain, fourteen miles long and eight broad, formerly cultivated throughout, but now only in parts. The people are a rude, independent race, who once had sheiks of their own: they hold little intercourse with any other tribe. Belzoni found here the remains of 886 NUBIA. a large temple, with a number of tombs cut in the rock, in the Egyptian style. From these and from a spring, varying somewhat in temperature, but not actually in the manner described by Herodotus, he conceives that on this oasis may have been situated the celebrated temple of Jupiter Ammon, at least that it may enter into a competition with Siwah for that distinction. NUBIA. IN the beginning of the chapter on Egypt, a general idea has been given of Nubia. Like that country, it owes its exemption from the character of complete desert entirely to the Nile, which holds through it a course of nearly 1000 miles in direct distance, without including its long bend round Dongola. That great river, however, diffuses its waters to Nubia in much more scanty portions. Being everywhere hemmed in by high banks and rocks, it cannot, even with some artificial aid, be made to inundate in general more than a mile in breadth upon one side. The country forms, therefore, a narrow belt of immense length, through the endless desert, stretching eastward to the Nile, and to the westward lost in the wide and unknown wastes of interior Africa. Ethiopia is one of the most venerable names of antiquity. In a vague and indeterminate sense, it comprehended the whole of interior Africa, south of Egypt and Mauritania; but it was applied in a peculiar sense to Ethiopia sub AEgypto, - the region of the Upper Nile. This Ethiopia appears to have been a much more powerful and civilized kingdom in the early ages of history, than at any subsequent period. Egypt was repeatedly conquered from this quarter; and according to some, she derived from Ethiopia the original of those arts and institutions which have rendered her name so celebrated. There certainly was an interchange between the two countries; but we should rather suppose Egypt, more fertile, and possessing much greater natural advantages, to have been the parent. Ethiopia, however, attests its ancient grandeur by monuments, excavated from lofty rocks which overhang the Nile, and which, though they do not display such exquisite skill, are nearly as magnificent as those of Egypt, and in some respects more striking. Ethiopia did not, like Egypt, sink under the ascendency of the great empires. The disastrous repulse of Cambyses forms a memorable event in ancient history. It does not appear that, beyond some occasional inroads, the Romans did more than maintain a frontier legion at Elephantine, which checked incursions, and exacted some imperfect homage and tribute from the chiefs immediately above. The Saracens and Turks never did more. Even for some centuries after the former enjoyed possession of Egypt, Nubia continued Christian; though it has since, by some unknown agency become Mahometan. This rough independence, however, has been per haps a misfortune to Nubia, since it has prevented her from receiving any of the improvements introduced by the great conquering nations. Split into a number of insignificant states, she has lost all her early civilization, NUBIA. 887 and her population was abandoned, either to lawless independence, or to the brutal tyranny of arbitrary chiefs. The conquest by the army of Mohammed All, was too violent, and attended with too much of outrage and rapine, to be attended with beneficial effects; and it appears to have been in a great measure ephemeral. Nubia exhibits no semblance of a well organized government. Every town or large village, with its adjoining territory, has its mek, or melek, who exercises to the utmost, whatever power he may possess, which, according to circumstances or character, is sometimes almost absolute, at other times, is held in contempt. Each individual is armed with a crooked knife, which he is ever ready to employ in deeds of violence. The range of cultivation in Nubia, is extremely limited. That irrigation derived from the Nile, on which it entirely depends, is obtained almost solely by sakies, or wheels for raising the water to the level of the high banks. Of these, within the space of 150 miles, which intervenes between the first and second cataract, there are from 600 to 700. The dhourra, is almost the only grain of Nubia; though sometimes the people raise an after-crop of barley or lentils. Tobacco also, a luxury in universal demand, is cultivated with success. Sheep are fed on the tracts unfit for grain, but are by no means very numerous. Camels are numerous in the trading towns; but horses are only maintained by the chiefs, and for military purposes. The Nubians have scarcely any manufacture which can be termed national. The women make coarse woollen and cotton cloths, mats of date canes, and the necessary implements for cooking. The commercial intercourse of Nubia is less limited. Being the only practicable line through the desert, it forms the medium of communication for Arabia and Egypt, with the vast regions of central Africa. Cotton goods, toys, arms, and a variety of trifling articles, are carried to be exchanged for gold and ivory, but chiefly for slaves. These are purchased from Darfour or Kordofan, where they are obtained by war, or by mere slave-hunting, from the still more savage countries in their vicinity. The inhabitants of this extensive line of territory consist of two leading races. The first is the proper Nubian, called Berbers or Barabras; a class strictly native, and of the same race with those who inhabit the mountainous district of Barbary. Some tracts beyond the kingdom of Sennaar, are inhabited by negroes; but Arabian tribes are more extensively diffused in this region. The Nubians are in a very rude state, and are scarcely acquainted with any of the arts and improvements of civilized society. Many of them, even a little above Egypt, were found by Belzoni absolutely ignorant of the use of money. Like savages, they prized looking-glasses and shining toys, more highly than articles of real value. Their food consists of dhourra, ground between two stones, and baked into cakes without leaven, over which they pour onion sauce, broth or milk. They make from it bouza, a species of beer, in which they indulge to excess. Their houses are roughly built, either of mud or loose stones: in the former case, they are roofed with leaves of the date tree. A cap of cloth or linen, and a woollen mantle or cotton shirt, form all the attire which is considered necessary; and in many cases, even this is thought superfluous. The Nubians are generally a handsome race, well made, strong and muscular. The countenances as well as the demeanor of the females are sweet 888 NUBIA. and pleasing, and they are said to be strictly observant of their matrimonial engagements. In the small and secluded villages, the inhabitants of which are employed in agriculture, a primitive simplicity of manners appears to prevail, and a number who go to act as porters in the cities of Egypt, are considered remarkably honest. In the large trading towns, which are chiefly inhabited by slave merchants, the utmost profligacy of manners prevails. The grandest monument of Nubia, is Ibsambul, whose excavated chambers rival the proudest boasts of Thebes and Tentyra. This temple is cut out of a solid rock, rising perpendicularly about 600 feet from the Nile. The entrance, however, when first visited by Burckhardt, was choked up with such immense masses of sand, that all idea of penetrating seemed out of the question. Belzoni, by almost unexampled exertion and perseverance, succeeded in clearing away the obstacles, and found the interior truly magnificent. The pronaos 57 feet long and 52 feet wide, is supported by two rows of square pillars, each pillar being adorned with a figure elegantly executed. Hieroglyphics, painted sculptures, colossal statues, and all the ornaments which characterise Egyptian temples, are profusely employed. Battles, storming of castles, triumphs, particularly over the Ethiopians, with captive groups of that race, are the subjects chiefly represented. The exterior of the temple is 117 feet wide, and 86 feet high; but the most remarkable feature consists of four colossi, which, with the exception of the Sphynx, are the largest sculptured figures in Egypt or Nubia. Burckhardt, who saw only the shoulder of one of them above the sand, conjectured from its dimensions, that the whole would be 65 or 70 feet. Belzoni, after removing the sand, found it 51 feet, not including the cap, which was 14 feet. Of these colossi, one is still buried, and another thrown down. With Ibsambul terminate the ancient monuments belonging to that part of Nubia which borders on Egypt. Above, at the distance of a day's sail and a half, is Eshke, the residence of a cacheff, and situated on a larger extent of wooded and cultivated land than intervenes between it and Syene. Another day's sail leads to Wady IIalfa, the second cataract. Here, too, Europeans have been disappointed of finding a mighty waterfall. This cataract, like the first, is formed by several thousand rocky islands,.through which the Nile dashes amid clouds of foam, and is whirled and tossed in perpetual eddies. The rocks consist, not of granite, but of a species of black marble; and the islets, being covered with patches of verdure, and several even inhabited, produce a picturesque effect, and relieve that aspect of extreme desolation, which characterises the scenery of the first cataract. The territory of Mahass may be described in a manner nearly similar; and the rude and violent character of its chief, obliged Burckhardt here to terminate his career of Nubian discovery. Majestic ruins, however, continue to be scattered along the bank, among which, preeminent beauty is displayed by the temple of Soleb. From Dar Mahass the traveller enters the territory of Dongola. The vicinity of the river continues to present the aspect of a narrow belt of cultivated land, rescued from the surrounding desolation; but this belt, hitherto on the eastern, is now on the western bank. Dongola, besides, presents tracts of more brilliant fertility and beauty, than any part of Lower Nubia. High granite rocks enclose the green and cultivated valley NUBIA. 889 of Jarjar, which flourishes in freshness and fertility in the bosom of the wildest waste. Immediately beyond is a pass called the Water's Mouth, which is represented as exhibiting a scene of grandeur and wildness, superior to those at the first and second cataracts. It is formed by succession of huge and detached masses of naked rock, and of large fragments scattered on the plain. Below is the large island of Argo, a spot of peculiar and striking fertility, forming in the bosom of the desert, the most luxuriant and natural garden. The air is full of fragrance, and the palm trees are rendered melodious by the song of numberless birds, among whose notes that of the dove is predominant. A narrow mound separates this fairyland from the regions of barrenness and death, and this display of nature's bounties, singularly contrasts with the wide surrounding expanse of sandy desert. In one part of it are found two colossal statues, lying on the ground, twenty-three feet in length, and the sculpture of which displays considerable skill, especially when it is considered that the materials are peculiarly hard. Soon after receiving the Tacazze, the Nile makes a great bend, and for 200 miles flows southward, contrary and parallel to its former course. It then bends again, and renews its usual northerly course, which it maintains through Dongola and Nubia. It thus forms three parallel channels, enclosing two peninsulas, which contain a great extent of cultivated land, and support a larger population, than any part of Lower Nubia. The middle channel, or that which flows southward, parallel to the Dongola branch, is occupied by the Sheyga, an Arabic race, peculiarly roving, fearless, and warlike. They have numerous slaves, whom they employ in tilling the ground, and in performing all laborious offices, while they devote themselves entirely to arms. They make battle a scene of gaiety, rush laughing into the field, and address their enemy with the Eastern salutation, " Peace be with you." Disdaining the improved instruments of modern warfare, they have obstinately adhered to their ancient arms, the lance and the shield. Even with these, they fought a most obstinate battle at Korti with the troops of the Pacha of Egypt. It ended, however, in their entire discomfiture; after which they put to death their necromancers, who had deluded them with predictions of victory, and submitted to the invader. Near Shendi is a range of monuments, the existence of which was reported to Bruce, and which was afterwards visited and examined by M, Cailliaud. They consist of forty pyramids, and a temple, of which few traces remain, but which seems to have been about 280 feet in length. The largest pyramid is 87 feet high. They appeared to M. Cailliaud more ancient than the monuments of Egypt, and of the same character. Jomard and Cailliaud supposed them to be the remains of the ancient Meroe; and the most judicious scholars have coincided in this opinion. Soon after leaving Shendi, the territory of Sennaar begins; but the banks of the Nile are still sandy and barren, diversified only by occasional woods and cultivation. About fifty miles above is Gerri, a large village, and near it is a ferry across the Nile, joining the road which leads through the desert to Dongola. Soon after another grand feature occurs; the junction of the Bahr el Abiad, or White River, coming from the west and from central Africa, and of the Azrek, or Blue River, coming from Abysinnia; which two great streams uniting form the Nile. The controversy which is the Nile, 890 NUBIA. seems now universally decided in favor of the Bahr el Abiad, which is described by Bruce himself as the largest of the two. In ascending the Blue River, we pass Herbagi and Gidid, two consider able villages; then, about a hundred miles above the junction, we come to Sennaar. This is the most important and populous kingdom throughout all that tract which bears the name of Nubia. Its fertility, however, is not maintained by inundation, but by the tropical rains, which are here considerable, though not so violent as in regions more immediately under the equator. Through their influence, the country in August and September assumes a verdant and delightful aspect, and a number of lakes are formed. On the cessation of the rains, the dhourra ripens, and the country acquires a yellow appearance. Soon afterwards, the lakes dry up, the country becomes parched, " all the beauty disappears, and bare scorched Nubia returns, with all its terrors of poisonous winds and moving sands, glowing and ventilated with sultry blasts." The country between the two rivers which form the Nile, and which for some space run nearly parallel to each other, is in general an extensive plain, covered with large woods, but diversified by one or two ranges of mountains. The deserts to the east and west of Nubia next claim our notice. The Nile, particularly between Berber and Dongola, has a winding course, the following of which would render the commercial route to Egypt very circuitous. The caravans, therefore, with that enterprising courage which characterises the inland trade of Africa, have struck a rout across tracts where, for many hundred miles, no human habitation is to be seen, and only a few bands of predatory Arabs procure for their flocks a scanty herbage. The eastern route from Berber to Syene, forming a line of about 500 miles, has been travelled by Bruce and by Burckhardt, and by both without meeting a human being. It does not present, however, unvaried plains of sand, like those which constitute the western deserts of Africa. It contains mountains, some 1000 feet high, and interspersed with wadys, or valleys, affording a supply of water, and supporting some trees, shrubs, and grass. Many days journey elapse without travellers having an opportunity of filling their bags with water. Its aspect is extremely rugged; but Burckhardt, after having passed through those of Suez and Sinai, did not think it quite so dreary. The western desert appears much more desolate. Travellers, indeed, after their departure from Siout, are refreshed at Khargeh, or the Great Oasis; but, having quitted its limits, find nothing but an universal waste of sand. Even the wells, which occur only at a wide distance, and of which the principal are the Sheb, Selimn, and Leghea, though they produce a verdure which relieves somewhat the nakedness of the desert, offer nothing which can be food for man or beast. Poncet strongly describes the painful impression made by a scene, " where we meet neither wild beast, grass, nor even so much as a gnat; and see nothing but mountains of sand, carcasses and bones of camels." The caravan to Darfour has about 800 miles of this tract to pass through, ere it reaches Cubcubea. That to Sennaar, again, touches the Nile at Moscho, and proceeds through Dongola to Korti. It then strikes across the desert to Bahiouda, which, containing a few trees and herbs, does not present so frightful an aspect as the western solitudes. ABYSSINIA. 891 ABYSSINIA. AFTER tracing upwards the course of the Nile, we come. to ABYSSINIA, the region from which that river derives much of its immense store of waters. The Bahr el Abiad, indeed flows from the yet unknown interior of the continent; but a large portion of the stream which penetrates Nubia, and inundates Egypt, is poured down from the country to the eastward, where the mountains, rising to a stupendous height, yield copious supplies of water. The prime element of tropical cultivation renders Abyssinia the most fertile country in this part of Africa, and, with a very few exceptions, in the whole continent. Abyssinia, in a manner insulated amid rocks, deserts, and boundless plains, though it has imbibed some elements of civilization, has scarcely any intercourse with the civilized world. On the east it is judged to be bounded by the Red Sea, with which, however, the proper domain of Abyssinia comes in contact only at one point. On the north it communicates with the deserts of Nubia, traversed by wandering Arabs. On the west it has Sennaar; and, on the south, the Mahometan kingdom of Adel, or Adaiel; but the greater part of these two last frontier lands consists of wild regions occupied by the Galla, who always ravaged, and have recently conquered, a large portion of the Abyssinian monarchy. It is difficult even to guess the dimensions of a region of which there are no fixed limits, measurements or surveys; but somewhere between 700 and 800 miles from east to west, 500 and 600 from north to south, may form a tolerable approximation. Abyssinia has been described as entirely a country of mountains. Chain succeeds chain; and the level tracts which cover a great extent of the kingdom bear almost all the character of mere mountain valleys. The ridge of Lamalmon is the best known to Europeans, who have to cross it in entering Abyssinia from the Red Sea to Gondar. The mountains of Samen to the south, however, a-e still more loty, and the same may be said of those of Gojam, which give rise to the Abyssinian Nile. Abyssinia is not less a country of rivers than of mountains. The eastern tract, above the province of Gojam, gives rise to the Bahr el Azrek, or Blue River, so much celebrated, in modern times, as presenting the long sought-for head and source of the Nile. Abyssinia was little known to the ancients. None of the conquerors of Egypt were able to penetrate, across Nubia and Meroe, into this ulterior region. The tradition which makes the Queen of Sheba an Abyssinian princess, and the monarchs of that country the descendants of Solomon, -seems to rest on a very chimerical foundation. The Ptolemies, in extending their commerce, became intimately acquainted with all the ports of the Red Sea. Their observations thus reached the kingdom of the Axumitse, whose port, Aduli, was celebrated for the great quantity of ivory which was shipped from it, and whose capital, Axum, exhibits splendid monuments, bearing somewhat of an Egyptian character. The same territory, though now forming a loose appendage of Abyssinia, continues to be the 892 ABYSSINIA. sole channel of its trade. The Abyssinian annals represent the country as converted to Judaism several centuries before the Christian era; and it certainly retains many observances bearing the stamp of that faith. In the fourth century, thb nation was converted to Christianity, by the efforts of Frumentius, an Egyptian, who raised himself to high favor at court. Abyssinia remained impenetrable to the arms or the creed of the followers of Mahomet, and, affording shelter to the refugees from Egypt and Arabia, it became more decidedly Christian. To the Portuguese, when they began their grand career of maritime discovery, this country was an object of eager inquiry, as being the supposed seat of the chimerical prince whom they named Prester John. Its situation, too, at the bottom of the Red Sea, appeared, before it was thoroughly known, likely to be favorable to a trade with India. Early in the sixteenth century, Covilham reached it by way of Egypt, and was followed by successive embassies and missions. The Abyssinians adhered to the Eutychean sect, held the Monophysite doctrine, and owned the supremacy of the patriarch of Alexandria; the Portuguese, therefore, although this system was rather less superstitious than their own, considered it little better than pagan, and made incredible efforts to convert the Abyssinians to the Catholic faith, and obtain their allegiance to the see of Rome: in fact, Paez, a missionary of great address persuaded the king, Susneos, in 1620, to proclaim the Catholic religion to to be that of the state. This step, however, occasioned violent civil wars, which ended in the total expulsion of the Portuguese. Since that era, Abyssinia has maintained scarcely any intercourse with the powers of Europe. Abyssinia is a very fertile region. Its valleys, supplied with copious moisture from the numerous mountain ranges, are completely exempted from the arid character of tropical plains. They maintain a rough plenty, with little aid from human art. The only disadvantage of the soil is, that the combined influences of heat and moisture produce often a rank fertility, which unfits it for the production of the finer kinds of grain. Wheat can be raised only on the higher grounds, and for the consumption of the rich. Barley is also cultivated, but chiefly for the feeding of horses. That which constitutes the food of the people, and can be raised almost on every soil, is teff, a weak herbaceous plant, with a stalk not much thicker than that of a carnation, and the seeds of which, though scarcely the size of a pin's head, by their great number make up a bulky crop. The lowest grounds produce some still coarser kinds of grain, which are mixed with teff and barley in making bread. The Abyssinian plow is extremely rude, often without iron. The operations of weeding and reaping are entirely performed by women. The low state of this important art may be inferred from the circumstance, that scarcely such a thing is known as corn brought to sale, and that each family raises what is necessary for its own use. The upland districts abound with horses and cattle, which, with cheese and butter, form objects of exchange. Bees are bred in great numbers, and the honey is of good quality. It is not only used for food, but, being mixed with maize, is formed into a fermented liquor, which is the favorite drink of Abyssinia. Cotton is raised in considerable quantities, though not sufficient for supplying the fabrics of the country. The manufactures of Abyssinia are of a rude character, and merely adapted for its home consumption. The staple is cotton stuffs, with which the people are universally clothed. ABYSSINIA. 893 The foreign commerce of Abyssinia is far from extensive. Goods can be imported only at the single point of Massua, and thence conveyed through the empire by the laborious route of the caravans. Almost all the articles of refined luxury must be procured from abroad; but the demand for these is very limited. From Surat are imported both raw cotton and fine manufactured cloths; carpets from Persia; raw silks from China; velvets, French broadcloths, colored skins, from Egypt; glass beads and decanters from Venice. For these articles Abyssinia can give in return only ivory, gold, and slaves, the staples of interior Africa, between which and the eastern frontier of this empire there must exist a considerable communication, though yet undescribed by European travelers. The manners of the Abyssinians, under a slight semblance of civilization derived from Arabia and Egypt, present indications of the deepest barbarism. Indeed, their domestic life is marked by habits more gross and revolting than any that have been witnessed among the most savage tribes. The luxury of the brinde feast is that which has particularly excited the astonishment of travelers. Slices of warm flesh, cut from the ox standing at the door, are brought in, with the blood streaming and the fibres quivering, and are eagerly swallowed as the choicest delicacy. According to Mr. Bruce, the animal is yet alive while the slices are cut from him, and is heard bellowing with the pain; but Mr. Salt asserts that he has been just that instant killed: probably there may be some variation of practice. This strange food is as strangely administered. The chief is seated between two ladies, who wrap up the delicious morsels in teff cake, and thrust into his open mouth the utmost quantity which it is capable of receiving; "just," says an old traveler, " as if they were stuffing a goose for a feast." The ladies are then at liberty to satisfy their own appetite, and when these refined members of the company have supplied themselves, the servants succeed, and clear the table. The shulada, a similarly savage custom, is practised by the drivers of cattle. When they feel hungry on the road, they stop the animal, cut out a slice from him, close up the wound, and having satisfied their hunger, drive him on. A general ferocity and promptitude in shedding blood seems to characterize the Abyssinian nation; and is, doubtless, stimulated by the frequency of civil and of foreign wars. The principal officers scruple not to execute in person the sentence of death, which the king, or whoever he may be whom they obey, has passed against any individual; and they perform this horrid task with the most perfect coolness and indifference. While Mr. Bruce resided at Gondar, during a period of commotion, he could not stir out without seeing the victims of civil strife left unburied in the streets, to be devoured by the dogs and hyenas. The manners of the Abyssinians are not less distinguished by licentiousness than by cruelty. Intoxication is very prevalent, produced partly by hydromel, but chiefly by bouza, a drink well known also in Egypt and Nubia, and mostly produced here from the fragments of teff cakes brought from table. Marriage is scarcely considered by Mr. Bruce as existing at all; so great is the ease with which the contract may be formed and dissolved. The lover consults only the parents of the bride, and, having obtained their consent, seizes and carries her home on his shoulders. A brinde feast concludes the ceremony. 894 ABYSSINIA. The Abyssinians profess the same form of Christianity with the Copts of Egypt, and even own the supremacy of the patriarch at Cairo. From him the Abuna, the actual and resident head, receives his investiture. By a regulation supposed to have been adopted with the view of securing a,greater measure of learning than could be expected to be found in an Abyssinian, this pontiff must be a foreigner. As such, however, he is usually ignorant of the language; and his influence, and means of holding communication with the people, are much circumscribed. The Abyssinians combine with their Christian profession many Judaical observances, such as circumcision, abstinence from meats, and the observance of Saturday as well as Sunday as a Sabbath. At the same time they share amply the observances of the Roman Catholic church. Their calendar of saints is equally numerous; scarcely a day occurs which is not consecrated to one or other of them, and sometimes to several. They maintain that no nation, except themselves, holds the Virgin in due reverence; and in this respect even the Catholic missionaries found themselves outdone. Their churches are numerous, and adorned with paintings; but images and sculptured forms of any description are considered unlawful. They have monasteries, the tenants of which, however, are not at all immured with the same strictness as those in Europe. Upon the whole, the above account of their general conduct shows how little they are under the influence of Christian principles; which do not, it appears, even extend so far as to produce legal prohibition of divorce and polygamy. Of the learning of the Abyssinians little has been made known by travelers, and indeed it appears to be very limited. Yet they have a written language, the Gheez, which has a great affinity with the Arabic. Their literature seems to be confined to legends of saints, chiefly translated from the Coptic, and to the chronicles, which are written by persons employed at court for that purpose, on the model of the Jewish chronicles; in these the transactions of each month are separately recorded. Such are the natives of Abyssinia proper; but the society of that country could not be exhibited in all its deformity without noticing those barbarous neighbors who have harrassed it with continual inroad, and have possessed and covered so large a portion of the country. The origin of the aalla is involved in much obscurity. They have evidently come from the depth of that unknown region which composes the southern interior of the continent. They appear to have been long wandering in search of regions more fertile than their own, and were seen about two centuries ago by Lobo, near Melinda; but the fine plains of Habesh seem to have attracted the whole sass of their population. The Galla present an aspect of barbarism, in comparison with which that of the Abyssinian is humane and refined. Their favorite ornament is composed of the entrails of their oxen, which, without any superfluous care in cleansing them, are plaited in the hair and tied as girdles round the waist; decorations which are not only obnoxious to sight, but soon assail the olfactory nerves. The besmearing of their body with melted grease completes their embellishment. Their career is marked with indiscriminate massacre: they spare neither sex nor age, unless from the anticipation of gain by carrying off and selling prisoners. In Europe, they would be considered as a species of light cavalry; they perform immense marches, swim rivers, and endure incredible fatigue. Being almost destitute of iron, their arms consist of ABYSSINIA. 895 little more than wooden javelins, with the points hardened in the fire. They make a most furious onset, with shrill and savage cries, which strike terror into all but the steadiest adversaries; but, if this first shock be withstood, they are ill-fitted to sustain a regular battle. They have been said to be without religion, and they certainly have neither priests nor temples; but they have been observed to hold certain trees as sacred, to worship the moon and some of the stars, and to believe in a future state. In their persons they are small, and neither in hair nor features resemble the negroes. In general, their complexion is only a deep brown; but this appears to be a consequence of their descent from nations inhabiting mountainous districts: those who have long dwelt on the plains are quite black. They are divided into several tribes, of whom the principal are the Boren Galla, who have occupied the Abyssinian provinces of Dembea, Gojan, and Damot, and even Gondar the capital; and the Adjow Galla, who are established in Amhara, Begender, and Angot. These Galla, who have long lived among the Abyssinians, have in a great measure exchanged their original customs for the more mitigated barbarism which prevails among their new subjects. Some of the southern tribes have been converted to the Mahometan faith, which for them is an improvement. Abyssinia is extensively infested by other tribes, still more uncivilized and savage. The Shangalla, or Shankala, a race decidedly negro, of deep black color, with woolly hair, occupy a most extensive range of territory along the eastern frontier. Bruce conceives them to be the same race who, under the name of Funje, inhabit the banks of the Bahr el Abiad, and are now masters of Sennaar: but this branch, possessed of much higher advantages, is now in quite a different state, both social and politicalh The proper Shangalla inhabit the deep banks and ravines which border the Tacazze and the Mareb, in the upper part of their course. The numerous streams poured down from the heights, with the intense heat of these close valleys, produce a rank luxuriance of forest and underwood, which, not being pruned by the hand of industry, chokes the growth of every useful production. The hippopotamus, in these waters, rolls his unwieldy bulk, the elephant stalks along the shore; all wild animals here find subsistence, and, as it were, a home. Mixed with them, and only a degree higher in the scale of being, are the Shangalla. During summer, they live in pa. vilions formed under the shade of trees, the lower branches of which are bent down, fastened in the ground, and covered with skins. When the rainy season, however, converts the whole surface of the earth into mud, they retire to caves dug in the soft sandstone rocks, and subsist on the dried flesh of the animals caught in the favorable season. These are the tribes whom Ptolemy classes under the general appellation of Troglodytoe, or dwellers in caves, and whom he particularises under the titles of elephanteaters, rhinoceros-eaters, locust-eaters; for there are some whose situation confines them to this last description of food. In the rainy season, the Shangalla are not left to the undisturbed possession of this wilderness. It is a favorite hunting-ground of the Abyssinian monarchs; and the objects of chase are not only the elephant and hippopotamus, but the Shangalla, who, wherever they are seen, are pursued, attacked, and carried off as slaves. This brave and fierce race, however, though without either horses or fire-arms, make often a desperate resistance; they have even undertaken successful inroads into the neighboring districts of Tigr6. 896 STATES OF BARBARY. Axdu is the most interesting town in Tigre, and even in Abyssinia, from its extensive monuments, which attest it to have been the ancient capital, and the most conspicuous town in all this part of Africa. In the great square alone there are forty obelisks, one of which is 80 feet high, and considered as rivalling whatever is most magnificent in Egypt. From the character of the architecture, it seems to have been erected by the Ptolemies, or in their time; and a Greek inscription shows this place to have been in the third century the capital of the Axumatiae. STATES OF BARBARY. BARBARY is that long line of territory, from 100 to 200 miles in depth, which extends westward from Egypt to the shores of the Atlantic. The name, though derived from the Berbers, a race of native inhabitants, does not appear to be recognised in the country itself; and the region is even occupied by different independent states; yet such is the similarity both as to nature and the condition and aspect of the inhabitants, that they may very advantageously be considered under one head. The level plain, which composes the greater part of Barbary, resembles in surface and quality that immense ocean of sand which overspreads nearly the whole northern half of the African continent. Barbary, however, derives a distinctive and superior character from that mountain-chain, or series of chains, which, under the celebrated name of Atlas, ranges through nearly its whole extent from west to east. The loftiest pinnacles are in the west, rising above the plain of Morocco, and facing the Atlantic, where it appears even to rise above the limit of perpetual snow; but beyond the frontier of Morocco, and eastward through Algiers and Tunis, the mount, ains of this chain seldom exceed 3000 or 4000 feet. On the territory of Tripoli, they sink into lower eminences, and gradually subside to that flat sterile surface which characterises Northern Africa. The aspect of the Libyan desert, which separates Tripoli from Egypt, is compared by travellers to that of the bottom of the sea after its waves have receded. The breadth of the plain between the mountains and the Mediterranean, which constitutes Barbary, nowhere exceeds 100 miles, and in many places is not more than five or six; its average breadth may be estimated at about fifty or sixty miles. On the southern side of the mountains is another plain of vast and vague extent, stretching indefinitely to the south. This tract, which possesses naturally the same dry and desert character as the bordering regions, derives, from the streams poured down by the Atlas, a certain degree of fertility, which continues to the places where these are absorbed in the sands, or expanded into lakes. This region forms a loose appendagoe to Barbary, being inhabited by tribes in some sense tributary and dependent, though they are generally accustomed to rove with little control over their spacious plains. The plain of Barbary is watered by numerous rivers descending from the great mountain range; but, on account of the short interval which interposes between it and the sea, they cannot have any long course. STATES OF BARBARY. 897 The limits of this vast region, especially on the land side, where it passes by an insensible gradation into the trackless deserts, cannot be easily de fined. It would be difficult even to fix the extreme points of Tripoli and Morocco. Port Bomba, on the eastern frontier of Tripoli, is in 230 20' E., while Mogadore, nearly the most western part of Morocco, is in 90 20' W., forming thus a line of 330 of longitude, or about 2000 miles from east to west. Of its northern boundary along the Mediterranean, the highest point is Cape Blanco in Tunis, in latitude 37~, whence it declines in Mo rocco to 350, and in the Gulf of Sidra even to nearly 300. The southern boundary is altogether of that vague and indefinite nature already de scribed. The Zoology of the Barbary states assimilates with that of northern Egypt, Arabia, and Asia Minor. The Dromedary is well known to be the most useful and the most general beast of burden throughout the whole of Northern Africa. It is smaller than the Asiatic or Bactrian Camel, and has but one hump, while that has two; but the legs are more slender and elevated. There are several breeds, differing chiefly in size or color; those of Turkey are the strongest, and best suited for burden; but the Arabian and Barbary breeds are the lightest and the swiftest. The Bubal so nearly resembles the European buffalo, that travellers have confounded the two together. Its general appearance is not unlike that of a small cow; the proportions are heavy, the head long and clumsy, and the singular elevation of the shoulders is remarkably striking. It is wholly of a yellowish dun color; the tuft of the tail being alone black. They seem to live in small troops throughout the deserts and forests of Northern Africa, from the Nile to Morocco, and were met with by Messrs. Denham and Clapperton in the woods of Bornou. The Arabs give them a name signifying cattle of the forest. The Barbary horse vies with the Arabian in beauty of form, although not, perhaps, in the fleetness of its course. The chest is better made, and more rounded; the forehead, instead of being hollowed, is rather prominent, and the shape of the head is finer: the figure altogether is more imposing than that of the Arab, although their stature is nearly equal. The best Barbary horses are found, at the present day, in the kingdoms of Morocco and Fez; but the Moors do not take near so much care of their horses as the Arabians. The Morocco breed of sheep have long wool, the hair on the neck rather shorter and more curled: like most of the African breeds, they are remarkable for their strong make and long legs: their horns are small, turned spirally outwards, and the general color is white, tinged with liver-color. Barbary occupied a more conspicuous place in the ancient than in the modern world. It formed part, and in many instances a prominent part, in the great system of civilized nations around the Mediterranean. Cyrenaiga, its most easterly portion, corresponding now to Barca and part of Tripoli, was one of the most flourishing Grecian colonies. Africa Proper, including the rest of Tripoli and part of Tunis, contained Carthage, the pride of Africa, the mistress of Spain and Sicily, and the chief medium of commercial intercourse in the ancient world. Illustrious by her rivalry with Rome, and her mighty struggle for universal empire, she was not less distinguished by her glorious fall. The southern part of Tunis, joined to 57 898 STATES OF BARBARY. the Algerine province of Constantina, once formed the powerful kingdom of Numidia, which rendered itself famous both as the ally and enemy of Rome. Western Algiers and Fez composed Mauritania, a ruder region, yet distinguished for its swarms of brave irregular cavalry. The southern part of Morocco was Getulia, an imperfectly known tract, inhabited by a race almost proverbial for savage fierceness. All these districts, with the exception of the remote ones last mentioned, were incorporated into the Roman empire, and became, in some degree, the granary of Italy. They were exposed, however, earlier than might have been anticipated from their situation, to the inroad of the northern barbarians. Genseric the Vandal fixed here the seat of his kingdom, and established a naval power which made him master of the Mediterranean. The invasion of the Saracens produced a c omplete a complete and permanent change in Northern Africa. They entered it, not only as conquerors, but in vast migratory bodies, which stamped the Arabian and Mahometan character upon the whole population. Barbary was at first governed, under the caliphs of Bagdad, by a viceroy, who established his residence at Cairoan, or Kairwan. As the central power lost its energy, the states of Barbary erected themselves into independent kingdoms, among which Cairoan was still the eastern capital; but it was almost eclipsed in power and splendor by Fez, a city which then ranked among the first in the world for learning and civilization. By degrees, however, the Barbary states, like all others subjected to the recluse and bigoted system of Mahomet, lost their light and intelligence, and, having no intercourse but that of deadly hostilitS with the improved kingdoms of Christendom, they had no means of recovering those advantages. Thus they became, three centuries ago, and have ever since continued, blind, stupid, and barbarous. The piratical war between the Turks and the Christians, during the fifteenth century, occasioned a further change. The celebrated pirates Barbarossa and Hayraddin seized upon Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, and established them as dependencies of the Turkish empire. Retaining still the spirit of these conquerors, they continued, even after the fall of the Turkish naval power, to devote themselves to piracy; and their situation along the Mediterranean enabled them to act with terrible effect on the European states. Morocco, though she remained independent of Turkey, thought this too good an example to be neglected; and her piracies were at one time still more terrible than those of the other states, though they have not been so long continued. In the course of the last century, the three states have shaken off the Ottoman yoke. In Tunis and Tripoli, the Turkish population has been reduced to subordination under the Moorish and Negro troops; while in Algiers, the Turkish soldiery continued to hold a barbarous sway, deposing and electing the sovereign at pleasure. Their flagrant piracies, however, at length called forth the armed interposition of the European powers. England first inflicted a signal chastiseiment; and France in 1830, made a complete conquest of the city, and is endeavoring to colonize the territory. The monarchs of Morocco claim the crown in the capacity of sheriffes, or descend~ants of Mahomet, and they attempt to increase the lustre of the regal dignity by assuming the character of doctors, prophets, and saints; which, however, they seem to regard as not inconsistent with the most unbounded indulgence of cruelty and sensuality. The emperor claiming the STATES OF BARBARY. 899 supremacy in religion, which in Mahometan countries includes law, prevents, probably, the formation of any corporate bodies, either hierarchical or juridical, sufficiently important to influence the public. There does not appear even to be any council of state, or deliberative assembly, like the Turkish divan. Everything depends upon the momentary will and caprice of the prince. This absence, however, of all regular check, does not prevent the frequent occurrence of rebellion, which is almost without intermission fomented by the different members of a family contending for the throne; the sons against the father, and the brothers against each other. The government of Algiers was formed on the Turkish model, the Dey being originally an officer appointed by the Porte, and, like other despotic viceroys, exercising in the interior government all the powers of the sultan. Here, as at Constantinople, there appears to have been always a divan, which, being composed of the heads of that military body by whom the Turkish sway was alone maintained, possessed very extensive influence. When Algiers became independent of the Porte, nearly the whole power passed into the hands of the tumultuous Janissaries, who set up, deposed, and massacred the chief magistrate at pleasure. A long interval did not often elapse between the period when the Dey was raised to power, and that in which his life was terminated by the bow-string. Tunis presents a more agreeable spectacle. Its ruler, who, under the title of Bey, was originally a mere officer of the Porte, has now succeeded in emancipating himself, not only from this subjection, but from dependence upon the Turkish soldiery. This revolution was chiefly effected by Hamooda, the Dey reigning in 1816, whose vigor of character had preserved him in power twenty-nine years; a very unusual period in the tumultuary annals of Barbary. Instead of allowing himself to be kept in thraldom by the Turks, he chose his officers in preference from among the European and Georgian slaves and renegadoes. He established a regular administration of justice, and extended equal protection to all classes of the inhabitants, not even excepting Christians and Jews, whom it had been considered the duty and privilege of the Moors to take every opportunity of insulting, of plundering, and even of killing. Although, therefore, the administration still exhibits many barbarous and oppressive features, yet, upon the whole, Tunis has improved, while Western Barbary has been sinking continually deeper in wretchedness and brutality. Tripoli has made still farther advances. Its progress has been ascribed to Hamet, whom the Tripolitans honor with the surname of Great. At the commencement of the last century he was a mere Pacha under the Turks, and lhis life was in perpetual peril from their licentious soldiery. He relieved himself from them in a manner truly barbarous. Having invited their chiefs, to the number of 300, to a feast, he caused them all to be seized and strangled. His adherents then commenced a general massacre throughout the city, and the Turkish sway was entirely annihilated. The Porte, which could with difficulty have vindicated its claims, suffered itself to be pacified by presents and tribute, and finally lost all dominion over the state. Hamet was very active in introducing every kind of improvement, inducing Europeans to settle in his territories, and promoting all the manufactures for which Tripoli was adapted. His successor, of a milder character, finding himself in peaceable possession of the sovereignty, exercised it with great equity and moderation; so that Tripoli 900 STATES OF BARBARY. assumed an orderly and civilized appearance, resembling that of the Euro. pean states, especially when compared with the turbulent aspect of its African neighbors. Although it has been since exposed to some convulsions, the present government appears to retain the same liberal and improving character by which it has so long been distinguished. The foreign relations of the Barbary states have not been extensive. The European powers long regarded them with cold and distant hostility, but without considering the conquest of them as a desirable object. These states were not in a condition to attempt schemes of distant aggrandizement. Their only pretensions to dominion are over the tracts behind the Atlas, and bordering on the great desert, called Tafilet, Sigilmessa, and the Bled el Jereed. Even the subjection of these countries is confined to the exaction of a tribute, which a flying detachment of troops, sent round once a year, forcibly collects. Since the reign of Hamet the Great, Tripoli has held Fezzan tributary. The efforts to put down their piratical inroads have brought them more into contact with the powers of Europe; and the issue of these, in the occupation of Algiers by France, promises to form a new era in the destiny of this part of the world. Those predatory ravages by which, down to a very recent period, they rendered themselves terrible to the powers situated upon and navigating the Mediterranean, seem to be now finally suppressed. In the greater part of Morocco, there exists no such thing as fixed property in land. It is cultivated by moveable Arab camps, called douars, which establish themselves on a spot, continue till they have exhausted it, and then remove to another. In consequence, however, of the fertility of the soil, and of the want of a manufacturing population to consume its produce, there is in every state a large surplus of corn, which forms, when permitted, the staple article of export. Wheat and barley are the kinds generally cultivated; the soft and friable soil is particularly adapted to the latter. Rice is said to be raised on the banks of some of the rivers; but to its culture, upon the whole, this arid soil is peculiarly unfavorable; and the species of holcus, or dhourra, peculiar to the district are extensively cultivated. Coolness and moisture being the requisites wanted, the winter months compose the verdant and flourishing period of the year. The harvest is gathered in April and May; after which, from June to September, the country exhibits an aspect entirely parched add burnt up. The inhabitants possess the art of preserving the grain for several years by burying it under ground in their dry soil. All the fruits of southern Europe come to perfection in Barbary; and the excellence of the olive is particularly noted. The vine flourishes; though the religious system of the natives deters them from converting the grape into wine, even for exportation. As we advance into the dry plains of the interior, all these fruits disappear; but their place is supplied by that of the date tree, which entirely covers the face of the country, and forms the principal support to the inhabitants of the southern districts. Of domestic animals, the cow, destitute of the rich pastures of Europe, is small in size, and deficient in milk. The sheep are also small; but those fed on the Atlas produce that exquisite mutton peculiar to mountain pastures. There are also some species, which, with little attention on the part of their proprietors, produce very fine wool. Goats are very numerous in the mountain districts; and their skins yield that soft and delicate STATES OF BARBARY. 901 leather for which Morocco is famous. The horses of Barbary were formerly much valued; and this ancient boast of Numidia has not altogether lost its qualities; but, the persons in power under so oppressive a government being accustomed to seize the best for their own use, the proprietors are discouraged from bestowing any peculiar pains in improving the breed. The once famed Barbary horses now yield to the Arabian, and even to the Egyptian. The ass, and the mule, are the ordinary beasts of burden. Beyond Atlas, the camel alone is suited to the sandy expanse of the wilderness. A small number is maintained of that species called the heirie, or desert camel, which seems to be the fleetest of all known animals. Mr. Jackson mentions one, which, in seven days, travelled across the Great Desert, a distance of about 1000 miles; and another which went from Mogadore to Morocco, and returned in one day, though the interval between those cities is not short of 100 miles. The honey, which is copiously collected through Barbary, seems to be chiefly the produce of wild bees. Although manufacturing industry must rank low in the Barbary states, yet there are some branches in which the inhabitants excel. The most noted is that of the leather already mentioned as known under the name of morocco, and celebrated for its softness, pliancy, and beauty. It is afforded by the goats which climb the declivities of the Atlas, particularly on the side of Tafilet; but its valued qualities are doubtless, in a great measure, due to the mode of tanning and preparing it. Fez is the chief theatre of this manufacture. It carries on also several woolen fabrics, particularly of a species of long robes called haiks, which are generally worn in the East; and of carpets, little inferior to those brought from Turkey. It makes also silk stuffs, chiefly sashes and handkerchiefs. Among the states on the Mediterranean, Tunis is by much the most distinguished for industry and manufactures. Its staple is a small species of conical woolen caps, called skull-caps, which are universally worn in Eastern countries. This fabric is said to have afforded at one time employment to 50,000 persons; but Leghorn and Marseilles have now succeeded in producing an imitation, and the caps manufactured there, though not equal in quality, can be sold so much cheaper, that they have superceded to a great degree those made at Tunis. There are likewise large manufactures of robes and shawls of woolen and gause, carried on also in Algiers and Tripoli, though not on so large a scale. The commerce of this rude territory is also very limited. Its exports consist chiefly in the raw produce of the soil. In ancient times the African coast formed the granary of the Roman empire; and its corn continued to find a copious market in southern Europe, till its exportation was prohibited by the absurd policy of all the Barbary states, except Tunis. The chief shipping port is Biserta. Tunis exports also olive oil, which does not become rancid so soon as the Italian oils; a large quantity of excellent soap, made from olive oil and barilla, with some sponge and orchilla weed collected on the shore. The commerce of Morocco is carried on almost exclusively from Mogadore. Tripoli, Tunis, and, still more, Morocco, send to Europe the produce of Soudan, gold dust, ivory, and gums, particularly gum senegal. The most active commerce of the Barbary statbes is that by the caravans with interior Africa. Tripoli sends hers by Fezzan to Bornou and Cassina, and thence across as far as Ashantee; Tunis by Gadamis and Tuat to 902 STATES OF BARBARY. Tombuctoo; Morocco across the broadest of the desert to the same city, and to the countries on the Senegal. Into these countries the caravans carry salt, which is wanting along the whole line of the Senegal and Niger; together with European manufactures, particularly cloths of different kinds, hardware, and toys. The returns are gold dust, ivory, gum senegal, and, above all, slaves, for whom these unfortunate countries have been so long ransacked to supply the other quarters of the globe. It is impossible to form even a conjecture as to the amount of this inland trade. The mercantile shipping of the Barbary states may be considered as next to nothing. Fishery, notwithstanding the extent of its coasts, is pursued only for immediate consumption. There is, indeed a coral fishery, of some value, on the coast of Constantina, in Algiers, near Bona and La Cala. Proceeding on loose data, which are all we have, we may estimate the population of Barbary as follows: —lorocco 6,000,000; Algiers 2,000000; Tunis 2,000,000; Tripoli 800,000: in all, 10,800,000. The inhabitants of Barbary are separated into three very distinct classes; the Moors, the Arabs, and the Berbers or Berebbers. The Moors inhabit the cities of Barbary and the country in their immediate vicinity. The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is applied throughout Africa in a very vague manner. In central Africa it is made to comprehend all Mahometans who are not Turks. In Barbary, however, the wandering tribes are distinguished by the name of Arabs, and the term Moor is applied chiefly to the inhabitants of cities. Mahometan cities, in general, present a uniform scene. The inhabitants drag a recluse, gloomy, and monotonous existence. They are strangers to social assemblies, to public amusements, to the arts, and to every thing that animates life. Their time is chiefly spent, in a retired manner, in the interior of their houses. The females, according to the invariable Mahometan custom, are strictly excluded from general society, and must see none of the male sex, except their husbands; they are immured like slaves in the apartments of the harem. That aspect of apathy and gravity, however, which a Moor presents at first view, is, in a great measure, fallacious, and he is easily roused from it to the most outrageous acts of bloodshed and violence. In Barbary, the habits of a seafaring and piratical life have rendered these occasions more frequent, and have produced a character more habitually turbulent and disorderly, than is usual in Turkish states. Indeed, European travellers have usually described the Moors as a race devoid of all good qualities, and combining every sort of depravity; but the relations between the parties have usually been of a very hostile nature, imbittered both by religious and political rancour. The harem, that favorite and almost sole seat of Oriental luxury, is, of course, inaccessible, and can only by some peculiar chance be seen by Europeans. Lempriere, however, in his character of a physician, was admitted into that of the Emperor of Morocco. It consisted of a wing of the palace, entirely separated from the rest, and communicating only by a private door, of which the Emperor had the key. The edifice was divided into a number of courts, communicating by narrow passages, round which were ranged the apartments of the wives and concubines, who were from sixty to a hundred in number, besides their domestics and slaves. There was a principal sultana, who had a general superintendence over the estab STATES OF BARBARY. 903 lishment, but enjoyed not the same influence with the emperor as some of the younger favorites. There were several European captives, who appeared to the traveller the chief ornament of the harem, both as to personal and mental accomplishments. The Moorish ladies were enormously fat, and utterly stupid and ignorant, Their allowance from their imperial master amounted, in the case of the most favored, only to half a crown a day; so that expense and luxury were to be maintained by presents or bribes received from the numerous suitors for favors from the emperor, who is understood to approve entirely this delicate mode of supply. A more favorable account is given of the Tripolitan harem by a lady who resided in that city for many years, in the family of Mr. Tully, the English ambassador. The inmates, who are generally Georgian and Circassian captives, not only possess superior personal beauty, but are endowed with various ornamental accomplishments acquired at Constantinople. Their toilette is performed in a very elaborate manner, which employs several hours, and demands the service of a number of slaves. Each of the latter has a separate office; one to perfume the hair, another to arrange the eyebrows, a third to paint them, and so on. The blackening of the latter by a preparation of antimony, the forming of them into a particular shape, and the filling of the hair with powdered cloves, perfumes, and scented waters, are the most favorite modes of female adornment. In their domestic character, the ladies are said to display many amiable qualities; though here, as in Morocco, the jealousy of superior favor with their lord and master often excites violent enmities, and even impels to the crime of administering poison to a hated rival. While the Moors thus inhabit all the great towns and fixed villages in their immediate vicinity, all the remoter districts are occupied by a race who are called Arabs, either because they are really the descendants of the Saracen conquerors, or, from situation and circumstances, have acquired similar habits. They dwell in a species of moveable encampments called douars, composed of a number of broad and low tents, painted black, and resembling in form the hull of a ship. They are formed of cloth made of camel's hair and the fibres of the palm tree, and are arranged generally into three concentric circles, in the interior of which the cattle are secured during the night. Each douar is governed by a sheik, or chief, who is considered as standing in a paternal relation to the rest; kindred being the tie which chiefly unites them, and no one not related to the common family being allowed to reside in the douar. Their manner of living is quite patriarchal, and their rights of hospitality so primitive, that they remind us of those practised by Abraham to the three angels, as recorded in Scripture. The greatest sheik, when a stranger enters his tent, sets down water, and assists him to wash his feet. He goes to the flock, brings in a calf or a kid, kills it with his own hands, and delivers it to his wife to dress. Like all the races which bear the Arab name, they are equally distinguished for hospitality and robbery; often exercising the latter against those who have just been the objects of the former. When they have exhausted one spot, they prepare to move to another; for which purpose, however, they must obtain the sanction of the government, which is held as the proprietor of all these wide tracts of unoccupied land; a permission for which a large sum of money must be always paid. The douar then breaks up, and its members depart, with their wives, children, cattle, tents, furniture, agricultural 904 STATES OF BARBARY. implements, and every thing which they possess. The men walk, driving the cattle; the women are mounted on camels, three on each; the children, lambs, and kids are hung in panniers by the sides of these animals. The internal administration of these camps, or douars, is almost entirely independent of the emperor or prince; the several communities are animated by deadly feuds against each other, which often lead to conflict; and in every case of weak government or disputed succession, many of the Arabs betake themselves without hesitation to plunder. While these wandering tribes cover the plains, the mountain districts of Atlas are occupied by the Brebes, or Berbers, who seem to be the original and most ancient inhabitants of Barbary, driven to take refuge in these inaccessible retreats. In the little valley embosomed within the huge declivities of the Atlas, they build their villages, which are beautifully enclosed with gardens and plantations. Some of these, however, occupying the higher and ruder parts of the chain, dwell in caves cut out of the rock. They are hard featured, athletic, and patient of fatigue. Occupied in pasturage and cultivation, they also employ themselves much in hunting, and derive an extensive profit from the skins of wild beasts. Their favorite exercise is the use of the musket, both in firing at a mark, and twirling it variously through the air; in which they have acquired remarkable dexterity: those who can afford it take a pride even in ornamenting their firearms with gold and ivory. Possessing such habits, they are by no means quiet subjects of the Moorish empire and the other states to which their territory belongs. Their only homage consists in a tribute, at once scanty and uncertain. In their revolts, which are not unfrequent, their valor, and the rugged nature of the territory, render it almost impossible to subdue them. On the contrary, they have sometimes descended into the plain, and carried their inroads to the,very gates of Morocco. They have none of the migratory habits of the Arabs; but, on the contrary, are unwilling to remove from their original spot. Unlike the Arabs, too, they elect their own sheiks, and have a republican form of government, very unusual in this part of Africa. They speak a language called the Amazigh, or Berber, entirely different from that of the Moors and Arabs, who often require an interpreter in conversing with them. This language is supposed to be very ancient, and is of the same family with that of the Tibbo, the Tuaricks and other indigenous tribes who roam over the plains to the south-east. The Shilluks are a branch of the Berbers, somewhat smaller in stature, and less rude in character, inhabiting the mountainous districts south of Morocco. The Errifi, on the contrary, who border on Algiers, are still braver and fiercer; the very glance of their eye is said to strike terror into the inhabitants of the plains. The religion of all the Barbary states is that of zealous Mohometans; and the ferocious bigotry which everywhere characterises the professors of Islam is carried, if possible, to a higher pitch in this country than elsewhere. The cruelty exercised against their European captives is exasperated, or at least all pity and remorse are deadened, by religious antipathy. Although they have talbas, or spiritual instructors, very little of any real knowledge or improvement seems derived from these personages. There is no connection between the ministers of religion and the government; neither is there any corporate body, like the ulema in Turkey, to preserve and maintain the doctrine and discipline of the church. The veneration cf the STATES OF BARBARY. 905 people is almost exclusively bestowed on a class of persons who, by individual exertion, raise themselves to the character of saints. This character is not attained by ay peculiar purity of life, or even rigor of superstitious observance. Grotesque and fantastic pretensions to supernatural power, and to an intercourse with invisible beings, are the means by which they impose on the credulous multitude. Throughout all this region the idea prevails according to which idiots and madmen are reputed holy; and privation of reason is even feigned for the sake of attracting veneration. The higher class of saints are decidedly the second persons in the kingdom, if they do not even rival the monarch. Indeed the emperors of Morocco have been long accustomed, by high pretensions to sanctity, to heighten the respect of their subjects. That most savage of tyrants, Muley Ismael, spent a great part of his time in superstitious gestures and observances, calculated to impress the idea of his direct communication with the Deity and with Mahomet, and of superhuman powers thence derived. Barbary, moreover, is overrun by superstitions of all kinds, such as usually prevail among the vulgar in unenlightened countries; among which, the belief in the potency of an evil eye, is particularly prevalent. Individuals among the Arabs still make a boast of the power of charming serpents. They exhibit themselves to the admiring multitude, half naked, in strange attitudes and contortions, and twined round by these creatures, whom they certainly have the art of rendering innoxious. The most amiable of their feelings consists in the reverence paid to deceased relations, which exists to a much greater extent than is customary among Europeans. Every Friday evening forms what is called " the feast of the dead," when the people repair to the tombs of their ancestors, who are supposed to be present on that evening, and to share the almost gay festival which is there celebrated. Learning and science in Barbary may be considered as nearly extinct. Like the other Saracen states, those of Barbary, and of Morocco in particular, were formerly distinguished for the cultivation of mathematics and astronomy. Fez was a celebrated school, to which students from the most distant quarters resorted. At present, by far the greater part of the population can neither write, read, nor perform the most common operations of arithmetic, and there are scarcely any persons who have acquired the mere rudiments of knowledge. Shaw mentions as having been shown to him quadrants and astrolabes constructed in the most admirable manner; but such instruments were exhibited as mere curiosities, without the least idea being entertained of their use. Medicine, in which the Arabs boast of the great names of Avicenna and Averrhoes, cannot be very highly cultivated in a country where the usual fee of a physician is sixpence; and a shilling is only bestowed in the most serious and important cases. Accordingly, unless for mere external wounds and hurts, the interposition of a native practitioner seems rather productive of injury than benefit. European physicians are always eagerly sought, and are considered as possessed of almost supernatural power. The amusements of the natives of Barbary are very little varied. Mixed company, public exhibitions, and theatrical entertainments, which give so gay an aspect to European society, are altogether foreign to their habits. Among those who are not obliged to labor for bread, the day is spent chiefly in a sort of listless indolence; lounging at coffee houses and barbers' shops, the favorite scenes of talk and scandal. Chess is pursued with great eagerness 906 STATES OF BARBARY. Opium, so passionately indulged in by the Turks, is not in use here; but instead of it, they have a sort of preparation from hemp, which produces nearly the same effect. Wine, too, is taken much more' freely, even to excess, and in a convivial manner, especially at Algiers and Tunis, than in other Mahometan countries. But horsemanship, above everything else, forms the pride and amusement of the Moors; and their feats in this art are often very wonderful. They are peculiarly fond of galloping, and then suddenly stopping; and some will even lift objects from the ground while riding at full speed. Although, however, the rich Moors are almost constantly on the backs of their horses, they train them to none of those travelling paces which are found so useful in Europe; they have no idea of -any thing intermediate between a walk and a gallop. In the dress of the Moors and Arabs, the most conspicuous feature is the haik, or hyke, a large square piece of woollen cloth, commonly six yards both in length and breadth, which is folded loosely round the body. It seems to be the same with the garment of the Jews, and indeed the very same with the Highland plaid. The loose manner in which the ha'ik is attached to the body renders it necessary, whenever any work is to be seriously set about, to tighten the girdle, which is formed of woollen, often richly ornamented, and in which also the weapons are stuck. Hence arises the figurative expression so often applied in Scripture to the industrious, to have their loins girt. Under the haik is the tunic, or coat, which sits close to the body, and beneath it the shirt, which the Moors wear of linen or cotton, but the Arabs of woollen. A species of cloak, called burnoose, is thrown over the haik, when necessary, as a defence against rain or cold; and it has a cape which may be raised to cover the head. On the head is also worn a species of conical scarlet cap, covering the crown; below / which is wrapped the turban, expressing, by the/number and variety of its folds, the rank of the wearer. With regard to food, one dish prevails at the table of all, from the prince to the peasant, which is cuscosoo, a sort of almost fluid paste made of crumbled bread, and enriched according to the means of the preparer, with small pieces of meat, vegetables, and condiments. This dish, placed in a large wooden or earthen bowl, is set in the middle of the company, who immediately thrust in their fingers, lift it to their mouths, stirring it, if necessary, with their hands, and selecting the most savory morsels. The rich, on great occasions, present a variety of dishes; but they are all cooked in the same manner, consisting of what we call spoon-meat. To make- some amends for this mode of eating, the custom of washing the hand both before and after eating is still rigorously observed. MOROCCO. MoRocco, the most westerly, is also the most extensive and important, of the Barbary states. It has two coasts: one along the Mediterranean facing the north, the other and larger along the Atlantic, looking to the west. The loftiest part of the chain of Atlas runs parallel to these coasts, changing its direction along with them, and leaving an intermediate plain, finely watered and not surpassed in natural fertility by any part of the globe. But though the modern Moors have advanced greatly beyond the rude and roaming habits of the ancient Mauri, they are far from improving MOROCCO. 907 the country to nearly the extent of which it is susceptible. Mr. Washington conceives it might be made one vast corn-field, and that the ground overrun with weeds and brushwood might afford food to millions. Beyond the range of Atlas, however, Morocco includes a more arid region named Tafilet, unfit for grain, but yielding the finest dates in the world, and rearing a breed of goats whose skins afford the material for the fine morocco leather. The political and social state of Morocco is rude and degrading. The emperor possesses a power more despotic than any other even of the Mahometan potentates. He is not held in check by a mufti, an ulema, or even a council or divan. He is supposed to possess a divine character, and to be superior to all law. One emperor, being reminded of a promise, said, "Takest thou me to be an infidel, that I must be the slave of my word?" Yet this monarch must pay respect to long-established usages and institutions; must not invade the domestic privacy of any of his subjects; and must even give public audience four times a week to administer justice to all who may appeal to him from the cadi, or local governor. On these occasions he appears on horseback, in an open interior court of the palace, with an umbrella over his head. This absolute power, meantime, is little regarded by the mountaineer tribes, and even by some of those that wander over the plains. Having, too, no one interested in its support, it is continually liable to be shaken by treason, revolt, and disputed succession. Hence these princes have derived a peculiarly jealous and ferocious character; and Morocco has been ruled by some of the most bloody tyrants recorded in history. Among these was preeminent Muley Ismael, who introduced the system of employing negro mercenaries as body-guards. They were raised at one time to upwards of 20,000, but are now reduced to 5,000. They constitute, however, the only regular troops in the empire; the rest are merely a loose militia, summoned by imperial mandate, and, though expert horsemen and good marksmen, destitute of any sort of discipline. The revenue is collected in kind, in the proportion of a tenth of grain and twentieth of cattle, which, aided by fines and the poll-tax upon Jews, is estimated at about ~1,000,000 sterling. Industry and commerce have in Morocco a very limited range. The only important manufacture is that of the leather which bears its name. One tannery in the capital employs, according to Mr. Washington, 1,500 persons; and though the processes are slovenly, a fine color is produced, which Europeans are unable to imitate. Other articles for exportation are almonds, of a very fine quality, from Suse, dates from Tafilet, ivory and gold dust from Soudan; honey, wax, ostrich feathers, &c. In return, it receives the usual articles of European manufacture and colonial produce. This trade is carried on chiefly by the port of Mogadore. The outrageous piracy formerly exercised from Salee and other ports of Morocco has for a considerable time ceased. MoRocco, the capital, is situated on a very extensive and naturally fruitful plain, above which rises abruptly, covered with perpetual snow, one of the loftiest ranges of Atlas. The mosques are numerous, and several of them present striking specimens of Arabian architecture, particularly that called El Koutouben, the tower of which is 220 feet high. Of the eleven gates, one is richly sculptured in the Moorish style. The palace forms an oblong of 1,500 by 600 yards, divided into enclosures, where, surrounded 908 STATES OF BARBARY. by gardens, are the pavilions of the sovereign, his principal officers and ladies. The floors are tessellated with variously colored tiles; but a mat, a small carpet and cushions, compose the entire furniture. Beautiful gardens surround the city, and spacious aqueducts, conveying water from the Atlas, twenty miles distant, bear testimony to a superior state of the arts in former times. Fez, situated in the more northerly province of the same name, is a place of high celebrity, and ranked long as the splendid and enlightened metropolis of Western Africa. It was founded, in the end of the eight century, by a prince of the name of Edris, and rose to such magnitude, that Leo, in the twelfth century, describes it, though doubtless with some exaggeration, as containing 700 mosques, of which fifty were magnificent and adorned with marble pillars. Its schools and its baths were also very celebrated. At present it is described by the latest travellers as presenting a singular mixture of splendor and ruin; and, amid the usual defects of Mahometan cities, the splendor being almost confined to the interior of the houses, it is still an agreeable place. The situation is singular, but pleasant; in a hollow valley surrounded by hills covered with groves and orchards, and with a river winding through it. Fez is still not without some of the sciences which formerly rendered it illustrious; but they are nearly confined to the Koran and its commentators, a slight tincture of grammar and logic, and some very imperfect astronomical observations. The population, respecting which authors greatly vary, is probably rather under than above 100,000. Mequinez, to the west of Fez, has risen to importance by having been made the residence of the sovereign. The seraglio, or palace, consists of a most extensive quadrangular enclosure, though the mansions which it contains are only one story high. The citizens are said to be more polished and hospitable, and the females handsomer, than in the other cities of Morocco. The population seems extremely uncertain. The seaports of Morocco, though they have lost the greatness formerly derived from commerce and piracy, are still not inconsiderable. Mogadore, the most southerly, and the nearest to the capital, is now the chief emporium of the intercourse with Europe and America. It was founded only in 1760, by the emperor Sidi Mohammed, who spared no pains in raising it to importance. Being composed of houses of white stone, it makes a fine appearance from the sea; but the interior presents the usual gloom of Moorish cities, and is chiefly enlivened by the residences of the European merchants and consuls. The country round is almost a desert of sand; water is scarce, and provisions must be brought from the distance of several miles. The population is reckoned at about 10,000. Saffi, or Azaffi, a very ancient town, with a fine harbor, though also in a barren country, was the chief seat of European commerce till the monopolizing preference of the emperor transferred it to Mogadore. Saffi is still supposed to retain a population of 12,000. Magazan, a small well-built place, of 2000 inhabitants, was in the possession of the Portuguese till 1770. Azamore, formerly a great town, and with walls a mile and a half in circuit, is now deserted, and crumbling into ruin: it has 3000 people. Dar el Beed is a very small place. Farther north, on the opposite sides of a small river, are the important towns of Saleeand Rabat. Salee, once the terror of the seas, whence issued such bands of pirates and rovers, the seat of action, riot, and bustle, is now still and lifeless. It continues, however, ALGIERS. 909 to be surrounded by a wall thirty feet high, and in its mosques, arches, and fountains, displays traces of beautiful sculpture, and of great antiquity. What remains of its commerce has been mostly transferred across the river to Rabat, or New Salee. This place, when viewed from without, presents a picturesque grouping of minarets, palm trees, ruined walls, and old mosques, near which are conspicuous its venerable and battlemented Kassubah, or citadel, and the lofty tower of Sma Hassan. The interior retains still some activity, and the markets are well supplied. Population 18,000, of whom 3000 are Jews. Mehedia, now a poor fishing village, has monuments which display its former importance. El Haratch, or Larache, was was once a flourishing European and Christian town; but the churches are now converted into mosques, and the deserted houses of the consuls line the Marina. It has been made the imperial arsenal, and is very strong towards the sea. Tangier, on the straits, was in 1662 ceded by Portugal to England, which abandoned it in 1684. It derives its chief importance from the permission granted by the emperor to supply Gibraltar with provisions, and from the residence of European consuls. ALGIERS ALGIERS, the ancient Numidia, and the grand modern seat of piratical warfare, comprises an extensive and beautiful range of coast, lying between 20 W. and about 9~ E. longitude, and thus extending 700 English miles in length. The breadth of the inland territory, till it passes, by almost insensible gradations, into the domain of the mountain tribes, or of the wandering Arabs, is much more vague, varying probably from 50 to 150 miles. The southern border is traversed by the Atlas in three successive ranges, separated by fine and fertile valleys. The range which faces the maritime plain is called Jurjura; and its peaks, though they do not reach the stupendous altitude of those which tower above Morocco, are of such height, that the snow on their summits melts only in May. The western tracts, traversed by numberless streams of pure water descending from the Atlas, form perhaps the most finely irrigated country in the world. Desfontaines mentions a spot near Tremecen, where, in a circuit of two leagues, about 2000 springs occur. Yet the surface is too varied to allow this moisture to spread into swamps; it is only diffused so as to maintain a general verdure and fertility. None of these numerous streams, however, attain the character of rivers, except those which rise in the second range of Atlas, roll through the intermediate valley, and then force their way into the plain of Barbary. Such are the Seibouse, the Rummell, the-Zeitoun, and the Shel, liff, which last has an early course of nearly 100 miles through the mountain valley. The territory of Algiers is thus greatly distinguished by natural fertility. With the exception of some arid and rocky plains, it consists of valleys covered with rich pastures, fitted for the best kinds of European grain, blooming with the orange and the myrtle, and producing olives, figs, and grapes of peculiar excellence and size. Noble forests of pistachio, of cypress, and of oak, cover the sides of the mountains. Yet the indolence of the people, the oppression of the government, the want of roads and interior communications, cause three-fourths of the country to be left uncultivated. Their oil, wine, and butter are all of inferior quality. They are not so wholly 910 STATES OF BARBARY. destitute of manufacturing industry. Skins are prepared and colored in almost as perfect a manner as in Morocco. Their bonnets, shawls, and handkerchiefs are in request throughout the Levant. Baskets of palmleaves, and mats of junk, are fashioned with singular elegance. Essence of roses is prepared with a skill little to be expected in such rude hands; but there is an extensive demand for the article in the voluptuous palaces of the East. The trade, before the French invasion, was almost entirely in the hands of the Jews, and consisted in the export of these manufactures, and of some grain, oil, wax, fruits, and wool. The Algerines took, in return, light cloths, glass, and toys, but showed a great preference for fire-arms and powder; while the European merchants have been reproached but not only for supplying them with these articles, but even for purchasing the proceeds of their piratical expeditions. The fishery of coral, carried on by European vessels, produces an annual value of about ~100,000. That turbulent and piratical system of which Algiers was the centre, is now become a subject only of history. The country was long domineered over by a body of Turkish troops, not supposed to exceed 15,000, and who were recruited from the meanest classes in the ports of the Levant. This body, at short intervals, strangled the Dey, electing in his stead the boldest and bravest of their number. The corsairs formed a kind of separate republic, carrying on their barbarous trade under the sanction of the prince, who received a large share of the slaves and booty. These marauders, in 1815, suffered a severe chastisement from the American fleet; and from the English in 1816. Again, after they had for sometime set France at defiance, that country, in 1830, fitted. out a formidable expedition, by which Algiers was entirely subjugated. The population of the territory is judged of only by estimates, which are very wide of each other, varying between 1,000,000 and 3,000,000. A recent estimate, which seems to be made with some care, states, of Arab cultivators, 1,200,000; Independent Arabs, 400,000; Berbers, 200,000; Jews, 30,000; Turks, renegadoes, and their descendants, 40,000: in all, only 1,870,000. These are distributed into three great provinces: Titterie, in the centre; Tremecen, or Tlemsen, in the west; and Constantina, in the east. ALGIERS, the capital, is situated in the province of Titterie, though without being considered as forming part of it. The streets are built on the declivity of an eminence facing the Mediterranean, and rising by successive stages above each other, with loftier hills above: they make thus a magnificent appearance; hence, too, it is said, almost every house commands a view of the sea. On entering the city, however, all this beauty disappears; and it is found a labyrinth of steep, narrow, and dirty lanes. There are, however, several splendid edifices, particularly the palace of the dey, and the principal mosques. The barracks are also fine structures, adorned with fountains and marble columns; and the naval arsenal is spacious and commodious. The bagnios, as the quarters formerly destined for the slaves were called, are huge, but gloomy and dirty edifices. The estimates of the population vary from 50,000 to 70,000. The French expedition captured ~2,000,000 sterling in money, besides an ample supply of ships, artillery, and ammunition. The fortifications towards the sea are very strong, but on the land side by no means formidable; so that, when the French had effected a landing with a superior force, they soon became masters of Algiers. TUNIS. 911 In the western quarter of the Algerine territory, the most distinguished place is Tremecen, or Tlemsen, once the capital of a powerful kingdom, still containing about 20,000 inhabitants, situated in a beautiful and finely watered district. Mascara, about a mile in circuit, on the face of a mountain which commands the view of a fertile and well-cultivated plain, is an agreeable but ill-built city. Oran, on the sea-coast, long a subject of contention between the Moors and the Spaniards, remained in possession of the latter people till 1792. The fortifications have been injured by earthquakes; but the spacious magazines built of stone remain entire. It has a roadstead with good anchorage, but so exposed, that vessels are obliged to land their cargoes at the point of Mers el Keber, about a mile from the city. In the eastern part of Algiers, Constantina, celebrated under the name of Cirta, the ancient and strong capital of Numidia, ranks second to Algiers, and is supposed to contain about 15,000 inhabitants. It is boldly situated on a rock precipitous on one side, where it overhangs the broad stream of the Rummell. The surrounding country is fine; but the modern city presents nothing remarkable. The site, however, is distinguished by splendid monuments of antiquity; and the ground in one place is entirely covered with the remains of broken walls, columns and cisterns. The bridge, still in good preservation, several gates, a triumphal arch, called by the natives the Giant's Castle, with various altars and other fragments adorned with Corinthian columns, and with rich friezes and sculpture, iank amLong the most elegant remains of classic antiquity. TUNIS. TUNIS has a territory very differently situated from that of Algiers. From the frontier of that country, the coast continues to extend eastward, with a slight inclination to the north, till it reaches Cape Bon, the most northerly point of Africa. It then makes a southern bend southward, and, with some windings, follows that direction as far as Cape Jerbi for a space of about 250 miles. This coast, with the country reaching for upwards of 100 miles inland, composes the territory of Tunis. It is not so extensive as that of Algiers; but it is not so closely hemmed in by the branches of the Atlas, nor are t1ey so steep or so lofty; and there intervenes between them and the sea a spacious plain, watered by the noble river Bagrada, or Mejerda, and profusely covered with all the riches of culture and vegetation. The people, also, though composed essentially of the same elements as those of Algiers, have imbibed a considerably greater share of polish and civilization. The situation of the territory, projecting into the Mediterranean. and at an easy distance from the finest shores of southern Europe, fitted it to be the seat of the most celebrated commercial republic of antiquity. Carthage, by her commerce, rose to such grandeur as to dispute with Rome the empire of the world; and, even after being completely vanquished, and her walls levelled with the ground, she continued one of the chief Roman cities, and the capital of the African provinces. The Saracens, however, in the successive kingdoms which they founded, fixed their capital, first at Kairwan, and then at Tunis; and Carthage was entirely dese lted. In the sixteenth century, Tunis was occupied by the corsair B,1ilarosea; and, notwithstanding a successful expedition by Charles 91 2 STATES OF MOROCCO. V., was, in 1574, completely subjected to the Ottoman power. Since its decline, it was at first domineered over, like Algiers, by the Turkish soldiery; but the Beys, within the last half century, have succeeded in crushing the influence of this body, and have made themselves hereditary and almost absolute sovereigns. They have governed mildly, doing much to mitigate the former violent and bigoted system, and to introduce European improvements. The city of TUNIS, only ten miles south-west from the site of Carthage, and on the same spacious bay, possesses all the advantages which raised that city to such a height of prosperity. It is, in fact, the largest place in Barbary, the population being estimated at from 100,000 to 130,000. It cannot, on the whole, be said to be well built, the streets being, narrow, irregular, and dirty; yet the principal mosque is very spacious; and the new palace, constructed at great cost, in the Moorish style, is one of the finest edifices in Barbary, though with the incongruity of the ground floor being entirely composed of shops. This city has entirely renounced its piratical habits, and addicted itself to several branches of useful industry. There are extensive manufactures of velvets, silk stuffs, and the red caps generally worn in the Levant. The Tunisian olive oil, being well packed, and not liable to become rancid, is in high estimation; and the wool of the south-eastern districts is said to be little inferior to the best Spanish. The soap, made from olive oil and barilla, is of excellent quality, and has no unpleasant smell. There is also a considerable traffic with interior Africa for its staples of gold, ivory, and ostrich feathers. The remains of Carthage are a little to the east of Tunis; but no destruction can be more entire than that which has overwhelmed that celebrated city. The inquisitive traveller may even look over that renowned site, without perceiving that a city ever existed on it. Even the few broken walls which remain bear evident marks of Moorish construction. It is not till he penetrates into its subterranean recesses that he finds clear marks of ancient greatness. He then discovers the spacious cisterns in which water was retained for the use of the inhabitants; and he can trace the line of that stupendous aqueduct by which it was derived from mountains fifty miles distant. It is probable that farther traces might, by diligent search, be still detected. Of the other cities of Tunis, the chief is Kairwan, or Cairoan, founded by the Saracens, and long the capital of their possessions in Northern Africa. The great mosque, supported by 500 granite columns, is said to be at once the most magnificent and the most revered of any in Africa. Tozer, on the lake of Lowdeah, is only a large village, but enriched by trade with the country of dates and interior Africa. On the north coast, Porto Farini, near which are the ruins of Utica, and Biserta, have both some trade in grain; though the fine harbor of the latter is now so choked up as to allow only small vessels to enter. Of the towns on the coast, reaching southward from Tunis, Almahdia is distinguished by the remains of a commerce which rendered it once the principal haven on this coast; Monasteer and Cabes by a flourishing modern trade, which gives to the one a population of 12,000, and to the other of 20,000. Sfax carries on traffic on a smaller scale; and the island of Jerbi is noted for manufacturing industry. Near El Gemme are the remains of a magnificent amphitheatre. TRIPOLI. 913 TRIPOLI. TRIPOLI presents a different aspect, and one by no means so grateful and smiling as the western regions of Barbary. That great mountain range, which has diffused through them verdure and fertility, terminates, and the great plain of sand which generally covers Northern'Africa presses close upon the cultivated territory. The district in which the city stands forms only an oasis, and one not very extensive; and he who takes his departure from it in any direction finds himself soon in the heart of the desert. Tripoli thus cannot equal the other capitals of Barbary, and its population is not supposed to exceed 25,000. Even this is supported rather by commerce and industry, than by the limited productions of the soil. It is, however, the chief theatre of the intercourse with Bornou and Houssa, the most fertile countries in the interior of Africa; over which it exercises even a species of dominion. Fezzan, the great emporium of the caravan trade, is tributary to the pacha; and he possesses a powerful influence over the courts of Kouka and Sackatoo. This prince has shown a more enlightened spirit, a greater desire to cultivate intercourse with the European powers, and to introduce the improvements of civilized life, than any other in Barbary. Tripoli cannot be called a fine city; yet its palace, and the generality of its mosques, have some beauty; and there is a triumphal arch and several other interesting remains of antiquity. To the eastward of Tripoli, and its close vicinity, begins a dreary portion of the Great Desert of Africa. A few days, however bring the traveller to the district of Lebeda, where thick groves of olive and date are seen rising above the villages, and a great space is covered with luxuriant crops of grain. This territory is considered much superior to that round Tripoli, and was more highly prized by the ancients, who founded on it the flourishing colony of Leptis Magna. Remains of its magnificent edifices and shattered columns are still seen half buried under the sand which the wind and sea have accumulated over them; but the country people are daily carrying off the fragments, and using them as mill-stones. A similar country continues to MIesurata, to the east of which is also a plain singularly fertile, compared even by Herodotus to that of Bablyon. Mesurata carries on a manufactory of carpets, and a considerable trade with Central Africa. At the termination of this plain commences the awful and desolate expanse of the Syrtis. Captain Beechey thus describes the opposite spectacle pre. sented by the two points of view: —" To the west, endless groves of palm trees and olives, among which are scattered numerous villages and gardens, rich tracts of corn land, flocks of sheep and goats, and everywhere a moving and busy population; to the eastward, a tenantless and desolate waste, without a single object rising from its surface, lies stretched in one long and unbroken line, as far as the eye can reach." The ancient Cyrenaica, and modern Barca, commences at the termination of the Gulf of Syrtis, and exhibits a very improved aspect. It is traversed by a steep and high ridge abounding in springs, which, according to report, amount to 360, and sprinkle the surrounding desert with valleys of the most brilliant verdure and fertility. On this coast the Greeks founded Cyrene, one of the most flourishing colonies. At present it is abandoned by all civilized and industrious nations, and, with the exception of a few poor villages, is occupied exclusively by the wandering Arabs, with their flocks 58 914 STATES OF BARBARY. and herds. Bengazi, the Hesperis of the earliest writers, the Berenice of the Ptolemies, is now only a miserable village. Every trace of the ancient city appears to have been buried under the sands of the surrounding desert. Yet the modern Arab still finds in it ample building materials: he begins to dig, and speedily arrives at fragments of splendid columns and rich entablatures. To suit his purpose, however, these must be pounded into minute portions: and the elegant volute, the rich triglyph, the flowering acanthus, are soon reduced into shapeless fragments, which, however, being ill cemented with mud, form by no means very secure habitations. The range of valleys east of Bengazi is singularly picturesque, their sides being in many places steep and rocky; yet every cleft filled with a brilliant vegetation. "The white pine and olive," says M. Pacho, " adorn the side of the mountains, whose summits are crowned with forests of thuja and arborescent juniper. The rocks, overhung with dark groves, present sepulchral grottoes, the only vestige of towns which have disappeared, with their ancient inhabitants. These pious excavations, the funeral tree which covers them, with the hoarse and savage songs of the Arabs, which are echoed from valley to valley, arrest the pensive traveller, and fill him with solemn and tender recollections." In this tract are found the two ancient, now entirely deserted, cities of Teuchira and Ptolemeta. The edifices of the former are entirely reduced to rubbish; yet its walls, a mile and a half in circuit, have by their Cyclopean strength, resisted the powers of destruction, and form a very perfect specimen of ancient fortification, Ptolemeta has one magnificent gateway and the remains of an amphitheatre, two theatres, and of the columns and tessellated pavement of a palace. The area is covered partly with grain, partly with lofty shrubs; while the cry of the jackal and hyena, and the noise of owls and bats, alone afford any symptom of life. The ruins of the Cyrene itself, which may be said to be a recent discovery, form the most striking object in this remarkable region. They are finely situated on a high talle plain, descending abruptly towards the sea, by successive stages, along each of which is a smooth, rocky path, still marked by the wheels of the ancient chariots. The view from the brow of the eminence, upwards of 2,000 feet high, over the rocks, plains, and the distant Mediterranean, is singularly beautiful. There are the remains of a spacious amphitheatre, numerous statues, and several fine springs, particularly the one called the Fountain of Apollo, much resorted to by the wandering Arabs; but the city is totally destitute of permanent inhabitants. the most remarkable feature in Cyrene consists of its necropolis or city of tombs. Eight or nine rows of sepulchral grottoes are arranged in terraces along the mountain. Around them are the grouped tombs and sarcophagi, rich in ornaments and inscriptions, and extending for a mile and a half along the roads, leading to Cyrene, so as to present the appearance of gay and splendid streets. Derne, and Apollonia contain ruins of similar character, but not on so great a scale. The ancient Marmarica extends from this point eastward: a bleak region, destitute of those smiling groves of laurel and myrtle, which crown the mountains of Cyrenaica. It is crowded with beasts and birds of prey; and human existence is indicated only by the bleating of distant flocks, and the dark tent of the Arab. Yet there is cultivation in favored spots; and the traces of cisterns and canals of irrigation mark the former existence of a civilized and even somewhat numerous population. WESTERN AFRICA. 915 WESTERN AFRICA, WESTERN AFRICA seems the only general name under which it is possible to comprise that wide range of coast, excluding the Great Desert, which extends along the Atlantic from Senegal to the river of Benguela. The whole region is split into a multitude of states, mostly small, and without any political connection. There is a general resemblance of climate, nature, aspect, and character, which justifies us in classing them under one head. This immense range of maritime country is included between the thirteenth degree of south and the seventeenth degree of north latitude, forming thirty degrees in a direct line; but allowances being made for the winding of the coast, and the deep bays by which it is indented, the entire length cannot be less than 4,000 miles, running in a direction generally from north-west to south-east. The breadth varies much more; indeed, it is founded upon an arbitrary division, which Europeans have made between Western and Central Africa; vague regions, which are separated by no precise line of demarcation. In general, the boundary fixed by nature seems marked by the heads of the rivers that fall into the Atlantic. This dimension has been ascertained in the case of the Senegal and Gambia, and forms a depth of 700 or 800 miles, on the other side of which lies the upper course of the Niger. In the lower course of that great river, as now ascertained, no such line can be drawn; and the extensive countries situated on its banks belong in their character and relations so decidedly to Central Africa, that the region so called, must, in this quarter, be brought much nearer to the coast. Immense deserts bound this maritime district, both at its northern and southern extremity. The coast of Western Africa, presents in general, a fiat surface, though Cape Verd, and some others, project bold headlands into the ocean. All the great ranges of mountains are in the interior, and their line and position are still imperfectly ascertained. The most important is that very extended chain, in the interior of Senegambia, usually called the Mountains of Kong, which appears in some measure to stretch across the continent, till it connects with the Mountains of the Moon, on the opposite side of Africa. This chain, running from east to west, becomes parallel to those coasts, which form the northern boundary of the Gulf of Guinea. Congo is, in many places rugged and hilly; and there are undoubtedly, great chains of mountains in the interior. The western rivers of Africa are conspicuous features, though not of that immense magnitude which has been sometimes imagined. The Senegal is no longer identified with the Niger, nor supposed to draw its waters from the interior depths of the continent; but it is about 900 miles in length from its source, in the western extremity of the Mountains of Kong, not very far distant from that of the Niger. The Gambia rises from a point of the same chain not very distant, and rolls a more powerful and rapid stream, forming at its mouth a considerable estuary; but its coast is not more than two-thirds of that of the Senegal. The Rio Grande, and the 916 WESTERN AFRICA. Mesurado, which come down from the southern side of the same mountains, have not attained the character of streams of the first order when they reach the sea. The waters of the ivory and gold coasts of Guinea are little better than mountain torrents, pouring down from the high grounds; but from the western limit of Whidah to Calabar, a space of above 200 miles, the Gulf of Benin receives a continued succession of large estuaries, which convert the whole territory into alluvial and partially inundated islands. The channels, the sources of which were long the subject of conjecture, are now, by the discoveries of Lander, ascertained to compose the delta of the Niger; though the course of that mighty river must be considered as belonging to the central regions of Africa. Farther south, the Congo or Zaire, pours its ample volume of waters into the Atlantic. Coanza likewise appears to come from a considerable distance in the interior, and may rank high among rivers of the second class. Our remarks on the Zoology of this portion of Africa must be chiefly confined to Senegal, the neighboring coasts of Guinea, and the colony of Sierra Leone. Whatever may be the nature of the interior zoology, that of the coast is strikingly distinguished from Northern Africa. A rich vegetable soil, and a luxuriance of foliage, are here not uncommon; heavy rains are perpetually nourishing the earth, and animal life is multiplied under a variety of new and striking forms, totally unknown in the arid and sandy deserts of Northern Africa. The most interesting quadrupeds of Senegal appear to be the Red Monkey, the Green Monkey, and the two Antelopes named Dama and Scripta. Of the former, M. Adanson has left us some interesting details. The Red Monkey is a pretty animal, but capricious, mischievous, and little susceptible of attachment. Our author gives an interesting account of their curiosity. During his aquatic excursion, they descended from the tops of the trees to the extremity of the branches, earnestly noticing, and apparently much amused by, the boats passing up the river. After a time they took courage, and began to pelt the travelers with pieces of wood, thus provoking a most unequal contest. Upon being fired upon, they uttered the most frightful cries, and, although many were killed, the survivors returned to the contest with redoubled courage, and with a most determined spirit. The Green Monkey is so named from the upper parts being of a greenish-yellow color: the lower are greyish; and the tail is terminated by a long pencil of yellow hairs; the face, ears, and hands being black. Adanson found this species in immense numbers. They remain on the trees in large troops, and preserve the most profound silence, even when they are wounded, He did not at first notice them, from the similarity of their color to that of the foliage, until they suddenly began flinging at him pieces of the dead branches; and although he killed twenty-three of them -in less than an hour, they did not appear in the least frightened by the discharge of his guns. The Harnessed Antelope is a most beautiful animal, first noticed by Adanson by the native name of Gerib. It is about the size of a fallow deer: the ground color of a bright bay, but marked with stripes in various directions, and with such regularity as to give the idea that a harness, of some white material, was thrown over its body. The Papiou, or Common Baboon, abundant on the coast of Guinea, is of WESTERN AFRICA. 917 a yellowish green, verging more or less to brown: the visage black, and the tail long. It varies in size according to age: when adult, it is a most ferocious and disgusting animal. From the same country comes the Mandrill Baboon, of an olive color: its chin has a small yellow beard, and the cheeks are naked, blue, and furrowed. In the adult males, the nose grows red, and the end is sometimes of a bright scarlet. M. Cuvier well remarks that it is impossible to conceive an animal more extraordinary and more hideous. It very nearly attains the height of man, and is looked upon by the negroes with great fear. But the Chimpanzee, of all the Apes yet discovered, is that which makes the nearest approximation to the human form. The most extravagant accounts of this animal are given in the narratives of the old voyagers; and although its distinction from the Orang-Otang of India is now established, its history, in other respects, is still shrouded in great obscurity. It was designated by Linnseus as a variety of the human species, under the name of Homo troglodytes. The Chimpanzee appears to have an affinity, if not identity, with the large African apes so often mentioned by travelers, or to the Barris, or great Wild Man of the African woods: but the few specimens that have yet reached us have been young. In the adult state its size is said to exceed that of the Orang-Otang, and to exhibit the same docility, submissiveness, and gentleness. It appears confined to intertropical Africa, and is heard of more especially in Congo. The Bush Antelope is called, by the colonists of Sierra Leone, the Bush Goat: it is of a considerable size, and measures five feet in length: it is found on the bushy acclivities of the open mountains, quitting the covers about sunrise to feed, when it is shot by the sportsmen; the venison being excellent. It is not so fleet as other antelopes. The Ducker Antelope is remarkable for its great timidity, being alarmed at the least unusual noise, and concealing itself on hearing thunder. It lives solitary or in pairs: its peculiar name originates from its singular habit of rising upon the hind legs to look round, making a blowing noise with its nostrils, and then stooping and flying under cover of the vegetation, to stand and rise up again. The Lamantin, or Sea Cow, an amphibious quadruped of great dimensions, occasionally frequents the mouth of the Senegal. It is essentially herbivorous, and of a mild and inoffensive character. Adanson describes it as full eight feet long, having some resemblance to a seal: four nails are at the edge of the fins, and the tail is horizontally flat; the eyes very small, and the ears not visible. The negroes call it Cercou. To enumerate the variety of Birds inhabiting this richly-wooded portion of Africa would be hopeless, while a list of all the species would little interest the general reader: we must, therefore, merely notice the more curious or the more beautiful species. The Crowned Eagle of Guinea is not more than two feet in length, or one-third the size of the larger European eagles: it is only occasionally seen on the Gold Coast, and is remarkable for a crest over each eye, while the legs are clothed with feathers to the toes. The Senegal Fishing Eagle feeds almost entirely upon fish, in the manner of the Osprey. Five other falcons, peculiar to this country, have only recently been noticed; a proof how little we are acquainted with the ornithological riches of Western Africa. The Gray-necked Shrike, the Barbary Shrike, and two or three 918 WESTERN AFRICA. other species of the same group, equally conspicuous for the richness of their plumage, occur in Senegal, and, probably, also in the neighboring states. The beautifully colored Sunbirds are met with in great numbers, sipping the nectar from the odoriferous blossoms. The Senegal, the Long-tailed, and the Chalybeate, are three species of exquisite beauty; and not larger in size than many of the American humming-birds. Here likewise are seen numerous flocks of golden-colored Orioles of different species. Migratory Rollers, decked with the brightest tints of azure, purple, and green, occur in large flocks; with crested Hoopoes, and beautiful Bee-eaters. Many other tribes, interesting both to the common observer and to the scientific naturalist, might be mentioned. The water birds are but imper fectly known. The only gallinaceous birds of any size, peculiar to tropical Africa, are the Guinea Fowl. Of these, the most common species has long been domesticated in Europe. In a wild state, these birds associate in numerous flocks of 200 or 300 each: they chiefly frequent marshes and morasses, where they seek for worms, insects, and seeds. During the night they perch on high places, and are well known as restless and clamorous birds. The rivers and coasts abound with many fish, beautiful in their colors or nutritious for food; while the swarms of alligators, serpents, and other reptiles, need not be enumerated. Many of these, however, are not only harmless, but highly beneficial. Mr. Smeathman, who lived many years on the African coast, observes that the snakes get into the thatch of the houses in pursuit of the rats and cockroaches; the former being very harmless, and the two latter destructive. The patient negroes, it seems, no less than the rational traveler, are not without consolation amidst this heterogeneous crowd of inmates. They see with pleasure the spiders always upon the watch for wasps and cockroaches; the last of which are intolerable. The lizards, again, attack all sorts of insects; the large tarantula, as it is called, not excepted. The lizards not unfrequently fall a prey to the fowls, as the rats do to the snakes. The land-crabs are frequently enclosed (as in the West Indies) in a small yard, and fed with vegetables, upon which they fatten exceedingly; and, when stewed, become delicious eating. The number of Locusts and Cicadas is everywhere striking; but in the sandy plains thinly covered with grass their numbers are immensely greater; their chirping is intolerable; and they are seen of various kinds, sizes, and colors, skipping or flitting about in all directions at every step of the traveler. The myriads of Ants, which swarm in tropical Africa, can scarcely be conceived by those who have never visited hot climates. They are of numerous species, but all seem intent on removing from the face of the earth every animal or vegetable substance no longer necessary or useful. Like the destroying angel, they walk steadily forward in the line ordained them, and spare neither magnitude nor beauty, neither the living nor the dead. One species, which seems at times to have no fixed habitation, ranges about in vast armies; being armed with very strong jaws, they attack whatever animal impedes their progress, and there is no escape but by immediate flight, or instant retreat to the water. The inhabitants of the negro villages are frequently obliged to abandon their dwellings, taking with them WESTERN AFRICA. 919 their children, &c., and wait until the ants have passed. So numerous are these hosts, that a deer, hog, &c., being killed, and left on the ground, in one night will have the flesh entirely cleaned from the bones, and made a complete skeleton. The Termites, or White Ants. constitute the most extraordinary feature in the natural history of Western Africa. We are entirely indebted to Mr. Smeathman for a knowledge of their wonderful economy; an economy, indeed, which nearly exceeds the wisdom and policy of the bee, the ant, or the beaver. They build pyramidal or conical structures, divided into appropriate apartments, magazines for provisions, arched chambers, and galleries of communication. These are so firmly cemented that they easily bear the weight of three or four men; and, on the plains of Senegal, appear like the villages of the natives. The destruction they effect is wonderfully rapid: they destroy food, furniture, books, clothes, and timber of whatever magnitude, leaving merely a thin surface; and in a few hours a large beam will be eaten to a mere shell not thicker than writing-paper. On emerging from the egg, the insect is in its larva state, furnished with a great hard head and strong toothed jaws, but is destitute of eyes. These are the laborers who, although not more than a quarter of an inch long, build those edifices, procure provisions for the community, and take charge of the eggs. On changing to the pupa state, they become larger and more powerful: the head is nearly as big as the body, while the jaws project beyond the head; they are very sharp, but without teeth. They now become soldiers, and assume higher duties; never working themselves, but superintending the laborers; they act also as guards to defend the common habitation from intrusion or violence. When a breach is made in the dwelling, they rush forward and defend the entrance with great ferocity: frequently beating their jaws against the wall as a signal to the other guards, or as encouragement to the laborers; they then retire, and are succeeded by the laborers, each with a burden of tempered mortar in his mouth, and who diligently set about and repair the injury. One soldier appears to attend every 600 or 800 laborers when building a wall; he takes no active part himself, but frequently makes the noise above mentioned, which is constantly answered by a loud hiss from all the attendants, who, at this signal, evidently redouble their diligence. The next change brings the pupa0, or soldiers, to their perfect state as male and female winged insects. They then immerge into the air either during the night, or on a damp and cloudy day: in a few hours, however, the solar heat causes the wings to wither and become dry; the insects then fall to the ground, and are eagerly sought after by hosts of birds, lizards, and even by the negroes themselves, who roast. and eat them. Such is the history of one of the most extraordinary inisects in creation: an insect, insignificant in its size, almost deformed in its shape, and contemptible in appearance; one, also, to whom Providence has denied the power of sight. Yet this little creature evinces more wisdom, prudence, skill, courage, and foresight, than those savage races of mankind who tread him in the dust. Western Africa cannot' be considered as a region within the domain of history. Whether it was known to the Carthagenians or the Romans, and whether their navigators ever passed the shores of the desert, is a question which the few though curious documents extant, will scarcely ever perhaps enable us with certainty to solve. The Arabian 920 WESTERN AFRICA. geographers appear to have had only a vague and conjectural idea of this region. The coast was entirely unknown to Europe during the middle ages; and until the Portuguese, under Prince Henry, began their career of discovery, in 1432, it was thought a mighty achievement to pass Cape Bojador; but, that obstacle being overcome, the shores of the desert, however uninviting, were rapidly traced, and in 1441 a settlement was formed on the island of Arguin. Successive navigators discovered the Senegal, the Gambia, the Gold Coast, Benin; and, in 1484, Diego Cam sailed up the river Congo. Of all this vast extent of coast, possession was taken, according to the usual European pretension, in the name of the king of Portugal. Settlements were formed at all the leading points, embassies sent into the interior, and great exertions made to convert the natives to the Catholic religion. Portugal, however, in the decline of her power, lost all these territories, and retains only possessions on the most southerly part of the coast. In 1643, the Dutch drove her from El Mina, and about the same time from all her possessions on the Gold Coast, of which that people now claimed the sole dominion. From this pretension they were forced to recede by the rising naval power of the English, who, in 1661, took from them Cape Coast Castle, and, having formed an African company, built a number of forts upon the coast, with a view to trade in slaves and gold. The English, about the same time, formed settlements at the mouth of the Gambia, while the French established the principal seat of their African power at St. Louis, on the Senegal. Both these settlements were founded on the belief then prevalent in Europe, that these rivers were the embouchures of the Niger, by which a communication might be opened with the inmost regions of Africa. Spirited attempts were made by the two nations, and particularly by the French, to carry this navigation into effect; but various obstacles arrested their progress. Park's journey finally proved the limited extent of the two rivers, and ascertained the Niger to be a distinct stream, flowing easterly. The expedition of Lander, which has shown the Niger to fall by a succession of estuaries into the Gulf of Benin, promises to give a new importance to Western Africa, as the quarter whence barques may penetrate into the most interior regions of the continent. Allowing for some vicissitudes, originating in their wars with each other, the two nations have continued to wocqpy these several points Among the numerous native states also, a continual fermentation prevailed; and little barbarous thrones were alternately raised and subverted; but these can rank only as local changes, not affecting the general character of the region. In the arts which minister to subsistence and wealth, all the nations along this coast have made some progress. They are decidedly advanced beyond the hunting and even the pastoral state, and derive their chief support from a certain species of agriculture. The whole coast being situated between the tropics, and generally well watered, is, in most cases, capable of yielding an abundance of all the richest treasures of the vegetable kingdom. The products are maize, millet, some rice, to which are added yams and potatoes, sugar, coffee, cotton. All the objects of culture which enrich the West India Islands might be raised here with advantage. There are some spices, particularly that called Guinea pepper, but none of them possess the high and delicate flavor which distinguishes those produced in the Eastern seas and islands. WESTERN AFRICA. 921 These natural advantages are improved by agriculture only in a very limited degree. In general, the great mass of the negro territory consists of an immense and impenetrable forest. Unless in a few spots, there is no such thing as property in land, but an ample portion lies waste for any one to clear and cultivate who chooses, and can obtain the permission of the king or head of the village. In general, only a certain extent round each village or town is cleared of wood and brought under tillage. Farming does not constitute any distinct profession, nor are domestic animals employed to aid the labor of man. For a few days only at seed-time or harvest, the people of the whole village assemble as to a festival, the king at their head, and issue forth to the sound of musical instruments. Each man carries a hoe, or little spade, with which he scratches rather than digs the ground, when just moistened by the rains; and in this happy climate it is fit to receive the seed after such superficial culture. The ground belonging to the king or the public is first worked; and then successively the fields of different individuals. The palm tree, a spontaneous production, yields a juice or wine, which has an intoxicating quality, and forms one of the greatest luxuries of the natives; and its oil is now the chief staple of African commerce. Manufacturing industry seems to rank still lower. Cotton is, indeed, formed into those robes which are generally worn; but it is mostly of a coarse fabric, and made by the females of each family for domestic consumption. Fine cotton cloth is indeed made in Africa, but only at a considerable distance in the interior. The smith exercises his trade with considerable dexterity, and is an important personage as furnishing arms to a warlike people; yet he has not acquired the skill necessary to fabricate a gun. The gold, however, which is brought from the interior, is worked into ornaments which excite the admiration even of Europeans. Mats are woven with considerable neatness and skill, being the staple articles of furniture, used for sitting and sleeping upon, and also as partitions to the houses. Moore even saw them pass as money. Fishing is carried on by the negroes with great activity, and supplies, indeed, almost the whole of their animal food. The most delicate species are the Dorado, called by the English Dolphins, by the Dutch, goldfish. The Albicore is a fish of extraordinary magnitude, often five feet long, and as thick as a man's body; but the flesh is not agreeable. They have also cod, pilchard, sole, mackerel, and other European species. They go out to fish in canoes sometimes forty feet long, cut out from the trunks of their enormous trees, and holding from twelve to eighteen men. From 600 to 800 canoes will issue of a morning from one of their large towns, row to the distance of two or three leagues, and continue fishing till noon. They practise also most of the known modes of catching fish; with stake-nets, with lights during the night, by which the fish are attracted, and then either pierced with spears or taken up in baskets. In their habits, the people on the sea-coast are almost amphibious. They have no modes whatever of salting the fish which serve only for immediate consumption, and cannot be made an article of export. Commerce is not actively pursued by the natives of the African coast. Their canoes are obviously unfit for maritime traffic on any extensive scale, nor do they send often or far into the interior such immense caravans as 922 WESTERN AFRICA. traverse the whole of Central Africa. In general, the natives are content to deal with European vessels, and with merchants from the interior. The Barbary caravans seldom arrive on the Gold Coast or other parts of Guinea Proper; but they are occasionally seen in the rivers of Benin. From the mouths of the Gambia and Senegal, coffles, or kafilas, are occasionally sent to some distance inland for gold and slaves. The slave trade, unfortunately, has ever been the grand staple of the intercourse with Europe and America, if trade it can be called, which is founded on the violation of the rights of humanity, and consists in a uniform series of acts of violence. Sometimes the chiefs may make their captives taken in war subservient to this nefarious traffic; but, in general, its victims are the product of expeditions undertaken for that express purpose, without even the slightest pretence of right. The king, who wishes to replenish his treasury by the sale of slaves, fixes upon some village either in his own or neighboring territory, surrounds it in the night, sets fire to it; and the wretched inhabitants, in attempting to escape, are seized, and hurried on board a vessel. Slavery is made also a punishment for offences; but this is productive of various disorders; for not only is the judge strongly biassed against the criminal, of whose condemnation he is to reap the benefit, but it has even become a trade to entrap men into crimes, in order to acquire the advantage of selling them. Although the trade has been made illegal to the north of the line, and all vessels engaged in it on the coasts so situated are liable to be seized, yet it is still carried on at different points both on the eastern and western side of the continent to a great extent; and it has been estimated that not less than 100,000 victims are thus annually carried into slavery in the European colonies and American states. Although the slave traffic has unhappily been long the staple of West African trade, there are articles of commerce which it has always produced, and the exportation of which might be considerably extended; of these the most important is gold, brought down the Senegal and Gambia from Bambouk, Manding, and the other mountain districts at the head of those rivers. But the most ample store is found in that part of Guinea which, from this product, is called the Gold Coast. The greater part is brought from some distance in the interior, and from the opposite side of the same mountains. That of ivory, or elephants' teeth, also from the interior, is an article of commerce. The gums are important articles, particularly gum Senegal, drawn from vast forests of acacia, which grow in the half desert tracts to the north of the river Senegal. Teak wood is an important commodity, to which is added several kinds of ornamental and dye woods, particularly that called red or cam wood. But of late years, palm oil, from its use in manufactures, and the abundance with which it is supplied, has acquired an importance greatly surpassing that of any other article. Sugar, cotton, and other grand tropical staples, have never been raised for more than native use; and it would seem that a complete change must take place in the habits of the people, before they will cultivate them to any extent which can produce an exportable surplus. Of the population of a territory, of which the interior is so little known, and has such vague limits, it is difficult to form even an approximated estimate. In the Supplement to the Encyclopcedia Britannica, reasons are given, founded partly upon actual enumeration, for supposing that *th WESTERN AFRICA. 923 density may be about twenty-six to the square mile. If, then, we estimate the length of coast at 4,000 miles, and assume an average breadth of 300, this will give 1,200,000 square miles, and a population of 31,000,000. Yet after all, considering that there are desolate tracts of very great extent, this number may be beyond the truth, and, perhaps, at a rude guess, we may fix the population of this great tract of tropical Africa at about 20,000,000. The character of the negroes, of course, varies extremely, according to the variety of situation and government, among such a multitude of little communities. In general, they have made little progress in that which constitutes improved and civilized life. They are strangers to literature, the ornamental arts, and refined luxuries. Yet, whenever adequate objects are presented, they display energies sufficient to refute the cruel theories which would represent them as a degraded race, incapable of reaching any high degree of mental culture. In governments of a popular character, they display an eloquence, address, and activity, surpassed by few of the most civilized nations. Even in their absolute monarclhies, we discover a regular subordination, polished manners, and skill in the art of war, which, among a people destitute of arts and letters, cannot but appear surprising. There is little room to doubt that, placed in favorable circumstances, the negro would attain to as high a degree of civilization as the men of any other race. Ferocity in war is a universal feature of savage character; and in some of the sable nations it is carried to an extraordinary pitch. In his domestic character, the negro presents much that is amiable and pleasing; he is cheerful, gay, hospitable, and kindhearted. The negroes appears to great advantage compared with the Moors, who, from the north, have overrun so great a part of Africa, and to whose gloomy and austere bigotry, the black natives are entirely strangers. Of religion, as embracing the belief in a supremely wise and good ruler of the universe, and in a future state of moral retribution, the negroes have very obscure conceptions; while almost every superstition which can degrade the human mind reigns in full sway. To express generally what is sacred, what is forbidden, what is endowed with supernatural powers, either beneficent or malignant, they employ the term fetiche. Everything which strikes the fancy of a negro is made his fetiche. The grand or national fetiches are rocks, hills, or trees of remarkable size and beauty. But there are fantastic objects of veneration, which each individual adopts, and carries about with him. Such are, a piece of ornamented wood; the teeth of a dog, tiger, or elephant, a goat's head, a fish bone, or the end of a ram's horn. Some merely carry branches of trees, or a bunch of cords made of bark. They set up these fetiches in the houses, the fields, or the centre of the villages; erect altars to them, and place before them dishes of rice, maize, and fruits. The framing of these fantastic objects of African worship, and the selling them at an enormous price, forms the chief occupation of the African priesthood. All the good fortune of the negroes is supposed to arise from the favor of the fetiche, and every evil to proceed from offence taken by it. Every man fixes upon some act of selfdenial, something from which he is to abstain, in honor of his fetiche; and the engagement thus contracted, he will, in many cases, die sooner than violate. This superstition is often employed as an instrument in judicial 924 WESTERN AFRICA. proceedings, which are so conducted as to involve an appeal to superior powers, who it is expected will directly interpose to discover the truth and punish falsehood. If a negro eats a crust of bread, tastes a drop of liquor, or throws sand upon his head, wishing at the same time that the fetiche may kill him on the spot if he tells a falsehood, more reliance may be placed on his words, than on those confirmed by the oaths of rational men taken before our courts. It frequently happens, that when tests are propounded, the most hardened criminal at once confesses himself guilty rather than encounter the terrible alternative of denying his guilt. In the case of any solemn engagement, the person taking it is presented with his "' swearing liquor," which he drinks under the dread of the most awful penalties if he violates the accompanying promise. The people cherish the general belief of a future state, little connected, however, with any idea of moral retribution. The question is, whether they have faithfully observed the promises made to the fetiche, and forborne everything by which he could be offended. According to their ideas, the future world will be a counterpart of this; will present the same objects to the senses, the same enjoyments, and the same distinctions of ranks in society. Upon this belief are founded proceedings not only absurd, but of the most violent and atrocious description. A profusion of wealth is buried in the grave of the deceased, who is supposed to carry it into the other world; and human victims are sacrificed often in whole hecatombs, under the delusion that they will attend as his guards and ministers in the future mansion. This savage superstition prevails to a peculiar extent in those great interior monarchies, which in other respects are more civilized than the rest of Western Africa. It is impossible to name a region tolerably peopled, where any progress at all has been made in the arts, which is so completely illiterate. It is not enough to say that it has neither books, authors, nor learned men. In no part of this extended region is there an alphabet, or a hieroglyphic, or even a picture or symbol of any description. All those refined processes, by which the ideas of one mind are made to pass into those of another, are entirely unknown. The facility of subsistence, and the absence of circumstances tending to rouse the intellectual energies, are doubtless the causes of this singular deficiency; for, as already observed, there can be no ground to presume any original want in the capacity of the negro. Their powers of oratory, and their skill in politics and war, indicate talents which, under proper impulse, would lead to excellence in literary composition. In the more improved nations, there has been found to exist an oral literature, traditionary songs and poems, the recitation of which is listened to with delight. The universal amusements of the negro, above those of mere sensation, are dancing and music. The former is invariably performed in the open air. As.soon as the sun declines, and its intense heat abates, there is dancing from one end of Africa to the other. Twenty-five hundred years ago, Hanno and his companions were surprised, immediately after sunset, to see lights glittering along the shore, and to hear on every side the sound of musical instruments. The passion, however, with which this amusement is pursued, has not led to any refinement in the art. Their performance consists chiefly of violent and grotesque movements; leaping, stamping on the ground, bowing their heads, and snapping their fingers. In their music, WESTERN AFRICA. 925 also, noise appears the chief if not the sole object. Their drums and their trumpets, or rather horns, produce a horrid dissonance, against which, according to some travellers, a whole bale of cotton would be required to stop the ears. Others represent it as more tolerable; and add, that the negroes have also a kind of castanet, a flute, musical tongs, and a sort of cittern; and the performers, gaily and even fantastically attired, attract to themselves the admiration of the multitude. Polygamy, throughout all tropical Africa, has no limit but that of the ability to maintain a considerable number of wives. By the great it is practised to the utmost extent that their circumstances can admit. To have numerous wives and children is considered a matter of state, and is always made their first boast. It forms even a source of wealth; for, except the principal wife, who is mistress of the household, and the sacred wife, who is consecrated to the fetiche, all are made to work hard, both in tilling the fields, and in manufacturing mats and cloths. Even the principal wife often urges her husband to take fresh mates, as a means of increasing the importance of the establishment over which she presides; it is also customary to make her a handsome present on the occasion. In the towns on the coast the more wealthy take usually from three to twenty wives, while the kings raise the number to eighty or a hundred; but in Ashantee, Dahomey, and other despotic interior kingdoms, the privilege knows no bounds, and the number is often carried to several thousands. It is swelled, not only by captives taken in war, but by the selection which the king has a right to make of the fairest and most accomplished females within the circuit of his own dominions. A great part of the nation are thus reduced to celibacy and very dissolute habits prevail. In many of the towns on the Gold Coast, a body of courtesans are maintained by the state, and are considered as public servants. Not a few even of the wealthy are willing to derive a profit from the irregular conduct of their secondary wives. Notwithstanding the overgrown families of some of the great, such habits cannot fail to keep down the amount of population, and, by causing a neglect of education, to lower the intellectual standard of the people. In architecture, and even in masonry, the negro nations rank very low. There is not, perhaps, in all native Africa, a house built of stone; wood, earth, leaves, and grass, are the only materials. One traveller compares their villages to groups of dog-kennels rather than of houses. The trunks of four large trees are driven into the ground, and connected by poles; this framework is then covered with earth or clay. The roof is formed by a number of branches meeting at the top, and covered with leaves or grass. The doors not being above two or three feet high, the enterer creeps rather than walks in, and he cannot stand upright unless in the part of the roof which is left hollow like a pent-house. The houses of the rich are scarcely better, though more in number; for each wife has a house, and the whole establishment is surrounded by a wall of earth or twigs. Princes assign similar houses to their principal officers, and the group is enclosed with a general high wall, so as to make a sort of little town. It may be observed, however, that the houses of the great kings in the interior, though of the same materials, are of a somewhat superior description. The regal dwellings display brilliant colors on the outside walls, while the apartments are sometimes so spacious as to resemble a large barn. In the cities where the 926 WESTERN AFRICA. people have a share in the government, there is a hall of assembly, which is open at the sides, having merely a roof supported by poles. The furniture of the house bespeaks as much poverty as the house itself. A few seats, cups, and pots, all of wood or earth; coverlets of rushes, and perhaps a mat to sleep upon, form the entire amount of their accommodations. The rich distinguish themselves by fine mats, and occasionally by a brass kettle. In point of clothing and ornament, the negroes are not quite content with the same simplicity. The lower classes, indeed, think it enough if they can cover the lower part of their bodies with a paan, or loose wrapper of the coarse cloth of the country. Until the age of twelve or thirteen, indeed, no attire of any description is considered requisite. The rich, however, must appear in costly robes of silk, velvet, India chintz, or other imported materials. The females of rank wear long veils and mantles, which they throw over the shoulder; red is their favorite color; and they ornament their dress with gold and silver lace, and also with ribands. But the great rage is for bracelets and rings, which last are accumulated on the ears, arms, and the small part of the leg. The rich wear them of gold, or at least of brass or ivory; but the poorer classes are fain to content themselves with copper, tin, or in default of better materials, even with iron. They have been seen with no less than forty small iron rings on their arms. The arrangement of the hair, or rather wool, is a matter of profound study to both sexes. They rub it with palm oil, curl and dress it in various forms, and largely entwine it with gold and coral. Some of the negro belles paint their face with red and white spots, till it looks like a piece of flowered damask. A certain degree of tattooing, or marking their skins with figures of flowers or other natural objects, is also practised. In regard to diet, if the negroes observe a degree of simplicity, it is chiefly the result of necessity. Butcher's meat, poultry, and rice, are only within the reach of the opulent. The poor must content themselves with fish and millet, which, when boiled together into a thick mess, and palm oil poured over them, form the staple dish. They are alleged to eat coarsely and voraciously, thrusting tkeir hands together into the common dish; but this is a custom universal throughout Africa. "When good fare is placed before them, they are careful to indemnify themselves for former privations. With the country called by the French Senegambia, or the region watered by the two rivers Senegal and Gambia, we commence our survey of Western Africa. It would be difficult and almost idle to attempt to fix the limits of this vast territory; but they may be stated at about 250 miles along the coast, and reaching 500 miles into the interior. It is divided among a vast variety of little kingdoms, whose boundaries and condition are continually varying. This part of Africa is most remarkable for the great negro races who inhabit it, and who are in general more peaceable, more industrious, and more amiable than any of the others upon the western coast. They are chiefly three, the Foulahs, the Mandingoes, and the Jalofs. The Foulahs have been supposed to come from Fooladoo on the Upper Senegal, but others suppose them of the same race with the Fellatahs in Central Africa; in which case they must be traced to a foreign origin. They have embraced the Mahometan faith, but without that bigotry which WESTERN AFRICA. 927 almost universally accompanies it. Their manners are peculiarly courteous and gentle; they practise the most liberal hospitality, and relieve the wants not only of their own aged and infirm, but even of those belonging to other tribes. Their employments are pastoral, and their habits, in some degree, nomadic. Occupying countries where there is no fixed property in land, they drive their flocks, according to the season, to the tops of the mountains or the banks of the rivers. At night they collect their herds within the circle of the tents, and light large fires to deter the approach of wild beasts. Such is their good conduct and industry, that it is considered infamous to injure them, and a blessing is said to rest on any territory that contains one of their villages. Their internal government is republican, under chiefs of their own; and this form they insist upon retaining, even when they settle under a sovereign of another tribe. The Mandingoes are a race more numerous and more decidedly negro, both in form and disposition. Though capable of great occasional exertion, they have by no means the steady industry of the Foulahs. Their employments are chiefly a slight agriculture, fishing with nets and baskets, and, above all, traffic, in which their enterprise exceeds that of the other negro races. They conduct large kafilas to a considerable distance in the interior, and their language is well understood in all the commercial districts. They are cheerful, inquisitive, credulous, and so gay that they will dance for twenty-four hours, without intermission, to the sound of the drum or balafou. Polygamy is practised to a peculiar extent, and the numerous households to which it gives rise live in tolerable outward harmony, which must not, however, be considered very secure, since it requires to be cemented by the extraordinary expedient of Mumbo Jumbo. This bug-bear of the African ladies is called into service whenever the simpler expedients of scolding or beating fail to quell domestic dissension. Mumbo Jumbo, being then summoned, arrays himself in a fantastic coat hung for his use on a neighboring tree, crowns his head with a tuft of straw, and soon after dusk marches into the market-place. Thither the unhappy fair one being summoned, dares not disobey, and the love of stir and mischief causes her to be soon followed by the bulk of her fellow-citizens. In their presence she is stripped naked, and undergoes a severe whipping, inflicted by the rod of Mumbo Jumbo, amid the applause of all the spectators. They have some more refined tastes than are usual among Africans; particularly in poetry, the extemporary composition and recitation of which forms one of their favorite amusements. The original country of the Mandingoes is the elevated territory of Manding; but they are now widely diffused over all this region, and particularly along the banks of the Gambia. The third great race are the Jalofs. They occupy nearly the whole of that inland territory which intervenes between the Gambia and the Senegal, and the extent of which is estimated by Golberry at 4800 leagues. A number of them are subject to a powerful inland prince, called Burb-yJalof, who boasts of himself as anciently the sole ruler of this part of Africa. The Jalofs, though of a deep black complexion, and with the decided negro features, are considered a handsome race. They boast of their antiquity, and in many respects excel their neighbors. Their language is softer and more agreeable; they manufacture finer cotton cloth, and give it a superior dye; they rival the Moors in horsemanship, and are fearless and expert hunters. 928 WESTERN AFRICA. Among European nations, the river Senegal has for more than a century been entirely French; and extraordinary efforts have been made by successive African companies to raise it to importance. FORT ST. LouIS, the capital, is situated on an island in the river, a mere sand-bank, without any water which can be drunk without being filtered, and dependent for provisions on the southern coast, which, however, yields them in abundance. St. Louis never became a large settlement. The original hopes of its greatness were founded on the supposed identity of the Senegal with the Niger, and on the prospect of a communication by it with' the inmost regions of Africa. All the efforts founded on this erroneous theory proved abortive; and the commercial advantages of the colony (the procuring of slaves not included,) have been confined to the gum trade, and the gold trade of Bambouk. The gum, which from this river and settlement, is called Gum Senegal, is the produce of some scattered oases, or verdant spots, that occur in the vast desert of sand to the north and west of the Senegal. The species of acacia from which it exudes has every appearance of a stunted and desert tree; its aspect is crooked and rough, its branches are thorny, its leaves of a dry or dirty green. The mere blowing of the harmattan causes the bark to crack in numberless places, and the gum to flow in large transparent drops, which remain attachQd to the surface. The harvest of gum is in December, when the Moorish tribes, of whom the Trarshaz are the most powerful, break up from their usual camps, their kings and princes at their head, and proceed in a confused and tumultuous crowd to the forests, of which each claims ondkor more. After six weeks spent in collecting the gum, they put it in large leathern sacks, with which they load their camels, and proceed in the same tumultuous array to the spot fixed on for the gum market, between Fort Louis and Podor. This plain, which is one of the most desolate spots in nature, is suddenly covered with an innumerable multitude of people enveloped in clouds of dust. The kings appear mounted on beautiful horses, their wives seated in baskets on the backs of camels, the crowd on foot; the air resounds with the cries of men, women, children and animals. A cannon is fired as the signal for commencing the treaty. A dreadful scene of wrangling and higgling immediately ensues. The French accuse the Africans of most dishonest arts in order to enhance the value of their commodity. They themselves, it appears, are not far behind, since they have not scrupled to adopt the policy of insensibly augmenting the size of the cantar by which the gum is measured, a change which escapes the notice of their rude antagonists. The French take off annually about 250,000 lbs. of gum. The returns are taken almost exclusively in East India cotton cloths dyed blue, which are called pieces of Guinea, and for which it has been in vain attempted to substitute the manufacture of Europe. The kingdom of Bambouk, situated near the head of the river, and so enclosed between its main stream and the great branches of the Kokoro and the Faleme, as to form almost a complete island, is the next object of commercial importance to the French on the Senegal. It is almost entirely a country of mountains, whence flow numerous streams, almost all of which roll over golden sands. But the main depositories, where the metal is traced as it were to its source, are two mountains, Natakon and Semayla. The former composes almpaost an entire mass of gold, united with earth, iron, WESTERN AFRICA. 929 or emery. The first four feet of depth consists of fat earth, from which the grains of gold are extracted by agitation with water in a calabash. Afterwards the precious metal begins to appear in small grains or spangles, and at twenty feet in small lumps of from two to ten grains. The pieces become always larger as the work descends; but the natives having no means of propping up the sides, these often fall in, and bury the workmen. Semayla, a mountain 200 feet high, presents a different structure. The gold is here imbedded in hard sandstone, which must be reduced to powder before the extrication can be effected. Part of it is found in red marble, a substance which to the natives is perfectly unmanageable. The coast between the Gambia and Senegal is chiefly occupied by the kingdom of Kayor. It is stated, by Golberry, to extend 750 miles in length, and to contain 180,000 inhabitants, who are Jalofs. At the little island of Goree, on this coast, the French have established the capital of all their African settlements. Its advantages consist solely in its almost inaccessible situation on a rock, three sides of which are perpendicular, and the fourth very steep. The rock is fortified, but not, it is said, in the most skillful manner. The town contains 3000 inhabitants, and presents a very bustling scene, being the entrepot of all the trade with the opposite coast, and also a place of refreshment for French ships on their way to India. The Gambia is almost entirely an English river; the attempts to form settlements upon it, having, for nearly two centuries, been confined to that nation. They have erected James Fort in the middle of the river, by which they are enabled to command its entrance. They have also a small factory at Pisania, about forty miles up; but, like the French on the Senegal, they have never been able to realize any of those splendid expectations, with a view to which the settlements were founded. All attempts to penetrate, by ascending the river, to the regions watered by the Niger, proved abortive. Yet it was not till the expedition of Park that the failure was fully traced to- its true cause, the structure of the continent, and the want of communication between the two rivers. Hence these settlements have never risen to any great importance. The country of the Timmanees borders on that part of the coast where Britain has founded the colony of SIERRA LEONE. Its principal seat, at Freetown, is on the south side of the bay, which receives the river formerly called by the same name, but now more usually the Rokelle, and which arises in the Soolimana country. The first colonists consisted of a number of free negroes, who, having been dismissed from the army and navy at the end of the American war, gladly aceepted the proposal made by a number of benevolent individuals, of a settlement in their native region. They did not, however, possess all the habits necessary for struggling with this difficult undertaking. The rains came on; a pestilential fever carried off numbers; and the attack of an African chief obliged the remainder to take shelter on Bance Island. The zeal for the improvement of Africa. however, continued unabated in England; and in 1787, the Sierra Leone Company was formed, with a charter for thirty-one years. They sent out five vessels with stores and articles of trade, and obtained a large rein forcement from the free negroes who, in the American revolution, had adhered to the royal standard, and had been obliged to take shelter in Nova Scotia. The establishment was then conducted with fresh spirit; but it 59 930 WESTERN AFRICA. had many difficulties to encounter. It was disturbed by internal dissension; it was involved in contests with the bordering native states; and, in 1794, was plundered by a French squadron. Under all these disasters it continued active; though the Sierra Leone Company were obliged to resign their concerns into the hands of government, which placed them under the African Institution. A great reinforcement to its population was derived from the negroes taken in slave ships, and brought back to Africa, in consequence of the laws made against the slave trade; though it has been somewhat difficult to initiate them into the habits of civilized life. With this view, the Church Missionary Society have undertaken to furnish schools and religious instructors; and upwards of two thousand children are now educated on the national system. The population of Freetown and its suburbs has extended to nearly five thousand; eight or ten little towns or villages have been established in its vicinity, forming an entire population of twelve thousand; and another, called Bathurst, has been founded on the Gambia, in a healthy situation, and communicating with the populous countries on that river. Notwithstanding all this, it appears too true, that Sierra Leone has not yet made any impression upon Africa, and that there is no radius of civilization proceeding from it. THE REPUBLIC OF LIBERIA lies midway between Sierra Leone and Cape Palmas, and was originally a colony planted by the American Colonization Society in 1821. Its specific limits are from Digby, on the mouth of Poor River, on the north-west, to Cavally River on the south-east, or between 4~ 20' and 60 40' north latitude, and 7~ 30' and 110 west longitude. The length of the coast between Digby and the Cavally Itiver is about 300 miles, and the territory extends from 75 to 80 miles inland, with a probable area of 24,000 square miles. The whole territory has been purchased from time to time from the aboriginal owners, and in this way at least twenty petty sovereignties have been extinguished. In its former condition the coast was the constant resort of slavers, but the traffic is now effectually suppressed as far as the jurisdiction of the republic extends, and its entire abandonment is an invariable stipulation in every treaty of trade and protection with neighboring states. The disposition to avail themselves of treaties of this description is plainly on the increase on the part of the surrounding natives, and it is estimated that not less than 2,000,000 of persons in the interior are under the influence of these stipulations. The geographical position of Liberia, and its capacity to produce many articles likely to make up a valuable commerce, are very favorable to the success of the republic. The colony was originally established in 1821, by an immigration of free or liberated people of color from the United States, under the auspices of the American Colonization Society. Since that period, its population, iulcluding the Aborigines, who have incorporated themselves with the immi grants, has increased to upwards of 80,000. The proportion of the population born in America or of American descent, is estimated at about 10,000; out of the remaining 70,000, consisting of Aborigines or of captives released from slave ships, at least 50,000 can speak the English language, while their habits are rapidly becoming those of civilized and steady agriculturists. The desire for education is also manifested by the surrounding tribes, WESTERN AFRICA. 931 and instances are not uncommon of natives sending their children to be instructed in the primary schools established in the republic. Of these there are 36 in operation, with an average attendance in each of about 40 native pupils. The natural resources of Liberia, are steadily in process of development. The principal articles of export are ivory, palm oil, (of which $150,000 worth was shipped in 1847,) camwood, gold-dust, &c.; coffee is indigenous and of excellent quality, and is now being cultivated extensively; it yields more than in the West Indies, and the belief is entertained that it may be produced so as to compete with the slave grown article. Sugar also thrives well, but enough only is grown for home consumption. Cocoa has just been introduced, and it is expected that cotton will soon become an article of export. Indigo, ginger, arrowroot, and various other articles of commerce likewise grow luxuriantly. Rich mines exist in the country, and only require capital to open them up. In 1847 eighty-two foreign vessels visited Liberia, and exchanged merchandise for articles of African production, to the amount of $600,000; and it is estimated that between two and three millions of persons in the interior now obtain their supply of European goods from the republic and the kindred colony of Cape Palmas. The principal trade is carried on by barter; but there is a small paper circulation of about $6,000 redeemable on demand. The population is, on the whole, well disposed to work, and the rate of wages per day is 25 cents. It is an extraordinary feature of this part of the coast, that horses and other draught animals will not live, and hence every kind of transport, except that upon the rivers, is performed by manual labor. Much of the camwood which is exported from Liberia is brought a distance of 200 miles from the interior on men's backs. The climate of Liberia, although more healthy than that of Sierra Leone, is still uncongenial to the white man; but the improvement that it has undergone during the last ten years from the effect of clearing, drainage, &c., is stated to have been favorable. The government of the republic is precisely on the American model, consisting of a president, a vice president, a senate and house of representatives, the number of senators being six, and that of delegates twenty-eight. The possession of real estate to the value of $30 is the electoral qualification. The revenue of 1847 was about $20,000, derived entirely from an ad valorem duty of six per cent. on imports and the sale of public lands. Ardent spirits, the use of which it is sought to discourage, form an exception, and are taxed 25 cents per gallon. Monrovia, on the south side of Cape Mesurado, near the north-western boundary of Liberia, is the capital and chief seat of trade. It contains about 1,000 inhabitants. The other ports are Marshall on Junk river; Edina; Bexley, on St. John's river; Bassa Cove and Greenville on the Sinoe river. The more inland towns and their adjoining settlements are Caldwell, New Georgia and Millsburg. The organization of the republic as an independent state, took place on the 24th of August, 1847, when Mr. Roberts, who had for a long time been governor of the colony under the auspices of the society, and himself an immigrant, was elected president. The Maryland colony, at Cape Palmas, is, in every respect, a similar institution with Liberia, but under different management. 932 WEsBRN AFRICA. Beyond Cape Palmas, the coast turning to the north-east, and reaching as far as Cape Apollonia, is called the Ivory Coast. The name is evidently derived from the quantities of that valuable product, obtained from the numerous elephants on the sea shore, and in the interior. The teeth are of good quality, and uncommonly large, weighing sometimes not less than 200 pounds. Towards the east, at Issini and Apollonia, a considerable quantity of gold is brought down from the countries behind the Gold Coast. There is also a good deal of ivory at the ports of Cape Lahoo, and Great and Little Cassain. There are no European settlements upon the coast, except an English fort at Apollonia, which perhaps belongs rather to the Gold Coast. Navigation along this as well as the Grain Coast requires much caution, as the shore is flat and destitute of any conspicuous landmarks, while a heavy surf borne in from the whole breadth of the Atlantic, breaks continually against it. Early navigators describe the natives as the most violent and intractable race on the whole African coast. From Apollonia to the Rio Volta extends what is called the Gold Coast of Africa. It was long the most frequented by European traders, particularly English and Dutch, both for that highly prized commodity which its name indicates, and for slaves, while they were a permitted article of trade. The coast presents the appearance of an immense thick forest, only detachecd spots of which are cleared and cultivated. The soil near the sea, being light and sandy, is scarcely fit for any important tropical product, except cotton; but six or seven miles inland, it improves greatly, and might be made to produce sugar and others of the richest West India products, provided habits of industry could be introduced among the inhabitants. Maize is the grain principally cultivated. The gold which forms the staple commodity, is chiefly brought down from the mountainous districts far in the interior. In many places, however, even upon the coast, a small quantity may be extracted from the earth by mere agitation with water in a calabash. Little or no ivory is exported. The ruling people on the coast are the Fantees, a clever, stirring, turbulent race. They exert more ingenuity in the construction of their dwellings and canoes than the nations to the west. The form of government is republican, and each village has a large public hall, roofed, but open at the sides, where an assembly is held, and public affairs are debated. The pynims or elders, however, possess considerable authority, and the administration of justice is chiefly in their hands. An excessively litigious disposition prevails, particularly against those who are supposed to have accumulated great wealth, and who, unless they can disarm public envy by moderation or popularity, are often, between suitors and lawyers, stripped of every thing. The dreadful custom of immolating human victims over the tombs of the great men very generally obtains, and is accompanied with several days of tumultuous feasting and intoxication. As usual, in this state of society, all the laborious offices devolve upon the female sex, except fishing, which is considered an employment sufficiently dignified for the lords of creation. Yet the Fantee ladies find time to spend an hour or two at the toilette, in which they employ various cosmetics, not omitting paint, which is generally white. The capital of the British settlements is at Cape Coast Castle, built upon a rock, and defended by strong walls of stone and brick, and by ninety pieces of cannon. The approach on the sea side would be difficult for an enemy; but the fort has the disadvantage of being too near a large, dirty WESTERN AFRICA. 9~ native town of eight thousand souls. The country round has been a good deal cleared, and laid out in pleasure grounds by the British, to whose health, however, the climate in this and the other settlements is extremely unpropitious. The capital of the Dutch settlements is El Mina, or the Castle; first founded by the Portuguese, and taken from them in 1637. It is about fifteen miles west of Cape Coast, in an open country, close to a large, dirty town of 15,000 inhabitants. The fort is well built, on a high situation, and vessels of a hundred tons can come close to the walls; but its strength has been doubted. The Dutch maintain here a garrison of 150 men, and keep their establishment, on the whole, upon a more reputable scale than the British. Their forts along the coast are numberless; particularly in the Ahanta country, where there are no less than seven. The Danes have a respectable fort at Accra, called Christianborg Castle, and also one at Ningo, near the eastern extremity of the coast. The country behind the Gold Coast, when first known to Europeans, was divided among a number of considerable kingdoms; Dinkira, Akin, Warsaw, and Aquamboe; but all these have now sunk beneath the overwhelming sway of Ashantee. This warlike power has also reduced the interior countries of Gaman, Inta, Dagwumba, and others, of which some are more extensive and populous than itself. Ashantee Proper is estimated to contain 14,000 square miles, and about a million of people; but this last number would be more than quadrupled, if we were to include all its subjects and vassals. The attire of the sovereign and his principal chiefs, displays a peculiar and barbarous splendor; their persons being loaded with golden rings and ornaments, waving plumes and superstitious amulets. The people are, on the whole, of a superior class to those on the coast; their houses are larger, more commodious and ornamented; they manufacture finer cloths. Their manners are more polished and dignified, and their general conduct more orderly. The king is absolute, with the exception of a military council of four principal officers, whom he is obliged to consult on questions of peace and war, and who usually give their voice in favor of the latter. There are some features in this monarchy which surpass in barba rism those of almost any other. The fury with which war is conducted is, indeed, too general among barbarians, but Ashantee is horribly distinguished by the vast amount of human sacrifice. There are two annual customs, as they are called, in which the king and chief men seek to propitiate the manes of their ancestors by a crowd of victims. Foreign slaves and criminals are selected in preference; but as each seeks to multiply the number, unprotected persons cannot walk the streets, without the hazard of being seized and immolated. At the death of any of the royal family, victims must bleed in thousands; and the same is the case when the king seeks from the powers above, favorable omens respecting any great projected undertaking. The abuse of polygamy also is carried to the highest pitch. The legal allowance of wives for the king is upwards of three thousand, selected from the fairest damsels in his dominions. IHe still clings to the slave trade, a mode of procuring European luxuries too congenial with his habits; and so natural did he consider it, that he could with difficulty be dissuaded from sending fifty boys and the same number of girls as presents to the king of England. Dahomey, which is predominant both over the coast and over the interior, 984 WESTERN AFRICA. to a depth of about two hundred miles, is governed upon the same system as Ashantee, and with all its deformities, which it carries to a still more violent excess. The bloody customs take place on a still greater scale; and the bodies of the victims, instead of being interred, are hung up on the walls and allowed to putrefy. Human skulls make the favorite ornament of the palaces and temples, and the king has his sleeping apartment paved with them. His wives are kept up to an equal number with those of the king of Ashantee. All the female sex is considered at the king's disposal, and an annual assemblage takes place; when, having made a large selection for himself, he distributes the refuse among the grandees, who are bound to receive them with the humblest gratitude. In short, this ferocious race allow themselves to be domineered over in a manner of which there is no example among the most timid and polished nations. The greatest lords, in approaching the king, throw themselves flat on the ground, laying their heads in the dust; and the belief is instilled into them, that their life belongs entirely to their sovereign, and that they ought never to hesitate a moment to sacrifice it in his service. The king of Dahomey keeps up a correspondence with his deceased ancestors. After selecting a trusty messenger, and giving him his message, he chops off his head. Frequently another head has to come off when he has occasion to add a postscript. So writes an American Missionary, in July, 1851, who also corroborates the statement that one of the king's apartments is paved with human skulls. At the termination of the Cradoo lake commences a large tract of coast, of a peculiar character, which, from the principal state, receives the name of Benin. It extends upwards of two hundred miles, and presents a succession of broad estuaries, now discovered to be all branches of the Niger, of which this country forms the delta. They communicate with each other by creeks, and frequently overflowing their banks, render the shore, for twenty or thirty miles inland, a vast alluvial wooded morass. The natives, having thus very extended water communications, are the most active traders any where in Africa; but, except slaves, the commodities in which the deal are entirely changed. Gold has disappeared; ivory is again found in considerable plenty; but palm oil is the great staple of the eastern districts. A great quantity of salt is made at the mouths of the rivers, both for consumption at home and in the interior. This tract, however, from its low, marshy, and woody character, is excessively pernicious to the health of Europeans. The first leading feature is the river Formosa, two miles wide at its mouth; on a creek tributary to it lies the capital of Benin. This city is one of the largest on the coast of Africa; and, being built quite irregularly, and consisting of detached houses, it occupies an immense space of ground. The surrounding territory is well cultivated. The king is not only absolute, but fetiche, or a god, in the eyes of his subjects; and all offences against him are punished in the most cruel and summary manner: not only as treason but impiety. Gatto, about fifty miles below, is the port of Benin; accessible to vessels of sixty tons. The trade on this river has greatly declined. Warr=, or Owarri, is another state and city, situated on another creek, communicating with the Formosa, on its opposite side. It consists of a somewhat elevated and beautiful island, appearing as if dropped from the WESTERN AFRICA. 935 clouds amidst the vast woods and swamps by which it is surrounded. Here, too, the king is absolute, and carries polygamy to a very great extent. A late traveller, happening to get a peep into the seraglio, saw about fifty queens, busied in various employments from the toilette to the washing-tub. New Town, on the Formosa, is the port of Warr6. After turning Cape*Formosa, and passing several estuaries, we come to that of the Brass River, called, by the Portuguese, the river of Nun. Though not the largest estuary of the Niger, yet being most directly in the line of the main stream, and that by which Lander entered the Atlantic, it at present enjoys the reputation of being the principal channel. It is divided into two branches; but the navigation is greatly impeded, and the trade limited, by a dangerous bar at the mouth. Brass Town is built not on either branch, but on one of the numerous creeks connected with both, and in a country overgrown with impenetrable thickets of mangrove. It is a poor place, divided by a lagoon into two parts, each of which contains about 1000 inhabitants. Bonny river forms the next important estuary, having on its opposite sides the towns of Bonny and New Calabar. Being only a few miles up, they are in the midst of the morasses which overspread all this country. The people support themselves by the manufacture of salt and trade in slaves and palm oil. Bonny, in particular, is become the great mart of these last commodities, and is supposed to export annually about 20,000 slaves. The dealers go in large canoes two or three days sail to Eboe, the great interior market, which will be described under the head of Central Africa. The king is absolute, and more barbarous than the rest of his brethren on the coast. He boasts of having twice destroyed New Calabar, and ornaments his fetiche house with the skulls of enemies taken in battle. Several islands which lie in the Gulf of Benin may terminate the description of this coast. They are, Fernando Po, a fine high large island, lately occupied only by a lawless race, composed of slaves or malefactors escaped from the neighboring coast. The British government, however, upon the disappointment experienced in regard to Sierra Leone, formed, in 1827, a settlement at this island, the mountainous and picturesque aspect of which affbrded hopes of a healthy station; but these have been completely disappointed. Of thirty European settlers taken out, nineteen died; and Col. Nicholls, the governor, was three times attacked with fever. The next division of Central Africa consists of Congo, Loango, Angola, and Benguela, to the coast of which navigators generally give the name of Angola. The principal feature is the Zaire, or Congo, a powerful and rapid river, which rushes by a single channel into the Atlantic. Its course was traced upwards by Captain Tuckey, in his unfortunate expedition, 280 miles, yet nothing was ascertained as to its origin and and early course; though the hypothesis of its forming the termination of the Niger is now completely refuted. The natives of Congo are rather of small size; they are cheerful and good-humored, but unreflecting, and possessed of little energy either of mind or body. The country to the south of Congo is called Benguela, and its commerce is still almost entirely in the hands of the Portuguese. They frequent the bay and river of Ambriz, in which there is a tolerable roadstead; but their great settlement is at St. Paul de Loanda, a large town in an elevated situation. It exports annually 18,000 or 20,000 slaves, chiefly to Brazil. St. 936 SOUTHERN AFRICA. Philip de Benguela, in a marshy and unhealthy site, is now considerably declined; and its population does not exceed three thousand, mostly free negroes and slaves. The Portuguese claim a certain jurisdiction over the native states for several hundred miles in the interior, obtaining presents and purchasing slaves. Farther inward is the country of Jaga Cassanga. The Jagas are celebrated by the writers of travels, two centuries ago, as a formidable devastating tribe, addicted to the most ferocious habits; and rumor does not represent any change as having taken place in their character. Behind them, and in about the centre of the continent, is said to be the nation of the Molouas, represented as more numerous, more intelligent, and to have attained a higher degree of industry and civilization than any other in Africa under this latitude. The country abounds in valuable copper. The king, however, is absolute, and the atrocious custom of human sacrifice prevails. SOUTHERN AFRICA. SOUTHERN AFRICA, by its mere name, sufficiently indicates the part of the continent to which the somewhat vague appellation is applied. Generally speaking, it is given to the territory discovered and partly colonized by Europeans, from that important settlement which they formed at the Cape of Good Hope. The surface of this region is striking and peculiar, presenting three successive mountain ranges, running parallel to the coast and to each other. The first, called Lange Kloof, is between 20 and 60 miles from the ocean, the breadth of the intermediate plain being greatest in the west. The second chain called the Zwaarte Berg, or Black Mountain, rises at an interval nearly similar, behind the first, is considerably higher and more rugged, and consists of double and even triple ranges. Behind, at the distance of 80 or even 100 miles, rises the Nieuweldts Gebirgte, the loftiest range in Southern Africa. The summits, to a great extent, are covered with snow; from which circumstance the eastern and most elevated part is called the Sneuwberg, or Snowy Mountains, whose highest pinnacles are not supposed to fall short of 10,000 feet. The plain nearest the sea is fertile, well watered, richly clothed with grass and trees, and enjoys a mild and agreeable climate. The plains between the successive ranges are elevated, and contain a large proportion of the species of arid desert called Karroo. The southern plain, in particular, is almost entirely composed of the great Karroo, 300 miles in length and nearly 100 in breadth, covered with a hard and impenetrable soil, almost unfit for any vegetation. Along the foot of the Sneuwberg, there is a considerable tract, finely watered, and affording very rich pasturage. Beyond the mountains, the territory is for some space bleak and sterile, but it gradually improves till it opens into the extensive pastoral plain occupied by the Boshuanas. So far as this has been explored to the northward, it becomes always more fertile, though to the west there has been observed a desert of very great extent. The eastern coast also consists chiefly of a fine pastoral plain, occupied by the various SOUTHERN AFRICA. 937 Cffre tribes, and broken by some chains of mountains, the direction of which has been very imperfectly explored. Rivers do not form a prominent feature in a country of which the gen eral character is arid. The principal are those which flow down from both sides of the great boundary chain of the Niuweldt Mountains, particularly in the eastern quarter, where it becomes both more lofty and more distant from the coast. On the side of the colony, it gives rise to the Camtoos, the Zoondag, and the Great Fish River, which last, though the most considerable, has not a course of much more than two hundred miles. The smaller and more westerly streams of the Breede, and the Ganseley, with its tributary the Oliphant, are chiefly fed from the inferior chains along whose base they flow. On the northern side, the waters which descend from the Snowy Mountains unite and form the Orange River, which, having flowed, first north-west and then due west, through long ranges of rude and desert territories, falls into the Atlantic in about 28~ 30' south latitude, after a course, which, with its windings, must considerably exceed a thousand miles. In the Caffre territories, several estuaries open into the Indian Ocean, the early course of which is little more than conjectured; but travellers through the Bosuana territory crossed streams which, from their direction, appeared likely to reach that receptacle. In no region of the globe does there appear so great a number of quadrupeds, and these, too, of the largest dimensions. The Spring-bok or Mountain Antelope, frequently go in troops of not less than 3000. They run for some time extremely quick; and then, if a bush or piece of rock crosses their path, they spring to the height of four or five feet, clearing at one leap ten or twelve feet of ground. They then stand still a few minutes, till the rest are passed; after which they all set off again, running with astonishing fleetness. The beautiful form of this animal, its elegant markings, and the incredible lightness and grace of its motions, render it extremely interesting. The African Elephant is, at first sight, distinguished from the Asiatic species b'y its much larger ears, which descend towards the legs: they are, indeed, so large, that at the Cape they are said to be made into sledges to draw agricultural implements to and from the fields, and even to convey the sick. It is found from the Cape of Good Hope to Senegal. This species, although not yet tamed in its native country, has all the docility and wonderful sagacity of the Asiatic Elephant. The Hunting Hyena is a beautiful animal, first discovered by Mr. Burchell, and, from uniting the characters of the hyenas and the dogs, has been thought worthy of a subgeneric name. It is remarkable for hunting in regular packs: though in general a nocturnal animal, it frequently pursues its prey by day; and as it is well formed by nature for speed, none but the fleetest animals can escape. Sheep and oxen, therefore, are particularly exposed to its attacks; the latter are approached by stealth during their sleep, and frequently suffer by the loss of' their tails. To notice, however briefly, the remaining quadrupeds, would far exceed our limits. The diversity in the size and habits of the Antelopes exhibits every intermediate link from the smallest and the most delicate to the largest and strongest Buffalo; while the Lion, the true Jackal, and several species of Hyena, are well-known inhabitants of Southern Africa. The Ox is the chief domestic animal, being used throughout Southern 938 SOUTHERN AFRICA. Africa for all purposes of draught, and even for the saddle. The Zebras, common in the interior, have never been tamed. Horses are scarce; the breeds in the colony have been partly introduced from Europe, South America, and even from Persia: the latter breed is still preserved in much of its purity in the northern districts of the colony: they are very tall, without being strikingly handsome, strong, and endure much fatigue: the hoofs grow so hard as not to require shoes. The discovery and settlement by Europeans are the only circumstances connected with this region which bear any historical character. The Cape, which forms its most remarkable feature, was descried and rounded, in 1493, by Bartholomew Diaz; but that navigator, appalled by the stormy aspect produced by currents from opposite oceans, returned and named it the Cape of Tempests. Emanuel, however, who then reigned in Portugal, inspired by a bolder spirit, called it the Cape of Good Hope, and equipped Vasco da Gama, who, in 1497, passed with safety, and even with ease, round this dreaded boundary into the seas of India. The Portuguese, however, engrossed by vast schemes of Eastern discovery and conquest, scarcely deigned to cast an eye over this rude border of Africa. They were content if their vessels, in passing, could be supplied with water and provisions. The Dutch, a prudent and economical people, when they obtained the dominion in the Indian Seas, soon discovered the advantages to be derived from a settlement on a coast to which its situation attached so much commercial importance. In 1650 they founded Cape Town, and from the rude and sluggish character of the people thinly scattered over this immense tract, easily extended their settlement to its present limits of the Nieuweldt Mountains in the north, and the Great Fish River in the east. In consesequence, however, of the political union of Holland with France and consequent war with Great Britain, Cape Town was, in September, 1795, attacked and reduced by a British naval force. It was restored by the peace of Amiens, but on the renewal of hostilities, was recaptured in January, 1806, and was one of the few Dutch possessions retained by Britain in the treaty concluded at the congress of Vienna. The country consists partly of the Cape territory, which is governed on the usual system of British colonies, partly of a region divided among a multitude of small separate tribes. The usual government is that of a rude monarchy irregularly controlled by the independent spirit of simple and pastoral races. The classes of inhabitants in this part of Africa exhibit a considerable variety. They consist of- 1. The British, comprising the officers of government, the troops, and a few thousand agricultural emigrants, whose numbers are not, however, increasing. 2. The Dutch, who farm most of the lands in the territory, and constitute the most numerous part of the population of Cape Town. 3. The Hottentots, the native race, reduced to degrading bondage under the Dutch. 4. The Bosjesmans, a miserable and savage tribe of HIottentots, inhabiting the mountainous districts, carrying on a constant predatory war against the settlers. 5. The Caffres, a fierce pastoral race, inhabiting the country beyond the eastern limit of the colony, extending along the Indian Ocean. 6. The Boshuanas, a pastoral and partly agricultural race, of a different character, possessing the country that stretches northward from the boundary chain of mountains. SOUTHERN AFRICA. 939 The three great divisions of Southern Africa are, 1. The CAPE COLONY. 2. The country of the CAFFRES. 3. The country of the BOSHUANAS. The Cape Colony is estimated to extend 588 miles in length, and 315 in its greatest breadth; but the average breadth does not exceed 200, and the surface consists of about 120,000 square miles. A great portion consists of mountains of naked sandstone, or of the great Karroo plains, whose hard dry soil is scarcely ever moistened by a drop of rain, so that seventenths of the territory never exhibit the least appearance of verdure. Along the coast, however, and also far in the interior, along the foot of the Sneuwberg Mountains, there are extensive plains covered with rich pastures. The banks of the rivers are in many places fertile, though liable to inundation. The hills in the vicinity of the Cape are employed in the production of wine. The grain is raised almost exclusively within three days' journey of Cape Town, and serves merely for the supply of that place; all the rest of the territory is devoted to pasturage. The population of the colony is about 150,000, of whom 33,600 are registered apprentices. The Dutch farmers, or boors, of whom grazing forms thus almost the sole occupation, hold very extensive premises, reaching often for several miles in every direction. Yet spacious limits of domains do not prevent frequent boundary-feuds, which are, indeed, fomented by the plan of measuring them, not by the rod and line, but by the pace of an officer employed for that purpose, who is alleged sometimes to measure his strides according to the favor with which he regards the parties. The boor, having covered this extensive possession with flocks and herds, resigns himself to supine indolence, devolving the sole labor on his slaves, who are usually Hottentots. He draws from his farm neither wine, fruits, nor vegetables; nor does he make his herds yield milk or butter. The pipe never quits his mouth except to take his sovie, or glass of brandy, and to eat three meals of mutton, soaked in the fat of the large-tailed sheep. The mistress of the mansion, in like manner, remains almost immoveable on her chair, with hot coffee on a table always before her. The daughters sit round with their hands folded, rather like articles of furniture than youthful and living beings. A teacher is usually employed; but, in addition to his proper functions, he is obliged to employ himself in the most menial offices. Yet they are hospitable in the extreme. A stranger has only to open the door, shake hands with the master, kiss the mistress, seat himself, and he is then completely at home. Those who occupy farms on the borders of the Sneuwberg, where they are exposed to the depredations of the wild Bosjesmans, acquire, in consequence of the necessity of defending their property, more energetic and active habits. The Hottentots, the original inhabitants of this country, have now been completely enslaved, not being indeed liable to sale, but fixed to the soil as bondmen. They have been branded as presenting man in his rudest state, and his closest alliance with the brute; and certainly they have spared no pains to render their external appearance hideous and disgusting. Their persons are studiously invested with a thick coating of grease, which, mingling with the smoke, in which they are almost perpetually involved, forms a black thick cake, through which the yellowish-brown color of the skin is scarcely ever discernible. For this ornamental purpose, butter is employed by the rich, while the poorer classes besmear themselves with fat from the bowels of slaughtered animals. Yet this coating is said to be 940 SOUTHERN AFRICA. really useful in defending them from the solar rays, and preventing cuta neous disorders. Hard and coarse hair in irregular tufts, and prominences of fat jutting out in places where they are least ornamental, complete the picture of deformity. All their habits of life are filthy and slovenly. When a sheep or an ox is killed, they indulge in beastly gluttony; ripping open the belly of the animal while yet half alive, and tearing out the entrails, which they throw on the coals and greedily devour. Their villages or kraals, compose a labyrinth of little conical hovels, reared of twigs and earth, and so low that the inmates cannot stand upright. Yet their aspect of sluggish stupidity seems, in a great measure, induced by the degrading bondage in which they are held. They pursue wild animals with swiftness and dexterity, directing with a sure aim their darts and arrows. They carry on various little manufactures, tanning and dressing skins, forming mats of flags and bulrushes, bowstrings from the sinews of animals, and even moulding iron into knives. The Bosjesmans appear to belong to the same original race with the Hottentots; but, from the rude haunts which they occupy, have preserved a precarious independence. They inhabit the most inaccessible valleys of the Sneuwberg and Nieuweldt, and the desolate tracts extending thence to the Orange River. Of all human beings, their condition is perhaps the most forlorn. Their food is obtained only by scrambling over the rocks in pursuit of wild animals, swallowing the larvae of ants and locusts, or carrying off cattle in wild foray from the plantations in the plains beneath. Yet they display energy, activity, and even gaiety. CAPE TOWN, the capital of Southern Africa, and the most important European settlement on the continent, is situated near the isthmus of a peninsula, formed by False Bay on the east, and Table Bay on the west, on which last the city itself is built. Immediately behind rises precipitously the Table Mountain, 3,582 feet above the sea, and consisting chiefly of steep cliffs of naked schist and granite. The Devil's Hill, 3,315, and the Lion's Head, 2,160 feet high, rise on each side. This triple summit forms a most conspicuous object from the sea, over which also these spots command a very striking prospect. Table Bay affords an abundant supply of excellent water, and is capable of containing any number of vessels; but from May to September they are in danger from heavy westerly gales, and it is advisable to take a station at the head of False Bay. Cape Town, being the only good place of refreshment for vessels between Europe and America, on one side, the East Indies, China, and Australia, on the other, must always be a great commercial thoroughfare. The territory itself affords for exportation wine, hides, and skins, with aloes, argol, wool, and a few other articles. The Dutch society at the cape is extremely mercantile, and koopman, or merchant, is held as a title of honor; but the prevalence of slavery has diffused habits of indolence, even among the lower ranks, who consider it degrading to engage in any species of manual labor. Since the occupation by Britain, the residence of civil and military officers and the great resort of emigrants and settlers have given it much the character of an English town. The population of Cape Town is upwards of 20,000. The territory of the Caffres extends from the eastern boundary of the colony along the coast of the Indian Ocean, the north-eastern direction of which it follows. On the west, it is bounded by the country of the Bosh SOUTHERN AFRICA. 941 uanas, at the distance of about 200 or 300 miles from the sea; but this frontier has never been precisely explored. To the Caffrarian coast, which reaches about as far as Delagoa Bay, the Portuguese have given the name of Natal; which has been followed by navigators, though it is, of course, quite unknown to the natives. The Caffres (a name given by the Portuguese) are extremely handsome in their external appearance. The men, especially, are tall, robust, and muscular, yet of the most elegant symmetry of form. Their manners are easy, and their expression frank, generous, and fearless. The females are less beautiful, their persons are somewhat short and stunted, and the skin of a deep glossy brown; but their features are almost European, and their dark sparkling eyes bespeak vivacity and intelligence. The Caffres are, perhaps, of all nations tne most completely pastoral. They lead a roaming life ill suited for agriculture; they have not applied themselves to fishing; and game is scarce; but they understand thoroughly the management of cattle. The men not only tend but milk the cows, and have the skill, by a particular modulation of the voice, either to send out a herd to graze, or recall it to the enclosures. They subsist generally upon milk, and never kill a cow but on high occasions. Several branches of manufacture are practised with skill, as making baskets of grass, sharpening iron by stones, though they cannot smelt it. They have engaged in repeated wars with the European settlers; but the blame, in many instances, seems to have been on the side of the latter. The Caffres are divided into several distinct tribes. The Tambookies, more remote than those which border on the colony, appear to be more industrious, and distinguished for their skill in working both silver and iron. Beyond them are the Zoolas, or Hollontotes, the most numerous and powerful of all the Caffie tribes. Their king, Chaka, has a force of 15,000 men constantly equipped for war, and on urgent occasions can arm 100,000 men, who comprise, we presume, the whole adult male population. He has been the most formidable conqueror in this part of Africa. He has driven before him a number of the neighboring tribes, who, under the name of Mantatees, or wanderers, seeking new habitations, have desolated a, great part, first of the Boshuana and then of the other Caffre territories, and even threatened the colony. The country of the Boshuanas, or Bichuanas, occupies a considerable extent of Southern Africa, extending northward from the colony, from which, however, it is separated by a considerable interval, in which are found the Sneuwberg Mountains, the banks'of the Orange River, and the pastoral district of the Corana Hottentots. On the east, it has the Caffre territory; on the west, extensive deserts; while on the south is the domain of a-numerous and powerful tribe, the Macquanas, or Makooanas, supposed by Mr. Salt to extend as far as Mosambique. The very existence of this people was not suspected by Europeans till 1801, when Messrs. Trutter and Somerville, being sent from the Cape to procure a supply of cattle, after journeying for a long time through pastoral wildernesses, arrived very unexpectedly at LattakQo, a town so large and regular that it might almost be termed a city. The Boshuanas are not in their persons so tall and handsome as the tribes of Caffraria; but they have made a considerably greater progress in industry and the arts. Instead of the nomadic and purely pastoral life 942 EASTERN AFRICA. which the latter pursue, they dwell in towns of considerable magnitude and regularly built. The houses are commodious, constructed of wood, plastered with earth, and in many places encircled by a stone wall, and ornamented with painting and sculpture. They cultivate the ground, rearing millet, two species of bean, gourds, and water-melons. A space round every town is appropriated to culture, while a wider range beyond is pastured by the cattle, which are every night brought within the protection of the walls. The labor, indeed, not only of tilling the ground, but of building the houses, is devolved upon the females; but the men, as in Caffreland, both tend and milk the cows. The favorite wives of the kings and principal chiefs are exempted from labor, and are loaded with fantastic ornaments, their large mantles, as well as their persons, being profusely bedecked with furs, feathers, coral, beads, and brass rings. The largest and best built city in Southern Africa, and the one whose inhabitants have made the greatest progress in the arts of life, is Kureechanee. The people are in number about 16,000; they smelt iron and copper in large clay furnaces; their houses are surrounded by good stone enclosures, and the walls, of mud, are often painted, as well as moulded into ornamental shapes. Considerable skill is shown in the preparation of skins, as well as in the vessels of earthenware used for holding corn, milk, and other stores. EASTERN AFRICA. EASTEIRN AFRICA comprises an immense extent of coast, reaching from the Caffre country to the border of Abyssinia, a length of about 3,000 miles. It may be considered as extending inland about 500 or 600 miles from the sea, but its contents, for the most part, and all its boundaries on this side, are unknown. This vast range of country contains many grand features of nature, and a large proportion of fertile territory, capable of yielding the most valuable productions; yet scarcely any part of the world is less known, or has excited less interest. The Portuguese, as soon as they had discovered a passage into the Indian seas, occupied all the leading maritime stations, friom which they studiously excluded every other people. Extensive, though ill-explored, natural objects diversify this region. The coast consists almost entirely of spacious plains, often of alluvial character, and covered with magnificent forests. It appears, however, undoubted, that at 200 or 300 miles in the interior, considerable ranges of mountains arise; geographers have even delineated a long chain parallel to the coast, called Lupata, or the Spine of the World; but Mr. Salt is of the opinion that the prolongation of this beyond the region of the Upper Zambeze is very arbitrary. The rivers also are of great magnitude, though only their lower course is at all distinctly known. This territory is generally occupied by brown or black nations, who, however, bear no resemblance to the true negroes except in color; some of them are numerous, and not destitute of arts and industry. The coast, however, has, in modern times, been chiefly in possession of two foreign EASTERN AICAE. 948 powers. The Portuguese, when, in the close of the fifteenth century, they made their way round the Cape, found almost all the maritime stations in the hands of the Arabs, whom they called Moors, and whom they succeeded in driving successively from each, and occupying their place. Sofala, at the time of the first arrival of Europeans, was very important, as the emporium of the gold and ivory brought in great quantities down the Zambeze. Since Quillimane became the channel by which these commodities were conveyed, Sofala has sunk into a village of poor huts. The Portuguese, however, still maintain there a fort, which holds supremacy over the more southerly stations of Inhambane and Corrientes. An annual vessel comes from Mosambique, with coarse cotton and other articles, in return for which it receives gold, ivory, and slaves. The place is situated on a considerable river; but, in consequence of extensive sand-banks and shoals, which appear to have increased, it is difficult of approach unless for small vessels. The natives seem to' be of the Caffre race, well armed, brave, and independent. Quillimane, at the mouth of the Zambeze, is now the chief seat of trade on this part of the coast. From eleven to fourteen slave vessels come annually from Rio de Janeiro, and each carries off, on an average, from 400 to 500 slaves. The situation is swampy and unhealthy; but the population is nearly 3,000, though only twenty-five houses are occupied by Por tuguese or their descendants. Mosambique is the principal establishment of the Portuguese in Eastern Africa. Though it derive its importance from being the emporium of the gold, ivory, and slaves, brought down the Zambeze, it is situated about 300 miles from the mouth of that river, and the trade is in a great measure transferred to Quillimane. It is built on an island, which has a good roadstead and a commodious pier, but affords by no means either a convenient or healthy situation. The principal inhabitants have their houses at Mesuril, on the continent, at the extremity of the peninsula of Caboceiro. The trade in slaves, the most extensive, has been much diminished since the British obtained possession of Mauritius and the Cape, and prohibited the introduction of them into these colonies. In the coast north from Mosamnbique occur the Guerimba islands, giving name to the opposite coast. They were laid waste by the Portuguese at their first arrival, but were afterwards repeopled by colonists from Mosambique. They have suffered, however, by attacks from the Madagascar pirates. Quiloa, about one hundred miles north-west from the bold promontory of Cape Delgado, was found by the Portuguese a great seat of power and commerce. About the end of the seventeenth century it was wrested from them by the Imamr of Muscat, whose officers have since governed it. It is now dwindled into a miserable village. The coast of Ajan, the Azania of the ancients, extends from the northern termination of Zanguebar to Cape Guardafui, where Africa ceases to border on the Indian Ocean. This tract is generally arid and sandy, though in the northerly parts it becomes hilly and fragrant, like the neigh boring one of Berbera. That coast, extending from Cape Guardafui to nearly the straits of Bab el Mandeb, is situated on neither the Indian Ocean nor the Red Sea, but on an intermediate gulf, bounded on the op posite side by the coast of Arabia. It is hilly and beautiful, and may be considered the native country of incense, myrrh, and odoriferous gums. 944 CENTRAL AFRICA. The celebrity of Arabia, and particularly of Aden, for those elegant pro ductions, is chiefly acquired by its large imports from this coast. The inhabitants consist of the various tribes of Somoulis, an active, industrious, and yet peaceful race, who export the productions of their own country, which is thus less known than it deserves to be. Adel, or Adaiel, and Hurrur, form the most westerly part of this coast, and adjoin to the Straits of Bab el Mandeb. The inhabitants, united un der the standard of the Mahometan faith, waged long and bloody wars, embittered by religious enmity, against Abyssinia. For a century back, their power has been broken, and they have been divided into a number of small separate states. Zeyla, the capital, is a place of considerable trade, and, though irregularly built, contains some good habitations. CENTRAL AFRICA. THE appellation of CENTRAL AFRICA may with propriety be given to an extensive and fruitful region, in the most interior part of that continent. Consisting of spacious plains, watered by noble rivers, and begirt on the south by lofty mountain chains, it forms one of finest countries on the globe, and is inhabited by nations who have made considerable progress in industry and civilization. Separated, however, from the sea-coast, and from the rest of the civilized world, by immense deserts tenanted by fierce and warlike banditti, it remained till lately unknown, excepting by vague rumor of its beauty and wealth. It is only within the last sixty years, that the daring enterprise of adventurous travellers has traversed this region, and purchased, at a costly price, a tolerably accurate and extensive knowledge of it. The extent and boundaries of a region like this, composed of various detached states and kingdoms, are exceedingly vague. From Western Africa it is separated by the limits already delineated. On the north it has the uniform boundary of the Great Desert, into which its fertile plains pass by rapid gradations. On the east, the great expanse of the lake Tchad, the sea of interior Africa, separates it from countries almost wholly unknown. The southern boundary, formed by tracts still more completely unexplored, cannot be drawn with any approach to precision. On the whole, however, we may esteem Central Africa as lying between the 15th degree of east and 4th of west longitude, and the 8th and 16th of north latitude. It may thus include 1300 miles in length, and 560 in breadth, and form a square surface of 700,000 miles. A continuous chain of mountains, celebrated by the ancients under the appellation of the Mountains of the Moon, traverses the whole territory from east to west. It exerts a most beneficent influence in diffusing through this region coolness and moisture, and redeeming it from that arid desola tion to which so great an extent of the continent is doomed. These mountains appear first on the western coast of Sierra Leone, where their lofty peaks, called the Mountains of the Lions, overlook the Atlantic. They then CENTRAL AFRICA. 946 traverse the countries of Foota Jallo and Kankan, giving rise to the Senegal and Gambia; while the Niger, in its upper course, flows through their deep valleys. In this quarter the range is not very lofty, but presents a varied and picturesque aspect. Parke, in passing through Konkodoo and Satadoo, was much struck by the appearance of its glens and precipices, and the variety of forms which the rocks assumed, resembling ruined castles, spires, and pyramids. One granite mass had exactly the aspect of a Gothic abbey, with niches and ruined staircase. The same chain was crossed by Captain Clapperton, in the country of Yarriba, where its highest pinnacles were only between 2000 and 3000 feet; but the passes were exceedingly narrow and rugged, enclosed by huge granite blocks 600 or 700 feet hligh; yet every level spot was covered with fine crops of yams, millet, and cotton, and large towns were built on the very summit of the ridge. Farther to the east, these mountains afford an opening, through which the Niger, swelled to a river of the first magnitude, forces its prodigious mass of waters; but their cliffs' overhang the river, which dashes roughly over the rocky bed that it has worn for itself. Farther east still, south of the great plain of Houssa, Lander, in returning from his first journey, learned the existence of a very elevated region, inhabited by a savage race. But this chain appears to attain its greatest magnitude and loftiest height in the region south of Bornou. From the plain of Mandara, above the capital, MPora, its bold steeps were seen rising, not more, indeed, than 2500 feet high; but they were understood to extend far southward, and to become much more elevated. The rivers which derive their supply from this great mouitain range, form a still more grand and celebrated feature. The great stream of the Niger, long involved in such deep mystery, has at length, through persevering exertions, been very completely explored. Its source seems ascertained to exist in the high country of Kissi, about 200 miles in the interior from Sierra Leone. Thence it rolls through Foota Jallo and Kankan, where Cailli6 found it a rapid and considerable stream. At Bammakoo, having received the tributary from Sankari and Manding, which Park mistook for the main stream, it begins its course over the fine plain of Bambarra; and at Sago, the capital, is described to be as broad as the Thames at Westminster. In this country it is called Joliba, but lower down receives the name of Quorra. Beyond Bambarra it flows through the lake Dibbie to Timbuctoo; and its course from that city to Youri is proved by the fact of Park having navigated from one place to the other. As far as Timbuctoo the Niger has flowed north and northeast; but beyond that city it changes to the southeast and south. From Youri, its course, traced by Lander, is, with some winding, almost due south, till, at Kirree, about 170 miles from the sea, it begins to separate into branches, and forms a delta, the greatest, undoubtedly, in the world, whose estuaries extend along the coast from the river Formosa to that of Old Calabar, a space of about 300 miles. The whole line of this noble river, allowing for all its windings, can scarcely be reckoned at less than 3000 miles, and for several hundred miles of its lower course, it forms a magnificent expanse, resembling an inland sea. This, though it cannot rank with the Missouri and Amazon, those stupendous floods of the New World, it is at least as large as any of those which water the old continents. The tributaries of the Niger are of peculiar magnitude and importance. 60 It~-Llc~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —~~~~~~~E~~~b =I —~-~r3L.I;IL rL:: II~nX__ ~-~ —;~I~____~tt -Ilr-T-~_1~:'L=-~_:=TSI~'~=~t~' ~ _n-~i~ i. ~~~ ~~~ — f~:;-l~~~ —~ —=~1_;I;.~=~,,,~;~I-' —~,:-~:'~ —"":~~~' —~-'~ ~ c~~=~-~i~ —— ~~I-~~-;~~ ~~~:-~-lt ~,~,.~~~~~~~~~~~~ 5~_i7-= ~ 1-I —-LI~~.;=1:-=1 —- -L~ Al~:'~JaYO2~ —J~~~~~ —lno io-a ofi:ivrs ohada ad Qurl'. i/:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~"i = —— i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~= —L?~~;,~L%~=?:=:~~ ~~ —=_. N~ti!E A~lC-AB O H ~SIT 'zAo CENTRAL AFRICA. At no great distance above the point where the delta commences, the Tshadda, or Shary, nearly equal to the main stream, enters, after watering large and fruitful kingdoms, and having formed the theatre of an active navigation. At no great distance above, it receives a smaller tributary, the Coodoonia, which was seen, by Lander, flowing through a fertile and highly cultivated country. Considerably higher is the Cubbie, a large stream, from the city and country of that name; and higher still, the Quarrama, which has passed by Zirmie and Sackatoo. Between this point and Timbuctoo, we have no means of knowing whether any rivers fall into the Niger. The tributary which passes that city is of no great importance; but at the eastern boundary of Bambarra, Park describes the influx from the south of two great streams, the Maniana and Nimnma. Those which fall in during the earlier part of the course, consist of numerous mountain torrents, which swell the river without themselves possessing very great importance. All the rivers in the eastern part of Central Africa fall into the great receptacle of the lake Tshad. The principal one is another Shary, the early course of which is unknown. Major Denham saw it at its mouth, where it was about half a mile broad, and flowed at the rate of between two and three miles an hour. Forty miles up, it was seen rolling in great majesty and beauty; but was not traced any higher. The Yeou, rising in the hills of Dull, to the south of Houssa, flows first north and then east through Bornou, till it falls into the western side of the Tshad. Even at the junction it was only fifty yards broad in the dry season, and, though of great value for fishery, does not afford the means of any extensive trade. In regard to lakes, the Tshad is greatly pre-eminent, situated in the most central part of the continent, and on the frontiers or Bornou. It may be about 200 miles in length and 150 in breadth, and forms thus one of the greatest bodies of fresh water in the world, though it cannot equal the mighty inland seas of Asia. The dimensions are augmented in an extraordinary degree during the rains, when a surface of many miles, usually dry, is laid under water. This inundated tract, when deserted by the waters, is covered with impenetrable thickets, and with rank grass of extraordinary height, and, though unfit for the residence of men, becomes a huge den of wild beasts. The lake contains numerous large islands, some of which are the residence of tribes and even nations. The Dibbie, or Dark Lake, formed by the Niger between Jennd and Timbuctoo, appears not nearly so large, since M. Cailli6, in sailing across it, lost sight of land only in one direction. The other lakes yet known to exist in this region are small and local objects, though sometimes very picturesque. The history of this extensive region is altogether unknown till the 12th century, when, during the flourishing period of Arabian literature, the eminent geographers Abulfeda, Edrisi, and others, described the settlements formed by their countrymen on the southern side of the Great Desert. The Arabs appear to have migrated thither in numerous and probably successive colonies. The movement took place chiefly in consequence of the contest between the dynasties of the Abbasides and Ommiades, when the vanquished party sought refuge in the remotest extremities of Africa. Being probably possessed of superior skill in the military art, they easily prevailed over the undisciplined natives, and established powerful states along the river, which they called the Nile, or the Negroes, but which appears to be only the Zirmie or Quarrama, a tributary to that which we call CENTRAL AFRICA. 949 the Niger. The principal kingdoms were Ghana, (Kano), and Tocrur, (Sackatoo), while to the east was the powerful negro state of Kuku, (Bornou). The court of Ghana displayed a splendor, derived chiefly from the gold imported from the countries in the south, which appeared dazzling even to those who had witnessed the greatness of Bagdad and Cairo. t Various revolutions, only imperfectly reported to us, appear since that period to have agitated this part of the continent. In general, one powerful chief seems to have aspired at, and in a great measure attained, a supremacy over the others, of which he was speedily deprived by the revolutions to which these turbulent states are liable. In the fourteenth century, Leo Africanus, visiting Timbuctoo, found it in possession of Izchia, a powerful chief from Morocco, who held then the chief sway over Ghana and the principal countries of Central Africa. At the end of the last century, Mr. Lucus understood that Cassina had gained the supreme rule over all the Mussulman states in this quarter. About the beginning of the century, however, Danfodio, chief of the Fallatahs of Sackatoo, not only asserted his independence, but made himself master of all Houssa, then conquered Bornou, and finally extended his dominion westward as far as the Niger. The Fallatah empire, thus founded, has since, however, suffered much dismemberment. The standard of independence was raised m Bornou by a native of Kanem, who, under the title of Sheik el Kanemy, drove out the invader, and assumed the real sway over the country. In the heart of Houssa, Goober, Zegzeg, and other countries, have thrown off the yoke. Yet the Fellatahs, under other chiefs, are extending their conquests to the westward, and have even passed the Niger into Yarriba. Timbuctoo, meantime, has long lost the supremacy it possessed in the days of Leo. It became even tributary to the emperor of Morocco; and though it has shaken off this yoke, the king's dominion does not now extend beyond the city and its immediate vicinity. Bambarra, when visited by Park, was found the most extensive and powerful kingdom on the upper course of the Niger, but it has since been dismembered by Sego Ahmadou, a Foulah chieftain, who obtained possession of the flourishing city of Jenn6, and the surrounding territory. Bornou, one of the most powerful kingdoms of Central Africa, extends about 200 miles in every direction, on the westward of the great inland sea of the Tchad. The extent of that sea, and the variations on its surface, have been already described. When, in consequence of the rains, its waters swell, and overspread the large encumbered tract abandoned during the dry season, the numerous bands of wild animals which it harbored, elephants, lions, panthers, and hyenas, are obliged to quit their cover, and seek their prey among the habitations of men. At this disastrous period, travelers, and the slaves employed in watching the corn fields, often fall victims to their fury; the hyenas have even been known to force their way into walled towns, and devour the herds that had been driven into them for shelter. With the exception of this peculiar district, Bornou, watered by the tropical rains, and often partially inundated, is a very fertile country. The soil, after being merely scratched with a hoe by the female slaves, and the seed scattered, rather than sown, yields very considerable crops. Cities, containing from 10,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, and many walled towns, rise 950 CENTRAL AFRICA. along the shores of the lake. The markets present a most crowded scene, the principal one at Angornou attracting sometimes 100,000 people. Yet the nation is remarkably deficient, not only in refined and intellectual pursuits, but in the humblest of the useful arts. They have, however, the absolute necessaries of life in abundance. Numerous herds of cattle are bred by Arab tribes, who have transported into Bornou all their pastoral habits. The most numerous are the Shouaas, who in the towns are described as deceitful, arrogant, pretended fortune. tellers, and greatly resembling gypsies; but in the country display greatel simplicity of manners. Major Denham describes the daughter of a rich Shouaa loaded with ornaments of amber, silver rings, and coral, her hair streaming with fat, a black rim of kohol, at least an inch wide, round each of her eyes. She sits astride on a bullock, over which carpets and tobes have been spread, guides him by the nose, and tortures his sluggish form into something like caperings and curvetings. The government of Bornou is absolute. There is probably no court of which the taste is so absurd, grotesque, or preposterous. The primary requisite for a fine gentleman and a courtier is a huge belly; and where feeding and cramming will not produce this beauty in sufficient perfection, the part is swelled out by stuffing and cushioning. This unwieldy bulk is then covered with ten or twelve successive robes of rich and varied materials. Fold after fold is wrapped round the head, till only a small part of the face, and that all on one side, can be descried. Numerous amulets, enclosed in green leather cases, envelope their clothes, horses, and arms. Surrounded by a train of such attendants, the sultan of Bornou received the British mission in a cage or crib, barely capable of containing his own person. Thus attired, however, the Bornou cavalry take the field; but they are there totally inefficient. Indeed, the sultan, who ought to be still more protuberant and encumbered than the rest, is subject to the convenient necessity of never fighting; but if his army is defeated, and he cannot escape by flight, he seats himself in state beneath a tree, and quietly awaits the stroke of death. Mandara, situated to the south of Bornou, consists of a fine valley, containing eight large towns, the principal of which is Mora. The whole country, and even the capital, are overlooked by the great central range of the Mountains of the Moon, which to the southward of this territory appear to attain their loftiest height. They are inhabited by numerous and barbarous races, comprehended, by the Mandaras, under the appellation of kerdies, or pagans, and thence considered as lawful prey. These people paint their bodies, wrap themselves in the skins of wild beasts, and subsist chiefly on fruits, honey, and the fish drawn from large lakes. The Musgow, the most distant and rudest of those races, were seen mounted on little fiery steeds, covered only with the skin of a goat or leopard, and having round their neck long strings of the teeth of their enemies. Loggun, situated immediately to the south of the lake Tchad, and watered by the lower course of the river Shary, which falls into that great receptacle, appears to be one of the most improved and industrious countries in all Africa. The Loggunese, amid the furious warfare waged by the surrounding states, have, by a skillful neutrality, maintained themselves in peace. They work steadily and skillfully at the loom, an occupation elsewhere abandoned to slaves. The people rank also above their neigh CENTRAL AFRICA. 951 bors, in having a coinage, though rudely made of iron, somewhat in the form of a horse-shoe. Provisions are abundant; the banks of the river are bordered with fine woods, and a profusion of variously tinted aromatic plants. The inhabitants, however, suffer cruelly from the multitude of tormenting insects. The ladies of Loggun are described as the handsomest and most intelligent of the negro race, with-a lively and agreeable expression and engaging manners. They are by no means distinguished, however, by those virtues which form the ornament of their sex, and, in particular, used the utmost dexterity in snatching from Major Denham every thing they could reach, searching even the pockets of his trowsers, and, when detected, treating the whole as a jest. Loggun, the capital, is a handsome town, with spacious streets, finely situated on the Shary, about forty miles above its entrance into the lake. Begharmi, or Begherme, is a considerable country, to the south-east of the lake Tchad. The people, who are stout and warlike, wage almost continual war with Bornou, which boasts of having subjected them; but they always find a retreat beyond a considerable river, which flows through their country, whence they return and regain possession of their territory. Their chief force consists in mounted lancers, which, with their horses, are cased still more completely in iron mail than those of Bornou; but they do not in the field display any higher degree of courage. The islands in the lake Tchad, which are numerous, and many of them large, are inhabited by tribes that have made themselves formidable to the surrounding countries. The Biddomah, occupying the eastern quarter, have a fleet of a thousand large canoes, which they employ entirely in piratical inroads. They maintain the doctrine that their deity left them without grain or cattle; instead of which, he bestowed strength and cunning to snatch those good things from others who possessed them. This destination they zealously fulfill; there being not a spot round this wide expanse of water which is for a moment secure from their attack, the vicinity of the capital not excepted. They carry off many of the people as slaves, but treat them well, and even bestow wives upon them. No attempt to check their ravages seems made by the most powerful of the Bornou sovereigns, who merely say, "The waters are theirs: what can we do?" The La Salas, a pastoral people, inhabit a number of small verdant islands, near the southern quarter, separated by channels so shallow that those acquainted with them can ride on horseback from one to the other. These islands are covered with rich pastures and numerous herds. Houssa is an extensive territory in the most central part of Africa, reaching from the upper course of the Yeou nearly west to the Niger; but its boundaries both on the north and south seems to be yet undecided. The face of the country exhibits evident marks of superior cultivation and a superior people. The fields arecovered with large crops of wheat, two of which are annually produced, and the grain is stored in large granaries raised on poles as a security from insects. Irrigation is practiced with diligence. The grain is made into bread, and the markets are well supplied with fruits and vegetables. Soccatoo or Sackatoo, probably the Tocrur of the Arabians, situated nearly at the western extremity of Houssa, is at present the ruling country over that region. The territory appears to be fertile and populous, and its capital the largest city in interior Africa. The houses are built closer 952 CENTRAL AFRICA. than usual and more regularly laid out in streets. The place is surrounded by a wall between twenty and thirty feet high, with twelve gates always shut at sunset. The countries of Goober and Zamfra or Zanfara, are of a ruder character, inhabited by a warlike race, who have sometimes ruled over Houssa, and were recently in open rebellion against the power of Sackatoo. Even the high road between that city and Kano is continually infested by them. The merchants venture to pass it only in numerous and close bodies, every one striving to be foremost, and exclaiming, " Woe to the wretch that falls behind, he will be sure to meet an unhappy end at the hands of the Gooberites!" In 1829, Coonia, the strongly fortified capital of Goober, repulsed with the loss of the whole military force of Houssa, amounting to 50,000 or 60,000 men. Zirmie, the capital of Zamfra, is represented as forming a sort of outlawed city, where runaway slaves find protection, and the inhabitants are esteemed the greatest rogues in all IIoussa. Kano, though declined from its ancient greatness, is still the centre of commerce and civilization in interior Africa; yet it is built in a very scattered manner, occupying only about a fourth of the circuit of fifteen miles enclosed by its walls. The inhabited part is divided into two by a large morass, dry during a part of the year, at which period is held a great market, the most crowded and best regulated in Africa. It is under the superintendence of a sheik, who has even the exorbitant power of fixing the prices. Such is the confidence, that packets of goods are very commonly carried away without being opened; and if any fraud is discovered, the packet is sent back, and the dylala, or broker, is compelled to procure restitution. The market is crowded from sunrise to sunset, every day, not excepting Friday, the Mahometan sabbath. The slaves, who constitute the staple commodity, have a special market, composed of two long ranges of sheds, one for male and the other for females. The poor creatures decked out for the purpose, are seated in rows, and are nicely scrutinized by the purchaser, who inspect the tongue, teeth, eyes, and limbs, causing them to cough, and move in different directions, so that any defect in their persons may become apparent. The current coin in traffic consists of the small shells called cowries, 480 of which are worth only a shilling, so that the task of counting them is laborious. Kano is supposed to contain 30,000 or 40,000 inhabitants. To the south of Sackatoo and Kano is the country of Zegzeg, one of the finest in all Africa. It is covered with plentiful crops and rich pastures, yields particularly good rice, and is beautifully variegated with hill and dale, like the finest parts of England. Zaria, the capital, is like an enclosed district, occupying a great extent of ground, which comprises even woods and corn fields; the population is estimated at about 50,000. The country to the south of Zegzeg, though diversified by rising grounds, is still fertile and well cultivated, containing a number of considerable towns. Cuttup, a compound of 500 villages, or rather clusters of houses covering a beautiful plain, forms the market for a great extent of country. Farther south, however, there is stated to be a rugged and mountainous region inhabited by the Yam-yams, a savage race, represented as cannibals, and who, some time ago, had killed and eaten a whole caravan. The countries on the lower course of the Niger, form an extensive and important part of Central Africa. Being copiously watered, and in many CENTRAL AFRICA. 953 parts liable to temporary inundation, they are endowed with profuse natural fertility, yielding rice and other valuable species of grain in abundance; though in approaching the sea, the ground becomes swampy, and overgrown with dense forests. A negro population, with its original habits and superstitions, generally fills this region; but the Fellatahs are making rapid encroachments; and several of the states have been converted, though in a very superficial manner, to the Moslem faith. Eyeo, called also Hio, or more properly Yarriba, is a very extensive country, extending from the frontier of Boussa nearly to the coast, from which it is only separated by the territory of Badagry, while from the Niger it reaches west to the frontier of Dahomey. It is one of the most beautiful countries on the globe, and is also well cultivated and densely peopled. The fields are covered with thriving plantations of Indian corn, millet, yams, and cotton. The looms are busily plied, though its products are not equal to those in the neighboring country of Nyff6. The scenery is beautiful, the woods exhaling a delicious fragrance, and being filled with myriads of brilliantly tinted butterflies. The females, likewise, are actively employed in the conveyance of goods, which they bear on their heads, executing this laborious task with surprising cheerfulness. A range of rugged mountains from 2,000 to 3,000 feet high, crosses one part of the country; yet such is the mildness of the climate, that cultivation, and even large towns, are found on the very summit. The government is most despotic; the greatest chiefs, in approaching the sovereign, throw themselves flat on their faces, and heap on their heads sand and dust. Yet in the general administration of the government, there seem few instances of cruelty or wanton oppression. The property of the sovereign consists chiefly, as already observed, in his innumerable wives, and the various functions performed by them. The habitations are in general mere huts, and the residence of the chiefs is only distinguished by the number of these within an enclosing wall; but the gates and panels of some, though only of wood, are adorned with elaborate sculpture. The practice of human sacrifice prevails extensively, though not quite to the same degree as in Ashantee and Dahomey. On the demise of the king or of any great chief, his principal officers and favorite wives are doomed to die along with him. Most tragical scenes are thus presented, as the devotion is by no means voluntary, but the necessity of it imposed by public opinion produces the deepest distress both in the prospect and in its actual arrival. Nyff6, on the eastern bank of the Niger, is a very fine country, occupied by the most industrious and improved of all the negro nations. Their cotton cloths are held in the highest estimation, and even the finest of those manufactured in Houssa are by slaves from Nyff6. To complete the picture of central Africa, it remains to describe the countries on the upper Niger, as celebrated as any of those now enumerated. Timbuctoo, or Tombuctoo, the celebrated emporium of the commerce in gold, has always shone in the eyes of Europeans with a dazzling and brilliant lustre. Most of the daring and often tragical expeditions into the interior of the continent had for their object to reach that city. Yet its actual condition, and even magnitude, are still involved in very considerable uncertainty. The place is described as containing some handsome mosques, and a spacious enclosed palace; but a great proportion of the habitations, 954 TIlE SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT. like those in other negro countries, are mere conical hovels, like bee-hives. Tinbuctoo, however, being the place where the caravans from Morocco and.most of those from Algiers and Tunis, first touch on the fertile regions of of Central Africa, must always possess great commercial importance; and a depot is found there of the commodities which it affords for exchange with other countries. Gold, and still more slaves, are the staple articles. Timbuctoo, also, being situated in an arid and barren territory, is dependent upon Bambarra for grain and provisions, which are brought down the Nicer, and landed at the port of Cabra, about a day's journey distant, consisting merely of a range of houses along the water. Jenne, or Jinnie, is a city second only to Timbuctoo in commercial im portance. It is situated, according to Park, on a tributary of the Niger, but according to Cailli6, on a branch separated from, and then reuniting to that river. It appears to collect from Bambarra and the countries to the south, all the commodities wanted for the market of Tombuctoo, which it transmits by vessels of considerable size, though of slight construction, and merely bound together with cords. The kingdom of Bambarra consists of a beautiful and extensive plain, through which the Niger rolls for about 300 miles, from the point where it becomes navigable for large canoes. The territory is fertile and well cultivated, being to a great extent inundated during the rains. The hills to the south contain considerable quantities of golden earth, from which the metal is extracted and brought to Bambarra. Some of the northern districts partake of the character of the desert, and are covered by the Moors with their flocks and herds. Sego, the capital, in the centre of the kingdom, is divided by the Niger into two parts, the communication between which is maintained by ferries, which are under the control of the government. The place is surrounded by high mud walls, the houses are built of clay, but neatly white-washed, the streets are commodious, and mosques rise in every quarter. The numerous canoes on the river, the crowded population, and the cultivated state of the surrounding country, exhibit altogether a scene of civilization and magnificence scarcely to be expected in the centre of Africa. Park estimated the population at about 30,000. Several small kingdoms intervene between Bambarra and Gallam, which, with Bambouk, are included in Western Africa. THE SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT. THE Sahara, or Great Desert, forms an immense range of territory, which, indeed, covers the whole northern half of Africa, but for the partial exemption produced by the mountain range of Atlas, and the course of the Nile. Its actual and almost uninterrupted extent may be stated as from the 15th to the 30th degree of north latitude, and from the 30th of east to the 15th of west longitude. It may thus amount to nearly 3000 miles in length, and 1000 in breadth. This vast expanse, the most dreary and terrible on the face of the earth, forms an obstacle to the intercourse of nations greater than is opposed by the widest oceans. Yet the daring TIHE SAHIARA, OR GREAT DESERT. 955 spirit of enterprise has induced human beings to occupy every extremity or corner in which subsistence could by any means be procured; and they have formed routes by which, though amid suffering and deadly peril, regular journeys may be performed across this vast and desolate region. The surface of the Sahara does not consist entirely of one uniform plain of sand. In the most level tracts it has been blown into heaps or hillocks, steep on one side, which remarkably increase both the dreary aspect of the region, and the difficulties with which the traveller has to contend. In other places it is traversed by dark ranges of naked rock, which sometimes approach so close as to leave only a narrow path for caravans to march through. The terrible spectacle of human bones which strew the ground, and sometimes crackle unexpectedly beneath the tread of the traveller or his camel, lends, at intervals, additional horror to the scene. The most dangerous encounter is that of the sand wind, when the sand, blown up by tempests from an extensive moving surface, fills and darkens the air, and threatens to suffocate the passenger. Yet some covert can generally be found during its fury; and the disasters indicated by the bones which whiten the desert appear to arise almost solely from the failure of provisions, and particularly of water. The privation falls always first upon the slaves, who on such occasions perish in great numbers. The most remarkable and important feature, however, which diversifies the great African desert, consist in the oases. This eastern term, which signifies island, is very appropriately given to those detached spots, over which springs, bursting forth amid the desert, diffuse some partial verdure and fertility. The view of these spots inspires travelers with emotions peculiarly pleasing; sometimes from mere contrast with the encircling desolation, but sometimes also, from the peculiarly elegant landscape which they themselves present. They are embellished with flowering shrubs of peculiar beauty; whole tracts are covered with forests of acacia, from which rich gums distil, and with groves of the date and lotus, yielding sweet fruits and berries, which form the food of whole tribes; while mild and graceful animals, chiefly of the antelope species, trip along the meadows. These districts, on a great scale, occur chiefly on the northern and southern borders, where the desert generally mitigates its stern aspect, and imbibes some portion of that moisture which fertilizes Central Africa and the region of Atlas. Inhabitants, in as great numbers as the soil can support, are found occupying both the borders and the interior oases of this vast and desolate region. They are of various races, and have entered from different quarters. The large oases of Fezzan and Darfur appear to have been partly or wholly peopled from Egypt and Tripoli. Wandering tribes from Morocco have covered with their herds all the habitable tracts of the western desert nearly as far south as the Niger. The negro tribes have seldom quitted their fertile and wooded plains to encroach on this gloomy domain: they are found chiefly in Darfur and Kordofan. But the most interior tracts, to the south and west of Fezzan, are thinly peopled by tribes of peculiar character, the Tibboos and the Tuaricks, judged to be remnants of an aboriginal race, who occupied all Northern Africa, till it was covered by the tide of conquest and emigration from Asia. With a few exceptions, the character of all these desert tribes is gloomy and sinister, like that of the regions through which they wander. Agitated by want, and exempted 956 THE SAHALRA, OR GREAT DESERT. by their position from almost any restraint, they seek, by violence and plunder, to wrest from the caravans which pass through their domain, or from the richer nations which border it, a portion of those good things which nature has denied'to themselves. These habits, with the absence of culture, have given a rude and unsocial character, which, inflamed by bigotry in the Mahometan tribes, has rendered a journey through their territory peculiarly distressing and dangerous to Christians. Almost immediately west from Egypt and the Nile the desert commences, presenting the aspect of a plain from which the sea has receded. It is covered as it were with the fragments of a petrified forest; large trunks, branches, twigs, even pieces of bark, all converted into stone. When ten days' journey have been passed without seeing a human habitation, the traveller descries Ummesogeir, a village perched on a rock, with 120 inhabitants, who live a peaceful life almost secluded from intercourse with all human beings. A day's journey westward is the larger oasis of Siwah, a deep hollow valley, watered by numerous springs, and fertile in dates, the staple product and food of this region. The people, estimated at from 1500 to 2000, form a turbulent aristocracy, but derive some wealth from the continual passage of the caravans. Yet the chief interest which attaches to Siwah arises from its being supposed to contain the celebrated shrine of Jupiter Ammon. The distance from Egypt nearly corresponds; and at Ummebeda, in the vicinity, are the remains of an ancient edifice, though not corresponding in magnitude or style of architecture with our idea of that celebrated temple. The difficulty is increased by the occurrence of other oases of similar aspect, and containing similar remains; though the preponderance seems, on the whole, to be in favor of Siwah. Fezzan, which opens at the end of the mountain region of Harutsh, is a very large oasis, about 300 miles long and 200 broad, sometimes dignified with the title of kingdom. Nature has scarcely distinguished it from the surrounding desert: it is not irrigated by a stream of any importance. The inhabitants, however, by laborious processes, have raised up the water, which is always found at a certain depth under ground, and have thus formed a number of little oases, in which dates and a little grain can be reared, and where a few asses and goats, and numerous camels are fed. It is the inland trade, however, that the inhabitants regard as the source of animation and wealth. Fezzan being due south from Tripoli, and about midway between Egypt and Morocco, is the most central point of communication with interior Africa. The arrival of a caravan on its frontier produces a species of jubilee; and on its reaching the capital, the demonstrations of joy are redoubled, and the sultan gives them a state reception. There are also very extensive merchants belonging to the country itself. Through these resources Fezzan is enabled to maintain a pop. ulation of about 70,000. The sultan is tributary to the bashaw of Tripoli. The state of Sidi Heschem, or Ischim, on the southern extremity of Morocco, combining portions of Suse and of the surrounding desert, is now the chief theatre of the Moorish trade with Timbuctoo. The prince, who rules over a mixed population of Moors and negroes, has made himself nearly independent of the empire; and his country has become a depot of the goods which pass and repass between Morocco and Timbuctoo. Akka and Tatta are the principal stations from which the caravans take their departure. THE SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT. 957 Darfur is a considerable country, almost due south from Egypt, and west of Sennaar, whence it is separated by Kordofan. The route by which the caravans pass from Egypt is of the most dreary character, since travellers, after leaving the greater oasis, do not for about 700 miles meet with a human habitation; however, at Sheb and Selime they are refreshed by springs of water. The country itself is of a very arid character, destitute of every thing resembling a river or lake. The tropical rains, however, within whose influence it is, fall at the proper season with great violence, when they fill the dry beds of the torrents, and inundate a considerable extent of country. The operations of a rude agriculture, carried on by the females, are then sufficient to produce, in a few places, wheat; and in a great number the inferior species of dokn, a kind of millet. Camels abound, and are noted for their power of enduring thirst; the horned cattle and' goats are good; but horses, sheep, and asses are of inferior breeds. The people, not supposed to exceed in number 200,000, are a mixture of Arabs and negroes, the former of whom hold the chief power. The most interior part of the desert, between Fezzan and Central Africa, is occupied by two remarkable native tribes, the Tibboos and the Tuaricks. The former are found on the caravan route to Bornou; the latter, more westerly, on that of Kano and Kassina. The Tibboos are nearly as black as the negroes, but with a different physiognomy: their hair is longer and less curled, their stature low, their features small, and their eye quick. They subsist on the milk of their camels and the produce of a few verdant spots scattered amid'the desert; this they seek to aid by a little trade with Fezzan, and not unfrequently by the plunder of the caravans. They are themselves, however, exposed to a mightier race of spoilers, the Tuaricks, who, at least once a year, make an inroad into their territory, sweeping away every thing, and sparing neither age nor sex. The cowardly Tibboo dare not even look them in the face; their only resource is to ascend certain perpendicular rocks with flat summits, beside one of which they take care to build each of their towns; and they are thus secured against enemies who have neither the means of escalade nor the patience to carry on a blockade. Though, however, they have lakes containing the purest salt, they are obliged to see the best part of it carried off by these sturdy marauders. Amid these distresses, the people are gay and thoughtless, delighting, like other Africans, in the song and the dance: they dance gracefully, with movements somewhat analogous to the Grecian. Bilma, the Tibboo capital, is a mean town, built of earth, and the other villages, of course, inferior. To the south of this town is a desert of thirteen days' journey, perhaps the most dreary on earth. There is neither a drop of water nor a vestige of animal or vegetable life. The sand, which often drifts in dark volumes through the air, forms hills, which rise and disappear in a night, and whose often perpendicular sides are passed with great difficulty. "Tremendously dreary are these marches: as far as the eye can reach, billows of sand bound the prospect." The Tuaricks, that barbarous race of warriors, who spread terror through the half of Africa, appear in their domestic character under a much more favorable light. Captain Lyon thought them, as to external appearance, the finest race he ever saw; tall, erect, and handsome, with an imposing air of pride and independence. Their skin is not dark, unless where deeply embrowned by exposure to the sun. They hold in contempt all who 958 AFRICAN ISLANDS. live in houses and cultivate the ground, deriving their subsistence solely from pasturage, commerce, and plunder, with a considerable preference of the latter pursuit. They keep all the borders of Soudan in constant alarm, carrying off great numbers of slaves. Yet at home they have been found frank, honest, and hospitable, paying an unusual respect to their females, and in their social life much resembling Europeans. In the western region of the desert, the tribes occupying its scattered habitable portions appear to be all Moors or Arabs migrated from Morocco, and who have brought with them their usual pastoral, wandering, warlike, and predatory habits. These last they exercise with a relentless cruelty elsewhere unusual. A splendid booty is frequently opened to them by the vessels which suffer shipwreck on the dreary and dangerous shores of the Sahara, and which are always plundered with the most furious avidity: the Eonly hope of the wretched captives is to be able to tempt their masters, by the promise of a high ransom, to be paid at Mogadore. Yet these dreary regions are animatedl by the constant passage of the great caravans between Morocco and Timbuctoo. THE AFRICAN ISLANDS. AFRICA does not, like Asia or America, enclose within her bordering seas any grand archipelago. Yet she is begirt at a certain distance with numerous islands, some single, but the greater number, especially on the western coast, arranged in groups. These islands are mountainous, and many of them volcanic; they include a great extent of fertile territory, and present grand, picturesque, and often beautiful features. The CANARIfES, distinguished under the appellation of the Fortunate Islands, are among the most celebrated and beautiful groups of small islands in the world. They lie about the twenty-eighth degree of north latitude, and between the 13th and 18th of west longitude. There are seven principal islands, having a land area of about 3,250 square miles, and containing a population of 200,000 souls. These are Teneriffe, Grand Canary, Palma, Lancerota, Fuerteventura, Gomera, and Ferro. These islands consist of mountains which rise abruptly from the shore, and shoot to an amazing height. The Peak of Teneriffe, the great landmark to mariners through the Atlantic, is 12,000 feet high. The rocks rise from the shore in basaltic forms, whence they bear often the aspect of castles, for which they have even been mistaken by the passing navigator. In the interior, they are high and naked, bristling with sharp points, and present ing often singular indentations on their bold summits. Yet being often covered with forests of laurel, pine, arbutus, and other trees, they exhibit picturesque and even magical scenery. Humboldt considers the steep ascent of the peak as presenting the most rapid transition known from a tropical to an arctic vegetation. On the coast are valleys blooming with the orange, myrtle, and cypress; above, declivities crowned with the vine and the most valuable species of grain; higher up, forests of the laurel, chestnut, and oak; these are succeeded by the dark pine and Scotch fir; AFRICAN ISLANDS. 959 then a plain strewed with dust of pumicestone is followed by the Malpays, entirely composed of loose fragments of lava. The summit bears the marks of a volcanic crater not very long extinguished; for even early in the last century it made destructive eruptions. The Canaries belong to Spain. The soil in these islands displays much of that luxuriant fertility which distinguishes tropical countries, when profusely watered, like this, by the streams from the high mountains and the vapor from the ocean; yet their western sides are parched by arid and pestilential breezes from the African desert, the streams are often absorbed in the porous lava, or rush down in torrents which would sweep away the earth, were not walls formed to retain it. The principal exportable produce is that afforded by the vines, which grow on the lower declivities of the peak, and yield a wine which, though inferior to Madeira, has, from its cheapness, come into considerable use. The export has been estimated at 8,000 or 9,000 pipes. There is also some export of brandy, soda, and archil. The chief seat of this trade is Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe, which enjoys the advantage of an excellent roadstead, and is what Humboldt calls a great caravansary on the road to America and the Indies; where numerous vessels friom all nations touch for refreshment. The place is, however, intensely hot, and the natives not engaged in business prefer the residence of Laguna, 2,000 feet above the sea, which enjoys a delightful coolness. Grand Canary is more uniformly fertile than Teneriffe, supplying the other islands with grain, and yielding a little of the fine wine called sack. Las Palmas, its chief town, is the ecclesiastical capital; but the seat of government is at Santa Cruz. Ferro, small, arid, and rocky, was once supposed to form the most westerly point of the Old World, and has often been used by geographers as the first meridian. The native inhabitants of these islands were a remarkable race, called Guanches. They had attained a considerable degree of civilization, cultivated music and poetry, showed a high respect to the female sex, and had even a class of magades, or vestals, to whom they paid divine honors. They practised agriculture with diligence, and possessed the art of em balming bodies; the mummies, still found wrapped in goat-skins, prove them to have been a tall and handsome people. The Guanches maintained also, for nearly half a century, a most valorous struggle against the Spanish invaders, but were at length completely exterminated. The modern Canarians are a sober, active, industrious people, who have migrated to all the Spanish dominions in America and the Indies, and form the most useful part of the population. The CAPE VERD ISLANDS, about eighty miles from Cape Verd, in 16~ to 17~ north latitude, are ten in number, three of which are large, St. Jago, St. Antonio, and St. Nicholas; the rest small, Mayo, Bonavista, Sal, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Brava, and Fogo. The large islands rise in the interior into high mountains, and Fogo (fire) contains a very active volcano. In general, however, the surface is arid, rocky, and much less productive than the Canaries. Long droughts sometimes prevail, and reduce the inhabitants to the greatest distress. Out of a population of 88,000, one-fourth are said to have died of famine in 1831. The chief growth is cotton, which is exported to Africa; and a very fine breed of mules and asses is reared, many of which are sent to the West Indies. 960 AFRICAN ISLANDS. Goats, poultry, and turtle abound. Salt is formed in large quantities by natural evaporation, particularly in Mayo, where there is an extensive pond, into which the sea is received at high water, and the salt completely formed before next tide. These islands are not much visited by vessels bound from Europe to the Indies, which, after quitting the Canaries, stand to the westward, in order to obtain the benefit of the trade-winds. The Por tuguese, since the first discovery, have claimed the sovereignty, and maintain a governor-general, who resides at Porto Praya. ST. IIELENA, so celebrated lately as the ocean-prison of the greatest of modern warriors, has now reverted to its original destination, as a place of refreshment for the returning East India ships. It presents to the sea, throughout its whole circuit of twenty-eight miles, an immense perpendic ular wall of rock, from 600 to 1,200 feet high, like a castle in the midst of the ocean. On the summit is a fertile plain, interspersed with conical eminences, between which picturesque valleys intervene. The climate on the high grounds is very agreeable and temperate, though moist. There are only four small openings in the wall of rock, on the largest of which, where alone a little beach appears, has been built James Town, where the governor resides, and where refreshments, though on a limited scale, are provided for ships. Turning the Cape of Good Hope, and entering the Indian Ocean, we arrive at MADAGASCAR, one of the largest and finest islands in the world, placed between 12~ and 26~ south latitude: it may be about 840 miles long, and 220 in its greatest breadth. The interior is traversed from north to south by a chain of very lofty mountains, of which the highest are Vigagora, in the north, and Botishmenil in the south. Their aspect is grand and picturesque, and strikes with surprise the traveler who surveys their awful precipices, covered with trees, as ancient, perhaps, as the world, while he hears the roar of stupendous, almost unapproachable, cascades. Beneath these, however, appear rural views, delightful hills, vast savannahs, covered with cattle, and secluded valleys. The forests abound with varied and beautiful trees, palms, ebony, dyeing woods, enormous bamboos, orange, and citron. The plains along the sea, finely watered by numerous streams from these mountain recesses, are extremely fruitful in rice, sugar, silk; fitted, indeed, for almost every tropical product, though there seem few plants peculiar to the island. The mountains contain, also, valuable mines, especially of iron, but only partially worked. The population of Madagascar has been variously estimated at from 1,000,000 to 4,000,000: perhaps, with M. Balbi, we may take 2,000,000 as a probable conjecture. The people are not savages: they cultivate the ground, and practise some arts; yet are, on the whole, very rude and uninformed. They are described as a peculiarly gay, thoughtless, and voluptuous race, void of care and foresight, always cheerful and good-humored. They are divided into a number of small tribes, who wage very frequent wars with each other. BOURBON, about 400 miles east of Madagascar, though it can bear no comparison as to magnitude with that island, is not inconsiderable, being forty-eight miles long and thirty-six broad. It consists entirely of the heights and slopes of two great mountains, the most southerly of which contains a volcano in perpetual activity, throwing up fire, smoke. and ashes, with a noise truly tremendous. These substances are ejected, not from tho AFRICAN ISLANDS. 961 crater, but by lateral openings, presenting at a distance the appearance of fiery cascades. Even in the northern mountains, basaltic colonnades, deep fissures, hillocks thrown into the valleys and the beds of the rivers, an nounce ancient and powerful volcanic agitations. A great part consists of what the French call burnt country, a complete desert of hard black soil, with numerous holes and crevices. The rest, however, well watered by numerous torrents, is favorable not only for the ordinary tropical products, but for some fine aromatic plants. MIAURITIUS, or Isle of France, is about 120 miles east of Bourbon, not quite so large, yet still 150 miles in circuit. The rugged mountains, which cover a great part of the island, give it a somewhat sterile character, and it does not yield grain even for its limited population; yet the lower slopes produce coffee, cotton, indigo and sugar of improved quality. The Portuguese in 1505 called it Cerne, for which the Dutch in 1598 substituted Mauritius, from the Prince of Orange; but neither nation formed any permanent establishment. The French, too, for same time, sent only a few casual settlers from Bourbon; but, in 1734, La Bourdonnaye, its able governor, raised it to a naval station of the first importance: it was called Isle of France, and became the capital of the French possessions in the Indian seas. It was considered impregnable, and remained in their undisputed possession, after the greatest disasters which befell their arms on the continent. It became then a stronghold for privateers, who are said, in ten years, to have takenlprizes to the vahle of ~2,500,000. At length, in 1810, it yielded to the arms of Britain with less resistance than was expected. A considerable number of islets, single or in groups, spot the Indian Ocean to the east of Africa. The Seychelles, nearly north from Madagascar, with the bordering group of the Amirantes, are a cluster of very small islands, high and rocky, and little fitted for any culture except cotton; but they abound with cocoa-nuts, and their shores with turtle and excellent fish. TRISTAN D'ACUNHA, if indeed it may be considered as belonging to Africa, is situated in 37~ south latitude, and 11~ west longitude. The whole is a solid mass of rock in the form of a truncated cone, rising abruptly from the sea, and ascending, at an angle of forty-five degrees, to the height of 3,000 feet. This mass is surmounted by a dome, upwards of 5,000 feet high, on the summit of which is the crater of an old extinguished volcano. The face of this mountain, as far up as the base of the dome, is mostly covered with brushwood, intermixed with fern and long grass, that veil its native ruggedness. Along the north-west side of the island there runs a belt of low land, constituting a plain about six miles long, and presenting to the sea a perpendicular front from 50 to 300 feet high. The whole is a mass of stony fragments, scorim, and other volcanic products, mixed with black indurated earth. Part of this plain has been cleared, by fire, of its wood, though the scorched trees still encumber the ground; and the rest is in a state of nature, covered with an impenetrable copse. OCEANICA. ISLANDS and groups of islands form an extensive and important portion of the surface of the globe. Those which are in the close vicinity of the great continents, and situated in gulfs enclosed by them, have been considered as appendages to these continents, and treated of in connexion with them. But, in that wide expanse of ocean, which covers more than half the surface of the globe, there occur some very large and numerous small islands, widely separated from any continent, and a survey of which is requisite to complete the description of the world. They present human society under rude, indeed, but striking and picturesque, aspects; and, through the extension of commerce and navigation, colonies have been established, and a frequent intercourse maintained with them by the maritime nations of Europe (and America. AUSTRALASIA. AUSTRALASIA is the name given to an assemblage of huge insular masses of land occupying the western parts of the Pacific, and extending southward from eastern Asia. These great oceanic tracts consist, according to Mr. Barrow, of, 1. New Holland, called often Australia; 2. Van Dieman's Land; 3. New Zealand; 4. Papua, or New Guinea; 5. New Britain, New Ireland; 6. Solomon's Islands; 7. New Hebrides; 8. New Caledonia: NEW HOLLAND, or the continental part of Australasia, may be stated as lying between 10~ 30' and 390 south latitude, and between 1120 20' and 153~ 40' east longitude. Its dimensions are about 2,600 miles from east to west, and 2,000 from north to south. The surface of this continent is too extended, and the explored portion too small, to allow us with safety to hazard any general conclusions. The prevailing feature, so far as yet observed, has been barren and wooded plains, traversed by long ridges of precipitous, but not very lofty mountains; and rivers, which often spread into marshes, amd do not preserve any course which may be called long when compared with the size of the continent. There are few deep bays; nor does the sea, so far as yet discovered, receive any river whose magnitude corresponds to that of the land. A great part, through the mixture of broad mountain masses and of heavy inundated plains, is rendered unfit for cultivation, and even for traveling. These obstructions, however, do not prevent the occurrence, on a great scale, of fine tneadow tracts, where the richest herbage grows spontaneously, and where industry may raise the most plentiful crops. The Zoology of the Southern Archipelago is more singular than beautiful, and is much more calculated to arrest attention from the peculiar habits and structure of the subjects themselves, than from the elegance of their forms, or the richness of their colors. Australasia has been termed the land of contrarieties; as if nature, in the creation of such forms as 1962) AUSTRALASIA. 963 she appropriated to this region, had determined to mark them with some peculiar character inconsistent with those rules she had adopted in the formation of all her other productions. That form, for instance, which in other parts of the world she has confined to the smallest races of quadrupeds-the rats and the dormice —is here bestowed upon the Kangaroos, the largest tribe of four-footed animals yet discovered in this insular continent; but these wonderful creatures, instead of fabricating warm and skilful nests beneath the earth for the protection of their young, in like manner to all other mouse-like quadrupeds, are provided with a natural nest in the folds of their own skin, where the young are sheltered and protected, until they are able to provide for themselves. The Great Kangaroo is, in fact, the largest and most typical quadruped of the whole Australian range: the total absence of such animals as lions, tigers, deer, oxen, horses, bears: in short, of all those races spread over the rest of the world, is the most striking feature in the zoology of this region. The Aquatic tribes belong, for the most part, to groups found in other countries; but the genus Clereopsis, occurs only in New Holland: it is of a light gray color, as big as a goose, and the only example of this form. The Vaginalis or Sheathbill, seems more peculiar to the Pacific islands. There are, no doubt, many waders and swimmers not yet known to naturalists, for wild-fowl are frequently mentioned by travellers as by no means scarce. Oceanic birds, particularly gulls, petrels and pelicans, may naturally be supposed to abound over such a wide extent of ocean. The British government, in consequence of the discoveries of Cook, and the complete knowledge obtained of the coast of New Holland, suggested plans, which gave a new character and interest to the Australian world. Although the territory was extensive and the soil fertile, it yielded none of those rare and brilliant products, either vegetable or mineral, which had hitherto tempted to the formation of colonies. But another motive, suggested by the philanthropic temper of the age, proved sufficient to impel to such an undertaking. The vast growth of the wealth and population of Great Britain was accompanied, unhappily, with increased temptations to crime. The many unfortunate persons, thus made amenable to the laws for offences not of the deepest dye, when continued in prison suffered in health and morals, and came out commonly more corrupted than they entered. The transporting them to the opposite extremity of the globe was a punishment less cruel and debasing, and offered a much better chance of amended habits. It afforded, also, the distant prospect of covering these almost boundless deserts with the arts, industry, and civilization of Europe. Such were the motives which induced government in 1788, to establish the colony of Botany Bay. The settlement has ever since gone on increasing, and, notwithstanding some drawbacks, arising from the peculiar materials of which it is composed, it has, in a very tolerable manner, answered its purposes. The government of a colony like that of New South Wales, must necessarily be attended with peculiar difficulties. A body of men who stand regularly opposed to the laws, and the laws to them, can only be maintained in peace and order by processes which must appear severe to those who are placed in more favorable circumstances. The difficulty has, perhaps, not been diminished by the admixture of that small but respectable class, whose emigration has been voluntary. The estrangement and even antipathy LC=ST —2-I= —~c —-r="-~s\ c~ 3 a c ri:7!. ~j~ F:-. -~~.h. r~fJ: I r~~*r a -r f;c J ~ ~t2~\ Er L.:.;.C: C~`~fr -e 'ajAdA 3Lt izr` d'. P n 8`". -. r; ..CA 5?; ~;-ll-Z'8 iCb "''~" ltl; -ir- ~5 / -~i~ /' ~i: ~r i'''SGtCS&fffffLJI4j;. ~ ij'l7991gSb PII _I I i IliaEiz.3,-"5 -- 5S —c* ,-hPC(YJc;44i:i,: rck r_ ~I -- c -L-. C:i' CEREOPSIS —NEW HOLLAND. ... --- -. -- Fig-~~~~~~~; die- ^4WITAW.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' -~-., ofE f._,_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —~?'fiI ~ ~ T~-'f_5 SOUT AFRtICA-HERD OF GNUS. 966 AUSTRALASIA. which must arise too readily between these bodies, from the contempt with which one is apt to view the other, have sown fertile seeds of dissension, and render it very difficult to maintain a due temper between these inharmonious elements. Nothing like a free constitution has yet been granted to the colony. The executive power resides in the governor, assisted by a small council of the highest officers of the government, while the legislature is shared by him with a council, which includes a few of the principal settlers and merchants, both councils being appointed by the king. The proposals for any new law originates with the executive, which, before submitting it to the legislative council, must propound it to the chief justice, who is to pronounce whether it contains any thing contrary to the law of England. After passing the council, it must be communicated to the government at home within six months afterwards; and till three years have elapsed, the king may interpose his veto. It must also, within six months, be laid before the British Parliament. The fertility of the Australian continent has been a subject of doubt, and it has even been branded with a character of comparative barrenness. The greater part of its coast, indeed, presents an aspect the most arid and dreary. The interior, however, is so exceedingly little known, that any sweeping conclusion respecting it, seems yet premature. That part now colonized by the British, including Van Diemen's Land, though not quite uniform, is, on the whole, in point of fertility, above the average of other continents. The transportation of convicts for crimes, is well known to be the mode by which the settlement of Australia has been effected. The sentence has usually been for seven or fourteen years, but from the difficulty of finding a passage home, it has almost always been, fortunately perhaps for the convict, for life, both to himself and his posterity. Besides convicts, however, the government have liberally and successfully exerted themselves in inducing another and better class to people, and to improve the wilds of Australia. The emigrant, on proving himself possessed of ~500, has bestowed upon him a grant of 640 acres of land; and the gift rises always in proportion to the capital manifested, till it reaches its maximum of 2,560 acres, cor responding to a sum of ~2,000. As the bank of the river is usually taken as the base line of a grant, and the river frontage allowed is in every case the same, the small and the large grants are in the first instance almost of equal value. At the end of seven years, a redeemable quit-rent is imposed, amounting to ~5 per cent. upon the estimated value of the grant; but as this estimate has never exceeded 5s. per acre, the quit-rent will not, in ordinary cases, exceed ~8 per annum. It is levied less as a tax than as a security that the land thus granted shall be actually cultivated, and not taken as a mere speculation. The planter then, on his urgent petition, has assigned to him a proportionate number of thieves, to assist in the culture of his new domain. Such helpmates do not sound very tempting, yet it is averred that, if well managed, they may in most cases, be broken in to be very tolerable farm servants. Some, indeed, fly off at once from a place where " they have not even a chance;" and, as a severe flogging would await them at the police office, they form or swell those bands of bushrangers which have been so disastrous to the colony. Others endeavor to AUSTRALASIA. 967 render themselves as unserviceable as possible, that their masters may be glad to return them whence they came. But after they have been fairly inured to a quiet life and regular industry, and estranged from the corrupting society of their comrades, the majority become nearly as good farm laborers as the bulk of those at home. The convict servants are quartered in little huts roofed with bark, and receive a weekly allowance of victuals, con sisting of a peck of wheat, seven pounds of beef, or four pounds of pork, two ounces of tea or of tobacco, and a pound of sugar. They must have also two suits of clothes in the year, a few utensils and a little soap; but it is optional with the master to give them wages and other indulgencies. That they are really found efficient, seems proved by the consternation which, according to Mr. Cunningham, pervades the colony, when any ill-founded rumors are spread of an increasing morality at home, which will prevent the arrival of fresh detachments. The mode and objects of culture do not differ materially from those of Britain. The hoe prevailed at the outset of Australian cultivation; but, unless in lands entangled with brush-wood, or where there is want of cattle, the plow is now universally substituted. Wheat, maize and potatoes are the chief crops in New Holland. The wheat is sown in April, and reaped in October or November; after which, maize is sown immediately, and reaped in March or April. Two crops of potatoes are also raised, one between February and July, the other between August and January. Maize requires much manual labor, and is exhausting to the soil; but the crop is so abundant, and so useful for cattle, that it cannot be dispensed with. It does not suit the climate of Van Dieman's Land, where, however, barley and oats are raised better and more largely. The commerce of Australia may be considered very great, when compared with its slender population and recent existence. Nothing, indeed, can more wonderfully illustrate the progress of maritime intercourse than that which Britain now holds with this continent. The circumnavigation of the globe, once to accomplish which was, a hundred years ago, an almost matchless exploit of the most daring navigator, is now a common trading voyage. The ordinary shipmasters who take goods to Sydney go out usually by the Cape of Good Hope, and return by New Zealand, Cape Horn and Rio de Janeiro. Australia, however, which has only bulky raw produce to dispose of, has difficulty in finding exports that will bear the heavy freight that is necessary in these vast distances, which separate it from the civilized quarters of the globe. The fine wool of the colony affords in this respect the fairest promise. The population of this vast territory is European and native. The former has been in a state of rapid increase. The first cargo of 700 convicts'was landed in January, 1788. In 1810, the population still amounted to 8,293; but in 1821 the census gave 29,783 for New Holland, and 7,185 for Van Dieman's Land. Since that time, the transmission both of convicts and emigrants has been so very active, that by the census taken at the end of the year 1847, the number of the former colony amounted to 205,000. The native population belongs to the class of Papuas, or Oriental negroes, who occupy also New Guinea and the interior of the Indian Archipelago. They have the thick prominent lips, white teeth, and in Van Diemen's Land, the woolly hair of the African negro; but their nose is less flat, and their limbs much leaner. Here " human nature wears its rudest form." 968 AUSTRALASIA. The theories of those philosophers who have represented man in the savage state as in the perfection of his being, and his evils as arising from the artificial arrangement of Society, find here the most ample refutation. All idea respecting the fabled innocence of the state of nature must vanish on viewing the New Hollander. The state of nature is, indeed, complete. There is no society, no government, no laws; each man acts according to his own fancy and caprice. The arts of life exist in their first and rudest elements. Fishing is their main occupation; yet their canoes are rude beyond all comparison, consisting of a sheet of tree-bark folded and tied up at each end. The native of Dampier's Archipelago has merely a log, on which he sits astride, guiding it with a paddle, certainly the rudest existing attempt at navigation. In other quarters, canoes are hollowed out from a piece of wood merely sufficient to hold a single person, who, in various at titudes, sits and steers them. The people were found wholly unacquainted either with planting, or the breeding of tame animals, and deriving their support solely from hunting and fishing, chiefly the latter, in which they display a certain skill. Some erect weirs at the mouth of the rivers and small bays; others show tolerable dexterity in striking the fish with spears. Those in the interior subsist with still greater difficulty by collecting the roots and berries which grow spontaneously, pursuing and laying snares for the squirrel and opossum, and even devouring worms and grubs that are found in the trunks of trees. Their huts are of the rudest possible description, resembling the dens of wild beasts. They consist often of the bark of a single tree, bent in the middle, and placed on its two ends in the ground, affording shelter to only one miserable tenant. At other times, two or three pieces of bark, put together in the form of an oven, afford hovels, into which six or eight persons may creep. But they often content themselves with cavities in or under the shelter of rocks, which, in wellchosen situations, form their most comfortable abodes. They roam about entirely naked, except a girdle round the middle, and occasionally a skin thrown over their shoulders. They are not, however, insensible to rude ornament, for which purpose the skin is thickly coated with fish-oil, regardless of the horrible stench which it emits; to which embellishments are added the teeth of the kangaroo, the jaw-bones of large fishes, and the tails of dogs. On high occasions, they smear their faces with a species of red and white earth, which renders them perfectly hideous; to say nothing of the scars, sometimes tracing the forms of birds and beasts, which they cut into their bodies. M6antime they are well provided with arms, shields of bark or hard wood, and spears of various forms and lengths, either pointed, jagged, or barbed. These they throw with such skill, as usually to strike even at the distance of seventy yards. They have nothing that can be called war; yet their whole life is one continuous fight. The procuring of food, according to Collins, appeared to be quite a secondary object; the management of the spear and shield, agility in attacking and defending, and a display of constancy in enduring pain, seemed to be their first object in life. The only respectable mode of fighting is by single combat, the challenge to which is given and accepted with great alacrity. The laws of honour, as they are called, are as strictly observed as amongst the most punctilious European duelists; they even throw back their adversary's weapon, when it has flown harmless by them. Yet they do not hesitate, under the impulse of revenge, to commit midnight assassination; though AUSTRALASIA. 969 this is not sanctioned by public opinion, and always leads to bloody revenge. Their treatment of the female sex is of all other particulars the most atrocious. Their courtship consists in the most brutal violence. The intending husband, having contrived to find alone the unhappy victim of his inclination, begins by beating her to the ground with a club, then accumulates blows upon blows, till she becomes altogether senseless, when he drags her to his hovel, regardless of her striking against shrubs and stones, till, under such promising auspices, she is fixed in his domestic establishment. All their subsequent life is of a piece with this outset. Several of the colonists in vain attempted to count the scars with which the heads of these unfortunate females were variegated. These people seem to have nothing which can be called religion, but they have superstitions, such as a belief in spirits, and in some uncouth forms of witchcraft. The grandest ceremony of their life consists in a sort of initiation of the youth, by which they are entitled to assume spear and shield, and to fight. There is a general assemblage of the tribe and neighborhood, and, after a variety of strange ceremonies or dances, consisting chiefly in imitating the gestures and movements of the kangaroo, the youth has a tooth struck out, and is thereby invested with all the prerogatives of manhood. All attempts to wean them from this mode of life have been abortive. Bennillong, one of them, was induced to go to England, was there dressed after the English fashion, behaved with tolerable propriety, and appeared to enjoy himself; but immediately on his return, he found himself deserted and despised by his countrymen for these foreign attainments, and lost no time in resuming his nakedness, his wildness, his spear and his club. As is usual among savages, and in this case but too natural, they have done no more than add the vices of the newly arrived colonists to their own. They have learned drinking, thieving, and importunate begging. Endowed with great talents for mimicry, they readily acquire the language, and become complete adepts in the slang of St. Giles's; and in the war of words with the convicts, they fearlessly encounter the most able veteran, and generally come off victorious. The convict English population form, at present, the most prominent branch of society, being those, with a view to which the colony was actually formed, both that England might be rid of them, and the southern world be benefitted by them. These unhappy persons have here means of retrieving their character and place in social existence, which they could never have attained at home. The very community of penal infliction renders their situation less deeply humiliating. The term convict has, by tacit convention, been erased from the English language as spokon in New South Wales. On first landing, they are called canaries, in reference to the color of their habiliments in which they are invested: but after due probation, they are exalted to the name of government-men, which continues to be the received appellation. They are first employed in the public works, under strict surveillance; but as their conduct appears to admit of indulgence, they are distributed as farm servants among the new settlers. Of course, the experiment must, in many instances fail. The numerous runaways form a dangerous and destructive body, called the bush-rangers, who, in both colonies, but particularly in Van Diemen's Land, have often disturbed the peace of the interior districts, and rendered property, and even life precarious. They conduct their plunder on a great scale, and 970 AUSTRALASIA. even with formni of honor and courtesy which seem very foreign to its nature. The vigorous measures of government have now put down the sys tem; first, in the old colony, and now in the new. Of these misguided fugitives, some, under the most woful ignorance, imagine that, by wandering through the deserts of New Holland, they will come at length to some civilized country, Timor, China, and even Ireland; and one of them, after long wanderings, imagined he had found such a country, till it appeared that his devious course had brought him again within the fatal precincts of the colony. It is an observation important beyond all others, that the young men born in the colony, of convict parents, acquire generally a character the reverse of that of which the example is set to them by their progenitors. This example seems rather to act upon them as a warning of the misery and deg-adation which irregular conduct produces. The fair sex, we are sorry to find, are the most turbulent part of society, both in coming out, and after their arrival. They are said to place trust in many circumstances which may prevent the arm of the law from pressing on them with extreme severity, and the great disproportion of their number to that of the other sex, being as one to ten, gives to each an importance which they are apt too highly to value. So many are the candidates for any fair hand which may happen to fall vacant, that a state of widowhood is scarcely tenable for the shortest period; and the lady has hardly time to array herself in weeds, when arrangements are made for fresh nuptials. The young females being too mikch an object of courtship, and irregularity of conduct being no bar to the matrimonial state, they do not always confine themselves within the strict limits of propriety. The voluntary emigrants form a third class, not distinguished by such marked features. They come out with the view of finding or making a country and society as like as possible to what they had left at home. In the towns, especially, the habits of fashionable society in England are almost punctiliously copied, though of course on a reduced scale. The pride of station is said to be carried to an extravagant height, as is usual among those who have the least pretensions to it. But the most deep-rooted and unhappy distinction is that which the emigrants can scarcely fail to make between themselves and the freed convicts, or, as they are termed, emancipists. The emigrants pure refuse to hold any social intercourse with this class, and brand as confusionists those who admit them at all to their houses or society. SYDNEY, the capital of the New Southern World, is situated upon the cove bearing its name, which opens from the spacious basin of Port Jackson. The best houses are of white free-stone, or brick plastered, and have a light and airy appearance. Many of them being surrounded with gardens, they occupy a great extent of ground. The population of Sydney is 62,000. The hard material of the streets renders pnving unnecessary, but lighting has been lately introduced. A British ar is studiously given to everything; yet the parrots and other birds of sitrange note and plumage, and the show of oranges, melons, and lemons in the msrkeet, bespeak a foreign country; while a sadder tale is told by the gangs of convicts in the employ of government, marching backwards and forward&;rn military file, with white woolen frocks, and gray jackets besmeared with sundry numerals in black, white, and red; and sometimes, by way of punirnment, with the chains jingling on their legs. But the police is so good, thbt even AUSTRALASIA. 971 m this strange society property and person are said to be in security.'Elbowed by some daring highwayman on your left hand, and rubbed shoulders with by even a more desperate burglar on your right, while a footpad stops your way in front, and a pick-pocket pushes you behindyou may jostle your way through the crowd with the most perfect safety." The principal public buildings are the governor's house, built at various times and by successive governors from Phillip to Darling, and having in front a very fine plantation of English oaks and Cape pines, the walk round the outside of which forms the favorite recreation of the citizens; the barracks, occupying one entire side of the principal square; the convict hospital, a large tripartite stone building with verandahs all round to both stories, a smaller military hospital, a handsome convict barrack, a court and school house, &c. Sydney has two English churches, St. Philip's and St. James'; also a handsome Gothic Roman Catholic, a plain Presbyterian, and a large Wesleyan Methodist chapel. A monthly magazine was once published by the Wesleyans, chiefly with a view to religious objects, and several well established newspapers appear. VAN DIEMEN'S LAND is an insular appendage to the southern part of New Holland, but is of much smaller dimensions. It lies between 400 42' and 430 43' south latitude, and 1440 31' and 1480 22' east longitude, and is reckoned to contain an area of 27,192 square miles. It presents neither the same long and sharp mountain ranges, nor the same vast plains as the mainland. In general it is composed of alternate hill and dale, and even the high downs are generally'fit either for cultivation or pasturage. The chief lines both of mountain and river run north and south through the eastern part of the colony. Table Mountain, the most elevated hill in the island, nearly overhangs the southern settlement of Hobart Town, rising to the height of 3936 feet, being covered for nine months in the year with snow, and subject to violent whirlwinds. The harbors of Van Diemen's Land surpass those of any country in the world, not excepting even the admirable ones of New South Wales. This island was first discovered by Tasman, who surveyed its southern and part of its western shores, but not the northern and eastern, with which almost exclusively we are acquainted. It was afterwards observed in parts by Marion, Furneaux, Cook, and particularly by D'Entrecasteaux, who traced the remarkable channel which bears his name. All this time, however, it was believed to be a part of the continent; nor was it till Bass, in 1798, passed through the straits which are called after him, that its insular character was established. In 1803, Captain Bowen founded the first convict establishment at Risdon Cove, on the left bank of the Derwent, which was removed, in 1804, by Colonel Collins, to Hobart Town, on the right bank, in Sullivan Cove, about twelve miles up the river. Since that time the colony has been in a state of rapid increase, particularly during the last twenty years, when it became the favorite resort of voluntary emigration. The climate of Van Diemen's Land belongs decidedly to the temperate zone, and is therefore more cool and more congenial to a British constitution than that of the original colony. The natives of Van Diemen's Land, are, if possible, in a lower state than even those of the great continent. They are strangers to fishing, and to the construction of even the rudest canoes, but convey themselves in miserable rafts over any water they are obliged to cross. They are 972 AUSTRALASIA. unacquainted with the throwing stick; their spears are much less formidable, and their disposition more peaceable; but unfortunately, they have been inflamed with the most deadly hatred against the English. This deplorable circumstance appears to have been solely owing to the rashness of an officer, who, at an early period of the settlement, fired upon a party approaching, as there was afterwards reason to believe, with the most peaceable intentions. This incident appears to have made a permanent impression upon the minds of these savages; for ever since that time, they have seized every opportunity of attacking and killing the colonists; but the smallness of their numbers and courage has rendered their enmity far from terrible. Hobart Town possesses a harbor, perhaps the finest in the world. The Derwent, for three miles above the town, is navigable for the largest ves sels. The town is delightfully situated upon two hills, between which there runs a fine stream of water from the heights of Table Mountain, which towers above it. The place, having been from the first laid out upon a plan, is much more regularly built than Sidney, has good substantial houses of two stories high, with some handsome public buildings, among which are a brick church with an organ, a good gaol, and a large substantial quay. NEW ZEALAND ranks next to the countries now described, as the most important of the great southern insular masses. It ranges parallel to the south of New Holland, with a broad intervening expanse of ocean. It consists of two islands, but separated only by a strait, and composing properly only one country, lying between 340 and 48~ S. lat.;- being thus about 1000 miles in length; but the average breadth does not exceed 100 miles. The surface is estimated at 62,160 English square miles. Chains of high mountains run through both islands, which, in the former, rise to the height of 12,000 or 14,000 feet, and are buried for two-thirds of theii height in perpetual snow; presenting on the greatest scale all the alpine phenomena. From these heights numerous streams flow down, watering in their course the most fertile and enchanting valleys. The huge glaciers and plains of snow which cover their higher regions; the mighty torrents which pour down from them, forming stupendous cataracts; the lofty woods which crown their middle regions; the hills which wind along their feet, decked with the brightest vegetation; the bold cliffs and promontories which breast the might of the southern waves; the beautiful bays decked with numberless villages and canoes - all conspire to present a scene, which even the rude eye of the navigator cannot behold without rapture. The soil in the valleys, and in the tracts of land at all level, is more fertile than in New Holland, and, with due cultivation, would yield grain in abundance. It produces, even spontaneously and plentifully, roots fitted for human food, particularly those of a species of fern, which covers almost the whole country. The natives breed pigs, and cultivate some maize, yams, and potatoes; and there is a species of very strong flax, which serves not only for clothing, but fishing-lines, and various other purposes. The mountains are clothed with a profusion of fir trees, of a variety of species unknown in other countries, and rising to a magnificent height, which the tallest pines of Norway cannot rival. The natives are of a different race from those of New Holland, belonging rather to that Malay race which predominates in the South Sea Islands. They are tall and well formed, with large black eyes; they are intelligent, have made some progress in the arts of life, and are united into a certain form of political society. These circumstances, AUSTRALASIA. 973 however, have only tended to develope in a still more frightful degree those furious passions which agitate the breast of the savage. Each little society is actuated by the deepest enmity against all their neighbors; their daily and nightly thought is to surprise, to attack, to exterminate them; and when they have gained that guilty triumph, it is followed by the dire consummation of devouring their victims. Such was the catastrophe which, in 1809, upon the jealous pride of one of the chiefs, befell the entire crew of the ship Boyd, only two or three children being saved, and afterwards recovered by Mr. Berry. Yet to the members of their own tribe, or those whom they regard as friends, they are not only mild and courteous, but display the fondest attachment and most tender sensibility. Families live together in great harmony, and are seen assembled in pleasing and harmonious groups. On the death of their relations, they exhibit the most impassioned and affecting symptoms of grief, cutting their faces with pieces of shell or bone, till the blood flows and mixes with their tears. Several even of the females, who had formed an irregular connexion with the sailors, showed them every mark of faithful and tender attachment. They have a great turn for oratory, the chiefs making speeches of two or three hours accompanied with vehement gestures, to which those of the audience correspond; but we have yet no translated specimens of New Zealand eloquence. Their war-canoes are very large, adorned with much curious and elaborate carving. Great diligence is also exercised, and great pain endured, in bestowing upon their skins the unnatural ornament of tattooing; and the visages of the chiefs are often entirely covered over with various regular figures. This, however, is not effected without severe pain, causing even attacks of fever; but to shrink in any degree from the operation is considered as altogether derogatory to a manly spirit. They have also a horrid art, by which the heads of their enemies, being dried in an oven, and exposed to a stream of fresh air, are maintained in a state of perfect preservation. Their original arms consisted of clubs of stone and whalebone, of long and pointed spears, and of the pattoo-pattoo, or wooden battleaxe; but since the musket has been introduced to their knowledge, it has absorbed all their warlike regard; and the strength of a chief is counted, not by his men, but by his muskets. The report of fifty being in the possession of Korra-korra, spread the terror of his name for 200 miles round. The New Zealqnder has no idea of the pitched combats in the open field, which give a sort of chivalric character to the New Holland fighting; his baser aim is to steal upon his enemy, and massacre him, unprepared and defenceless. The entire population is estimated at upwards of 150,000. Several missionaries, animated by a noble spirit of philanthropy, have ventured to take up their abode among these ferocious hordes. They have not yet made much impression on their habits of barbarism, but they are viewed as friends, treated with kindness, and enter into their houses and fortified villages, without feeling the slightest apprehension. Occasionally, however, a tempting fat English missionary has been devoured by them, with a particular relish. NEW GUINEA is the largest mass of southern continent next to New Holland, being from 1200 to 1400 miles in length, and varying from 150 to 200 miles in breadth. There seems great reason to surmise that it is one of the finest countries in existence. 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The Dutch maps represent some of those on the west coast as covered with perpetual snow, which would imply, in this latitude, a height of 15,000 or 16,000 feet. The copious moisture which must flow down from these heights, in a climate so intensely tropical, can scarcely fail to generate a most rich vegetation, while the close contiguity and similar climate of the Spice Islands, afford a presumption, that their valued products may find here a congenial soil. The population, like that of New Holland, was found to consist of Papuans, or Oriental negroes, mingled with the still ruder race of the Haraforas, who inhabit the interior mountains. These Papuans appear to be a degree farther advanced in the social scale than the New IIollanders. This is shown in the very singular construction of their huts, raised on elevated planks or stages, resting upon poles that are fixed usually in the water. This scheme is supposed by Forrest to be adopted with a view to security from the attacks of enemies, and particularly of the Haraforas. These houses, which are divided among a number of families, have a door both towards land and sea, so that, according to the quarter whence danger comes, they may betake themselves either to their vessels or to the woods. NEW BRITAIN and NEW IRELAND, a series of large groups of islands, beginning near the north-eastern boundary of New Guinea, ranges in a circuitous line parallel to New Holland, and in the direction of New Zealand, though stopping considerably short of it. Their aspect is various, but in general mountainous and often rugged, as in the other regions of Australasia; like which, also, they contain valleys, and even plains, covered with the most profuse vegetation. The inhabitants are divided between the two great races, the Papuan, or Oriental negro, little, ugly, and black; and the Malay, taller, of a dingy brown, and of more pleasing features. All the islands exhibit only varieties of the most savage form of social existence. The NEW HEBRIDES are a group situated to the south-east of the above, first discovered by Quiros, in 1606, who gave it the name of the Archipelago del Espiritu Santo: Bougainville afterwards touched at these islands, to which he gave the name of the New Cyclades; while Cook, who examined them more diligently than any of his predecessors, bestowed upon them that of New Hebrides. These islands are generally covered with high mountains, from some of which flame is seen issuing. The territory, as usual in volcanic countries, is extremely fertile, and finely watered by numerous rivulets. The natives belong generally to the Papuan race; but those of Mallicolo are, even beyond its general average, diminutive, mean, and ugly; while those of Tanna are, on the contrary, taller and handsomer than almost any other specimen yet seen. They are both extremely active, agile, and intelligent: the Mallicolese, in particular appeared a most determined and energetic race. They go almost naked, and have few or no arts and manufactures; but their weapons are constructed with peculiar skill; and the tribes are almost at perpetual war with each other; yet in their social intercourse they are mild and friendly. Forster reckons the population at 200,000, of which he supposes Tanna to contain 20,000, and Mallicolo 50,000. NEW CALEDONIA, a large island, 250 miles long, and 60 broad, forms POLYNESIA. 977 the southern termination of the great chain of archipelagoes. It is traversed by a continuous range of mountains, which rear their conical heads to a considerable height, and throw out branches, which present their rocky faces towards the sea. Though water is somewhat abundant, a great part of the soil is so rocky and sandy as to be by no means fertile. Forster rates the population at 50,000; but D'Entrecasteaux does not think it can exceed half that number, as it is almost wholly confined to the coast, where a supply of fish can be obtained. The natives afford decided specimens of the rude and diminutive forms of the Papuan or Oriental negro. They have been painted in the most opposite colors by Cook and by D'Entrecasteaux; by the one as mild, friendly, and courteous; by the other as fierce warriors, and devourers of human flesh; but the fact is, that, in savage life, nothing is more common than the presentation of these two extremes, according to the circumstances under which the people are viewed. POLYNESIA, POLYNESIA, or " the many isles," is the name which geographers have now generally agreed to give to numerous groups with which a great part of the Pacific Ocean is studded. While the islands which compose Australasia are of such magnitude as to approach the character of continents, those of Polynesia are so small that most of them can scarcely aspire above the diminutive appellation of islets. Yet they are so numerous, and follow in such close succession, that they may properly be considered as a region of the globe bearing a peculiar aspect and character. The Pacific Ocean, over which these numerous islands are scattered, is a vast expanse, extending, in its greatest breadth, 150 degrees, or nearly one-half of the globe. It is by no means, however, completely filled with the groups of Polynesia. From the shores of Asia and Australasia, indeed, in an east and south-east direction, they closely follow each other to about 180~ west longitude, or for the space of nearly 1000 of longitude. From north to south they range between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, nearly 50 degrees of latitude. Beyond these limits, northward to the Aleutian Islands, eastward to the continent of America, and southward to the Antarctic Ocean, scarcely a rock rises to interrupt the unbroken waste of the Pacific. These islands rank with the most fruitful and smiling regions on the surface of the globe. Their situation, altogether between the tropics,. and beaten by the rays of an equatorial sun, might have given them a parched soil and a burning and pestilential climate. These evils are averted by the moisture and breezes from such an extent of surrounding ocean, and by the interior mountains, which rise, in many instances, to a very lofty height. Several of the Polynesian peaks approach the elevation of those in the great continents. In the Sandwich Islands, Mouna Roa is about 16,000 feet, Mouna Koah about 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. In Otaheite, Oroeno rises to 10,800, and Tobronu to 9,500 feet. Most of the other 62 978 POLYNESIA. islands haie mountains inferior, but considerable. An exception is, indeed, formed by the coral islands, those peculiar structures raised from the bottom of the sea by the incessant labor of myriads of insects. As the formation ceases as soon as it reaches the surface of the ocean, these islands are merely a few feet above the level, and are visible to the navigator only by the trees which rise from their flat surface. The higher islands are indented by deep bays, and finely variegated by streams descending from the mountains; but their extent does not admit the formation of rivers or lakes of any importance. The discovery of the Polynesian Islands has been one of the leading achievements of modern maritime enterprise. They were entirely unknown till a period subsequent to the discovery of America, and of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope. In 1513, however, Magellan passed through the Straits which bear his name, and measured the entire breadth of the Pacific. He sailed southward of most of these islands, touching only at the Ladrones, whence he proceeded to the Philippines. Drake and Cavendish, whose circumnavigation was connected with their attacks upon the Spanish possessions in Peru and lMexico, crossed the ocean too far north to come in contact with the principal groups. The Spaniards, about the end of the century, made considerable efforts to explore the South Sea from Peru. Mendana, in 1575, discovered in its eastern quarter the Solomon Isles; and twenty years afterwards, in proceeding to found a colony there, he lighted upon a group called friom him the Mendana, or from his employer, the Marquesas Islands. Quiros, in the voyage distinguished by the discovery of New Holland, passed a considerable and fine island, which he named Sagittaria, and which there is great reason to suppose was Otaheite. The Dutch succeeded in the career of austral discovery. In 1615-16, Schouton and Le Maire doubled Cape Horn, discovering Staaten Land, and the Straits bearing the name of the latter navigator. About the same time Tasman, from Java, performed the important voyage in which, after discovering Van Dieman's Land and New Zealand, he arrived at the interesting group of the Friendly Islands. Roggewein, also, towards the end of the century, in crossing the Pacific, made several discoveries, and in particular, that of Easter Island. It was England, however, which, under the reign and auspices of George III., mainly achieved the exploration of this remote and interesting portion of the globe. The series of voyages fitted out by government, began with those of Byron, Wallis and Carteret. Wallis was the first who certainly touched on the beautiful shores of Otaheite; and a number of detached islands were brought to light by these navigators. But the three voyages of Cook, between 1767 and 1779, formed the grandest era of Oceanic discovery. If the Society and Friendly Islands had been already known, he was the first who made careful observation on the character and social state of the remarkable tribes by whom they are inhabited. The important group of the Sandwich Islands was entirely discovered by him, though from an unhappy misunderstanding, they proved the fatal scene of his untimely death. The operations of the same illustrious navigator in the Australasian Islands, on the shores of America, andin the arctic seas north and south of these latitudes, do not belong to the present subject. At the close of the career of Cook, all the leading outlines of the Polynesian POLYNESIA. 979 region has been explored; and the efforts of Vancouver, his successor, were chiefly employed in completing the survey of the north-west coast of America. Yet ample and curious gleanings were still left for Bougainville, the contemporary of Cook; for P6rouse, Labillardigre, and D'Entrecasteaux, afterwards sent out by the French Government, who still more recently employed Freycinet, Duperrey, D'Urville and Laplace. American navigators have made some important discoveries, and some interesting observations. Something still remained for the Russian navigators, Krusenstern and Kotzebue, and for Captain Beechey, not to mention other names of secondary importance. There probably remain still detached islands, and even small groups, in this great expanse of ocean, to reward the search of future navigators. European intercourse, during the present century, has effected a remarkable change upon these islands. Among the most active agents have been the English and American missionaries: a party of the former, sent out by the London society, were in 1797 landed in Otaheite, by Captain Wilson, from the ship Duff. Their labors were attended with little sucess, till after the lapse of nearly twenty years, when, in consequence of events, which will be noticed in treating of that island, they succeeded in overthrowing idolatry, with the bloody and superstitious rites connected with it, and in acquiring an almost parmount influence over prince and people. This influence they have, in subservience to their main object, employed in studiously instructing the natives in civilized habits, and the arts and industry of Europe; efforts which have been attended with a certain, though not complete success. A similar change, within the last thirty years, has been effected within the Sandwich Islands, by the agency of American missionaries. Another cause has acted powerfully upon this quarter of the world. Since Great Britain, the United States, and other great maritime nations have extended their navigation to the most distant seas, these islands, once considered so remote, have been included within the regular commercial lines by which the ocean is traversed. As the route from Britain to her Australian settlements by Cape Horn is nearly equidistant with that by the Cape of Good Hope, vessels frequently prefer it, and are thus led to touch for refreshments at the Society Islands. The Sandwich Islands are situated in the route to the whale fishery in the Northern Pacific, and in that of the fur trade from north-west America to China. Hence their harbors are sometimes crowded with vessels, and American merchants have even settled in their ports. The mariners and missionaries, two very opposite characters, do not always act in unison, or report very favorably of each other; but they have combined in producing a somewhat grotesque mixture of the arts, manners and civilization of Europe, with the rude and licentious habits to which the people were previously addicted. The SOCIETY ISLANDS have excited a higher interest than any other group in the South Sea. Though not the largest, they are the most beautiful, the most fruitful, and those in which civilization and polished manners have made the greatest progress. Otaheite, or Tahiti, the largest and finest of these islands, ranks always as the brightest gem of the Pacific. This celebrated island, discovered probably by Quiros, under the name of Sagittaria, re-discovered by Wallis, and fully explored by Cook, consists of two peninsulas, one about ninety, the other thirty miles in circumference. The interior rises into mountains 980 POLYNESIA. loftier than any others in those seas, except the colossal peaks in the Sandwich Islands. Oroeno and Tobronu are respectively of the height of 10,800 and 9,500 feet; but in this genial climate, trees and verdure clothe their almost inaccessible summits, and the scenery is equally distinguished by grandeur and beauty. These mountains compose as it were the islands; only a narrow plain intervenes between them and the sea, while their cliffs in many places breast the waves. The greater part of the surface consists of beautiful hills and slopes, watered by clear streams, which dash in numerous cascades. Otaheite is nearly covered by one entire forest of breadfruit, cocoa-nut, banana, and other valuable trees, a few spots only being cleared for the culture of the yam. The fruits ripen at different seasons, according as the mountain slopes have a northern or southern exposure. The Otaheitans presented the most complete example, both of what is engaging in manners and dissolute in conduct among the South Sea Islanders. The profligate association of the arreoy was peculiar to it. In this island, however, the influence of Christianity and civilization has been earliest and most fully felt. On the 6th of March, 1797, Captain Wilson landed from the ship Duff a party of missionaries, sent out by the generous zeal of the London society. Although, however, they were well treated, and listened to, they could not boast, in 1808, of having made a single genuine convert. They soon after quitted Otaheite, and left only a few of their number in Eimeo. A remarkable change, however, then ensued. Pomarre, attacked by a body of rebellious subjects, was driven out of Otaheite, and forced to take refuge in Eimoe. In this distress, his mind was opened to the instructions of the missionaries, and after being with his family among the most zealous votaries of the ancient superstition, he made an open profession of Christianity. The cooking and eating of a turtle, always before held as a tabood animal, first publicly announced the change. Several distinguished chiefs soon followed the example. The daring experiment made by one of them named Hetotte, is particularly recorded by Captain Bee they. It had been hitherto an article of undoubted faith that whoever should eat any portion of the flesh of a hog offered in sacrifice would be punished with instant death. Hetotte determined to make the awful trial: he stole a portion of the sacred pork, retired to a corner, ate it, and, in dread suspense, awaited the issue. Finding, however, that, instead of the threatened doom, he experienced from this food, the usual nourishment and refreshment. he not only abandoned the superstition himself, but denounced it to all his countrymen. After Eimeo had been thus christianised, Pomarre was invited back to Otaheite by a strong body of adherents. His first attempt was unsuccessful, but in 1815 he completely defeated the rebel and pagan army, and, having subjected the whole island, overthrew the temples and altars, setting up the holy log, supposed to be frequently inspired, as a post in his kitchen. The population of the island was estimated by Cook at upwards of 120,000, which was probably from the first much exaggerated. Captain Wilson, after a careful enumeration in 1797, found little more than 16,000; and these have since diminished one-half. This depopulation seems sufficiently accounted for by Mr. Ellis from the bloody wars among themselves, with the introduction from Europe of contagious diseases and of the use of ardent spirits. The other Society islands are generally fine and fruitful, but do not present any very striking distinctive characters. Eimeo, or Morea, discovered POLYNESIA. 981 by Wallis, has a peak 3000 feet high, and broad ridges cross it in various directions and form a rocky coast; but wide well-wooded valleys intervene, and the port of Taloo is one of the finest in the South Sea. But Eimeo is chiefly distinguished as still the centre of that European and Christian civilization which originated there. It contains the South Sea Academy, a printing office and a cotton factory; all, it is to be regretted, on too small a scale, and making too little progress. Ulietea, or Raiatea, is, next to Otaheite, the largest of the groupe, being nearly sixty miles in circumference, and having closely adjoining to it Otaha, about half that size. Both are encircled by a coral reef, bordered by numerous islets. Ulietea is governed by a separate king; the people are smaller, darker in color, and somewhat ruder than those of Otaheite. Huahine, on which is a flourishing mission, has a fine harbor. Borabora, or Bolabola, is a bold, finely wooded, and picturesque island, governed by separate chiefs, and inhabited by a fierce hardy race, who afford a place of refuge to outlawed and desperate characters from other quarters. Of smaller islands, Maitea, on whose coast pearl oysters are found, Maurua, Maupili, and Toobouai, are deserving of mention. The ARCHIPELAGO of Low ISLANDS, is the name given to an almost numberless range of islets, extending E. S. E. from the Society Islands, and passed into the route thither from Cape Horn. Their origin and structure are extremely remarkable. Coralline plants, growing at the bottom of the ocean, harbor a class of lithophytic insects, which, during their life, form round them a substance that, after their death, becomes hard as stone. The rockwork of one generation affords a basis to that of the succeeding, and layers are thus placed over each other till they reach the surface of the water, and form islands. As soon as the rock is exposed to the air, the insects quit it, leaving it perforated by numerous hollows; but they work for some time laterally, forming, immediately under water, concealed tablereefs, which have given occasion to numerous and fatal shipwrecks. Meantime, from amid the interstices of the rocks plants spring up, and, on their decay, are converted into soil, till the new island is covered with luxuriant vegetation. The formation, also, seems to go on very slowly. The wreck of the Matilda, left in 1802 on a coral reef, was found by Captain Beechey, in 1825, unaltered in position, and without any coral having grown over it. That navigator also remarks, that these islands are found all in the direction of the trade-wind; that the windward side is the highest, while the other is only a half-drowned reef. The surface displays in general a blooming but little varied vegetation. The leading tree is the pandanus, and next to it the cocoa-nut, both valuable, and yielding nutritive fruits. The people are little known, as the slender supplies to be obtained, and the dangerous nature of the coasts, have induced mariners to sail through them as quickly as possible. Some of them are thinly peopled, some entirely desert, and some alternately occupied and abandoned. The people are considered by Hassel to be of the Malay race, and to resemble the Society Islanders; but Beechey, who held more intercourse with them than any previous navigator, describes them as more allied to the Oriental negro, and in a very low state of civilization. PITCAIRN ISLAND, a small detached spot, standing almost alone, near the eastern extremity of this range, has attracted a remarkable interest, in consequence of events which made it the abode of a British population. 982 POLYNESIA. In 1789, Captain Bligh visited Otaheite, with a view of transplanting the bread-fruit tree into the West Indies. After leaving the island, however, a violent mutiny arose among his crew, who, headed by one named Christian, turned him out with a handful of adherents, into a boat, and left them in the midst of the Pacific. Thus abandoned, it seemed almost certain that he must perish; yet by a train of almost miraculous efforts and events, he succeeded in reaching Britain in safety. The mutineers first returned to Otaheite, and then made an attempt to settle on the small neighboring island of Toobouai; but, dreading discovery by British vessels touching at these islands, Christian determined to seek some spotmore solitary and remote. He fixed upon Pitcairn Island, discovered by Captain Carteret, and arrived there in January, 1790, with eight of his comrades, six native men, and twelve females, whom they had invited on board, and then carried off. In this ill-composed society, however, the most dreadful dissensions soon arose. Conflicts took place, especially between the natives and Europeans, and Christian became an early victim. In ten years thirteen men had been killed, and there remained alive only one, named Adams, with six women and nineteen children. Adams, after witnessing such scenes of misery and crime, had been led to habits of serious reflection and a careful perusal of the Scriptures. He now determined thoroughly to reform himself, and, if possible, his companions. The Otaheitean females proved tractable, and were easily converted; and the children, trained in strict principles of religion, grew up a race directly opposite to that from which they sprang. Captain Beechey, in 1825, found thirty-six males, and thirty females, forming a happy little society, well instructed, orderly and friendly. They felt, however, a desire to see something more of the'world of which they heard occasionally from passing navigators. Adams is since dead. EASTER ISLAND, or Vaihou, stands entirely by itself, considerably east of the above, and forming the extremity on that side of the great Polynesian range. It was first discovered, in 1722, by Roggewein, and has since been frequently visited, as it lies in the direct route from Cape Horn to the Society Islands. Though only twenty miles in circuit, it has excited much interest from its physical aspect and social state. The shore is bold and rocky, and the whole island bears the most evident marks of volcanic action. The natives are a handsome race, especially the females; but the gigantic size ascribed to them by Roggewien is not confirmed by later observers, and their frames seemed formed more for activity than strength. They exhibit, in the extreme, the gay and polished address, with the propensity of thieving and licentiousness, which distinguish the Society Islands; and Captain Beechey's experience showed that they did not scruple to have recourse to violence in order to compass their ends. There were found among these people some singular traces of an ancient civilization. There were spacious morais, in the vicinity of which were found colossal statues of stone, about fourteen feet high, representing, though in a rude manner, the upper part of the human form. The present inhabitants, however, are so far from sharing the art by which these were constructed, that they have been continually defacing them till they have almost entirely disappeared, and Captain Beechey found only a few fragments remaining. On the west, also, the Society Islands have, as an appendage, a small and scattered group, which remained without a name, till Krusenstern gave to it that of Cook, its discoverer; a tribute scarcely worthy of so great a POLYNESIA. 988 name. COOK'S ISLANDS are small, low, and of coral formation; they are deficient in water, which is found only in ponds and wells, yet they are tole rably peopled and cultivated. The state of society nearly resembles that in Otaheite, and the missionaries have succeeded in converting a consider able number. Mangeea, Wateo, Whitoutack6, and Rarotoa, are the prin cipal. The people of this last are very civilized, and their chief has embraced Christianity. The SANDWICH ISLANDS form as it were a solitary group far north of thle general range, and fully 1500 miles distant from both the Mulgrave and the Marquesas. They are ten in number, of which eight are inhabited, and two are barren rocks; but of nearly 7000 square miles which the whole contain, 4,500 are occupied by Owhyhee; and the others are thus comparatively very small. Woahoo, Mowee, and Atooi, are, however, not inconsiderable. The natural aspect of these islands is grand and awful. The mountains of Mouna Roa and Mouna Koa rise completely to an alpine height, and have their summits wrapped in perpetual snow. A party from the Blonde reached nearly, but not quite, to the summit of Mouna Koa. The mountain was almost entirely composed of lava, and exhibited numerous traces of extinct volcanoes. They reached, also, on the flank of Mouna Roa, the volcano of Peli, where that phenomenon appears more awful and varied than in any other part of the world. The scene here presented is thus described by Captain Lord Byron:" Within a mile of the crater, our progress was suddenly arrested by finding ourselves on the edge of a precipitous ledge of seventy feet perpendicular height, clothed with trees and gigantic ferns. A winding but very steep path conducted to the bottom; and, after moving onwards a few hundred yards more, we came to a second ledge, whence we heard the deep roaring of the volcano, like the sounds proceeding from a blast furnace. And now, at every step, we perceived yawning chasms, of unknown depth, from some of which columns of black smoke issuing told of what was going on in the realms of fire below. At length we reached the edge of the crater; but words are totally inadequate to describe the effect pioduced on us by the first sight of that dark fiery gulf. From its brink, where we stood, we looked down for more than 1300 feet, over rocks of lava and columns of sulphur, between whose antique fissures a few green shrubs and juicy berrybearing plants had fixed themselves to a rugged plain, where many a cone, raised by the action of the fire below, was throwing up columns of living flame, and whirls of smoke and vapor, while floods of liquid fire were slowly winding through scorise and ashes, here yellow with sulphur, and there black, or gray, or red, as the materials which the flames had wrought on varied. Not less than fifty cones of various height, appeared below, as the funnels of the various operations going on. At least one-half of these were in activity, but it appears that the same are by no means constantly so; nay, that often older cones fall in; and new ones are formed elsewhere in the bottom of the pit. Some eject stones and fragments of rock, while from their dark and sulphur-colored flanks, lava, and sometimes water, issues: many of the cones emit vapours, which condensed, form beautiful beds of sulphur; others are distinguished by the wreathed columns of white and black, that indicate steam and smoke, hurled round each other by the wind, but never mixing." Captain King, in 1779, estimated the population of these islands at 984 POLYNESIA. 400,000; but the American missionaries reduce the number to about 150,000. The natives are tall and robust, especially the chiefs, who here, as in other islands, appear like a superior race to the lower orders. As compared with the Otaheitans, they are of a dark brown complexion; and the females do not display the same softened graces. But these islanders are distinguished above all other inhabitants of the South Sea by diligence and skill in the pursuits of industry. While the Otaheitean, in voluptuous ease, subsists chiefly on the spontaneous bounties of nature, the Sandwich Islander has carefully improved almost every spot susceptible of cultivation. The taro root, on which he chiefly subsists, requires a soil not only tilled, but inundated; the fields on which it grows, therefore, are enclosed by stone fences, and watered by irrigating canals. In manufactures, canoebuilding, and fishery, these islarders display the same active industry. Their general conduct is open, horrable, and friendly; yet they are easily kindled to fierce resentment, especially by any wrong against their chiefs. The people have been peculiarly distinguished by their efforts to raise themselves to the level of European arts and civilization. In this career they were first led by Tamahama I., who, about the year 1794, with the assistance of Vancouver, and of Young and Davis, two English seamen, began to form a small navy, which soon amounted to twenty vessels, some of seventy tons burden: he had disciplined a small body of troops in the Eu ropean manner, and erected a fort defended by cannon. His son, Riho Riho, in 1819 embraced Christianity, and abolished idolatrous worship. Still farther to promote the improvement of the country, he and his queen paid a visit to England, where they were received with the utmost courtesy; but, unfortunately, both were seized with contagious fever, and died. His son being a minor, political influence was shared by several female relations and chiefs; but the same system has been, on the whole, maintained; and though one queen endeavored to renew the festive and tumultuary rites of the ancient superstition, the chiefs refused to concur. For some time scarcely any religion was substituted for the one abolished; but missionaries from the United States have since made great efforts for the instruction of the natives, and have established an extensive influence. Schools have been established, in which a considerable proportion of the population has learned to read; churches have been erected; a printing-press has been for some years in operation; several school-books, and editions of the bible, have been printed in the language Of the natives: the useful arts have been introduced; and a gradual improvement in the morals and the manners of the people has taken place. The commercial activity already noticed prevails chiefly at Honolulu, in the island of Oahu. The cluster of islands which is now commonly called the Archipelago of Mendana consists of two groups, named the MARQUESAS and the WASHINGTON ISLANDS. The former, long the only part known, was discovered in 1596 by the Spanish navigator, Alvaro Mendana, who gave to them the name of the Marquis of Mendoza, then viceroy of Peru. After being long forgotten, they were rediscovered and examined with considerable attention by Cook. The more northern group was first visited, in 1791, by the American Captain Ingraham, and then, in 1792, by Marchand; but the American's discovery being prior, his name of " Washington Islands" has POLYNESIA. 985 been generally recognized. They were examined in 1804 with some attention by Krusenstern, and have since been frequently touched at by British and American ships. These islands are elevated, and the mountains, rising to the height of 4000 or 5000 feet, are extremely broken and craggy, while a sandy belt extends along the sea; but the intermediate valleys are singularly fertile and picturesque, copiously watered by streams which descend in numerous cascades, one of which, in Nukahiwa, being 2000 feet high, is among the most beautiful in the world. Nature, in providing the people with the bread-fruit, the cocoa-nut, and the banana, affords them subsistence almost without labor. They add only a few plantations of yams and taro, and reserve their chief labor for the plant which yields the intoxicating liquor of kawa, and for that from which their mats are fabricated. The domestic animals are hogs and poultry, the dog being wanting. The men of these islands are described as tall, robust, and the most finely formed of almost any known race. They would not, it is asserted, lose by a comparison with the most perfect models of ancient sculpture. The character of these islanders displays the usual contrasts of savage life; in their ordinary intercourse they are friendly, open, and engaging; but they carry on war with the most deadly ferocity, piercing the brain of the vanquished enemy, and eagerly drinking his blood. The islands are divided among a number of independent chiefs and tribes. The missionaries have made some attempts to communicate Christianity and civilization, but hitherto with little success. The FRIENDLY ISLANDS form a fine and interesting group, considerably to the west of Otaheite. With a single exception, they present nothing of that lofty aspect, or those symptoms of volcanic origin, which distinguish the large islands hitherto described. They consist of a basis of madrepore, raised apparently from the bottom of the ocean, by the wellknown action of insects; and the coasts are encircled by dangerous coral reefs. The ground rises not in general more than 20 or 30 feet above the sea; nor do the highest hills exceed 100 or 150 feet. Hence they are not, like the high islands, irrigated by copious streams; and the people are in many places obliged to procure an inferior water from wells or ponds. Yet the soil is almost throughout exceedingly rich; and the natives carefully improve it, keeping their plantations in excellent order, adding to the spontaneous abundance of the banana and the bread-fruit by the careful cultivation of the yam and other roots. The double canoes, composed of pieces sewed together, are sixty or seventy feet long, and about five broad, and the two parts, six or seven feet asunder, being united by a. platform, render the vessel spacious and commodious, while it is capable of navigating with safety even distant seas. The natives of the Friendly Islands are of a dark brown complexion; the men are muscular, with broad shoulders, and the women are often deficient in delicacy of form and features; but many of both sexes present models of almost perfect beauty, and their expression is generally mild and agreeable. Their character has been drawn in more flattering colors than that of almost any other people of the South Sea. They have a complicated system of superstition, worshipping upwards of 300 eatooas, or deities, which preside over the sky, the rain and other elements, and assume often the forms of serpents, lizards, and dolphins. The FEEJEE ISLANDS, situated to the north-west of the Tonga group, 986 POLYNESIA. are so closely continuous, that they may properly be considered as forming part of the same archipelago. They were partially discovered first by Tasman, afterwards by Cook, and have been more fully observed by Bligh and some American vessels; yet they are still very imperfectly known. The NAVIGATORS' ISLANDS may also be considered as belonging to the Friendly Archipelago, of which they compose the north-east portion. They were partially seen by Mendana, then by Schouten, afterwards more fully by Roggewein, who gave them the name of Bauman's Islands, changed since by Bougainville to Navigators', which does not seem more applicable to these islanders than to the other Polynesians; yet the name being now established, it will, perhaps, be vain to attempt to change it to IHamoa. The interior is elevated, and the rocks seem to exhibit marks of volcanic origin; but the mountains are clothed to the'summit with lofty trees, and the wooded valleys beneath, watered by numberless streams and rills, present an enchanting landscape. The men are of almost colossal height, and finely formed; their complexion nearly white, though in the adults completely concealed by tattooing. In the construction of their houses and canoes, they are at least equal to the other Polynesians; and their clothes are woven with a skill not equalled in Otaheite. Respecting their moral qualities, the reports have been very opposite. The CAROLINES form a very extensive and numerous range, the most western af Polynesia, and extending for upwards of 30 degrees, or about 2,000 miles. They lie north, while the Society and Friendly Islands are south of the equator. A few of them are high and peaked, though they do not attain the alpine elevation of those of Eastern Polynesia, being supposed not to rise much above 3,000 feet: all the others are low and of coral formation. They have been among the latest and most imperfectly known in the South Sea. In productions they resemble the rest of Polynesia, except that the bread-fruit abounds only in the eastern islands; and the hog is unknown unless in the Pelew group, where it has been introduced by Europeans; so that fish forms almost the only animal food. They are situated in a most tempestuous ocean, exposed to violent hurricanes, one of which often sweeps away the entire produce of an island; yet the people are still more at home on the waves than even the rest of the South Sea Islanders. Besides drawing from them a copious supply of fish, they equip large barks with sails, and by the aid only of the stars navigate across the stormy seas to the Ladrones. The LADRONE or Marianne Islands form an early known and celebrated group, almost immediately north of the Carolines. It was discovered by M[agellan in the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1512. He gave it the name of Los Ladrones, from the thievish propensities of the natives; but the Spaniards, who, finding it in their way from Mexico to the Philippines, formed a settlement there, substituted the name of the Mariannes, in honor of their reigning queen. By some navigators, and particularly by Anson, they were celebrated as completely a paradise; and though the impression was evidently much heightened by the previous long and exhausting voyages, they seem really to possess all the advantages of the most favored Polynesian groups. The natives in the three principal islands, estimated, on the discovery, at 40,000, were a remarkable people, who had, in some respects, made greater progress in the arts than the other South Sea islanders. They were, indeed, very inferior to the Otaheiteans MALAYASIA. 987 in clothing; the men being almost naked, and the women only wearing a small apron; and their household furniture, though neat, was very limited: but their agriculture and canoe-building were fully equal; and they had the remarkable superiority of possessing a rude species of coin, and of having erected spacious structures dedicated seemingly to religious purposes. These were composed of an inner and outer range of pyramidal columns, crowned by a semicircular dome; the whole composed of sand and stone, cemented together and covered with gypsum. Civilization was also indicated by the high rank held by the female sex, who were exempted not only from oppressive labor, but from the degradation connected with the practice of polygamy. The wife, if slighted, could return to her parents, carrying with her the whole of the household goods; while, if she herself proved unfaithful, the husband might indeed kill her seducer, but was obliged to send her home uninjured. When the Spaniards, in 1678, formed an establishment in these islands as a place of refreshment for the Manilla galleon, they endeavored, as usual, to impose their sway and their religion on the natives, who strenuously resisted both; and in the struggle the greater part of them were exterminated. A few found refuge in the Carolines; others fell victims to pestilential diseases; and the small remnant can scarcely be distinguished from their conquerors. I ALAYASIA. THE East India Archipelago is the name usually given to a range of fine and large islands, lying east of Hindostan, and south of Further India and of China. Although they have few political ties with each other, and each island is even subdivided into separate states, the aspect of nature, the state of civilization, the peculiar character of the people, present such a similarity, that they may be advantageously treated under one head. The principal islands of this range are Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Molucca or Spice Islands, and the Philippines; and it includes, also, several smaller islands and groups. The archipelago, in general, has on the east the Pacific, on the west the Indian Ocean; and seas and straits, connected with these, separate it on the north from Further India and China, on the south from the great islands of New Holland and New Guinea. Situated almost directly beneath the equator, it extends from east to west somewhat more than thirty degrees, or 2,100 miles. Mountains, in lofty ranges, and bearing often a volcanic character, traverse the interior of all the great islands. Mount Ophir, in Sumatra, according to the measurements of Captain Nairne, rises to the height of 13,842 feet. The peaks of this tropical region, however, seldom exhibit that dreary and desolate aspect usual at go great an elevation. On the contrary, they are crowned almost to their pinnacles with lofty forests, luxuriant shrubs, and aromatic plants, presenting the most varied and picturesque scenery. Rivers cannot attain any great magnitude, in a region thus broken into islands, each of which has a high chain of mountains extending through 988 MALAYASIA. its length, which leaves only a plain of moderate breadth between it and the sea. The streams ate numerous, and highly beneficial for irrigation. They are perennial, produced by rains which, in countries so near the equator, fall constantly throughout the year; while those of Hindostan are dry during six months. Many of them form at their mouth commodious harbors, and minister to the purposes of trade; but, from the causes above stated, can be only of limited and local importance. Lakes, from the same structure, are comparatively few; though some, imperfectly known, exist in the interior of the mountain regions, particularly of Sumatra and Luconia. The condition of these islands, during the classic ages, appears enveloped in impenetrable obscurity. Ptolemy, who shows some knowledge even of China and the continent beyond India, dsscribes indeed some islands scattered through this sea, and, in particular, Jaba-diu, which is probably Java; but his delineation corresponds with the real position and magnitude neither of this nor the other islands. The deficiency is not supplied by any native records. Considerable revolutions seem to have taken place, about the twelfth century, in the principal of these islands. Hindoo colonies had by this time introduced into Java the religion and literature of Boodh, mixed with that of Brahma, and several powerful empires, ruled by Hindoo sovereigns, were, during this and the following centuries, established in different parts of the island. Among these, Brambanan, Janggolo, and Pajajaran, appear to have been at periods extensive and powerful; but the dynasty of Mojapahit, both from tradition and surviving monuments, must have been extensive beyond all the others, stretching its sway even over part of Sumatra. About the twelfth century, also, the Malays, making an extensive migration from the plain of Menangkabao, in the interior of Sumatra, spread themselves over Malacca, Singapore, and Borneo, and rendered themselves, what they have ever since been, the most conspicuous people in the Archipelago. The conversion to the Mahometan faith of Sumatra and Java, the two most important End improved of the India islands, made an important change in their political condition. It appears to have taken place, in the former island, about the beginning of the fourteenth century; but, in Java, not till about 150 years later. This conversion was effected, not by priests or warriors, but by merchants from Arabia, who had been long attracted to these islands by the commerce in spices. Having settled there in considerable numbers, they at length began propagating their faith, first by persuasion, but, when a number of converts had once been made, they spread it, as usual with the votaries of this faith, by persecution and the sword. These mercantile apostles became chieftains and princes, and, after a series of bloody struggles, had established in both islands a number of petty kingdoms, in all of which they either ruled or held a considerable influence. The arrival of the Portuguese by the Cape of Good Hope caused a memorable revolution in the whole Eastern world, and was peculiarly felt by the islands of this archipelago. In 1511, fourteen years after the voyage of Gama, that people conquered Malacca, and in the same year penetrated to Bantam and the Moluccas. They made repeated attempts upon the maritime states in Sumatra; but, these being then vigorously ruled, the MALAYASIA. 989 invaders were unable to make any permanent impression Their chief object was to obtain full possession of the Spice Islands, on account of their rich products; but they were encountered by the Spaniards, who had established themselves in the Philippines. After some sharp contests, however, the latter people agreed to waive their claims, in consideration of a payment of 350,000 ducats. The oppressions of the Portuguese roused a general confederacy againt them, which was, however, baffled by the heroism of Galvan; and that virtuous governor introduced a conciliatory system, though it was ill supported by his successors. The Dutch, a new power, who in the course of the sixteenth century sprung up from beneath Spanish oppression, vWere, after the union of Spain and Portugal, placed in an attitude of regular hostility with both these countries. It was only, howerer, by timid and cautious steps that attempts were made to dispute Spanish supremacy in the Indian seas. But the maritime power of Holland continually increased, while that of her antagonists diminished, so that she at length first contended on equal terms, and then gained the superiority. Her ambition was peculiarly attracted by the Indian islands, and she successively drove her antagonists from all the positions which they had occupied. Soon she herself had to contend with a new rival, the English, who, under Lancaster, Middleton, and other bold navigators, made strong efforts to obtain settlements in these islands, and a share in the spice trade. A most violent series of rivalry, plunder, and piracy, was for many years carried on between these two great maritime states, in the course of which the Dutch were impelled to that bloody transaction, the massacre of Amboyna. A treaty was at length concluded, on the principle of mutual equality and compensation; but since that time, the attention of the English company has been almost wholly engrossed by their vast acquisitions on the continent of India, while the Dutch, continuing to devote themselves to their insular possessions, have acquired there a decided preponderance. This was, indeed, suspended during the last war; when England by her superior navy obtained possession of all the principal islands; but, at the peace, which rescued her ancient ally from the thraldom of Napoleon, she restored all the captured settlements. The political constitution of these states is mostly simple, and even rude. There are some wandering tribes, in the infancy of society, who present scarcely any vestige of law or subordination. In general, however, the system of village republics, the affairs of which are conducted by elective and sometimes by hereditary officers, prevails here, as throughout the continent of India. These little associations, however, are oppressively domineered over, sometimes by a feudal aristocracy, sometimes by princes almost completely despotic. The aristocratic system prevails chiefly among the states less advanced in civilization; Celebes, Sooloo, and part of Sumatra. Here the chiefs, having reduced the body of the people to a state of almost complete vassalage, unite in a species of confederacy, electing a king or head, rather as a servant than a master, to carry on their general concerns. They have also elective councils, consisting in Boni of seven, in Wajo of forty officers, who have not only the command of the public treasure, but the decision of the questions of peace or war. Among the Goa Macassars, there is a very extraordinary officer, who has the power of removing the king, and calling upon the council to elect another. In Java, on the contrary, and others of the more advanced districts, the sway 990 MALAYASIA. of the sovereign is entire and undisputed; and the subjects vie with each other in indications of the most abject submission. They approach him creeping on all-fours, and retire in the same humiliating attitude: to stand upright before him is considered an insult. The " royal feet," or " the royal slave," are the appellations by which they designate themselves when addressing him. He is loaded with the most extravagant flattery: his eyes are two gems: his face is the sun. Yet, even under these regular despotisms, the body of the people are less oppressed than where the feudal aristocracy prevails. Personal slavery is unknown in them, and even the village governments enjoy a greater share of independence. In all these states, however, there are two orders of nobles, out of which the higher and the lower classes of public officers are respectively chosen. Slavery is often produced by war, and Mr. Crawfurd mentions 10,000 Bugis at one time held in bondage by the Macassar nation, and employed in public works, without distinction of rank. Debt is another source either of temporary or perpetual slavery; and the atrocious practice of kidnapping is by no means unfrequent. As tc soil and climate, the Indian islands rank with the most favored regions on the globe. Situated almost immediately beneath the equator, and beat by the sun's intensest rays, they must, had moisture been deficient, have been converted into arid and sandy deserts. But the vicinity of the sea, their varied surface, and the lofty mountains that traverse their interior, afford a copious supply of waters, which, combined with the heat, produce the utmost luxuriance of vegetation. They yield in abundance not only all the ordinary products of a tropical region, but also peculiar and exquisite spices and fruits, which cannot be transplanted with advantage into any other soil. The Archipelago, according to Mr. Crawfurd, may, as to climate and productions, be divided into five parts, of different character, yet these appear to us all reducible to two, modified by, and passing into, each other. These are, the eastern and western, bordering, one on the Pacific, and the other on the Indian Ocean, and exposed to the respective monsoons which blow from these vast seas. The western quarter is more fruitful in the staple and useful productions of the soil; rice is raised in abundance, and forms the food of the great body of the people; noble forests of teak and other valuable timber cover the plains; but the finer spices are not raised in any perfection, and even its pepper is inferior to that of 5Malabar. The eastern islands, on the contrary, are less fitted for the production of rice or of any grain; the subsistence of the inhabitants is derived from the pith of the sago tree, a mode of support unknown to any other great nation; but they contain the native country of the clove and the nutmeg, the finest of aromatics. The Philippines, however, notwithstanding their easterly position, agree rather with the opposite quarter, being fruitful, not in spices, but in rice, sugar, and tobacco. Agricultural operations, even in the most improved of these islands, are extremely simple. Irrigation is the most costly process; it is not effected by those extensive tanks which diffuse fertility over Hindostan, but by damming up the streams as they descend from the mountains, and distributing them over the fields; and for this purpose the slopes of the hills are often formed into terraces. As the raising of rice by artificial irrigation does not depend upon the seasons, it is often seen, within the compass of a few acres, in every state of progress. "In one little field, or rather MALAYASIA. 991 compartment, the husbandman is plowing or harrowing; in a second, he is sowing; in a third, transplanting; in a fourth, the grain is beginning to flower; in a fifth, it is yellow; and in a sixth, the women, children, and old men are busy reaping." When ripe, the head is cut off with a species of sickle, with only a few inches of the straw; it is then dried, and carried to market in the ear. Maize, like oats and barley in Europe, is raised for the use of the lower ranks. The yam, though indigenous, is not much valued, the sweet potato being preferred. The grains of Europe and the common potato are produced only in small quantities. The cocoa-nut, the ground pistachio, the palma Christi, and sesamum, are largely cultivated for the production of oil, a favorite food among the islanders. The sago palm is a production peculiar to part of this region, growing chiefly under the most boisterous influence of the eastern monsoon. It is only thirty feet high, but so thick that a man with outstretched arms can with difficulty embrace it. It is reared only in marshes, so that a plantation forms a bog knee deep. The sago is considered ripe in fifteen years, and is then cut into segments, and the pith extracted, which soon dries into a farinaceous powder, eaten either in the form of cakes, or of a species of pap. The produce is prodigious, 500 or 600 pounds being often drawn from a single tree, and one acre may, it is supposed, yield 8000 pounds annually. Spices, however, form the production of those islands most peculiar and most valued by foreigners. These, with the coffee tree recently introduced, occupy in agriculture the same place whice the vine does in Europe, being generally cultivated in the hilly districts of each country. Pepper grows plentifully in its western districts; but Mr. Crawfurd considers it as introduced from the hills of Malabar, whose produce continues still superior. It is best raised, also, not on the rich plains of Java, but On the hilly districts of Sumatra and Borneo. The clove has, perhaps, the most limited geographical distribution of any plant, being confined originally to the five small Molucca islands, whence it has been transplanted to Amboyna, to which the Dutch have sought to confine it. The tree is of beautiful form, about the size of the cherry, bears fruit at a period between seven and ten years, and has an average duration of 75 years, though sometimes it has lasted for 100, or even 130. The fruit is first green, then a pale yellow, and lastly blood red, when it is ripe; and, being gathered, is dried upon hurdles, and then acquires the black color which we see it bear. Some trees have been known remarkably productive, and one is even asserted to have borne 1100 lbs. in one year; but Mr. Crawfurd does not consider the annual average to exceed 5 lbs., and the produce of an acre 328 lbs. The nutmeg is much more widely distributed, being found of good flavor in all the Spice Islands, and even on the coast of New Guinea; but the Dutch have sought with tolerable success to extirpate it everywhere, unless in three of the Banda islands. The tree grows to the height of forty or fifty feet, somewhat resembles the clove, and has nearly the same duration. The fruit, also, is prepared in a manner somewhat similar, though requiring greater care, and with the additional operation of stripping off the mace, which merely requires to be dried in the sun. One tree produces in mace and nutmegs together, nearly ten or twelve pounds; but, from the distance at which they must be planted, the average of an acre does not exceed 266 lbs. 992 MALAYASIA. Among other products of these islands may be mentioned the sugar-cane, which is indigenous, but is eaten by the natives merely as an esculent vegetable; the Chinese express the juice in the form of clayed sugar. Indigo is indigenous, of excellent quality, but ill prepared for use. Coffee has been introduced from Arabia, and cultivated to a considerable extent in Java. Cardamoms and gum benzoin, the Eastern frankincense, are articles of some importance. Forests, in extraordinary luxuriance, cover a great extent of the Indian islands. The teak, so remarkable for its strength and durability, flourishes only in the rich soils of Java, and there not to the same extent as in Malabar and the Birman empire. There are also a considerable number of ornamental woods, and of others, from which precious gums distil. Bamboos and rattans overspread the whole country wherever not rooted out by cultivation; they serve for building, for cordage, and other important purposes. The mangoostan and the durion are generally considered the most delicate fruits produced in any quarter of the world; though, in the latter, the stranger must overcome the aversion inspired by its unpleasant scent. The population of none of these islands has been ascertained by any species of census, except Java and the Philippines. Java has been found to contain about 6,000,000, and the Philippines about 2,500,000 people. In the rest of the Archipelago, a judgment can only be formed, by considering their extent, in combination with the apparent density with which they are occupied. An estimate has been made by Mr. Crawfurd, the historian of the Archipelago. He supposes Sumatra to contain 2,500,000; Borneo, 500,000; Celebes and its appendages, 1,000,000; Bally, Lombok, Sooloo, &c., 500,000; the Spice Islands, Timor, &c., nearly 500,000. The entire amount will thus be 13,500,000. The people of the Indian archipelago are divided into two races, distinct in origin, language, aspect, and character, and irreconcilably hostile to each other; the brown and the black races. They bear the same analogy that the white and the negro bear in the western regions; the former, superior in intelligence and power, driving the other before him, oppressing and reducing him to bondage. Thus, in all the great islands the brown race has now established a decided and undisputed superiority. This part of the population, by far the most numerous and important, appears the most uncivilized of all the great nations who inhabit the south of Asia. Some seem justly charged with cannibalism, the most dreadful atrocity of which human nature is capable. Yet this original rudeness is mingled with features characteristic of the most highly civilized people in Asia, the Arabs, Hindoos, and Chinese, who entered for purposes either of commerce or colonization. The Javanese and Malays, the principal of these tribes, are destitute of the polished and courteous address which distinguishes the Hindoo and the commercial Arab. When they wish, as they often do, to be obsequious courtiers, they act their part with a bad grace. In return, they are comparatively frank and honest; and much greater reliance can be placed on their word. They show also sympathy in the distresses of their fellow-creatures, and will exert themselves to relieve them, on occasions when the Hindoo manifests a callous indifference. Strong attachment is often displayed to their family, their kindred, and their chief. Though generally subject to a power more or less despotic, they retain MALAYASIA. 993 strong and even lofty feelings of personal independence. Each man goes armed with a kris or dagger, which he regards as the instrument both of defending himself and avenging his wrongs. The right of private revenge is claimed by every individual for injuries received either by himself, his family, or tribe. When circumstances deprive him of any hope of avenging himself with ease or safety, he has recourse to that dreadful outrage, peculiar to these islanders, termed running amok, or a muck. The individual under this impulse draws his dagger, and runs through the house, or into the street, stabbing without distinction every one he meets, till he himself is killed or taken. This movement is always perfectly sudden, indicated by no previous looks or gestures, and from motives which it is often difficult to discover. The police officers, in contemplation of these violences, are provided with certain forked instruments, with which they arrest and secure the offender. A predatory disposition, exercised especially upon strangers, is shared by these islanders with all the uncivilized tribes of Asia; but while the Arabs and Tartars carry on their depredations by land, the Malays, inhabiting the shores of straits and narrow seas, through which rich fleets are perpetually passing, have become notorious for piratical exploits, which are practised with peculiar activity on the coast of Borneo, and- in the islands of the Sooloo Archipelago. The religious belief and observances of the East Indian islanders, at least of the most civilized portion, have been almost exclusively derived from the great nations in the south of Asia. The first great and effective colony appears to have come from Telingana in southern India; and the creed which they introduced, though now nearly obliterated, is still attested by the remains of splendid temples and by numberless images scattered throughout the island of Java. From them we discover that here, as in all the countries around India, the prevailing worship has been that of Boodh. His images are much the most numerous. Those of Siva and the deities connected with him are by no means unfrequent; but few or no representations have been found of Brahma or Vishnu. This system, once so widely diffused, scarcely survives, unless upon the small island of Bali. which adjoins to Java, but is rendered almost inaccessible by its entire want of harbor. Here the Hindoo institutions flourish in full vigor, and the worship of Siva is much more prevalent than that of Boodh; the distribution into four castes is fully established; and the same merit is attached to abstinence from animal food, though it is scarcely practised, except by the priests. The sacrifice of widows takes place on a great scale, chiefly at the death of any of the great men; and the extent of the practice of polygamy renders its effects there very tragical. Mr. Crawford plausibly suspects it to be not wholly imported from Hindostan, but to be a remnant of the custom general in savage communities, where the chiefs enjoy extraordinary influence. The Mahometan creed, introduced from Arabia nearly four centuries ago, completely supplanted the Hindoo system among the Javanese and Malays. By this channel it came in the form deemed orthodox, and there has never been any mixture of sects. The practice here, however, is exceedingly lax; and it is allowed very little to interfere with the ordinary occupations and enjoyments of its votaries. They hold the festivals with considerable zeal, practice some measure of prayer and fasting, and set high value on performing the pilgrimage to Mecca. But they pay little 63 994 MALAYASIA. regard to the prohibition of wine and other intoxicating liquors, and by no means immure their females with that jealous rigor which is usual among Mahometan nations. Seclusion takes place only among the great; and even they, instead of being offended by enquiries after their wives, consider it as a compliment, and usually introduce them personally to gentlemen with whom they have become intimately acquainted. After the arrival of the Portuguese, the Christian nations soon became the ruling powers in the Indian Archipelago. The only extensive conversion, however, has been that effected by the Spaniards in the Philippine islands; of which Luconia, the principal one, has, through the efforts of the missionaries, become almost entirely Christian; and though their instruction has not been conveyed in the most enlightened form, it is generally allowed to have effected a very important improvement upon the rude natives. The Dutch colonists, inspired by a spirit almost entirely commer cial, have not made the same exertions, and their monopolizing and tyrannical spirit was little calculated to recommend their belief. The intellectual character of the Javanese ranks lower than that of almost any other people who have made equal progress in the external accommodations of life; and their literature, like their religion, is almost entirely imported from Southern Asia. Dramatic entertainments, of a very peculiar nature, are cultivated with ardor, particularly in Java. They seem to be only a step beyond the practice of common story-telling, which is so general throughout the East. The dalang, or leading personage, sits in front of the stage, and reads in a chanting tone one of the national romances. The performers behind, covered usually with grotesque masks, accompany his recital with corresponding movements. Their place is frequently supplied with puppets, many of which are of that peculiar description called scenic shadowsmonstrous and grotesque figures, of about twenty inches long, cut out of a stiff untanned buffalo hide, and commonly very highly gilded and painted. Of ruder amusements, the chase is pursued with ardor by the natives of Celebes on their large grassy plains, with small active horses, lightly harnessed, which they ride with great swiftness. This diversion is carried on with much less ardor in Java, and only in its unimproved districts; the natives possessing an inferior breed of horses, which they ride ill. Their most active chase consists in attacking the tiger by a circle of spearmen, while the prince often looks on as a spectator. The islanders in general are not fond of games where much bodily exertion is requisite, and take more pleasure in sitting and contemplating the combats between pugnacious animals. Cock-fighting is a universal passion; the quality and exploits of game-cocks are celebrated in their poems and romances. They delight also, to view the conflict between the tiger and buffalo, an arduous and equal struggle, in which, contrary to what might be expected, the buffalo is generally victorious. They take pleasure also in quail-fighting, and even in contests among a peculiar species of crickets. Games of hazard are also pursued with passion, even the lower orders squandering their hard earned wages, and reducing themselves to destitution, by an excessive indulgence in them. The habitations of the East Indian islanders are of very simple materials and construction. The art, by which those magnificent structures were reared, the remains of which adorn the interior of Java, is entirely lost. MALAYASIA. 995 They appear to have been constructed by the Hindoo settlers, and to have departed with them. The humble and mercantile character of the adventurers who introduced the Moslem faith is the supposed cause why the mosques, instead of the splendor which they display in other other parts of the Mahometan world, are here coarsely and inelegantly constructed of temporary materials. The natives have lost even the art of turning an arch. Their very best houses are slight structures of bamboo, rattan, palmetto leaf, and grass. Those of the peasantry, simply constructed of these materials, and surrounded with trees and a little garden, produce a very pleasing effect. Those of the higher classes are called pandapas, and consist chiefly of a roof supported by four pillars, both often highly carved and painted. The public halls of the towns, the mosques, and even the monarch's state hall of audience, consist only of such structures on a greater scale. To make one the commodious residence of a chief, it is enclosed by palings, or divided into apartments, by light partitions. The abodes of the great chiefs, and even the palace of the prince, are only distinguished by the greater number and size of these pandapas. The palace, however, is enclosed by walls, composed formerly of hewn stone, but at present only of bad brick, yet which form the only structures of masonry now reared in the country. The dress of these islanders presents a medium, not very commodious or elegant, between the light close garments of the European, and the long flowing robes of the Asiatic. The principal part is the sarung, or long robe, not fastened to the body, but loosely wrapped round the lower part, and fastened by a zone or sash. The coat, the other principal part of the dress, is only a loose frock. The Mahometans wear a cap resembling a turban; but the other inhabitants have the head naked. The rest of the body is either uncovered, or enveloped in vest, boddice, or pantaloons, according to the taste of different tribes. In the court dress, on the contrary, all the upper part of the body is naked, smeared with a yellow cosmetic, and loaded with gold ornaments. In the war dress, again, the coat, indeed, is laid aside; but the robe is wrapped close round the whole body; while besides the kris, or dagger, which is worn at all times, by every islander, a sword is stuck in the belt, and a long spear is brandished. The diet of the islanders is simple, consisting chiefly of rice and fish, with little mixture of other animal food. It is eaten greedily, with little ceremony, and lifted to the mouth by the hands, according to the general practice of the East. The people display a remarkable propensity to the use of narcotic stimulants. Wine and still more the spirits of their own manufacture, are liberally used, in defiance of Mahometan injunction; yet it is not in these that the chief excess is committed. It is in bang, a substance extracted from hemp; in tobacco, and of late above all in opium. The islanders, reversing the general practice of Asia, chew tobacco, and smoke opium. SUMATRA, the most westerly of the great islands, extends from northwest to south-east, above 1000 miles in length, and 160 of average breadth. It is situated immediately beneath the equator, which divides it into two nearly equal parts; yet it is protected from the evils incident to this position by chains of mountains, which extend along the whole of the interior, sometimes in several successive ranges, enclosing between them fine valleys and lakes. Of theso Goonong-Pasama, which Europeans, upon a very 996 MALAYASIA. crude theory, have called Mount Ophir, exceeds 13,800 feet; while Goonong-Kasumbra is nearly 1000 feet higher. These high chains so copiously water the plains and coasts beneath, that, instead of being in any degree parched and arid, they are overspread with too luxuriant a vegetation. The ground is almost choked with dense forests, and with canes, rattans, and other species of tropical underwood; and a great part of the southern shore consists of a forest of mangroves growing out of a morass. Culture has but partially and rudely cleared these encumbrances, and directed the fruitfulness of the soil to useful objects. Sumatra does not produce so many objects for exportation as smaller and even less fertile islands. The most important is pepper, produced in considerable abundance, yet not equal to that of Malabar. This island, however, excels all other countries in the abundance and excellence of its camphor. This substance consists of the concrete juice in the heart of a species of tree, which, however, is becoming daily scarcer, being cut down by the natives for its valuable wood. The kingdom of Acheen occupies the most northerly part of this island, extending opposite to the coast of Malacca. At the first arrival of Euro peanS, it held dominion over divers states both of the island and continent, and was dignified with the title of empire. Though now greatly reduced, and restricted within its original limits, it has always, amid violent internal dissensions, remained independent of any European power. The Acheenese are a seafaring race, bold, stirring, and often piratical, but inspired by no inconsiderable share of commercial spirit. The capital city of Acheen presents a complete specimen of the seaports of these countries. It consists of about 8000 bamboo habitations, raised on posts above the marshy shore, and so completely enveloped in wood, that from the sea it appears like an extensive forest. To the south of Acheen, but to the east of the great range of mountains, extends Menangkabao, which also, at an early period, held many states under its dominion, and was dignified with the title of empire. It was the original country of the Malays, whence they spread to other parts of Sumatra, to Malacca, and Borneo, till they became the ruling people in the Indian seas. This country is watered by a large lake, said to be thirty miles in length, though the precise situation is not ascertained; it abounds in gold, and is under very tolerable cultivation. The inhabitants appear to have made greater progress in the arts than any of the other islanders. The gold and silver filigree work, the only fine manufacture in the Archipelago, is executed by them almost exclusively. The Battas occupy the country and coast on the opposite or western side of the mountains. This extraordinary race display in some respects a degree of civilization not to be found among the surrounding states. Their country is fertile, and cultivation generally diffused. They have an alphabet of their own, distinguished by the singularity of being written from the bottom upwards; and the characters are rudely stamped with the point of a dagger on the surface of a bamboo or branch; sometimes even upon a growing tree. In this rough manner, however, the majority of the people can both read and write. But with these attainments they combine habits which have been considered as belonging to the most extreme barbarism. Anthropophagy is not only practised in the heat of victory, to gratify deadly vengeance, but prescribed as a regular part of their laws and MALAYASIA. 997 institutions. For all who are guilty of robbery, adultery, unlawful marriages, or other high crimes, the penalty is, to be publicly eaten by their countrymen. The officers of justice and the injured parties assemble at the place of punishment, with a provision of salt, pepper, and citron; the individual most wronged selects the first morsel, cuts it off, and eats it; the rest follow according to their rank, till the leader of the assembly severs the head, and carries it off as a trophy. Authors of good repute have asserted that they ate their aged and infirm relatives, after various ceremonies, among which was that of dancing round a tree, calling out, " When the fruit is ripe it must fall;" but, if this unnatural practice ever prevailed, it is now entirely discontinued. The number of little tribes into which this people is divided, and who wage almost ceaseless war against each other with deadly enmity, appears to be the circumstance which chiefly keeps alive among them this spirit of ferocity. They are assimilated to savage life also in the treatment of their women, who are regarded as little better than slaves, and on whom the labor of cultivating the ground and other hard tasks are devolved. The Battas are pagas, and their religion little known. From their ports of Barous and Tappanooly they export a large quantity of camphor, with gum benzoin and a few other commodities. The southern quarter of Sumatra is on the whole the least improved, a a great extent being marshy, uncultivated, and overgrown with dense forests. On its hills, however, is the most abundant growth of pepper, the commodity which Europeans principally seek in this island; and here their chief settlements have been formed. Palembang, on the eastern side, and Bencoolen, on the western, have long been the capitals: the first of the Dutch, the second of the English settlements in Sumatra. JAVA, the great island which next follows, is separated from Sumatra only by the Straits of Sunda, one of the main entrances into the interior seas of the Archipelago. It extends from east to west about 600 miles, with an average breadth of 100. This island also surpasses all the others in fertility, population, and general improvement. It does not indeed excel in the finer spices, and even in pepper is inferior to Sumatra. But it is fruitful in the staples of tropical produce, rice, sugar, coffee; and has extensive forests of teak. Batavia, the capital of Java, and of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, is situated on the northern coast, and not far from the western extremity of the island. Several islets surrounding the bay on which it is situated, afford secure anchorage to vessels of 500 tons. A small river runs through the town, the facilities afforded by which are increased by navigable canals. These, multiplied to a superfluous extent, aided in producing that extreme insalubrity for which Batavia was long notorious. Vessels which entered the port either for trade or refreshment, left it often with the loss of more than half their crews. By accounts accurately kept for twenty-two years, from 1730 to 1752, the number of deaths in a population of 70,000, amounted to 1,100,000; and in the year 1751 alone there died 58,600. Yet the obstinacy of Dutch avarice still adhered to this fatal spot. The English, during their occupation, were prompted by a national taste to desert entirely the town, and cover with their rural seats the neighboring districts, particularly that of Buitzenzoorg. When the place, however, was restored to the Dutch, the governor, Van der Capellen applied himself to restore the town; and, by filling up useless canals, 998 MALAYASIA. opening and widening the streets, he effected such an improvement, that it is now as healthful as any place in Java. The western side of the island is in general more level and capable of very general cultivation. It is almost entirely subjected to European influence, and new modes and objects of culture have, under European auspices, been introduced. The eastern part bears a different character; it is mountainous, wooded, and romantic, yet diversified with rich and beautiful valleys, carefully cultivated upon the native system. This part of the island has always been occupied by the most powerful native princes, ancient and modern, the latter of whom still maintain a large measure of independence, and pay only homage and tribute to the Dutch. Here, too, in consequence, are all the monuments of ancient greatness, and of the faith which formerly prevailed in Java. The ancient structures deserve some more particular mention. Moja pahit, the capital of the greatest princes who formerly ruled over Java, may still be traced in the district of Sourabaya by extensive ruins of walls and temples, built only of brick, yet displaying often considerable beauty. But the most complete example of a temple is that of Boro Budor, situated in the mountainous and romantic, yet fertile, territory of Kadou, immediately to the east of Cheribon. It is a square structure of hewn stone, each side 520 English feet long, and the height of 116 feet. It is built on the summit of a small hill, and consists of a series of six enclosing walls crowned by a dome. The outer and inner side of each wall is covered with a profusion of sculpture, including between 300 and 400 images of Boodh, from whom the temple, perhaps, received its name. But the most extensive display of ancient architecture is at Brambanan, in the district called Mataram, between Souracarta and Djojocarta. The temples, though built of hewn stone, are small, but clustered in extensive groups, of which the largest is that called the Thousand Temples. It occupies a space nearly square, 600 feet in length by 550 in breadth, within which are four rows of small edifices, surrounding a large central one. The whole group has four entrances, each facing a cardinal point, and guarded by two gigantic statues, which are nine feet high kneeling, and eleven feet in circuit. Singhassari, also, in the district of Malang, once the seat of a powerful monarchy, presents a wonderful multitude of temples and images. In general these structures are profusely covered with minute and often elegant ornaments and sculptures; but they are broken into too many similar parts, and consist only of sculptured walls, without columns, arcades, or any thing which can make them combine unity with relief and variety. CELEBES is one of the most remarkable portions of the Archipelago. Its position, between 2~ north and 50 south latitude, 118~ and 1250 east longitude, would indicate very large dimensions; but it is so indented by the deep bays of Bony in the south, Tominie and Tolo on the east, as to form only a cluster of long peninsulas, while the distance from sea to sea nowhere amounts to one hundred miles. The people are less advanced in civilization than those of Java, though they possess more of a bold energy of character. The native government is monarchy combined with a very tuxbulent aristocracy. The troubles by which it was agitated are attested by the very names of the princes taken from the manner in which they died; as " the throat-cutter;" " he whose head was cut off;" " he who ran a muck;" " he who was beaten to death on his own staircase;" and even MALAYASIA. 999 the epithet "he who died reigning," strongly intimates the rarity of the occurrence. The Hindoo faith and institutions found little place in this island. It was not till the beginning of the seventeenth century that the Mahometan religion was introduced by the mingled power of force and persuasion. The Macassars of Goa were then the most powerful tribe, and held wide sway over this and even the neighboring islands; they at one time fitted out against the Dutch a fleet of 700 vessels, and 20,000 men. About the middle of the seventeenth century, however, the state of Bony, supported by the Dutch, acquired a complete ascendency, and that of Goa sunk into a reduced and vassal condition. BORNEO, if we exclude New Holland, as a continent, will rank as the largest island in the world, being between 800 and 900 miles from north to south, by 700 from east to west. It is also well gifted by nature. Though placed directly beneath the equator, the mountains of the interior, some 8,000 feet high, with the large and numerous streams, entirely secure it from aridity; and though the soil, formed from primitive rocks, is by no means uniformly fruitful, yet rice and the usual tropical grains are raised with facility; pepper, cinnamon, cotton, coffee, grow wild. The inland tracts are now the chief haunt of the savage race of the Oriental negro, called here in different districts Dayak, Idaan, Maroot, &ec. The Malays and other tribes, who have occupied generally the coasts and navigable rivers, describe these their inland neighbors in the darkest colors. They are represented as considering a man unfit for matrimony or any important function of life, till he has imbrued his hands in the blood of at least one fellow-creature; as so devoted to human sacrifice, that a number even of the poorer class will club together to purchase the cheapest man they can find, and offer him as a victim; that they devour the flesh of their enemies, drink their blood, use their bones and skulls as ornaments, and even as money. Through hollow wooden tubes they blow poisoned arrows, the wound of which is said to be mortal. Yet it is certain that many of them cultivate the ground, rear domestic animals, and carry on some trade; and a tribe called Biajoos are active navigators, roaming from shore to shore, amid the perpetual summer of the tropic. The MOLUCCAs, or Spice Islands, derive their great celebrity from producing the precious commodities of cloves, nutmegs, and mace. In other respects they present few objects of much interest. Gilolo, the largest, broken, like Celebes, into a cluster of peninsulas, presents the usual spectacle of a rude people, governed by a number of turbulent chieftains. Ceram is nearly similar, except that the greater part is under the power of a single sultan, dependent on the Dutch, who take vigorous measures to check the disposition to piracy among the natives. The PHILIPPINES form an extensive group of two large and nine smaller islands, situated at the north-eastern extremity of the Archipelago. Few countries are more favored as to soil and climate. Though placed but little north of the equator, the height of the mountains, and the ocean breezes, preserve them from suffering under any severe or scorching heat. The moisture derived from their exposure to the vapors of the Pacific is somewhat excessive; yet, combined with the heat, it produces a most luxuriant vegetation. Still these islands are rather rich in the staple tropical productions, rice, sugar, &c., than in those aromatics for which some of the other islands are celebrated. 1000 ISLANDS IN THE POLAR SEAS. Among the natives there are a considerable number of the negro race; yet, long before the arrival of the Europeans, these had been driven into the mountains by the Bisayans, a branch of the brown oriental race. These cultivated the ground with considerable diligence, and had raised themselves above the completely savage state; yet they had not, like the other islanders, received colonies, or imported any high civilization from the great Asiatic kingdoms. The most improved tribe were the Tagalas, inhabiting the sea-coast of Lumon, who constructed and navigated vessels of some magnitude with considerable skill, and had a language which was considered classical throughout the islands. The Spaniards early took possession of the Philippines, and, if we except the English expedition of 1762, possessed them without interruption from any of the other European powers. ISLANDS IN THE POLAR SEAS. To complete the description of the detached and insular portions of the globe, there remain still a considerable number of large islands, situated in the stormy seas by which the two poles are encircled. Although these regions be dreary, desolate, and almost uninhabited. they present features which strongly attract the interest and curiosity of mankind, and have induced many daring adventurers to explore and navigate these remote coasts and seas. The Polar Islands are situated partly in the seas round the north, partly in those round the South Pole. The former, lying within the Arctic Circle, are by much the most numerous and extensive. Commencing from the eastward, we find Nova Zcmbla, reaching northward from the boundary of Europe and Asia; Spitzbergen, called sometimes East Greenland, the most northern land yet visited; West Greenland, a mass of territory possessing almost the magnitude of a continent, and long supposed to be part of America, from which, however, it now proves to be entirely disjointed; lastly, the range of the Georgian Islands, discovered by Captain Parry, of which the principal are Cornwallis, Bathurst, Melville, and Banks's Land, the boundaries of which last are yet unknown. In the Antarctic Ocean, where a new continent was long sought and expected, an extensive body of land was discovered by the United States Exploring Expedition, in 1840. There are also some considerable islands, or groups, particularly New Georgia, New South Shetland, and the New Orkneys. All these tracts are either insular, or broken by deep bays and sounds, formed, probably, by the violent storms and currents which beat continually against their shores, and which are supposed, in many cases, to penetrate entirely across the most solid masses of land. The aspect of these regions is usually mountainous, presenting long and bold promontories to the stormy seas by-which they are surrounded, and often also enclosing spacious and secure harbors. The air and elements, which, in other parts of the world, are only accessories, form here the leading objects giving their gloomy stamp to the whole region. Snow falls occasionally in the very heart of summer, and before the end of autumn it begins to descend in a continued succession of showers, till every object is buried beneath it, and nature exhibits only a monotonous surface of dazzling white, which remains, according to the latitude, for six, seven, or eight months. At the same early period ice begins to bind, first the streams and fresh-water lakes, then the enclosed bays and arms of the sea, till at length it fixes its chains even upon the broad surface of the ocean. In June and July, indeed, when the sun becomes vertical, and constantly above the horizon, the icy masses dissolve, and burst asunder often with a tremendous crash; but some portions, more firmly consolidated than the rest, remain unmelted, and produce remarkable phenomena. In particular situations on the coast, the ice of successive years is piled into glaciers, which rise often to a great height, till, their foundation being undermined by the waves, they descend into the water, and are carried out by wind and tide into the open sea: there they form to the mariner a bright and fearful spectacle, reflecting the rays of light in varied and beautiful tints, but threatening by their contact to dash his vessel to pieces. Sometimes they are borne by winds and currents to a great distance, and even into lower latitudes, where they appal the navigator sailing through the temperate seas. In other cases portions of the frozen surface of the sea, remaining firm, while all around them is melted, become fields or floes, which float through the deep, and, being often driven by the tempest with terrific violence, cause instant destruction to the stoutest vessel. The privation of light forms a singular and gloomy circumlstance in the arctic abodes. For two, three, or four months. the sun never appears above the horizon; one continued night reigns. Yet there are not wanting objects to cheer this lengthened gloom, and to give a bright and even fairy splendor to the polar sky. The moon and stars shine through the clear frosty air with peculiar brightness; haloes and other luminous meteors are more frequent and more vivid than in lower latitudes; and, above all, the aurora borealis fills the arctic atmosphere with its coruscations of playful light. The long day of summer, during which the sun never sets, can scarcely be named as a compensation for the wintry gloom; yet, during a period of spring and autumn, when it wheels a perpetual circle immediately above the horizon, it paints the skies with hues more brilliant and varied than those which adorn those of any other climate., —-. 1 /2 POPULA1A VOTE IN 1828, 1832, 1836, 1840, 1844, 1848, AND 1852. 1828. 1 1832. 1836. 1840. 1844. 1848. 1852. STATF-4. I Jackson. Adms. IJaekson. C a uren. Others. Harrison. Ya lBuren. Polk. Clay. Taylor. Cass. Pierce. Scott. Malise........... 13.7 2, "073'39 94 9" "00,.39 46 612 46,201 45,719 34,378 33'76 40 206 41 609 3" 543 New HIampshhs 20 692 I 24 (7t, 2.48l 19,010 18722 6 28 26,434 32,670 27,160 L5b6 14781 9,7 763 29 997 1it)147 Y'erniont........ Ii 1 ~6 V\Iass~zchuermont..../ 820o 2' 78,1 7"8-10 1 H. I 5 2! 14,03 20991 I "2445 18.009 18041 260 23,122 10948 1344 22173 M~ sachuaetts I s6,019 1 14,54 33-003 3:3,501'.0 41,093 72, 874 51,948 129 95 66872 61 00 5,28 46880 56063 Rhlaode Island... 281 21 210 2,9364 1 2r710 5278 3,301 4848 23 6.79 3646 8.,735 7.626 Connecticut.... 4,448 1' e'9'1 04 17,i it 1 is 4'3 1 601 25.20 29,81 39 85i "0'314 9 Ott. 33949 30 359 New York........ 1-106 154 i. ) 1,86 10366815 I Ii. 5. 4. -812 212519 23 8 2,34 47 18.58.1 114.9 262.083 221 882 New Jersey....... 21,0 I s' "" "Cr " 89"'3 " 1 011 18 I 401,'ill 4 3I I""6 I Pennasylvaulia..... 1010' ro Sb, t(..,4,s, V 934 7 i 14-1.019 148,676'I lo 203 15. I02186 l6 198 C5 i 1s 17,122 Delawanre..4....... 411) 49"' 441 6 4,884 - 0V i 4i.4t1t 6,318 II.3.3 Iarycland. 24.578~ 6 I "'9 9,156 19.5100 22. 167.25,85 2..2 2875 31,) 67i a5,984 37,702 334,528 40.02 Virginila.......... 42,. 49.417 4 5. 2 ),(i ~i~i~34H.2 4:fj i,5~ 4(S! r 39, -2,41305 Xsrgissia. ~~~~~~20,752 12 101I 33j 309I 1 1.451 30.26-1'3 3" 4"'1 4,93 4.3 4 378 7243 5.3 North Carolina.. 37,857 13 918 241,82 4,563 "6 910 -3,6 4114.218 09,287 43,232 43.19 34;869 39,744 30,058 South Ca~trolina*"........... Georgia......... 18,709 None.' 20,750 None. 1 28.920 40,264 315 42106 47544 44802 34,75 16,660 Alabana. 17,138 1 9"S No opp. to Jac'kson. 19 068 1G,637 28,471 33,991 "06 2 23 24,830 30.482 31;333 26,881 15,035 Mlississippi......., 6,7i63 1 581 i i 5.919 None. 9 0 T9 9 0i88 159,518 S 16.995 25,188 19 193 2.922 2 6 "'37 26;876 17.548 Mississippi......... 6.763 1,581 9 9 2;88 Louisiana~see.. 46,050 40., I 4,049 2.528 53w 3.383 I 11,297 6,71, 13,477 12.818 181, 15370 18,647 17,2.5 Tennessee........ 44,1)90 2940 28,74 1.436 2120 " 9 6"1,91 48,289 59.915 60039 64. 715 58,419 57,018 58,898 Kentucky........ 39,084 31,172 36,247 43,396 34 395 5,48 32,616 51.981 616 4,20 53,806 57068 Ohio.67,597...., 63 396 ij 81,246 76,539 96 948 105.405 148,157 124,782 149.061 155,113 135,359 154.773 169,220 152,526 Indiana......... 22,23,02 1552 1,42 39 480 41.281 63118 51,695 70,181 67,867 6990, 74,745 952299 80,901 Illinois.......... 6 763 1,581 14,147 5,429 18,09, 14, 983 4,,5387 47,476 58.515 45,612 53,215 53,629 80,597 64.934 Missourit......... 81232 3,422 5,192 Maj. 10,995 8,37 22,972 29,760 41,369 31,251 3") 6471 4.,077 36,642 28,944 Arkansas......I.,.,, I.....j 2,400O 1,2o5 4,36).3 6,049 9.546 5,504,,585 9,300 12,173 7,404 Michigan.........,36 4000 2,97 21,098 27,703 24,3 23,040 30,687 41,842 33,860 Florida.'.........:::::::::.I 11040 2 1,890 7 21,098 F.... 45 38 I 4.318 2,875 iowa......,....., ~~~~~~~~~~j ~~.......... i; ~~ ~~~ ~ " ~~1", "' """ i li " "'""", 2,2 -4 4 Wisconsin..138747 15,001 33,658 22,240 Texas......................;............ 4,509 10,668 13,552 4,995 Californiat......................................... 39,665 34,971 No vote by the people, Presidential Electors chosen by the Legislature. t Incomplete. Prior to 1828, in some of the States, tte Electors'were chosen by the Legislatures; il olther States the District. System prevailed. We have therefore omttted the popular vote previous to the general adoption of the piesent systerr. 1002 ALABAMA. POPULATION -CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. Autaung.......14,983 Coosa.............14,543 Lawrence. 1........,250 Perry............ 00 Baldwin.......... 4.414 Covington........ 4,126 Limestone..., 16,933 Pickens...........21,497 Barbour..........23,632 Dale.............. 6,342 Lowndes.........21,913 Pike..............15,920 Benton..........17,218 Dallas...........29,729 Macon............26,888 Randolph..........11,581. 9 927 De Kalb............ 11,58 Bibb.......... 9,927 Deb. 8,245 Madison..........26,428 Russell........ 19,548 Blount............ 7,366 Fayette............ 9,722 Marengo..........27,831 St. Clair....... 6,828 Butler............10,836 Franklin.........19,609 Marion........... 7,584 Shelby............ 9,536 Chambers.........24,971 Greene..........31,442 Marshall.......... 7,925 Sumter............22,250 Cherokee..........13,884 Htancock........ 1,542 Mobile............ 7,085 Talladega.........18,621 Choctaw........... 8,384 henry...... 9,019 Mobile, City of.....20,513 Tallapoosa.........17,384 Clarke 9,789 Jackson........14,088 Monroe...........12,013 Tuscaloosa. 1.......8,111 Coffee............. 5.940 Jefferson.......... 8,989 Montgomery......29,779 Walker............ 5,126 Conuecuh.......... 9,322 Lauderdale........20,888 Morgan..........10,125 Washington....... 3,723 Wilcox............17,353 MISSISSIPPI. POPULATION-CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. NORTHERN D[sTRICT. Pontotoc..........17,112 Franklin.......... 5,904 Madison........18,173 Atia.............10,999 Sunflower.......... 1,060 Green............. 2.018 Marion.... 4,410 Bolivar............ 2,577 Tallahatchee...... 4,643 Ihancock.......... 3,672 Neshoba........ 4,560 Carrrl............18,485 Tippah...........20,740 iharrison....... 4,875 Newton....... 4,466 Chickasaw......16,368 Tishomingo......15,148 Hinds..........25,310 Perry......... 2,48 Choctaw......11,403 Tunica. 1,314 IHolmes.......13,930 Pike............. 7.357 (loahoma.......... 2,780 Winston.......... 7,986 Issaqnena......... 4,478 Itankin.......... 7,227 De Soto...........18,052 Yallabusha........17,260 Jackson........... 3,196 Scott............. 3,979 Itwamba........13,311 Jasper............ 6,174 Simpson.......... 4,735 La Fayette....14,069 SOUTHERN DISTRICT. Jefferson....... 13,893 Smith............ 4,071 Lowndes..........19,547 Adams..........18,621 Jones.......... 2,135 Warren...........19,998 Marshall..........29,690 Amite.......... 9,624 Kemper...........12,517 Washington....... 8,389 Monroe.......21,131 Claiborne..........14,903 Lauderdale........ 8,708 Wayne.... 2,892 Noxubee..........16;257 Clarke............ 5,477 Lawrence. 6,485 Wilkinson....,::,16,638 Oktihbbeha. 9171 Copiah.....11,710 Leake............. 5,535 Yazoo.......... 13,58 Pano!a............11,459 Covington......... 3,348 LOUISIANA. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850 BY PARISIIHES. EAS3TERN DISTRICT. I Point Coupee......11,353 Bossier........... 6,963 Madison.......... 8,811 Ascension.........10,752 St. Bernard........ 3,796 Caddo............ 8,911 Morehouse.. 3,933 Assumption.10,538 St. Charles........ 4,947 Calcasieu......... 3,914 Natchitoches.......14,473 Baton Rouge, West. 5,832 St. hielena 4,558 Caldwell........... 2,815 Ouchita........... 4966 Baton Rouge, East.17,603 St. James........11,098 Carroll........... 8,789 Rapides........ 16,561 Feliciana, West....13,120 St. John Baptist... 7,313 Catahoula......... 6,982 Sabine......... 4,597 Feliciana, East....13,598 St. Tammany...... 6,365 Claiborne.......... 7i,473 St. Landry.........22,253!berville..........12,214 Terra Bonne...... 7,724 Concordia......... 7,758 St. Martin.........11,666 eff.erson....... 25,113 Washington...... 3,408 De Soto 8,028 St. Mary..........13,851 La Fourche 9,533 Franklin.. 3,251 Tensas........... 9,042 Livingston.......3,384 WESTERN DISTRICT. Jackson........... 5,647 Union....... 8,313 Orleans..........119,285 Avoyelles.......... 9,278 La Fayette.. 6,718 Vermillion.... 3,409 Plaquemine....... 7,3 I Blenville........... 5,739 TEXAS. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. Anderson...... 2,963 El Paso.......K..... auffman......... 1,047 Rusk............. 8,231 Angelina........ 1,195 Falls.............. Kinney........... Sabine............ 2,514 Austin....... 3,758 Fannin............ Lamar............ 4,314 San Augustine.. 3,647 Bastrop.' 3,099 Fayette............ 3,753 Lavacca........... 1,623 San Patricio...... 200 Bell.......Fort Bend......... 2644 Leon............. 1,937 Shelby............ 4,239 Bexar............. 6,051 Freestone.......... Liberty............ 2,524 Smith............. 4,292 Bowsie............. 2,907 Galveston......... Limestone......... 2,608 Starr............. Brazoria.......... 4,842 Gillespie..........1,240 Matagorda. 2,124 Tarrant........... Brazos.......614 Goliad........... 644 McLennan......... Titus............. 3,636 Burleson....... 1,713 Gonzales.......... 1,492 Medina........... 909 Travis............. 3,125 Caldwell........ 2,235 Grayson.......... Milam............. 2,907 Trinity........... Calhoun...... 1,085 Grimes............ 4,072 Montgomery....... 2,386 Tyler............. 1,894 Cameron.............. Guadalupe........ 1,511 Nacogdoches. 5,191 Upshur........... 3,400 Cass............5,001 Harris 4,668 Navarro....... 3,941 Uvalse............ Cherokee.... 6,684 Harrison........11,671 Newton........... 1,689 Van Zandt........ 1,348 Collin..... Hays........ 387 Nueces............ 695 Victoria........... 2,010 Colorado.......... 2,257 Henderson........ 1,237 Panola............ 3,834 Walker. 3,964 Comal............ 1,723 Hopkins.......... 2,623 Polk. 2,347 Washington....... 4,239 Cooke........... Houston... 2,734 Presidio.............. Webb............. Dallas..... 2,741 Hunt...... 1,478 Red River......... 3,910 Wharton.............. Denton............ Jackson........... 952 IRefugio............ 288 Williamson....... 1,56b Do'Witt........... 1,717 Jasper............ 3,456 Robertson......... 934 Wood................. Ellis................. Jefferson.......... 1,863 DELAWARE. - CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. Kent...................... 22,471 I New Castle................ 42,669 Sussex................... 25,268 APPENDIX. The following tables complete the census of 1850 by counties. The others are inserted In their proper plaoea In the body of the work. ILLINOIS. POPULATION — CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. Adams............26,537 Franklin.......... 5,279 Logan............. 5,128 Randolph.........11.C84 Alexander......... 2,268 Fulton..........22276 Macon............. 4,030 Richland.......... 4,012 Bond.............. 6144 Gallatin........... 5,440 Macaupiu... 12,361 Rock s!and....... 6,938 Boone............. 7,627 Greene.............13483 McLean..........10,551 Saline. 5,588 Browne........... 7,223 Grundy.......... 3,024 McDonough...... 7,702 Saugamon.......19,237 Bureau........... 5,494 IIHamilton.......... 6,362 Mcilenry..........15.061 Scott.............. 7,919 Calhoun.......... 3,228 hIIancock..........14,753 Madison...........24,374 Schuyler..........10,428 Carroll............ 4,586 iardin............ 2,892 Marion............ 6,720 Shelby............ 7,894 Cas.............. 7,253 Henderson... 4601 Marshall.......... 5,181 Stark.............. 3,732 Champaigne........ 2,695 IIenry.. 3810 Mason............ 5,922 St. Clair...........20,181 Christian.......... 3,203 Iroquois........... 4,150 Masac............ 3,926 Stephenson........11,951 Clark.......... 9576 Jackson.......... 5,760 Menard............ 6,351 Tazewell...........12,054 Clay........... 4,290 Jasper.... 3,198 Mercer............ 5.255 Union............. 7,666 Clinton........ 5,140 Jefferson 8. 099 Montgomery....... 6,235 Vermilion.........16,182 Coles............. 9,356 Jersey.. 7,502 Monroe........... 7,680 Wabash. 4,691 Cook..............43,280 Jo Daviess....18,648 Moultrie.. 3,241 Warren... 8,232, Crawford.......... 7136 Johnson 14,121 Morgan............16,065 Washington. 6,952 Cumberland....... 3,728 Kane...........16,716 Ogle.............10,020 Wayne............ 6,827 De Kalb........... 7,544 Kendall........... 7,730 Peoria.............17,550 White............. 8,925 De Witt........ 5,002 Knox...........13,280 Perry............. 5,278 Whiteside......... 5,361 Dn Page......... 9,229 Lake............14,134 Piatt............. 1.607 Will..............16,709 Edgar.............10,673 La Salle..........17,813 Pike.............18,820 Williamson. 7,217 Edwards.......... 5,634 Lawrence.. 6,132 Pope.............. 3,980 Winnebago.......11,731 Effingham......... 3,861 Lee............ 5,289 Pulaski............ 2.628 Woodford.......... 4,452 Fayette........... 8,041 Livingston........ 1,552 Putnam........... 3,968 KENTUCKY. POPULATION —CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. Adair........... 9,917 Cumberland....... 7,005 Jefferson..........16,636 Nelson............15,207 Allen........... 8,747 Daviess.12,411 Jessamine... 10,274 Nicholas..........10,360 Anderson......... 6,274 Edmondson. 4,130 Johnson......... 3,873 Ohio............. 9,762 Ballard........... 5,496 Esthill............ 5,985 Kenton...........17,03 Oldham... 7,629 Barren.............20,268 F'ayette...........22,736 Knox............7,109 Owen.............10,456 Bath.............12,285 Fleming..........13,910 Larue...... 5,888 Owsley............ 3,774 Boone...11,188 Floyd............. 5,715 Laurel............ 4,185 Pendleton......... 6,772 Bourbon..........14474 Franklin..........12,464 Lawrence.......... 6,280 Perry.. 3,092 Boyle............. 9,117 Fulton............ 4,450 Letcher........... 2,513 Pike.. 5367 Bracken......... 8,904 Gallatin.......... 5,137 Lewis............. 7,103 Pulaski.........14,194 Brackenridge......10,719 Garrard...........10,255 Lincoln........... 9697 Rock Castle........ 4709 Breathitt.......... 3,793 Grant............ 6,531 Livingston......... 6,578 Russell........... 4,349 Bullitt............ 6,732 Graves.......11,:391 Logan.............16,621 Scott............. 4,848 Butler......... 5,858 Grayson........... 6,837 Louisville City.....43,217 Shelby............17,095 Caldwell....13.109 Greenup. 9,234 Madison..,21,118 Simpson........... 7,775 Calloway.......... 8,053 Greene......... 9,970 Marion..........11,760 Spencer............6,840 Campbell.....13,127 HIancock.......... 3,853 Marshall.......... 5,245 Todd.............12,288 Carter.......... 6,242 Ihardin............14,530 Mason............18, 351 Trigg.............10,133 Casey............. 6,590 hIarlan........... 4,231 McCracken.. 6,066 Trinible........... 5,975 Carroll............ 5,824 Harrison..........13,063 Meade....... 7384 Taylor............ 7,248 Christian.........19,483 Hart............. 9,090 Montgomery..... 9,904 Union. 8,928 Clarke............12,683 Ihenderson........12,213 Monroe 7,756 Warren...........15,082 Clay.............. 5,422 Henry.16,105 Morgan. 7,622 Washington...... 12,201 Clinton....... 4.954 Hopkins...........12,476 Muhlenburg 9,808 Wayne......... 8,819 Crittenden........ 6,466 Hickman. 4....,791 Murcer...........14,093 Whitley........... 7,447 Woodford.........12,436 TENNESSEE. POPULATION- CENSUS OF 1850 BY COUNTIES. EAST TENNESSEE. IMorgan......... 4,330 Ihumphreys 5,3925 WEST TENNESSEE. Anderson......... 6,940 Polk........ 6.3385 Jackson...........15,683 Benton........... 6,332 Bledsoe.......... 5,959 Rhea........ 4423 Lawrence.......... 9,322 Carroll............16,212 Blount....... 12,438 Roane...... 12,196 Lewis............. 4,441 Decatur........... 6,003 Bradley...........12,217 Scott............. 1,914 Lincoln.......24,281 Dyer.............. 6,568 Campbell........ 6,026 Sevier..... 6,922 Macon....... 6,948 Fayette..........27,018 Carter......... 6,312 Sullivan.... 11,743 Marshall..........15,578 Gibson...19,446 Otaiborne...... 9,368 Washington.13,864 Maury..29,520 Hiardemnan....17.348 Cocke......... 8,300 Montgomery.....21,049 IHardin...........10,315 Granger....12,365 MIDDLE TENNESSEE. Overton...........11,217 htaywood.........17,259 Greene............17,912 Bedford...........22,680 Robertson.........16,464 henderson........13,203 Hamilton..........10,075 Cannon.......... 8,988 Rutherford........29,152 Henry........... 18,206 Hancock....... 5,670 Coffee............. 8,356 Smith....18,412 Lauderdale........ 5,175 Hawkins..........13,347 Davidson..........39,481 Stewart........... 9,640 Madison...... 22,848 Jefferson..........13,202 De Kalb........... 8,037 Sumner...........22,755 MeNairy...... 12,864 Johnson........... 3,870 Dickson........... 8,410 Van Buren........ 2,694 Obion............ 7,686 Knox............18,769 Fentress........... 4,454 Warren...........10,183 Perry............. 5,949 McMinn..........13,909 Franklin..........13,769 Wayne........... 8,304 Shelby............31,157 Marion........... 6,187 Giles..............26,211 White...........11,318 Tipton............ 8,904 Meigs............. 4,839 Grundy........... 2,763 Williamson....24,324 Weakly...........14,692 Monroe...........11,878 Hickman.......... 9,398 Wilson..........27,432 ELECTORAVL-j VOTES FOR PRESIDENTS ANT VICE PRESIDENTS FROM 17189 TO 1853..3.1~~~~ I:5~~ -.. 3 s-.'44F 7, 4 __o___e__n_____: -; l-: lJ ~- l-:l lV -: 0 ~o? -- n, —--.............. George Washington, Va.. 6 10. 7 6 10 3 6 10.69 1789. John Aamdss, Mass.:..... 1......... 5cat~eri g..........................I................ 2.... 5 2........................ 8e~tcr~n..........,~~~~2.. 6 i213 6: 5 -..''" 1~~~~~~~~~~..1.1.I~i''.'"1 —..;~~I~ (Scatteringr 71.......... (George Washington Va. 6 4 16 4 9 12 7 15 3 8 21 12 4.4.12 1793. John Adams, Mass 6 4 16 4 9... 7 14 a 8.3 16. George Clinton, N. Y.. v:::..1 21 12 se:.: 4.....:..:::. l ~~ l ~~ i ";'1"" 1~~~~1~ ~~~1~~~~1~~~~1~~~~1~~~1~ ~1~~.1............... ] ~ 21 1~1....:S50 JohnAcldamns, Mass.. 6 4 16 4 9 12 7 3 1..... ~~~~~~~~~"'':'1"t 61 4/161 41 91 1~~~~~....1 T77 lhonas Pincknev, S. C.::::r:: 4 13 4 12 4 1 1 8 Thomas J..... 4 20 11................................ 1 Thoattering(ckney.). 6C....... A'.1 5 4..'...48.3 4...................... Thomas""'effersona.12....~:'i 8.. 5...1......8...4.... ~~~1801. f John ~Ada~~msAase~.6 4 16 4 9~1.... 7 7 8 5 4 66 - - - - - - - - - - - i., - -,,,,,,,, ~~~ ~~~l~~r~~~r 2 3 4 1 1 8........., $ Aaron Burr, N.Y.s 12........ 5 21 8 ~~Chs~. C.P inckney, ~S. ~C....6 4 16 3 9............ 717 3................6...... ""'''''~~~~i ~1 ~~~~1~~~~~~...1.. ~.......... 1805 Thomas Jefferson, Va....... 7 6 4.... 19 20... 9 241 10 6. 5 8 8.162 John~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Adm MaI......... 6 4 6 1801. 5 ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3"........................................8.0..... 9Prest. iChas. C. Pinckney, S. C. W...i 6 9.. 3-7 7 5. 2.1'".. 4 v. Pree5. George Clinton, N. Y........ 7 6 1-9 4 19 8 20... 9 42 14 1016.. 6 3........................... 162 r ufusKing, N.Y................3 2. 3 2........ 14 1809. James Madison, Va...... 6 13 8 20... 9 24 11 10 6.5 7 0......122 hoas.C Jefferson, SVC. 1.1................. 2 7rs... 19 4 9 sc. K... a8 2 3. George Clinton, N.Y.13 8 20.... 9 A24 11 10 6............ 5 7 se....................:::..::::..:...: V.~ Pres.Rufus King, N. Y........ 7 cc. 19 4 9.cc.. 3 1-' -, 2.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~47 19 4 9 se. 8 2 3............................. 8 5 21................... 1813. VJanes Madison, Va. 8 25.6 26....1 I3 8 12 7.......~......12 Prest. D itt Clinton,....... 4................................. 89 V. Presj Elbridge Gerry, M Iass..... 1 8 2.25. 6 26516 11 8. 3 8 12 7.181 7 120 4 9'101~ Jared Ingersoll, Pa... 7 294..... 861 18175, James Monroe, Va...... 8 8 4.... 29 8 2.. 8 25 il 11 8.......3 8 12 8 3.................. 16 lres'nt. Rufus King, NY.... 22.... 9........ 34 V. Pres.-.Dan'lD. Tompkins, N-.. 8 8 sc. 4 cc. 29 8 25 sc. 8 258 12 8 3.83 11 8 3 8 -12 8 3 ~~~~~~~~................ 1821. Pres'nt —Janies Monroe, Va.... sc 8 15 4 9 29 8 25 4 11 25 15 il 8 3 8 8 12 8 3 3..231 V. Pres.-D9n'IDsTompkin.N y 91sc 87sc. 4 9 29 826 cc. l 2 16 11.8 3 3 3 8 12 8 3 3.. 2181 'Andrew Jackson, Tenn.........2.1 7561 11 8.......... 2. 1825. JohnQ.Adams, Mas.... 15 4 8 26....1...1.. 3 1 52... 5 2 31.. i~~I ~~~~~~~ 41 Pre:nt.1 Win. i. Crawford, Ga.... 95..2.1 24.. 9....'. Henry Clay, Ky.........4............ 4......................... 14 16 87 V.Pres. John Calhoun, S.C... 9 7 I'15 29 8 28 1 1 1.... 5 3 5 7. 3....18......12 ~~ ~~~~~~~- SC. Be.'....i''6.... 16.............3 Nathan Sanford............. 7... s.s. s..c16. so...... 30. Vote in the H. of Representatives. Adams................. 7 6 5 12 2 618 s 1 1 5 1 1 3.... 2 1..... 810 1 1...... 13 Jackson....................1..... 2 5 2... 3 1 2 1 1 9 4 27 Cra~wford 1 14 P1 I 1 12 I'10K 7 2,,,),,,./5/~.. 7......2..4::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:....... ~....! ~....~.... ~ ~ ~ ~o'~''"/....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0...................... 1829. SAndrew Jackson,Tenn... 1 20 28 5 24115111 9 5 3 5 11 14 16 5 3.3 1...78........ 17 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ /~ I~ I~ I~ ~'~...1...1~..... 1.'~ Pres'nt. John Q. Adams, Mass.... 8 8 7 15 4 8 / 16 8 3 6 83 28 5 24 1 1 ~~~~1~~ 1~~~~ ~~'~I ~i' 3 5 11 14 16I~~~~ I~~!~~~~ j~ John C. Calhoun, S. C... 10....28 I I.... 24 11 1 5 33........171 V. Pres. Richard Rush, Pa........ 8 8 16 8 3 61...... William Smith, S. C..........................7..................' ] ] 7 18,33 Andrew Jackson, Tenn... 10 7........42 8 3. 3 23 15se. 11 7 4 5 15.... 21 9 5 4. 219 Pres'sst. Ileor Clay, Ky. Sc. 14 4 I 8 1. 1 3 ~~~~~~~~~5.1...:::: 49 Pres'nt.Henry Clay, Ky..............I... s 14 4 4 8 23 h. 11 7 4 3 15.......4. 9 Presat. y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1150...... sc,..;...'.,.. 15 So,~1..... *1..1i*. *9. V.8r. s Martin Van Buren, N.Y.. 10 7....... 4 8....3..... Win~s.~ JH. Harrison, Oi.......l....l... so. 1....... 5 15 21 9 5 4.73 V. Pre4 1..Jhnsn, y. 0 74 42.. 3uK. 15. 4c s..1.. 1.....1. 11 3.47 JohnSergeantgPa.......7....s. 14....1..... s..... sc..... 15...................c....... 3Pres'n7t.. Martin Van Buren, N. Y.7.... 10..84 7 8 42 3....54 0.Pres~..m. H. Harrison, Ohio..'2.' 7"'s 3" 10.................... V Ros M. John sole, Kya... 10 7.....7 4 1041.... 11.... 4 1 52 9 3234 Fra.nMJohnson, Ky. ranger, N. Y........ sc. l sc. sc........... sc 1 9............ ~1845. J rneK.PokTe 9 6.. 36.i.7 14...2... se 10 9.... 6....9...7.17 184Pres1't.. H. Harrison, Ohio.. 10.... 7 14 3 3 10. 1., 4 6 4 7 31 85 1 15 15 281 9 3...1...0 Pre Thd Martin Van Buren, N...... 6 12 4 6... 7 2. 11.13.7.... 12 23.1605 1849. Zacs.John Tyler, Va.........6 1 7 12 46 36 7 26 8. 10. 6 1 34 1 92..... 3.16........ 34 R.nt. Johnson, Ky. 7 7Mich. 9..... 6....I..1.231219...... 4 3...5.... 4. 4... 127 Pr1s85 Miamrd Klolk, Ten.... 9 6 3612 3 8 1.... 9 10 9 6 6 1 12 9 7. 3.163 ienryCllay, 0. tKy........ 9 6 1729....7 9...6 3. 13 12 23. 7. 444... 127 V. Pres.I G~eorge M. Dallas, Pa.............. 36 - 26 17....1 9 10) 9 6...... 1" 95...........17 Th. Frelinghuysn, Ne. Yr...1.... 8.. 12 4 6 5 3168 11 13 102 23 1 P1849. Wi cot, N.. J5 12 7 26 33 8..6 13 12 4............. 1.~~~~~~3. ~ ~ ~ 6 -3CasA129t0...121.. 4 2 ~~~Pres'~~nt. Lewihr Al 1 9.9a..... 8.1..3 18 Millard F~illnore, N. Y...6..... 12 4 36 - 26 3 8 1. 10 6 13 12...................... 6 V. Pre i. William 0. Butler, Ky... 9 6 9.... 98 6...... 31.. 2 15 Franklin Pierce, N. H.... 8 54 6 3.5 7i 27 3 8 15 10 8 10 9 7 6 23 13 11 7 4 6 3 4 5 4 4 2524 sP l n'tt. Winfield Scott,N. J,,,,,,il............N. J......... 4 2 Wl~illiam R. King, Ala..'& 5' 22..../4 6 5 71 217 3......7..... V. Pres. I...........~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l........................... 4 V. Pres'nt ~illiam A. Graham, N.r a........ 13.............. 1 3......... 23....... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~l~~~~ l~~ ~~~I ~ i ~I ~I ~I ~I ~i ~ "4 SALARIES OF UNITED STATES PUBLIC OFFICERS. THE compensation of the following public officers of the United States is at present fixed by law at the amounts stated:President of the United States, $25,000 per annum; Vice President, $5,000 per annum; Secretaries of State, Treasury, Navy, and War, each, $6,000 per annum; Postmaster General, $6,000 per annum; Attorney General, $4,000 per annum; Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, $5,000 per annum; Associate Justices, $4,500 per annum. From the first Congress, in 1789, inclusive, until March 4, 1795, Senators and Representatives received each $6 per diem, and $6 for every twenty miles travel. From March 4, 1795, to March 4, 1796, Senators received $7, and Representatives $6 per diem. From March 4, 1796, until December 4, 1815, the per diem was $6, and the mileage $6, to Senators and Representatives. From December 4, 1815, until March 4, 1817, each Senator and Representative received $1,500 per annum, with a proportional deduction for absence, for any cause but sickness. The President of the Senate pro tempore, and Speaker of the House, $3,000 per annum, each. From March 4, 1817, the compensation to members of both Houses has been $8 per diem, and $8 for every twenty miles travel; and to the President of the Senate pro tempore, and Speaker of the House, $16 per diem. The pay of Ministers Plenipotentiary is $9,000 per annum, salary, beside $9,000 for an outfit. Secretaries of Legation receive $2,000, and Charg6 d'Affaires, $4,500 per annum. To entitle any charg6 d'affaires, or secretary of any legation or embassy to any foreign country, or secretary of any minister plenipotentiary, to the above compensation, they must respectively be appointed by the President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate; but in the recess of the Senate, the President is authorized to make such appointments, which must be submitted to the Senate at the next session thereafter, for their advice and consent; and no compensation is allowed to any charg6 d'affaires, or any secretary of legation, embassy, or minister, who shall not be so appointed. Consuls of the United States, generally so called, are, in effect, agents for commerce and seamen; which latter denomination, for particular reasons, is given to some of this class of public officers. They receive no yearly salaries (except at Paris and London, Tangier, Tunis, and Tripoli, where they have an annual salary of $2,000), and their compensation is derived from the fees which are allowed by law. The amount of these fees depends, of course, upon the state of foreign trade, which is perpetually fluctuating. Consuls of the United States, for commercial purposes, are regularly admitted and recognized, as to their official functions, in the ports of Christian Europe; but in the colonies of the European nations, agents for commerce and seamen mostly exercise the duties of their station under courtesy, without any formal recognition; and, in some instances, from the jealousy of colonial policy, they have not been permitted to exercise them at all. In their public capacity, consuls and agents for commerce and seamen are principally occupied in verifying, in different forms, the legality of the trade of the United States with foreign nations, and in relieving and sending home American seamen, who, by accident or misfortune, are left destitute within the jurisdiction of their several consulates and agencies.