OUTLINES OF HI S TORY; WITH ORIGINAL TABLES, CHRONOLOGICAL, GENEALOGICAL AND LITERARY. BY ROBERT H. LABBERTON. $jccond Ediiion. PHILADELPHIA: CLAXTON, REMSEN & HAFFELFINGER, NOS. 819 AND 821 MARKET STREET. 1871. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by CLAXTON, REMSEN & HAFFELFINGER, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. STEREOTYPED BY J. FAGAN & SON. PRiNTED BY MOORE BROS. PREFAC E EVERY teacher has experienced a difficulty in dealing with the From no one book can any one be taught history. But suppose a subject of History, and is compelled to acknowledge with regret book prepared on a strictly scientific basis, where history, while that most pupils leave school, and even college, possessed of only very breaking itself up and separating into distinct periods, each with its hazy, uncertain, and therefore totally valueless views regarding the LEADING EVENTS, its PECULIAR CHARACTER, and its REPRESENTATIVE simplest historical subject. MEN, continually preserves that unity which impresses itself on the Yet this failure seems unavoidable when we consider how history is attention, and presents the vicissitudes of centuries as A VAST, CONTINgenerally taught. Some pupils are hurried through a number of text- UOUs, HARMONIOUS WHOLE; suppose it to be not so much exhaustive books, overloaded with details, all of which they are expected to mas- as suggestive, and offering throughout the means of satisfying the exter, and some of which, strange to say, a few highly favored memories cited curiosity by referring to accessible, readable and trustworthy succeed in retaining until examination is over.. Others are taught' authorities; —by such a book may not pupils be so trained in hisfrom one book only; that is, they are made to depend for their views tory as to find that their intelligence has been really strengthened and of the most important events on the mere ipse dixit of one man. Grant- expanded? ing even that he is a perfectly competent guide, the writer exercises Such a book, it seenls to me, my friend has tried to write. It is too much power over both teacher and pupil, and often succeeds in essentially a SCHOOL-BOOK for the benefit of both teacher and pupil. making them lazy, ignorant and self-sufficient. By pretending to tell Its chief and distinctive features are: everything necessary to be kiwn he eradicates all taste for indeeverything necessary to be wn, he eradicates all taste for de-1. The Table of Contents, so arranged as to impress firmly the grand pendent investigation. Oncthro is book, the pupil shuts it up i outlines of history on the imagination and memory. for ever, and thinks he knows history. Besides, a universal (school) history can hardly help splitting on 2. The Chronological Table of only 420 dates, exhibiting the repreone of two rocks -tiresome dryness, if the subject is handled with |sentative men of all ages at that particular period of their lives in which the aim to give full information, or too great diffuseness, if the their influence, for good or evil, was at its height. object is to make it light and interesting. Both these (the first part of the Table of Contents and the Chrono3 4 PREFACE. logical Table) are intended to be thoroughly committed to memory; a labor done by the pupil, calling as it does his judgment as well as task easily regulated, as the difficulty depends entirely on the time that his memory into play, cannot fail to turn the school study of history the pupil can devote to his historical studies. into a pleasing and profitable pursuit, instead of an unwelcome and This Chronological Table is the grand pivot on which the other irksome task. parts of the book turn; as they were all written solely to vivify, illus- Other merits of the book might be pointed out; but the intelligent trate and explain it. teacher will discover them for himself. The plan to be pursued is, therefore, obvious. The pupil is to get In conclusion: The author deserves the gratitude of teachers, for by heart, each day, a certain number of dates, generally the fewer the he has furnished us a most efficient help in, perhaps, the most difficult better, and to look out all information regarding them to be found in department of our labors. May our pupils have the full benefit of it; the Dictionary and Appendix. This, though an easy task, owing to and when passing from under our care, may they carry with them a the perfect order of arrangement, has the great advantage of giving taste in literature for something higher than the universal light-readhim something solid to do in preparation of his lesson, besides merely ing of the day, - the healthful, bracing, and elevating truths of hisexercising his memory. This will lead by degrees to a habit of tory; that as men and citizens they may be proof against the sophisinquiry, the means of satisfying which are amply provided in the tries of smart magazinists, "brilliant" lecturers, and crafty politicians; lists of books accompanying every period. and by their knowledge and virtue do their part to refine society, and It is evident that by means of the different parts of this work, the protect and perpetuate the Republic. teacher can ask and the pupil can answer, without reference to any E. R. other book, thousands of important questions in history; and that the I PHILADELPHIA. May, 1870. — ~ iiF i i i.....'.....',...., i ii ii i II i COMPLETE TABLE OF CONTENTS. FIRST PART-THE TABLIES. I. ANCIENT HISTORY, 2500 B. C.-300 A. D. D. Christendom against Islam, 1090-1290 A.D. A. Eastern History, 2500 B. C.-500 B. C. (Age of the Crusades.) I. Chaldaean Ascendency, 2200-1500 B. C. I. The Real Crusades, 1090-1150 A. D. II. Egyptian Ascendency, 1500-1200 B. c. II. Barbarossa, 1160-1190 A. D. III. Assyrian Ascendency, 1150- 650 B. C. III. Glory and Fall of the Papacy, 1190-1290 A. D. IV. The four Great Powers, 625- 555 B. C. V. Persian Ascendency, 555- 333 B. C. B. Gr0eek Hsistory, 600 B. C.-300 B. C. III. MODERN HISTORY, 1300-1850 A. D. I. The Dawn, 600-500 B. C. A. The Formation of Distinct Nationalities, 1290-1490 XA.D. II. The Glory, 500-440 B. c. III. The Decline, 440-340 B. C. I. During the Anglo-Scotch Struggle, 1290-1325 A. D. IV. The Fall, 340-300 B. C. II. During the Anglo-French Struggle, 1330-1440 A. D. III. During the War of the Roses, 1440-1490 A. D. C. Roman History, 300 B. C.-30 B. C. I. The Heroic Age of Rome, 300-200 B. C. B. The Age of the Great Discoveries, 1490-1530 A.D. II. Rome the Umpire of the Nations, 200-100 B. C. II. RoThe Civilthe Umpire of the Nations, 200-10 80 B. I. Before the Great Schism, 1490-1518 A. D. II. During the Reformation, 1518-1530 A. D. D. The Empire, 30 B. C.-300 A. D. I. The Golden Age of Literature, 30 B. C.-]00 A. D. C. The Religious Warss 1530-1660 A.D. II. The Golden Age of the Empire, 100 A. D.-200 A. D. I. During the Struggle in Germany and England, 1530-1560 A. D. III. The General Decline, 200 A. D.-300 A. D. II. During the Struggle in France and Holland, 1560-1660 A. D. III. During the Catholic Reaction, 1600-1618 A. D. II, MEDIEVAL HISTORY, 300-1300 A.D, IV. During the Thirty Years War, 1618-1648 A. D. V. During the English Commonwealth, 1648-1660 A. D. A. Thae Triumph of Christianity?, 300-600 A. D. I. The Conversion of the Empire, 300-400 A. D. D. The Succession Wars, 1660-1T70 4A.D. II. The Foundation of the Latin Church, 400-460 A. D. I. During the First Part of the Reign of Louis XIV., 1660-1686 A. D. III. The Conversion of the Barbarians, 460-600 A. D. II. During the English Succession Troubles, 1688-1700 A. D. B. Th e Rise of Islam, 600-850 A.D. DIII. During the Spanish Succession Troubles, 1700-1714 A. D. I. Islam victorious, 620-720 A. D. IV. During Walpole's Ascendency, 1714-1740 A. D. II. Islam checked, 720-780 A. D. V. During the Heroic Career of Frederick the Great, 1740-1770 A. D. III. Consolidation of the West, 780-840 A. D. E. The Era of Revolutions, 1D70-1850 A.D. C. Thle Three Attempts to Unite Christe~ndon, 850-1090. I. During the Anglo-American Revolution, 1770-1784 A. D. I. By the Carlovingians, 850- 910 A. D. II. During the French Revolution, 1784-1814 A. D. II. By the German Emperors, 910-1050 A. D. III. During the Spanish-American Revolution, 1814-1828 A. D. IIT. By the Papacy, 1050-1090 A. D. IV. Since the July Revolution of 1830, 1830-1850 A. D. 5 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. These tables contain 420 carefully selected dates, and are arranged as follows: every tenth name is a literary character. The dates placed after a name (indicating the birth and death) are not intended to be committed to memory, but to From 2600 B. c.-1000 B. C. every 250th year. be used by the pupils in answering questions, with the tables before them. The From 1000 B. c.- 650 B. C. every 50th year. name of a town after a date indicates always the foundation, except when folFrom 550 B. C.-1300 A. D. every 10th year. lowed by a b, (battle.) From 1300 A. D.-1490 A. D. every 6th year. The dates on the first table, are nearly all approximate. The date for the From 1490 A. D.-1850 A. D. every 2d year. foundation of Ronte, however, has the authority of Polybius and even of Cicero, (Rep. II. 10, 18.) The date for Rameses the Great has the authority of RawThe literary characters are throughout printed in CAPITALS. From 1490 A.D., linson, (Herod. II., p. 312..) SECON D PART'. | Alphabetical List containing an Article on each name or fact mentioned in the Chronological Tables, pages 29-168. THIRD PA.RT. Appendix, containing: the cause; duration; theatre of war; parties; object of the war; result of the war; commanders; campaigns; decisive battles; cause of peace; condition of peace, etc., of the principal wars, from the earliest times until 1850 A. D. SYNOPSIS OF APPENDIX. Introduction. 1. The cradle of the human race.169 C. The Empires on the Plateau of Iran. 2. The human race and its divisions............................................. 169 I. The Median empire......................................... 172 3. The historical races........................................................... 169 II. The Medo-Persian empire............................................... 172 4. The oldest historical nation........................................................ 169 A. Egypt. B. The onian revolt....................................................................................73 I. The Old Empire.............. 169 C. Te Persian wars............. 173 II. The Middle Empire................. 169 I. The defensive war against the Persians..........73 III. The New Empire............169. Thefirst atempt, in 492 B..................................... 173 a. The Egyptian ascendency in Western Asia........................ 170 b. The second attempt, in 490 B. c.................................... 174 b. The decline andfall of the Egyptian ascendency.................. 170 c. The third attempt, in 480 B.......................................... 174 c. The restoration of the Egyptian ascendency.......................... 170 II. The aggressive war against the Persians.............................. 174 d. The transition period and fall..................1.............. 170 Synchronistic remark, Salazis8 and Hiera........................... 175 B. The Three Empires in the Valley of the Euphrates and D. Peloponnesian War. Tigris. I. The Ten Years war.,,.,................... 175 I. Chaldea a.................................................... 1 7) II. The Sicilian expedition.................................... 175 II. Assyria............................................................................. 171 III. The Decelian war.................................... 175 III. Babylonia..................................................... 171 Result of the defeat at lays Po taer8.......................a........... R o...... 175 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 7. The Corinthian War..................................................... 176 II. The political revolution of 510 B.................................. 180 a. The expulsion of the kings..................1....8, 80 F. The Olynthian Wrar............................................................. 225 a. The explsin o th kig........................................... 180 G. The War between Thebes and Sparta.............................. 176 The dctator................................. 180 d. The assembly of the militia (comitia centuriata)................180 EI. The Wars that led to the M acedonian Supremacy........ 176 e. Patricians and plebeians....................................... 180 I. The Phocian war, or, first sacred war................................. 176 III. The social revolution of 495 and 494 B. c.............................. 180 II. The Locrian war, or, second sacred war..................... 176 a. The secession to the sacred mount............................ 180 b. The tribunes of the multitude (tribuni plebis)................. 181 I. cAlexande r the Great................................ 177 ec. The struggle between patricians and plebeians..................... 181 I. The war against Persia...................................... 177 d. The first agrarian law of Spurius Cassius, in 486 181 II. The Indian campaign................................................ 177 IV. The legal revolution......................................................... 181 III. Character of Alexander's alministration.............................. 177 a. The law of the XI table...................................... 181 IV. Immediate results of Alexander's death.17............................18 V. The states sprung from Alexander's empire.......................... 177. Political sgnifican the of the law f the I. tables. 182. Prolongation of the rule of the decem virrs......182 a. THE THREE EMPIRES........................................... 177 d. Fall of the decemvirs................................................... 182 1. acedonia....................................... 177 - V. The equalization of the Patricians and Plebeians.................. 182 2. Asia, or the empire of the Seleucidwe.....177................ 177 a. Theplebeian aristocracy and the tribunate....................... 182 3. Egypt, or the empire of the Ptolenies....................... 177 b. The military tribunes with consular power........................ 182 b. THE THREE PRINCIPAL STATES OF THE SEC- c. The censorship.......................................................... 182 TE THREE PRINCIP L STATES OF THE SEC- d. The Licinian rogation -plebeian consuls....................... 182 OND RANK. 178................................................. 1 e. Thepretorship.......................... 183 1. Atropaene....................................................... 178 f. Final equalization between the two orders.......................... 183 2. Galaia............................................................................................... 183 38. Pergamus..................................................... 178 B. Development of the R2oman Territory. c. THE THREE CONFEDERACIES.............................. 178 I. ConsoTedatwon of Latuiem............................ 183 1. The tolian Confederacy..................................., 178 a. The league of the three nations.........1........83............... 183 2. The Ach'an. Co.federacy............................. 178 b. Spurius Cassius thefater of the league.................... 183 3. The Mercantile Cities....................................... 178 c. Atte mpts to dissolve the league............................ 183 III. ROMAN HISTORY. II. The wars between Rome and Veii.............................. 184 a. The war of 483 till 474 B.C..................1............. 184 A. Development of t he Roman Constitution.........................178 b. The war with Veii about Fidenm.184 c. Thefall of Veii......................................................... 184 I. Regal Rome.............................burning of Rome...................... 17884 a. Character of the history of Regal Rome............................ 178 a. The Celts and the truscans....................... 184 b. The regal office.................................. 178 b. The Celts and the Romans...........184 c. The seven kings of Rome.............................................. 19. The............................................ 184 d. The reformed constitution of Servius Tullius........................ 179 c. The catastrophe IV. The consolidation of Central Italy. 184 1. Origin of the Plebeian*............................................................................. 184} 2. The Plebeians admitted to mnilitary service..179..................... a.,atins and Samnites.184 3. Formation of the army....................19................. 9 b. The wars between Rome and Samnium,,,.......185 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 1. Fir8t Samnite war.............................5........... 15... IV. THE EMPIRE. 2. The Great Latin war............................................... 185 3. Second or Great Samnite war.. 185 A. Constitution of the Empire from 30 B. C.-300 A.1)...... 191 Consequences of the victory. The Roman roads........................... 186 4. Italy between the Second and Third Sam7ite war............ 186 I. The Imperial prerogative............................ 191 5. 7Third Samrzte war..186......................................... 186 1I. The Senate............................................... 191 6. The Romal, territory at the close of the Samwnte war....... 186 III. The Magistrates.................................................................... 191 V. Struggle between Pyrrhus and Rome.................................. 186 IV. The Empire 911 VI. United Italy, 270 B.C......................................................... 186 B. The Roman Emperors from 30 B. C.-190 A.D............. 191 C. The Punic Wtars.................................................................. 187 I. Situation of Rome and Carthage, on the eve of the struggle 187 I. The five emperors of the Julian house. 191 II. General summary of the wars.......,,..,,,,,,,.187 II. The three emperors proclaimed by the legions....................... 191 11. h et ai.........Gr.................................................. 187. 9 IV. The three statesmen......................................................... 191 Results of the First Punic War................................1..... 188 V. The three Antonines......................................................... 191 IV. Events between the first and second Punic war.................... 188 VI. Character of the Empire during the first two centuries of its V. Second Punic war............................................. 188 existence.............................................................. 191 a. Subdivisions of the war............................................... 188 b. Hannibal's march................................ 188 c. Results of the war.. 188 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. VI. Events between the second and third Punic war................... 188 VII. Third Punic war.................................................... 189 I. From, the Division of the Romnan EmZ pire until the CrzuVIII. Jugurthine war.,................................................... 189 sades........................................................192 D. The Consolidation of the Shores of the Mediterranean 189 A CHRISTENDOM. I. The war with the Cimbri and Teutones.......... 189 II. The Marsic or social war............................................... 189 I. Divisions and subdivisions of the Roman Empire.................. 192 III. The three wars against Mithradates........................ 189 II. The Great Migrations................................................... 192 a. The first war............................................................ 189 III. The settlements of the barbarians..................................... 192 b. The second war..............189........................... 189. Gaul..................... 192 c. The wars between the second and third Mithradatic swar........ 189 2. Spain............................................................... 192 d. Third Mithradatic war190................................................. 190 3. Africa.............................................................. 192 E. ThLe Civil Wars1.......~~~,, ~~~~.... ~~~~~~~ ~~~~ 190 4. Italy ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~. tl................................................................ 192 5..Western Illyricum......192 I. General character of the civil wars in Rome........................ 190 6. Britain.......................................................... 192 II. The eleven civil wars....................................................... 190 I. The Gracchi.............................................................. 190 IV. The States which preceded the Empire of Charlemagne......... 192 II. Marius and Sulla...................................................... 190 A. E PREs IN ITALY................................................... 192 III. The 1Marian party and Sulla........................... 190 I. The Italian Empire of Odoacer........................... 192 Iv. The war against Sertorius............................ 190 is. The Empire of the Ostro-Goths.192 v. Catiline's conspiracy.................................................... 190 II. The Byzantine dominion in Italy............................. 192 vI. Cesar and Pompey.................................................... 190 Iv. The Empire of the Longobards................................ 193 vII. The Pompeian party and Cxsar..................................... 190 v. The civil war of llutina................................................ 190 B. E IREs IN AFRIC........................................... 193 IX. The oligarchy and the repulblicans................................... 190 I. Vandal Enpire................. 193 x. The Perusian war..................................................... 190 II. Byzantine dominion............................................. 193 xi. Octavian and Antony................................................... 190 iin. Aabia do......................................... 193 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 9 C. EMPIRES IN SPAIN................................................... 193 The second Crusade............................................ 196 I. Vandal Empire......1.............................. 193 Cause, preacher, leaders...................................................... 196 II. Suevic Empire................................................. 193 0To Constanstinople.................................. 196 III. Visigothic Empire...................................... 193 From Constantinoople to Damascus.................................... 196 IV. Caliphate of Cordova...................................... 193 The result of the second Crusade........................................... 196 D. EEMPIRES IN GAUL.................................................... 193 The third Crusade........................................................ 196 I. Burgundian Empire.....................................3 Case, preacher, leaders........................................196 II. Merovingian Empire......................................... 193 T o Acre............................................. 196 Result of the third C rusade................................................. 196 V. The Empire of Charlemagne..93 The fourth C..................................... 193 Exen Tof ConthtantiolThehe................................................... 197. extent of the Emayre................................... 193............................................. 197 E Ixtent of hembardyitte Causepreache............................... 193 tprech er, leaders................................................ 197 II. Wars with the Saxons.................. 193 IIi. War in Spain...................93 The fifth Crusade....................... 197 IV. WYar with the Avars............................... 193 Result of the Crusade of Emperor Frederick II............ 197 v. War with the Danes.................................. 193 The sixth Crusade........................................................ 197 VI. Character of the tears of Charlemcagte.................................... 193 B. Coronation of Charlemagne.......................................... 193 Cause, eader, theatre of uar........................................ 197 C. The successors of Charlemagne....................................... 194 VI. Partition of the Carlovingian Empire, 843 A.D............... 194 The seventh and last Crusade................................ 197 VII. The Normanss........t o f.................................... 194 Cause, leader, theatre of war....................197......... 197 B. ISLAM. 11. General Wre s withe Crouns.......................................... 197 Result of the seventh Crusade. 197 B. ISLAM. IL. General results of the Crusades. 19 I. The four first Caliphs............A.Pltclosqe..................... 194 A. Political consequences........................................... 197 II. The Ommaiad Caliphs..................................................... 194 B. Consequences to trade................................197 A. Thefounder of the race........................................... 194 III. The division of the East at the end of the 13th century......... 198 B. The internal regulations............................................... 194 C. Greatest extent of the Caliphate................................. 195iR D. The Arabs in Gaul..........1....9......................... 195 MODERN 1h ISTORY E. Charles Martel.............................................. 195. The tansition period. CotIII. The A massides.........................................195 I. The Anglo-Scotch war...................198 A. The division of the Empire of the Caliphs......................... 195 It. The Anglo-French struggle........................................ 198 B. The Calsphs of Bagdad....................................... 195 III. The war of the roses............................T..... 198 C. The Caliphs of Cordova.............................................. 195 IV. The Franco-Italian wars9...5.198 D. Character of the Arabic invasions................................. 19 V The wars between Charles V and Fracis.......................... 199 II. The Crusades. IL. Religious wars. I. The Seven Crusades.......................................... 196 I. The Smalcaldian war.............................................. 200 The first Crusade......................................................... 196 e eve............................................... 200 Cause, preachers, leaders........................................... 196 III. The thirty years war...................... 200 To Constantinople..................................................... 196 a. General su ma.................................................. 201 Fromn Constantiliople to Jerusalem........................................ 196 b The Bohemian-Palatineperiode..............01................ 201 Political results of thefirst Crusade...........................................................sh Perod201 2 10 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Result of the Conquest of Northern Germany by the Emperor................... 201 1 I. The Age of Frederick the Great. d. The Swedish Period....................................... 201 I. Condition of the Prussian army at the accession of Frederick..... 208 e. The French Perod......................................................... 202 II. The wars of Frederick the Great................................. 208 IV. The Civil wars in England...................................... 202 a. General summary.......................................................... 208 a. First civil war............................................................. 202 b. Thefirst Silsian war..................................... 209 b. Second civil war............................................................ 202 c. The Austrian succession war............................................. 209 d. Wars contemporary with, and forming part of the Austrian sucIII. The Age of Louis XIV, cession war 209 A. During the administration of Mazarin............................. 202 A. Second Silesian war.............................. 209 I. The Franco-Spanish war................................ 202 B. Anglo-French war....................................... 209 II. The Anglo-Dutch wars..................................... 203 e. The seven years war......................................................... 209 a. First Anglo-Dutch tear....................................... 203 f. The French-Indian war,...........21.................... 210 b. Second Anglo-Dutch war..........................................., 203 g. Development of the British Power.................................. 210 B. DuringdtnfFn drn t the reign of Louis XIV. VII. The wars of the revolutionary period. I. Condition of France during the first part of the reign of I. American war for independence......................... 210 Louis XLV.............................203.......... [ II. The wars of Louis XV................................................ 203 II. The wars of the first coalition against France............................ 211 II. Genweral sum Xmar IV.............................. 203 a. The Austr'o-Prussian coalition...................................... 211 b. General summoutary.......................................................... g............... 211 b. Thel war oft evolltion.....................................204 b. Thegrandcoaltonaganst0France211 c. ThIe war with Holland.......................................... 204 c. The grand coalition after the Peace of Bale............. 211 d. Position of Louis XIV., after the peace of Nimwegen........... 204 First campaign directed by Napoleon Bonaparte........................ 211 e. The tear ofthe League ofAu y s................... A g204 III. Bonaparte's expedition against Egypt and Syria..................... 211 f. The Sanih scc ion war............................................ 205 IV. The war of the second coalition against France........................ 212 IV. Eastern Europe during the Reign of Louis XIdrT V The war of the third coalition against France.................. 212 a. The war.................................................................. 212 The Scandinavo-Slavonian wars. 206 l a. The war.212,, 212. Position of Sweden, 1650........................................... 2 b. Consequences of the battle of Austerlitz.............................. 213 II. The wars of Charles X.................................................. 206 VI. The war of the fourth coalition against France..................... 213 a. The Soedish sumccession ar.............................................. 206 a. The utar............................................... 213 b. The first war beto een Sweden and Denmark......................... 206 b. Prussia after the Peace of Tilsit......................................... 213 c. The second war between Sweden and Denlmark............. 206 c. The continental system................................................... 213 II Tewrsd. Enforcement of the continental system.................................213 III. The wars of Charles XI.................................................. 207 1 IV. The wars of Charles XII........................................... 207 VII. The Peninsular war......................................................... 213 a. The attac wth ad................................................... 20. The ranco-Austrin war.......................................... 214 a. The attack.207 VIII.TheFranco-Austrianwar.214207 b. The reule of the invaders...............................T..... 207 I. The revolt ill the Tyro................................................ 214 c. The retaliation of Charles XII... e.................. 207 I Napoleon' econdmarrage...... 214 A. Against Augustus II..........................................................20 IX. The Franco-Russian war........................ 214 B. Against Peter the Great I. The march to MoscoW..................................... 215 d. The misfortunes of Charles XII....................................................... 207......... 215 e. Fiscal settlenlent of the North............................................. 20......The.retreat....m, 20... X. The war of the fifth coalition against France........................ 215 V. Eastern Europe during the Reign of Emperor Charles a. General summary.........................................l............ 215 VTI. b. Campaign of 1813............................................... 215 I. The Austro-Turkish war......... A........ 208 c. Consequences of the battle of eipsic.......................... 21 II. The war of the Polish succession.......................................... 208 d. Campaign qf the allied armies in France.............................. 216 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 11 XI. Congress of Vienna............................ 216.... a. The Outbreak and its Conseqences..................... 221 XlI. The Hundred Days.................................................. 216 b. Panslavism and the beginning of the reaction........ 221. Results of the battle of Waterloo......................................217 c. The South-Sluvonian reaction.. 221 II. The Roly Alliance.................................................... 217 d. The Revolt of Vienna..................................... 221 XIII. Anglo-American war............................... 217 e e Austo- aran ar............................. 221 XIV. The war of Spanish Independence in America........................ 218 III. The Lombardian Revolution................................. 222 XV. The wars for the independence of Greece................................ 218 a. The Liberation of Greece................................................. 218 C. GERMANY. b. The Turco-Russian war................................................. 218 XVI. The Mexican war......................................................... 219 I. General causes............................................. 222 II. The revolution.................................................... 222 VIII. The European Revolutioln of 1848. a. The Humiliation of the Sovereigns....................... 222 b. The German Parliament..................... 222 A. FRANCE..h i. The reactio.............................................. 222 I. General causes.............................................. 219 II. The revolution..................................................... 219 D. ITALY. a. The Political Revolution................................... 219 a. Thle Political t em oluteon..,,..,,.,.............. 1 219. I. General causes................................................... 223 b. The attepted Social Revolution........................ 219 II. The revolution..................................................... 223 c. The great Socialistic Outbreak............................ 220 III.The reaction.220 9a. The Humiliation of the Sovereigns...................... 223 III.Teracton.........................................20b. The Austro-.T alian war...................................... 223 B. AUSTRIA. III. The reaction............................. 223 I. General causes.2................................ 220 a. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies..................... 223 II. Austro-Hungarian Revolution................................ 221 b. Rome............................................ 224 FOURTHI PART. Genealogical Tables. I. The Rulers of England from 1066 until 1870, showing - The race IV. The claims to the English crown of Lady Jane Grey and Araof the Conqueror; the descent of Henry II. from Henry I.; the Plan- bella Stuart, showing — the descent of Jane Grey and Arabella tagenet line; the claims of Lancaster and York; the houses of York and Stuart from Hlenry VII.; the relationship between Queen Mary and Lancaster; the descent of Henry VII. from the duke of Lancaster; the Jane Grey; the relationship between King James I. and Arabella Tudor line; the descent of James I. from Henry VII.; the Stuart line Stuart. The descent of William Seymour from Henry VII., of Edward in Scotland and England; the descent of William III. from Charles I.; Courtenay from Edward IV., and of Cardinal Pole from Edward III. the descent of George I. from James I.; the Brunswick line. V. Genealogy of the house of Guelf, 1100-1870, showing -the rulers II. The Scotch succession in 1290, showing the claims of Baliol, Bruce, of Brunswick, Hanover, Great Britain (since 1714); the children of and others, to the crown of Scotland. This table, in connection with George III.; the relationship between Queen Victoria, the deposed king the first, gives all the Scottish kings, since 1160. of Hanover, and the duke of Brunswick. III. The French succession in 1328, showing- the great-grandsons of VI. Genealogy of the house of Capet in all its branches, showing - Philip IV.; the extinction of the older Capets in the male line; the the descent from Hugh Capet of the rulers of France, Portugal, Spain, claim of Henry VI. to the crowns of England and France. Valois, Anjou, Burgundy, etc. 12 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VII. The rulers of France from 987 until 1870, showing —the older rors not connected with any dynasty; the connections between the Capets; the descent of the Valois, Bourbons, and Orleans, from Hugh Bohemian, Luxemburg, Habsburg, and Lorraine dynasties; and the Capet; the house of Cond6; and of BUONAPARTE. emperors of Austria from 1806-1870. VIII. The descendants of Lewis VIII., king of France, showing — XII. Genealogy of the house of Habsburg, 1218-1740, showing — the older house of Anjou and its Neapolitan and Hungarian branches; the division into the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, and their the union of Hungary with Bohemia, and of both with Austria, (as they are extinction in the male line. still;) the connections of the imperial house of Luxemburg with Anjou XIII. Genealogy of the house of Hohenzollern, 1400-1870, showing and Habsburg; the younger house of Anjou, the titular kings of Na- — the electors of Brandenburg; the dukes of Prussia; the rulers of ples; the younger house of Burgundy, and the descent of Emperor Brandenburg and Prussia after their union; the kings of Prussia; Charles V., both from St. Louis and from Rudolf of Habsburg. the paternal and maternal ancestors of Frederick the Great, and his IX. The Spanish and Austrian succession, in 1700 and 1740, relations with the kings of Great Britain and the house of Orange. showing —the descent of the different pretenders to the Spanish XIV. Genealogy of the house of Oldenburg, 1470-1870, showing - crown, in 1700, from Ferdinand and Isabella; the house of Sobieski; the descent from Christian of Oldenburg of the rulers of Denmark, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs; and the genealogy of the pres- Greece, Russia, and Oldenburg; the house of Romanow; the house ent kings of Italy and Bavaria. of Wasa; and the house of Bernadotte. X. The rulers of Germany from 800 until 1254, showing- the Carlo- XV. The rulers of Spain from 1368 until 1869, showing -the dynasvingian dynasty; the descent of Henry I. from Charlemagne; the ties of Trastamara, Habsburg, and Bourbon, and their relations. Saxon dynasty; the descent of Conrad II. from Charlemagne; the XVI. The kings of Portugal from 1384 until 1870, showing —the Salic dynasty; the descent of Barbarossa from Charlemagne; the descent of the five claimants of the Portuguese crown, in 1580, from Suabian dynasty; and the connections between the Guelfs and Hohen- John the Bastard; the house of Habsburg in Portugal; the descent staufen. of John IV. from Emanuel the Great; the house of Braganza in PorXI. The emperors of Germany from 1272-1806, showing —the empe- tugal and Brazil. Alphabetical Index to the Sovereign Families of Europe Explanations of Signs used int the Genealogical Tables. mentioned in these Tables. Austria, XI., XII. Married. Bavaria, IX. Bourbon, VI., VII. | Child of. Buonaparte, VII. Bastard of. Brazil, XVI. Brunswick, V. Emp. Emperor of Germany. Denmark, XIV. France, VI., VII. * King of France. Great Britain, I., V. Greece, XIV. - King of Hungary. Guelf, V. Hanover, V. Ruler of Bavaria. Hohenzollern, XIII. | King of Scotland. Italy, IX. Oldenburg, XIV. II Ruler of Austria. Orleans, VI., VII. Portugal, VI., XVI. t Ruler of Spain. Prussia, XIII. Russia, XIV. Spain, VI., XII., XV.year of death; all other signs Sweden, XIV. or marks are explained in the Genealogical Tables. ANCIENT HISTORY. 2500 B. C.-300 A. D. SMITH: Ancient Ilistory. A EASTERN HISTORY. 2500-500 B.C. WILKINSON: Ancient Egypt. RAWLINSON: Ancient Monarchies. Chronology. Periods. B. C. About 2500 The Pyramids 1 First. 2250 Sesostris Chaldoean Ascendency 2000 Abraham in Western Asia 1750 The Hyksos 2200-1500 B. C. ~~1 ~Second. 1500 Moses i Egyptian Ascendency 1250 Rameses the Great j in Western Asia 1500-1200 B. C. 1000 DAVID and HOMER 950 Sardanapalus 900 Elijah Third. 850 HESIOD Assyrian Ascendency 800 Carthage in Western Asia 750 Rome 1150-650 B. C. 700 ISAIAH 650 Tullus IIostilius J Fourth. The four great powers a 600 Nebuchadnezzar Babylon, Media, Lydia, Egypt C 625-555 B. C. Fifth. 550 Cyrus in Western Asia m 555-333 B. C. [~ I ANCIENT HISTORY. 2500 B. C.-300 A. D SAITTII: Ancient Ilistory. B GREEK HISTORY., 600-300 B.C GROTE: History of Greece. GROTE: Plato and the other Companions of Socrate. CURTIUS: History of Greece. I. The Dawn. B. C. 540 Pisistratus (6124-527 B. c.) 630 PYTHAGORAS (540-510) 520 Darius 510 Brutus R Expulsion of Hippias 500 Aristagoras II. The Glory. 490 Miltiades Marathon b. 480 PINDAR (518-442) Thermopylm and Salamis b. 470 LESCHYLUS (525-456) Themistocles and Aristides 460 SOPHOCLES (495-405) Pericles and Phidias 450 EURIPIDES (480-406) Laws of the XII Tables R 440 HERODOTUS (484-408) Anaxagoras III. The Decline. 430 THUCYDIDES (471-400) Peloponnesian War, 2d year 420 XENOPHON (444-355) Alcibiades 410 ARISTOPHANES (444-380) Socrates 400 PLATO (428-347) The Anabasis 390 The Burning of Rome Thrasybulus 380 ISOCRATES (436-338) Olynthian War, 3d year 370 Epaminondas (?-362) Democritus 360 Philip of Macedon (382-336) Amphipolis b. 350 DEMOSTHENES (385-322) Praxiteles |s 340 ARISTOTLE (384-322) Latin War R IV. The Fall. 330 Alexander the Great (365-322) 320 EPICURUS (342-270) 2d Samnite War, 7th year R 310 Agathocles (360-289) 300 EUCLID -~~=g~~~ePs~~gga~~~~ __ _iBI r _ = ANCIENT HISTORY. 2500 B. C.-300 A.D. SMITII: Ancient History. C ROMAN HISTORY. 300-30 B.C. NIEBUHIR: History of Rome. MOMMSEN: History of Rome. MERIVALE: History of the Romans under the Empire, Vol. I.-III. B.C. I. The Heroic Age of Rome. THE, GREAT WARS OF ROME. 290 Venusia I End of the Samnite Wars. 1 t,' 280 Pyrrhus (318-272) G. Ileracleia, b. a. a 270 Hiero (308-216) G. _ _ _ _ 260 Duilius First Punic War, 5th year. 250 Regulus Arsaces. I 240 ERATOSTHENES (274-194) G. End of the First Punic War. 230 ARCHIMEDES (287-212) G. 220 POLYBIUS (204-122) G. Social War. Gr. 210 Hannibal (247-183) Second Punic War, 9th year. I200 Scipio Major (234-183) Macedonian War. II. Rome the Umpire of the Nations. 190 Antiochus the Great (237-187) G. Magnesia, b. A 180 PLAUTUS (254-184) 170 CATO MAJOR (234-149) War with Perseus, 2d year. I I 160 TERENCE (194-159) The Pontine marshes drained. 150 Scipio Minor (185-129) 140 Viriathus i — 130 C. Gracchus 120 ~Emilius Scaurus 110 Jugurtha Jugurthine War, 2d year. J.T 100 Marius (157-86) III, The Civil Wars. 90 Mithradates (131-63) Marsic War. 2,3 80 Sulla (138-78) Sertorius. 70 Pompey (106-48) Cicero impeaches Verres. M S 60 Coesar (100-44) First triumvirate. C 5 50 CICERO (106-43) 6,7,8 40 SALLUST (86-34).Peace of Brundisium. 9,-0 30 Augustus (63 B. c.-14 A. D.) Egypt a Roman province. Explanation of the Synchronistlcal Table of the Great Wars of Romne. First column. Second column. Third column. Fourth column. Fifth column. Sizth column. AFRICAN WARS. EASTERN WARS. SPANISH WARS. LIGURIAN WARS. GALLIC WARS. CIVIL WARS. I 1 st Punic, 264-241 I 1st Macedonian, I Great Spanish, I 193-154 I Cisalpine Gallic, See Appendix, TI 2d Punic, 21a-201 214-204 200-133 226-221 p. 192. III 3d Punic, 150-146 II 2d Macedonian, S Sertorian, 80-72 II Gallic, 200-182 J Jugurthine, 112-106 201-197 C.T Cimbric, 113-101 A Syrian. 192-190 C CnPsar's, 58-51 III 3d Macedonian, 171-168 IV Greek Macedonian, 148-146 M The Three Mithradatic Wars: 87-64 C ANCIENT HISTORY. 2500 B. C.-300 A. D. SMITH: Ancient History. D THE EMPIRE. MERIVALE: History of the Romans under the Empire, IV.-VII. GIBBON: History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. I. The Italian Emperors. The Golden Age of Literature. B. C. 30 Augustus (63 B. C.-14 A. D.) 20 VIRGIL (70-19 B. c.)10 HORACE (65-8 B.c.) 1 OVID (43 B. C.-18 A. D.) A. D. The Birth of Christ 10 LIVY (59 B. c.-17 A. D.) 20 STRABO (54 B. c.-24 A. D.) 30 Tiberius (42 B. c.-37 A. D.) 40 SENECA ( —65) Caligula, 4th year 50 PERSIUS (34-62) Claudius, 10th year 60 THE ELDER PLINY (23-79) Nero, 7th year 70 Destruction of Jerusalem Vespasian, 2d year 80 JUVENAL Titus, 2d year 90 MARTIAL (43-104) Domitian, 10th year II. The Western Emperors. The Golden Age of the Empire. 100 Trajan (52-117) 110 TACITUS (50-117) 120 PLUTARCH (46-120) Hadrian, 4th year 130 SUETONIUS 140 Antoninus Pius (56-161) 150 PTOLEMY (139-161) Polycarp in Rome 160 PAUSANIAS 170 Marcus Aurelius (121-180) 180 LUCIAN (120-200) Commodus, 1st year 190 GALEN (130-200) 200 DIOGENES LAERTIUS Septimius Severus, 8th year III. The Eastern Emperors. The General Decline. 210 TERTULLIAN (160-240) Wall in Britain completed 220 Elagabalus (205-222) 230 Alexander Severus (205-235) 240 ORIGEN (185-234) 250 Decian Persecution 260 LONGINUS (213-273) 270 Aurelian (213-275) 280 PORPHYRY (233-305) Probus, 5th year 290 LACTANTIUS ( —-320) Carausius 300 Diocletian (245-313) 300-1300 A. D. GIBBON: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire from Ch. 14. MILMAN: fIistory of Latin Christianity. HALLAMI: View of the State qf Europe during the Middle Ages. MICHIELET: History of France during the llliddle Ages. A THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY. 300-600 A.D. ME2RIVALE: Conversion of the Romlan Empire. MERIVALE: Conversion of the Northern Nations. Clhronology. Periods. 310 EUSEBIUS 320 Sylvester 330 Constantine the Great (272-337) 340 ST. ATHANASIUS (296-373) First. 350 Shapoor The Conversion of the Empire. 360 Julian the Apostate (331-363) 310-390 A. D. 370 ST. AMBROSE (340-397) 380 Theodosius the Great (343-395) 390 ST. CHRYSOSTOM (347-407) 400 ST. AUGUSTINE (345-450) 410 Alaric Second. 420 ST. JEROME (345-430) The Foundation of the Latin Church. 430 NESTORIUS Heathenism buried under the ruins of 440 LEO THE GREAT (390-461) heathen Rome. 450 Attila 400-460 A. D. 460 Genseric 470 ULPHILAS 480 Odoacer ( 493) 490 Theodoric (455-526) 500 BOETHIUS (470-524) 510 Clovis (465-511) 520 ST. BENEDICT (480-542) Third, 530 Justinian (483-565) The Conversion of the Barbarians. 540 Belisarius (505-565) League of Christianity with Barbarism. 550 CASSIODORUS (468-468) 470-600 A. D. 560 GREGORY OF TOURS (544-595) 570 Alboin 580 Brunehilda 590 GREGORY THE GREAT (544-604) 600 The English Augustine J MEDI/EVAL HISTORY. 300-1300 A.D. GIBBON: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, from Ch. 14. IIILMAN: History of Latin Christianity. HALLAM: View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages. MICHELET: History of France during the Middle Ages. B THE RISE OF ISLAM. MUIR: Life of Mohammed. RODWELL: The Koran. WEIL: Biblical Legends of the Mussulmans. FREEMAN: History and Conquests of the Saracens. G. P. R. JAMES: History of Charlemagne. A. D. PERIODS. 610 Heraclius (575-641) 620 Chosroes ( —628) 630 Mohammed (570-632) 640 Amru (600-663) 650 Abdallah (- -692) 660 Moawyah First. 670 Cairoan Islam victorious. 680 Fall of the Fatimites 690 Ina (- -728) 700 THE VENERABLE BEDE (672-735) 710 Tarik 720 St. Boniface (680-755) 730 Charles Martel (694-741) 1 740 The Iconoclasts 750 The Abassides (750-1258) Second. 760 Bagdad F Islam checked. 770 Abderhaman (731-787) 780 ALCUIN (725-804) 790 Haroun al Rashid (765-809) 800 Charlemagne (742-814) 810 Venice Third. 820 EGINHARD (771-840) Consolidation of the West. 830' RABANUS MAURUS (786-856) 840 Death of Louis the Pious (778-840) J 300-1300 A. D. GIBBON: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, from Ch. 14. MILMAN: History of Latin Christianity. HALLAM: View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages. MICHELET: History of France during the Middle Ages. @C THE THREE ATTEMPTS TO UNITE CHRISTENDOM. PAULI: Life of Alfred the Great. GURNEY: Pope Gregory TII. THIERRY: Norman Conquest. FREEMAN: Norman Conquest. 850 St. Ansgar 860 HINCMAR (806-882) 870 SCOTUS ERIGENA ( —875) 880 The Arabs in Sicily 890 Alfred the Great (849-901) By the Carlovingians. 900 Theodora 910 Cluny 920 Normans in France 930 Henry the Fowler (876-936) 940 GEBER 950 LUITPRAND (920-972) 960 Berengar II. ( —966) 970 Otto the Great (912-973) 980 GERBERT ( —-1003) Second, 990 Hugh Capet (939-996) By the German Emperors. 1000 FIRDUSI 1010 AVICENNA (980-1037) 1020 Canute the Great (995-1035) 1030 PETER DAMIANI (988-1072) 1040 Emperor Henry III. (1017-1056) 1050 BERENGAR OF TOURS (1000-1088) J 1060 The College of Cardinals l 1070 William the Conqueror (1027-1087) Third, 1080 Gregory VII. and Henry IV. (1050-1106) By the Papacy. 1090 Peter the Hermit (1050-1115) MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 300-1300 A. D. GIBBON: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, from Ch. 14. MILMAN: History of Latin Christianity. HALLAM: View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages. NIICHELET: History of France during the Middle Ages. D 0CHRISTENDOM AGAINST ISLAM. Age of the Crusades, MICHAUD: History of the Crusades. KINGTON: History of Emperor Frederick II. GUIZOT: Life of St. Louis. 1100 The Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1187) ] 1110 ABELARD and HELOISE (1079-1142)(1101-1164) 1120 Abbot Suger (1087-1152) First Period. 1130 ST. BERNARD (1091-1153) I The Real Crusades. 1140 Arnold of Brescia ( —1155) 1150 Louis VII. and Henry Plantagenet (11201180)-(1133-1189) 1160 Barbarossa and Alexander II. (1121-1190) -( —1181) Second Period. 1170 Assassination of Becket (1119-1170) Barbarossa. 1180 Henry the Lion (1129-1195) 1190 Teutonic Knights 1200 THE POEM OF THE CID 1210 Innocent III. (1161-1216) 1220 Dschingis-Khan 1230 Frederick II. and Gregory IX. (1194-1250) -( —1241) | Third Period. 1240 Petrus de Vinea ( —1277) Glory and Fall of the Papacy. 1250 The Pastoureaux 1260 Manfred (1233-1266) 1270 Death of St. Louis (1215-1270) 1280 Alfonso the Wise (1203-1284) 1290 The Scottish Succession MODERN HISTORY: 1300-1850. MILMAN: History of Latin Christianity, Book' II., XII., XIV. GIBBON: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Ch. 62-71. DYER: Modern Europe. A THE FORMATION OF DISTINCT NATIONALITIES. tiF 1300-1490. a | |a tI I. During the Anglo-Scotch Stmruggle. 1300 DANTE (1265-1321) ~ ~, 1305 Wallace (1270-1305) C t o <' X < 1310 End of the Templars O P 1315 The Bruce (1274-1329) C: 1320 ABULFEDA (1273-1331). - _ << 4. 1325 Giotto (1276-1336) M. II. During the Anglo-French Struggle. 1330 The Valois in France ~o 4- < 1335 MANDEVILLE (1300-1372) 1340 PETRARCA (1304-1374.) 1345 Edward III (1312-1377) 1350 BOCCACCIO (1313-1375) Z 1355 The Black Prince (1330-1376) *C* > Q 1360 FROISSART (1337-1410) 1365 Peter the Cruel (1319-1369) 1370 WYCLIFFE (1324-1384) 0 >- e: 1375 Return of the Popes to Rome'. 1380 GOWER (1320-1402) 8 1385 Tamerlane (1336-1405) a. 1390 CHAUCER (1328-1400) c. ~* ~ = 1395 Bajazet (1347-1403) P N a _ CD 1400 Murder of Richard II (1366-1400) 1405 THOMAS A KEMPIS (1380-1471) CD ny_ 1410 John Huss (1376-1415) 1415 Azincourt b.'t) X t2. 1420 Treaty of Troyes 1425 CHARLES OF ORLEANS 1430 Joan of Arc (1412-1431) 1435 Treaty of Arras.: a a P 1440 MONSTRELET (1390-1453) III. During the War of the Roses 1445 Beaufort and Gloucester 1450 Jack Cade SaD 1455 Ottoman Empire in Europe' " -- 1460 Wakefieldb. a | xo| 1465 COMINES (1445-1509) 0 a f 1470 Warwick the King-maker (1420-1471) p? 8. a v1475 Charles the Bold (1433-1477),_ 1480 CAXTON (1412-1491),2a3. C3 I ca. 1485 Bosworth Field b. 1490 MACCHIAVELLI (1469-1527) 1300-1850. DYER: Modern Europe. ~B THE AGE OF THE GREAT DISCOVERIES. 1490-1530. S' I. Before the Great Schism. o~ bd f. 1490 MACCHIAVELLI (1469-1527) C 1492 Columbus (1436-1506) H 1494 Louis Sforza ( —1510) j.., 1496 Savonarola (1452-1498) TR a. ~ _ = 1498 Vasco de Gama (1469-1525) 1500 ERASMUS (1467-1536) D 1502 Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). 1504 Nunez de Balboa (1475-1517) 1506 Michael Angelo (1474-1564) 1508 Albuquerque (1453-1515)' 7~ i.1510 ARIOSTO (1474-1533) - I I i 1 1512 Gaston de Foix (1489-1512) 1514 Wolsey (1471-1530) 1516 Diurer (1471-1528) D 1. 1518 Cortez (1485-1554) II. During the Reformation. r 1520 LUTHER (1483-1546) CD H \ t 1522 Magellan (1470-1524) 1524 The House of Wasa in Sweden d M - M _ 1526 Battle of the Mohacz ~ ~ p 1528 Pizarro (1475-1541) C 1530 COPERNICUS (1473-1543)' MODERN HISTORY. 1300-1850. DYER: Modern Europe. C THE RELIGIOUS WARS, 1530-1660. I, During the Struggle between the Creeds in Germany and England, 1532 Sir Thomas More (1480-1535) 1534 Act of Supremacy 1536 Anne Boleyn (1507-1536) 1538 Cranmer (1489-1556) t;' 4 1540 RABELAIS (1495-1553). -- ) & H ^ 1542 Solway Moss, b. 1544 Loyola (1491-1556) w c 1546 Smalcaldian War = M~ ~-f 1548 Maurice of Saxony (1521-1553) 1550 CAMOENS (1524-1579) ~H = <1552 Peace of Passau 1554 Jane Grey (1537-1554)? H * 1556 Abdication of Charles V (1500-1558) 1558 Reconquest of Calais __ H c 1560 MONTAIGNE (1533-1592) II. During the Struggle between the Creeds in France and Holland, 1562 Massacre of Vassy H nJ g1564 Death -of Calvin (1509-1564) 1566 The Iconoclasts 1568 Alba (1508-1582) H S S. -. 1570 CERVANTES (1547-1616) 1572 St. Bartholomew.H. - r. _ ~ 1574 Siege of Leyden COtH 1576 Pacification of Ghent 1578 Drake (1545-1596) 1580 TASSO (1544-1595) 1582 Gregorian Style 1584 William the Silent (1533-1584) CD 1586 Mary Stuart (1542-1587) 1588 Spanish Armada 1590 SPENSER (1553-1599)'1592 Death of Parma (1546-1592) - 1 1594 The Bourbons in France (1589-1830) ~' w1596 Sir Robert Cecil (1550-1612) _ la1598 Edict of Nantes /O MODERN HISTORY. 1300-1850. DYER: Modern Europe. C THE RELIGIOUS WARS. 1530-1660. III, During the Catholic Reaction. 1600 SHAKSPEARE (1564-1616) 1602 Spinola (1569-1620) 1604 The Stuarts in England (1603-1714). <' O 1606 Sully (1559-1641) H 1608 Evangelical Union' 54 1610 LOPEZ DE VEGA (1562-1635) g, ~ -~ 1612 The Romanows in Russia (1612-1730) — 4 ~ ~ 1614 New Amsterdam 1616 Galilei (1564-1642) IV. During the Thirty Years War. 1618 Beginning of the Thirty Years War E~lS - I' 1620 BACON (1561-1626).~ X. 1622 Tilly (1559-1632) ~ _ oi ~1624 Richelieu (1585-1642) so xlp m c 1626 Rubens (1577-1640) Q 0 g #.: 1628 Petition of Right, $ a o 1630 CALDERON (1601-1687) Z o-3 1632 Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632) 0' H1634 Wallenstein (1583-1634). c _ 1636 Oxenstiern (1583-1654) ~. X 1638 National Covenant ~ C 1640 CORNEILLE (1606-1684) 1642 Civil War in England 0 1644 China conquered by the Mantcheou 1646 Flight of King Charles ~ Sg M r 1648 Peace of Westphalia V. During the English Commonwealth. - 8 > - nH 1650 MARQUIS OF WORCESTER ( —1667) t H - ~ - o1 5 3: 1652 First Anglo-Dutch War t. * 0 B 1654 Mazarin (1602-1661) 1656 Condd (1621-1686) o ~ 1658 Death of Cromwell (1509-1658) 0 B - r l |_ o 1660 MOLIERE (1622-1673), P 0.Ur3' MODERN HISTORY. 1300-1850. DYER: Modern Europe. D THE SUCCESSION WARS. 1660-1770. I. During the first (the glorious) part of the Reign of Louis XIV. 1660 MOLIERE (1622-1675) I 1. 1 1662 Colbert (1619-1683) 1664 Montecuculi (1608-1681) 1666 Annus Mirabilis 1668 John de Witt (1625-1672).' c~ 1670 MILTON (1608-1674):r o ~ 1672 Turenne (1611-1675) 1674 Sobieski (1629-1696) 1676 Messina, b.. 1678 Peace of Nimwegen 1680 DRYDEN (1631-1701) 1682 Philadelphia _. _ ~ 1684 The Great Elector (Frederick William, 1620-1638) 168'6.The League of Augsburg II. During the English Succession Troubles. CD w P 1688 English Revolution _0 m_ 1690 LOCKE (1632-1704)._ ~ q 1692 La Hogue, b. gn.~:>~,1694 Dutch William (William III., 1650-1702) qO I I 1 1696 Peter the Great (1672-1725) g x —~ 1698 ~Prince Eugene (1663-1736) -. l, _:'1700 NEWTON (1642-1727) III. During the Spanish Supcession Troubles. ^- ~ 4 1702 Spanish Succession War 1'704' Gibraltar taken by the Englisht Q -3 l' _ 1706 Marlborough (1650-1722) 0 e > 4 1708 Charles XII. (1682-1718) 1710 ADDISON AND STEELE (1672-1719) —(1671-1729) _ - 1712 The Bourbons in Spain o, 1714 The Guelphs in England 0'4 g.l- _ _D ~g $~ "~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ MODERN HISTORY. 1300-1850. DYER: Modern Europe. D THE SUCCESSION WARS., 1660-1770. a a_ IV. During Walpole's Ascendency. 1714 The Guelphs in England 1716 Alberoni (1664-1752) 57c 1718 John Law (1671-1729) z 1720 DEFOE (1631-1731) T ~ X t I [ 1722 The Regent of Orleans, (1674-1723) P r 1724 Sir Robert Walpole (1676-1745) tM <"D. ~r ~1726 Fleury (1653-1743) ~CD -% 5 H 1728 Ripperda (1680-1737) ~ Q __ I-C1 l | 1730 POPE and SWIFT (1688-1744)-1667-1745) 1732 Georgia settled 1734 The Polish election 1736 Wesley (1703-1791) 1738 Lorraine acquired by France V. During the Heroic Career of Frederick the Great. _____ - 1740 VOLTAIRE and ROUSSEAU (1694-1778)-(1712-1778). 1742 Treaty of Breslau 1744 Anson (1697-1762) 1746 Culloden b. - g 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle M1750 KLOPSTOCK (1724-1803) 1752 Kaunitz (1711-1794) Er -n g g X 1754 French-Indian War C o CD r1756 Beginning of the Seven Years War 1758 Pombal (1699-1782) I D g 1760 LESSING (1729-1781). 1762 Frederick the Great (1712-1786) w 1764 Clive (1725-1774) ctyr~ 1. 4 1766 Lord Chatham (1708-1778) [ 1768 Cook (1728-1779) MODERN HISTORY: 1300-1850. [DYER: Modern Europe.] E ERA OF REVOLUTIONS: 1770-1850. UNITED a ST A 1 E S. I During the Anglo-American Revolution 1770 GOLDSMITH (1728-1774) 1772 Struensee (1737-1772) 1774 First American Congress n 1776 Declaration of Independence; 1778 Lafayette (1757-1834) ~: 1780 ALFIERI (1749-1803), C, 3. 1782 Washington (1732-1799)':.n 1784 Franklin (1706-1790) II During the French Revolution [c 1786 Pitt (1759-1806) 8 p l ~.p 1788 Hastings (1733-1818) 1759-1805) WASnI2NGTOrN o. 4. Q 1790 G(ETHE and SCHILLER (1749-1832)- _? - _ -- 1792 The French Republic''.. ~WA~SmNToN -: ~. 1794 Robespierre (1759?-1794) 1796 The Directory 4 d 1798 Nelson (1758-1805) D CD ___H o _ _ 1800 EMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804) 1802 Peace of Amiens ~ s JEFFERSON JEFFESON 1804 Napoleon (1769-1821) Cc 1806 Stein (1757-1831) JEFFERSON Z 1808 Wellington (1769-1852) MADISON 3 1810 WALTER SCOTT (1771-1832) _________r 0 1812 Burning of Moscow cD' =a ~ 1814 Lundy's Lane, b. MADISON t III During the Spanish-American Revolution O ______H____X f. 1816 Metternich (1773-1859) ~ ~ MONROE H1818 Independence of Chili " " ______E __ _ O1820 BYRON and MOORE (1788-1824)-(1779-1852) i Z 1822 Henry Clay (1777-1852) M H MONROE M__,__ 1 O 1824 Missolonghi, siegeq P 0 FQO 1826 George Canning (1770-1827) JOHN QUINCY 0 1828 Bolivar (1783-1830) Q p ADAMS IV Since the July Revolution of 1830 JACKSON H 1830 WORDSWORTH (1770-1850) 1832 The Orleans Dynasty in France JS 1834 Sir Robert Peel (1750-1830) _JACSON O. H_ c 1836 Daniel Webster (1782-1852) Z t VA1N BUREN 1838 Dost Mohammed (1785-1839) __ __ C X - 1840 TENNYSON (b. 1810) HARRISON.........................1842 Espartero (b. 1792) TYLER Y - _ C 1844 O'Connell (1775-1847) POLK _~ 1846 Mexican War POLK 1848 European Revolution TAYLOR. i.... 11850 LONGFELLOW (b. 1807)...............'.........848..... ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ALL THE NAMES MENTIONED IN THE TABLES. Abbassides. (750-1258 A.D.) The descendants of Abbas, the uncle of Mo- (Northern Africa, west of Egypt.) Abdallah's expedition marks the first hammed. The first half of the 8th century is the period of the greatest Mohammedan attack on the West, which was not checked until about extent of the Caliphate. The will of the High Pontiff of Islam was 80 years afterwards, on the battlefield between Tours and Poitiers in Censupreme from the Jaxartes to the Atlantic. The house of Ommiah, under tral France. whom these conquests had been made, reigned less than a century, and Abderrhaman. (731-787 A.D.) The founder of the Ommiad dynasty in their fall entailed the dismemberment of the Empire. In 750, the Caliph- Spain, (Caliphate of Cordova.) It was against this Caliph that (778) ate of Damascus was transferred, by the result of a ferocious civil war, from Charlemagne undertook the expedition so famous in romance, which the descendants of Moawiyah to those of Abbas. The Ommiads were resulted in the temporary occupation of Navarre and part of Arragon by hunted down through all Asia, and Abul Abbas was established as Caliph the Franks, and ended with the battle of Roncesvalles, where Charleon the throne of Damascus. But a single youth of the doomed race escaped magne's army was wellnigh annihilated, and the renowned Roland lost his from destruction. After a long series of romantic adventures, he found his life. (See ABBASSIDES.) way into Spain; he there found partisans, by whose aid he was enabled to establish himself as sovereign of the country, and to resist all the attempts Abraham, (2000 B. C.) is the progenitor, not only of th ebrew nation, of the Abbassides to regain possession of the distant province. From this Abderrahman the Ommiad proceeded the line of Emirs and Caliphs of detail in Scripture, as the very type of a true patriarchal life. His charCordova. From the year 750, the Mohammedan history loses its unity.| acter is that which is formed by such a life: free, simple, and manly, full The Empire was permanently divided; never again did all the disciples of of hospitality and family affection; truthful to all such as were bound to Islam unite in allegiance to a single representative of the Prophet. Thegh not untainted with Eastern craft to those conOmsmiads of Cordova form the natural centre for the history of Moham- |sidered as aliens; ready for war, but not a professed warrior; free and medanism in the ~West, and the Abbassides in Bagdad for its history in |childlike in religion, and gradually educated by God's hand to a continually Asia. The latter ruled over Mohammedan Asia for more than five cen- |deepening sense of its all-absorbing claims. The place we have to assign tunies. The Caliphate of the Abbassides was extinguished in the year to him in Universal History is indicated in Genesis xiv. 5-7. Abraham turies. The Caliphate of the Abbassides was extinguished in the year 1258 A. D., by the Mongols who stormed Bagdad, (the only city at that time appears here as the head of a small confederacy of chiefs, powerful enough in the possession of the Caliphs,) and for seven days deluged its streets long pursuit to the head of the valley of the Jordan, to with blood. Motazem, the 56th and last Caliph, was sewn up in a cow's attack with success a large force, and not only to rescue Lot, but to roll withblood. 0Motazem, the 56th and last Caliph, was sewn up in a cow's hide, and dragged by the conquerors through the streets of his capital. back for a time the stream of northern immigration. His high position is seen in the gratitude of the people, and the dignity with which he Abdallah. (650 A. D.) The first Saracen general who invaded Latin Africa, refuses the character of a hireling. 29 30 ADD DES Abelard. (1079-1142.) A celebrated French philosopher, the restorer of was a daily publication, containing observations on life and literature by philosophy in the Middle Ages, who taught with wonderful success in an imaginary Spectator, who communicates them to a small circle of six Paris. He simplified and explained everything, presenting philosophy in intimate friends. The delicate imagination and exquisite humor of Addia familiar form, and bringing it home to men's bosoms. While in the son, and the vivacity and warm-heartedness of Steele, give a charm to zenith of his popularity he became violently enamored of his pupil Heloise, these papers which is to be enjoyed, not described. We not only admire and forgot his duty towards God and men. His cruel punishment is the writers, but soon come to love them, and to regard both them and the known. He renounced the world and turned monk. Here he found no personages that move about in the world they have created as among our peace. He was charged with heresy, and St. Bernard succeeded in getting best and best-known friends. (See Macaulay's ESSAY ON ADDISON.) him condemned by the Church. He sought and found a refuge at Cluny, - Mmilius Scaurus is a significant illustration of the tone and character where he died two years afterwards. where he died two years afterwards. of the Roman aristocracy during the epoch of Patrician restoration between Abulfeda. A celebrated Mohammedan historian and geographer, who wrote the Gracchan and Cinnan revolutions. Marcus AEmilius Scaurus was the a compendious History of Mankind, especially valuable on account of the son of highly noble but not wealthy parents, and therefore compelled to information it contains about the early Caliphs. His chief work is, "The make use of his far from mean talents. He raised himself to the consulTrue Disposition of Countries," of which the description of Syria, his ship (115), and censorship (109), was long the chief of the senate and the native country, is the most interesting and authentic portion. Died, 1333. political oracle of his order, and immortalized his name not only as an orator and an author, but also as the originator of some of the principal Act of Supremacy of Nov., 1534. By this Act, Henry VIII., king of |public buildings executed in this century. But if we look at him more England, was declared " the only supreme Head in Earth of the Church in closely, his greatly praised achievements amount merely to this much England." Considerable sarcasm has been levelled at the assumption by that as a general he gained some cheap village triumphs in the Alps, and Henry of this title. Yet it answered a purpose in marking the nature of as a statesman, won, by his las about voting and luxury, some victories the revolution, and the emphasis of the name carried home the change nearly as serious over the revolutionary spirit of the times. His real into the mind of the country. It was the epitome of all the measures talent consisted in his being quite as accessible and bribable as any other which had been passed against the encroachments of the spiritual powers upright senator, with only this difference, that he discerned with some within and without the realm; it was at once the symbol of the indepen- cunning the moment when the matter began to be hazardous. As comdence of England, and the declaration that thenceforth the civil magistrate mander of the expedition against Jugurtha (111 B. c.), he negotiated a was supreme, within the English dominions, over Church as well as state. peace with him, in which the interests of the republic were so shamefully Addison and Steele. These two writers introduced into English literature betrayed, that it required all his cunning to escape a summary condemthe Essay, a species of writing in which they have never been surpassed by nation. any of their many followers. Addison's poem, " The Campaign," on the vic- 2Ischylus. (525-456.) The eldest of the three great tragic poets, (Sophocles tory of Blenheim, and his imposing but frigid tragedy of Cato, have given and Euripides being the others.) After having distinguished himself as a him a lasting reputation; and Steele also holds a respectable rank among soldier in the great battles of Marathon, Salamis, and Plataeae, he made our comic dramatists as the author of " The Tender IHusband," and " The poetry the serious business of his life. The bold sentiments of the soldierConscious Lovers;" but it is as writers of periodical essays, that they poet, who is inflamed with the love of freedom, reflect the predominant have sent down their names with most honor to posterity. They started, spirit of haughty Athens during the time of the great struggle which she in 1709, the Tatler, which in 1711 was replaced by the Spectator. This so gloriously maintained. The number of tragedies written by Aischylus AIX ALB 31 is doubtful, but seven only are extant. The earliest among them is, "The exclusion of the Stuart dynasty. But the most important consequence of Persians," which is a glorious panegyric upon Athens. The most sublime, the war was the elevation of Prussia to a first-rate Power. The morality and, at the same time, the most simple of all, is the " Prometheus Chained." of the conduct by which Frederick II. achieved this result will hardly Shelley, whose whole poetry is deeply imbued with the mysterious power bear a strict scrutiny. In some eyes, however, success will be his great I of ZEschylus, has imitated the imagery of this play with a success proving justification: for it is certain that he increased the Prussian dominions that a man must be a poet to truly appreciate the great tragedian. by a third. Agathocles, (361-289,) was a soldier of fortune, who raised himself from Alaric, king of the Visi-Goths, invaded Italy 400 A.D. He besieged the meanest beginnings to the throne of Syracuse. He displayed a never |Rome three times; the third time he took the city, which was given to surpassed energy and perseverance. Apart from his enterprising genius pillage. Nothing Pagan did escape but that which found shelter under we know nothing of him, except his sanguinary and faithless disposition. Christianity. For Alaric was, though a barbarian, a Christian. Heathenism Agathocles, however, though among the worst of Greeks, was yet a Greek, was buried under the ruins of heathen Rome. After ravaging Southern and the mortal foe of the ancient enemy of the Greeks, the Carthaginians. Italy, he was preparing to pass into Africa, when he fell suddenly ill, and His life was one of great struggle against Carthage for the possession of died at Cosenza in 410. Sicily. Often was he on the eve of dislodging them from the island, but Alba, (FERDINAND ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO, DUKE OF,) holds the first place quite as often they were masters of all Sicily as far as the solid walls of among the great men whom Philip II. inherited from his father. A faithSyracuse. At length he conceived the bold plan of attacking them in ful friend and servant of Emperor Charles, Alba attained even in early their own home in Africa. When they had defeated him, and believed youth a high degree of glory. He was accounted the pride of the Spanish him almost their captive, he suddenly carried the terror of his arms before nobility and the darling of his nation. In the prime of manhood, during the walls of Carthage (310). His expedition terminated miserably, but he the German campaigns, when he stood, a consummate captain, at the side had pointed out the way to the future enterprises of the Romans. After a of Charles, the cause and warnings he gave his master were wholly on the long and illustrious reign, Agathocles died in extreme old age, in a state side of mercy. It awakes a melancholy feeling to compare the beautiful so lamentable and destitute, that, in spite of his tyranny, his misery excites picture of Alba's youth and manhood with the cruelties which in his old compassion. After his death, the Greeks of Sicily were without any lead- age he perpetrated in the Netherlands, whither he was sent by Philip in ing power, and the Carthaginians could extend their dominion unmolested. 1567. He was actually sent thither to terrify the inhabitants into submisAix-la-Chapelle, (Peace of) The teaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which made sion. It has been computed that in six years upwards of 18,000 individuAix-la-Chapelle, (Peace of.) The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which made als perished by Alba's order under the hand of the executioner. Burt the an end to the war of the Austrian Succession, was signed Oct. 18, 1748. resolute firmness of an irritated people was proof against this. The The object of this war had been to establish four States on the ruins of the revolt, instead of being suppressed, took constantly greater dimensions, House of Austria. But though that house had been deprived of Silesia,, n these losses were small compared with the danger and after six years' fruitless efforts to quell it, Alba solicited to be recalled. and the Italian cluchies, these losses were small compared with the danger with which it had at first been threatened. It had established its order of In December, 1573, he was superseded by Requesens, and soon after his return to Spain was imprisoned. He was, however, subsequently released to succession, and still remained a first-rate Power. France, the chief promoter of the war, gained nothing by it, and had increased her debt by $250 mil- undertake the conquest of Portugal, which he rapidly executed (1580).,Died, 1582. (See Motley: RISE OF THE DUTCIt REPUBLIC.) lions, lost her reputation, and ceased to be regarded as the arbitress of 1582. (See Motley: RISE OF THE DUTH Europe. England procured compensation for her commercial losses, estab- Alberoni, (1664-1752,) cardinal and first minister of Spain. He formed lished her maritime preponderance, and enforced the recognition of the many schemes for the extension of the power of Spain, invading Sardinia 32 ALC ALC and Sicily, and carrying on intrigues in France, England, and Turkey; incited the Athenians to undertake an expedition into Sicily. The mabut the alliance of France and England against him defeated his projects, jority of people in Athens had no idea of Sicily, but listened to the account and led to his dismissal and exile. given them by Alcibiades, who was well informed. He, eager for fame, and full of the feeling of his innate powers, thought the resources of the Alboin, (561-573,) king of the Lombards in the 6th century. He invaded republic sufficient for conducting this war. It seemed to him that such a Italy in 568, and reached Rome without encountering resistance. He took conquest must naturally give his nation the preponderance over its enemies Pavi afer asiee ofthre yersand adeit te sat o goernmnt. conquest must naturally give his nation the preponderance over its enemies Pavia after a siege of three years, and made it the seat of government. in the Peloponnesus, and over the barbarians not only of Persia, but of in the Peloponnesus, and over the barbarians not only of Persia, but of His valor as a soldier was equalled by his justice and moderation as a Africa. If the Attic government had been better administered, a power soveeig. Bt a a estial t Vron heincrredthejus reentent Africa. If the Attic government bad'been better administered, a power sovereign. But at a festival at Verona, he incurred the just resentment comparable to that of Rome or Carthage might have been founded. But of his wife, by sending her wine in a cup wrought from the skull of her scarcely had Alcibiades set sail with Nicias and Lamachus, at the head of own father; and forcing her to drink from it, she had him assassinated the finest fleet which had hitherto appeared on the Egean Sea, when a A. D. 573. combination was formed against him at Athens by all those who either Albuquerque, Alfonso d', (1452-1515,) Portuguese Viceroy of the Indies, were jealous of his fame, or had to complain of his youthful licentiousness Albuquerque, Alfonso d', (1452-1515,) Portuguese Viceroy of the Indies, animrdceHewspbclacudofarlg.EvnteAhand imprudence. tt[e was publicly accused of sacrilege. Even the Athenwho by his wise and just government did much to establish the power of whoby his wise andjus goern entdidmuc toestbians, who in their comic theatre laughed at all their gods, recalled on this thePorugesethee.The Indians long remembered his just and humane the Portuguese there. The Indians long remembered his just and humane accusation their best general from the greatest enterprise that any Grecian rule, and used to go to his tomb to pray for help against the injustice of people had ever undertaken. Alcibiades took refuge in Lacedramon, The his successors. consequence of this war was not only the utter failure of the expedition Alcibiades. (B. c. 450-404.) Rich, handsome, profligate, and clever, Alci- (see PELOPONNESIAN WAR), but also renewed war with Sparta. The Sparblades was the very model of an Athenian man of fashion. In linleage he tans, led by Alcibiades, invaded Attica, and seized upon Decelia, whence was a striking contrast to the plebeian orators of the day. The Athenian they molested the whole territory; the defection of the allies became no public, in spite of its excessive democracy, was anything but insensible to longer doubtful, but Athens, powerful in her self, held out till the seventh the prestige of high birth; and Alcibiades traced his paternal descent from year. Alcibiades was now recalled, and, 407 B. c., he returned to Athens, Ajax, whilst on his mother's side he claimed relationship with Pericles, where he was received with great enthusiasm. The records of the prowho on the death of his father had become his guardian. From early ceedings against him were sunk in the sea, his property was restored, and youth the conduct of Alcibiades was marked by violence, recklessness, and he was appointed commander-in-chief of all the land and sea forces. But vanity. He delighted in astonishing the more sober portions of the citi- his unsuccessful expedition against Andros and the defeat at Notium, furzens by his capricious and extravagant feats. Nothing, not even the nished his enemies with a handle against him, and he was superseded in sacredness of the laws, was secure from his petulance. His beauty, his his command. Thinking that Athens would scarcely be a safe place for wit, and his escapades, had made him the darling of all the Athenian him, Alcibiades went into voluntary exile, to his fortified domain at Bisanladies, nor did the men regard him with less admiration. But he was the in the Thracian Chersonesus. He collected a band of mercenaries, utterly destitute of morality, whether public or private. The lion's whelp, and made war upon the neighboring Thracian tribes, by which means he as he is termed by Aristophanes, was even suspected, in his boundless afforded protection to the neighboring Greek cities. Before the fatal batambition, of a design to enslave his fellow-citizens. His vices, however, tle of }Egos-Potami (n. c. 405), he gave an ineffectual warning to the were partly redeemed by some brilliant qualities. He possessed both bold- Athenian generals. After the establishment of the tyranny of the Thirty ness of design and vigor of action. Such was the man Who 415 B.c. (B. c. 404), he was condemned to banishment. Upon this he took refuge ALE ALE 33 with Pharnabazus, and was about to proceed to the court of Artaxerxes, festival lasted five days, and the example set by Alexander in marrying when one night his house was surrounded by a band of armed men, and Statira, the daughter of Darius, was followed by about eighty of his genset on fire. He rushed out sword in hand, but fell, pierced with arrows. erals, and ten thousand of his soldiers, who also took Asiatic wives. At (B. c. 404.) length he reached Babylon, where he began to make preparations for Alcuin (735-804). An English scholar of the 8th century, and the friend future undertakings of great magnitude; but he was seized with an of the Emperor Charlemagne. Early distinguished for his piety and learn- illness the effect of which was probably aggravated by depression of ing, he was sent on a mission to Rome, and being introduced to Charle- spirits, and by intemperance, and died in the 13th year of his eventful magne while in Italy, settled on his invitation in France. He earnestly reign, and the 33d of his life, (323 n. c.) When required to name his suesupported the plans of his great master for the restoration of earning, and cessor, he is said to have replied, " to the most worthy." Immediately before supported the plans of his great master for the restoration of learning, and f'ounded schools at several of the principal cities. H3is works include a he died he gave his ring to Perdiccas. Pursuant to his own direction, his body was embalmed and conveyed to Alexandria. Nothing could exceed large number of highly interesting letters, which give a life-like picture of the great events of his day. The vars of Charlemagne against the |the magnificence of the funeral car, which was adorned with ornaments raof the reat even tss and t hie aons day. there dewars of Charlemagncribed and there against the of massive gold, and so heavy, that it was more than a year in being conSaracens and the Saxons are there described; and there too we find a graphic account of the inner life of the imperial court. His poem on the veyed from Babylon to Alexandria, though drawn by eighty-four mules. bishops and saints of the Church of York is especially interesting fbr the Alexander Severus (205-235). Roman Emperor. He was made Caesar account it gives us of the contents of the library collected by Archbishop in 221, and succeeded Elagabalus in the following year. The principal Egbert at York, the benefit of which Alcuin had enjoyed in his early event of his reign was the war with Artaxerxes, king of Persia, over whom years, and which he speaks of as far superior to any collection then exist- he gained a great victory. He next marched against the Germans, who ing in France. had invaded Gaul; and, while there, a sedition broke out in his army, and iAlexander the Great. King of Macedonia, the renowned conqueror who the emperor and his mother were murdered. Alexander Severus was a maede the language, arts, and literature of Greece the conlqmmon property | man of noble and religious character, admitted a bust of Christ among the of mankind. He was the son of Philip of Macedon, and was born in the images in his domestic place of worship, and showed a favorable disposisame year in which the temple of Diana at Ephesus was destroyed, tion towards the Christians, without, however, formally recognizing the (356 B. c.) His education was intrusted to the great philosopher Aristotle, new faith as a tolerated religion. who made him the most far-seeing man of his time, and developed those Alexander III. (1100-1179.) A Pope of great ability, and the formidable qualities which distinguish themreql statesman from the reckless adven- rival of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. (See BARBAROSSA.) At the turer, that is: the power to distinguish between what is possible and what demise of Adrian IV. (1159), the cardinals found themselves unable to is not possible. He was scarcely twenty years old when he ascended the agree in the choice of a successor. They, for the most part, united their throne, and one of the first acts of his reign was to force the Greeks, endeavors in favor of Alexander III., a prelate of distinguished courage at a national council held at Corinth, to choose him as commander- and experience, to whom others opposed Victor IV. A synod held by in-chief of the forces destined to act against Persia. (See, for his cam- Emperor Barbarossa in Pavia, declared in favor of the latter. Alexander paigns, Appendix, page 177.) After having conquered Western Asia, pronounced the ban of the Church against his opponent; declared the he returned in triumphal progress to Babylon. At Susa he gave his Emperor to have forfeited the crown; and endeavored to rouse in his own army rest, and carried out one part of his great scheme for the permanent cause all the Christian courts. But the army of the Emperor marched union of the conquerors and the conquered by intermarriage. The nuptial towards Rome, and Alexander fled to France. In the mean time the prin 34 ALE ALF cipal towns of Lombardy had embraced the cause of Alexander, who re- was nearly 4 miles; its breadth from S. to N. nearly a mile, and its cirturned to Rome. Long and severe was the struggle of the Emperor against cumference about 15 miles. The interior was laid out in parallelograms: the Pope and the Lombard towns. At length he marched on Rome and the streets crossed one another at right angles. Two grand thoroughfares appeared before the fortress of St. Angelo. The townsmen exerted them- nearly bisected the city. They ran in straight lines to its four principal selves valiantly in its defence; the battering-ram shook the halls of gates, and each was about 200 feet wide. On its northern side Alexandria St. Peter's, and the Metropolitan Church of Christendom was taken by was bounded by the sea; on the south by the Lake Mareotis; to the west storm. The Pope fled, and the Emperor made his entry into Rome. But were the Necropolis and its numerous gardens; to the east the Eleusinian a terrific pestilence soon drove him out of it. Never did the climate of Road and the Great Hippodrome. The tongue of land upon which it Rome work with such awful force for the liberation of Italy. Nor was stood was singularly adapted to a commercial city. The island of this the worst: all Lombardy was in arms, and Barbarossa was glad to be Pharos broke the force of the north wind, and of the occasional high able to escape to Germany. With the flight of the Emperor rose the floods of the Mediterranean. The headland of Lochias sheltered its harcause of Alexander. City after city declared their allegiance to him, who bors to the east; the Lake Mareotis was both a wet-dock and the general was now avowedly the head of the Lombard League. The great fortress haven of the inland navigation of the Nile valley, whether direct from which had been erected in the plains of Piedmont, as the impregnable Syene, or by the royal canal from Arsino6 on the Red Sea, while various place of arms for the League, was named after the Pope, Alexandria. It other canals connected the lake with the Deltic branches of the river; an was not till the pride of Barbarossa had been humbled by his total defeat aqueduct conveyed the Nile water into the southern section of the city, at Legnano (May 29, 1176), that Alexander could trust the earnest wishes and tanks, many of which are still in use, distributed fresh water to both of the Emperor for peace. They met on the 24th of July, 1177, in the public and private edifices. Its harbors were sufficiently capacious to Church of St. Mark at Venice. The Emperor prostrated himself and admit of large fleets, and sufficiently contracted at their entrance to be kissed the feet of the Pontiff, who raised him up and gave him the kiss defended by booms and chains. A number of small islands around the of peace. The Anti-Pope and his party were overawed by the unity be- Pharos and the harbors were occupied with forts, and the approach from tween Barbarossa and Alexander. Victor prostrated himself at Alexander's the north was further secured by the difficulty of navigating among the feet, confessed his sin of schism, and implored and received forgiveness. limestone reefs and mud banks which front the debouchure of the Nile. Soon afterwards (March, 1179) closed the long and eventful pontificate of For the Alexandrian Library, see Appendix, page 225. Alexander III. Thus ended the first act of the great tragedy, the strife of the Popes with the imperial house of Hohenstauffen. Alfieri, (1749-1803,) the Italian dramatist. Leaving college at 16, he led for some years a restless and dissipated life, travelling through Europe. A Alexandria, the Hellenic capital of Egypt, was founded (B. c. 332) by Alex- new epoch opened in his career in 1755, when he published his first drama, ander the Great. On his voyage from Memphis to Canobus he was "Cleopatra," which was successful. Thenceforth he was a laborious student struck by the natural advantages of the little town of Rhacatis, on the and dramatic author, composed fourteen tragedies in seven years, studied north-eastern angle of the Lake Mareotis. Here Alexander determined Latin, and even at the age of forty-eight made himself master of Greek. to construct the future capital of his western conquests. The ground- At Florence he met the Countess of Albany, wife of Prince Charles Edplan was traced by Alexander himself; the building was commenced im- ward, on whose death he married her. Among his tragedies are, " Saul," mediately, but the'city was not completed till the reign of the second "Antigone," "Agamemnon," "Mary Stuart," &c. monarch of the Lagid line, Ptolemy Philadelphus. It was of an oblong figure, rounded at the N.E. and S.W. extremities. Its length from E. to W. | Alfonso X., (1221-1284,) surnamed the Wise and the Astronomer; king of A MI AMP 35 Castile and Leon. He was a competitor in 1257 with Richard, Earl of all men felt to be inevitable, and which many foresaw would be a struggle Cornwall, for the imperial dignity, and, though unsuccessful, assumed the for existence. title of emperor, which he was compelled to renounce in 1274, in favor of nudlph o apsburg. He distinguished himself by his love of science Amphictyonic Council. A common worship and participation in the same Rudolph of Hapsburg. He distinguished himself by his love of science religious ceremonies created at an early period in Greece; a relation beand had the famous Alphonsine Tables prepared; published a collection and had the famous Alphonsine Tables prepared; published a collection tween neighboring nations, even without reference to any affinity of race; of Laws, ordered the use of the vulgar tongue in public acts, and had a and on this were founded the leagues known as amphictyoni leagues, or translation of the Bible prepared. These services he rendered to his leagues unions of neighboring states. The most renowned among those leagues country, though a large part of his reign was troubled by wars with the. T was that which assembled at Thermopylae, and at the Temple of the Pythian Moors, revolts of his subjects, and civil wars respecting the succession. Apollo. By the extension of its original numbers this society obtained Alfred the Great, (849-901,) king of England, succeeded to the throne in a great name throughout almost the whole of Greece, and acquired a 871, in his 22d year, at a time when his kingdom was troubled by do- certain degree of political importance, which it long retained. The origin mestic dissensions, and the Danish invasion. But he finally secured the of this league, which was styled preeminently "the Amphictyonic," is peace of his dominions, and struck terror into his enemies, after fifty-six lost in mythical obscurity. The members formed twelve clans, all battles by land and sea, in all of which he was personally engaged. His of which, in ancient times, resided in or near Thessaly, and down to the warlike exploits formed, perhaps, the least of the services he rendered his Macedonian period retained in name the same privileges. The objects country. He was so exact in his government, that robbery was unheard of the league were the promulgation of certain precepts of civilization of. The state of learning, in his time, had been so low, that, from the and humanity, the protection of the temple at Delphi, and latterly (from Thames to the Humber, scarcely a man could be found who understood B. c. 586) the superintendence of the Pythian games. It was not, however, the service of the Church. To remedy this evil, he invited men of intended either for defence against foreign enemies, or for interference in learning from all quarters, and placed them at the head of schools the internal affairs of the States of which it was composed; consequently in various parts of his kingdom. The laws published by Alfred were we find that the Amphictyonic Council was inoperative in the Peloponchiefly selections from those previously existing. Alfred himself wrote nesian War and the other quarrels of the Grecian States. On the other several works, and translated others from the Latin, particularly the Gen- hand, its efficiency was shown in the so-called holy wars against violators eral History of Orosius,and Boethius's " Consolations of Philosophy." To of the Temple (against Phocis, 355-346; against Amphissa, 340-339, and Alfred, England is indebted for the foundation of her fleet. against the ZEtolians, 280). In these wars, however, the more powerful Ambrose. See ST. AMBROSE. members of the confederacy often employed it as an instrument for carryAmerican Congress. See CONGRESS. ing out their own plans. Amiens, (Peace of.) It was concluded on March 25, 1802, and made an Amphipolis, a town of Macedonia, situated upon an eminence on the eastend to the War of the Second Coalition against France. (See Appendix, page ern bank of the Strymon, about three miles from the sea. The Strymon 212.) England consented to all the Continental acquisitions of the French flowed almost round the town, whence its name Amphi-polis. It stands Republic, recognized the existence of the secondary republics (Batavian, in the pass which traverses the mountains bordering the Strymonic Gulf; Helvetian, Ligurian, and Cisalpine), and restored the French Colonies. and it commands the only easy communication from the coast of that Thus ended the first stage of the Great Revolution which had shaken gulf into the great Macedonian plains. The city was founded in 437 B. c., Europe to its centre. England alone had sustained the shock with firm- by Athenian colonists. It soon became an important place, and was ness; but England sought repose before the renewal of the struggle, which regarded by the Athenians as the "jewel of their empire." In 424 B. c. it ii I I I III',,....,, 1, l' I..'1 I' IIIII II II 36 ANA AN N surrendered to the Spartans, and continued from that time independent of appropriate only to the first book, which contains an account of the "going Athens. Amphipolis afterwards became closely allied with Olynthus, (see up" (meaning of the word anabasis) of Cyrus towards Babylon. The OLYNTHIAN WAR,) and with the assistance of the latter was able to defeat remaining books are a narrative of. "going down " (katabasis) of the the attempts of the Athenians under Timotheus to reduce the place in Greeks from Babylonia to the coast of Asia Minor. The Anabasis, unques360 B. c. Philip of Macedon, upon his accession (359 B. c.), declared Amn- tionably the most attractive of Xenophon's writings, resembles a landscape phipolis a free city, but in the following year he took the place by assault in full sunlight. Everything lies bright and open before our eyes: nothing and annexed it permanently to the kingdom of Macedon. stands in the shade; everything appears in its proper stature and coloring; nothing is exaggerated, nothing is presented in too brilliant hues Amru (A. D. 662), one of the greatest Mussulman commanders, and the conqueror of Egypt. He invaded it in June, 639; took Pelusium and Memquer o t. HA i d it in J, 6; tk P i an - Anaxagoras, (500-428,) a celebrated Greek philosopher. He inherited a phis; obtained the aid of the Coptic Christians, and after a siege of four- considerable estate in his own country, which he relinquished to indulge,een,onths took Alexandria. considerable estate in his ow n country, which he relinquished to indulge teen months took Alexandria. He is reproached, but on untrustworthy his thirst for knowledge at Athens, where he studied poetry and eloquence, Ahis thirst for knowledge atAthens, where he studied poetry and eloquence, evidence, with having burnt, by order of the Caliph Omar, the famous and taught philosophy, having among his pupils Euripides and Pericles. library of Alexandria. Amru was named governor of Eypt, which (See these.) His reputation, however, created him enemies, and he was flourished under his wise administration. condemned to death on a charge of Atheism, but the sentence was cormAmsterdam. See NEW AMSTERDAM. muted into banishment. Anaxagoras is celebrated as the first of the Greek philosophers, who taught the existence of a Supreme Spirit, distant from, Anabasis. After the humiliation of Athens, the Spartans resolved to restore yet pervading and governing, the Universe. liberty to the Greek States on the coast of Asia. Lysander and the other generals forwarded this undertaking, in which there was much to gain, and Anglo-Dutch War. See Appendix, page 203. which afforded them a long respite from the severe pressure of their domestic laws. Too late the king of Persia perceived that he had erred in not Annus Mirabilis, the year of wonders, 1666. The title of an historical maintaining a balance of power between Athens and Sparta. The Greeks poenl of Dryden, in which he describes "the motives, the beginning, prowere now so much the more dangerous, as many young men had grown gress, and successes of a most necessary war," (the second Anglo-Dutch up during the long Peloponnesin war, who were acquainted with arms WVar, 1665-1667,) etc., and also the great fire which destroyed two-thirds of only, and who were the first soldiers properly so called, as they followed London. It broke out on Sunday, Sept. 2, 1666, and lasted until Sept. 7. warfare for hire. Ten thousand of these mercenaries shook the throne of During the first day, the wind, which blew from the east, hourly augthe second Artaxerxes, and after his brother (the younger Cyrus) had fallen iented in violence, and finally changed into a storm. While the storm in battle (Cunaxa, 401 B. c.), formed the bold attempt of forcing their way continued, the conflagration bade defiance to all the exertions of human back to their country through the midst of Asia, and at the distance of ingenuity and power. On the evening of Wednesday, the violence of the nearly 2,500 miles; and though in the greatest want of provisions, wind began to abate, and on Thursday evening the weather became calm. pursued by the best generals of the king through roads often scarcely This, added to the demolition of many houses, put at length a stop to the passable, and treated as enemies by a multitude of Asiatic nations, they conflagration, though months elapsed before the immense accumulation completed their enterprise under the conduct of Xenophon the Athenian. of ruins ceased to present appearances of internal heat and combustion. (See XENOPHON.) The history of this remarkable expedition has been In Dryden's Annus lfirabilis, his genius breaks forth for the first time handed down to us by Xenophon in his Anabasis. This title is strictly with any promise of that full effulgence at which it ultimately arrived. _.m.,., ANT ANT 37 Here we have much both of the nervous diction and the fervid fancy of returning with all speed to Asia, and evacuating the field before an which characterize his best works. enemy in every respect superior, Antiochus resolved to intrench himself at Thermopyl1e, which he had occupied, and there to await the arrival of Ansgar. See ST. ANSGAR. - Ansgar. See ST. ANsGAR. the great army from Asia. Before its arrival, he was attacked by the Anson, George, Lord, (1697-1762,) a celebrated naval commander. In Romans, and his army was destroyed; with difficulty, a small band 1739 he was appointed commodore of an expedition against the Spanish reached Demetrias, and the king himself escaped to Chalcis with 500 settlements in the Pacific Ocean. On this journey he doubled Cape IHorn, men. Europe was lost to him. Scipio, the conqueror of Zama, had crossed the Southern Ocean for China, and finally sailed for England, been selected at Rome to continue the war on the Asiatic continent. wh ere h e arrived June 15, 1744, having circumnavigated the world in In the valley of the Hermus, near Magnesia at the foot of Mount Sipylus, three years. His chaplain mwrote an account of their voyage, which is one not far from Smyrna, the Roman troops fell in with Antiochus late in the of the pleasantest little books in the world's library. autumn of 190. The force of Antiochus numbered close on 80,000 men; the Romans had not nearly half that number, but they were so sure of Antiochus III., king of "Asia,"(238-187,) was the great-great-grandson of victory, that they did not even await the recovery of their general, who had the founder of the dynasty. He began to reign at nineteen years of age, remained behind, sick. The whole Asiatic army dispersed in tumultuous and soon displayed sufficient energy and enterprise to warrant his being flight; an attempt to hold the camp failed, and only increased the number without ludicrous impropriety addressed in courtly style as "the Great." of the dead and the prisoners. The estimate of the loss of Antiochus at He succeeded in restoring, in some degree, the integrity of the mon- 50,000 men is, considering the infiniteconfusion,notincredible; the legions archy. From the ruins of old Troy to the Caucasus and the farthest con- of the Romans had not been engaged, and the victory, which gave them a fines of Media, the whole of Syria, Phcenicia, and Asia Minor belonged third continent, cost them only twenty-four horsemen and three hundred to him. He scarcely felt that the Parthians were no longer under his foot-soldiers. Asia Minor submitted; including even Ephesus, and Sardes sway; the most beautiful, the most populous and flourishing provinces of the residence of the court. The king sued for peace, and consented to the earth obeyed him. The first part of his reign shone with glory, the terms proposed by the Romans, which, as usual, were just the same as -and he was by far the most powerful monarch of Asia. His activity only those offered before the battle, and consequently included the cession of diminished with increasing age. Antioch was one of the most volup- Asia Minor. Antiochus himself, in his reckless fashion, soon made a jest tuous cities in the world; and there the great Antiochus slumbered under of losing half his realm; it was in keeping with his character, that he the laurels of his earlier years. At this time Hannibal fled to his court, declared himself grateful to the Romans for saving him the trouble of who succeeded in engaging Asia in a contest against the power of Rome. governing too large a kingdom. But with the day of Magnesia, Asia was After war was declared, the councils of Hannibal were not listened to with erased from the list of great States; and never perhaps did a great power respect to the manner of conducting it. Crowned with garlands, sur- fall so rapidly, so thoroughly, and so ignominiously as the kingdom of the rounded with eunuchs, by the sound of the flute and lyre, the great Antio- Seleucid e under this Antiochus the Great. He himself was soon afterchus went forth out of Asia on his elephant covered with splendid trap- wards slain by the indignant inhabitants of Elymais (at the head of pings, at the head of 400,000 men. In silken and purple tents, before the Persian Gulf), whilst plundering a temple of Bel, with the treasures richly covered tables, he expected to triumph over the Romans. In the of which he had expected to replenish his empty coffers. (187 B. c.) beginning of spring 191, the Roman staff arrived at Apollonia. The commander-in-chief was Manius Acilius Glabrio, a man of humble origin, Antoninus Pius, (86-161 A. D.) Roman Emperor. Sprung from a wealthy but an able general, dreaded both by his soldiers and the enemy. Instead family, he obtained the friendship and confidence of the Emperor Hadrian, 38 ARB ARI who, in February, 138, adopted him as his successor. His reign was one as the scene of the last conflict between Darius and Alexander the Great. of the happiest periods the empire enjoyed, and it furnishes few materials The battle, however, really took place near the village of Gaugamela, ("the for history. A wise ruler and a good man, he has been called a second camel's house,") on the banks of the Bumodus, a tributary of the Greater Numa. Zab, (331 B. c.) Darius left his baggage and treasures at Arbela, when he Arabs in Sicily. While the empire of the Arabs was falling into a number advanced to meet Alexander. of small states, they completed the conquest of Sicily, in which they had Archimedes, (139-212,) the most celebrated mathematician among the been engaged for fifty years, by taking the city of Syracuse, (880 A. D.) Of ancients, was a native of Syracuse. He was equally skilled in the sciences this capture we have the following account from the pen of an eye-wit- of astronomy, geometry, mechanics, hydrostatics, and optics. The combinaness: tion of pulleys for raising immense weights, the endless screw, a sphere to "Theodosius, the monk, sends his salutation to Leo, the archdeacon. represent the motions of the heavenly bodies, etc., were invented by him: We have held out ten months; during which time we have fought often but his genius for invention was never more signally displayed than in the by day, and many times by night, by water, by land, and under the defence of Syracuse, when besieged by Marcellus; although the well-known ground. -We have left nothing unattempted against the enemy, and story that among other astonishing novelties he produced a burning glass, against his works. The grass which grows upon the roofs was our food, composed of reflecting mirrors, by which he fired the enemy's fleet, is most and we caused the bones of animals to be powdered in order to use them likely a fiction of later times. At length, however, the city was taken by for meat. At length children were eaten, and terrible diseases were the storm, and Archimedes, then in his 74th year, was among the slain. Of consequences of famine. Confiding in the security of our towers, we the numerous works of Archimedes, nine have come down to us. hoped to hold out till we received succor; the strongest of our towers was overthrown, and we still resisted for three weeks. In an instant Ariosto, Ludovico, (1474-1533 A. D.,) one of the greatest poets of Italy. when, exhausted by heat, our soldiers took respite, a general storm was He was set to study law, but abandoned it in disgust, and gave himself up made on a sudden, and the town was taken. We fled into the church to literature. After a short residence at Rome, where he composed some of St. Salvator; the enemy followed us, and bathed his sword in the comedies, he settled in Ferrara, where he was employed in political negoblood of our magistrates, priests, monks, old men, women, and children. tiations. It was amidst the constant pressure of official duties that he Afterward the most noble of our people, a thousand in number, were wrote his great epic, the "Orlando Furioso," which occupied his leisure put to death before the town, with stones, whips, and clubs; the gov- for eleven years, and vas published in 1516. It celebrates the semiernor, Nicetas of Tarsus, half flayed alive, with his entrails torn out, mythical achievements of the Paladins of Charlemagne, in the wars was beaten to pieces against a stone; all the great houses were burnt, between the Christians and the Moors in Spain. It became immediately and the capitol pulled down. On the day when they celebrate Abraham's popular, and has since been translated into all European languages, and sacrifice many of them wished to burn us with the archbishop, but an passed through innumerable editions. There are several English versions, old man, who possessed great authority among them, protected us. This of which Rose's is most esteemed for fidelity and elegance. Ariosto wrote is written at Palermo, fourteen feet under the ground, among innumer- also some vigorous satires, several comedies, and other poems. able captives, Jews, Africans, Lombards, Christian and unchristian people, Aristagoras, of Miletus, brother-in-law of Histieus, was left by him, on his whites and moors " | occupation of Myrcinus and during his stay at the Persian Court, in charge Arbela, a town of Eastern Adiabene, one of the provinces of Assyria, of the government of Miletus. His misconduct in this situation caused the between the Greater Zab and the Lesser Zab. Arbela has been celebrated first interruption of an interval of universal peace, and commenced the ='P i ARI ARI 39 chain of events which raised Greece to the level of Persia. In 501 B. c., Aristophanes. The germ of all comedy lies in the common nature of man; tempted by the prospect of making Naxos his dependency, he obtained a but it unfolds itself prominently in literature, only when society has formed force for its reduction from the neighboring satrap, Artaphernes. While intricate relations, and when oddities and humors of individual character leading it, he quarrelled with its commander: the Persian, in revenge, sent are multiplied. It is not surprising that the literature of a people so warning to Naxos, and the project failed. Aristagoras, finding his treasure voluble in speech and so quick-witted as the Athenians should have wasted, and himself embarrassed through the failure of his promises to abounded in the richest combinations of these provocatives to laughter. Artaphernes, began to meditate a general revolt of Ionia. A message from This branch of dramatic composition was carried to its highest perfection Histioeus determined him. His first step was to seize the several tyrants by Aristophanes, who was the contemporary of the tragic poets and hiswho were still with the armament, deliver them up to their subjects, and torians. Most of his pieces were written within the period of the Peloponproclaim democracy; himself too, professedly, surrendering his power. He nesian War, (431-404 B. c.,) and some of them have direct reference to the then set sail for Greece, and applied for succor, first at Sparta; but after state of things which that hideous strife of mutual hatred and jealousy using every engine in his power to win Cleomenes, the king, he was ordered brought about. The corruption of public and private morals in Greece to depart; at Athens he was better received; and, with the troops from at this epoch gave the amplest scope to the spirit of travesty and satire. twenty galleys, which he there obtained, and five added by the Eretrians, he Again, political events such as those of the Peloponnesian War, and magsent in 499 an army up the country, which captured and burnt Sardis, but nificent projects of universal empire, like that which drove the Athenians was finally chased back to the coast. These allies now departed: the Persian out of their senses at the time of the Sicilian expedition, were brought commanders were reducing the maritime towns; Aristagoras, in trepida- upon the stage in the most amusing manner, and often with more effect tion and despondency, proposed to his friends to migrate to Sardinia or than followed the political discussions of the public meeting. Public men Myrcinus. This course he was bent upon himself; and, leaving the Asiatic were brought upon the stage by name; and the actors, by the aid of porGreeks to allay as they could the storm he had raised, he fled with all who trait masks, and costumes imitated from the dresses actually worn, reprewould join him to Myrcinus. Shortly after, probably in 497, while attack- sented in the most minute particulars the personages themselves. Socrates, ing a town of the neighboring Edonians, he was cut off with his forces by a whose strange person and grotesque manners offered irresistible temptasally of the besieged. I-e seems to have been a supple and eloquent man, tions to the wits of the comic stage, is said to have been present when he ready to venture on the boldest steps, as means for mere personal ends, but was brought out in the play of " The Clouds," and to have stood up before utterly lacking in address to use them at the right moment; and generally the audience with imperturbable good-humor, that they might compare the weak, inefficient, and cowardly. original with the mimic semblance on the stage. The aristocratic and plebeian demagogues are lashed with infinite and impartial humor in " The Aristides, the Athenian statesman and general. In 477 B c., as commarntdesof the Athenian sontagesan andthe Greneral. yInd477 B., ascom- Knights," where the high-born equestrians deprive Cleon the leather-dresser nder of the Athenian contingent in the Greek army under Pauias, of the favor of the ward by setting up the claims of a sausage-seller. he had the glory of obtaining for Athens the command of the maritime confederacy, and to him was by general consent intrusted the task of Aristotle was one of the deepest thinkers that ever lived. The fame of his drawing up its laws and fixing its assessments. His conduct on this occa- abilities having reached Philip of Macedon, that prince made him tutor to sion earned him the surname of the Just. In the Gorgias of Plato, he is his son Alexander. When Alexander afterward set out on his expedition the example of the virtue, so rare among statesmen, of justice, and is said to Asia, Aristotle settled himself in Athens, where he established a school " to have become singularly famous for it, not only at home, but through of philosophy, which was called, probably from his habit of walking as he the whole of Greece." From 477 until his death in 468, he was the chief lectured, the peripatetic. After the death of his pupil and patron, Alexpolitical leader of Athens. 40 AP R AUG ander the Great, he was banished from Athens, and retired to Chalcis, all vassalage during his life; the king ceded to him the counties of Auxwhere he died in 322, after having accomplished during his life the.task erre and Macon, with other places. He promised, besides, to disavow the of a giant. His genius embraced all the sciences of his time and invented murder of John the Fearless, to deliver up its authors, and to grant an new ones. His extant works include treatises on the whole range of human amnesty to all those of his subjects who had taken up arms against him. knowledge, the most valuable of which is his history of animals. His great On these conditions Philip swore to forget the past, and signed with his pupil, Alexander, aided him in his researches, by supplying him with cousin an offensive and defensive alliance in the town of Arras. The funds, and by having collections of foreign animals made and sent to him French were united, and the maintenance of the English dominion became for examination. The philosophy of Aristotle attained immense influence, impossible. Paris, after belonging to the crown of England for seventeen and was supreme in Europe during the Middle Ages. His word was years, opened her gates to her king, and soon the English only remained another Bible, and to question his authority was heresy. After the revival in Normandy and Guienne. of literature and the Reformation, the magic of his name was lost. And Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy, and of the dynasty of now, after that natural reaction and a period of neglect, he is again studied the Arsacides flourished in the 3d century B. c. In revenge for an insult and praised as one of the greatest intellects that have appeared in the world.. In revenge for an insult offered to his brother by the governor of a province, he raised the standard Armada. See SPANISHI ANRMADA. of revolt in Parthia against Seleucus; and, having succeeded in emancipating his countrymen, they proclaimed him their king. He reigned Arnold of Brescia, (1155 A. D.,) an Italian monk of the twelfth century, prosperously for thirty-three years. who attracted the confidence of the people and the bitter hatred of the priesthood, by his earnest preaching against the temporal power and pos- Assyrian Empire. See Appendix, page 171. sessions of the Church. After an exile from Ihaly, during which he Athanasius. See ST. ATHANASIUS. preached in France and Switzerland, he took the lead in a revolt of the Roman people, and for ten years held his ground as master of the city. Attila, (453 A. D.,) king of the Huns, and one of the most celebrated leaders At last, terrified by the interdict laid on Rome by Adrian III., the people of the barbarian hosts which overran the Roman Empire in its decline. banished their chosen chief, and shortly after, (1155,) they saw him burnt His name and the enormous army at his command inspired such terror and his ashes thrown into the Tiber. He was one of the most distin- that he was named the "Scourge of God." After invading the Eastern guished early martyrs of political and religious freedom. empire he led his forces into Germany and Gaul, and was defeated in a great battle near Chalons-sur-Marne, in 451. He was acknowledged soverArras, Treaty of, in 1435. This was a congress from all Christendom to eign of all the tribes between Gaul and the borders acknowledged soverbring about a general peace. The first question was to inquire whether it were possible to reconcile Charles VII. and Henry VI., the two aspirants Augsburg, League of. The house of Austria had, by a succession of victo the French crown. Nothing could be done with the English; so they tories, been secured from danger on the side of Turkey, and was no longer were suffered to leave Arras. All eyes were turned to the Duke of Bur- under the necessity of submitting patiently to the encroachments and gundy, and all besought him to take pity on France and on Christendom, insults of Lewis XIV. Accordingly, in July, 1686, a treaty was signed at both suffering from these long wars. The duke sacrificed at last his long Augsburg on the Lech, in Bavaria, by which the princes of the empire resentment (on account of the murder of his father, John the Fearless, in bound themselves closely together for the purpose of mutual defence. The 1419, on the bridge of Montereau,) to the interest of France, and became kings of Spain and Sweden were parties to this compact; the king of Spain reconciled to his father's murderer, Charles VII. He was exempted from as sovereign of the provinces contained in the circle of Burgundy, and the AUG AUR 41 king of Sweden as duke of Pomerania. The Confederates declared that Aurelian, (212-275.) Having throughout an active life greatly distinguished they had no intention to attack and no wish to offend any power, but that himself as a valiant, skilful, and successful general, he was chosen emthey were determined to tolerate no infraction of those rights which the peror on the death of Claudius II., in 270. He drove the barbarians from Germanic body held under the sanction of public law and public faith. Italy, vanquished the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, and carried They pledged themselves to stand by each other in case of need, and fixed her prisoner to Rome; but while on his march toward Persia, in 275, he the amount of force which each member of the league was to furnish if it was assassinated by his mutinous troops. Besides the brilliant military should be necessary to repel aggression. The name of William of Orange, achievements by which Aurelianus restored for a time the prestige of the husband of Mary, presumptive heiress of the English crown, did not Roman name, he undertook many great public works, the principal of appear in this instrument; but all men knew that it was his work, and which was the building of new walls for the defence of the city. foresaw that he would in no long time be the leader of a formidable league against France. Between him and King James II., the vassal of France, Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, (121-180,) Roman emperor, was born at there could, in such circumstances, be no cordial good-will. There was Rome. He succeeded Antoninus Pius in 161, having been early adopted no open rupture, no interchange of menaces or reproaches; but the father- by him and married to his daughter Faustina. Lucius Verus was at once in-law and the son-in-law were separated completely and forever. The associated with him in the empire. Great part of his reign was occupied very thing, however, that estranged William from the Court, endeared him with wars, the sad necessity of the times. Verus conducted successfully a to the English people. Both the great parties began to fix their hopes and war with the Parthians; both emperors encountered the barbarians on the their affections on the same leader, and Prince William became the un- Danube, until the death of Verus in 169, and then Aurelius carried on the questioned chief of the whole of that party which was opposed to the war, and by his success obtained the surname of Germanicus. It was in government, a party almost coextensive with the English nation. This the course of this war that the remarkable defeat of the Quadi took place, league of Augsburg proved to be the prelude to the English Revolution 174, which was attributed to miracle, and respecting which so much debate of 1688. has been held. After an expedition to the East to suppress the revolt of his lieutenant there, he had to renew the war in Germany, but, worn out Augustine, Bishop of Hippo. See ST. AUGUSTINE I. with incessant exertions, died in Pannonia. Marcus Aurelius was not only Augustine, the English Apostle. See ST. AUGUSTINE II. one of the wisest and best of the Roman emperors, but one of the noblest and most complete characters of the ancient world. In boyhood he was Augustus, (63 B. c.-14 A. D.,) the first Roman emperor, at first named Caius called " Verissimus" (most true), and this chief of virtues distinguished Octavius, was grand-nephew to C. Julius Cmesar, who named him his heir, him through life. Hie was educated by teachers of the Stoic school, and and on whose murder he went to Rome to claim his property and avenge became himself one of the most eminent members of that school. He his death-aiming secretly at the chief power. The victory at Actium, acquired the title of the "Philosopher," and has left us in his "Medita31, made him master of the Roman world. Gradually all the highest tions" a most precious record of his moral and religious sentiments and offices of state were united in his hands, and the senate gave him the title opinions, the rules by which he wished to regulate his conduct, etc., set "Augustus," B. c. 27. He studiously veiled his supremacy under the old down in detached notes from time to time, as affairs of state gave him republican forms, kept the people amused, carried on wars only to defend leisure. A new English translation of this book was lately published by the existing frontiers, promoted agriculture, literature, and the arts, and Mr. George Long. The persecution of Christians in this reign has been made immense improvements in the city of Rome. His age was the urged as a reproach against Aurelius; but it is not known that he ordered golden age of literature. it: and it is noteworthy that no persecution took place in Rome or Italy. 6 42 BAG BAL Avicenna, (980-1037,) the celebrated Arabian physician and philosopher, now laid claim to the crown of France, landed, in 1415, on the coast of was born near Bokhara in 980. He applied himself to the study of mathe- Normandy, and took Harfieur. An epidemic breaking out in the English matical science, logic, medicine, and theology. He wrote a great number ranks, the army was so diminished that when the French appeared with an of treatises on philosophy and medicine, the most important of which army of 100,000 men the English numbered only 12,000. Henry V. conwere his commentary on the " Metaphysics" of Aristotle, and his famous tinued, however, his march on Calais: when he had proceeded as far as "Canon," the sovereign authority in medical science for centuries. the village of Azincourt, he came in sight of the French army drawn up on the rising ground to oppose his progress. On the morning of the 25th Azincourt. Taking advantage of the civil dissensions which distracted of October, 1415, St. Crispin's day, Henry V. attacked and conquered his France, Henry V. of England demanded the surrender of Normandy, foes. See Shakspeare's HENRY V., Act iv., Scene 8. The battle-field of Maine, Anjou, and Provence. This was rejected by the Estates of France Azincourt lies near Hesdin, which is in the valley of the Canche, south as inconsistent with their honor. Henry, glad of so favorable a pretext, of Calais. It is a little to the northeast of Cressy. lB. Bacon, Francis, (1561-1626,) the great English philosopher. He entered about two miles along its bank, with large suburbs on the western side. Parliament in 1593, continued to advance in reputation, and in 1613 became The river is broad, deep, and rapid. A bridge of boats extends across it, attorney-general and privy-councillor. The office of lord keeper was which preserves the intercourse between the inhabitants on both sides. It given him in 1617, and soon afterward he was made lord chancellor, was built by Almansor, about 760 A. D., who made it the capital of the Baron Verulam, and Viscount St. Albans. But from this time dates the caliphs of the house of Abbas. See ABBASSIDES. beginning of his miserable fall. Complaints were made of his venality as Bajazet, (1347-1403,) Sultan of the Ottomans. His fiery energy and the a judge, which, on inquiry by a Parliamentary committee, were verified: swiftness of his movements from point to point of his immense empire he made full confession, was deprived, fined, and imprisoned during the acquired for him the surname of " Ildrim," or Lightning. e was conking's pleasure. IHe was pardoned, but continued to live in retirement, tinually occupied with war, and was especially ambitious of taking Condevoting himself to his favorite studies. The. great aim of this extra- stantinople. A league of Christian powers was formed against him, and stantinople. A league of Christian powers was formed against him, and ordinary man was to reform the method of philosophy; he recalls men the decisive battle was fought at Nicopolis on the Danube, when Bajazet from blindly following authority, to the observation and examination of won a great victory. An attack of the gout prevented the conqueror's nature. His great works are the " Novum Organum " and the " De Augnature. His great ork are the "Novum Orgnum" and the "De Au further progress in Europe; and soon after, Tamerlane, having conquered mentis Scientiarum." The former was projected in his youth, was prepared a great part of Asia, turned his arms against Bajazet. The memorable by a series of sketches, revised and rewritten again and again, and finally battle of these giants was fought on the plains of Angora, in Galatia, in published in 1620. The celebrated "Essays" were first published in 1597. July, 1402. Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner; and after being Among his other works are the " Wisdom of the Ancients," "History of HeAmong his other works are the "Xisdom of the Ancients," "History of treated for a time with ostentatious respect, was shut up in an iron cage, and so carried in the train of his conqueror. Bagdad. A celebrated city of Mesopotamia, within the boundaries of Balboa, Vasco Nuniez de, (?-1517,) a Castilian, one of the first who visited Asiatic Turkey. It is situated on the eastern side of the Tigris, extending the West Indies. Having accompanied Bastidas and Ojeda in their expe-....,,, il, rl i, i i i,, BE A BED 43 ditions of discovery to America, he set out in 1513, on another expedition ter and the Cardinal Beaufort, the kiing! uncle and great-uncle, divided of the same character. He established a colony on the Isthmus of Panama, between them. the power of the statej. and kept the country in continual where he built the first town on the continent of South America, penetrated agitation. It was soon apparent that King Henry VI. was incapable of into the interior, discovered the Pacific Ocean from a peak in Darien, and governing, and each faction strove to have the direction of the state. To took formal possession of the new lands and seas in the name of Ferdinand strengthen his party, Cardinal Beaufort persuaded the king to marry Marand Isabella. He also obtained information respecting the Empire of Peru. gareta of Anjou. Gloucester opposed this marriage, and this opposition Jealous of his talents and success, rival adventurers accused him of dis- was mistaken by the queen for personal hatred, and she determined on loyalty, and he was put to death in 1517 by Pedrarias Davila, the Spanish his overthrow. On the 10th of February, 1448, a parliament was called at governor of Darien. Bury St. Edmunds. As soon as Gloucester appeared hie was arrested on a charge of high treason, and conveyed to the Tower, where after- sevenBarbarossa, (FREDERIc I.,) (1121-1190,) Emperor of the Wmbest, was chosen teen days he was found dead in his bed. It was said that he had died from to succeed his uncle, Conrad III., apoplexy, but the belief universally prevailed that he had been murdered. secure the independence of the Empire, and, above all, to be master of Cardinal Winchester was ailing at the moment of Gloucester's death. He Italy. At the celebrated Diet of Roncaglia, he assumed the sovereignty died a month afterward. His death was a serious event. It was the beof the Lombard towns, and received the homage of the lords. After six I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ginning of the end of the fortunes of the house of Lancaster, (1448.) Italian campaigns, he finally made peace with the Pope and the towns of Lombardy. In 1188 he assumed the Cross, set out in the following year Becket, St. Thomas A, (1119-1170,) Archbishop of Canterbury, was the son on the Third Crusade, was opposed on the march by the Greek emperor of a London merchant, his mother being a convert from Mohammedanism. and the sultan, arrived in Asia, and was drowned while crossing a river, In 1158 the king, Henry II., made Becket chancellor, and four years later in June, 1190. Frederick was great, not only as a soldier, but as a ruler. he was elected Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket now laid aside all pomp His administration was marked by justice; his subordinate officers were and luxury, and led a life of monastic austerity. In the controversy which chosen for their capacity and probity; he was himself an educated man, immediately arose respecting the limits of civil and ecclesiastical authority, and promoted education and literature. His memory is still cherished Becket asserted against the king the independence of the Church. Thereamong the peasants of Germany, who dream of the return of Fritz IRed- upon he was condemned, and suspended from his office. He escaped in disbeard as the Welsh did of King Arthur. guise to France. In 1170, the king and the archbishop were reconciled, and B3ecket returned to Canterbury. He at once published the Pope's sentence Bartholomew. See ST. BARTHOLO-MEW. of suspension against the Archbishop of York and other prelates who had crowned Prince Henry. The king's angry expression on hearing this Beaufort and Gloucester. Henry Beaufort was the son of John of Gaunt, c Duke of Lancaster, (died 1399,) and Catherine Swineford. He was con- induced four, of his barons to go immediately to Canterbury, and after sequently half-brother to Henry IV., and uncle to Henry V. He was unsuccessfully remonstrating with Becket, they followed him into the bishop of Winchester, and was made a cardinal. This Cardinal Winches- cathedral, and murdered him on the steps of the altar, 31st December, 1170. ter became by degrees the richest man in England, perhaps in the world. The king denied all share in the murder, and was absolved; but in 1174 he He made such loans to the crown as no monarch of the day could have did penance at Becket's tomb. done, and by these means he was for a moment the real king of England Bede or Beda, (673-738,) surnamed "the Venerable," an English monk and France (1430-1432 A. D.) While the English were losing their con- and ecclesiastical historian, was for twelve years a student in the monastery quests on the continent, two rival factions, headed by the Duke of Glouces- of Wearmouth, while Benedict Biscop was abbot. He also received in 44 BER BOE struction from John of Beverley. He was ordained priest about 703, and German king, the model of that knightly virtue which was beginning to had already obtained a wide reputation for learning and piety. His whole show itself after the fierce brutality of the last age. He listened, descended life was spent quietly in his monastery, devoted to study and writing. His into Lombardy by the Adige valley, espoused the injured queen and forced most important work is the " Ecclesiastical History of England," pub- Berengar II. to hold his kingdom as a vassal of the Frankish crown. That lished about 734, and highly, esteemed as one of the most trustworthy prince was turbulent and. faithless; new complaints reached ere long his sources of early English history. It was written in Latin, and was trans- liege lord, and envoys from the Pope offered Otto the imperial title if he lated into English by Alfred the Great. Bede wrote many works; among would re-enter and pacify Italy. The proposal was well-timed. Otto others, a "Chronicle" from the Creation to A. D. 725; and he completed a descended from the Alps a second time, deposed Berengar, and received at Saxon translation of St. John's Gospel the day he died. the hands of Pope John XII. the imperial dignity, which had been suspended for nearly forty years. Belisarius, (?-565,) the great general of Justinian. He commanded an expedition against the king of Persia about 530; suppressed an insurrection Berenger, or Berengarius, of Tours, (?-1088,) a distinguished theologian at Constantinople; conquered Gelimer, king of the Vandals, and put an of the 11th century. He was born at Tours, long held an ecclesiastical end to their dominion in Africa. In 535 he was sent to Italy to carry on office there, and was afterward Archdeacon of Angers. He was thorwar with the Goths, and took Rome in 537. He was recalled through oughly versed in the philosophy of his age, and did not hesitate to apply jealousy before he had completed the conquest of Italy, but returned to reason to the intrepretation of the Bible. He denied the dogma of tranItaly in 544. IHe was charged in 563 with conspiracy against Justinian, substantiation, but was prevailed on to make retractation. but was acquitted. A life of this great soldier has been written by Lord Bernard. See ST. BERNARD. Mahon. Black Prince. See EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES. Benedict. See ST. BENEDICT. Boccaccio, (1813-1375,) the celebrated Italian novelist. He was greatly Berengar II. Berengar I. was the grandson (through his mother) of Levis honored in Florence, and was sent on several public embassies; among the Pious. He was originally Marquis of Friuli, (N. E. Italy,) but raisedto Padua, to communicate to Perarch the tiding others, he was sent to Padua, to communicate to Petrarch the tidings of himself to the throne of Italy. He reigned for thirty-six years, but with his recalltoFlorence. He gained the friendship of the illustrious continually disputed' pretensions. He was assassinated at Verona, 924 A. D. and enjoyed it through life. Boccaccio, like Petrarch, contributed greatly to Rudolf, king of Burgundy, succeeded him, who soon had to surrender the, the revival of the study of classical literature, spent much time and money crown of Italy to Count Hugo of Provence. This Hugo reigned sixteen |in collecting manuscripts, and was the first to bring into Italy from Greece years (929-945 A. D.) over Italy, against the will of the nation, his son copies of the Iliad and the Odyssey. He was chosen by the Florentines to, copies of the Iliad and the Odyssey. He was chosen by the Florentines to Lothar being associated with him in the government. In 945, Berengar occupy the chair which was established in 1373 for the exposition of the II., son of Berengar I., returned to Italy, where he was welcomed by all the " Divina Commedia." The " Decamerone," on which his fame rests, is a nobles and acknowledged as their king, although Lothar retained the title. collection of a hundred tales, full of liveliness and humor, but often licenLothar dying, his widow Adelheid was sought in marriage by Berengar II., tious and indecent. The book was publised about 1352, and after two the new Italian monarch. A gleam of romance is shed on the Empire's centuries was condemned by two popes and the Council of Trent. revival by her beauty and her adventures. Rejecting the odious alliance, she was seized by Berengar, escaped with difficulty from the loathsome Boethius, (470-524,) a Roman philosopher, whose virtues, services, honors, prison where his barbarity had confined her; and appealed to Otto, the and tragical end, all combined to render his name memorable, filled the BOL BOU 45 highest offices under the government of Theodoric the Goth. He was Bolivia, in honor of the Liberator; but domestic factions sprang up, the long the oracle of his sovereign and the idol of the people; but his strict purity of his motives was called in question, and he was charged with integrity and inflexible justice raised up enemies in those who loved extor- aiming at a perpetual dictatorship; he accordingly declared his determition and oppression, and he at last fell a victim to their machinations. He nation to resign his power and to retire to his patrimonial estate. He was falsely accused of a treasonable correspondence with the Court of continued, however, to exercise the chief authority in Colombia till May, Constantinople, and, after a long and rigorous confinement at Pavia, was 1830. The people ere long became sensible of their injustice, and were executed in 524. His "Consolations of Philosophy" written in prison, soliciting him to resume the government when his death took place, in abounds in the loftiest sentiments clothed in the most fascinating language. December, 1830. His intellect was of the highest order, and his general This treatise was one of the most widely read books in the Middle Ages, character of that ardent, lofty cast which is so well calculated to take the and has been translated into many languages. Alfred the Great translated lead among a people escaping from the yoke of tyranny. it into English. Boniface. See ST. BONIFACE. Boleyn, or Bullin, Anne, (1507-1536,) queen of Henry VIII. After a residence of some years at the French Court, she became maid of honor to Bosworth Pield. Henry of Richmond, who became the founder of the Catherine, queen of Henry VIII., and soon attracted the admiration of the Tudor line, was the grandson of Catherine of France and Owen Tudor. king. In 1532, she was made Marchioness of Pembroke, and in the follow- His father, Edmund Tudor, had married Margaret Beaufort, the only suring year married to Henry, and crowned queen. In 1536, charges of con- viving descendant of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. He was in jug'l infidelity were brought aglainst her, onl which she was tried, and be- |1484 the only representative of the red rose of Lancaster. On this account jugafl infidelity were brought against her, on which she was tried, and beheaded May 19, 1536. Anne Boleyn was a promoter of the Reformation, the Bishop of Ely proposed that the crown should be offered to him, on and the king's determination to marry her was the occasion of the final the condition that he should marry the Princess Elizabeth, to whom the separation of England fiom the Catholic Church. She was the mother claim of the house of York had now devolved. A messenger was deof Queen Elizabeth. spatched to Brittany to inform the earl of the agreement, to hasten his return to England, and to announce the 18th day of October as the day Bolivar, Simon, (1783-1830,) the celebrated Liberator of South America. fixed for the general rising in his favor. A storm prevented the execution Having acquired the elements of a liberal education at home, he was sent of this plan. On the 17th of August, 1485, Henry landed on Welsh soil. to Madrid to complete his studies; and afterward visited Paris. On He marched direct on Tamworth, and met the army of Richard near the returning to South America, in 1810, he pledged himself to the cause of town of Bosworth, which gives its name to the decisive battle which was independence, and commenced his military career at Venezuela, as a fought there on the 23d of August, 1485. Henry Tudor was crowned on colonel in the service of the newly founded republic. After many desperate the field of battle, with the coronet which had fallen from the head of conflicts, the independence of Colombia was sealed, and Bolivar was chosen Richard, amidst shouts of "Long live King Henry VII." President of the republic in 1821. Every act of his government showed how zealously alive he was to the improvement of the national institu- Bourbons in Prance. Robert, Count of Clermont, younger son of St. Louis, tions and the moral elevation of the people. In 1823, he went to the married Beatrice, heiress of Bourbon. Their son Louis was the first duke assistance of the Peruvians, succeeded in establishing their independence, of Bourbon and the ancestor of the Bourbon race. He died in 1q341. and was proclaimed Liberator of Peru, and invested with supreme author- Nearly three hundred years afterward his descendants ascended the French ity. In 1825, he visited Upper Peru, which detached itself from the gov- throne, after the extinction of the house of Valois. They ruled over ernment of Buenos Ayres, and was formed into a new republic, named France more than 200 years. This race gave to France seven kings, to 46 BRI BRU wit, Henry IV., Louis XIII., Louis XIV., Louis XV., Louis XVI., themselves and the Britons against these enemies, the Romans built two Louis XVIII., Charles X. See GENEALOGY, VII. great walls defended with many castles. The first was built in 117 A. D. across the north of England, from the Solway Firth to the mouth of the Bourbons in Spain, The, are thze descendants of Louis the eldest son of Bourbons inSpin heaethdsenansfLoisteldssTyne. The secondwas built in 140, across a narrow part of Scotland, beLouis XIV., who, through his mother Maria Theresa, (daughter of Philip XIV., who, through his mother Maria Theresa, (daughter of Philip tween the Firth of Forth and the Clyde. Being built during the reign of IV. of Spain,) considered himself the nearest heir to the Spanish crown, the Emperor Antoninus, it was called "Valum Antonii." It is now the Emperor Antonthus, it was called "Valiumn Antehint."Itino after the extinction of the Spanish Habsburgs in 1700. They ruled Spain known as Graham's Dyke. known as Graham's Dyke. until 1868. The names of the Spanish Bourbons are the seven following: Philip V., Lewis I., Ferdinand VI., Charles III., Charles IV., Ferdinand Bruce, Robert, (1274-1328,) King of Scotland. He submitted for a time to VII., Isabella II. See GENEALOGY, IX. and XV., and the SPANISH SUC- Edward I., but joined the patriots after the victory at Stirling. In 1299 a CESSION WAR, in the Appendix, page 205. See also Macaulay's splendid regency was appointed, Bruce and his rival Comyn being at the head of it. Essay on Lord Mahon's WAR OF THE SUCCESSION. For several years Bruce kept up the appearance of loyalty to Edward; Breslau, Peace of, in 1742. The Emperor Charles VI. died on the 20th of but in 1306 he murdered Comyn, and soon after was crowned king at October, 1740, and, notwithstanding all Europe had guaranteed the indivisi- Scone. He was defeated by an English army and fled to the isles, his I? ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~qeen and family being captured and imprisoned. The war was renewed bility of his dominions, the king of Prussia (Frederick II.) claimed Silesia, queen and family being captured and imprisoned. The war was reneed and took possession of it on the 13th of the following December. The in the following year, but Edward's death delayed the decision of the refusal of the emperor's daughter and heir, Maria Theresa, to recog- struggle. Bruce twice invaded England, took almost all the fortresses in Scotland, except Stirling, and in 1314 totally defeated Edward II. at Bannize these claims, (on some Silesian principalities,) occasioned the first Scotland, except tirling, and in 1314 totally defeated Edard II. at BanSilesian war. (See WAR FOR THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION.) This war nockburn. Peace was made with England in 1328, and a few months later began with the rapid conquest of Silesia, and a victory gained by the Bruce died. Prussian troops near Molwitz, (April 10th, 1741.) In the following year Brundusium, now Brindisi, one of the most important cities of Calabria, Frederick overran Moravia and Bohemia, and gained a second victory at situated on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Its name was derived from the Czasau. mmedatel afer tis bttlenegoiatons ere ommeced situated on thle coast of the Adriatic Sea. Its name was derived from the Czaslau. Immediately after this battle negotiations were comnBesaced b peculiar configuration of its celebrated port, the various branches of which, between Austria and Prussia, which terminated in the Peace of Breslau, by united into one at the entrance, were thought to resemble a stag's head, I ~~~~~~~~~~~~united into one at the entrance, were thought to resemble a stag's bead, which the whole of Lower Silesia and Glatz were ceded to Prussia. f which was called in the dialect of the natives Brentron or Brentesion. wchich was called in the dialect of the natives Brentron or Brentesion. the population of Prussia be estimated as at that time amounting to five The position of Brundusium, as the point of direct communication between millions, almost a third of the whole was gained by this treaty. millions, almost a third of the whole was gained by this treaty. Italy and the Eastern provinces, naturally rendered it the scene of numerBritain Wall. Julius Cosar endeavored to conquer Great Britain in the ous historical incidents. During the civil war between Cesar and Pompey, year 55 B. c. But finding that the Britons defended themselves obstinately, Brundusium became the scene of important military operations. After he crossed over again to France and returned to Rome, and for the next the murder of Cesar, it was at Brundusium that the youthful Octavius hundred'years the Romans left Great Britain quiet. After that time first assumed the name of Caesar, and the garrison of Brundusium first (44 A. D.) a second expedition was undertaken against the Britons by the declared in his favor. Four years later (40 B. c.) it was again besieged by Emperor Claudius. They were conquered, and remained for about four cen- Antony and Domitius Ahenobarbus, and Octavian in vain attempted to turies subject to the Romans. The northern part of the island, (Scotland,) raise the siege, but its fall was averted by the intervention of common however, remained unconquered, and the inhabitants of that region (the friends, who effected a reconciliation between the two triumvirs, which Picts and Scots) made constant inroads into Roman Britain. To protect is known as the Peace of Brundusiurm. BRU BUR 47 Brunehilda. The vast country situated between the Rhine and the Loire the altar in the royal palace, and accordingly sent his two sons, Titus and was divided in 567 A. D., between the grandsons of Clovis, in three parts, in Aruns, to consult the oracle at Delphi. They took with them their cousin the following manner: A line was drawn from north to south, from the Brutus, who propitiated the priestess with the gift of a golden stick enmouths of the Scheldt to the sources of the Saone: the part situated to closed in a hollow staff. After executing the king's commission, the youths the west of this line was named Neustria, (Neuster, west) — and the other asked the priestess who was to reign at Rome after Tarquin, and the reply part, to the east, was named Austrasia, (Ostro, east.) Neustria fell, in the was, "He who first kisses his mother." Thereupon the sons of Tarquin partition, to Chilperic, and Austrasia to Sigebert. Burgundy formed the agreed to draw lots which of them should first kiss their mother upon third great division of Gaul, and fell to the share of Gontram. The great arriving at Rome; but Brutus, who better understood the meaning of the and popular names of this period, and which have found a place in men's oracle, stumbled upon the ground as they quitted the temple, and kissed memories, are those of the queens, and not of the kings - those of Frede- the earth, mother of them all. Soon after followed the rape of Lucretia; gonda and Brunehilda. The latter, the daughter of the king of the and Brutus accompanied the unfortunate father to Rome, when his daughSpanish Goths, her mind imbued with Roman cultivation, and her person ter sent for him to the camp at Ardea. Brutus was present at her death, fraught with grace and winning charms, was carried, by her marriage with and the moment had now come for avenging his own and his country's Sigebert, into savage Austrasia — that Gallic Germany which was the wrongs. Hte summoned the people, obtained the banishment of the Tarscene of one constant invasion. Fredegonda, on the contrary, thoroughly quins, and was elected consul with L. Tarquinius Collatinus. Resolved to barbaric in her genius, ruled her husband, the poor king of Neustria, a maintain the freedom of the infant republic, he loved his country better grammarian and theologian, who owed to her crimes his appellation of the than his children, and accordingly put to death his two sons, when they Nero of France. She first made him strangle his lawful wife, Galswinta, were detected in a conspiracy, with several other of the young Roman Brunehilda's sister; and then despatch his sons-in-law, and his brother-in- nobles, for the purpose of restoring the Tarquins. He moreover compelled law, Sigebert. This fearful woman was surrounded by men devoted to her his colleague, L. Tarquinius Collatinus, to resign his consulship and leave service, whom she fascinated by her murderous genius, and whose faculties the city, that none of the hated family might remain in Rome. And when she disturbed by intoxicating beverages. It was through them that she the people of Veii and Tarquinii attempted to bring Tarquin back by force reached her enemies. The ancient devotees of Aquitaine and Germany of arms, Brutus marched against them, and, fighting with Aruns, the son were revived in the retainers of Fredegonda, who, beautiful and homicidal, of Tarquin, he and Aruns both fell, pierced by each other's spears. The and possessed by pagan superstitions, appears to us like a Scandinavian matrons mourned for Brutus a year, and a bronze statue was erected to Valkyria. She compensated the weakness of Neustria by audacity and him on the Capitol, with a drawn sword in his hand. crime; made a war of stratagems and assassinations on her powerful rivals; but, perhaps, saved the west of Gaul from a fresh invasion of barbarians. Burleigh, William Cecil, (1520-1598,) Baron, Secretary of State, and Lord H igh Treasurer of England. On the accession of Edward VI., the proBrutus, Lucius Junius, one of the first consuls of Rome. His history, the tector Somerset gave him a responsible office, and took him with him on greater part of which belongs to poetry, ran as follows: The sister of King the expedition to Scotland. He was soon after made secretary of state, Tarquin the Proud (Tarquinius Superbus) married Marcus Brutus, who and did much to promote the freedom of trade. Elizabeth made him secdied, leaving two sons under age. Of these the elder was killed by Tarquin, retary of state and privy councillor, on her accession, and he remained who coveted their possessions; the younger escaped his brother's fate only first minister till his death. In 1572, he became lord high treasurer, by feigning idiocy, whence he received the surname of Brutus. After a having previously been raised to the peerage. Through all the grave while, Tarquin became alarmed by the prodigy of a serpent crawling from religious, political, and international difficulties of his long administration, 48 CI.ES C aE S he displayed consummate ability, integrity, sagacity, and moderation; and the union was not productive of happiness, and Lord Byron again went the Protestant system was firmly established by the measures he adopted. to the continent, with a determination not to return to his native country. Died August 4th, 1598. i During his various travels in the south of Europe, his admirers in England were indulged with the productions of his powerful and versatile Byron, George Gordon, (1788-1824,) the most eminent English poet of the muse: sometimes soaring into the pure regions of taste, breathing noble 19th century. His love of liberty and independence were prominent traits sentiments and chivalric feelings; at other times descending to voluptuin his disposition, and they grew into a fixed aversion to control. In ousness, or grovelling in vulgarity. Among the poems written during his 1805 he went to Cambridge, and there became chiefly remarkable for his last stay in Italy are the third and fourth cantos of "Childe Harold," seveccentric habits and his defiance of discipline. On quitting Cambridge, he eral tragedies, and " Don Juan," admitted to be his greatest work, though soon after published his " Hours of Idleness." This volume met with most from its subject, treatment, and tendency, unfit for idle readers. In 1823, severe censure from the Edinburgh Review. The ridicule thus cast by the the state of the Greeks awoke his sympathy, and, with disinterested genercritic on the poet was not suffered to rest there: he amply revenged himself osity, he resolved to devote his fortune, his pen, and his sword to their in the celebrated satire of "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers." After cause. His energies, however, were no sooner called into action than he a stay of two years on the continent, he gave to the world the first two cantos was assailed by disease; and he expired of a fever, at Missolonghi, on the of " Childe Harold's Pilgrimage." This was quickly succeeded by "The 19th of April, 1824, in the 37th year of his age, to the inexpressible sorrow Giaour," " The Bride of Abydos," " Lara," "The Corsair," &c.; and the of the Greeks, by whom he was venerated for his personal exertions and noble bard became the poetical idol of the day. In 1815 he married, but liberal pecuniary aid. C. Cade, John, better known as Jack Cade, was an Irish adventurer, who having obtained, B. c. 60, the government of Spain, he managed to amass headed the insurrection in Kent in the reign of Henry VI. He took money sufficient for the discharge of his debts. Finally, the next year, he the name of Mortimer, and encamped with a large body of his followers became consul, and obtained the government of Gaul, with the command on Blackheath, 1st of June, 1450. Memorials of the hardships complained of four legions. And now it was that his genius had ample scope. His of, and the remedies desired, were sent to the king. He defeated Sir military career was rapid and brilliant, and Gaul was wholly subjected to Humphrey Sevenoaks, and on the 1st of July entered London. He kept the Roman power. These transactions and his invasions of Britain are grahis followers from plunder for a day or two; had Lord Say and Sele phically related in his Commentaries. His successes excited the jealousy beheaded; was driven out of London and his followers dispersed; and was of Pompey, who caused Caesar to be recalled. He refused to obey this order, taken and killed soon after in Sussex. marched with his army into Italy, and seized the public treasure. He then followed Pompey into Greece, and defeated him in the memorable battle of Caesar, Caius Julius, (100-44 B. C.)' The celebrated Roman Dictator. Hav- Pharsalia, from which Pompey escaped only to be assassinated in Egypt. ing distinguished himself as an orator in the impeachment of Cornelius Having crushed every attempt at resistance on the part of the sons and Dolabella, he speedily grew a public favorite, and became successively mili- friends of Pompey, he was declared perpetual dictator, a title which some tary tribune, qumestor, and redile. The profusion with which he lavished of his friends wished to alter to that of king; and it is more than probable his liberality while in these offices involved him very deeply in debt; but that he would have become an absolute king, but that Brutus and other i _ CAL CAL 49 republicans penetrated his designs, and sternly resolved to make his life English princes were never again to lay claim to the crown of France, the sacrifice to the freedom of his country. Notwithstanding dark hints and the possession of a fortress on French soil was a perpetual irritation. had been given to him of his danger, he attended a meeting of the Senate But Calais was called the "brightestjewel in the English crown." A jewel without taking any measures for the safety of his person, and fell beneath it was, useless, costly, but dearly prized. Over the gate of Calais had once the daggers of the conspirators, on the ides of March, B. c. 44, and in the stood the insolent inscription: 56th year of his age. One of the best English accounts of the life of "Then shall the Frenchmen Calais win Caisar is to be found in Merivale's " History of the Romans under the Em- When iron and lead, like cork, shall swim;" pire," vols. i. and ii. and the Frenchmen had won it in fair and gallant fight. Cairoan. Some wandering tribes invited Ocbah, the general of Moa- Calderon, (1600-1685?) a very distinguished Spanish dramatist. Calderon wiyah, (the first of the caliphs of the house of Ommia,) to liberate them was a most prolific writer, beginning at the age of 14, and writing his last from the intolerable yoke of the Byzantine emperor. Ocbah achieved this auto at 80. After he entered the church, he wrote only sacred pieces, and enterprise, and in the country of the ancient Cyrene, the birthplace of so became indifferent to his comedies and other earlier works. He had a many poets and philosophers, confirmed his conquest by erecting the fort- marvellously fertile imagination, crowds his plays with incident and action, ress of Cairoan. The city was built 12 miles westward of the sea and 50 clothes his thought and sentiment in the richest and most exuberant miles to the south of Tunis. It is situated at the foot of a hill abounding language, glorifies the chivalric sense of honor, and, above all, is animated in springs of fresh water, and surrounded by fertile meadows, in a soil and inspired by religion. He was "the true poet of the Inquisition." rich in mines of salt. Ocbah traced a circumference of 3,600 paces, which Among the most admired of his dramas are, " Love after Death," " The he surrounded with a brick wall: in the space of five years the govern- Secret in Words," "The Constant Prince." One of the most celeb3rated or's palace was surrounded with a sufficient number of private houses; of his autos, or sacred pieces, is the "Devotion of the Cross." a spacious mosque was supported by 500 columns of granite and Numidiansar Augustus Germanicus, (1241, Roman Emperor, Caligula, Caius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, (12-41,) Roman Emperor, marble; and Cairoan became the seat of learning as well as of empire. was the son of Germanicus. Hie succeeded Tiberius, A. D. 37, with fair Calais. Calais is a seaport town of France on the Strait of Dover, 26 miles promise of becoming the father and friend of his people; but at the end from Dover, and 19 miles from Boulogne. In 1347 Calais was taken by of eight months he was seized with a fever, which appears to have permaEdward III. of England, after a siege of 11 months. The king ordered nently deranged his intellect; for his disposition totally changed, and he all the inhabitants to evacuate the town, and peopled it anew with Eng- committed the most atrocious acts of impiety, cruelty, and folly. He lish -a policy which probably preserved so long to his successors the caused sacrifices to be offered to himself, his wife, and his favorite horse; dominion of that important fortress. He made it the staple of wool, indulged in the most frightful immoralities; murdered many of his subleather, tin, and lead -the four chief, if not the sole commodities of the jects with his own hands; had others put to the rack while he was kingdom, for which there was any considerable demand in foreign enjoying his meals, or beheaded in his presence. One of his hugest follies markets. This occupation of a French fortress by a foreign power was a was the erection of a bridge of boats across the sea between Baise and perpetual insult to the national pride of France: it was a memorial of evil Puteoli. Its completion was celebrated by a great banquet, at the close times, while it gave England inconvenient authority in the " narrow seas." of which he had a number of the guests, friends and enemies, flung into At length, in 1558, it was taken by the duke of Guise, after it had remained the sea. He projected expeditions to Gaul, Germany, and Britain; and for 210 years in the power of the English. having reached the sea, he bid his soldiers gather shells for spoils, and Measured by substantial value, the loss of Calais was a gain for England. then led them back to Rome. But in the midst of his enormities he was 7._~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~is fhseomte h a 50 CAMx CAN assassinated by a tribune of the people as he came out of the theatre, A. D. Canning, George, (1770-1827,) Prime Minister of England. He was edu41, in the 29th year of his age. cated for the legal profession; but being introduced to the House of Commons by Mr. Pitt, he abandoned the Bar, and devoted himself wholly to Calvin, Jean, (1509-1564,) the great Reformer, founder and head of the r,n politics. His strenuous and able support of the minister was rewarded in Genevese theocracy. He was destined for the church, and sent to study Genevese theocracy. He was destined for the c1796 with an under-secretaryship of state. After the death of Pitt and at Paris; and there he became first acquainted with the doctrines of the 1796 with an under-secretaryship of state. After the death of Pitt ann Reformation. He then studied law and in 1532 returned to Paris a.the dissolution of the coalition ministry of Fox and Grenville, Canning Reformation. He then studied law, and in 1532 returned to Paris, a decided convert to the reformed faith. Compelled to fly from Paris in became foreign secretary; and to him may justly be ascribed the line of decided convert to the reformed faith. Compelled to fly from Paris in 1533, after various wanderings he found a protector in Margaret, queen of British policy in Spain which destroyed the hopes of Napoleon and led I. the following year he wentto Basel, and therecompleted.to his final overthrow. He was appointed governor-general of India in Navarre. In the following year he went to Basel, and there completed ~~~~~Navarre~. I *n th flon ya. w to asad tr c e 1822: he had already made preparations for his departure, when, in conand published his great work, the "Institutes of the Christian Religion."e ea e s de, He went, in 1536, to Geneva, where reform had just been established; and sequence of the death of the arquis of Londonderry, the seals of the.foreign office were delivere d to Canning He now advocated a course there, on the pressing entreaties of Farel and his friends, he remained. foreig office were delivered to Cannin H In 1538, Calvin and Farel were expelled from Geneva. Calvin was, how- of both home and foreign policy strikingly at variance with that of which he had for years been the wittiest and readiest defender. His new policy ever, recalled three years later, and soon proposed and got established his he had for years been the ittiest and readiest defender. His new policy system of church government. He sought to regulate manners as well as was as popular as his old had been obnoxious; and the Earl of Liverpool system of church government. Hesought. to regulate manners as well. as being seized with paralysis, Canning reached, in' April, 1827, the grand faith, and rigorously censured and punished all who resisted his authority. being seized with paralysis, Canning ead April, 1827, the grand He applied himself also to reform the civil government; established an object of his ambition-that of being head of the administration. But "the metrop- though the new premier was popular with the country, the party with academy; fostered *iterature and science, and made Geneva which he had in a great measure ceased to act rendered his task a difficult olis of the reformed faith." His personal character was spotless, but austere; his labors as pastor. lecturer on theology, councillor, author, and one. The opposition to him was fierce, almost rancorous; and it was soon correspondent were immense and incessant. The terrible rigor of his obvious that he was suffering, both in mind and body, fiom over-exertion and constant excitement. These, aggravating the effects of a severe cold, ecclesiastical rule was most strikingly shown in his treatment of Servetus,excitement These, aggravating the effects of a severe cold who for his theological opinions was burnt at Geneva in 1553. The great caught while attending the funeral of the Duke of York, brought on an inflammatory disease, which terminated his life at the age of 57, August 8th, distinguishing features of Calvinism are the doctrines of absolute predes-,,..of the spiritual presence only in the Eucharist, and the indepen-.1827. As an orator he has rarely been excelled for finished elegance and tinati of the spirita prsn non in the Eucha ris, and t ind 1 * 1 classical taste, pouring forth his eloquence in a persuasive, impassioned, dence of the church. John Knox was the friend of Calvin, and introduced and fearless tone or in a happy vein of caustic irony demolishing the his.ystem.n Scotla.. and fearless tone, or in a happy vein of caustic irony demolishing the his system in Scotland. arguments of his opponents. That he was ambitious of place and power, Camoens, (?-1579,) the celebrated Portuguese poet. He joined the army, and that during his political career he made some sacrifices of principle and fought against the Moors. Indignant at receiving no recompense on to expediency, no one will deny; but, as a statesman, his great aim was his return, he went to India, and there took part in several military expe- to uphold the honor of his country, and to pursue a liberal line of policy ditions, enjoying also the opportunities thus afforded of a larger acquaint- at home and abroad. ance with nature; and in 1569 he returned to Portugal. After ten years of neglect and want, he died in a hospital at Lisbon, in 1579. His great poem Canute, (?-1035,) the Dane, King of England, was the son and successor of is the " Lusiad," in which he celebrates the principal persons and events of Sweyn, king of Denmark, with whom he invaded England in 1013. The Po-rtuguese history. The Lusiadhas been translated into English by Mickle. next year, on the death of Sweyn, he was chosen king by the fleet. He Poigs hsoyThLsidsbentasaeinoEgihyMik. CAR CAX 51 contested the kingdom with Edmund Ironsides, and on his death became (Carthage.) Although not the earliest settlement of the Phocenicians in sole king, and, to strengthen his title, married Emma, widow of Ethelred these regions, it soon outstripped its neighbors, and even the motherland, II. His rule, at first severe, was afterward mild and just. He several through the incomparable advantages of its situation and the energetic times visited Denmark; made a pilgrimage to Rome in 1027; founded or activity of its inhabitants. It was not far from the mouth of the Bagradas, restored religious houses, and established just laws. which flows through the richest corn district of northern Africa, and was placed on a fertile rising ground, falling off in a gentle slope toward the Capet. See HuGH CAPET. plain, and terminating toward the sea in a seagirt promontory. Lying in Carausius, (?-294), a native of Gaul, who had the command of a Roman the heart of the great North-African roadstead, the Gulf of Tunis, at the fleet against the Franks and Saxons in 286, and who, the same year, sus- very spot where that beautiful basin affords the best anchorage for vessels pected of treachery, crossed over to Britain, and assumed the title of em- of larger size, and where drinkable spring-water is got close by the shore, peror. He defeated Maximian, and was acknowledged associate in the. the place proved singularly favorable for agriculture and commerce. empire. He held his ground in Britain till 294, when he was murdered He was first Cassiodorus, (468-570,) a Roman statesman and historian. He was first minister to Theodoric the Great and his successor in the Ostrogothic kingCardinals, College of. A cardinal is one of the 70 ecclesiastical princes dom. He founded a monastery at Viviers, and when seventy years of age who constitute the Pope's council, from among whom and by the votes of he retired to it, and there lived thirty years. His writings are valuable, whom the Pope is elected. The cardinals were originally the parish priests especially his Twelve Books of Epistles, or rather state papers, on account of Rome, and played a very subordinate part in a papal election; for the of the light they throw on the manners of his time. Pope was originally elected by the whole of the clergy of the diocese of Cato, Marcus Porcius, (B. c. 234149,) surnamed the Censor an illustrious Rome, the turbulent barons, and the populace. Pope Nicholas II. sum- and at the early age of seventeen he Roman. He was born at Tusculum, and at the early age of seventeen he tnoned, in April, 1059, a council in Rome, (the second Lateran Council.) I51 > >. > 1 1 1 1 j 1 1. 1 ~~commenced his career as a soldier, and distinguished himself equally by The first decree of this assembly vested the actual election of a Pope solely his courage and his temperance. After some years passed in rural retirein the higher clergy, (the cardinals.) With the cardinal bishops was the he was made military tribune in Sicily, and then qu ment, he was made military tribune in Sicily, and then quaestor in Africa, initiative; the assent of the cardinal priests and deacons was first required, under Scipio. In 195 he served as prretor in Sardinia. In these situathen that of the laity, and finally that of the emperor. Besides this, it tions his conduct was marked by a rigid and honorable economy of the established a kind of prerogative right in the Roman clergy to the pontipublic money; and, in his fortieth year, he arrived at the high dignity of ficate: only in default of a fit person within that church was a stranger to t o H o t ary e the consulship. He obtained important military successes in Spain and be admitted to the honor. Rome was to be the place of election; but even He strongly opposed the e y tt or *y m f e p l Greece, and in 1814 had the office of censor. He strongly opposed the Rome, by tumult or by contumacy, might forfeit her privilege. Wherever Rome, byrtumult ore asbylcontum, might was forfeitmherprivilege. Wherluxury of the Romans, and incessantly endeavored to animate their hatred.the cardinals were assembled, there was Rome. of the Carthaginians by speeches in the senate, usually concluding with Carthage, (800 B. c.) Of all the Phoenician settlements, none obtained a " Carthage must fall." He composed many works; but the treatise "De more rapid and secure prosperity than those which were established by the Re Rustica," and some fragments of Roman history, are all that we know Syrians and'Sidonians on the south coast of Spain and the north coast of of his writings. Africa. Among the numerous and flourishing Plhcenician cities along Caxton, William, (? - 1491,) the earliest English printer, was a native of these shores, the most prominent by far was the "new town," IKarthada, He was taken into the Ient, and settled in the Low Countries at Bruges. He was taken into the. i 52 CHA CHA suite of Margaret of York, wife of the duke of Burgundy. While residing in Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, (742-814,) King of the Franks, and Flanders, he acquired a knowledge of the art of printing from Colard Man- Emperor of the West, was the eldest son of Pepin the Short, and grandson sion, the first printer of Bruges, and translated and printed in that country of Charles Martel. He succeeded his father, with his brother Carloman, the " Recuyell of the Historyes of Troyes." Returning to England in 1476, in 768, and on the -death of Carloman, three years later, became sole monhe setup a press in Westminster Abbey; and in 1477 issued the " Dictes and arch. SIn 772 Charles began his wars with the Saxons, which occupied Sayings," the first book printed in England. In the practice of the new him year by year till 803. They were pagans, and he sought to convert art, Caxton enjoyed the patronage of the kings Edward IV., Richard III., them as well as conquer them. He treated them alternately with great and Henry VII. Died, 1491. A very learned and valuable work on the mildness and savage cruelty, beheading on one occasion above 4,000 of Life and Typography of William Caxton, in 2 vols., 4to, by W. Blades, them. Their most famous leaders were Witikind and Alboin. During appeared in 1861-63. these thirty years of war, Charles had also to fight the Lombards, Huns, SSaracens, &c. He made an end to the Lombard kingdom, and assumed the crown himself. In 800 Charles was crowned at Rome Emperor of the Cervantes, (1547-1616,) a celebrated Spanish novelist. He gave early| West, by Pope Leo III., and received the title of Augustus. His empire promise of literary_ talent, and received a careful education, studying at extended from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, and from the Atlantic the universities of Alcala arnd Salamanca. He entered the army, and took and the Ebro, in Spain, to the Raab and the mouth of the Oder. Clarlea distinguished part inthe famous battle of Lepanto, where he was thrice magne was great not only as a conqueror, but as a legislator, and a prowounded, and lost the use of his left arm. After this, he joined the troops moter of science and literature. He entertained scholars at his court, at Naples, but in 1575 he was taken prisoner by a corsair, and remained founded monasteries, churches, and schools, and obtained the praise of in slavery at Algiers five years. When he was at length ransomed,he statesmen, churchmen, and men of letters. We have a trustworthy account again served as a soldier for several years, and then settled at Madrid, of this great man in Eginhardt's "Vita Caroli Magni." married, removed to Seville in 1588, and published in the course of ten Charles Martel, (685-741), Duke of Austrasia, was a son of Pepin of Heryears about thirty dramas; but though he showed great genius, he was stal. He is one of the greatest heroes in early French history. He won not so successful as his rival Lope de Vega, and he was driven to various a great and memorable victory over the Saracens in 732, near Tours, dehard shifts to earn a livelihood. Ultimately he abandoned dramatic com- stroying their army and slaying their king, Abderrhaman. In 735 he made position for prose romance, and in 1605 appeared-the first part of that himself master of Aquitaine and Gascony. He tool Avignon from the extraordinary work which has immortalized his name- " "Don Quixote-" |Saracens, gained another great victory over them near Narbonne, and with Cervantes had in view, by this work, to reform the taste and opinions of the aid of Luitprand, king of the Lombards, besieged them in that town. his countrymen. He wished to ridicule the silly romances then so popu- 0 Charles had never taken the title of king, but only that of mayor of the lar in Spain, poor, unnatural, exaggerated imitations of the earlier romances palace; but at his death he divided his dominions like a king, between his of chivalry, and which were exerting a very mischievous influence. The sons Carloman and Pepin. Shortly before his death he received two nunwork was, at first, coldly received, but it soon met with applause, several ios from Pope GregoryIII. the first that were sent to France. Charles editions were called for within the first year after its appearance, and it acquired the surname Martel (Hammer) from his victory over the Saracens became one of the most popular works that was ever written. It was near Tours. speedily translated, and became a classic in most European languages. Charles of Orleans, (1391-1465.) Loui, Duke of Orleans, and uncle to King Chaldean Empire. See Appendix, page 170. Charles VI., was assassinated in 1407, by John the Fearless, duke of Bur CHA CHA 53 gundy. The eldest son, Charles of Orleans, married the daughter of the even entered into negotiations with the king of Bohemia, who undertook count of Armagnac, who became the chief of the Orleanist party, called to assist him to the empire after the death of Frederick III. It was with after him the Armagnacs. An army of ferocious Gascons marched to these views that he had bought Guelderland and Zutphen from Duke Paris, defended by the Burgundians. A frightful war commenced between Arnold. In order to obtain the investiture of them from the emperor, the party of Armagnac and that of Burgundy. Both sides appealed to Charles invited him to an interview at Treves. His plans seem now to the English, and sold France to them. The Burgundians were obliged to have settled in the revival of the ancient Burgundian kingdom. The chief submit in 1415, in which year the treaty of Arras suspended the war, but inducement held out to the emperor to grant him the crown was a marnot the executions and the ravages. Henry V., king of England, took riage between Frederick's son Maximilian, and Charl.es's only daughter advantage of these dissensions, invaded France, and conquered the French Mary. Charles, sure of success, had made all the preparations for his army at Azincourt. (See this.) There were no more than 1,500 prisoners, c.oronation. But two days before the time appointed for it, Emperor Fred-. the conquerors having killed all that gave a sign of life. Among the erick, whose suspicious temper had been roused by Charles's refusal that prisoners was Charles of Orleans, whose captivity lasted almost as long as Maximilian and Mary should be betrothed previously to the coronation, his life. As long as the English believed that he had a chance of the suddenly left Troves. The duke remained duke as before. But he soon throne, they would not take ransom for him. Confined at first in Windsor forgot this disappointment and plunged himself into a new undertaking. Castle, he was soon imprisoned at Pomfret. Here he passed 25 years, hon- The Austrian possessions in the Upper Elzass and Suabia had been mortorably treated, but severely. But, for all the English could do, a ray from gaged by their duke, Sigismund, to him. The tyranny exercised by Charles's the sun of France ever shone upon this Pomfret Castle. The most thor- governor, Hagenbach, made the inhabitants try their utmost to pay off the oughly French songs that we possess were written there by Charles of mortgage, in order to return to the allegiance of their own duke. StrassOrleans, who, so long encaged, sang the better for it. His poems are burg supplied the duke of Austria with the money to redeem these possesperhaps somewhat weak, but they are never bitter, never vulgar, f1il of sions. But Charles refused to take it and ordered Hagenbach to resist; good will to all, gracious and amiable. His gentle gayety never goes beyond but he was seized, tried, and executed, (May, 1474.) Charles avenged his a smile, and this smile sits near the fount of tears. governor by ravaging Elzass, which called upon the Swiss for aid and protection. The aid was promised, and Charles received in November the Charles the Bold, (14.3-1477,) the famous Duke of Burgundy. His great- solemn defiance of the Swiss, and almost at the same time he was apprised grandfather, Philip the Bold, the youngest son of King John of France, of their having gained a bloody victory over his troops at H6ricourt, received in 1361 the duchy of Burgundy. He married, in 1369, Marga- (Nov. 13th 1474.) This was the beginning of the Burgundian War. CharlPs reta, heiress of Flanders, Artois, and Franche-Comte. By this marriage led upward of 20,000 troops over the Jura in February, 1476, and extended it was hoped that France would absorb Flanders, and that the two nations his forces toward the Lake of Neufchatel. Here he took Granson, the garbeing united under one government, their interests would gradually be- rison of which he caused to be hanged. This atrocity only served to come one. It did not turn out so. The Flemish interests turned the scale: inflame the national pride of the Swiss. They soon took revenge in the interests hostile to France —alliance with England, at first commercial, battle which the duke suffered himself to be compelled to fight in a narthen political. Philip the Bold was the founder of the Burgundian power: row defile, where his superiority of numbers was of no avail. His army his three successors were, John the Fearless, died 1419; Philip the Good, took to flight, and his camp fell into the hands of the victors, (March, 1476.) died 1467; Charles the Bold; died 1477. (See GENEALOGY, VIII.) The This victory of Granson acquired a great military reputation for the Swiss. mind of Charles the Bold at first floated among uncertain schemes: he But they did not use their advantage skilfully. They neglected to occupy thought of a kingdom of Belgic Gaul, a kingdom of Burgundy, and he the passes leading into the Pays de Vaud, and Charles penetrated through 54 CHA CHA them to Lausanne. From thence he marched against the town of Morat, the famous Petition of Right, to which the king most reluctantly, and which was so valiantly defended that the Swiss army had time to come to indeed insincerely, gave his assent. After the murder of Buckingham, the its relief. The Burgundian army is said to have been twice as strong as chief advisers of the king were Laud, then bishop of London, and Sir the Swiss; yet the latter began the attack, June 22d, and Charles again Thomas Wentworth, afterward earl of Strafford. Ship-money was levied, rashly abandoned an advantageous position to meet them. This time his and the legality of it contested by Hampden. In November, 1640, the memdefeat was bloody, as well as decisive. Mharles himself narrowly escaped orable Long Parliament met, and at once secured itself against dissolution being captured. He sank into a state of the deepest despondency; he except by its own consent. The struggle went on, and at length war was suffered his beard and nails to grow; and his countenance resembled that proclaimed, by the king setting up his standard at Nottingham, in August, of a madman, so that his courtiers and servants feared to approach him. 1642. For some time, however, the royalists were generally successful; but Rene II., who had been deprived by Charles of his inheritance, took advan- the battles of Marston Moor, Newbury, and Naseby were all signally untage of his distress to attempt the recovery of his duchy of Lorraine. favorable to the royal cause. Indeed, after the defeat at Naseby, the king He drove the Burgundians from the open country into the town of Nancy, was so powerless that he took the resolution of throwing himself upon the which he took after a short siege, (October, 1476.) The rage of Charles good feeling of the Scottish army, then lying before Newark; and by that at this news was uncontrollable: though the winter was approaching, he army he was basely sold, and delivered into the hands of the Parliament. resolved immediately to attempt the recovery of Nancy, and he himself For a time he was treated with much outward respect, but he found means joined the besieging army in December. Meanwhile Rene was approach- to make his escape from Hampton Court. On arriving on the coast, he ing to raise the siege with a well-disciplined army, which it was evident could not obtain a vessel to go abroad, but crossed over to the Isle of Wight, Charles's force would be unable to withstand; yet he would listen to no where the governor confined him in Carisbrook Castle. In December, 1648, counsels of retreat. He assaulted the town in the very presence of Rene's it was resolved by the Commons that the king should be tried as guilty of army: the assault was repulsed, and Ren6 then offered him battle, (Janu- treason in making war on his Parliament, and a special High Court of ary 5th, 1487.) It was from the first a hopeless struggle, and Charles Justice was constituted for the occasion. The trial took place in Westordered a retreat toward Luxemburg. The retreat was intercepted, the minster Hall, in January, 1649. The king was condemned to death, and army of Charles broke and fled in all directions, and he himself, urging on the 30th of January beheaded at Whitehall; his last word to Bishop his horse over a half-frozen brook, was immersed, and slain unrecognized. Juxon being a charge to him to admonish Prince Charles to forgive his Thus perished miserably, in the midst of his ambitious dreams, Charles of father's murderers. (See Appendix, page 202.) Burgundy, the Great Duke of the West. See Kirk's "Charles the Bold." Charles V., (I. of Spain,) Emperor of the West, (1500-1558 A. D.) He Charles I., (1600-1649,) King of England. On the death of his father, in was son of the Archduke Philip, of Austria, (who had inherited Burgundy 1625, he ascended the throne, his kingdom being engaged in war with and the Netherlands from his mother Mary,) and Joanna, only child of Spain, and the people much imbittered against his friend and minister, Buck- Ferdinand and Isabella. He succeeded his grandfather Ferdinand as king ingham. From the very first, he found himself in sharp collision with his of Spain, in 1516. On the death of Maximilian I., he was chosen to sucsubjects, his aim being to rule as an absolute monarch, and their aim being ceed him. The period of his reign is one of the most momentous in modto prevent this. Want of supplies on his part, calling of parliaments ern history, and full of great affairs, in which Charles had a large personal to grant them, refusal of supplies, and demand of redress of grievances, share. His rivalry with Francis I. of France, and the wars resulting from are the main elements of the conflicts which filled up the years preceding it; insurrections in Spain and in Flanders; the conflict proceeding in Gerthe outbreak of actual war. The third parliament, called in 1628, passed many and all Europe between the Reformers and the Catholics; the con-,.'. __... _ _ _.,, I S. I,. / CHA CHA quest of Mexico and Peru; expeditions against the Moors, both in Spain so great an effect that the duchess of Marlborough, who had a deadly and Africa -these are the main elements of the story, which it is not pos- hatred to that minister, bequeathed to Mr. Pitt a legacy of ~50,000. In sible even to epitomize here. Wearied with incessant cares and activity, June, 1757, he was appointed secretary of state and virtual prime minister. Charles, in 1555, resigned his hereditary states of the Netherlands to his His great mind now revealed its full force, and his ascendency was comson Philip, in an assembly at Brussels. In the following year he gave up plete over Parliament no less than in the ministry. He aroused the EngSpain, and, a few months after, the imperial dignity. He then returned lish nation to new activity, and in the space of a few years they recovered to Spain, and early in 1557 retired to a monastery in Estremadura. In their superiority over France, annihilating her navy, and stripping her of August, 1558, he is said to have had his own obsequies celebrated; and he her colonies. France was beaten in the four quarters of the world. In died a few weeks later. Charles V. was a man of great intelligence and 1760, he advised the declaration of war against Spain, while she was unsuperior culture, had considerable acquaintance with literature and art, prepared for resistance, as he foresaw that she would assist France. The and patronized those eminent in either. He was ambitious, but humane, elevation of England on the ruins of the house of Bourbon was the great and pursued a temporizing policy in the great religious struggle of his age. object of his policy. But his plans were suddenly interrupted by the death The well-known "History of Charles V.," by Robertson, which first ap- of George II., whose successor was prejudiced against Pitt by his adverpeared in 1769, was republished in 1856, with valuable notes, and a sup- sary, the earl of Bute. Pitt therefore resigned his position in 1761, only plement by Prescott. (See Appendix, pp. 199, 200.) retaining his seat in the House of Commons. Foreseeing the separation Charles XII., (1682-1718,) King of Sweden, son and successor of Charles of the American colonies from the mother country, if the arbitrary measXI., was only fifteen years of age when he ascended the throne in 1697, ures then adopted should be continued, he advocated, especially in 1766, 1and his youth encouraged Russia, Denmark, and Poland to unite against |a conciliatory policy, and the repeal of the stamp act. In the same year him. Denmark being subdued, he attacked Russia, and in the famous he was invited to assist in forming a new ministry, and was created earl of battle of Narva, in 1700, he completely defeated them. Poland next felt Chatham; but in 1768 he resigned, partly because of a serious illness, and his power: he dethroned Augustus, and made Stanislaus king in his stead. partly because he found himself inadequately seconded by his colleagues. Thus far his course had been prosperous; but in seeking utterly to crush In the louse of Lords he continued to recommend the abandonment of Peter the Great, he sustained a terrible defeat at the battle of Pultawa, and the coercive measures employed against America, particularly in 1774; but his warning was rejected, and, in 1776, the colonies declared themselves was himself so severely wounded that he was removed from the field on a litter, and compelled to seek shelter in Turkey. Here his conduct was so independent. He still, however, labored in the cause, and used all his violent that the sultan was compelled to besiege his residence. After des- efforts to induce the government to effect a reconciliation with the American states; and, as he was speaking with his accustomed energy on the perate resistance, Charles was overpowered, and for ten months he was can states; and, as he was speaking with his accustomed energy on the kept a prisoner. as no sooner allowed to return to his own domin- subject in the House of Lords, he fell down in a convulsive fit. He died kept a prisoner. - Hewvas no sooner allowed to return to his own domin- <, ions than he commenced an attack on Norway, and in besieging Frederickshall was killed by a cannon shot, in 1718. Voltaire's "History of Charles Chaucer, Geoffrey, (1328-1400,) is our first great poet, and the true father XII." is a model of clear, precise, and graphic narration - " a line engravof our literature. Compared with his productions, all that precedes is ing on a reduced scale," says Carlyle, " of that Swede and his mad life." of our literature Compared with his productions, all that precedes is barbarism. But what is much more remarkable is, that very little of what Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of, (1708-1778,) one of the most illustrious has followed in the space of nearly five centuries is worthy of being comBritish statesmen, was returned to Parliament in 1734. His talents as an pared with what he has left us. He is in our English poetry almost what orator were soon displayed in opposition to Sir Robert WValpole, and had Homer is in that of Greece, and Dante in that of Italy — at least in his _~~~~~~~~~~~~~iiii,. 56 CHI CHII own sphere still the greatest light. Chaucer lived during the reign of Ed- Spaniards, often with the most disastrous results to the former, and followed ward III. His writings are very voluminous, comprising, in so far as they by burnings and ravages. Chili continued a viceroyalty of Spain till 1810, have come down to us, in verse, " The Canterbury Tales," " The Romaunt when a revolution commenced which terminated in the independence of of the Rose," "Troilus and Creseide," "The House of Fame; " and in prose, the country in 1818. The government is settled and effective: it is a (besides portions of the Canterbury Tales,) a translation of Boethius "De republic, with a president, senate, and chamber of deputies. The capital is Consolatione Philosophire," the "Testament of Love," and a "Treatise on Santiago; the commercial metropolis Valparaiso. the Astrolabe." Chaucer's fame as a writer rests chiefly upon his Canterbur: Tales -the plan of which is this: A company of thirty pilgrims col-he Mantchou in 1644. The present dynasty of lecftat the Tabard Inn in Southwark, bound to the shrine of St. Thomas China are Mantchou Tartars, and are of the Tongoosian race. Their first a Becket, at Canterbury. They resolve to shorten the way by telling tales. connection with China was when the Mongols, in 1332, were driven from Nowhere but in the prologue of the Canterbury Tales have we pictures the throne. Some of the Mongols took, at that time, refuge in the Mantlike those of the men and women over whom the later Plantagenets reigned. chou territory, which gave offence to the Chinese, who by force compelled In the four and twenty tales, we get views of English life in the middle them to sue for peace. The first attack on China by the Mantchou was in ages, the tone of thought which colored social intercourse, and especially 1538, by Tae-tsoo. The Chinese consented to pay 800 oz. of silver annuthe kind of stories which then did the work of the modern novel. Chaucer ally. Tae-tsoo subsequently discovered the Chinese government fomenting sat down in his quiet room at Woodstock, to survey the pilgrim scenes in a rebellion in his kingdom, and in revenge made a vow to extirpate the which he himself had played a part, and selected with an artist's skill those Mongol race. A battle was fought between them in 1593, in which the materials of character and costume which best suited the plan he had Chinese were defeated. Tae-tsoo now proclaimed himself Teen-ming, sketched out for a great national picture of Englishmen painted in Eng- (Heaven's decree,) and made preparations to march to Pekin. He died, howlish words. His characters are images of the Englishmen who were living ever, before his plan could be carried out. He was succeeded by his son in the flesh when the Black Prince won his spurs and Wat Tyler rode with sung-tih, who entitled his dynasty Ta-tsing, (great purity,) and first his rabble into Smithfield. Those who wish the scene in all its full illu- brought troops to the frontiers of Leaoutung, but was confined to that tersion must turn from the bare and borrowed outline to the page of old ritory by a brave Chinese general, Woosan-kwei. A rebellion at this time Chaucer himself, whose pen dropped living colors as he wrote. No student breaking out in China, the general concluded a peace, and invited the of English history can pretend to any real acquaintance with this period Mantchou to aid him. By the aid of the Mantchou the rebels were defeated; who has failed to study the Canterbury Tales. but they, seeing an opportunity of obtaining the throne of China, refused to return home. In the mean time Tsung-tih died, and his nephew was Chili, Independence of, (1818.) Chili extends along the coast of the Pa- proclaimed emperor, under the name of Shun-che, in 1644. No proof is cific from the frontier of Bolivia in the north, to the Strait of Magellan in required of the state of the empire, when a handful of auxiliary troops the south. Its area is 116,043 square miles, and its population 1,676,243, possessed themselves of it, without eventhe trouble of fighting for such which contains a larger proportion of European blood than any other part vast dominions. The first act of the usurpers was to compel the Chinese of South America. The Indians, however, form the majority even here, and to adopt their custom of wearing the hair. In selecting this badge of subare in exclusive possession of all that lies south of the river Biobio. Chili jection nothing could be more galling to the Chinese, as hitherto they originally belonged to the Inca of Peru, from whom it was wrested by never cut an inch of their hair. The terms were banishment or acquiPizarro, who sent Almagro, in 1535, to subdue the country. The contest escence; the consequence was a general revolt, in which the Mantchou was continued for a century and a half between these Indians and the were nearly overpowered; but finally all their foes were either killed or CIC CLA 57 forced to submit, and the Mantchou dynasty was firmly established on the the commonwealth." But his popularity declined very soon after the Chinese throne. expiration of his consulship, and it was chiefly as a lawyer and author that Chosr, (?-628, A.D.) osroes. was the grandson of Cosros., the mighty he for some time afterward exerted his splendid talents. In the struggle Chosr oes, Chosroes H. weSas1e thegrandsond of Cosroes I., the h.e -'a.between Caesar and Pompey, Cicero espoused the cause of the latter; but ruler of the empire of the Sassanidae, which extended from the Medit after the fatal battle of iter-, with ranean to the Indus, and from the Jaxartes to Arabia. A revolution raised him to the throne, and fromve him aain from it. Ia. A roltionse whom he continued to all appearance friendly, until Cxesar fell under the, i. e fled to the Romans, dagger of Brutus. Cicero now took part with Octavius, and pronounced and was restored by the aid of the Emperor Maurice, (591.) A band of a thousad Romans who contind to g d n of the philippics against Antonyv, which at once shortened his life and added.thousandc omans, who continued to guard the person of Chosroes, pro- to his fame. Antony, stung to the quick, insisted upon the death of Cicero, claimed his confidence in the fidelity of the strangers. His growing, claid hs c c in the srn. Hand Octavius basely-consented to the sacrifice. In endeavoring to escape strength enabled him to dismiss this unpopular aid; but he steadily profrom Tusculum, he was overtaken and murdered; and his head and hands fessed the same gratitude to him who had been a friend in need. When were publicly exhibited on the rostrum at Rome. Cicero perished in his Maurice was murdered, Chosroes declared war on the murderers, invaded. 64th year, (B. c. 43.) Of his works, consisting of orations, philosophical, the empire, (603,) took and destroyed many cities, and in the course of a f l ~few vers extended his dominions to the Nile. Coreenydthfuis rhetorical, and moral treatises, and familiar letters, written in the purest few years extended his dominions to the Nile. Chosroes enjoyed the fruits, t'...J.and most perfect Latin, there have been almost innumerable editions. See of his victories with ostentation. His residence of Artemita (60 miles to "Life of Cicero," by W \;illiam Forsyth. the north of Ctesiphon) was celebrated throughout the world. 960 elephants and 2,000 camels were maintained there; the stables were filled Cid, The, (1040-1099,) whose real name was Don Rodrigo Dias de Bivar, the with 6,000 mules and horses; 6,000 guards mounted before the palace national hero of Spain, was born at Burgos. The facts of his career have gate, while 12,000 slaves performed the household duties. Forty thousand been wrapped by his admiring countrymen in such a haze of glorifying columns of silver supported a roof from which were suspended 1,000 globes myths, that it is scarcely possible to detect them. His life, however, apof gold, to imitate the motions of the planets and the constellations of the pears to have been entirely spent in fierce warfare with the Moors, then zodiac. But this prosperity was followed by reverses. In the great battle masters of a great part of Spain. His exploits are set forth in a special of Nineveh, (627,) Chosroes was totally defeated by Heraclius. I-e fled, chronicle, and in a poem of considerable interest, written not long after but was overtaken, and finally murdered by his own son. his death. The story of his love for Ximena is the subject of Corneille's masterpiece, " Le Cid." His last achievement was the capture of ValenChrvsostome. See ST. CHRYSOSTOME. cia, where he died, in 1099. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, (B. c. 106-B. c. 43,) the prince of Roman orators. Civil War in England. See Appendix, page 202. At the age of 26 he commenced practice as a pleader. He rose rapidly in his profession, and the qu.estorship in Sicily was bestowed upon him. In Claudius Tiberius Drusus, (B. C. 9-A. D. 54,) Roman Emperor. After this office he made himself very popular, and henceforth his course was all spending fifty years of his life in a private station, unhonored, and but prosperous, until he attained, B. c. 63, the great object of his ambition — little known, he was, on the murder of Caligula, his nephew, A. D. 41, prothe consulship. The conspiracies of Catiline made Cicero's consular duty claimed emperor by the soldiers, and confirmed in the sovereignty by the as difficult and dangerous as his performance of it was able and honorable; senate. At first he performed some praiseworthy acts, but he soon became and he scarcely, if at all, exaggerated his services to Rome when he said contemptible for his debauchery and voluptuousness. During the first that to his conduct "alone was owing the salvation of both the city and part of his reign he was completely under the influence of his third wife, 8 58 CLI CLU the infamous Messalina, who, for her vices and crimes, was at last put to health, he returned to India, and was]shortly called upon to march to Caldeath. Claudius died of poison administered by his fourth wife, Agrip- cutta, of which the nabob Surajah Dowlah had taken possession. He was pina, A. D. 54. Claudius visited Britain two years after his succession, and again successful; and perceiving that there could be no permanent peace made it a Roman province. He built the port of Ostia, and the Claudian obtained until the nabob was dethroned, he made the necessary arrangeAqueduct, and executed other great works. I ments, and in the famous battle of Plassey put the nabob completely to the rout, and established the power of the English more firmly than it chosen speaker. He was a warm advocate of the war with Great Britain, to extend the British territory, and consolidate the English power in India, -Clay, Henry, (1777-1852) a distinguished American statesman. Clay was. and throughout that crisis susta beinen readison's war measuresof Calcutt withClive performed great elected to fill an unexpired term in the United States Senate, in December, n.h servicen any othe comm and mer. But the lar; n conse weahiclth he had acquired during 1806zeal. In 1814 he was sent to Ghent as one of the commiRepreseioners atives, and was tiate the trear.ty of peace with Great Britain dvocae the war with Great ta.to extend wthe sBrtish territory, and hiconsolidate the Egsh in India, again sent to Congress in 1815, and was elected speaker measuresing two con- but it hurt his mind so deeply, that he committed suicide in 1774. Thegreat secutive therms. During the year 1818 he achieved great distinction o f th zeal. In 1814 he was sent to Ghenet as one of the commissioners to nego-e ~~~~~~~~hishis advocacy of the claims of the South American republics to the recog-ain the House nitionte of their indepen. dence by the United States. In 1824, Clay was a candidate for the presidency; and Adams, being chosen residen, tendered of Commons of having abused his power. The charge fell to the grouscended again sent to Congf seretary of state, which he accepted, and retained till from a race of Germn chieftains who had established themselves in the States Senate, and in 1832 was again a candidate for the presidency, but He was the son of Childeric, and succeeded him in 481. The first enemy was defeated by General Jackson. During the ear 1818 he achsession of 1833, wheton ythe he attacked wa Syagriu, the Roman general and governor of that part Tariff question was agitating the nation, he brought forward his celebrated of Gaul still independent ofare the theme of obarbarians, whosf the mscapital was Soissayons. of his advCompromise Bill, which passed bo o the outh Amhouses, rican republicstored quietto teo the yagrius was vanuishe, (486,) and this victory secured the permanencerecogcountry. In 1844 he was for the third time a candidate for the presidency, Cand independence of t he French monarchy. It was, above all, as chief of but was defeated by Polk. In December, 1849, he again took his seat in the religious party and defender of the national faith that he offered himthe Senate, where he remaineduntil 18again51, when the encroahmentsof dbuis- self to the natve tribes nd Catholic clergy of Gauin 481. He restored the eas defeaobliged him to tender his resignation. tis last service as senatorwas shaken authority of the Church from the shores of the Atlantic to the in 1850, when he originated theseries of measures known as the Copro- forests of Germany. ome, grateful to Clovbarbarians, decreed hcapim tal glwas oissous Comprise, which rescued the Union from one of its greatest dangers. A long the title of "Elder Son of the Church," and he transmitted it to all his supermanencecareer of 46 years.identified him with much of the history of the Ameri- ceIsors. can nation, and though he was never president, few presidents could hoperench monarchy. butfor greater digniefeated by Polk. In December, 1849, he again took his seat in the religious party and defender ofin the department of the haone offand oiremthe Setuatedwhere he10 miles N.851 when the enMacon,ts on the river Grosne.. Here was the famous Clive, Robligert, (1725-17en der his resignation. His last serv ic e as senator was shaken aufthoritder of St. Benedict. Infrom the Benedictine abbeys, the second in 1850employm whent for the army, anated was raised to the serirankf lieutenant-colonel Benedit hd commenced anew era of disipline andecreed mortificatin. Cluny in the king's service. fter a sUniort stay in England for the benefit of his displayed this marvellous inward force, this reconstructing, reorganizing, employment for the army, and was raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel Benedict had commenced a new era of discipline and mortification. Cluny in the king's service. After a short stay in England for the benefit of his { displayed this marvellous inward force, this reconstructing, reorganizing, COL CON 59 reanimating energy of monasticism. It furnished the line of German worship, not without tears, on the promised new land, on the 12th of Ocpontiffs to the papacy; it trained Hildebrand (see Gregory VII.) for the tober, 1492. papal throne, and placed him upon it. Comines, Philippe de, (1447-1511,) a great French historian. His "MiColbert, Jean Baptiste, (1619-1683,) a celebrated French statesman, to moires " present a very vivid and authentic portraiture of the court of Louis whose talents, activity, and enlarged views, France owed much of her XI., and of the principal events and general character of the age in which financial and commercial prosperity. Mazarin took him into his service, he lived. and his conduct recommended him to the king as intendant of the finances. He was made, soon after, comptroller-general of the finances. Commodus Lucius Aurelius, (161-192,) Roman Emperor, was the son of Subsequently he became superintendent of buildings, secretary of state, the wise and virtuous Marcus Aurelius. He was most carefully educated, and, in 1669, minister of the marine; and in every capacity he acted so and accompanied his father on several military expeditions. He sucas to obtain the approbation of the king. To literature and the arts he ceeded him in 180 A. D., and after a short period of orderly government he constantly gave encouragement: he instituted the Academy of Sciences, dismissed his wisest counsellors, and gave himself up to the lowest society and that of Sculpture and Painting; and it was at his recommendation and the most shameless habits. The administration was in the hands of a that the Royal Observatory was erected. To him, too, Paris owed the series of his favorites, and confiscations and murders were the ordinary erection of many noble buildings; and, if a less brilliant minister than occurrences of the day. He went so far in defiance of decency as to fight some of his predecessors, he conferred more substantial benefits upon his in the circus as a gladiator, and then gave himself out for a god, and country than most of them. would be worshipped as Hercules. He was at last poisoned by a concubine, whom he intended to put to death; and then strangled by an athlete, Columbus, (1435-1506.) Christopher Columbus was born near Genoa, A. D. 192. The vices and misgovernment of Commodus contributed powabout 1435. At fourteen he went to sea. After many voyages and adven- erfully to hasten the fall of the empire. tures, he settled, about 1470, at Lisbon, which was then the great centre of maritime enterprise. There, as he pored over his maps, a grand idea Cond6, (1621-1686,) called the Great. His first achievement was the vicbegan to take definite shape within his brain. He believed that it was tory over the Spanish army at Rocroi, in 1643. After taking Dunkirk in possible to reach Asia by sailing westerly across the Atlantic; and his soul 1646, Cond6 was, through envy, sent into Catalonia, where, with inferior kindled within him as he felt that he was the man chosen by Heaven to troops, success forsook him. It was necessary soon to recall him to Flancarry the light of the cross into a new world beyond the western waves. ders, where he won the victory of Sens over the Archduke Leopold in After vainly seeking aid from Genoa, Portugal, and England, he at length 1648. Having offended the first minister, Cardinal Mazarin, he was imobtained an introduction to Queen Isabella of Castile, and induced her to prisoned more than a year, and after his liberation he led the army of the equip three vessels for a voyage of discovery. He set sail from Palos on Fronde, began the siege of Paris, and encountered Turenne and the royalthe 2d of August, 1492; and after sailing for two months, was in imminent ists in the Faubourg St. Antoine. Soon after, he entered the service of danger of losing the reward of all his study and toil, the variation of the Spain, and contended with varying success against his countrymen in needle having so much alarmed his men that they were on the point of Flanders. After the Peace of the Pyrenees, he returned to Paris, and was breaking into open mutiny. He was obliged to promise that if three days employed in the conquest of Franche-Comt6. His last great exploit was produced no discovery he would commence his homeward voyage. On the the victory over William, Prince of Orange, (William III.,) at Senef, in third day they hove in sight of land, (Guanahani.) Columbus had the 1674. Martyr to the gout, he retired in the following year to his charming sweetest reward of his faith and enthusiasm, when he bent his knees in seat at Chantilly, enjoying there the society of some of the most eminent i i I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 60 CON COR men of letters; among them, Racine, Boileau, and Moliere. There is a life Constantinople. But though his actions on the whole entitled him to the of the great Conde by Lord Mahon. (See GENEALOGY, VII.) surname of "The Great," many acts of cruelty, and, above all, the murder of his son Crispus, have left a stain upon his character, both as a man Congress, first American. The British ministry imposed, in 1767, on the and a sovereign. Constantine died at Nicomedia in May,337, having people of North America, a duty on tea, glass, and other articles. This n been baptized only a few days before. His empire was divided between act aroused the people, and they adopted measures for resisting the king his three sons, Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. (See POPE SYLand Parliament. In February, 1768, Massachusetts sent a circular to the VESTER.) colonies, asking their co-operation in obtaining a redress of grievances. There was a cordial response favorable to the circular from nearly every Cook, Captain James, (1728-1779,) the celebrated English navigator colony; and by common consent it was ordered that a congress of delegates After various and arduous services, he was at length raised to the rank of from all the colonies should be called together. On the 5th of September, lieutenant; and then commenced that series of voyages round the world, 1774, the First American Congress met at Carpenter's IHall, Philadelphia. the details of which form one of the most popular and delightful books Fifty-three delegates appeared, the ablest men in America, representing in our language Captain Cook embarked on his first voyage as comevery colony but Georgia. It was a solemn meeting, for it involved the mander of the Endeavor, in August, 1768, reached New Holland (Ausdestiny of America. There was but one voice in the assembly, one feeling tralia) in 1770, and arrived in England in 1771. He set out on a — never to submit. A petition was addressed to the king, whose infatuated third voyage, discovered the Sandwich Islands, explored the western coast course was flinging the brightest jewel from his crown; an appeal was of North America, and then made further discoveries in the Pacific. In made to the people of Great Britain, but preparation for the worst was spite of the utmost prudence and humanity, he was involved in a dispute not forgotten. with the natives of Owyhee, and, while endeavoring to reach his boats, was savagely murdered on St. Valentine's day, 1779. Constantine the Great, (272-337,) Roman Emperor. After defeating the Franks, he married Fausta, the daughter of Maximian, but he was soon Copernicus, Nicholas, (1'473-1543,) the celebrated mathematician and involved in a war with his father-in-law, who assumed the title of emperor. founder of the modern system of astronomy. He studied the various sysThe usurper's reign was brief; and, on his being taken prisoner, Constan- tems of the ancient astronomers, compared them with each other, and aptine caused him to be strangled. This involved him in a war with Max- plied himself to the construction of a system at once more simple and more entius, son of Maximian, in which the latter was defeated, and drowned symmetrical. The fruits of his researches appeared in his Latin treatise in the Tiber. It was during this war that the emperor saw a luminous " On the Revolution of the Celestial Orbs," in which he represented the cross in the heavens, with the inscription, "In hoc signo vinces," (Under sun as occupying a centre round which the earth and the other planets this sign thou shalt conquer.) He accordingly caused a new standard to revolve. His great work remained in MS. for thirteen years after he had be made, surmounted by the monogram of the name of Christ; marched completed it, so diffident was he as to the reception it might meet with; to Rome in triumph; and was declared by the senate Augustus and Pon- and it was only a few hours before his death that a printed copy was pretifex Maximus, (High Priest.) In the following year the edict to stay the sented to him, giving him assurance that his opinions would see the light, persecution of the Christians was published at Nicomedia. Constantine though he would be beyond the reach of censure and persecution. became, in 325, sole head of the Eastern and Western Empires, and his first Corneille, Pierre, (1606-1684,) the greatest of French dramatic poets. His care was the establishment of peace and order. He displayed great courage first dramatic piece was " Melite," a comedy, which met with such distinand love of justice, and professed an ardent zeal for the Christian religion. guished success that he was encouraged to devote his rare powers to the He made Byzantium the seat of empire, naming it anew, after himself, drama. The tragedies of "Medea," "The Cid," "The oratii," and 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~daa h rgeiso Mda""h i, TeHrti"m CRA CRO 61 "Cinna," followed, and established for their author a pre-eminent station promoted the sentence of divorce. This and other compliances with the among French dramatists. He wrote many other tragedies, and trans- royal will insured him the support of Henry in all his contests with lated in verse Thomas i Kempis' "On the Imitation of Jesus Christ." Bishop Gardiner and others, who accused him of heresy and faction. By He again turned to the drama, but his last works were unworthy of his Henry's will he was appointed one of the council of regency to Edward name. VI.; and, as the young king was brought up chiefly under the archbishop's care, it enabled him to further the objects of the Reformation. When Cortez, Fernando, (1485-1554,) the conqueror of Mexico. In 1511, he Edward was prevailed on to alter the succession in favor of Lady Jane went with Velasquez to Cuba, and the conquest of Mexico being deter- Grey, the archbishop unwillingly consented. On the accession of Mary, mined upon, Cortez obtained the command of the expedition. In 1518, he was committed to the Tower, and convicted of high treason for his he set sail with 700 men in ten vessels; and on landing at Tabasco, he share in the proclamation of Lady Jane. Pardoned soon. after, he was caused his vessels to be burned, in order that his soldiers might have no then convicted of heresy. He made many applit>.9#4.for pardon, and other resource than their own valor. Having conquered the Tlascalans, even signed a recantation of his principles. Biut -;n Cranmer was and induced them to become his allies, he marched toward Mexico, where brought into church to read his recantation in public, herefused to do it, he was amicably received; but having seized their monarch, Montezuma, declaring that nothing could afford him consolation but the prospect of and treated the people with the utmost insolence, the Mexicans first mur- extenuating his guilt by encountering the fiery torments which awaited inured, and then resisted. Cortez besieged the city of Mexico; and in the him. This greatly enraged his adversaries, who, after vilifying him as a desperate struggle which ensued, it is said that upward of 100,000 of the hypocrite and heretic, dragged him to the stake opposite Baliol College, faithful and unfortunate Mexicans were killed or perished by famine. (Oxford.) The archbishop approached it with a cheerful countenance, Having reduced the city, Cortez completely conquered the Mexican terri- and met his death with the utmost fortitude, exclaiming, as he thrust tory, and made it a Spanish dependency. his right hand into the flames, "This unworthy hand! this unworthy Cranmer, Thomas, (1489-1556,) Archbishop of Canterbury, and memorable and! for the part he took in the Reformation. The opinion which he gave on Cromwell, Oliver, (1599-1658,) Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of the question of Henry VIII.'s divorce from his first wife, Catherine of England, and one of the most extraordinary characters in history. His Aragon, recommended him to the king, who employed him to vindicate first appearance on the political arena was in the Parliament of 1629. In the measure, and sent him, in 1530, with other envoys, to maintain his view his parliamentary career he was remarkable rather for his business-like before the Pope, Clement VII. He took with him the opinions which had habits and energy of character than for elegance of language or gracefulbeen obtained from the foreign universities in favor of the same view. ness of delivery. He, notwithstanding, acquired considerable influence; His mission was fruitless. After his return, he was raised by a papal bull and, in 1642, when it was resolved to levy forces to oppose the king, Cromto the archbishopric of Canterbury, in which office he zealously promoted well received a commission. He soon distinguished himself by his courage the cause of the Reformation. Through his influence the Bible was trans- and military skill, especially at the battle of Marston Moor, in 1644, and lated and read in churches; and he greatly aided in the suppression of soon after won the decisive victory of Naseby, (1645.) In August, 1649, the monasteries. A few weeks after his appointment he pronounced, in a he was named " Lord Lieutenant and Commander-in-chief in Ireland," and court held at Dunstable, the sentence of divorce of Catherine of Aragon, subdued it. In consequence of the expected return of Prince Charles to and confirmed the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn. In 1536, when Scotland, Cromwell was recalled. He was appointed lord general, and Anne Boleyn was destined to lose her reputation and her life, Cranmer set out for Scotland. On the 3d of September, 1650, the great battle of 62 CRU CYR Dunbar was fought, and the Scots were totally defeated. Charles having But, after a brief success, he allowed himself to be surrounded by his marched into England, Cromwell followed him, and on the 3d of Septem- opponents in the flooded valley of the Nile; and the campaign ended in ber, 1651, won the decisive battle of Worcester. Cromwell took up his the capture of the whole crusading army. (See CRUSADES, Appendix, residence at Hampton Court in the following month, and by the "instru- page 196.) ment of government" he was created "Lord Protector." He showed himhentofgovernrated urdeProtaen.dn He d g r Culloden, Battle of, (April 16th, 1746.) Entire defeat of the Stuarts. In self equal to the hard task he Phad undertaken, making England greater self equal to the ha.rd task he. 1745 a last effort was made by the friends of the Stuarts. Prince Charles and more honored than ever. At last, care, anxiety, and growing perplexities. wore. him. ou' h' b e g y an s; Edward, the son of the "OId Pretender," landed in Scotland. The Highrties wore him out; he became gloomy and suspicious; was overwhelmed landers flocked around him. The city of Edinburgh, with the exception by sorrow at the death of his favorite daughter, (Lady Claypole;) fell sick, landers flocked around him The city of Edinburgh, with the exception of the castle, was taken. Time however was lost while Charles kept his and died about a month after her, on the anniversary of his two victories of (September 3d, 1658.) court at Edinburgh, and an opportunity was afforded of recalling the EngDunbar and Worcester, (September 3d, 1658.) lish troops from the continent. When, at length, the prince entered EngCrusades, (1096-1273 A. D.) They were military expeditions undertaken by land, the Jacobites of the north hesitated to join him. At the head of the Christian powers for the recovery of the Holy Land from the Moham- less than 6,000 men he advanced as far as Derby; but at this important medans. The real Crusades were only three in number, and lasted hardly moment dissensions arose among his followers, and he was compelled to a century, (1096-1193 A. D.) After that time their real spirit was dead retire. Although threatened by two armies, the prince succeeded in reachand gone. The war itself did not therefore end directly, but continued for ing Scotland, and defeated the royal troops at Falkirk. Forced, however, nearly another century, with various intermissions. We may designate to retreat, by the approach of the duke of Cumberland, he was pursued the Crusades as the foreign policy of the Papal Supremacy. So long as aS far as Inverness, near which town, on the plain of Culloden, his troops the throne of the Vatican predominated over and led the temporal powers were totally routed. The rebellion was cruelly punished, and for five of Europe, the occupants of that throne strove to direct the forces of that months Charles Edward wandered among the mountains, until he suchemisphere upon the Syrian coast. But after the end of the 12th century, ceeded in embarking for France, where he landed September 29th, 1746. the Popes here experienced only failures or results contrary to their wishes. Cyril See ST CYRIL. A large army of pilgrims slipped from the grasp of the most powerful of all the Popes, Innocent III., and, in the pay of the republic of Venice, Cyrus, (550.) The monarchy of the Persians acquired, about 550 B. C., an conquered, in 1204, Constantinople, and founded the Latin Empire; but unexampled extent of power in the countries of Western Asia. Cyrus, the only lasting gain was an enormous extension of Venetian commerce. descended from an ancient family of Persian princes, had united several The most dangerous enemy the papacy ever had, the Emperor Frederick empires under his sway. Babylon fell during the silence of the night, as II., sailed to Syria, pursued by the excommunication of Pope Gregory IX.; Daniel and Xenophon agree in relating, into the power of the Persians. The and while the clergy of Palestine shut their churches in his face, he obtained last of the Babylonian kings became soon afterward a captive, after his for the Christians, by a masterly stroke of diplomatic policy, the possession allies and vassal kings, as far as the Hellespont, had been subdued by of the holy places; but he was forced to return home before he could com- many victories. Cyrus governed his conquests with wisdom and moderaplete the negotiation, in order to defend his kingdom of Naples against tion. He is the prince whom the prophets of Israel celebrate. He is the an attack from the papal troops, (1228 A. D.) Twenty years later, the king meant in the very remarkable prophecy relating to the destruction Church once more beheld a Crusade after its own heart, when St. Louis, of Babylon and the restoration of the Jews, in Isaiah xliv. and xlv. In order burning with holy ardor, led a French army against the sultan of Egypt. to lessen the too great population of the newly conquered city, he sent DAN DAR 63 back the Jews from Babylon into their native country. Cyrus appears tomb in his honor at Pasargadoe, the spot of his first victory. In its immeto have fought unsuccessfully against the hordes who wandered over the diate neighborhood the city of Persepolis grew up. The tomb of Cyrus region to the northeast of the Caspian Sea. It ended in his death in battle. has perished, but numberless monuments in the neighborhood have preThe Persians remembered their hero as a father, and erected a splendid served his name..D. Damiani, Pietro, (988-1072,) Cardinal, Bishop of Ostia, the great reformer vision sets forth the mysteries of the invisible world, of Hell, Purgatory, of the 11th century, who, by his word and example, strove to bring and Paradise. It is the first great work of modern European literature, back the Church to its pristine purity. He rendered important service to and stands alone as a creation of genius; "a mystic, unfathomable song," several popes, and was created cardinal, against his will, in 1057. His greatest always to the greatest. It has passed through innumerable ediinfluence was very powerful, and he induced Benedict X., who was irre- tions, and has been translated over and over again into all European langularly elected Pope, to resign in favor of Nicholas It. He supported guages. Of English translations Cary's, in blank verse, and Dr. Carlyle's, Alexander II. against the emperor, and then retired, resigning his digni- in prose, are much esteemed. One of the most important additions to our ties. He was, however, several times drawn from his cell and sent on im- Dante literature is Dr. Barlow's " Critical, Historical, and Philosophical portant missions to France, to Germany, and finally to Ravenna, to re- Contributions to the Study of the Divina Commedia," published in 1864. establish order after the excommunication of the archbishop. The fatigue of this mission was too much for his diminished strength, and he died atg Darius. Morality and manners were low in the land of Iran during the reign Faenza soon after his return, in 1072. His works consist of biographies of Cambyses, and men missed the arm of the ruler. This state of things of saints, sermons, and letters. was seized upon by the Median party, which had remained powerful in Iran. It declared the throne of Cyrus vacant, and caused a Median, Dante, Alighieri, (1265-1321,) the great poet of Italy. When about ten years who resembled the murdered Bartya, to be proclaimed as the younger son of age, he first saw, in the house of her father, Folco Portinari, the Beatrice of Cyrus. About the same time Cambyses died, and this greatly contribwhose beauty and goodness inspired him with a passion of admiring love, uted to strengthen the Median tenure of the throne. While the nations which became one of the most potent elements of his inner life, and the source believed themselves ruled by a son of the great Cyrus, the Medians had of some of the sublimest and sweetest conceptions of his great poem. Bea- despoiled his race of the sovereignty and removed the seat of the imperial trice died in 1290; and she then became to him a glorified ideal of wisdom government back to Media. The noble clans of the Persian nation, howand purity. In 1300 he was chosen chief magistrate of Florence, and from ever, were not prepared to allow their right to the crown to be thus easily that period began his misfortunes and wanderings. Being banished from taken away frbm them. The heads of their seven clans met to consult. his country by the opposite faction, he found, after many wanderings, an They were by birth the equals of one another, but, by his near relationship asylum at Ravenna, and there he died, in 1321. Florence and all Italy then to Cyrus, the first among them was indubitably Hystaspes, the head of the knew and mourned their loss. A splendid monument was erected to him younger line of the Achoemenidre. He was already advanced in age, and at Ravenna, and copies of his works were multiplied, professorships insti- accordingly resigned his own position in favor of his son Darius. This tuted for expounding them, and voluminous commentaries written. Dan- Darius succeeded in accomplishing the second foundation of the Persian te's great poem is entitled the "Divine Comedy," and in the form of a monarchy, which was no less glorious than the first. The party of the Medians 64 DAYV DEC was surprised and annihilated in their Median castle, and their empire the most glorious period of Hebrew literature. The Psalms are the finest destroyed; but a succession of arduous struggles was needed to restore flowers of Hebrew poetry. They are the outpourings from a heart under unity to the whole empire. After about five years Darius could look upon the influence of lofty inspiration. They are designed, not for the amusehis victory as complete, and erect a grand monument in memory of it on ment of the idle, but for the necessities of the soul which is suffering the high road from Babylon to Susa. The monument of Bagistana is of under the pressure of affliction. great significance for Greek as well as for Asiatic history. It marks the Decian Persecution. The Decian persecution which broke out in A.D. return to the old policy of the Achaemenidoe which could not leave the ecian Persecution. The Decian Persecution, which broke out in A. D. return to the old policy of the Abchemenidme, which could not leave the 249, is the first example of a deliberate attempt, supported by the whole subjection of the Greeks, begun by Cyrus, a work half done. The triumph machinery of provincial government, and extended over the entire surface of Darius announced the approaching struggle between Hellenes and of the empire, to extirpate Christianity from the world. It would be diffibarbarians, or, as had now come to be the settled distinction, between Asia cult to find language too strong to paint its horrors. The ferocious instincts and Europe. It broke out 16 years after the erection of the monument, of the populace, that were long repressed, burst out anew, and they were (500 B. c.) (See " Expedition of Darius," " Ionian Revolt," " Persian His- not only permitted, but encouraged by the rulers. Far worse than the deaths tory," Appendix, pages 172, 173.) which menaced those who shrank from the idolatrous sacrifices were the hideous and prolonged tortures by which the magistrates thought to subDavid, (about 1000 B. c.) After the Hebrew nation had obtained possession due the constancy of the martyr. The Decian persecution was adorned due the constancy of the martyr. The Decian persecution was adorned of Palestine, they showed, by a striking example, how difficult it is for men by many examples of extreme courage and devotion, displayed in not a to adhere to simplicity and truth. The Hebrews had not sufficient wisdom few cases by those who were physically among the frailest of mankind. and fortitude to adhere to the faith of the patriarchs. When the conse- Horrible tortures were continually employed to extort an apostasy and quences of these defections were experienced, illustrious champions arose,those tortures proved vain, great numbers were ultimately released. when'those tortures proved vain, great numbers were ultimately released. who delivered Israel from bondage; but their exploits produced a transient The Decian persecution is remarkable in Christian archaeology as being effect, which perished with those who achieved them. The nation, seeking the first occasion in which the Christian catacombs were violated. These the cause of their misfortunes, not in themselves, but in the imperfection vast subterranean corridors, lined with tombs and expanding very freof their government, resolved at length to choose for themselves kings. of their government, resolved at length to ose for themselves kin quently into small chapels adorned with paintings, often of no mean beauty, The second of their monarchs, David, full of energy in the pursuit both had for a long period been an inviolable asylum in seasons of persecution. of good and. evil, was magnanimous enough to acknowledge his errors; The extreme sanctity which the Romans were accustomed to attach to the and, combining with exalted virtues and great talents a fine genius for p place of burial repelled the profane, and as early, it is said, as the very poetical composition, and a soul endowed with noble sentiments, he gained beginning of the third centry, the catacombs were recognized as legal an illustrious name in the catalogue of heroes and sages. David possessed.,. t u f hten o ypossessions of the Church; and, as a last resort, the catacombs prov;ed a all the country from the Euphrates to the confines of Egypt. He con- refge from the persecutors The reign of Des only lasted aout two and made Jerusalem a splendid refuge from the persecutors. The reign of Decius only lasted about two eluded an alliance with the Pheenicians, and made Jerusalem a splendid years, and before its close the persecution had almost ceased. capital. - The Mosaic institutions obtained through him a more expressive moral interpretation. The exalted soul of David foresaw a happier age, Declaration ofIndependence. The Virginia Legislature had recommended when a more lasting and glorious throne should be raised on the founda- Congress to declare the colonies absolved from their allegiance to the tions of Israel. The faith of the people looked for their champion from crown. On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, moved his house, for it was seen that everything prospered in his hands — that that "these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and indeGod waswavh him. His own age and that of his son Solomon comprise pendent states." Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger..... i i.i __ ~ _ i - k _i,._ ~,, DEM1) DE 65 Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston were appointed a committee to draft become one of the leading statesmen of Athens, and from that time the a Declaration of Independence. Jefferson, as chairman, prepared the im- history of his life is closely mixed up with that of his country; for there portant document. It was reported to Congress, and discussed several is no question affecting the public good in which he did not take the most days. Mr. Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, stated his objections in a last active part, and support with all the power of his oratory what he conspeech of much force, which, fortunately, however, failed to convince his sidered right and beneficent to the state. He was the only person who hearers. It was finally adopted, at two o'clock on the 4th of July, 1776. had the honesty and the courage openly to express his opinions, and to call upon the Greeks to unite their strength against the common foe, Defoe, Daniel, (1663-1731,) a celebrated political and miscellaneous writer, Philip of Macedon. His patriotic feelings and convictions against Maceauthor of "robinson Crusoe." He took an eager interest in politics, and donian aggrandizement are the groundwork of his Philippics, a series of began his career as an author at the age of nineteen. His attempts at the most splendid and spirited orations. His career as a statesman received business were unsuccessful, and he gave himself up entirely to political I its greatest lustre from these oratorical powers. The obstacles which his authorship. His health being seriously injured by harassing political warfare physical constitution threw in his way, when he commenced his career, and persecutions, he found it necessary to choose a less exciting employ- were so great that a less courageous and persevering man than Demosment for his pen, and during the latter years of his life he published the thenes would at once have been intimidated, and entirely shrunk from the works of fiction by which he is now best known. "Robinson Crusoe" arduous career of a public orator. Those early difficulties with which be appeared in 1719, and obtained immediately the popularity which it has had to contend, led him to bestow more care upon the composition of his never lost. This famous book had been preceded by the " Family Instruc- orations than he would otherwise have done, and produced in the end, if tor," and "Religious Courtship," and was followed by the " Adventures of not the impossibility of speaking extempore, at least the habit of never Captain Singleton,". ".Fortunes of Moll Flanders," "History of the Plague," venturing upon it; for he never spoke without preparation, and he someand a host of other works. One of his most successful books was " The times even declined speaking when called upon in the assembly to do so, True-born Englishman,"~ which appeared in 1701, and procured him an merely because he was not prepaared for it. The ancients state that there audience of William III. existed sixty-five orations of Demosthenes, but of these only sixty have Democritus, (460-357 B. c.) One of the most celebrated Greek philosophers, come down to us under his name. was born at Abdera. After having travelled through Egypt, Chaldxna, De Vega. See VEGA. and other Easteru countries, he returned to Abdera, and devoted himself De Vinci. SeeVINcI. wholly to philosophical studies. His grand axiom was that the greatest good consists in a tranquil mind. He has been called " the laughing phi- De Vinea. See VINEA. losopher," (in contrast to the weeping Heraclitus,) which epithet probably De Witt, John, (1625-1672.) A distinguished statesman, who after 1653 originated in his practice of humorously exposing the absurdities of his D e W oIn, ( 1 A ditinguise statesma of 1653 countrymen whose stupdity was proverbial.directed the councils of the Dutch Republic. At the time of his election, countrymen, wvhose stupidity was proverbuial, he was only twenty-five years of age, but he had already displayed all the Demosthenes, (385-322 B. c.) In Athens lived, about 350 B. c., the orator best qualities of a statesman. Although public feeling at that time was Demosthenes, whom nature seems to have bestowed upon the Greeks in very much inflamed against England, De Witt did not hesitate to stem the order to foretell all the calamities with which their neglect of the common popular current, and to conclude, in 1654, a peace with Cromwell, one artigood and corruption of their principles and manners could not fail to over- cle of which excluded the House of Orange from the supreme magistracy whelm them. They heard him as the Trojans heard Cassandra. He had (the stadtholdership) of the republic. Four years later he procured the 9 66 DIO DIR passing of the "perpetual edict," by which the office of stadtholder was for east and the west, he made Maximian his associate, assigning to him the ever abolished. Every city was governed by its own magistracy, and the charge of the west. A further division was afterward made by the creaaffairs of the whole community were administered by the States-General. -tion of two Cmesars, Constantius Chlorus, and Galerius, four emperors The manners of the people were republican. John de Witt, the grand- thus reigning at one time. War was almost continually going on, but pensionary of Holland, who had the chief influence in the commonwealth, Diocletian seldom took any personal share in it. In the latter part of his lived like a private citizen, attended by only a single servant. The admiral reign he was induced to sanction a cruel persecution of the Christians, De Ruyter, one of the greatest naval heroes of that time, was never seen whom he had long protected. In 305 Diocletian abdicated the imperial in a carriage; but was observed, on returning from a naval victory, to carry dignity, and retired to his native country. his own carpet-bag from the vessel to his home. Notwithstanding all this moderation, the affairs of the republic were not prosperously conducted; Diogenes, Laertius, (200 A. D.,) a Greek historian, who wrote the "Lives because, in the appointment to public offices, more regard was paid to the of the Philosophers," in ten books, an immethodical and uncritical work, families than to the qualifications of the candidates. The military spirit valuable, as such books often are, for the fragments they contain of earlier was lost in the pursuits of commerce, and nothing remained of the ancient writings which have perished. He is supposed to have lived in the second victories but the bare remembrance of them; by which Holland was so century. dazzled that it ventured to offend even Louis XIV. And when, in consequence of this, it was invaded by Louis in 1672, with an army of more Directory, The, (Oct. 27th, 1795-Dec. 15th, 1799.) Three different Assemthan 80,000 men, it was found so entirely unprepared, that within four blies ruled France since the beginning of the great Revolution in 1789: weeks the country was in the possession of the French. The blame of all this I. The Constituent National Assembly, 1789-1791; II. The Legislative fell upon John de Witt, the leading statesman of the commonwealth. His Assembly, 1791-1792; III. The National Convention, 1792-1795. This policy had brought the commonwealth to the verge of destruction, and he last assembly, so fatally memorable in French history, broke up on the had to pay for it with his life. Both John and his brother Cornelis were 26th of October, after a continuous session of three years and two months. most barbarously murdered by the populace at the Hague, (August 20th, It had finished its task of preparing a constitution for France. This con1672.) Thus miserably perished the noble John de Witt, who had swayed stitution placed the legislative power in two councils, that of the Five the councils of the Dutch Republic during a period of twenty years, with Hundred, and that of the Ancients; while the executive power was inhonest and single-minded patriotism, if not, in the last eventful crisis, trusted to a Directory of five members. It re-established the two degrees with a wise and successful policy; while his brother Cornelis had sus- of election, and made it necessary for a man to possess a certain amount tained its honor upon the seas with bravery and reputation. Their murder of property before he could become a member either of the primary or may not be directly imputable to the Prince of Orange, (who was now electoral assemblies. The initiative in the proposal of laws was given to raised to the chief magistracy of the republic;) but he, at least, accepted the Five Hundred; and the power of either passing or rejecting them it, and made himself an accessory after the fact, by protecting and reward- resided in the Council of the Ancients. The first consisted of five huning the assassins, dred members, who were thirty years old at least, and the second of two hundred and fifty, who were over forty years of age. The five Directors Diocletianus, (245-313,) Roman Emperor. He entered the Roman army, were chosen by the two councils. Each of the Directors was president for distinguished himself during several reigns, and was elected emperor by three months, during which he possessed the seals. Each year the Directhe soldiers, on the death of Numerian, 284. Two years later, to strengthen tory was renewed by a new member. It had a guard, and was lodged in himself against the numerous enemies threatening the empire both in the l the Palace of the Luxembourg. The chief glory of this Directory was hmef.................... DRY PUT 67 that derived from the brilliant successes of Bonaparte in Italy. (See NA- ~200 per annum. In 1681 he commenced his career of political satire; POLEON.) and at the express desire of Charles II. composed his famous poem of Domitianus, Titus Flavius, (51-96) Roman Emperor, the second son of " Absalom and Achitophel." At the accession of James II., iDryden became a Roman Catholic, and, like most converts, endeavored to defend his new esaanthlsotb nA.d a faith at the expense of the old one, in a poem called " The Hind and the ceeded his brother Titus in 81. He was proffligate, cruel, and maignant; P Z7~~~~ Pa~~Pnther, which was ridiculed by Prior and Montague, in the " Country and though at his accession he made some show of justice, he was soon M a hoth feared and hated for his tyranny. Wars were carried on in his reign hiso and durin th ten concudin ycar of all Iris official emoluments; and du~ri.-ao the ten concluding years of his in Britain, in' Germany, and in Dacia, but, except in Britain, unsuccess- l fully. Agricola, who achieved the conquest of Great Britain in this reign, excited the jealousy of Domitian, and was recalled to Rome. He was in pieces of which our language can boast. His translation of Virgil, which continual dread of conspirators, and at length fell by the hands of an alone would be sufficient to immortalize his memory, appeared in 1697, and. soon after, that masterpiece of lyric poetry, "Alexander's Feast," his assassin, in thle 45th year of his age. " Fables,"1 etc. The freedom, grace, strength, and melody of his versificaDost Mohammed. See MOHAMmED. tion have never been surpassed; and in satire he stands unrivalled; but as Drake, Sir Francis, (1545-1596,) an eminent navigoator and commander. a dramatic writer he does not excel. He sailed, in 1577, to attack the Spaniards in the South Seas. In this Dschingis, Khan. See GErNGIS-KHAN. expedition he ravaged the Spanish settlements, explored the North American coast as far as 480 north latitude, and gave the name of New Albion Duilius, C., was Consul in B. c. 260. In that year the coast of Italy was repeatedly ravaged by the Carthaginians, against whom the lromans could to the country he had discovered. He then went to the East Indies, and, The Romans then built havi- duble th Cap ofGoodHop, r-15unedto Pvniuth n 18. do notlhing, as they were yet without a navy.TeRoastnbul havin0 doubled the Cape of Good Hope, returned to Pl~ymouth in 1580). their first fleet of one hundred ships, using for their models a Carthaginian In 1587 he commanded a fleet of 30 sail, with which he entered the harbor vessel which had been thrown on the coast of Italy. Duilius obtained the of Cadiz and other Spanish ports, and destroyed an immense number of command of this fleet; who, perceiving the disadvantages under which the ships whichid were preparing for the great attack on Engrland; and in the clumsy ships of the Romans were laboring, invented the grappling-irons, folloWing year he commanded as vice-admiral under Lord Howard, and by means of which the enemy's ships were drawn toward his, so that the had h-lis share in ~the destruction of the Spanish armada. sea-fight was, as it were, changed into a land-fight. When Duilius was Dryden, John, (1631-1700,) one of the most celebrated English poets. In informed that the Carthaginians were ravaging the coast of Myle in Sicily, 1657 he came to London, and acted as secretary to his relation, Sir Gilbert he sailed thither with his whole armament. The battle which ensued off Pickering, who was one of Cromwell's council, and, on the death of the Myle, and near the Liparian Islands, ended in a glorious victory of the Protector, he wrote his well-known stanzas on'that event. At the Resto- Romans, which they mainly owed to their grappling-irons. On his return rtion, however, he greeted Charles II. with a poem, entitled " Astrama to Rome, Duilius celebrated a splendid triumph, for it was the first naval Redux," which was quickly followed by a panegyric on the coronation, victory that they had ever gained, and the memory of it was perpetuated and from that time his love for the royal house of Stuart appears to have by a column which was erected in the Forum, and adorned with the beaks known no decay. In 1667 he published his " Annus Mirabilis," (see this;) of the conquered ships. Rome had suddenly become a naval power, and and his reputation, both as a poet and a royalist, being now established, he held in her hands the means of energetically terminating a war which was appointed poet-laureate and historiographer royal, with a salary of threatened to be endlessly prolonged, and to involve the commerce of Italy 68 EDI EDWl in ruin. The Roman fleet, with its unwielding grandeur, was the noblest office which he also held under Charles V. Diirer was very celebrated as creation of genius in this war, and, as in 269, its beginning, so at its close, an engraver both on wood and metal; he also invented, or far surpassed it was the fleet that turned the scale in favor of Rome. (See FIRST PUNIC others in etching. Among his best paintings are " Christian Martyrs in WAR, Appendix, page 187.) Persia," "Adoration of the Holy Trinity," "St. John and St. Peter," "St. Paul and St. Mark," and several portraits. Diirer, Albert, (1471-1528,) the greatest of the early German painters and engravers. He was appointed painter to the Emperor Maximilian I., an I Dutch William. See WILLIAM III.. Edlict of Nantes, (1598-1685 A. D.) Henry IV., the first of the Bourbon I the gallows; while their ministers were broken alive. A hundred thoukings of France, issued, in 1598, the celebrated Edict of Nantes, which sand industrious families escaped from France; and the foreign nations, fixed the rights of the Protestants in France. This edict granted to the which received them with open arms, became enriched by their industry, Protestants the exercise of their religion; it certified to them admission at the expense of their native country. to all employments, established in each parliament a chamber composed of magistrates of each religion, tolerated the general assemblies of the Edward III., (1312-1377,) King of England, eldest son of Edward II., sucreformers, authorizing them to raise taxes among themselves for the wants ceeded to the throne, on the deposition of his father, in 1327, and three of their Church; lastly, it indemnified their ministers and granted them years later assumed the government. In 1333, Edward invaded Scotland, places of safety, the principal of which was La Rochelle. The Protestants which had been nominally subjected to England by Edward Baliol; bewere compelled to pay tithes, and to observe the holy days of the Catholic sieged Berwick, and defeated the regent at Halidon Hill. The greater Church. The Edict of Nantes, registered by the parliaments after long war with France soon withdrew his attention from Scotland. He assumed resistance, put an end to the disastrous wars which for thirty-six years had I the title of king of France, (see GENEALOGY, III.,) in the right of his desolated the kingdom. It was revoked in 1685 by Louis XIV. This re- mother Isabella, and invaded the country. In 1346, he won the great vievocation interdicted, throughout the whole kingdom, the exercise of the tory of Crecy, and took Calais (see this) in 1347. In 1356, Edward, the reformed religion, ordered all its ministers to leave the kingdom within a Black Prince, invaded France, and gained the victory of Poitiers, taking fortnight, and enjoined parents and tutors to bring up the children in their the French king and his son prisoners. The king was released after' four care in the Catholic religion. Emigration on the part of the Protestants years, on the conclusion of the peace of Bretigny, in which France, slowly was prohibited under pain of the galleys and confiscation of property; but surely, regained her ascendency, so that the only places left to the Catholic preachers traversed the towns peopledby Protestants, and in the English in France, in 1374 A. D., were Calais, Bayonne, and Bordeaux. places where these missionaries were unable to effect conversions, the secu- The long wars of Edward III., though almost fruitless of practical result, lar arm was called in to effect them by force. Frequently, before the issue appear to have been popular; and his numerous parliaments granted of this decree, dragoons had been sent to obstinate Protestants with per- liberal supplies for carrying them on, gaining in return confirmations of mission to act toward them with every imaginable license, until they had I the Great and other charters, and many valuable concessions. His victobecome converted. Innumerable and atrocious acts of violence were com- | ries raised the spirit and also the fame of his country, and with the evident mitted against them, those who resisted being condemned to the gibbet or military power of England grew also her commerce and manufactures. ELE ENG 69 Edward, (1330-1376,) Prince of Wales, surnamed the Black Prince, son of Elijah the Tishbite has been well entitled "the grandest and the most Edward III. Accompanying his father to France, in 1346, he took a leading romantic character that Israel ever produced." Certainly there is no perpart in gaining the victory of Crecy; and ten years later he crowned his sonage in the Old Testament whose career is more vividly portrayed, or military career in the great battle of Poitiers, when he took King John and who exercises on us a more remarkable fascination. His rare, sudden, and his son prisoners, and distinguished himself as much by his courtesy to his brief appearance; his undaunted courage and fiery zeal; the brilliancy of captives as he had in the field by his valor. Soon after he was created by his triumphs, the pathos of his despondency, the glory of his departure, and his father prince of Aquitaine. Bordeaux then became the seat of his gov- the calm beauty of his reappearance on the Mount of Transfiguration, ernment. In 1367 he went to the assistance of Pedro the Cruel, king of throw such a halo of brightness around him as is equalled by none of his Castile, who had been dethroned by his brother, Henry of Trastamare. compeers in the sacred story. How deep was the impression which he The latter was defeated, and Pedro re-established, but only for a short made on the mind of the nation may be judged of from the fixed belief time. Prince Edward was soon after involved in disputes with his sub- which many centuries after prevailed that Elijah would again appear, for jects, which occasioned the renewal of war between France and England, the relief and restoration of his country. What it had grown to at the in which England lost nearly all her French possessions. He died aged time of our Lord's birth, and how continually the great prophet was present forty-five. to the expectations of the people, is patent on every page of the Gospels. Eginhard, a celebrated historian of the ninth century. He was a pupil of Elijah has been canonized in both the Greek and Latin churches. Among Alcuin, and entered the service of Charlemagne as secretary or chancellor. the Greeks, He was also made superintendent of the emperor's buildings, and continued spicuOus summit in Greece is called by his name. In the Mohammedan to hold his offices under Louis the Pious. About 816 he retired to a traditions, Elijah is said to have drunk of the fountain of life, "by virtue monastery, and some years later converted his own house into an abbey. of which he still lives, and will live to the day of judgment." The PerHe died about 850. Eginhard left an important and very valuable histo- sian sofis are said to trace themselves back to Elijah. rical work, "The Life of the Most Glorious Emperor Charles the Great," (C ha rl em. a, ) I English Revolution of 1688, by which William and Mary were raised to (Charlemagne.) We have also his "Annals of the Kings of the Franks (Cha rlemagn.) hnav also h1i l"Annas of the ingst Franks the throne of England, which had become vacant by the flight of James from 741-829," and a collection of letters of great interest and value.. II. William III., stadtholder of the Netherlands, and prince of Orange, Egypt. See Appendix, page 169. himselfthe grandson, through his mother, of Charles I., (see GENEALOGY I.,) had married Mary, the eldest daughter of James. In the absence of a male Elagabalus, (205-222,) Roman Emperor. Early made a priest of the sun, heir to the throne, William had long looked forward to the probable acquiworshipped under the name of Elagabalus, he was afterward known by sition of the English crown by right of his wife, as the solution of the that name. He was proclaimed emperor in Syria in 218, and received the existing troubles. The birth of a prince of Wales, June 10th, 1688, pretitle of M. Aurelius Antoninus. He arrived at Rome in the following sented an obstacle to the attainment of this object; and, while publicly year; abandoned himself to the grossest profligacy, superstitions, and pro- congratulating his father-in-law on the birth of a son, William instructed digality; and, after four years, was massacred with his mother by the his envoy in England to foment the growing discontent. Carefully conpr~etorians, and his hbody was dragged through the city and thrown into |cealing his projects till they were ready to be executed, William made his the Tiber. His cousin, Alexander Severus, whom he had adopted and preparations. James, though warned by Louis XIV.,for some time refused made Coesar, succeeded him. to distrust the intentions of his son-in-law, and even when the alliance of Elector, (the Great.) See FREDERICK WILLIAM. Louis was offered it was declined. The object of William, however, could 70 EPA ERA not long be concealed. Open disaffection broke out in London, and James had not been able to conquer them by his superior strategy. At Leuctra sought too late to regain by concessions the confidence of his subjects. (371) fell the flower of the Spartan youth, and they lost forever the prize After publishing a declaration of the reasons of his conduct, William sailed of the Peloponnesian war - the sovereignty of Greece. A second victory from Holland, and landed at Torbay, (5th November.) With 15,000 men at Mantinea (362) established the fame of Epaminondas forever, and comhe marched to Exeter. At first few joined him, and he even thought of pleted the ruin of the Spartan power. The Theban general finished his abandoning his enterprise; but the defection from the royal cause of Lord career by an heroic death. On that account this day was calamitous even Churchill and other officers emboldened him to proceed. Plymouth was to those whom it crowned with victory. No general ever before arranged placed in his hands by its governor, the earl of Bath. Deserted at this the order of battle on principles so scientific, or carried the art of war to juncture by his children and courtiers, James, who had lately returned from such perfection. Epaminondas was, moreover, a noble and virtuous citizen, the headquarters of the army at Salisbury, attempted to leave England magnanimous toward his ungrateful country, modest and mild in character, in disguise, throwing the Great Seal in the water as he passed over the warm in friendship, a lover of philosophy, and a most accomplished man. Thames. Interrupted in his flight at Feversham, he was brought again to the capital, which he entered amid acclamations. The first act of the | Epicurus, (B. C. 342-B. C. 270,) Greek philosopher, founder of the Epicurean prince under these circumstances was to arrest Lord Feversham, who was school, about B. c. 306 settled at Athens, and, in a garden which he bought sent with proposals for a conference; his next, to take possession of the there, opened his school of philosophy. The fundamental doctrine of palace of Whitehall. James was in a few hours ordered to leave London, Epicurus in morals is that pleasure is the sovereign good. He taught that and was escorted by Dutch troops to iRochester. After four days, he |this must be sought by the aid of reason, that prudence is the first of again resolved on flight, and left for France, where he arrived on Christ- virtues, and that moral excellence is only of value as conducing to pleasmas day. The e-king died at St. Germnains, 16th September, 170u1. ure. He denied the immortality of the soul, and asserted the existence of the gods, their perfect repose, and their indifference to human affairs. Epaminondas. After the humiliation of Athens, the Spartans were the Although his system too easily lent itself to the justification of a sensual absolute masters of Greece. But it was soon discovered that, instead of life, Epicurus obtained the praise even of his adversaries for the simple, the freedom promised by them, only another empire had been established; pure, and manly life he himself led. The great poem of Lucretius, "De and the many oppressions which the allies had to undergo were rendered Rerum Natura," is an exposition of the system of this philosopher. still more intolerable by the overweening pride and harshness of the Spartan Erasmus, Desiderius, one of the most eminent scholars of his age, was commanders. During the general depression caused by the harsh conduct born at Rotterdam, 1467. When he was only 14 years old he was left an of Sparta, Epaminondas arose at Thebes, which is the chief town of Bceotia, orphan, and the heir of a moderate fortune. The guardians, desiring to situated in a fruitful plain at the foot of Mount Cithmeron. In the confi- appropriate it to themselves, endeavored to force him into a convent. He dence of peace, a Spartan general, by a bold stratagem, had gained pos- was obliged to yield. This misfortune did not check Erasmus's intellecsession of the Theban citadel. The seizure was declared unjust at Sparta, tual growth. He taught himself Greek, when Greek was the language but nevertheless Sparta had continued to keep it in possession. The most which, in the opinion of the monks, only the devil spoke in the bad place. resolute citizens of Thebes, who denounced this outrage, were exiled from His Latin was as polished as Cicero's; and at length the archbishop of the town. These exiles, led by Pelopidas, had the good fortune to deliver Cambray heard of him, and sent him to the university of Paris. Here he their country from the Spartans. From that moment the Thebans sought made the acquaintance of two English noblemen, who carried him over to to destroy the abused power of haughty Sparta. They would not have England, and introduced him at the court of Henry VII. At once his attained this object by the numerical force of their armies, if Epaminondas fortune was made. Money flowed in upon him, and the great Wolsey ESP EUR 71 himself recognized and welcomed the rising star of literature. Shortly a crisis. General Espartero was dismissed, and insurrections broke out in after, when the brilliant Leo succeeded to the tiara, Erasmus was invited Madrid, Barcelona, and Saragossa; but he took no part in the quarrels to visit him at Rome, and become another star in the constellation which made in his name, and again lost one of the most brilliant positions that surrounded the papal throne. He was now in the zenith of his greatness. fortune or military prestige could offer. The breadth of his culture, his clear understanding, and the worldly mode- Euclid, the celebrated mathematician, flourished at Alexandria, about B. c. ration of his temper, seemed to qualify him above all living men to con- 300. He immortalized his name by his books on geometry, in which he duct a temperate reform; and he resolved to devote the remainder of his digested all the propositions of the eminent geometricians who preceded life to the introduction of a higher tone in the mind of the clergy. During him, Thales, Pythagoras, and others. Ptolemy became his pupil, and his the latter part of his life he lived chiefly in Basel, where he vigorously school was so famous that Alexandria continued for ages the great resort continuedhisliterarylabors, and prepared his edition of the Nevw Testament, of mathematicians. His "Elements" have been translated into most and his celebrated "Colloquia," which latter gave such offence to the languages. They have held their ground for 2000 years as the basis of monks that they used to say, " Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched." geometrical instruction wherever the light of science has reached. Erasmus died in 1536. Eugbne, Frangois, (1663-1736,) of Savoy, known as Prince EugBne, a disEratosthenes, (240 B. c.), next to Aristotle the most illustrious of Greek tinguished military commander. He was intended for the Church; but his scholars, was especially distinguished as the first and greatest critical inves- predilection for a military life was so strong, that, on being refused a tigator of Egyptian antiquity. His researches were undertaken by com- regiment in the French army, he entered the service of the emperor, as a mand of the king, consequently with every advantage that royal patronage volunteer against the Turks; and his bravery attracting notice, he was soon could procure for the investigation from the Egyptian priests. We are appointed to the command of a regiment of dragoons. He was afterward indebted to Georgius Syncellus, Vice-Patriarch of Constantinople, (800 placed at the head of the army of Hungary; and so highly did Louis XIV. A. D.,) for the preservation of his labors, though only in the form of a think of his abilities that he offered him a marshal's staff, a pension, and miserable epitome containing a list of kings. the government of Champagne; but these he indignantly refused. He Espartero, Don Baldomero, Duke of Victory, Marshal, and at one time was the companion in arms of the great duke of Marlborough, and parI ] en. 1. a.. arm ^ 1 * ticipated in the victories of Blenheim, Oudenarde, etc. He routed the Regent of Spain, was born at Granada, in 1792. The youngest of the nine ticipated in the victories of Blenheim, Oudenarde, etc. He routed the children of a cartwright, he was intended for the priesthood; but in Turks at Peterwardein in 1716, and compelled Belgrade to surrender, after children of a cartwright, he was intended for the priesthood; but ien, 1808, when the French invaded Spain, he enrolled himself as a volunteer. flicting on them another ruinous defeat. After the peace i 1718, he Upon the expulsion of Napoleon from Spain, he joined General Morillo in retired to private life, and spent his time in cultivating and patronizing the South American colonies. He returned to Spain, and in 1833, when the arts, till he was again, in 1733, called into the field as commander on Ferdinand VII. died, took a decided part in favor of his daughter, Isabella the Rhine. He died, aged seventy-two, in 1736. II.; and in 1841 became regent of Spain, and governed the country with Euripides, born in the midst of war's alarms, (on the day of the battle of a fair share of success. In 1843, he was compelled to retire. But in 1854, Salamis,) knew nothing about them until they were over, and the ordinary Queen Isabella commissioned him to resume the direction of affairs, in tone of thought and feeling had resumed its sway. Philosophical speculaconjunction with General O'Donnell; but his government encountered tion occupied his mind more than the inspiration of natural glory. He great difficulties in the corruption of the court and of the administrative lowered the character of tragedy from the stately heights of 2E schylus and departmnents, in the hostility of the clergy, and. the fickleness of its own Sophocles. But this abatement of the lofty bearing of tragedy brought it professed supporters. At length, in the summer of 1856, matters came to more within the common apprehension; and so it has happened that 72 EUR EVA more of his pieces have come down to us than of both the others together. reform party produced the most fearful convulsions. Europe was thus Several of his characters are among the first of poetical creations, especially once more given up to every species of danger, until, in accordance with "Medea" and "Alcestis." Euripides lived on the confines of two great the inflexible law of history, anarchy produced masters, who called the periods. He was able to destroy the ancient tragedy, but unable to create nations to order by the voice of the cannon's mouth. (App., pp. 219-224.) the modern. He was the first and chief apostle of that new cosmopolitan humanity which broke up the old Attic national life, and the more the old Eusebius Pamphili (264340), ecclesiastical historian. In the persecuHellas gave place to the new Hellenism, the more the fame and influence tion by Diocletian, he assisted the suffering Christians by his exhortations, particularly his friend Pamphilus, whose name, out of veneration, he of the poet increased; and Greek life abroad, in Egypt as well as in Rome, particularly his friend Pamphilus, ose name, of veneration, he was directly or indirectly m d by assumed. Eusebius was chosen bishop of Csesarea, about 315. He was was directly or indirectly moulded by Euripides. the friend of Arius, but nevertheless assisted at the Council of Nice. The European Revolution of 1848. The attempts of Louis Philippe to render Emperor Constantine had a particular esteem for him, and showed hvim himself independent of the French nation, and the closeness of his political many tokens of favor. He wrote an " Ecclesiastical History," the " Life connection with the absolute European powers, had rendered it impossible | of Constantine," etc. An English translation of the Ecclesiastical History for him to obtain a majority in the Chambers except by bribery; and as forms part of Bohn's Library. this could only be effected as long as the number of electors was limited, Evangelical Union. The German Protestant princes had, in 1603, entered he resisted, with his usual obstinacy, every proposal for the extension of into an alliance at Heidelberg to protect themselves from the innovathe franchise. This policy disgusted all who looked to a reformed system tions daily made by.Austria and Bavaria, and convened an assembly at of election as the only means of improving the administration, and greatly Ahausen. Here the elector palatine, Frederick IV., and Christian of increased the numbers of the moderate republican party. An order of the Anhalt, who had summoned the meeting, were met by Joachim Ernest and government for the suppression of reform dinners, and an attempt to pre- Christian, the two margraves of Brandenburg-Anspach and Brandenvent the holding of a reform banquet at Paris, provoked the opposition burg-Culmbach, together with the count palatine, Philip Louis of Neuparty to impeach the cabinet. The motion was carried in the Chamber of burg, and the duke John Frederick of Wurtemberg; and they formed, Deputies, and the Guizot administration was dismissed on the 23d of Feb- for a period of ten years, a defensive alliance, which obtained the name of ruary, 1848. Tranquillity seemed now to be completely restored; but, on Evangelical Union. By the Act of Union, the allies agreed to provide an the evening of the same day, fresh disturbances broke out, in consequence army and a common chest; and they named the elector palatine to be of some troops having fired on the unarmed populace. Throughout the their director in time of peace, but in case of war, any prince whose terwhole of that night the inhabitants of Paris were occupied in constructing ritory should be attacked, when the general affairs of the Union were to barricades. The king, alarmed at this, abdicated in favor of his grandson, be directed by a council of war. At subsequent meetings, the margrave the Count of Paris, and left Paris. Hereupon a provisional government Joachim Ernest was appointed general of the Union out of the territories was established, which proclaimed the republic. The intelligence of this of the allied princes, with Christian of Anhalt for his lieutenant. The soon spread to Europe, which was everywhere teeming with political dis- Union was eventually joined by fifteen imperial cities, including Strascontent and agitation. The first effects of this intelligence manifested burg, Ulm, and Nuremberg, by the landgrave Maurice of Hesse, and by themselves in the frontier states of Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt, and spread John Sigismund, the new elector of Brandenburg. This alliance on the soon through the whole of Europe. In most of the smaller states, the part of the Protestants provoked a counter one of the Catholics, organized transition from the old to the new state of things was accomplished with by Maximilian of Bavaria. At his invitation, the plenipotentiaries of the comparative facility, while in Austria and Prussia the attempts of the bishops of Wiirzburg, Constance, Augsburg, Passau, Ratisbon, and other.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ lmr a~a FAL FLE 73 prelates assembled at Munich, in July, 1609, and the Catholic states of the Protestants. In August the League was joined by the three spiritual the circles of Suabia and Bavaria agreed to enter into an alliance which electors; and subsequently an alliance was made with the Pope, and subafterward obtained the name of the Holy League. The alliance pur- sidies demanded from Spain. Thus the great religious parties of Germany ported to be only a defensive one; but, in case of need, great powers were formally arrayed against each other: for open violence nothing was were intrusted to Maximilian as its diPector, who had raised a little stand- wanting but the occasion, and this was afforded by a dispute which arose ing army, under the command of Baron Tilly, already notorious by the respecting the succession to the duchy of Juliers. (See CLEVE SuCCEScruelties which, in the service of the emperor, he had committed against sION, Appendix, page 200.) F. Fall of the IFatimites, (680 A. D.) The Fatimites are the descendants of streets, and every Shiite learns to execrate the Sunnites, the enemies of Fatima, the daughter of Mohammed and her cousin and husband Ali, "the Ali. Of the latter sect are the Ottoman Turks. first of the witnesses," who at length, in 656, was proclaimed caliph; (he firstof the witn esses,"w oat l ength, in656, was roclaimed ca Anliph; (e Firdusi, (916-1020,) a celebrated Persian poet. His talents having attracted was the fourth; his predecessors were Abubeker, Omar, and Othman.) The five years of his reign were chiefly occupied in contests and combats the notice of Sultan ahmoud he ave him a distinguished reception at his court, and employed him to write a metrical history of the Persian soverwith rival claimants, who were supported by Ayesha, the widow of the Prophet. In 67 fresh troubles ere ecited by Moawiyh and rUeigns, which occupied him thirty years. During this period the enemies Prophet. In 657 fresh troubles were excited by Moawiyah and Amru, (see this.) At length a plot was formed by three fanatics for the assassination of Frdusi succeeded in prejudicing Mahmoud against him, and instead of of the three rivals, in order thereby to extinguish the schism which had bein rewarded, according to promise, with 60,000 pieces of gold, the same begun. Amru and Moawiyah escaped, but Ali was slain at Cufa, in 661. number of the smallest silver coin were sent him. The poet indignantly Ali left two sons by his wife Fatima, one of whom, Hasan, succeeded him distributed them among the menials, wrote a severe satire on the sultan, and fled to Bagdad. Ferdusi is one of the greatest of Oriental poets; and but abdicated, in a few months, in favor of Moawiyah, and was poisoned fled to Bagdad Ferdusi is one of the greatest of Oriental poets; and by order of Yezid, in 669: the other, Hoseln, became the rival of Yezid, although the "Schahuameh" has little historical value, it is much read by byand was massacred by his orders in the plain of Ierbelam in Octoberf 6. his countrymen for its poetic beauties and the excellence of its language and was massacred by his orders in the plain of Kerbela, in October, 680. Two sons survived him..The Shiites are a Mohammedan sect w.ho. acknowl- and style. Portions only of the poem have been translated into English. Two sons survived him. The Shiites are a Mohammedan sect who acknowledge neither Ali's predecessors nor his successors as lawful caliphs, but Fleury, (1653-1743,) Cardinal and Prime Minister of France, under Louis pay homage to the descendants of his two grand-children, the sons of XV. Through the interest of Madame de Maintenon, he was appointed Hosein. The last of this race was Mohammed Montatar, (born 863 A. D.,) instructor to Louis XV. In 1726 he was created cardinal, placed at the who is supposed by them still to survive in concealment, that he may head of the ministry, and from his seventy-third to his ninetieth year he appear as sovereign in the end of time. Of this persuasion is Persia. administered the affairs of France. He ruled almost as long as Richelieu During the whole of June the Shiites keep fast in honor of Ali and his or Mazarin. His rule, however, resembled theirs only as decrepitude sons Hasan and Hosein: they lament them by night, when theatrical exhi- resembles manhood. He would be styled wise if short-sighted selfishness bitions are performed representing their battles and assassination. Effigies could be called wisdom, and if passion for power, without the great thoughts of their bodies, stained with blood, are carried in procession through the and moral vigor which make almost a virtue of ambition, could be excused. 10 74 FRA FRE He left France endangered by a war (the Austrian Succession war) that 1783 he signed the definite treaty of peace, and in 1785 returned to America, was increasing from day to day; having lost the renown for moderation, where he was chosen president of the supreme council. IHe was a man justice, and pacific spirit, that he had designed to secure for himself, with- of much practical wisdom, possessing a cool temper and sound judgment; out winning a reputation for active and conquering power. and though never inattentive to his own interest, he united with it a zealous solicitude for the advancement -of the general interests of mankind. Foix, Gaston de, (1489-1512,) a brave French officer, was the son of Jean de There are lives of Franklin by his grandson W. T. Franklin, by Jared Foix and Marie d'Orleans, sister of Louis XII. In 1512, he succeeded the Sparks and by James Parton. duke of Longueville in the command of the French army in Italy, and on account of his daring exploits was called "The thunderbolt of Italy." He Frederick II., (1194-1250,) Emperor of the West, son of Henry VI., and raised the siege of Bologna, relieved Brescia, and laid siege to Ravenna, Constance of Sicily, was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215. Five years * > * t ml,!' Constance of Sicily, was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215. Five years where he fell in the arms of victory, on the 11th of April. There are few still elapsed before he received the imperial crown at Rome; on which instances in history of so brief and at the same time so'brilliant a military occasion he had to renew a vow previously extorted from him to take the career as that of Gaston de Foix. He had not only given extraordinary promise, but in the course of a very few months had achieved such results of Jerusalem, and two years later, after several delays, he embarked for as might well make the greatest powers of the Peninsula tremble for their the Holy Land. Illness compelled him in a few days to land again, and possessions. His precocious military talents, the early age at which he this he was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX, the frst of ten for this he was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX., the first of ten assumed the command of armies, as well as many peculiarities of his dis- " thunders of the Vatican " against him. He set out again in 1228. But cipline and tactics, suggest some resemblance to the beginning of Napo- the Pope exciting opposition to him, and invading his hereditary states, leon's career. he at once concluded a truce with the sultan of Egypt, by which he Franklin, Benjamin, (1706-1790,) an eminent natural philosopher and poli- became master of Jerusalem. He entered the city, crowned himself, and tician. Born in Boston, he settled finally, in 1726, in Philadelphia, as a returned to Europe. He recovered his states, made peace with the Pope, printer, and in 1728 established a newspaper. His habitual prudence, and suppressed the revolt of his son Henry, who was then imprisoned for combined with activity and talents, soon gave him rank with the leading life. Frederick promoted the election of Innocent IV., who had been his men of Philadelphia. In the French war, in 1744, he proposed and carried friend; but he soon found in Innocent a most determined enemy. A seninto effect a plan of association for the defence of that province, which tence of deposition was published in 1245. The mediation of St. Louis served to unfold to America the secret of her own strength. About the utterly failed to bend the Pope to reconciliation. Rival emperors were same time he commenced his electrical experiments, making several dis- set up, and a general war was kindled against him, in the midst of which coveries, the principal of which was the identity of the electrical fluid and he died at Fiorenzuola, in December, 1250. Frederick II. was the greatest lightning, and he immediately applied it to the erection of iron conductors sovereign, probably the greatest man, of the 13th century. Of noble perfor the protection of buildings from lightning. In 1757, he was sent to son, intellectual physiognomy, master of the best knowledge of his age, England as agent for Pennsylvania; and in this capacity, he was (1765) brave, energetic, and generous-hearted, notwithstanding the arduous examined before the House of Commons concerning the Stamp Act. In struggle in which he was engaged throughout his reign he zealously pro1775, he returned home, and was elected a delegate to the Congress. He moted learning, science, and art, founded the universities of Vienna and was very active in the contest between England and the colonies; and was Naples, had the works of Aristotle translated into Latin, and was the sent to France, where, in 1768, he signed the treaty of alliance, offensive patron of several great artists. A new and valuable history of this great and defensive, which produced a war between France and England. In sovereign has been recently published by Mr. Kington. FRE FRO 75 Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, (1712-1786 A. D.,) was the son of to agricultural improvements. At his death he left to his son a country Frederick William I. (See GENEALOGY, XIII.) In 1740, he succeeded to much enlarged, and a well-supplied treasury. the throne, and it was not long before he asserted his claim to a part of Silesia. (See AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION WAR, Appendix.) During the ten years of comparative tranquillity that followed, Frederick employed him- French Republic, (1792-1804.) Internal disturbances in France led to a self in bringing his troops into a state of discipline perhaps never before decree for the banishment of the nonjuring priests; external menaces of equalled. He also encouraged agriculture, the arts, manufactures, and the European powers, to that against the emigrants; the coalition of these commerce, reformed the laws, and increased the revenues; thus improving powers, to war against Europe; and the first defeat of the French armies, the condition of the state, and rendering it more than a match for foreign to the formation of a camp of 20,000 men. The refusal of Louis XVI. enemies. Secret information of an alliance between France, Austria, Rus- to adopt most of these decrees, rendered him an object of suspicion to the sia, and Saxony, gave him reason to fear an attack, which he hastened to Girondists, (i. e. deputies from the departments of the Garonne and anticipate by the invasion of Saxony, in 1756. This commenced the Gironde,) who formed the moderate party in the legislative assembly. They Seven Years' War, (see this.) At length, after various changes of fortune, consented to the demands of the Jacobins (the republican party) to sushe was left, in 1763, in the peaceful possession of his hereditary and pend the royal authority and to summon a national convention. The acquired dominions. The remainder of his life was passed in literary leisure. National Convention constituted itself on the 20th of September, 1792, Voltaire and Maupertuis were for a long time his especial favorites. His and commenced its deliberations on the 21st. In its first sitting, they own literary attainments were far above mediocrity, as may be seen by his proposed and accepted the following motions: 1st. That the corner-stone " History of His Own Times," " The History of the Seven Years' War," of the new constitution is sovereignty of the people; 2d. That the constitu" Considerations on the State of Europe," " Memoirs of the House of tion shall be accepted by the people or be null; 3d. That the people ought Brandenburg," poems, etc. Frederick, on ascending the throne, found in to be avenged, and have right judges; 4th. That landed and other property his states a population of only two millions and a quarter, and left them be sacred forever; 5th. That royalty from this day is abolished in France. with six millions, a result to which his genius as a general and a legislator chiefly contributed. An English history of the "Last of the Kings" has Froissart, Jean, (1337-1401,) one of the earliest French chroniclers. He been written by Thomas Carlyle. (Appendix, pp. 208-210.) was patronized by Philippa of Hainault, queen of Edward III., whose court was always open to the gay poet and narrator of chivalric deeds. In Frederick William, (1620-1688,) generally called the Great Elector, sue- 1366, he accompanied Edward, the Black Prince, to Bordeaux. On the ceeded his father as elector- of Brandenburg, in 1645. He is considered death of his protectress, Froissart gave up his connection with England; as the founder of Prussian greatness; and from him was derived much of and, after various adventures as a diplomatist and soldier, he became that military spirit which became the national characteristic. He made domestic chaplain to the duke of Brabant, a poet like himself, and of Prussia free from feudal subjection to Poland, conquered Pomerania, joined whose verses, with some of his own, he formed a kind of romance, entithe league against Louis XIV., and defeated the Swedes in 1674. He tied " Meliador." He paid another visit to England, in 1395, and was applied himself with much wisdom and earnestness to the promotion of the introduced to Richard II., on whose dethronement he returned to Flanders, well-being of his subjects, favoring trade, making roads, etc. By afford- and died there in 1401. His historical writings strikingly exhibit the ing protection to the French Protestant refugees, he gained, as citizens of character and manners of his age, and are highly valued for their graphic the state, 20,000 industrious manufacturers, an acquisition of no slight simplicity and minute details. They embrace a period of nearly eighty importance to the north of Germany; and he also gave great encouragement years, terminating at the year 1400. 76 GAL GEN G. Galen, Claudius, (131-200 A. D.,) one of the most celebrated physicians of that on the last occasion, when he had repeated the abjuration, he stamped ancient times. Settling in Rome, and acquiring an immense practice, he his foot on the earth, indignantly muttering, " Yet it moves! " He died, was driven from thence by the intrigues of his jealous rivals, who attributed at the age of 78, in 1642, the year in which Newton was born. The greathis success to magic. But he was recalled by the emperor Marcus Aure- est work of Galileo is the "Dialogue on the Copernican and Ptolemaic lius, who, on quitting Rome to make war on the Germans, confided to Systems." One great and valuable monument of the labors of Galileo, Galen the care of the health of his son Commodus. A part only of his the whole series of his observations of the satellites of Jupiter, after being very numerous writings has been preserved; but even that part forms lost to the world for two centuries, has been discovered in the library of five folio volumes, and affords undoubted proofs of his practical and theo- the Pitti Palace, and is published in the recent edition of his works. retical skill. " The system of Galen," says Liebig, " in regard to the cause There is a good English Life of Galileo by Drinkwater. of disease and the action of remedies, was regarded during thirteen cen- Portuguese navigator, to whom.s.'.nd h.d acquired.h ei infallibity of.................... >Gama, Vasco de, (1469-1525,) an illustrious Portuguese navigator, to whom turies as imprehnable truth, and had acquired the entire infallibility of teat.ic of a religious creed. Their authority only ceased when belongs the merit of having discovered the route to the East Indies by the the articles of a religious creed. Their authority only ceased when chemical science, advancing, made them no longer tenable. Soon after Cape of Good Hope. iaving under his command three vessels, Gama set sail, July 9th, 1497; in the beginning of the next year reached the Luther burnt the papal bulls, Paracelsus burnt at Basel the works of Galen." it Eastern coast of Africa, and, holding his course straight toward the coast of Malabar, arrived in May at Calicut. He returned to Lisbon in two Galilei, Galileo, (1564-1642,) an illustrious astronomer, mathematician, and years and two months from the time of his setting out. John III. of Porphilosopher. At the age of 24 he was appointed mathematical professor tugal appointed him viceroy of India, on the death of Albuquerque in at Pisa. There his bold assertion of the laws of nature against the scho- 1524, on which he established his government at Cochin, where he died. lastic philosophy raised up such a host of enemies against him, that, in The "Lusiad" of Camoens, who accompanied Gama, is founded on the 1592, he was obliged to resign his professorship. He then went to Padua, adventures of his first voyage. where he lectured with unparalleled success, and students flocked to hear Geber, a great Arabian chemist of the 8th century, of whose history little him from all parts of Europe. After remaining there eighteen years, is known but whose writings contain notices of so many important Cosmo III. invited him back to Pisa, and soon after called him to FloCoso III. inviteod him back1 to Pis, and soon oafter called h:im to Flo- chemical facts, that he is considered entitled to the designation of the father rence. Galileo heard in 1609 of the invention of the telescope: he imme- and founder of chemistry. He was acqaited ith nearly all he chemical and founder of chemistry. He was acquainted with nearly all the chemical diately constructed one for himself, and a series of the most important processes in use down to the 18th century. But he did not, as a philosoastronomical discoveries followed. He found that the moon, like the pher, rise above the level of his age; explaining phenomena by "occult earth, has an uneven surface, and he taught his scholars to measure the causes," and firmly believing in and seeking the "philosopher's causes,' and firmly believing in and seeking the "philosopher's.stone." height of its mountains by their shadow; but his most remarkable discov- Geber's work was translated from Arabic into Latin, by Golius, of Leyden, eries were those of Jupiter's satellites, Saturn's ring, the sun's spots, and it, "Lapis Philosophorum. In 1678, an English translation who entitled it, "Lapis Philosophorum." In 1678, an English translation the starry nature of the Milky Way. The result of his discoveries was a by ichard ussell appeared. It is the oldest chemical treatise known. by Richard Russell appeared. It is the oldest chemical treatise know n. conviction of the truth of the Copernican system. He was twice persecuted by the Inquisition, first in 1615, and again in 1633. On both occa- Gengis-Khan, (1163-1227.) After much intestine warfare, this conqueror sions he was compelled to abjure the system of Copernicus; but it is said was proclaimed khan of the united Mogul and Tartar tribes. He now GEO GHE 77 made preparation for the course of conquest to which he professed he had the limits of the United States was made at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. a divine call. He first invaded China, and then he began his great Western Other English settlements were made from time to time along the entire campaign. Gengis-Khan became, by dint of successive victories, monarch coast, the latest being in Georgia, in 1732. A company of benevolent of a territory extending over 1,500 leagues. He died in 1227, in the 64th gentlemen, headed by James Oglethorpe, designed it as an asylum for the year of his age, and the 52d of his reign; having, before his death, divided poor of England and for the persecuted Protestants of all nations. James his immense territories between his four sons. It was the greatest tragedy Oglethorpe, with 120 emigrants, left England for America. He ascended which our historical knowledge records, when the highly cultivated Eastern the Savannah river, made treaties of friendship with the neighboring world was devastated and destroyed for ever by an overwhelming flood of tribes of Indians, and by his kindness gained their confidence. Liberal barbarians. The savage Mongolian hordes swept down from their high offers were made to all who would settle in the colony, and hundreds from central plains, laying waste and destroying, throughout Persia, Asia Minor, Germany and Scotland were induced to emigrate. Turkistan, and Russia. It was no revivifying flood, like that which enriched the Roman soil when the Germans invaded it. Gengis-Khan's hordes. knew no joy beyond building huge heaps of the skulls of the slain, and Ghent, Pacification of, (1576 A. D.) In December, 1573, Alba (see this) marching their horses over the ruins of burnt cities. Wherever they was superseded, as governor of the Netherlands, by Don Louis the passed, there was an end to all culture, to all the joys of life, and to the Requesens, who expired suddenly, March 5th, 1576, without having been future prosperity of nations; a dreary, savage barbarism pressed upon able to make an end to the insurrection. The government now devolved countries which but a century before could have rivalled in civilization the on the council of state, while Count 3Iansfeld was made commander-invery flower of Europe. Here and there, perchance, Islam could still enter chief, who proved totally unable to restrain the licentious soldiery. The the lists of military prowess with the Christian nations, but her intellectual Spaniards, whose pay was in arrears, had now lost all discipline. No vigor was broken, and the dominion of the earth was thus forever secured sooner had Requesens expired than they broke into open mutiny, and to the more fortunate nations of the West. acted as if they were entire masters of the country. To repress their violence, the council of state called upon the citizens to repress force by.enser.c. (4284.77,) Kng o. the Vandals" n Southern Spain. In 428. on Geinvierion(42-477,)Kinguo the vRan n gols n Sor oter Spiain In p42,n force; but they were dispersed, with great slaughter, by the mutineers, by the invitation of Bonifacius, the Roman governor of Africa, he passed w m a.. aropnt /o'_- o uarred h-onicisde- whom many towns were plundered. At last they attacked Antwerp, which from Spain into that province. He soon quarrelled with Bonifacius, dethe Spaniards entered early in November, and sacked- during three days. feated him, and besieged him in Hippo. After a siege of fourteen months, during which te geat A e i a te an b t The horrible excesses committed in this sack procured for it the name of during which the great Augustine died in the city, it was taken and burnt. In 439, Genseric became master of Carthage, and of the most fertile parts the Spanish Fury" William of Orange, taking advantage of the alarm of7i~,.Northe r.Africa..... He - ~ was aArna. banshe 7al theZ Cahoic mcreated at Brussels by the sack of Antwerp, persuaded the provisional govof Northern Africa. He was an'ri, and banished all the Catholic ernment to summon the states-general. To this assembly all the provinces bishops from his dominions. He formed a powerful fleet, ravaged the coasts ent t m he saes-e oth provinces of Sicily and Italy, and in 455 entered Rome, which was plundered for snei Te ne t he William' fourteen days. The bishop Leo went out to intercede with him, and was fourteen d. e h Lonly on condition that an alliance should be effected between the northern treated with respect. Genseric's power was firmly enough established to n o tin thaan ai s l b eed tn th rthe resist all attempts to overthrow it, and he was able to leave a powerful nd eranal and to kingdom. to his successor. ~end of September, Orange sent several thousand men from ZealanLd to Ghent, at whose approach the Spaniards evacuated the citadel. The proGeorgia, settled 1732 A. D. The first permanent English settlement within 1 posed alliance was now converted into a formal union by the treaty called 78 GIO GOE the Pacification of Chent, signed November 8th, 1576, by which it was highest praise ever given to the great master. Four years later he was agreed to renew the edict of banishment against the Spanish troops; to appointed architect of the Duomo and the walls of Florence, and by his procure the suspension of the decrees against the Protestant religion; to design for the Campanile showed himself a master also in architecture. summon the states-general of the northern and southern provinces; and Giotto is admitted to be equally " eminent as a composer, a designer, and to provide for the toleration and practice of the Protestant religion in Hol- a colorist, and united at a common level all the qualities which constitute land and Zealand. the universal genius of the artist." He studied nature anew, founded a new law of color, and, starting with the force of a giant, improved at every Gibraltar taken by the English, (1704 A. D.) Gibraltar stands on a s remarkable rock, which rises to the height of 1,430 feet, and has a length sep e of three miles, projecting southward from the mainland of Spain. Its Gloucester. See BEAUFORT. modern name is derived from Tarik, (Gibel-al-Tarik, "Tarik's Hill,") Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, (1749-1832,) the greatest modern poet the Arab conqueror of Spain in 711. It was recovered from the Moors of Germany, and he patriarch of German literature. In 1771 he went to first in 1309, and finally in 1462, and was incorporated with the Spanish Wetzlar, where he found, in his own love for a betrothed lady, and in thekingdom in 1502. It was captured by the English, under Sir George Rooke, suicide of a young man named Jerusalem, the subjects for his" Sorrows in 1704, and has been retained by them ever since, in spite of attempts to of Werther," which appeared in 1774, and at once excited the attention recover it in 1727, and again in the memorable siege of 1779-1783. Its of his countrymen. Having, in 1779, entered the service of the duke of value to tGreat Britain is immense, as securing to her a commanding posi- Saxe-Weimar, he soon assembled there around him a splendid galaxy of tion in reference to Spain and the Mediterranean, and also as a depot for distinguished men. The direction of the theatre was confided to him, and coal, military stores, and articles of commerce. The defences are of great he there brought out some of the masterpieces of Schiller, with an effect strength, and include galleries excavated in the solid rock. The rock is worthy of them. There, too, his own dramatic works first appeared: eworthy of them. There, too, his own dramatic works first appeared: enlivened with verdurin the n spring and autumn, but at other periods is "Goetz von Berlichingen," "Faust," "Iphigenia in Tauris," "Tasso." bare and brown. The town stands on the west side of the rock, and con- Goethe was an intellectual giant, and represented in himself alone the tains a population (exclusive of the garrison) of 15,426. (See Appendix, whole of German literature. His keen and profound insight to human page 205.of German literature. His keen and profound insight to human ) life and character, his encyclopsedic knowledge, his sublime imagination, his Giotto, (1276-1336,) the great Italian painter. His earliest known works exquisite sensibility and play of fancy, and his consummate style, place him are the frescoes of the life of St. Francis, in the Upper Church, and the in the highest circle of intellectual and literary glory. "Faust " is his greatallegories of the monastic virtues, on the ceiling of the Lower Church, of est poem. Its subject is the life of man in the world — the aspiration, the Assisi. While at Rome, during the jubilee, in 1300, he made acquaintance resistance, the temptation, the sin, the agony, the failure — mysterious and with Dante, which ripened into friendship. In 1304, Benedict XI. engaged very mournful, furnishing matter for comment and controversy, for admiraGiotto to paint at Avignon, but died before the commission could be under- tion and blame, for many a year yet. This great poem has been repeatedly taken. It was on this occasion that the papal envoy asked Giotto for a translated into English. The greatest prose work of Goethe is " Wilhelm specimen of his skill, and Giotto drew off-hand his famous 0, which Meister's Apprenticeship," (translated by Carlyle.) His beautiful songs satisfied the Pope, though it only puzzled his messenger. The greatest and shorter poems are all tinged with the profound reflections of his productions of Giotto were the frescoes in the Peruzzi Chapel, Florence. philosophical mind, and continually touch the deep springs whence These were covered with whitewash in the 18th century, were partly redis- flow our griefs and joys, our fears and hopes, and all the emotions of covered in 1841, and not wholly till 1863. They are said to justify the the soul. Books about Goethe in English literature are the several GRA GRA 79 " Essays" on his life and works by Carlyle, and the " Life of Goethe," by pronius Gracchus, revived in the year 133 a law of Licinius, by which G. H. Lewes. it was enacted that no individual should hold more than 500 acres of the. public domain. Half the quantity was allowed for each son, the remainder Groldsmith, Oliver, (1728-1774, ) was one of the most pleasing English..'.. writers of the 18th century e in to be restored to the state in order to be divided among the poor. The law writers of the 18th century. He emerged from obscurity in 1765 by the publication of his poem entitled "Te Traveller, or a Prospect of Society," was published, and triumvirs appointed for carrying it into execution: they publication of his poem entitled "The Traveller, or a Prospect of Society," w his f-il A C T gra of which Dr. Johnson said "that there had not been so fine a poem since were Tiberius, Caius, and his fther-in-la Appius Cludius. The great Pope's time." Jhn said athered not beensow fneva po sne landholders attacked in every possible way the author of the law which Pope's time." The year following appeared his well-known novel of the "Vicar of tWakefield and in 1770 he published "he Deserted Village," despoiled them, and finally, to prevent his being re-elected tribune, had "Vicar of Wkil"ni17hpbie"hDet Vlahim assassinated, in 132. Caius Sempronius Gracchus nourished in his a poem, which, for graphic description and pathos, is above all praise. heart the ideas of his brother and the desire to revenge him. After his In 1772 he produced his comedy of "She Stoops to Conquer," which was I__.. g.I.12h e pduc. "h brother's death, he lived in retirement till B. c. 126, when he was sent as highly successful. Goldsmith was the friend of Johnson, Reynolcs, and. highly successful. Goldsmith was the friend of Johnson, Reynolds, and questor to Sardinia. Two years later he returned to Rome, and was chosen Burke, and a member of the literary club established by the former. tribune. He now renewed and extended the Agrarian Law; planted new Goldsrmith has been fortunate in his biographers. Wlithin a few years his Gldsmihs bee en fort io graphers. WIting ad fe yerst hi colonies in Italy and the provinces; provided for the sale of corn at a low life has been written by Prior, by Washington Irving, and by Forster. life h'.as been.writt.. Prior, by Washingto Irvingand byprice; deprived the senate of their judicial power; and had new roads The diligence of Prior deserves great praise; the style of Washington Irving made and the old ones restored in all parts of Italy. These measures are._..'...... made and the old ones restored in all parts of Italy. These measures are is always pleasing; but the highest place must, in justice, be assigned tos was re-elected tribune for 122, and at..7'.....~ ~~,called the Sempronian laws. Caius was re-elected tribune for 122, and at the eminently interesting work of Forster. once proposed a wide extension of the Roman franchise. By this he forGower, John, (1320-1402.) Moral Gower is the author of three great poet- feited his popularity with the citizens of Rome. He was not again chosen ical works, " Speculum Meditantis," written in French; "Vox Clamantis," tribune, and a meeting of the senate was called to revoke one of his laws. written in Latin; and "Confessio Amantis," written in English. This last The irritation was immense, the friends of Gracchus were armed, blood poem opens by introducing the author himself, in the character of an un- was shed, the great reformer was declared a public enemy, and in the comhappy lover in despair. Venus appears to him, and appoints her priest, bat which took place next day, three thousand are said to have fallen. called Genius, to hear the lover's confession. This priest plies him with Gracchus, accompanied by a slave, escaped from the field of battle and moral tales, the most remarkable of which is the tale of the Caskets in the reached the suburb on the right bank of the Tiber. There were afterward fifth book. This is the story from which Shakspeare is supposed to have found the two dead bodies; it seemed as if the slave had put to death first taken the hint of the incident of the caskets in his Merchant of Venice. his master and then himself. The memory of the Gracchi remained offiNear the end of his poem, he puts in the mouth of Venus a glowing com- cially proscribed. Cornelia was not allowed to put on mourning for the pliment to Chaucer, his friend and brother poet. death of her last son; but the passionate attachment which very many had felt toward the two noble brothers, and especially toward Caius, during their Gracchus, Caius Sempronus, (154-121 B. c.) The population of Rome life, was touchingly displayed also after their death in the almost religious consisted after 200 B. c. of an aristocracy of wealth and an indolent and veneration which the multitude, in spite of all precautions of the police, poverty-stricken commonalty. The former were tenants of the whole public continued to pay to their memory and to the spots where they had fallen. domain; and the free peasantry, ground down by military service and compelled by absolute want to sell their birthright, were gradually disappearing. Granicus, a river in Troas, which had its source in a branch of Ida, and Under these circumstances, a tribune of the people, named Tiberius Sem- flowing through the Adrastian plain, emptied itself into the Propontis. 80 GRE GRE Alexander the Great gained here his first victory over the Persians in Gregory VII., Pope, first known as the monk Hildebrand, of Cluny, was B. C. 334. a native of Tuscany. He was the friend and counsellor of Leo II. and the four succeeding popes, and, on the death of Alexander IIT., was elected to Gregorian Calendar, (1582 A. D.) The pontificate of Gregory XIII. is succeed him, 1073. He obtained confirmation of his election from the chiefly memorable for the reformation of the calendar which took place emperor Henry IV., and immediately applied himself zealously to reform under his auspices. Luigi Lilio, a Calabrian, won for himself immortal two of the grossest evils of the Church-simony, and the licentiousness of mermory by his suggestion of the easiest method of overcoming the diffi-~ the clergy. In 1074 he assembled a council, by which it was forbidden to culty. The Julian calendar, according to which every year had an excess the prelates to receive investiture of a layman; and this was the first step of 11' 14/" 30/"', was amended by leaving out 10 days (thle aggregate in the quarrel with the emperors, which lasted so many years. Henry, amount of the excess) in the year 1582, an arrangement by which the 15th disregarding the papal authority, was summoned to Rome; but he held a of October was made immediately to follow the 4th, it being also settled diet at Worms, and pronounced the deposition of the Pope. To this that in future three days should be left out in every 400 years. Thus Gregory replied by procuring the deposition of the emperor and the elecevery year which is divisible by 4, except those divisible by 100 and not tion of another, Rudolph of Suabia. Henry now promised submission, by 400, has 366 days; all other years have 365 days. | and in the winter of 1077 went to Italy. The Pope was at the castle of Gregory of Tours, (554-595.) He was author of a " History of the Franks," Canossa, and there, after keeping the penitent king of Germany three days and is the most eminent of the early French historians. His history was waiting at the gate, he gave him absolution. The terms imposed on him continued by Fredegarius, who gives hin the following testimony: " Would were not kept: Henry set up a rival Pope, and, after several unsuccessful that I were gifted with such a portion of eloquence that I might be but a attempts, entered Rome in 1084, had himself crowned emperor by his own little equal to the task! But where the fountain is not ever flowing, the Pope, and besieged Gregory in St. Angelo. The Pope was delivered by jar will still fail to be filled. The world is growing old, and our faculties Guiscard, and, retiring to Salerno, died there in 1085. Gregory VII. was are on the decline; nor can any one of this day - nor would he presume a haughty, inflexible man, whose aim was to establish the supremacy of to affect it-be like the great Gregory of Tours." Gregory of Tours ism" the papacy over not only all churches, but all temporal sovereignties. the principal authority for the thrilling story of Fredegonda and Brune- Gregory IX., Pope. In 1227 he succeeded Honorius III. The principal hilda. (See this.) hilda. (See this.) events of his pontificate were the various incidents of his contest with the Gregory I., (544-604,) Pope, surnamed the Great. He discovered such abil- emperor Frederick II., (see this,) whom he repeatedly excommunicated, ities as a senator, that the emperor Justinus appointed him prefect of absolving his subjects from their allegiance, and proclaiming a crusade Rome, after which he embraced t~he monastic life. Pope Pelaius II. made against him. In 1229, Gregory levied a tithe on all movables in England, him apostolical secretary. He was elected successor to that pontiff in 590; toward the expenses of his war with Frederick. He established, a few and, a few years later, sent some monks, under the direction of St. Augus- years later, the Inquisition (against the Albigenses); excited, by his tine, for the purpose of converting the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Pope haughty demeanor, a revolt at Rome in 1234, and was driven from the Gregory was pious and charitable, had lofty notions of the papal authority, city, to which he did not return for three years. Died 1241 A. D. was a reformer of the clerical discipline, and, after his death, was canonized. Grey, Lady Jane, (1537-1554,) whose accomplishments and misfortunes He is, however, accused, but on doubtful evidence, of burning a number have rendered her an especial object of interest, was the daughter of Henry of the works of ancient authors, lest attention to heathen literature should Grey, marquis of Dorset, by the Lady Frances, daughter of Charles Bransupersede the ecclesiastical studies of the age. He left numerous works. don, duke of Suffolk, and Mary, youngest sister of Henry VIII. (See Gene GUS HAD 81 alogy, IV.) She wrote an incomparable hand, played well on several in- Princess Sophia, and her issue, being Protestants. In accordance with this strumlents, and acquired a knowledge of the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, as well Act of Settlement, the crown, on the death of Anne, devolved upon George as of the French and Italian languages. Roger Ascham has given a beau- I., already elector of Hanover. By the accession of George I., the crowns tiful and affecting narrative of his interview with her at Bradgate, where of Great Britain and Hanover were united till the death of William IV. he found her reading Plato in Greek, while the family were amusing them- (A. D. 1837). selves in the park. The ambitious duke of Northumberland projected a marriage between her and his son, Lord Guilford Dudley, (May, 1553.) Gustavus Adolphus, (1594-1632,) King of Sweden, was the grandson of Soon after this, Edward VI. died, having been prevailed upon to settle the Gustavus Vasa, and succeeded his father Charles IX in 1611. He selected crown upon Lady Jane, who reluctantly accepted it, and was proclaimed |Axel Oxenstiern for his chief minister, and by his counsel restored the with great pomp. This gleam of royalty, however, was of short duration, nobles to the rights and privileges of which they had been deprived, and for the pageant reign lasted but nine days. The people were dissatisfied, thus attached them to his interests. Invited by the Protestants of Germany, and the nobility indignant at the presumption of Northumberland, so that and urged by France, he marched, in 1630, to their aid. He advanced Mary soon overcame her enemies, and was not backward in taking ample from point to point in Pomerania and Mecklenburg, victorious at every revenge. The duke of Northumberland was beheaded, and Lady Jane step, and took 80 fortified towns in eight months. At length the emperor and her husband were arraigned, convicted of treason, and sent to the sent his general Tilly to oppose him, and Gustavus won a memorable Tower. After being confined some time, the council resolved to put them victory over him at Leipsic, on the 7th of September, 1631. Saxony also to death, (February 12th, 1554.) heartily supported Gustavus, who soon after took Mentz, and in April, 1632, defeated Tilly again at the passage of the Lech. The emperor, Guelphs, The, in England. (See Genealogy, I. and V.) At the period of the alarmed, made Wallenstein (see this) commander-in-chief; he met Gustavus Revolution in 1688, it had been provided that in the case of the death of on the field of LUtzen on the 6th of November, 1632. Victory was with William and Mary without children, the crown should descend to Princess the Swedes, but their heroic leader fell in the fight, not without suspicion Anne her issue. The death of the duke of Gloucester (Queen Anne's only of assassination. Gustavus Adolphus was one of the noblest men and one surviving child) in 1700, rendered a new settlement necessary. This passed of the greatest military commanders of modern times. He was great, also, the descendants of Henrietta Maria, the daughter of Charles I., and those as a ruler and administrator, and did not allow war to exclude commerce of the older children of Elizabeth, electress Palatine, daughter of James I., and the internal regulation of his states from his earnest attention. There (who were Catholics,) and limited the succession to her fifth daughter, the is a recent English Life of Gustavus Adolphus, by B. Chapman. HI. Hadrianus, Publius Ellius, (76-138 A. D.,) Roman Emperor. He married through the various provinces of the empire. In 120 he visited Gaul, and Sabina, the heiress of Trajan, whom he accompanied in his expeditions, thence passed over to Britain, where he built the great wall, 80 miles in and became successively prretor, governor of Pannonia, and consul. On length, from the mouth of the Tyne to Solway Frith, to secure the Roman the death of Trajan, in 117, he assumed the government, made peace with provinces from the incursions of the Caledonians. In 132, the Jews, irrithe Persians and the Sarmatians, and remitted the arrears due to the tated by the building of a temple of Jupiter on the site of the Holy City, treasury. He spent the remaining 18 years of his reign in travelling began a war which they carried on with fierce determination for nearly 11 82 HAR HEN four years. He was on the whole a just and wise ruler, favored literature Hastings, Warren, (1733-1818 A. D.,) first Governor-general of British India. and the arts, and especially distinguished himself by the great architectural At the age of 17 he went out to India as a writer in the company's service. works which he executed or projected at Rome, Athens, and many other After fourteen years' residence in Bengal he returned to England; but in cities which he visited. He adopted Antoninus Pius as his successor. 1769 he went out as second in council at Madras, where he remained about two years, and then removed to Calcutta as president of the supreme Hannibal, (B. c. 247-183,) the great Carthaginian general. He learned the council at Bengal. This was a critical period, and the state of Hindostan art of war under his father in Spain, and was present at the battle in which soon became perilous from the revolts of the native subjects, the defection he fell. Hannibal was then 18, and after serving six years under Hasdrubal, of allies, and the increasing power of Hyder Ali, the sovereign of Mysore, (B. c. 221,) he became commander-in-chief of the Carthaginian army. To aided by the land and sea forces of France. In this exigency the governorcomplete the conquest of Spain south of the Ebro, he besieged the city of general had to depend solely upon his own exertions; and he' succeeded Saguntum, and, after a siege of eight months, took it. The city being in beyond all expectation in saving British India from a combination of alliance with Rome, its fall was the occasion of the great war between enemies, and in increasing and strengthening the power of the company Rome and Carthage, known as the Second Punic war. (See Appendix, at the expense of the native princes. Notwithstanding this, party spirit page 188.) In 202, Scipio finally defeated Hannibal at the battle of Zama, at home turned the merit of Mr. Hastings into a crime, and charges were and peace was concluded. The great Carthaginian did not lose hope, but brought against him in Parliament. In 1786 he returned to England, when applied himself to political and financial reforms and preparations for fresh he was accused of having governed arbitrarily and tyrannically; of having war. His enemies, however, forced him to leave Carthage. He fled to the extorted immense sums of money; and of having exercised every species court of Antiochus the Great, who was just entering on a war with the of oppression. An impeachment, conducted by Burke, followed, the proRomans. After three years, the war ending witjh the defeat of Antiochus, ceedings of which lasted nine years. He was at length acquitted. He Hannibal, to avoid being given up to Rome, took refuge with Prusias, king lived, however, to see his plans for the security of India publicly applauded. of Bithynia, (B. c. 190.) When his surrender was demanded in 183, he There is a Life of Warren Hastings by Gleig, and a brilliant essay on his put an end to his life by poison. It is acknowledged that Hannibal ranks career by Lord Macaulay. with the greatest generals of ancient or modern times. His great bodily strength and fascinating manners, marvellous sagacity, caution in planning, Henry II., (1133-1189,) King of England, first of the Plantagenet line, was and rapidity in action, made him the idol of his troops. He was a man, the eldest son of Geoffrey of Anjou, and Maud, daughter of Henry I., too, of considerable cultivation, and shone as a statesman almost as much king of England. On the death of his father, in 1151, he succeeded to as a general. Anjou, Touraine, and Maine, and in the following year, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of Louis VII. of France, Haroun al Raschid, (?- 809,) a celebrated Caliph of the Saracens, he became possessor of the duchy of Aquitaine, and in 1154 he succeeded ascended the throne in 786, and was the most potent prince of his race, to the English throne. He was now king of England and master of the ruling over territories extending from Egypt to Khorassan. He gained whole seacoast of France from Flanders to the Pyrenees. In 1162, Thomas many splendid victories over the Greek emperors, and obtained immense' Becket was elected archbishop of Canterbury, and the great struggle renown for his bravery, magnificence, and love of letters; but he was cruel between the civil and ecclesiastical powers began, which resulted in the and tyrannical. Haroun al Raschid was the contemporary of Charles the exile and murder of Becket, war with France, and the king's penance at Great, emperor of the West, and sent an embassy to his court, with a Becket's tomb. In 1171, Henry invaded Ireland, and effected a conquest present of a beautiful clepsydra or water-clock. of that island. The remaining years of his reign were imbittered by the HEN HER 83 numerous revolts of his sons. The revolt of his youngest son John was new Popes and emperors followed. Henry IV. ended his life in sorrow the last and fatal blow from which he could not recover. He died at and neglect, at Liege, in 1106. Chinon, July 6th, 1189. Notwithstanding the conflicting estimates of the character and measures of Henry II., viewed as the champion of state Henry I., King of Germany, surnamed The Fowler, (876-936,) was the supremacy, it is evident that he was a man of powerful intellect, superior son of Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony and Thuringia. When he education, great energy, activity, and decisiveness, and also of impetuous was elected sovereign of Germany, in 918, he had to contend with anarchy passions. Ruling almost despotically, he greatly diminished the power of at home and enemies abroad, but his activity and prudence overcame them the nobles, and thus relieved the people of their intolerable tyranny. Good all. He improved the art of war among the Germans, surrounded the cities order and just administration of the laws were established, and the practice with walls, and, as he compelled part of the nobility and freemen to reside of holding the "assizes" was introduced. He revived the trial by jury in in these cities, and insisted on all meetings for the discussion of public order to check the resort to trial by battle, which he could not abolish. affairs being held in them, their progress in civilization was rapid. Great encouragement to commerce and manufactures were the result of his Henry III., (1017-1056,) Emperor, son of the Emperor Conrad II., succeeded endeavors. He obtained a decisive victory over his most dangerous his father, 1039. Nature had given him the talents, and education the enemies, (the Magyars, at Merseburg, in 933,) re-established the marches, character, suitable for an able ruler. In everything he undertook he dis- which had been broken at all points, and suffered nothing that bore the played a steady and persevering spirit; the clergy were compelled to German name to be wrested from him. HI-e bequeathed an undisputed acknowledge their dependence on him, and the temporal lords he held in sceptre to his house. (See Genealogy, X.) actual subjection. The imperial authority was firmly established and the Truce of God was introduced into Germany. By this truce all quarrels were Henry the Lion (1129-1195,) Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, one of the suspended from Wednesday evening to Monday morning as well as during most able and energetic sovereigns of the 12th century, was the son of the seasons of Lent and Advent. Henry III., who possessed the requisite Henry the Proud. He was invested with the duchy of Saxony in 1142, vigor and fortitude to govern the empire, died young, (A. D. 1056,) and a child three years after his father's death, and he did not recover the duchy of six years old, (see HENRY IV., Genealogy X.,) in whose name the govern- Bavaria till more than ten years later. He was a great soldier, and accomment was carried on by a tottering regency, filled his place - one of those panied the emperor Frederick I. on two expeditions to Italy; but their incidents which turn the fortunes of a world. |alliance was interrupted by the election of the emperor's son king of the Romans, the duke having hoped for that honor and the succession to the Henry IV., (1050-1106,) Emperor, son of Henry III. His mother Agnes empire. In 1180 this powerful sovereign was deprived of his states by the was made regent, and on her death the chief power was seized by his diet of Wiirzburg, and exiled. He went first to England, and took refuge uncles, the dukes of Saxony and Bavaria. Henry made war on them, and with Henry II., whose daughter Matilda he had married. Having returned threw off their yoke. He, however, offended his subjects by the licentious- to Germany, he was a second time exiled by the emperor; and making an ness of his manners, and quarrelled with the Pope, Gregory VII., about attempt, after the emperor's departure to the Holy Land, to recover his investitures. The latter, being appealed to in a subsequent dispute between states by arms, he was defeated, and compelled to make a humiliating peace. Henry and the duke of Saxony, cited Henry to his tribunal, who then He died at Brunswick in 1195. deposed the Pope, to be in turn excommunicated by him. The emperor was compelled to submit, went to Canossa, where the Pope then was, and, Heracleia, (280 B. c.,) a city of Magna Graecia, situated in Lucania, on the after being kept three days in the court-yard, received absolution. The gulf of Tarentum, between the rivers Aciris and Siris. During the war quarrel was soon renewed: deposition, excommunication, and election of of Pyrrhus with the Romans, Heracleia was the scene of the first conflict 84 HER HES between the two powers, the consul Lhevinus being totally defeated by the Herodotus, about 50 years after the battle of Marathon, began to note Epirot king, in a battle fought between the city of Heracleia and the river down the history of the Persian wars. This tradition, however, was neither Siris, B. c. 280. complete nor entirely impartial and trustworthy; for poetry had contrib-:HEeraclius, (575-641,) Emperor of the East, was the son of a governor of uted her part toward placing single days and deeds of fame in the brightest light, and by their memory edifying the national mind Such was the Africa, and was sent to Constantinople, in 610, to deliver the empire from and by their memory edifying the national mind. Such was the a the tyrant Phocas, the murderer of the emperor Maurice This Maurice tradition from which Herodotus, on whose narrative our knowledge of the the tyrant Phocas, the murderer of the emperor Maurice. This Maurice Pe was without was an excellent soldier, but seems to have been deficient in that com- Persian wars in the main depends, drew his materials. He was without manding genius and in those shining qualities which are necessary for the any documental information in regard to those points in which a perfectly supreme ruler of an empire. The Avares defeated his troops, which were certain relation is impossible without the aid of written notes, and as to unskilfully commanded when the emperor was not at their head; and which, at the same time, a great temptation existed toward misstatements when Maurice, like the old Roman senate, disdained to ransom those who |of the real facts. And this was particularly the case as to the numerical had surrendered themselves to the enemy, Phocas, a general, availed him- estimate of the hostile forces. On this head the Greeks were, from the self of this occasion to corrupt the allegiance of the troops, who had been first, uncertain; and, as the national glory was increased by every exaggestrangers to military discipline. In consequence of this, Maurice and ration of the superior numbers of the foe, these numbers grew in the his whole house lost their lives, and Phocas ascended the throne. The mouth of the people, while the historian, without any accurate information young Heraclius easily expelled this assassin, stained with every crime. from the other side, was unable to correct them. But, on the other hand, Not so easy was the defense of the empire against the Persians, led by in regard to his narrative of the historical events, the confidence reposed!Chosroes, son-in-law of the murdered Maurice, who, under pretext of | in it has increased in proportion to the attempts which have been made avenging the murder, had attacked the empire, and soon extended his to inquire into ancient history from a wider point of view, and on the dominions from the Ti-giis to the Nile. After some years of gradual prepa- basis of more accurate research. Internally the work bears the evident ration, Heraclius set out, in 622, to oppose the victorious Chosroes. In impress of perfect trustworthiness, and the single events appear before us six campaigns he showed himself a brave soldier and a great general, in so natural a connection, that we may recognize in Herodotus a perfectly defeating Chosroes, and concluded an honorable peace with his successor valid authority, although we are not enabled to test his narrative of the in 627. He would have terminated his reign with the most splendid Persian wars by the accounts of other contemporaries. renown, had not a nation been called forth into action which had never Hiod. omer, there sprang up a style of composition / _.. m ~&Hesiod. After the age of Homer, there sprang up a style of composition yet played its part among the revolutions of mankind, but which now.... yet played its part -aong the revolutions of mankind.., but which now called Epic, mainly because it was written in the epic style and language, sprang forth like i hgtning the Arabians. sprang forth like lightning - tbut merely differing in substance from both the Iliad and Odyssey. Hesiod |Herodotus, (484-408 B. c.) The great events of the Persian wars were not of Ascra, in Bceotia, represents this school or group. His works consist accompanied by any contemporaneous historical account. For a whole of the following two large poems: First, the "Theogonia," a history in verse, generation they were left to oral tradition. Then the poets busied them- of the origin of the gods and the creation of the world. Second, "Works selves not only with adorning the individual monuments with significant and Days," a didactic poem, on the duties and occupations of life, and a inscriptions, but also with glorifying the deeds of the Wars of Liberation. calendar of lucky and unlucky days, for the use of farmers and sailors. The different communities eagerly sought to obtain these poems, in order These poems are of high value for the light they throw on the mythologito find in them a testimony of their own participation in these wars. cal conceptions of those early times, and for the vivid pictures of the hardHence there was no lack, but, on the contrary, a wealth of tradition, when ships and pleasures of daily life, the superstitious observances, the homely HIN HOM 85 wisdom of experience, and the proverbial philosophy into which that on the approach of the Northmen, in 882, and died the same year at experience had been wrought. For the truthfulness of the delineation Epernay. generally, all antiquity vouched; and there is in the style of expression and tone of thought a racy freshness redolent of the native soil. Hesiod Eippias (?- B. C. 490,) tyrant of Athens, was the son of Pisistratus, at was a man of keen practical observation, and had drawn, from both obser- whose death he assumed the government, in conjunction with his brother vation and experience, large stores of ethical and religious wisdom. He Hipparchus; but the latter being assassinated while conducting a solemn shiowed, at times, great brilliancy of imagination, and copiousness and procession to the temple of Minerva, Hippias seized the reins of governvigor of expression; but he had not that instinctive sense of the beautiful ment, and put to death all of whom he entertained the least suspicion. and that natural perfectness of taste which rarely deserted Homer. His tyranny at last became so obnoxious to the citizens that he was expelled, B. c. 510. He afterward induced Darius to apply to the AtheHieron II., King of Syracuse. After distinguishing himself in the Sicilian nians in his favor; and their decisive refusal to permit his return to war of Pyrrhus, he was chosen, in B. c. 275, general of the Syracusan his country kindled the first war of the Persians against the European army. He carried on war with the Mamertines. By a great victory, after Greeks. which Hieron was proclaimed king of the Siceliots, (270,) he succeeded in shutting up the Mamertines within Messana. After the siege had lasted course of 300 years many nations had become subject to its king, who was some years, they found themselves reduced to extremity; and to avoid a considered the greatest potentate of Western Asia. Against him the considered the greatest potentate -of Western Asia. Against him the surrender, they asked and obtained the alliance of Rome. Hieron, in surrallied theymasked andi obtained th rtheaiance whofd gme. Hieroin, in princes of the Greek tribes associated themselves to avenge Menelaus, the 264, allied himself with the Carthagilians, who had gained a footing in king of Sparta, whose consort, Helen, had been carried away by Paris, the the island, and thus began the first Punic war. Defeated by Appius Clau- >.the island, and thus began the first Punic war. Defeated by Appius Clan- son of the Trojan monarch. The throne of Troy was finally overturned, dius in the following year Hieron made peace with the Romans, and.dius in the following year, Hieron made peace with the Romas, and after a ten years' war. The Iliad and Odyssey were probably sung by became their faithful and very useful ally. Under his government his subHomer about a century and a half after the destruction of the town of jects enjoyed great prosperity; he made some excellent laws, which the RoTroy. They are as old as David's Psalms. A hundred years after Homer, mans retained after their conquest of Sicily; avoided all parade of royalty; Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, brought these poems into Greece, and, Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, brought these poems into Greece, and, fostered commerce, and strengthened and beautified Syracuse. The mathe- three centuries later, Pisitratus gave them their perfect form. His son mateician Archimedes lived in his reign.. introduced the custom of reciting parts of them at the public festivals. A Hinomar, (?- 882,) Archbishop of Rheims, was born of a noble family in more complete edition of the Homeric poems was prepared by Aristotle France, early in the 9th century. He assisted in reforming the rules of for Alexander the Great, which he used to keep under his pillow, in a the abbey of St. Denis, was appointed abbot of CompiBgne, and, in 845, golden case. They are, by the consent of ages, the noblest of all poems. archbishop of Rheims. He distinguished himself three years later by The orator, the historian, and the poet obtain from them equal instruchis rigorous treatment of the monk Gottschalk, who for his writings on tion. A fine moral sentiment breathes through the whole. We behold, at predestination was condemned, flogged, and imprisoned. In subsequent one time, the ruinous consequences of violence and anarchy; at another, disputes with Pope Nicholas I. and the emperor Louis III., he showed the power of moderation and reason. Obedience and freedom, heroism himself the fearless defender of the liberties of the Church. Hincmar and military discipline, are recommended. Men appear as they are; all presided at the council of Soissons in 862, and at that of Douzi in 871; is action; nothing is idle or in stagnation. We are carried away from ourhe wrote numerous works, especially two treatises on Predestination, in selves and instructed, without being conscious of it. He is the best opposition to the views of Gottschalk; was compelled to flee from Rheims teacher of the wisdom of human life. 86 HUG HYK Horatius Flaccus, Quintius, (Horace,) (65-8 B. c.,) one of the most Huss, John, (1375-1415.) One of the most celebrated universities of Europe eminent, and certainly the most popular and elegant of the Roman poets. was that of Prague, in Bohemia. John Huss, the rector of the university, At the age of 18 he went to Athens to complete his studies. While there, had opposed himself to many customs then prevailing in the Church. This Marcus Brutus, passing through the city on his way to Macedonia, Horace, Huss was quite as much a politician as a theologian. He wrote in the accompanied by other Roman youths, joined the army, became military vernacular tongue, defended the nationality of Bohemia against foreigners, tribune, fought in the last battle for the freedom of Rome at Philippi, and withstood the Popes especially as being foreigners. But he did not and saved himself by flight. Though he saved his life, he forfeited his attack the papacy itself. He repaired to the Council of Constance, under estate, and was reduced to great straits, till Virgil introduced him to Mae- a safe-conduct from the emperor Sigismund. In violation of this pledge, cenas, by whose interest he recovered his patrimony. Augustus now became he was condemned to be burned, and his disciple, Jerome of Prague, underhis friend, and offered to make him his secretary, which Horace declined. went afterward the same fate. The Bohemians, aroused by this atrocity, When Mvecenas was sent to Brundusium, to conclude a treaty between flew to arms. Led by the little Procop and by the one-eyed Zisca, they Augustus and Antony, he took with him Horace, Virgil, and other lite- carried everything before them, and on Procop's death the drum made of rary friends; and, not long after, he presented Horace with the Sabine his skin continued to lead these barbarians, and beat through Germany its farm, to which he withdrew from the tumult of Rome, preferring retire- murderous roll. ment to a more brilliant life. His poems consist of odes, satires, and epistles, one of the latter, addressed to the Pisos, being entitled "Ars I Hyksos, (1750 B. c.) The nomadic nations have always envied the wealth Poetica." Seldom or never expressing the deepest feelings of our nature, nor and luxury which agriculture, commerce, and art have procured for their breathing the higher inspirations of poetic genius, they possess enduring more civilized neighbors; and when these have been weakened by luxury, charms as works of exquisite art, and display the keenest observation of they have found them an easy conquest. Thus Egypt fell into the power of manners, intense enjoyment of nature and rural life, great relish for the the Arabians, in the same way that, somewhat later, the Chaldaean empire pleasures of sense, and a pathetic, haunting regret for the shortness and had to yield to them. The Arabians who conquered Egypt were called by sadness of human life. the conquered, Hyksos, which means "shepherd kings." Their occupation of Egypt was probably owing, not solely to a mere love of conquest, but to Hugh Capet, (939-996,) founder of the third race of French kings, was the desire of maintaining a right they claimed to the throne through marcount of Paris and Orleans. He was the son of Hugh the Great, whom riage with the royal family, or to an invitation from some one of the inferior he succeeded as duke of France; was proclaimed king of France, at Egyptian princes who had been dispossessed of his government. Either Noyon, in 987, and died in 996, aged 57. The accession of this third race of these would account for their having obtained possession of part of Lower far exceeds in importance that of the second. Strictly speaking, itconsti- Egypt " without a battle," and for their having received assistance froim tutes the end of the reign of the Franks, and the substitution of a national some of the Egyptians. Nor was their rule like that of a people who had monarchy for a government founded on conquest. This national identity entered the country for the sake of conquest: their religion was different, is the foundation on which the dynastic unity has, for so many ages, and they treated that of the Egyptians with disrespect; but they were at rested. The people seem to have had a singular presentiment of this long one time on terms of amity with some of the kings of other parts of the succession of kings, on the accession of the third race. The report ran Nile valley; and they so augmented the power of the country they that, in 9.81, St. Valery, whose relics Hugh Capet had just had translated, governed, that on their expulsion Egypt rose immediately to a most appeared to him in a dream, and said, "For what thou hast done, thou and flourishing condition. The shepherds were expelled by the kings of the thy descendants shall be kings to the seventh generation-that is, forever." 18th dynasty. It was under this renowned race that Egypt reached that INA INN 87 climax of civilization, art, and conquest which is recorded on its monu- and the paintings of life on the tombs of Thebes. From this period, too, ments. Except the Pyramids, all other Egyptian monuments were erected the Greeks derived those traditions of Egyptian prowess which they perimmediately after the expulsion of the Hyksos. From that time date the sonified in the conqueror Sesostris. vast temples, with their obelisks and sphinxes, the huge colossal statues, Iconoclasts, The, (740 A. D.,) the destroyers of images. The 8th century west of England from the Britons. He afterward made war upon the gave birth to a religious contest, in its nature and in its important political |Mercians; but the latter part of his reign was spent in works of peace; and consequences entirely different from all those which had hitherto dis- having resigned his crown in 728, he went to Rome, founded an Anglotracted Christendom. Iconoclasm was an attempt of the Eastern emperor Saxon colony or school, and died there the same year. Ina's school at to change by his own arbitrary command the religion of his subjects. It Rome was further endowed with the Romescot, by Offa of Mercia, about swept away from almost all the churches of the empire objects hallowed 794, and disappears from history in the 10th century. The laws of Ina by devotion, objects of hope and fear, of gratitude and immemorial vener- served as the foundation of those of Alfred, and some of them are still extant. ation. The consequences of this new religious dissension were of the utmost political importance, both in the East and in the West. But its more important results were the total disruption of the bond between the Innocent III., (1161-1216,) one of the most eminent of the Popes. Iie East and the West; the severance of the Italian province from the Byzan- succeeded Celestine III. in 1198, and being endowed by nature with all tine empire; the great accession of power to the papacy, which took the the talents of a ruler, he was better qualified than any of his predecessors lead in this revolution; the introduction of the Frankish kings into the to extend the papal power. His first care was to recover and secure such politics of Italy; and eventually the establishment of the Western empire portions of the domains of the Holy See as were in the hands of usurpers. under Charlemagne. He applied himself earnestly to the improvement of the administration of Iconoclasts, The, (1566 B. C) The anti-Catholic movement was spreading justice in his estates, and, with his high notions of papal supremacy, he about this time. ini- c.) outSprOmeai expected that all great questions, civil as well as ecclesiastical, should be about this time in the Netherlands. The churches in and about St. Omer, Ypres, and other places were broken into, and the images and ornaments decided by himself. He sought to unite the Christian princes in a crusade for the recovery of Palestine, and shortly afterward he began a cruel perdestroyed or defaced; like scenes took place in the cathedral of Antwerp. The disturbances spread into Holland, Utrecht, Friesland - everywhere, in secution of the Albigenses. He had put France under an interdict, because Thedisturbances spread into Holland 2Utrecht, Friesland -everywhere, in Philip Augustus divorced his queen, Ingeburga; and when J ohn, king of short, except a few places in the southern provinces; in less than a fort- Philip Augus divorced his queen, Ingeburga; and when John, king of night 400 churches were sacked in Flanders alone. This proved to be the England, refused to confirm the election of Stephen Langton as archbishop prelue to the rebellion of Holland against Spain, which finally ended in |of Canterbury, Innocent laid the kingdom under an interdict, and, in 1212, prthe establishment of the Dutchgrepublinst Spain, whichfinallyenformally deposed John, and instigated the king of France to attack England. the establishmentofthe Dutch republic. John was finally obliged to submit, resigned his territories to Rome, and Ina, (?-728,) King of the West Saxons, a valiant prince and an able legis- received them as a papal fief from Innocent, from whom he was unable to lator, succeeded Ceadwalla, in 688. Having obtained advantages over the obtain absolution until he had paid large sums of money. In 1210 the people of Kent, in 694, he wrested Somersetshire and other parts of the Pope excommunicated the emperor Otto IV., who owed to him his eleva 88 JER JER tion. Innocent abolished the Roman senate and consulate, and thus made Samuel, Saul, and David - far less could one who knew well the dignity of himself absolute in his estates, which now extended from the Adriatic to his Law, and the unfailing power of his God, doubt concerning that hope, the Mediterranean. Almost all Christendom was now subject to the Pope; that certain assurance for the Hebrew nation and the royal house, which two crusades were undertaken at his order, and his influence extended even so often had been conceived in lofty inspiration, and amid increasing to Constantinople. He enforced purity of morals in the clergy, and was perils had only been the more eagerly embraced and the more explicitly himself irreproachable in private life. declared. Isaiah, (about 700 B. c.) The name signifies Salvation of Jahu, (a shortened Isocrates, (436-338 B. c.) To Isocrates Athenian eloquence is most deeply form of Jehovah.) The greater number of the prophets, in bold denuncia- indebted. He was the founder of the most flourishing school of rhetoric, tions, full of wrath and anguish, but never abandoning all hope, lamented, and numbered the most distinguished orators (LEschines,' Demosthenes, threatened, and chastised the crimes and follies of the falling monarchy etc.,) among his pupils. He was naturally timid and of a weakly constiof Samaria. But it was Isaiah, in Jerusalem, who took the loftiest flight, tution, for which reasons he abstained from taking any direct part in the and surveyed all the evils that were springing up in the surrounding states, political affairs of his country, and resolved to contribute toward the develin the corruption of their manners and their laws, and which afforded cause opment of eloquence, by teaching and writing, and thus to guide others for alarm to them and to their people, to his own and to all future times. in the path for which his own constitution unfitted him. Isocrates has the As he lived at that epoch when the spirit of conquest began to rage more great merit of being the first who clearly saw the value and objects of extensively and with greater viblence, his work is a precursor of all the oratory, in its practical application to public life and the affairs of the complaints which have been uttered to the present day against this evil and state. At the same time he endeavored to base public oratory upon sound its devastations, and a general prophecy of the calamities that have befallen moral principles, and thus to rescue it from the influence of the Sophists. the world in consequence of such disorders. One single assurance supports him amid present afflictions, viz., the conviction that the germ of true reli- Issus, Battle of, (333 B. c.) The gulf of Issus forms the most northeast gion and pure morality, which for thousands of years had been preserved point of the Mediterranean. Near the head of this gulf Alexander defeated in Israel, would obtain at length a champion, who, although through suffer- the Persian army under Darius; 100,000 Persians fell, and their king ing, should find the way to victory. Little as it became a Roman to doubt escaped with difficulty. The rich camp of the Persians, with the magnifiof the fortunes of the. eternal Rome, far less could a descendant of those cent royal tent, the mother, wife, two daughters, and a son of Darius, fell Hebrews who had often experienced such wonderful deliverances, who had into the hands of the conqueror, who treated the prisoners with his accusbeen saved by Moses, by Othniel, Ehud, Barak, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, tomed clemency. J. Jane Grey. See GREY. Esdraelon, and is continued throughout the whole of Samaria and Judaea, Jerome. See ST. JERO.MIE. | quite to the southern extremity of the Promised Land. It is almost equidistant from the Mediterranean and from the river Jordan, being about Jerusalem, Destruction of. Jerusalem was situated in the heart of the 30 miles from each, and situated at an elevation of 2,000 feet above the mountain district which commences at the south of the great plain of level of the Mediterranean. The particulars of the siege by Titus are,~:g.~.l~........ —., I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ JER JUG 89 fully detailed by Josephus. It occupied nearly 100,000 men, little short Joan of Arc, (1412-1431.) In the autumn of 1428, the English army threatof five months having been commenced on the 14th of April, and termi- ened Orleans, the most important of the towns still remaining faithful to nated with the capture and conflagration of the Upper City on the 8th of the Dauphin: they had made themselves masters of the bridge and the September. This is to be accounted for by the fact that, not only did outworks, notwithstanding the bravery of the garrison. Lastly, the defeat each of the three walls, but also the fortress and the temple, require to be of the French and Scotch at the battle of the Herrings appeared to give taken in detail, so that the operations involved five distinct sieges. This the finishing stroke to the fall of that town, and to inflict a mortal wound memorable siege has been thought worthy of special mention by Tacitus, upon the cause of Charles. The news of this distress reached, at last, a and his lively abridgment of Josephus must have served to raise his peaceful valley of Lorraine. There a girl listened to the news with pantcountrymen's ideas both of the military prowess and of the powers of ing breast. She left her native hamlet of Domremy for Vaucouleurs, endurance of the Jews. where she so importuned the governor, Baudricourt, that he sent her on to Charles at Chinon. After some hesitation, Charles accepted her profJerusalem, Kingdom of, (1099-1291 A. D.) The result of the first Crusade fered service, and she was accordingly intrusted with the important duty was the establishment of the kingdom of Jerusalem, of which Godfrey of of throwing provisions into the town of Orleans. She succeeded. The Bouillon was the first king. This kingdom of Jerusalem had no easy tide of fortune from this moment turned. The siege of Orleans was raised, task, surrounded as it was by powerful and naturally implacable foes: and the Dauphin, advancing to Rheims, was crowned king of France, the danger from the east was especially great, in case any leader of emi- under the title of Charles VII. After the coronation, Joan declared that nence should arise among the vigorous and warlike Seljukes, reconcile the her mission was at an end, and that she should now retire to private life; dissentient emirs, and then break into the country with a united force. but the French commander, Dunois, who thought she might still prove The early kings of Jerusalem, especially Baldwin II., had a vivid concep- serviceable, induced her to throw herself into Compiegne. Here, after tion of this danger. If all the Christians had shared the ideas of their performing prodigies of valor, she was taken prisoner in a sally; and, kings, their plans for consolidating the kingdom would in all probability after four months of imprisonment, was cruelly condemned by the English have been carried out, and perhaps a lasting foundation of European to be burnt alive on the charge of sorcery. She resolutely defended herpower and civilization would have been laid in those lands. The heroes self from the absurd accusation, but was carried to the stake, where with who shook their lances so gallantly in Christ's honor were quite incapable dauntless courage she met her fate, in the 29th year of her age, May 30th, of understanding the political motives and consequences of their under- 1431. The story of the Maid is told with great freshness in " The Life taking. Instead of striving to frame their society according to religious and Death of Jeanne d'Arc," by Harriet Parr, (1866.) principles, and then allowing politics to obey political rules, and war mili- John de Witt. See DE WITT. tary ones, they started upon the supposition that the very existence of their dominion was a wonder of God's own working; and they were con- Jugurtha, King of Numidia, was the son of Manastabal and grandson of vinced that for every fresh danger which threatened it, God had a new Masinissa. Micipsa, his uncle, left him the kingdom jointly with his own miracle in store. They were soon to discover that such a notion was as sons, HIiempsal and Adherbal. On the death of Micipsa, B. c. 118, Jugurtha destructive to religion and morality as to political and warlike success. aimed at the sole power, put Hiempsal to death, and made war on Adherbal, The result was that it did not last a century, and that under the eighth who, however, by the aid of the Romans, recovered his dominions. He king, (Guy of Lusignan,) Jerusalem was taken by Saladin, (October 2d, finally lost them, and was killed by his rivalin 112. Jugurtha was now the 1187.) Since that time the crown of Jerusalem conveyed only an empty sole ruler of Numidia. He was a man of superior talents, and was remarktitle. (See CRUSADES, Appendix, page 196.) able for strength and personal beauty. Formed for a soldier, his valor and 12 90 JUV KAN conduct had won for him in early youth the esteem of the Roman army to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem, that the prophecy of Christ might be and the friendship of Scipio; but, for his intrigues and crimes, the Romans falsified; but it is said that flames of fire rose from beneath, and consumed now made war on him. Their generals, however, took bribes, and failed to some of the workmen, by which miraculous interposition the design was subdue him, till Sulla persuaded Bocchus, king of Mauritania, to draw frustrated. Jugurtha into his power, and deliver hilm up to the Romans. He was |Justinian I., the Great, (483-565,) the great Emperor of the East, was the accordingly seized, and conducted to Rome, were he was thrown into a dark who born a nephew of Justinus I. He shared the fortunes of his uncle, who born a prison and starved to death. Thracian peasant, was raised to the imperial throne; and at whose death, Julianus, surnamed "The Apostate," (331-363,) Roman Emperor, was the in 527, he obtained the exclusive sovereignty. During his reign the pris youngest son of Constantius, brother of Constantine the Great. He was tine glory of the imperial arms was restored by his great general Belisarius. The event, however, which has rendered the reign of Justinian most educated in the tenets of Christianity, but returned to paganism. In 354 he event, however, which has rendered the reign of Justinian most he was declared Caesar, and sent to Gaul, where he obtained several victo- memorable, is the reformation of the Roman jurisprudence. He comries over the Germans, and, in 361, the troops in Gaul revolted from Con- missioned Tribonian to revise the existing laws, to purge the errors and stantius, and declared for Julian. During the lifetime of his cousin Con- contradictions, and to select the wise and salutary enactments. To this stantius, he had made profession of the orthodox faith; but, on succeeding code Justinian added the "Pandects," the Institutions, and the Novellie, to the throne, hade threw professionsguise reopenedof the heor thodox faith; but, on sutemples, and since called collectively the body of civil law, (corpus juris civilis.) Justo the throne, he threw off all disguise, reopened the heathen temples, and tinian died after a reign of 38 years, and in the 83d year of his age. sought to restore the heathen worship in all its splendor, while he labored, both by his pen and his authority, to destroy Christianity. He took from Juvenal, (80 A. D.,) a Roman poet and satirist. He may be said to have been the Christian churches their riches, and divided them among his soldiers. the last of the Roman poets, and as the bold and unflinching castigator of He sought likewise to induce the Christians, by flattery or by favor, to vice he stands without a rival. Good as are his intentions, however, and embrace paganism; but failing in the attempt, he shut up their schools, forcible as are his denunciations, the moral indelicacy of the age in which prohibited them from teaching grammar and rhetoric, and published an he lived renders these powerful satires too gross in their details for readers edict that the name of Christian should be abolished. His malice was of the present day. English translations have been made by Dryden, further evinced by extraordinary indulgence to the Jews, and by an attempt I Gifford, and others. Kant, Emmanuel, (1724-1804,) the great founder of the critical philosophy. Philosophy." A second part of it, published in 1783, bore the title of He was appointed professor in the university of Kbinigsberg, in 1770. "Prolegomena for Future Metaphysics." Kant was a man of high intelFor a long time his studies were chiefly of physical science, astronomy, lectual endowments; and was no less distinguished by a profound love mechanics, etc., and among his early works are "Thoughts on the True of truth and a pure moral sentiment; and his "Critical Philosophy" for Valuation of Vital Forces," " General History of Nature and Theory of a time superseded every other in the Protestant universities of Germany. the Heavens," "Theory of the Winds," etc. It was not till 1781 that he Dissatisfied both with the dogmatism and the doubt which in his day dispublished his " Critical Inquiry into the Nature of Pure Reason," which puted the field of philosophy, he sought a new path and a higher end. contains the system commonly known under the title of the "Critical HIis method was fundamentally an investigation of the faculty of knowledge LAC LAC 91 in man, and he carefully distinguished that part of knowledge which an- in making copies of the Bible and religious treatises. In a collection of swers truly to objects (the objective) from that which merely pertains to his beautiful manuscripts was the "Imitation of Christ," which was afterthe thinking mind or subject (the subjective.) His system was met by ward attributed to him as author. The "Imitation" is the most univervigorous opposition, but over all hinderances it held its way, and the whole sally translated book in the world next to the Bible. Its various editions course of human thought has been modified by it. " The'Critical Philos- and translations amounted, in 1828, to more than two thousand. Its sinophy,"' says Carlyle, " has been regarded by persons of approved judgment gular charm and power are confessed by thoughtful men of all sects, who as distinctly the greatest intellectual achievement of the century in which hear in it, says a recent critic, " the voice of human nature struggling in its it came to light. Schlegel has stated in plain terms his belief that, in weakness, its disappointments, and its consciousness of a capacity for a life respect to its probable influence on the moral culture of Europe, it stands that shall be a real life and not a fever, when the cage is broken and the veil is on a line with the Reformation. The noble system of morality, the purer rent asunder." It is distinguished from too many religious books by its cleartheology, the lofty views of man's nature derived from it," have influenced ness, honesty, simplicity, and freedom from exaggeration and morbidities. for good the whole spiritual character of Germany and of Europe.....,~. r~ ~ ~..e...~...~...+...Klopstock, Friederich Gottlieb, (172-1803,) a celebrated German poet. Kaunitz, (1711-1794,) one of the most remarable statesmen of the 18th cen- After receiving a liberal education at his native place, he was sent to study tury, and the greatest minister that Austria ever possessed. After a careful a er ~-.'~*." ~~']~;~ ~']~ff~;~';;~.~~ ~' ~/^~~~+~7~...~2~~ J the ology at Jena, and there wrote a great part of his " Messiah," which he education, completed by foreign travel, he entered the service of Charles published in 1748. Though this poem underwent the ordeal of severe,, published in 1748. Though this poem underwent the ordeal of severe VI., and, after the death of that emperor, was employed by Maria Theresa criticism, it was admired by the majority. Klopstock was invited into in various missions, in the discharge of which his abilities procured for Switzerland, and while there the people regarded him with a kind of venehim her entire confidence. His success was, perhaps, in no small degree ration. Thence he was attracted to Copenhagen by flatterin promises, owing to the singular combination of qualities in his character. Under ran. en. ence vo openagen oy reaserag promises, the easy exterior of a man of the world were concealed acute penetration, Danish ambassador, and counsellor from the court of Baden Klopstock.....' Danish ambassador, and counsellor from the court of Baden.- Klopstock deep reflection, impenetrable reserve, indomitable perseverance. Even his was, perhaps, most successful as a lyrical writer. His patriotism is strong bitter adversary, Frederick II., was forced to acknowledge the depth and and ardent; and his later odes, called forth by the French Revolution, in power of his intellect. The energies of this remarkable man were directed, awhich at first he took the warmest interest, re distinguished by bold and during 40 years, to one objeco the aggrandzement of the house of during 40 years, to one object -the aggrandizement of the house of original turns of expression. His tragedies were not calculated for the Austria. stage; and his greatest work, "The Messiah," did not fulfil the expectaKempis, Thomas A, (1380-1471,) reputed author of the famous book " De tions of his countrymen, who predicted that it would eclipse the Paradise Imitatione Christi." He entered the monastery of Mount St. Agnes, of Lost of Milton. Like Milton's great work, it is said to be more commonly which his brother was prior, and, being a good copyist, was chiefly engaged praised than read. Lactantius, an eminent father of the Church. By his "Symposium" he style of which he has been honored with the name of the Christian Cicero. obtained such renown that Diocletian appointed him public teacher of His principal work is the "Institutiones Divine," in 7 books. Died, probrhetoric. He wrote many works in vindication of Christianity, from the ably, about 325. 92 LA LEO Lafayette, (1757-1834,) one of the most conspicuous characters in France the treachery of the men from whom he might reasonably have expected during the Revolution. He went, in 1777, to take part in the war of inde- support. Among those who were ready to betray the cause of the prince pendence in America. He there raised and equipped a body of men at whom they had recently placed on the throne, and to enter into correhis own expense; fought as a volunteer at the battle of Brandywine, in spondence with the exiled monarch, were Lords Halifax, Godolphin, Shrews1777; at that of Monmouth, in 1778, and received the thanks of Con- bury, and Marlborough. Information secretly sent by the latter to the gress. He then proceeded to France, in order to obtain reinforcements; court of France led to the failure of an attempt, made on the part of the returned with the armaments under General Rochambeau, and commanded English, in 1694, to destroy the arsenal at Brest. The cause of the adherWashington's vinguard at the time of the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, in ents of James was, at the same time, strengthened by the occurrence of the 1782. The capitulation of Yorktown followed, and, on the peace with the massacre of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, in virtue of a warrant signed by mother country, the general returned to France. He was elected a mem- William, to gratify the private revenge of a Scotch nobleman, Lord Breadber of the assembly of the notables, in 1787, and, on the breaking out of albane. A plan for a rising by the Jacobites, in concert with a French the Revolution, he took part with the friends of liberty, though with wise fleet, was arranged. The attempt to re-establish James on the throne of moderation. In 1792 he was obliged to escape from France, but fell into the England might have succeeded, lhad it not been for the victory of La hands of the Austrians, who imprisoned him at Olniitz. There he remained Hogue, where the French fleet was defeated by Admiral Russell. five years. His noble wife wrote to Washington in his behalf, which proving in vain, she joined her husband in his prison in 1795, and there remained with him till after Bonaparte's first campaign in Italy, when, on the special Law, John, (1681-1729,) a celebrated financial projector. He was bred to demand of the latter, Lafayette was set at liberty, in 1797. Lafayette, no profession, but studied mathematics, and particularly excelled as an however, was consistent: he voted against the "consulate for life," and accountant. For the purpose of remedying the deficiency of a circulating withdrew from public affairs. But, after the battle of Waterloo, he reap- medium, he projected the establishment of a bank, with paper issues, to peared, to protest against a dictatorship; and, having subsequently pro- the amount of the value of all the lands in the kingdom; but this scheme tested against the dissolution of the legislative body by Prussian bayonets, was rejected. Being obliged to leave England, he went to France, where again withdrew to his estates, till he was returned, in 1818, deputy. On he secured the patronage of the regent duke of Orleans, and established all occasions, in the chamber of deputies, and elsewhere, he proved him- his bank at Paris. To this was joined the Company of the Mississippi, a self the friend of real liberty. In 1821 he made a visit to America, and pretended scheme for paying off the national debt, and for enriching the was received with distinction and popular enthusiasm, as joint founder of subscribers. The project became extravagantly popular, and every one American independence with Washington and Franklin. The unconstitu- converted his gold and silver into paper. In 1720, Law was made comptional ordinances of Charles X., in June, 1830, which caused his own troller of the finances. The bubble, however, burst; the people, enraged, expulsion, brought Lafayette on the stage agairi, in the character in which besieged the palace of the regent, and Law was exiled to Pontoise, whence he commenced his career, that of commander-in-chief of the national he escaped to Italy, and died at Venice, in 1729. guard, and the advocate and supporter of a citizen king. He soon after Laws of the Twelve Tables. See Appendix, page 181. resigned the command; and, having seen Louis Philippe recognized as king of the French, he once more retired to the tranquil scenes of domestic League of Augsburg. See AUGSBURG. life. Died, 1834. Leo I., surnamed the Great, Pope. Leo, like most of his great predecessors La Hogue, Battle of, (1692 A. D.) After William of Orange had been and successors, was a Roman. He was early devoted to the service of the placed on the throne of England, (1689,) he yet found himself exposed to Church. At the decease of Pope Sixtus, Leo was absent on a civil mission, LES LIV 93 to reconcile the two rival generals, Aetius and Albinus, whose fatal quarrel reasoning, and clear, nervous style. "He thinks," says Carlyle, "with the hazarded the dominion of Rome in Gaul. There was no delay; all Rome, clearness and piercing sharpness of the most expert logician; but a genial clergy, senate, people, by acclamation, raised the absent Leo to the vacant fire pervades him, a wit, a heartiness, a general richness and fineness of see. With the self-confidence of a commanding mind, he assumed the office nature, to which most logicians are strangers." Among his dramatic works in the pious assurance that God would give him strength to fulfil the ardu- are " Miss Sara Samson," " Minna von Barnholm," " Emilia Galotti," and ous duties so imposed. Leo was a Roman in sentiment as in birth. All that " Nathan the Wise." Coleridge was a diligent student of Lessing's works, survived of Rome, of her inflexible perseverance, her haughtiness of lan- and some passages in the " Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit " were made guage, and in her indefeasible title to universal dominion, might seem con- the ground of a charge of plagiarism from Lessing. centred in him alone. The union of the churchman and the Roman is centred in him alone. The union of the chur an and the Roman is Leyden, Siege of, (1574 A. D.,) one of the most important cities of the singularly displayed in his sermons. They are brief, simple, severe; with- 22 miles southwest of Amsterdam, and 17 miles north of,,etherlands, 22 miles southwest of Amsterdam, and 17 miles north of out fancy, without metaphysic subtlety, without passion; it is the Roman otter, on the Old Rhine, six miles from its mouth in the North Sea. censor animadverting with nervous majesty on the vices of the people; the o an d ting thThe most memorable event in the history of Leyden is the siege it sustained Roman praetor dictating the law and delivering with authorit the doc- fom the Spaniards in 1573-. By the resolution and heroic example from the Spaniards in 1573-4. By the resolution and heroic example trine of the faith. They are singularly Christian-Christian as dwelling of Pieter Adriaan-zoon Van der Werff the burgomaster, the inhabitants almost exclusively on Christ, his birth, his passion, his resurrection. were enabled to stand out nearly four months. For seven weeks there was Leo condemns the whole race of heretics, from Arius down to Eutyches; no bread within the walls, and when hunger became no longer bearable, but the more immediate, more dangerous, more hateful adversaries of the I, and the people, dying in hundreds implored the burgomaster to surrender Roman faith were the Manicheans. That sect was constantly springing up the town, he offered his body to appease their appetite, and thus the most in all quarters of Christendom with a singularly obstinate vitality. Leo clamorous were abashed. To relieve the town, the prince of Orange at last wrote to the bishops of Italy, exhorting them to search out these pestilent broke down the dikes, and, a favoring wind accompanying, the waters came eneiesof hrstin fithan vitue Te eperr Vlet II, by broke down the dikes, and, a favoring wind accompanying, the waters came enemies of Christian faith and virtue. The emperor WTalentinian III., by thenemvies of Christ t anedvirtu. Th. them o Valinian we by over the lands so rapidly that above 1,000 of the besiegers were drowned. the advice of Leo, issued an edict by which. the Manicheans were to be The same wind wafted a fleet of 200 boats from Rotterdam to the gates banished from the whole world. They were to be liable to all the penalties of Leyden, and relieved the place. As a manifestation of the gratitude of sacrilege. The cause of the severity of the law was their flagrant and entertained by the people of d for the heroism of the disgraceful immorality. When Attila invaded Italy, Leo was sent by the citizens, it was resolved that a university should be established within Emperor Valentinian to dissuade him from his threatened march on Rome, d R, w, s. L. a d se t c their walls. The university of Leyden, afterward so illustrious, was thus and Rome was saved. Leo afterward saved the city from being burned by m being burned by founded in the very darkest period of the country's struggles. Genseric. Leo is the first Pope of whom we possess any written works. Died, 461. Livius, Titus, (Livy,) (B. c. 59-17, ) the celebrated Roman historian, was born in the territory of Padua. He went early to Rome, and there chiefly Leonard da Vinci. See VINCI. resided, enjoying the patronage of the emperor Augustus and the friendLessing, Gotthold Ephraim, (1729-1781,) a distinguished German critic, ship of many distinguished men. His reputation was widely spread during dramatist, and miscellaneous writer. Lessing's great aim was to infuse his lifetime, and one curious Spaniard was attracted to Rome merely to new spirit into the literature of his country, and to refine and polish its look at Livy and return. His reputation is built upon his History of style, and he succeeded. His writings are among the classics of German Rome from the foundation of the city to the death of Drusus, in 142 books, literature, and are especially distinguished for masterly criticism, forcible of which only 35 have been preserved. The rest are partly known to us 94 LON LOP by means of some extant epitomes. While Livy charms us by his clear, was for a few months a law student in the office of his father. Having flowing, and beautiful style, and while we feel that we possess in his annals been offered a professorship of modern languages in Bowdoin College, one of the most valuable relics of ancient literature, modern critical in- with the view of qualifying himself for the post he spent three years and quiry has made it impossible that we should accept his account of things as a half in travelling. Returning to the United States in 1829) he entered true and trustworthy. His patriotic partisanship, his ignorance of practical upon the duties of his office. On the resignation of the late Mr. G. Ticklife, his want of acquaintance with original authorities, and his uncritical nor, in 1835, of his professorship of modern languages and of the belleshabit of mind, are very serious drawbacks from his character as historian. lettres in Harvard College, Longfellow was appointed to the vacancy. He An English translation of Livy is included in Bohn's Classical Library. gave up his chair at Bowdoin College, and again went abroad in order to Locke, John, (16321704,) one of the most eminent philosophers of mo become more thoroughly acquainted with the languages and literature of Locke, John, (1632-1704,) one of the most eminent philosophers of modern times. He was educated at Westminster School and Christ-church Northern Europe, and having travelled more than 12 months in Scandinavia) dern1 1 times. He was educated at We i ns r an ChGermany, and Switzerland, returned in the autumn of 1836, to enter upon College, Oxford, where he distinguished himself by his general proficiency; hi duties at Cambridge. In 1854 he resigned, and has lived since in retirehis duties at Cambridge. In 1854 he resigned, and has lived since in retireand finally applied himself to the study of medicine. When, in 1762,. ment at Cambridge. While an undergraduate, he wrote many tasteful Lord Shaftesbury was appointed lord chancellor, he made Locke secretary y. and carefully finished poems for the United States Literary Gazette, and of presentations, and, at a later period, secretary to the Board of Trade. On his patron retiring to Holland, Locke accompanied him and reained while professor at Bowdoin College, contributed some valuable criticisms to On his patron retiring to Holland, Locke accompanied him, and remained the North American Review. His principal works are "Outre Mer," there several years. So obnoxious was he to James II., that the English "Hyperion," "The Poets and Poetry of Europe," "Evangeline," "Kava"Hyperion," " The Poets and Poetry of Europe," "Evangeline," " Kavaenvoy demanded Mr. Locke of the States, on suspicion of his being connagh" "The Song of Hiawatha," "Miles Standish," and his translation cerned in Monmouth's rebellion, which necessitated his temporary concealof Dante in 1867. No American poet is so popular and well known in ment. As philosopher, Locke stands at the head of what is called the Europe. sensational school, in England. His great work is the "Essay on the Human Understanding," in which he endeavors to show that all our ideas Longinus, a celebrated Greek critic and philosopher of the 3d century. In are derived from experience, that is, through the senses, and reflection on his youth he travelled for improvement to Rome, Athens, and Alexandria, what they reveal to us. He also investigates the general character of ideas, and attended all the eminent masters in eloquence and philosophy. At the association of ideas, the reality, limits, and uses of knowledge, the length he settled at Athens, where he taught philosophy, and where he also influence of language, and the abuses to which it is liable. This Essay published his "Treatise on the Sublime." His knowledge was so extensive was first published in 1690, and became immediately popular. It passed that he was called "the living library; " and his fame having reached the through numerous editions in rapid succession, and was translated into ears of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, she invited him to her court, intrusted French and Latin. Whatever may be thought of Locke's theories, his to him the education of her two sons, and took his advice on political Essay has a solid and permanent worth, and will not cease to attract and affairs. But this distinction proved fatal to him; for, after the surrender charm inquirers and lovers of truth. His other works are the " Treatise of l'almyra, Aurelian put him to death for having advised Zenobia to on Civil Government," "Letters on Toleration," "On the Conduct of the resist the Romans, and as author of the spirited letter which the queen Understanding," "Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity." addressed to the emperor. His death took place in 273 A. D. He met his His Life, by Lord King, was published in 1829. fate with calmness and fortitude, saying to his friends, " The world is but a Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, (1807-.) At the age of 14 he entered prison; happy therefore is he who gets soonest out of it, and gains his liberty." Bowdoin College, where he took his degree with high honors in 1825, and Lopez de Vega. See VEGA. LOU LOU 95 Lorraine becomes French, (1738 A. D.) Stanislaus Leczinski was elected with Pope Innocent II., in 1142, brought an interdict on his kingdom, and king of Poland, on the designation of Charles XII. of Sweden, in July led to a war with Thibaut, count of Champagne. Louis took and pillaged 1704; his predecessor, Frederick Augustus, having been deposed. After Vitri, and burnt a church in which 1,300 persons had taken refuge; for the defeat of Charles VII. by the Russians at Pultowa, in 1709, Stanislaus which sacrilege he resolved, by the advice of St. Bernard, but against the lost his throne, and Augustus was restored. He was again elected king of counsel of his able minister, the abbot Suger, to go to the Holy Land. Poland, in 1733, through the influence of Louis XV. of France, who had He received the cross at the hands of St. Bernard in 1146, and the next married his daughter Maria; but he was compelled to retire, and after year set out at the head of a large host, his queen accompanying him. most romantic adventures reached France in June, 1736. In 1738 he was Well received by Manuel, emperor of the East, he lost a large part of his made duke of Lorraine for life. He was able to be a real benefactor to forces before he reached Antioch, in March, 1148. He joined the emperor his country, owing to the wholly new position toward France that had been Conrad at Jerusalem, and with him began the siege of Damascus; but given to it. From a continually suspected and continually oppressed neigh- failing in this, he returned to France at the end of 1149. He divorced bor, Lorraine became the protege of France, while waiting till it should his queen Eleanor in 1153, for her licentious conduct in the East, and the become wholly French. As early as 1738, a royal declaration admitted the next year married Constance of Castile. Eleanor married, immediately people of Lorraine to all the advantages of native-born Frenchmen; the after her divorce, Henry Plantagenet, afterward Henry II. of England, union was already morally consummated. The final union happened in 1766. who thus became possessed of Guienne, the Limousin, and Poitou, the three fairest provinces of France. Louis I., (778-840,) King of France and Emperor, was the son of Charlemzagne.:Named king of Aquitaine at his birth, associated in the empire |Louis IX., or St. Louis, (1214-1270,) King of France, succeeded his father in 813, he succeeded his father in 814, and was crowned with his queen Louis VIII., in 1226. Being then only in his 12th year, e was placed Hermengerda, by Pope Stephen IV., at Rheims, in 816. He soon after Heroeigrda, bs Pope S itehei iV. atheepim, ind 8. the son ftime under the guardianship of his mother, Blanche of Castile, who was made associated his son Lothaire with him in the empire, and at the same timewas going on between the crown regent of the kingdom. A severe struggle was going on between the crown mo;ade pnartition of his do minions beteen his sons Lothaire, Pepin, and and some of the great feudal nobles, in which the latter were assisted by Louis; naming the first kling of Italy, the second king of Aquitaine, and HIenry III. of England. In 1243 Louis defeated the English in several the third king of Bavaria. Bernard, king of Italy, revolted on this occaengagements, and a truce for five years was concluded. Having made a sion, but was defeated and captured, and by order of Louis had his eyes Sion, but was defeated and captured, and by order of Louis had his eyes vow in 1244, in the event of recovering from a dangerous disease, to march put out. He died a few days later, and Louis was compelled to do public.against the infidels in the Holy Land, he made preparations for doing so, penance for his crime. About the same time he married, for his second n.,I ~ and, in 1248, embarked at Aigues-Mortes, with an army of 50,000 men, wife Judith daughter of Welf, count of Bavaria; and having assigned a wife, Judith, daughter of Wel. cou t of Bavaria; and having assigned*a accompanied by his queen, his brothers, and almost all the chivalry of part of his dominions to Charles, his son by Judith, his other sons rebelled. France. He passed the winter in Cyprus, took Damietta in June, 1249, He was twice deposed and reinstated on the throne; Judith was confinedber, and won a victory over the Sar,I. appeared before Mansourah in December, and won a victory over the Sarain a monastery at Poitiers; in 838, France was invaded by the Northmen cens there, February 8, 1250; but in April his army, worn out with fighting and the Saracens; a fresh revolt of Louis of Bavaria broke out in 839; and sickness, was routed, and Louis was taken prisoner by the sultan of and the king, worn out with vexation, died on an island of the Rhine, Egypt. A greater union of fortitude, punctilious honor, umanity, and June,0h 840,,Egypt. A greater union of fortitude, punctilious honor, humanity, and below Mentz, June 20th, 840. personal bravery has seldom been witnessed in the conduct of a prince Louis VII., (1120-1180,) King of France. He succeeded his father in 1137, than was displayed by Louis throughout this expedition. Exorbitant terms having the same year married Eleanor, heiress of Aquitaine. A quarrel were demanded as the price of the monarch's freedom, and a vast ransom ii ii,..........,.~.j.............~................ ~ ii i..............!, - - i i' iIi r... 96 LOY LUN was also claimed for his followers. But the sultan, admiring the magna- implicit, that the whole order resembled a healthy body actuated by a vignimity of Louis, struck off a fifth of the sum for his personal ransom. orous soul. Turan was soon after murdered. The terms being fulfilled, Louis embarked with about 6,000 men, the sole remains of his fine army for Acre and spent |Lucianus, (Lucian,) a celebrated Greek author, was born at Samosata, durfour years more in Palestine, but did not see Jerusalem. On his return to ing the reign of Trajan. I-le was of humble origin, and was placed while France, he applied himself to the government of his kingdom with exem- young with an uncle, to study sculpture, but being unsuccessful in his first France, he applied himself to the government of his kingdom with exem, attempts, he went to Antioch, and devoted himself to literature and forensic plary diligence, good sense, impartiality, and moderation. Notwithstanding the disasters of his crusade, impelled by the strong religious enthusiasm rhetoric In the reign of Marcus Aurelius he was made procurator of the which characterized him through life, he undertook a new one in 1270, the province of Egypt, and died when 90 years old. The works of Lucian, of which many have come down to us, are mostly in the form of dialogues; object of which was the conquest of both Egypt and Palestine. Tunis, but none are so popular as those in which he ridicules the pagan mythology however, was the first point of attack; but, while engaged at the siege of and philosophical sects. Many of them, however, though written in an elethat place, a pestilence broke out among the French troops; and, after and philosophical sects Many of them, however, though written in an eleseeing one of his sons and a great part of his army perish, Louis was |gant style, and abounding in wit, are tainted with profanity and indecency. himself one of its victims, August 24th, 1270. Louis IX. was canonized by Luitprand. Bishop of Cremona in the 10th century, is distinguished as a Boniface VIII., in 1297, and his Life was written by his friend, the Sire de ise was ent on two embassies to Constantidiplomatist and historian. He was sent on two embassies to ConstantiJoinville. nople; first, in 946, by Berengarius, then regent of Italy, and again in Louis Sforza. See SFORZA. 965, by the emperor Otto I., to the usurper Phocas. He was also employed by Otto, in 962, on a mission to Pope John XII., and assisted at Loyola, Ignatius, (1491-1556,) founder of the Society of Jesus. It was'Loyola, Ignatius, (1491-1556,) founder of the Society of Jesus. It ws the council of Rome at which John was deposed. Luitprand was one of chiefly to the exertions of the Jesuits that the principles of the Reformers s s the most learned men of his time, and has left a very amusing narrative did not universally obtain footing. The founder of this order, Ignatius of his embassy to the East, besides a history of the emperor Otto the Great, Loyola, a Spaniard, was a man of warm imagination and strong passions; and a history of Italy between 862-964. The works of Luitprand are our and his whole soul, endued with these qualities, had abandoned itself in his early yastaveeetelfrterlgochief authority for the period they treat of. Died at Cremona, probably his early years to a vehement zeal for the religion which he professed. about 970. After having distinguished himself in war, especially against the infidels, he became the founder of a religious order. In the monastery of Mont- Lundy's Lane, Battle of, (1814 A. D.) The United States of America, feelserrat, which is scarcely accessible, situated in a wilderness, and elevated ing themselves aggrieved at the interruption of their commerce occasioned above all the mountains of Catalonia, he copied the rules of a spiritual life by the famous " orders in council," and still further exasperated at the which had been prescribed by a holy abbot. The original plan of the Order right of search claimed by England for English seamen on board Ameriof Jesuits was simple, devout, and innocent; after the death of the author, can vessels, declared war against England, June 18th, 1812) and although it was improved first by Lainez, and afterward by Aquaviva, men who the obnoxious orders had been revoked before the proclamation reached were endued with the deepest knowledge of human nature, and immutably England, the States were too much excited to recall their declaration. The steadfast in pursuit of one main object. They deserve, indeed, to be con- consequence was, the American forces advanced for the conquest of Canada. sidered as the founders of a society which will bear a comparison with the During the war, Scott's brigade was sent to the Falls of Niagara, (July great institutions of the lawgivers of antiquity: like them, it inspired its 25th, 1814,) to watch the movements of a division of the'enemy. On members with extraordinary activity, and infused a spirit of obedience so approaching the Falls, the Americans suddenly found themselves in the MAC MAC 97 presence of the whole British army, which was advantageously posted for ror and a vast assemblage of the princes and prelates of Germany. He a pitched battle. The victory was hotly contested on both sides, but mid- there made an elaborate defence, and concluded with these words: "Let night left the Americans in possession of the field. This battle of Lun- me then be refuted and convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures, or dy's Lane was one of the most hotly contested actions ever fought in the by the clearest arguments: otherwise I cannot and will not recant; for it New World. Three thousand Americans, and 4,500 British took part in it. is neither safe nor expedient to act against conscience. Here I take my The former lost 743 in killed and wounded; the latter, 878. stand; I can do no otherwise, so help me God! Amen." Leaving Worms, the elector of Saxony conveyed him to the castle of Wartburg. Here Luther Luther, Martin, (1483-1546.) He was destined by his father for the legal remained ten months, spending his days in laborious studies, and then profession; but the impression produced upon him by the fate of his friend returned to Wittenberg, where he published a sharp reply to Henry VIII., Alexis, who was struck dead by lightning while walking by his side on the who had written a book against him, on the seven sacraments. In 1529 road from Mansfeld to Erfurt, uniting with the effect of his early religious the emperor assembled another diet at Spire, to check the progress of the education, induced him to devote himself to the monastic life. Hle entered new opinions; and there it was that the name Protestants first arose, prothe monastery of the Augustines in 1505, and was, two years afterward, test being made, on the part of the electoral princes, who supported the ordained priest. In 1508 he was made professor of philosophy in the new Reformation, against the rigorous impositions brought forward in this university of Wittenberg, in which position his powerful mind soon showed assembly. After this, the protesting princes determined to have a common itself: he threw off the fetters of the scholastic philosophy, and attracted confession of faith.drawn up, which was accordingly prepared by Melanca large number of pupils. His profound learning, together with the fame thon, and, being presented at the diet of Augsburg, in 1530, was called of his eloquence, soon made Luther known to the principal scholars of the "The Confession of Augsburg." In 1534, Luther's translation of the age. Great therefore was the attention excited by his ninety-five propo- whole Bible was published. At length, worn out more by labor than by sitions, affixed to the church of Wittenberg castle, October 31st, 1517, and age, Luther died at his native place, February 18th, 1546. His works are intended to put an end to the sale of indulgences by the Dominican Tetzel. very numerous. In them he revived the Augustinian theory of the anniThey were condemned as heretical, and burnt; but neither menaces nor hilation of liberty, and immolated free-will to grace and man to God. persuasions could induce him to recant. Being called to defend himself, From his well-known "Table-Talk," Michelet extracted the substance of he presented himself at the diet of Worms, April, 1521, before the empe- his very interesting "Life of Luther." Macchiavelli, Nicolo, (1469-1527,) for many years secretary of the repub- Several writings of the Florentine secretary are regarded as estimable lie of Florence, and justly celebrated for his political and historical writ- productions of a superior mind; others are considered as pernicious and ings. When he had scarcely completed his 29th year, he was appointed containing abominable doctrines. But of all his works, that which has secretary to the general government. His ordinary occupation comnpre- excited the greatest attention is the celebrated treatise entitled "I1 hended the political correspondence and the redaction of treaties with Principe." This production, in which the ferocious Borgia is presented as foreign states. But the Florentine government, justly appreciating his a model to sovereigns who wish to govern absolutely, has acquired a detalents, were not long in extending his functions, and he was in con- plorable reputation in Europe, and made the author himself be regarded sequence successively intrusted with no less than 23 foreign legations. by many as an incarnation of the evil principle. 13 98 MAN MAR Macedonian War, (200 B. c.) See Appendix, page 188. fred, through the treachery of his Apulian troops, was defeated and killed, February 26th. Magellan, or Magelhaens, Ferdinand, (?-1521,) a celebrated Portuguese navigator, who, in 1509, discovered and passed the straits which have Marathon. In 490 B. C., Darius, king of Persia, sent his generals Dates since been called by his name. His services not being valued by his own and Artaphernes with the first of those prodigious armies with which the country, he offered them to Charles V. of Spain, who intrusted him with East has so often from that time overwhelmed the West. They sailed to a fleet destined to attempt a westward passage to the Moluccas; hence his Eubcea with an enormous fleet, took Erebria by treachery, and having crossed discovery. He was slain in 1521. in a skirmish with the natives of one of the channel into Attica, drew up their forces, which amounted to 100,000 the Philippine Islands. men, on the plain of Marathon. This is a small plain in the northeastern part of Attica, somewhat in the form of a half-moon, the inner curve of Mandeville, Sir John de, (?-1372), the earliest writer of English prose which is bounded by the bay, and the outer by a range of mountains, whose work survives. He left his native country in 1327; spent 34 years through which two narrow passes led to Athens. These passes were covered in visiting the Holy Land, Egypt, India, and China; and on his return, by the Athenians. For nine days the armies stood opposite one another. published an account of his travels, in Latin, which was afterward trans- Before the expiration of these nine days, the Persians had relinquished the lated by himself into French, and thence into English. His work, full plan of forcing the passes, and on the tenth day the fleet was already of most interesting details, freely interspersed with all sorts of wonderful manned and the cavalry already on board. Then it was that Miltiades, and incredible tales, earned him an extraordinary reputation among his who that day (September 12th, 490,) held the supreme command, ordered contemporaries, and was soon spread over Europe in various transla- the Athenians to advance against the troops that were drawn up by the tions. shore to cover the embarkation. The hosts of the great king were driven Manfred, (1233-1266,) Regent and afterward King of Sicily, was a natural before the armed townsmen of Athens. They had no place whither to son of the emperor Frederick II. and a noble Lombard lady, and was retreat and where they might form in order. They were driven into the born about 1235. His father gave him the title of prince of Tarentum morasses and there slain in numbers. The first great turning-point in the and at his death, in 1250, named him regent of Sicily during the absencepeople is the day of Marathon. Nothing ever yet of the heir to the throne, (Conrad.) He quelled the revolts stirred up in said of that day has exaggerated its immense importance to Greece and to Apulia by Pope Innocent IV., the bitter enemy of his father, and on the death of Conrad, in 1254, again became regent during the infancy of Con- Marcus Aurelius. See AURELIUS. radino. Another general revolt broke out, but in the course of the two following years Manfred recovered his power; and, in 1258, on a report of Marius, Caius, (B. c. 157-86,) a celebrated Roman general and popular the death of Conradino, he had himself crowned king of Palermo. He leader, who was seven times consul. He first distinguished himself at the would not resign the crown on learning that the young prince was still siege of Numantia; was tribune of the people B. c. 119; and ten years living, but promised to leave it to him at his death. Manfred was excom- afterward went to Africa as lieutenant to the consul Metellus; superseded municated by Alexander IV., and by his successor, Urban IV.; the latter his commander, and obtained the consulship himself, after the subjugation then offering the crown of Sicily to various princes. It was accepted by of Jugurtha. When Italy was threatened soon after by the Cimbri and Charles of Anjou, and the Pope proclaimed a crusade against Manfred. Teutones, Marius was chosen consul as the man most capable of successCharles was crowned king at Rome in January, 1266, and immediately fully resisting them. The danger was, however, postponed for several invaded Naples; the decisive battle was fought near Benevento, and Man- years, and when, in B. C. 102, the conflict took place, Marius defeated, and, MAR MIAR 99 indeed, destroyed the host of the Teutones at Aquse Sextike, in Gaul, and Eugene, gained the famous victory of Blenheim in 1704, for which the thanks with Catulus, in the following year, as completely overthrew the Cimbri, of parliament were voted to him, and the manor of Woodstock conferred on near Vercellre. The conquerors shared the triumph, and Marius was called him; defeated Marshal Villeroi at Ramillies in 1706, and closed the brilliant the third founder of Rome. In B. c. 90, he took part in the Social War, series of his victories by those of Oudenarde in 1708, and Malplaquet in 1709. and his jealousy of Sulla began. Two years later Sulla was charged to A national thanksgiving was appointed for the latter victory. But a reverse conduct the war against Mithridates, but Marius succeeded in getting the of fortune was at hand. The popular discontent occasioned by heavy taxacommand transferred to himself. At once Sulla marched to Rome with tion, the belief that the war was prolonged chiefly by Marlborough's influhis army, and a civil war commenced to decide their superiority. Marius ence, and for selfish ends, and the increasing power of the Tory party, led fled, wandered about on the coasts of Italy, and, after several escapes, was to his dismissal from all his offices at the beginning of 1712. An unfavorfound by some horsemen in a marsh. He was conducted naked to Min- able report had been given by the commission appointed to examine the turnme, where the magistrate, after some deliberation, resolved to obey the charge of peculation brought against him, and, to escape the disquietude orders of the senate and of Sulla. But the Cimbrian slave to whom the of a life at home, he went abroad with his duchess, who had also been disexecution was intrusted, awed by the look and words of Marius, dropped placed at court. Returning in 1714, George I. restored him to his offices, his sword, and the people of Minturnae, moved with compassion, conducted but he was soon after compelled by an attack of apoplexy to withdraw from him to the coast, whence a vessel conveyed him to Africa. He landed at public life, and he died at Windsor Lodge in 1722. The character of MarlCarthage; but his party once more triumphing in Italy, he was recalled by borough presents a perplexing combination of noble and base qualities, Cinna and Sertorius, who making themselves masters of Rome, a terrible which have served as the groundwork of extravagant eulogy and fierce proscription took place. Marius enjoyed the dignity of consul for the invective. His rare ability as a general, his skill and success as a diploseventh time, B. C. 86, and died shortly after, aged 70. matist, are unquestionable. No less so are his vast ambition, his avarice, and his treachery. There are numerous memoirs of Marlborough and his Marlborough, John Churchill, (1650-1722,) Duke of. After receiving a campaigns. defective education, he was placed, at the age of 12, as page in the house- Marsic War, (90 B. c.) See Appendix, page 189. hold of the duke of York. His passion for the life of a soldier was not long in showing itself, and from 1672-7, he served in the auxiliary force Martialis, (43-?,) a celebrated Roman poet, was born Spin Spain, A. D. 43. sent by Charles II. to Louis XIV., and so greatly distinguished himself At the age of 23 he went to Rome, where his talents soon gained him disthat Turenne predicted his future eminence, and Louis XIV. gave him the tinction. e enjoyed the enjoye d r of the emperor Domitian, who loaded him highest praise at the head of the army. At the Revolution of 1688 he with honors, which he repaid with the most prodigal flattery and servility. entered the service of the prince of Orange, and was created earl of Marlbor- Among the friends of Martial were Pliny the younger, Quintilian, Juvenal, ough. On the breaking out of the war of the Spanish Succession in 1700, and other literary men. After 35 years' residence at Rome, he returned at he received the chief command of the forces in the United Provinces, and the close of 100 to Bilbilis, where he lived on the estate of his wife, Marwas named ambassador to France. MIarlborough was now to enter upon cella. His works consist of fourteen books of short metrical compositions, that career of military achievement which not only established his reputa- entitled " Epigrammata," distinguished for their wit, exquisite diction, but tion as a general, but had most important results in tIle political state of also, in many instances, for their indelicacy. Europe, especially in the destruction of the formidable preponderance of Mary Stuart. See STUART, MARY. French power. As commander-in-chief of the allied forces he took several places in the Netherlands in 1702; with the Imperialists under Prince Marquis of Worcester. See WORCESTER. 100 MAZ M ES Massacre of Vassy. See VASSY. Memphis was the first capital of the entire kingdom of Egypt. It stood on the western bank of the Nile, lat. 300 6' N. Only 15 miles from the Maurice of Saxony. See Appendix, page 200. bifurcation of the Nile at Cercassorus, it commanded the south entrance to the Delta, while it was nearer to the Thebaid than any of the Deltic Mazarin, Jules, (1602-1661 A. D.,) Cardinal and prime-minister of France provincial cities of importance, Heliopolis, Bubastis, and Tais. It is also during the minority and first years of Louis XIV. During his minority clear why its founder placed it on the western bank of the Nile. His the government was administered avowedly by his mother, Anne of Austria, kingdom had little to apprehend from the tribes of the Libyan Desert; but, in reality by Cardinal Mazarin; a man who, though in every point whereas the eastern frontier of Egpyt was always exposed to attack from inferior to Richelieu, had imbibed something of his spirit, and who, so far Arabia, Assyria, and Persia, nor indeed was it beyond the reach of the as he was able, adopted the policy of that great statesman, to whom he Scythians. It was important, therefore, to make the Nile a barrier of the owed his promotion. But the circumstance for which the administration city; and this was effected by placing Memphis west of it. Before, howof Mazarin is most remarkable is the breaking out of that great civil war ever, Menes could lay the foundations of his capital, an artificial area was called the Fronde, in which the people attempted to carry into politics the to be provided for them. The Nile, at that remote period, seems to have insubordinate spirit which had already displayed itself in literature and had a double bifurcation; one at the head of the Delta, the other above religion. Here we cannot fail to note the similarity between this struggle, the site of Memphis, and parallel with the Fayoum. Of the branches of and that which at the same time was taking place in England. In both its southern fork, the western and wider of the two ran at the foot of the countries there now first arose that great product of civilization, a free Libyan hills; the eastern and lower was the present main stream. Between press, which showed its liberty by pouring forth those fearless and innu- them the plain, though resting on a limestone basis, was covered with merable works which mark the activity of the age. In both countries the marshes, caused by their periodical overflow. This plain Menes chose for struggle was between retrogression and progress; between those who clung the area of Memphis. He began by constructing an embankment that to tradition and those who longed for innovation; while in both the contest diverted the main body of the water into the eastern arm; and the marshes assumed the external form of a war between king and parliament, the king he drained off into two principal lakes, one to the north, the other to the being the organ of the past, the parliament being the representative of the west of Memphis, which thus, on every side but the south, was defended present. There was one other point of vast importance in which these by water. two great events coincide; this is, that both arose from the desire of securing civil liberty. France was indebted to Mazarin for the advan- Messina, Battle of, (1676 A. D.) Messina is situated in the northeastern tages she derived from the peace of Westphalia and that of the Pyrenees; part of Sicily, on the strait of Messina, here about two miles wide. The and it is impossible to deny the possession of great talents to him who inhabitants of Messina, exasperated by the oppressions of the Spanish signed these treaties, who twice governed France from the depths of his government, had revolted in the summer of 1674, and invoked the aid of exile, and preserved the supreme authority to the close of his life, under France, which was accorded by Louis XIV. The French made great efforts such a prince as Louis XIV., and with such men as Cardinal de Retz and to retain so important a position as the straits of Messina; they defeated the Great Conde for his opponents. A better diplomatist than administrator, all the attempts of the Spaniards to regain possession of that city, and and full of contempt for the people, Mazarin enriched himself without even extended their occupation in its neighborhood. At length, toward scruple at its expense, did nothing for the internal prosperity of the state, the end of December, 1675, a Dutch fleet under De Ruyter arrived to the and left France without credit and almost ruined. Miss Freer's "Regency assistance of their allies the Spaniards, and a desperate but indecisive of Anne of Austria" gives a good account of Mazarin's administration. action took place, January 8th, near Messina, between the Hispano MIC MIL 101 Dutch fleet and the French under Duquesne. On the 22d of April, 1676, early age, and attracted the notice of Lorenzo de Medici, who employed another engagement was fought near Catania with the same result, except him in his palace. He soon after went to Rome, whither his renown as that the death of the gallant De Ruyter might be considered equivalent to sculptor of the " Sleeping Cupid" had preceded him. He there executed a victory. A cannon-ball carried away the left foot and shattered the his famous Pieta. For the next 30 years he lived mostly at Florence, but right leg of the veteran admiral, as he was giving his orders on the quarter- was frequently called to Rome. About 1506 he drew his plan for St. Peter's. deck. He died of his wounds a few days after at Syracuse. In a third He was the first who was able to imagine the colossal in a colossal manner, naval action off Palermo, June 2d, the French gained a complete victory; and in this way he devised the dome of St. Peter's. We need only comthey now remained masters of the seas, and the allied fleet was compelled pare San Gallo's model with his to feel where the difference lies. San to take refuge at Naples. [ Gallo raised tower above tower, increased, added one thing to another, and.Cl t, -(1773-1859,) Prince, one of the most states- |thus brought together a great but divisible mass. The small, however, men ofmodern ties. His abilities soon attracted notice. Afer the does not become colossal by making it double or threefold; magnitude men of modern times His abilites soon ati. A r t-ed. must belong to the form when it is devised. In this spirit Michael Angelo peace of Presburg, he was appointed ambassador at Paris, in 1806; and in made his plan. He arranged every proportion according to the extent of that delicate situation,. though representing a vanquished monarch, hes dom.n.on of Npon. He.w s. c f.n! n..8the whole work. ar usHed -was one of the greatest artists of that great period succeeded in conciliating all who caoe In contact with him by the o succeeded in conciliating all who came in contact with him, by the of art, the 16th century. He was also a poet, and the few poems he has urbanity of his manners and the skill with which he maintained his difficult and important position. In 1809 he was appointed chancellor of state and for nearly 40 years he exercised the highest authority in the Aus- whole man and his deeds, are visible vast power, with calmness and sadness. He was greatly loved and greatly feared. He died at Rome, and trian empire. One of his first aims was to bring about a marriage between.[, ^., ~~~~~~~~~~was buried at Florence. An excellent Life of Miichael Angelo has been Napoleon and an Austrian archduchess, as a means of purchasing a respite w rie. for the empire. But this expedient of a humiliating sacrifice could not be b G permanent; and in 1813, after the great French disasters in Russia, war Miltiades, a celebrated Athenian general, hero of Marathon, was the youngest was again declared against France, and from that moment Metternich son of Cimon, and succeeded his brother, Stesagoras, about B. c. 515, as became the soul of all the steps that were taken to make an end to the tyrant of the Chersonese. He took part in the invasion of Scythia by dominion of Napoleon. He was successful, and in 1815 he presided over Darius, held his government of the Chersonese at least 22 years, and rethe congress of Vienna, which had been assembled for the purpose of tired to Athens in 493. On occasion of the second Persian invasion of dividing the immense spoils of Napoleon and reorganizing Europe. The Greece, under Datis and Artaphernes, 490, Miltiades was chosen one of maintaining of the articles of the congress of Vienna formed henceforth the ten generals, and signalized himself by the great victory over the the chief business of Metternich. For this purpose he cruelly repressed Persians on the field of Marathon. Having persuaded the Athenians to every aspiration of the people after civil, political, or religious liberty. give him the command of a fleet, he used it for private ends in an attack In 1848 he-was compelled to flee from Vienna; but he returned in 1851, on Paros. The attack failed, Miltiades was severely wounded, and on his and, though he never again assumed office, his counsels are said to have return to Athens was prosecuted and imprisoned for deceiving the people. swayed the emperor down to the moment of his death. His death took place in prison soon after. Mexican War. See Appendix, page 219. M i War.: See Appendix,'page 2 19', *....... Milton, Jo"hn, (1608-1674,) the great English poet. His father gave him a Michael Angelo Buonarotti, (1474-1564,) the great Italian painter, sculp- careful education, which was continued at St. Paul's school and the unitor, architect, and poet. His passion for drawing showed itself at a very versity of Cambridge, where he distinguished himself by the excellence of 102 MIL MIT his Latin poems. In 1637 he set out for Italy. After three years' absence Smectymnus," "Treatise on Education," "Tenure of Kings and Magisnews reached him of the political troubles which were beginning in Eng- trates;" and "History of England," down to the Norman Conquest only, land, and, passionate lover of liberty as he was, he hastened home to take the first history of that early period derived from the Saxon Chronicles. what part he, as thinker or actor, might. The first of the long series of Milton died November 8th, 1674, and his remains were buried in St. Giles, writings by which he showed himself the earnest and accomplished cham- Cripplegate, where there is a monument to his memory. Another monupion of freedom were the "Two Books on Reformation in England," pub- ment was subsequently erected to him in Westminster Abbey. A more lished in 1641. Ile passed to the side of the Independents, and wrote the enduring one is built up in the hearts of all lovers of truth and freedom, Areopagitica," one of the most magnificent and wonderful of his prose not his own countrymen alone, but men of all lands and times. Time has works. Ii February, 1649, he was appointed Latin secretary to the council reversed and almost obliterated the verdict of the enemies of Milton, and of state; and among the duties assigned to him were those of writing a he is now for all of us a man whose language we are proud to call our own, refutation of the sophistical " Eikon Basilike," then attributed to Charles great asnong the greatest, and good among the best. Wordsworth in his I., and a reply to the violent work of Salmasius in defence of the king and sublime sonnet, and Macaulay in his brilliant essay, have given words to the monarchy. Hence the masterly " Eikonoclastes," and the noble " De- the verdict of mankind. Professor David Masson has published a very fence of the People of England." On the establishment of the Protector- elaborate " Life of Milton." ate Milton became secretary to Cromwell, and remained so till the death of the latter in 1658. Several years before that time he had become totally Mithridates, the Great, (B. C. 131-63,) King of Pontus. He diligently blind, deliberately and heroically preferring, as he says, the loss of his cultivated his mind by study and travel, and is said to have been master of sight to the desertion of his duty. The last short intervals of sight allotted more than twenty languages. In 88 he began his great struggle with the him were devoted to the composition of the " Defence." His pathetic Romans, took almost all Asia Minor, and occupied Thrace and Athens. reference to his blindness in the "Paradise Lost" is well known; less All hope of reconciliation was taken away by the massacre, which he known are the passages in which he speaks of it in the "Defence," and in ordered, of all Romans found in Asia. Eighty thousand are said to have one of his Latin letters, (XV.) At the Restoration he retired into obscurity, been slain. Sulla was then sent against him. After four years of war, old, poor, and blind; was once arrested by order of the Commons, but after Mithridates was compelled to give up his conquests and his fleet, and pay a short confinement was liberated. The court went on with its gayeties a heavy contribution to the Romans. More fighting took place, and, in 74, and debaucheries, and the Puritan poet wrote " Paradise Lost," which was Mithridates invaded Bithynia, and besieged Cyzicus. Lucullus soon comfinished in 1665. For this great poem he could hardly find a publisher, pelled him to raise the siege, and drove him into Armenia, and, but for a and he received for it a miserable five pounds, with a conditional promise mutiny of his troops, would probably have ended the war. Again the tide of other like sums afterward. It appeared in 1667, and, as was likely in turned, and Mithridates recovered a large part of his dominions. In 66, such a time, found few readers. Milton continued to write both poems Pompey was sent to carry on the war, and defeated him near the Euphrates. and prose works, and on the suggestion of his friend Ellwood, the Quaker, His spirit was still unbroken, and he formed the bold plan of invading Italy wrote "Paradise Regained," which has been unfairly depreciated. "Sam- from the north; but at last his son Pharnaces was proclaimed king by the son Agonistes," a grand tragic drama after Greek models, appeared about soldiers, and the great warrior, who had withstood the power of Rome for the same time. Among his other poems are the mask " Comus," one of 25 years, took poison to end his life. It was ineffectual, from the frequent his most exquisite creations; " L'Allegro," " II Penseroso," " Lycidas," use he had made of poisons and antidotes, and he was put to death by a "Sonnets," and Latin and Italian poems. Among the prose works not faithful Gaul in his service, B. c. 63. The death of Mithridates was looked already named are " Reason of Church Government," "Apology for on by the Romans as equivalent to a victory: the messengers who reported MIS MOH 103 to the general the catastrophe, appeared crowned with laurel, as if they had friendly note. Finally, in 1827, Greece was declared an independent kinga victory to announce, in the Roman camp before Jericho. In him a great dom under protection of England, France, and Russia. enemy was borne to the tomb, greater than had ever yet withstood the Romans in the indolent East. He was not a man of genius, but he pos- Moawiyah, (610-680,) sixth Caliph, first of the dynasty of the Ommyades, sessed the very respectable gift of hating, and out of this hatred he sus- was the son of Abu Sophian, the bitterest foe of Mohammed. After the tained an unequal conflict against superior foes throughout half a century, conquest of Mecca by the Prophet, Moawiyah, with his father, embraced without success doubtless, but still with honor. He became still more sig- Islamism. He became secretary to Mohammed, and in 641 was made nificant through the position in which history had placed him, than through governor of Syria. He conquered the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, and his individuality. As the advanced post of the national reaction of the on the murder of the caliph Othman, 655, refused to recognize Ali, his East against the Occidentals, he opened the new conflict of the East against successor; and, after a campaign of several months on the Euphrates, dethe West; and the feeling remained with the vanquished as with the victors feated him. His life was attempted in 660, but he escaped with a serious that his death was not so much the end as the beginning. wound; and Ali being assassinated about the same time, Moawiyah procured the abdication of Hassan, son of Ali, and became undisputed sovMissolonghi, a small town on the western coast of Greece, where, in 1824, ereign. Civil war ceasing, the caliph extended his dominions by conat the earlyage of 36, the most celebrated English poet of the 19th century, quests both in the East and West. Moawiyah succeeded in making (Lord Byron,) closed his brilliant and miserable career. Since the beginning the caliphate hereditary, and his son Yezid was proclaimed his successor of this century, the increase of wealth had inspired the Greeks with new in 676. tastes and more extended ideas. Young men of the upper classes were sent to Paris and other places for their education; in the schools at home the Mohacz, Battle of, (1526 A. D.,) the result of which was the union of BoheGreek classics were read, and inspired the youth with a love of liberty and mia and Hungary with Austria. Sultan Selim was succeeded, after an a desire to emulate their ancestors. Their aspirations for independence enterprising reign of eight years, by his son Solyman, who received from the were encouraged by the Philhellenism which, in many parts of Europe, had Turks the surname of El Kanuni, or "The Lawgiver," and from the become a sort of fashion. A rising of the Greeks was first actually agitated Europeans that of " The Magnificent." He took Erzerum from the Perby Alexander Ypsilanti. In the spring of 1821 insurrectionary symptoms sians, and compelled them to consent to a partition of Georgia. The conbegan to show themselves, in which Mavrocordato, a Phanariot of ancient quest of Rhodes, 1522, cost him 180,000 men. He was unaccustomed to family, was the principal leader. The war continued through 1823, and it relinquish an enterprise while there remained any possibility of carrying was not till the following year that the Western powers began to interfere. it into effect; and at length, by means of his heavy artillery, triumphed The first active aid for the Greeks came from England. The accession of over the undaunted courage of the grand-master l'Isle Adam, alnd Canning to the ministry, as foreign secretary, was favorable to their cause, the knights of St. John. Solyman also vanquished the army of King and early in 1824 they obtained in London a loan of ~800,000. Lord Lewis of Hungary and Bohemia, in the battle of Mohacz; which was Byron, an ardent Philhellenist, not content with assisting themn from his followed by the death of his youthful adversary, who was misled into a own resources with money and arms, proceeded to Greece to give them his marshy district where he lost his life. The battle of Mohacz was one of personal aid. But a nearer acquaintance with the Greeks speedily dissi- those events which decide the fate of nations. By the death of Lewis two pated all classical illusions. Byron died at Missolonghi, April 19th, 1824, crowns became vacant, which were finally united on the head of Ferdinand, from vexation, disappointment, and the effects of the climate. In Decem- archduke of Austria, and husband of Anna, only sister and heir of the ber, 1824, Canning recognized the Greek government by sending them a unlucky Lewis. (See Genealogy, VIII.) 104 MOH MON.Mohammed, (570-632.) The Arabian Prophet and the founder of Islam during the great mutiny of 1857, and died, three days after his capture of was born at Mecca, 570 A. D. From his youth he had shown a fondness Herat, in May, 1863. for seclusion and serious meditation, and having attained a ripeness of Molibre, (1622-1673,) the great French dramatist. His realname was Jean character and distinctness of aim and views, he began at 40 years of age Baptiste Poquelin, and he took the name of Moliere, out of regard to his to announce himself as a prophet, and to proclaim the doctrine of Islam, parents, when he first became an actor. After obtaining great success in (salvation,) "There is no God but God, and Mohammed is his prophet." the provinces, he settled at Paris in 1658, having previously produced his For many years his followers were very few. The opposition of the elders two great comedies, "L'Etourdi," and "Le DIpit Amoureux." In the and people of Mecca grew more and more bitter, and at length they refollowing year he increased his reputation by the comedy " Preeieuses Ridisolved to put him to death. Mohammed fled from Mecca and escaped He was the intimate friend cules," which had a run of about 120 nights. He was the intimate friend through the palm-groves to Yatreb, (July 16th, 622.) From that day the of La Fontaine, Boileau, and other distinguished men; but his happiness Moslems compute the succession of time. This is the epoch of the Hegira, He was destroyed by an ill-assorted union (1662) with a young actress. He which Omar instituted seven years after the death of the prophet, (639.) I om ed ee, excited the animosity of the medical profession by several sharp attacks on In 630, Mohammed returned to Mecca, acknowledged as prince and them in his comedies; and that of the priests by his terrible attack on pious prophet. He now purified the Kaaba and destroyed its 360 idols, and prophet. He now purified the Kaaba and destroyed its 360 idols, and hypocrites in the famous "Tartuffe," which was withdrawn from the stage decreed that no infidel should enter the holy city. Wihen Mecca had by the order of the king. The order was annulled in 1668. In some of his become obedient, and all Arabia paid him reverence, Mohammed comcomedies he borrowed from or imitated the Latin comic writers, and in manded Islamism to be carried into every country, and all nations to be omehe i the d atin ofcharacterandthe some the Italian and Spanish. But i n the delneation of character and the united by arms or by faith. Mohammed died in 632, in the 63d year of portrayal of the vices and follies of social life, Moli're is thoroughly origihis age. nal; and whatever materials he may have appropriated from earlier writers, he so treated them as to make the result entirely his own. He is called by Mohammed Ehan, Dost, (?-1863,) sovereign of Afghanistan. In 1836,war was declared against ( 3 s goverenit. Voltaire the father of French comedy, and alone among French comic succeling him by the British government. In 1839 they writers is classical. While he treats some subjects with exquisite refinesucceeded in expelling Dost Mohammed, and enthroned his rival. Conment, he indulges too frequently in exaggeration, coarseness, and mere fined for a time in Bokhara, whither he had fled, Dost Mohammed escaped in Y(>AN 1. i...buffoonery. His works, it is said, have been more frequently republished 1840, and took part in the insurrections excited by his son, Akhbar Khan; but soon surrendered himself to the English. The insurrections continued, than those of any other French author. In 1673 he took part in the repbut soon surrendered himself to the English. The insurrections continued, resentation of his last comedy, "Le Malade Imaginaire," being at the time and the ferocious Akhbar took the leading part in them. The war came se of h seriously out of health; the effort was too much for him, and he died the to an end in 1841; and a convention was concluded under which, in him he 3anuary, 1842, Cabul was evacuated. same night, 17th February. His profession excluded him from the French January, 1842, Cabul was evacuated. Then followed the memorable and Academy, but a century after his death his bust was set up in the hall, with disastrous retreat, and the massacre of the whole English army, with the a camp-followers, women, and children, numbering about 26,000 persons, one survivor only reaching Jelalabad; the renewal of the war, the rescue of Montaigne, Michel, (1533-1592,) the celebrated French essayist. In 1554, the English prisoners from Akhbar, the complete triumph of the English he was appointed a judge in the parliament of Bordeaux, and about that arms, and the final evacuation of Cabul, after the destruction of its forti- time he gained the esteem of the Chancellor L'Htpital and the warm friendfications, in October, 1842. In the following year Dost Mohammed re- ship of Etienne Boetie, a fellow-judge. During the civil wars which desocovered the throne. He remained friendly and faithful to the British lated his country, he lived in retirement on his own estate; profoundly MON MOO 105 afflicted by the general suffering, and especially by the massacre of St. Bar- close before he could fight any decisive action, which enabled Montecuculi tholomew. In 1580-81 he travelled in Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. to cross the Rhine and enter Alsace. Conde was now ordered to assume During the last few years of his life he suffered from most painful diseases, the command in Alsace, who succeeded in holding Montecuculi in check and, like his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, he would have till November, when the Imperialists retreated into winter quarters beyond nothing to do with doctors or drugs. He died in the attitude of prayer, the Rhine. This was the last campaign both of Montecuculi and Conde. September 13th, 1592. Montaigne's "Essays " rank among the few great Montecuculi is the author of excellent M6moires on the art of war. books of the world. Pervaded by a philosophical skepticism, which they, Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, (1390-1453 A. D.,) a French historian. His more than any book, contributed to popularize in France - distinguished Chronicle commences at the year 1400, whe especially for their masculine good sense, abundance of learning, knowledge terminates at 1453. But different editors have successively added several of man anhewrdcernsndsmliiyofsyeadcopterminates at 1453. But different editors have successively added several of man and the world, clearness and simplicity of style, and complete sin- continuations, which bring it own to the year 1516. His work is called cerity, they were not long in winning the place in literature which they.cerity, they were not lon in winning the place in literature which they Chronicles; but we must not, however, consider this title in the sense comstill hold. They have been translated into almost all languages, and have mnonly attached to it, which merely conveys the idea of simple annals. passed through more than 80 editions. The subjects of the Essays are The Chronicles of Monstrelet are real history, wherein, notwithstanding its immensely various, and everything is discussed in the freest manner. Mon-.immethinksel vaous, and everything ihebo as d e in thme fr llee mannebr. Mo imperfections and omissions, are found all the characteristics of historical taigne thinks aloud in them. The book was at one time called the breviary writin. Ie traces events to their source, develops the causes, and traces of free-thinkers; and it is still from some of its characteristics chiefly writing. Ile traces events to their source, develops the causes, and traces of free-thinkers; and it is still, from some of its characteristics, chiefly them with the minutest details; and what render these Chronicles infi-,, them with the minutest details; and what render these Chronicles infiread by men of the world. It is one of the only two books we know to nitely precious is his never-failing attention to report all documents as have been in Shakspeare's library -the copy of Florio's translation, with justiticatory proofs of the truth of the facts he relates. An English transShakspeare's autograph, being still extant. An interesting biography lation was published in 1810. of Montaigne was recently published by Bayle St. John. Moore, Thomas, (1779-1852,) the national poet of Ireland. Like Pope, it Montecuculi, Raymond de, (1608-1681.) The Italian Montecuculi was may be said that he lisped in numbers; for in his 13th year he was a conthe greatest military chieftain in the service of the house of Austria during tributor to the " Anthologia," a Dublin magazine. In 1799 he proceeded the middle of the 17th century. In 1664, he commanded the forces of to London, with the view of publishing by subscription a translation of Christendom against the Turks, who, under the grand-vizier Achmet Kou- Anacreon, which appeared in 1800. In 1803, the earl of Moira obtained prili, were on the point of invading Germany. Montecuculi at length for him a government appointment in Bermuda, whither he proceeded, arrested their progress by' the memorable battle near St. Gothard, (August but speedily left his duties to be performed by a deputy, and visited the 1st, 1664,) a Cistercian convent on the borders of Hungary and Styria,. United States. After his return he published, in 1806, two volumes Montecuculi having given the word, "Death or victory," the Christians, of Odes and Epistles, which were the occasion of a bitter criticism in contrary to theirusual practice, charged without waiting to be attacked; the "Edinburgh Review." In consequence of that article, Jeffrey and the Turks were routed and thrown into a disorderly flight, in which more MIoore met as duellists at Chalk Farm; but no harm was done, and they than 10,000 of them were slain or drowned in the Raab. By this victory subsequently became fast friends. A report getting abroad that Moore and the danger of a Saracen invasion in Central Europe had been warded off Jeffrey fought with unloaded pistols, Byron commemorated the event in by Montecuculi. In the spring of 1675 he defended Germany against the his "English Bards and Scotch Reviewers; " and Moore followed up his French under Turenne, on the Rhine, where both generals displayed all Chalk Farm adventure by sending a challenge to Byron. The challenge the resources of their skill. But the career of Turenne was brought to a led, however, as with Jeffrey, to a sincere friendship between the two rival 14 106 MOR MOS poets. In 1813 commenced his patriotic task of wedding new words to classical English prose rests on his " Life and Reign of King Edward V." the most exquisite of the Irish airs, which resulted in the far-famed "Irish I It is characterized throughout by an easy narrative flow which rivals the Melodies;" which were soon followed by his Oriental romance, "Lalla sweetness of Herodotus. It is certainly the first English historic compoRookh." The work was hailed with a burst of admiration. Eastern sition that can be said to aspire to be more than a mere chronicle. travellers and Oriental scholars have borne testimony to the singular accuracy of Moore's descriptions; and, translated into Persian, this poem has Moscow, Burning of, (1812.) The conviction that the Continental system even become a favorite with the Orientals themselves. Moore also turned (the closing of the Continental ports against British goods) would be his attention to prose, and wrote remarkable biographies of Sheridan and ruinous to the commerce of Russia, and that Napoleon would never rest Lord Byron. In 1848 he fell into a state of second childhood and the until he had destroyed her influence as a first-rate European power, at name of Thomas Moore was added to the sad list which includes the names length roused the Russians to action. Napoleon, wishing to forestall Russia, of Swift, Scott, and Southey. collected, in 1812, an army of 400,000 men, from almost every country of southwestern Europe. With his accustomed rapidity of movement, he More, Sir Thomas, (1480-1535,) the earliest writer of classical English prose. crossed the Niemen into Lithuania, and advanced by forced marches to At the age of 21 he entered parliament, where he opposed a subsidy de- Smolensk, where he defeated the Russians, and after two more victories he manded by Henry VII., with such energy that it was refused by the house. entered Moscow. At the sight of its palaces and gilded domes, the French In 1518 he published his "Utopia," a political romance; and about this soldiery were filled with hope and joy, imagining that they had at last time the friendship began between him and Erasmus, which lasted through reached the end of all their labors and privations. But these anticipations life. By the interest of Wolsey he obtained a place in the privy council. were soon dissipated. On entering the city, it was discovered that all that Various political missions were intrusted to him by Henry VIII. In 1520 remained of its vast population were some twelve or fifteen thousand perhe succeeded Wolsey as lord chancellor; and, by his indefatigable applica- sons, either foreigners or the dregs of the people. The rest of the inhabittion in that office, there was in a short time not a cause left undetermined. ants had taken flight; the houses were all shut up, silence reigned in the He resigned the seals because he could not conscientiously sanction the deserted streets, striking a deeper terror into the heart than the tumult of divorce of Queen Catharine; and he was eventually committed to the Tower battle. Napoleon entered the city on the 15th, and took up his residence for refusing the oath of supremacy. After an imprisonment of 12 months in the Kremlin. He could not conceal the sinister presages which crowded he was brought to trial in the court of King's Bench; where, notwithstand- on his mind. Never before had he fought with a people who thus defended ing his eloquent defence, he was found guilty of treason, and sentenced to themselves. All around was desolation, and famine stared him in the face. be beheaded. His behavior, in the interval, corresponded with the uniform While he was giving vent to his lamentations, a new horror suddenly pretenor of his life; and, on July 6th, 1535, he ascended the scaffold with his sented itself. The night was well advanced, when from the windows of the characteristic pleasantry, saying to the lieutenant of the Tower, " I pray Kremlin the whole horizon seemed to glow with innumerable fires. Some you see me safe up; and as for my coming down, let me shift for myself." had been observed the day before, which had been attributed to accident; In the same spirit, when he laid his head on the block, he told the execu- but now there could be no doubt that the destruction of Moscow had been tioner to wait till he had removed his beard, "For that," said he, "hath systematically organized. It had, indeed, been planned and executed by committed no treason." Thus fell this illustrious Englishman, whose integ- Count Rostoptchin, the governor of the city. Combustible materials had rity and disinterestedness were on a par with his learning, and whose manly been placed in many houses, which were fired by a troop of paid incendipiety, genial wisdom, and tender kindness in his private relations, made aries, under the direction of the police. The flames baffled all the exertions him beloved of all who knew him. More's fame as the earliest writer, of of the French to extinguish them. On the third day a strong northwest NAP NAP 107 wind spread the fire over the whole city. During five days nothing was to 4,000 years, the object of veneration among all the nations, from the Tagus be seen but an ocean of flame, which at length began to encompass the to Hindostan, and from the frozen seas of Scandinavia to the country of Kremlin and compelled Napoleon to retreat, the order for which was given frankincense. By the help of God alone, he forced the Egyptian king to October 19th, 1812. (See Appendix, page 215.) release Israel from his dominion, and to suffer them to depart out of Egypt. Moses, in order to educate his people for freedom, made a long halt in a Moses, (B. C. 1571-1451.) During the time of the oppression of the Israelites country where Israel might be entirely free from the contagious influence by their taskmasters the Egyptians, Moses was born among them. He was of foreign manners. A sandy desert stretches from the borders of Egypt educated by a royal princess, who commanded the child to be educated in toward the mouth of the Euphrates. Where the two arms of the Arabian all the learning of Egypt. Happening to see one of his nation ill treated, Gulf extend into the land, a lofty mountain rises —Mount Sinai. Its he felt the injustice and slew the oppressor. After this act he fled, and highest summit is a granite rock, 22 feet wide and 12 feet long. From this followed for many years the occupation of herdsman on Mount Sinai. height, amidst thunders, which resounded with unwonted terrors through This wanderer, who had taken refuge in the wilderness, who fed the flocks the hollow clefts, Israel received her law. of a foreigner, his laws, his history, and his name are now, after more than N'. Napoleon Bonaparte, (1769-1821,) Emperor of the French, King of Italy, more became master of the whole of Italy. A peace with Austria followed etc., was born in Ajaccio, in the island of Corsica, August 15th, 1769. He these successes; and, soon after, a brief and hollow peace with England. was educated at the military school of Brienne, and entered the army as a On the 20th of May, 1804, he was raised to the imperial dignity; and in second lieutenant of artillery, in 1785. In 1793, during the Reign of Terror, December was crowned, with his empress Josephine, by Pope Pius VII. he was actively employed at the siege of Toulon, on which occasion the He now seriously meditated the invasion of England, assembled a numerconvention gave him the command of the artillery; and by his courage ous flotilla, and collected 200,000 troops in the neighborhood of Boulogne; and exertions the city was recovered from the English and royalists. He but Austria and Russia appearing in arms against him, and the battle of was now appointed to the command of the army of Italy, and, on the 10th Trafalgar having nearly annihilated the French navy, he abandoned the of May following, he gained the battle of Lodi. The subjugation of the design, and marched his troops to the banks of the Danube. On the 11th various Italian States, and his repeated success over the Austrians, ended of November, 1805, the French army entered Vienna; the memorable in a peace when he was within 30 miles of Vienna. Thus disengaged, a battle of Austerlitz took place on the 2d of December, and the humiliating new theatre for the display of his genius presented itself. With a large treaty of Presburg followed. The year 1806 may be regarded as the era fleet, and 40,000 troops on board the transports, he set sail for the intended of king-making. New dynasties were created by him, and princes proconquest of Egypt, in May, 1798. On his way thither he took Malta; and moted or transferred according to his will: the crown of Naples he beon the 22d of September, we find him celebrating the battle of the Pyra- stowed on his brother Joseph, that of Holland on Louis, and Westphalia mids at Cairo. He returned to France, in October, 1799; hastened to on Jerome; while the confederation of the Rhine was called into existence Paris, overthrew the directorial government; and was raised to the supreme to give stability to his extended dominion. Prussia again declared war; power by the title of First Consul. He now led a powerful army over the but the disastrous battle of Jena annihilated her hopes, and both she and Alps; fought the celebrated battle of Marengo, in June, 1800; and once Russia were glad to make peace with the French emperor in 1807. Napo 108 NAP NEL leon now turned his eye on Spain, procuring the abdication of Charles IV., pelled Louis XVIII. from the kingdom. But the confederated armies and the resignation of Ferdinand, while he sent 80,000 men into that were now in motion; and though he marched against them with a large country, seized all the strong places, and obtained possession of the capital; army, the ever-memorable battle of Waterloo put an end to his career. but this proved one of the main causes which led to his downfall. In 1809, He withdrew from the army, and proceeded tQ the coast, with the intenwhile his armies were occupied in the Peninsula, Austria again ventured tion of embarking for America; but, fearful of being captured by the to try her strength with France. Napoleon thereupon left Paris, and at British cruisers, he surrendered on the 15th of July to Captain Maitland, the head of his troops once more entered the Austrian capital, gained the and went on board the Bellerophon. By the joint determination of the decisive victory of Wagram, and soon concluded a peace; one of the secret allies he was sent to the isle of St. Helena, where he died, on the 5th of conditions of which was that he should have his marriage with Josephine May, 1821, of cancer in the stomach. In 1840, in accordance with the dissolved, and unite himself to the daughter of the emperor, Francis II. request of the French government, the remains of the exile were brought His former marriage was accordingly annulled; and he espoused the arch- over to France, and with great ceremony laid in the Hotel des Invalides. duchess Maria Louisa in April, 1810. Dissatisfied with the conduct of Russia, Napoleon now put himself at the head of an invading army, National Covenant, (1638.) Scotland had risen in mass to declare against prodigious in number, and admirably appointed, and marched with his the Episcopal Service-Book, and the tyranny which was forcing it on the numerous allies toward the enemy's frontiers, gained several battles, and nation. To give union and strength to their resistance, a decisive and at length reached Moscow, (see this,) where he hoped to establish his memorable thing was done. This measure was the signing of the Covewinter quarters, but which he found in flames. A retreat was unavoid- nant. If Englishmen look back with reverence to their Magna Charta, able; and now was presented to the eye a succession of the most appalling with reverence as great does every Scotchman look back to the National scenes recorded in modern history -a brave and devoted army encounter- Covenant. It saved Scotland from absolute despotism. It was the iming all the horrors of famine in a climate so insupportably cold that their pressive commencement of a struggle which, enduring through blood and freezing bodies strewed the roads, while an exasperated phalanx of Cos- tears for half a century, had its triumphant issue in securing the liberties sacks hung upon the rear of the main army, hewing down without remorse of Britain. This memorable bond was first signed at Edinburgh, 1st of the enfeebled and wretched fugitives. Napoleon returned to Paris, called March, 1638. By it the covenanters swore to resist innovations in reliout a new army of 350,000 men, and marched at their head to meet the gion, and to stand by each other with their lives and fortunes in the combined Russian and Prussian forces. Victory still for a time hovered defence of their king, their religion, and their laws. The consequence of over his banners; but Austria having joined the coalition, the great battle this association, which was eagerly subscribed by all orders and ranks, was of Leipsic, in which he lost half of his army, was decisive as to the war in exceedingly alarming: the petitioners no longer confined their demands to Germany. Napoleon, however, again returned to Paris, and demanded religious matters, but required an independent assembly and a parliament. another levy of 300,000 men. The levy was granted, and the new cam- Nebuchadnezzar. See Appendix, page 171. paign (1814) was attended with various success; till the overwhelming number of his enemies, who crossed the French frontiers at different Nelson, Horatio, (1758-1805,) England's greatest naval hero. For his points, at length compelled him to abdicate, and accept the sovereignty of share in the glorious victory of St. Vincent, Nelson was appointed to comthe isle of Elba, with the title of ex-emperor, and a pension of 2,000,000 mand the inner squadron at the blockade of Cadiz. In 1798 he was sent livres. From this place he found means to escape, secretly embarking on up the Mediterranean, to watch the progress of the armament at Toulon, the night of the 25th of February, 1815, accompanied by about 1,200 men: destined for the conveyance of Napoleon and his army to Egypt. Nothe landed at Fr'jus on the 1st of March, speedily reached Paris, and ex- withstanding the strictest vigilance, this'fleet found means to escape, but (| NER NEW 109 was followed by Nelson, and traced to the bay of Aboukir. Here he com n Nestorius, the celebrated Patriarch of Constantinople, from whom originated menced an immediate attack, and by a manceuvre of equal boldness and the sect of Nestorians, was born in Syria. He was brought up in a conability, sailed between the enemy and the land, though exposed to a double vent, became a presbyter of the church at Antioch, and was distinguished fire. The result was a victory so glorious and decisive that nearly all the for his austere life and fervid oratory. Theodosius nominated him, in 428, French vessels were taken or destroyed. Fresh laurels were gained by to the see of Constantinople, in which station he displayed great zeal him in 1801, when he forced an entrance into the Baltic. In March, 1803, against the Arians. He at length fell under censure himself, and was he sailed for the Mediterranean. Notwithstanding all his vigilance, the finally condemned in the council of Ephesus, in 431, deprived of his see, French fleet escaped from Toulon, and was joined by that of Cadiz; of and banished. He died before 451, but his followers continue to be numerwhich being apprised, he pursued them to the VWest Indies with a far in- ous in the East, and are organized under a patriarch. ferior force. The combined squadrons returned without effecting any- 1614 A. D.; since 1664, New York.) In 1610, New Amsterdam (founded1614 D.@ sincel664 MewYork.) Inl61Q thing, and re-entered Cadiz. The French and the Spaniards ventured out and the following years, a number of trading vessels were sent with a number of troops on board, October 19th, 1805, and on the 21st, and te following year anumberof trading v essels we resentout by Dutch about noon, the action began off Cape Trafalgar. In the middle of the merchants to the mouth of the Hudson. Valuable furs were obtained enaboutno, theatibea off Cap e T lgar. Inst midd eo the from the Indians, and the traffic proved highly profitable. Some huts were engagement a musket-ball struck Nelson. He lived just long enough to acquainted with the number of ships that had been captured, and his soon erected on the lower part of Manhattan Island, and in 1614 a fort was ne acquainted with tne number ou sipna teat ian seen captured, an~ ~S.m, bloanstwordswere,"I have done y duty I praise God for it. The signal built for their defence. The settlement was called New Amsterdam, and last words were, "I have done my duty: I praise God for it." The signal.. the name of New Netherlands was given to the surrouricing reion Peter which hre hoisted on commencing this action was-" Eneland expects t at which.he hoist.ed on comm, hencingrced his awcionfwa" E d hexpect that Minuit sailed, in January, 1626, for New Netherlands, as its director-general. every man w 6 4, do his duty I' There is a popular Lsfe of Nelson by, every man will do his duty Ii tThere is a popular Life of Nelson by He arrived there on the 4th of May. Hitherto the Dutch had no title to Southey. ownership of the land: Minuit succeeded at once in purchasing the island Nero, Lucius Domitius, (37-68,) Roman Emperor, was the son of Cneius of Manhattan from its native proprietors. The price paid was sixty Domitius Ahenobarbus, and of Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus. At guilders (about 24 dollars) for more than twenty thousand acres. The the commencement of his reign his conduct excited great hopes in the southern point was selected for "a battery," and es were drawn for a Romans: he appeared just, liberal, affable, and polished; but this was a mask which soon fell off. He caused his mother to be assassinated, and Newton, Sir Isaac, (1642-1727,) the most distinguished natural philosopher, vindicated the unnatural act to the senate on the ground that Agrippina mathematician, and astronomer of modern times. At the age of 22, Newton had plotted against him. She had stood in the way of his marrying the took his degree of bachelor of arts, and about the same time he applied profligate PoppAea Sabina, t thn the wife of his general Otho. But after himself to the grinding of object-glasses for telescopes; and having procured the murder of Agrippina, he divorced his wife, had her put to death, and a glass prism in order to investigate the phenomena of colors discovered by married Poppmea. In 64, Rome was burnt, and popular suspicion pointed Grimaldi, the result of his observations was his new theory of light and to Nero as the author of the conflagration. He charged the Christians colors. It was not long after that he made his grand discovery of the law with it, and commenced a dreadful persecution of them. His cruelties, of gravitation; but it was not till 1687 that the Newtonian system was first extravagance, and debauchery at length roused the public resentment. published in his great work, the "Philosophie Naturalis Principia MathePiso formed a conspiracy against the tyrant in 65, but it was discovered matica." In 1696 he was made warden of the Mint, and afterward linasand defeated. A new conspiracy, headed by Galba, proved successful; and ter, which place he held with the greatest honor till his death. He enjoyed Nero, abandoned by his flatterers, put an end to his existence, A. D. 68. his faculties to the close of his long life. His temper, also, was remarkably 110 NIMT NOR even, and he had the humility which always accompanies true greatness. portant, but which he had obtained by fraud and violence. It was said in Newton spent much of his time in studying and elucidating the Scriptures. the treaty that the countries ceded should be accompanied by all their When his friends expressed their admiration of his discoveries, he said, dependencies. The negotiators had supposed that these cessions would be " To myself I seem to have been as a child playing on the sea-shore, while settled by mutual agreement; but Louis XIV. assumed that he had a right the immense ocean of truth lay unexplored before me." The following is to settle them in his own way, and accordingly he established a sovereign Pope's well-known epitaph on this prince of philosophers: chamber at Besanqon, and two equally sovereign councils, the one at "Nature and all her works lay hid in night: Breisach, the other at Metz, which were empowered to decide without appeal God said, Let Newton be —and all was light." respecting all cessions to his crown. Many princes by this arbitrary measure The fullest account of Newton is to be found in Sir D. Brewster's " Memoirs were deprived of a portion of their domains. of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton," published in Normans in France, (920 A. D.) The men of the north, called Danes in 1856. England, and Normans in Gaul, had remained pagans, and were still proud, Nile. See Appendix. even in the ninth century, of their title as sons of Odin. Their natural ferocity was kept up and incessantly excited by a continual life of brigandNimwegen, Peace of, (1678 A. D.,) which marks the culminating point of age. A law of the country, which was maintained wherever this people the glory of Louis XIV. In order to avenge himself on the Dutch for the founded establishments, tended to perpetuate on the coasts of Denmark and share which they had taken in the formation of the triple alliance, and at Norway the existence of this race of pirates. It was one of the principal the same time to extort from them a reversal of the decree by which the causes of the frightful evils which they inflicted from the 9th to the 11th importation of French merchandise into Holland was prohibited, Louis century on European nations; and to it must be referred the first origin of gained over their allies, the English and Swedes, invaded Holland, and the empires which these peoples founded. This law, which is still in force was only restrained from conquering the whole country by the opening of in England, gave to the eldest son alone in Denmark and Norway the patthe sluices and the consequent submersion of the land. Assistance was rimony of the family. It affected the families of the kings as well as those promised to the Dutch republic by the great elector, William of Branden- of the subjects. The eldest son of the chief or king alone inherited his burg, who concluded an alliance with the emperor, and subsequently with father's sceptre and estates. His brothers, though recognized as kings by Spain; so that France was compelled to maintain a war on three of her the customs of the northern nations, had the ocean as their kingdom, on frontiers at once. (See Appendix, page 204.) Louis XIV. was now forced to which they sought their fortune; hence the name of sea-kings which was act on the defensive; and a long series of disasters compelled him to con- given to them, and which collected under their banner a multitude of men clude a treaty. A congress assembled at Nimwegen, (a town of the Neth- who, like themselves, had no other patrimony beyond their sword. One erlands, on the left bank of the Waal,) at which peace was signed on the of these chiefs, who was famous for his audacity and ferocity, the pirate 10th of August, 1678. Holland recovered all that had been taken from her Hastings, spread desolation and terror on the whole country between the during the war; Spain abandoned the Franche-Comte, and many places in Seine and the Loire. Charles the Bald had intrusted the defence of this the Low Countries; the right of France to the possession of Alsace was con- territory to a celebrated warrior, Robert the Strong, who was already count firmed. The young duke of Lorraine refused to be subject to Louis XIV., of Paris and the glorious founder of the dynasty of Capet. Robert, whom and rejected the conditions on which he might have been re-established in the chronicles of the time called the Maccabaeus of France, was killed, and his states, which remained in the occupation of the French. To the advan- nothing arrested the devastating torrent from that moment. In 912, the tages secured by the peace of Nimwegen, Louis added others, not less im- territory afterward called Normandy was ceded by Charles the Simple to 0'C ODE 111 a formidable Norman chief, who had been disinherited by his father, and I-is warriors, whom he kept down by severe laws, became the fathers of a banished from Norway, his native land. This chief, who had previously great people, which was the firmest bulwark of France against the invasion desolated Gaul by perpetual invasions, is celebrated in history by the name of the Northern races. of Rollo, and was the first duke of Normandy. He paid homage to the king, was converted to Christianity, and divided his vast territory into fiefs. Nuaiez de Balboa, See BALBOA. 0. O'Connell, Daniel, (1775-1846,) the great Irish "Agitator." He intended to judgment was reversed by the House of Lords; but the prosecution had enter the Church, but after the repeal of the act which prohibited Roman answered its purpose: O'Connell's credit as a politician was impaired. Catholics from practising at the bar, he became a lawyer, and soon acquired He retired from the arena of strife, and commenced a pilgrimage, in 1847, a large practice. In 1809 he became connected with the associations which to Rome; but he had proceeded no farther than Genoa when he expired, had the emancipation of the Catholics for their object, and the eloquence May 15th, in his 72d year. By his great abilities, marvellous activity and and zeal which he displayed in this cause made him the idol of his Catholic, energy, and extraordinary eloquence, and by long service on behalf of his and the dread of his Protestant countrymen. Several years elapsed before Roman Catholic countrymen, he obtained an almost superhuman power his efforts for the enfranchisement of the Irish Catholics were followed by over the Irish people. But he was careless as to the means he used for any adequate result. But in 1823 he founded a new Catholic Association, accomplishing his ends. The last years of his life were frittered away in which soon extended over the whole of Ireland, and from that period down the pursuit of an impracticable object; and his last moments were emto his decease his personal history is identified with that of Ireland. In bittered by the spectacle of his country torn by dissensions which he had 1828, O'Connell resolved, notwithstanding that existing disabilities pre- mainly fostered, and groaning under pestilence and famine. cluded all hopes of legal success, to become a candidate for a seat in parliament; he was nominated for the county of Clare, and he was returned by Odenathus. In the midst of a valley open to the southward, at the disa large majority. He presented himself at the table of the House of tance of a day's journey from the Euphrates, and among groves of palmCommons, and expressed his willingness to take the oath of allegiance; trees, watered by limpid streams, Solomon, the king of Judah, had built but refusing the other oaths, he was ordered to withdraw. Agitation Tadmor in the wilderness: it was called by the Greeks Palmyra, and throughout every part of Ireland then assumed so formidable a character became by its situation almost independent, though it acknowledged the that the ministers apprehended a civil war, to avert which the Roman sovereignty of Rome. Odenathus and his consort Zenobia made Palmyra Catholic Relief Bill was introduced and carried, which enabled O'Connell the capital of a kingdom: they reigned over Syria and Mesopotamia, and to take his seat in the house. In the following year a repeal of the union rendered themselves formidable to the Persian monarch, while Firmus, was demanded by every parish and hamlet in Ireland; and in 1843 " mon- their ally, had acquired possession of Egypt. The sciences and the fine arts ster meetings " were held on the royal Hill of Tara, on the Curragh of made Palmyra their favorite abode. The emperor Aurelian conquered the Kildare, the Rath of Mullaghmast, and other renowned localities; the princess Zenobia, but displayed his clemency toward the people of Palmyra. government interfered, and prosecutions were commenced. O'Connell was The latter, unaccustomed to submission, made a premature attempt against sentenced to pay a fine of ~2,000 and to be imprisoned for a year. This the weak garrison which he had perhaps left among them as a test of their 112 ORI OTT fidelity; and the consequences of this revolt involved the ruin of their Orleans Family, The, in France. Louis Philippe, son of Egalite, duke of magnificent town. The huge walls yet stand in ruins, and the situation of Orleans, (see Genealogy VII.,) was elected king of the French by the the place still renders it important. Chamber of Deputies, on the 7th of August, 1830, his predecessor, Charles Odoacer, first barbarian King of Italy, was the son of one of Attila's officers. X., having alienated his people by limiting the freedom of the press, and He entered into the imperial guards, in which he rose to an honorable consequently being dethroned after a three days' revolution, (July 27-29th, rank. In 476 he was chosen chief of a confederate army, and was saluted 1830.) The new king applied himself to acquire popularity among the | by them king of Italy. He defeated the patrician Orestes at Pavia, ban- | Parisians, by displaying himself as a " citizen king." Anybody and everyished his son Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor, and made | bodywas admitted to his presence. He appeared in the streets on foot, in Ravenna the seat of his kingdom. He obtained the title of patrician a great-coat and round hat, with the proverbial umbrella under his arm from Zeno, emperor of the East, and did not assume the imperial ensigns. and shook hands familiarly with the people. The reign of Louis Philippe By his wise and honorable administration he showed himself worthy of was without any fixed principles, and a continued system of trimming, the dignity to which he was raised; but misery, desolation, and gradual both in his foreign and domestic policy. Louis Philippe's domestic policy depopulation were the prominent features of the condition of the kingdom. was necessarily in some degree reactionary, because the principles on which In 489, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, invaded Italy, and Odoacer was he had accepted the throne were untenable. In his foreign policy, he three times defeated by him: first near Aquileia, then near Verona, and endeavored to acquire a little popularity without risking a breach with the lastly near Ravenna. He was then besieged three years in Ravenna, and Great Powers. Seeking to centralize the royal power, and to strengthen at length, compelled by famine and the clamors of the people, he made a himself by foreign alliances, he was compelled to flee to England in 1848. treaty with Theodoric, by which they were to rule jointly. But after a few days, Odoacer was assassinated by his conqueror, nMiarch, 493. 1Ottoman Empire in Europe. Humble indeed is the description the Ottomans give of their own origin. They relate that Othman, the founder of Olynthian War. See Appendix, page 225. | their empire and name, himself followed the plough with his servants, and Origen, (185-253,) a Father of the- Church, and one of the most learned that when he wished to break off from work at noon, he used to stick up writers of his times. At the age of 17 he lost his father, who was beheaded a banner to call them home. These servants were his first followers in war, for his profession of Christianity. Origen had then recourse to the teach- and they were marshalled beneath the same signal. The new power that ing of grammar for the support of the bereaved family; but this occupa- arose in Asia Minor having now established itself on its northern coasts, it tion he relinquished on being appointed catechist, or head of the Christian chanced one day that Soliman, the grandson of Othman, rode along the school of Alexandria. From Alexandria he went to Rome, where he began shores of the Hellespont, passing on through the ruins of ancient cities, his famous " Hexapla," an edition of the Hebrew Bible with five Greek and fell into a silent revery. " What is my khan thinking of?" said one versions of it. At the command of his bishop, Demetrius, he returned to of his escort. " I am thinking," was the reply, " about our crossing over Alexandria, and on his way through Palestine, in 228, was ordained pres- to Europe." These followers of Soliman were the first who did cross over byter at Caesarea. Soon after this he began his " Commentaries," in which to Europe: they were successful; and Soliman's brother, Amurath I., was he indulged too much the fancy for allegory; and in his other works he he who conquered Adrianople. Thenceforth the Ottoman power spread advanced notions more agreeable to the Platonic philosophy than to the gradually farther. Bajazet I., the great-grandson of Othman, was master Scriptures. To his contemporaries the most offensive of his doctrines were here of Weddin and Wallachia, yonder of Caramania and Caesarea. Europe those of the pre-existence of souls, and the finite duration of future pun- and Asia, both threatened by Bajazet, rose up to resist him. Europe, howishment. ever, fell prostrate at Nicopolis; and though Asia, for which Tinmur stood ~~~~~~~~~~~II_......:....:::-:....f-....- - -......... I... OTT OVI 113 forth as champion, was victorious, still it did not destroy the dominions of the idea of a Germanic empire, which they had only conceived and preBajazet. It was but fifty years after this defeat that Mohammed II. took pared. He governed Lotharingia and administered Burgundy: a short Constantinople, (1453 A. D.,) the imperial city whose sway had once extended campaign sufficed to re-establish the rights of his Carolingian predecessors far over both quarters. The victor was not content with seeing the cities to the supreme power in Lombardy. Like Charlemagne., he was called to on the coasts of the Black Sea and the Adriatic own his supremacy: to aid by a Pope oppressed by the factions of Rome; like him, he received in bring the sea itself under subjection, he built a fleet; he began to conquer return for his succor the crown of the Western empire, (February 2d, the islands of the AEgean one after the other; and his troops showed them- 962.) But it was not his only office. He was already a German king; selves in Apulia. There seemed to be no bounds to the career of victory. and the new dignity by no means superseded the old. This union in one Though Bajazet ITI. did not equal his predecessors in valor, still his cavalry person of two characters is the key to the whole subsequent history of swept Friuli, his infantry captured fortresses in the Morea, and his fleets I Germany and the empire. It was of great importance to the inward prorode victorious in the Ionian Sea. But he was far outstripped by his son gress of Germany that it thus remained in unbroken connection with Italy, Selim and his grandson Soliman. Selim overcame the Mamelukes of the depository of all that remained of ancient civilization, the source Cairo, who had often been victorious over Bajazet; and he caused the whence all the forms of Christianity had been derived. Germany felt prayer to be pronounced in his noble name in the mosques of Syria and this importance, and had for many years longed for this union. In a time of Egypt. Soliman effected far more than he. One battle made him master disintegration, confusion, strife, all the longings of every wiser and better of Hungary, (see MoIAcz,) and thenceforth he trod in that kingdom as in soul for unity, for peace and law, for some bond to bring Christian men and his own house. In the far East he portioned out the territory of Bagdad Christian states together against the common enemy of the faith, were but into sandshakates according to the banners of his troops. That Chaired(lin so many cries for the restoration of the Roman empire. These were the Barbarossa, who boasted that his turban stuck on a pole scared the Chris- feelings that 30 years before (933 A. D.) had broken forth on the field of tians and sent them flying for miles into the country, served him, and made Merseburg, in the shout of " Henry the Emperor," these the hopes of the his name dreaded over the whole Mediterranean. With amazement and Teutonic host, when, after the great deliverance of the Lechfeld, they had awe men reckoned up thirty kingdoms and nearly 8,000 miles of coast that greeted Otto, conqueror of the Magyars, as " Imperator, Augustus, Pater owned his sway. He styled himself emperor of emperors, prince of princes, Patrime," (955 A. D.) distributer of the crowns of the world, God's shadow over both quarters of the globe, ruler of the Black and of the White Sea, of Asia and of Europe. Ovid, Publius Ovidius Naso, (B. c. 43 - A. D. 18,) a celebrated Roman poet of the Augustan age. He studied the law; but his predilection for Otto I., or the Great, (923-973 A. D.,) Emperor of the West, and conqueror literature led him to neglect severer studies, and on succeeding to the of the Magyars on the Lechfeld. When the male line of the Eastern paternal estate, he quitted the bar for poetry and pleasure. Horace and branch of the Carolingians had ended in Lewis, (see Genealogy, X.,) the Propertius were his friends, and Augustus was a liberal patron to him; chieftains chose Conrad the Franconian, and after him Henry the Saxon, but he at length fell under the displeasure of the emperor, who, for some (the Fowler,) both representing the female line of Charlemagne. Henry cause never explained, banished him from Rome, and sent him to live laid the foundations of a firm monarchy, driving back the Magyars and among the Getse, or Goths, on the Euxine. It is probable that the political Wends, and founding the towns to be strongholds against their irruptions. intrigues of Tiberius contributed to the exile of the poet; while the licenHe bequeathed an undisputed sceptre to his house,:which was so firmly estab- tiousness of his writings, and the irregularities of his life, afforded plausilished that his son Otto was in position to revive and carry through the ble pretexts for the infliction of this punishment. His chief works are claims founded by his Carolingian predecessors. Hefirst completely realized the " Fasti," and "Metamorphoses." There are many English translations 15 114 PAS PAS of Ovid; the most recent of which are the metrical versions of the "Me- the affairs of the kingdom, during the minority of the queen, Christina, tamorphoses" and the "Fasti," by J. B. Rose. with equal ability and integrity. He controlled completely the education of the young queen, and, though he procured for her the best instruction Oxenstiern, Axel, (1582-1654,) Count, an eminent Swedish statesman, dis- in art science and literature the course pursued was calculated to extinguished for profound sagacity, patriotism, and political honesty. He tinguish all feminine qualities. was the favorite of Gustavus Adolphus, after whose death he conducted P. Pacification of Ghent. See GHENT. past transactions; and that Albert of Brandenburg should be admitted into the treaty,provided he immediately laid down his arms. The king Parma, Alessandro ]Farnese, Vuke of Parma, (1555-1592,) one of the of France was invited to state his grievances against the emperor, so that greatest generals of his age. He served in the Spanish armies, and dis- he might be included in the general pacification. And as it was foreseen tinguished himself at the battle of Lepanto. In 1577 he conducted the that the proposed diet might fail in bringing about the desired settlement, Spanish forces to Flanders, and contributed to re-establish the power of it was agreed in a separate treaty that in that case the peace should remain Spain. He soon after became governor of the Netherlands, recovered in full force till a final accommodation could be effected. This latter many of the principal towns, and won over the Catholic population. In agreement Charles refused to sign; but it was not anticipated that he 1590 he invaded France, and, without risking a battle, compelled Henry would endeavor to disturb it. Thus was terminated the first religious war IV. to raise the siege of Paris. After his return from France, the state of in Germany, arising out of the league of Smalcald; by which, whatever his health became so alarming, that he asked for his dismissal, but he died we may think of the duplicity of Maurice, he was certainly the means of without obtaining it, December, 1592. It was to his military genius and | saving the liberties of the empire, as well as the Protestant religion, from his conciliating policy that Spain owed the preservation of the Southern the assaults of Charles V. (See Appendix, page 200.) Netherlands. Passau, Peace of, (1552 A. D.,) between emperor Charles V., and Maurice, Pastoureaux, The, (1250 A. D,) a French word meaning "young shepherds," elector of Saxony, allowing the free exercise of the Protestant religion. the first democratic demonstration in France. Louis IX., king of France, The chief articles were, in substance, that the confederates should dis- endeared himself to his subjects by the simplicity of his manners and the miss their troops by the 12th of August, or enroll them in Ferdinand's sanctity of his life. When, in 1248, he led a French army against the service for the war against the Turks; that the landgrave of Hesse should sultan of Egypt, he was taken prisoner, and only released after a long negobe set at liberty on his promising submission for the future; that a diet tiation, (1253.) He nevertheless remained a year in the Holy Land, to aid should be held within six months for settling the religious disputes, and in its defence, in case the sultan should push his victory beyond Egypt; also for considering the alleged encroachments on the liberties and consti- and he did not quit Palestine until the barons of the Holy Land had themtution of the empire; that in the mean time the Protestants should enjoy selves assured him that his presence was no longer essential. Besides, he the free exercise of their religion, engaging in turn to leave the Catholics had just heard news which made it his duty to hasten his return to France. unmolested; that Protestants as well as Catholics should be admitted into The insurrection of the pastoureaux had broken out. They consisted of the the imperial chamber; that an entire amnesty should be granted for all most miserable rustics, and mostly of shepherds, who, hearing of the capi~~ ~ i PEE PER 115 tivity of their king, flew to arms, banded together, formed a large army, fying, but of entirely repealing the corn laws. Instantly he became the and announced their intention of going to deliver him. This may have object of the most unsparing invective, unceasing attack, and bitter been a mere pretext, or it may have been that the opinion which these reproach, from those who accused him of having deceived them. All this poor people had already formed of Louis had inspired them with a vast, he bore with firmness and equanimity. The corn laws were abolished in vague hope of comfort and deliverance. What is certain is, that these June, 1846, and free trade proclaimed as the commercial policy of the shepherds showed themselves everywhere hostile to the priests, and mass-a- country. Simultaneously with the passing of this measure, Sir Robert cred them, administering the sacraments to themselves. They acknowl- Peel resigned office. His country owes to him as deep a debt of gratitude edged for their leader an unknown man, whom they called grand-master of as to any statesman that has ever presided over her destinies. The reformer Hungary. They traversed Paris, Orleans, and a considerable part of of the criminal code, the introducer of an effective system of police, the France with impunity, but were ultimately dispersed and destroyed. founder of a system of currency which has been lauded by the most emi-.Pasanias, commander of the allied Greeks at the hattie of Plateeme n. C. nent financiers, the restorer of civil equality to Christians of all denomiPansaniasi commander of the allied Greeks at the battle of Platsese, B. c. nations, and his last and greatest achievement —the introduction into 479. In the following year he commanded the expedition of the allied nations, and hs last and greatest achievement British policy of the principles of free trade —might well be entitled to Greeks against Asia, liberated the Greek cities in Cyprus, and besieged and took Byzantium. His ambition and insolence became offensive to his the highest honors that could be rendered to his memory. (See "Political took Byzantium. His ambition and insolence became offensive to his countrymen, and discontent drove him into treason. He entered into a Biography," by T. Doubleday, and "Life," by Guizot.) secret treaty with the king of Persia; but this being discovered by the Peloponnesian War. See Appendix, page 175. Ephors, he was recalled and superseded. He continued his treasonable.Ephors, e was recalled and superseded. He continued his treasonable Pericles, the great Athenian statesman. In his youth he applied himself to intrigues, and these being detected by the revelation of a slave, his arrest the study of philosophy, under the guidance of Anaxagoras, who had a was determined upon; but, to avoid the punishment due to his treason, he most powerful influence on him, and remained one of his most intimate fled into a temple at Sparta, and the Lacedeemonians blocked up the fled into a temple at Sparta, and the LacedbPmonians blocked up the friends. To his other acquirements he added that of extraordinary elodoor with stones, the first of which was placed by Pausanias's mother. He quence; and thus prepared, he began to take part in public affairs about was there starved to death, about B. c. 467. was there strved to death, about.. 467.. c. 469. The popular party soon recognized him as their chief, and he Peel, Sir Robert, (1788-1850,) Prime Minister of England, and the most got various measures passed for their gratification. In B. c. 444 he became distinguished statesman of his age. His father, in 1809, had him brought sole ruler of Athens; and the aim of his policy was to extend and strengthen into parliament as member for Cashel, and the House of Commons became her empire, and to make the people worthy of their position. Under his thenceforward the arena of his life. He had not sat long in it before he administration the navy was increased, commerce extended, general prosproved himself an able speaker and a laborious and sagacious worker. He perity advanced, and Athens adorned with noble buildings. Phidias was was, after 1834, often at the head of the administration, and from 1842 the friend of Pericles, and under his direction the Parthenon, the Propylaea, his power was as real as his position was dignified. In the autumn of 1845, the Odeon, and other temples and monuments, the admiration of all time, the famine, which then threatened to sweep over the country, roused a uni- were erected. Pericles directed Athens during the first two years of the versal agitation, free from all party strife; and meetings were held in all Peloponnesian war, in the second year of which the plague broke out in the large towns, praying for the immediate opening of the ports, to relieve Athens, and the popular discontent vented itself in the prosecution of the the people from their sufferings. Shortly after the opening of the session great ruler. He was fined, but soon regained his influence. The plague of 1846, he formally announced, to the surprise of all, the hope of thou- carried off many of his friends and relatives, and, last of all, his favorite son. sands, and the rage and dismay of his party, his intention, not of modi- This loss broke his heart, and, after a lingering illness, he died, B. C. 429. 116 PET PET Perseus, the last King of Macedonia. The great event of his reign was the tamara. (Genealogy, XV. See Dillon: HISTORY OF THE REIGN OF PETER war with the Romans, which, long expected, began in 171. In 168 the THE CRUEL.) war was ended by the total defeat of Perseus at Pydna, by L..Emilius Paulus. Perseus escaped with his children and treasures to Samothrace, but Peter the Great, (1672-1725,) the founder of the greatness of Russia. He soon gave himself up, and, after being led in triumph at Rome, was cast obtained the sole authority in 1689, on the retirement of his brother Ivan, into prison. He was, however, allowed to spend his last years at Alba. with whom he had been associated in the government of the empire. After (See Appendix, pages 188, 189.) having suppressed a conspiracy of the Strelitzes against his life, he travelled in foreign countries, not in the character of czar, but as member of an Persius, (34-62 A. D.) Aulus Persius Flaccus is the third in order of the embassy. At Amsterdam he worked, incognito, in a ship-yard; and went four great Roman satirists, (Lucilius, Horace, Persius, Juvenal.) His extant to the village of Zaandam, where he caused himself to be enrolled among works consist of six short satires, than which few productions have ever the workmen, under the name of Peter Michaeloff Here he lived in a little enjoyed more widely diffused and more enduring popularity. A long hut for seven weeks, made his own bed, and prepared his own food, correunbroken chain of testimonies might be linked together, reaching from the sponded with his ministers at home, and labored at the same time in shipperiod of their publication through the darkest portion of the middle ages building. After having visited England, he returned to Russia in 1698, and down to the revival of literature. The satires have been often translated earnestly endeavored to improve and soften the rude and barbarous manners into English, of which the translation of Barton Holiday is the most quaint, of his subjects. In 1700 he entered upon a war with Sweden, which lasted that of Gifford the most accurate, and that of Dryden the most spirited and till 1721. (See Appendix.) Peter gained by the Swedish war the navigapoetical. tion of the Baltic: this was the prize he chiefly wished to obtain; for mariPeter Damiani. See DAMIANIL. time commerce was the principal object of his solicitude, as the only means of giving animation to his extensive dominions. The communication Peter the Cruel (1334-1368) was son of Alfonso XI., and succeeded his between the provinces of his dominions was facilitated by 11 great rivers, father in 1350, under the regency of his mother and Albuquerque, his which he endeavored to unite, and thus to establish a communication by tutor. He earned the title of the Cruel by a long series of atrocious cruelties, water between the Caspian, Baltic, and White seas. Peter suppressed the beginning with the assassination of Eleonora de Guzman, his father's favorite patriarchate, and made himself head of the church as well as of the state. mistress. He married Blanche of Bourbon, abandoned her in three days, In 1703 he founded St. Petersburg, and began the fortifications of Cronstadt. and afterward had her secretly murdered. Wives, mistresses, brothers, He extended the limits of the empire, both in Europe and Asia; changed cousins swell the list of his victims, besides a great number of nobles killed the face of Russia by his zealous promotion of trade, navigation, manufacby his orders. At last, in 1366, a revolt broke out, headed by Henry of tures, and education; effected an immense change in the manners and customs Trastamara, his natural brother, and supported by French troops under of the Russians; and, after the conclusion of peace with Sweden, received Bertrand du Guesclin. Pedro was defeated and expelled; but by the aid of the title of emperor of all the Russias and father of his country. Reformthe Black Prince, who won the victory of Najaro and took Bertrand pris- ing others, he failed to reform himself, but remained to the last an ignorant, oner in 1367, he was re-established on the throne. On the withdrawal of the coarse, brutal savage, indulging in the lowest vices, and gloating over scenes Black Prince, who was ungraciously treated, Pedro indulged his revenge, of cruel suffering. A short Life of Peter the Great has been edited by Wight. and a fresh revolt took place. Pedro was defeated by Henry at Montiel, and was killed by him in the tent of Du Guesclin, March, 1368. He was Peter the Hermit, the preacher of the first Crusade, was a French soldier succeeded by his murderer, who became the founder of the house of Tras- of Amiens, who, quitting the military profession, made a pilgrimage to the, Il I, i, i ii,. I iii i i. II, I I I PET PHA 117 Holy Land about 1093. Instigated by the difficulties and dangers he had permanent, but was not returned by Laura, whose conduct throughundergone in his progress, and profoundly affected by the sad condition of out was marked by purity, kindness, and good sense. To escape or the few Christians residing in that country, he went to Rome, obtained the weaken the force of his hopeless passion, he travelled frequently, and sanction of Pope Urban II. for his project, and then travelled over the lived for some time in the secluded valley of Vaucluse. He took part principal countries of Europe, and with earnest and resistless eloquence in the political affairs of his time, was the friend of popes and princes, preached a crusade for the recovery of Palestine from the infidels. Peter and was employed in many important negotiations. He rendered very himself led one part of the first irregular band of crusaders, amounting to great services to literature and learning by his diligent researches for and about 100,000 men; another division being led by his lieutenant, Walter collections of ancient manuscripts. By the gift of his books to the Church the Penniless, a man of some ability, who attempted to introduce order of St. Mark at Venice, he became the founder of its famous library. He among the unmanageable host. After crossing Germany, and encounter- was the friend of Boccaccio, who shared with him the honor of reviving ing severe resistance in Hungary, Peter reached Constantinople, where he classical literature, and the friend of Rienzi, with whose enterprise, as was welcomed by the emperor Alexis. He stayed there while the host of tribune of Rome, he warmly sympathized. In 1341, Petrarch received crusaders passed on to fresh conflicts and sufferings. He was at the siege the highest testimony of the renown which he had acquired as poet and of Antioch in 1097, but, despairing of success, fled from the camp, and was scholar, by being crowned as laureate in the Capitol at Rome. The death brought back by force. He accompanied the crusaders to the Holy City, of Laura took place on the 6th of April, 1348, the anniversary of the day and made a discourse to them on the Mount of Olives. Subsequently, he on which Petrarch first saw her. The tidings reached him in Italy, and returned to his native country, where he founded the abbey of Noir-moutier, he made a touching note of it in his Virgil. He died, sitting among his and died in 1115. books, July 18th, 1374, at Aigua. Petrarch's works are partly in Italian Petition of Right, (1628 A. D.) In 1628, Charles I. summoned his third par- and partly in Latin. The latter were those on which his reputation in his liament. To check the violent exertions of prerogative by forced loans, own day rested; but the former are those by which he is most known. His arbitrary imprisonment, and the levy of taxes without the consent of the Italian sonnets, canzoni, and "Triumphs" are all sweet, exquisite, glow[ commons, the assent of the king was required to a bill.hich enacted, st, ing variations on one theme, Laura; those written after her death have an that no loan or tax might be levied but by tashe consen of prliament; added purity and loftiness of sentiment. His Latin poems consist of an 2d, that no man might be imprisoned but by legal process; 3d, that no epic on the second Punic war, entitled "Africa," epistles, and eclogues. commissions should be granted for executing martial law. To thise most eminentpersons and called "The Petition of Right," as implying that the privileges secured potentates of the time, and treating of the exciting events amidst which by it had been already enjoyed, Charles reluctantly assented. he lived, are of high interest and great value. (See Campbell's Life of Petrarch.) Petrarca, Francesco, (Petrarch,) (1304-1374,) one of the most illustrious Petrus de Vinea. See VINEA. poets and scholars of Italy. His father brought him up to the law, for which he had no relish. He studied at Montpellier and Bologna, Phaedrus, an elegant Latin poet, a native of Thrace, appears to have been and early made acquaintance with many eminent persons. His passion the freedman of Augustus. Most of his fables are translated or imitated for the beautiful Laura, which gave shape and color to the rest of his from those of 2Esop. This 2Esop lived about 600 B. c. The fables ascribed life, was first kindled in 1327, as on the 6th of April, of that year, to him have in many respects an Eastern character, alluding to Asiatic cusshe worshipped beside him. She was then 19, and had been married toms, and introducing panthers, peacocks, and monkeys among their persons. two years to Hugues de Sade. Petrarch's love for her was true and This makes it likely that they are derived from an Indian source. 118 PHI PHI Phidias, (490-432 B. c.,) the great Greek sculptor. He began to distinguish ernors of that country. The name, too, was changed in honor of Penn, himself about 461, and was one of the most intimate friends of Pericles, from the New Netherlands to Pennsylvania. Upon this he published "A under whose rule he was appointed director of all the great temples and Brief Account of the Province of Pennsylvania," proposing an easy purmonuments which were to be erected in the city. Of these the most chase of lands and good terms of settlement to such as were inclined to reimportant were the Parthenon, or Temple of Athene, on the Acropolis, and move thither. In 1682 he embarked for his new colony, and in the followthe Propylhea. He executed a colossal statue of the goddess for the in- ing year he founded Philadelphia. There is an interesting "Life of William terior of the temple with his own hand. The "Elgin Marbles" of the Penn" by Hepworth Dixon. British Museum were the sculptured decorations of that unrivalled temple. Phidias spent some years at Olympia, and there he executed the most mag- Philip of Macedon, (359-336 B. c.) The multitude of those persons increased nificent of all his works -the statue of the Olympian Zeus. Like the who, born in the field and formed only to arms, wandered about in quest of Athene, it was of ivory and gold, was nearly 60 feet in height, although a adventures, and, being strangers to the arts of peace, sought only for comseated figure, and was deemed the greatest production of Greek art. It manders who would furnish them a regular stipend, and give them a share was destroyed by fire at Constantinople, whither it had been carried by the of the plunder Philip, son of Amyntas, having, after many disturbances in emperor Theodosius. Macedonia, ascended his paternal throne, made use of these adventurers to carry out his ambitious designs. But the cause which chiefly contributed Philadelphia, (founded, 1682 A. D.) William Penn, the founder of Phila- to give a new condition to all the countries between the Adriatic and the delphia, was the son of Admiral Penn, the conqueror of Jamaica. The son Indus was the military education which Philip had received, under the preand grandson of naval officers, his thoughts had from boyhood been directed cepts of Epaminondas, while he resided as a hostage at Thebes. With the to the ocean; the conquest of Jamaica by his father early familiarized his knowledge which Philip eagerly imbibed from Epaminondas, he combined imagination with the New World, and in Oxford, at the age of 17, he in- what the latter wanted, namely, the power of a monarch, and the boldness dulged in visions of happiness, of which America was the scene. Bred in of an enterprising conqueror. Philip had, besides, pleasing manners and the school of Independency, he had, while hardly 12 years old, learned apparent gentleness, by which he engaged the affections of the soldiers and to listen to the voice of God in his soul, and at Oxford, where his excellent deceived the people; he was addicted to conviviality and to pleasures of all genius received the benefits of learning, the words of a Quaker preacher so kinds, and was therefore the less dreaded. After Philip had exercised his touched his heart that he joined the despised sect. His father, bent on arms in subduing his immediate neighbors, he acquired, to the astonishsubduing his enthusiasm, beat him and turned him into the streets, to choose ment of all Greece, a seat in the Amphictyonic Council, and filled every between poverty with a pure conscience, or fortune with obedience. He place from Byzantium to the Peloponnesus with the terror of his arms, and chose the first; but his father, being finally convinced of his integrity, at the same time with the reputation of his mildness and generosity, his became reconciled to him, and left him, on his death in 1670, a plentiful good faith and patriotism. Athens at length took arms in the cause of estate. Penn now devoted himself to the propagation of his opinions; expiring freedom. The decisive battle was fought in the field of Chleronea, and from that time published a great variety of tracts, and travelled in (338.) The Athenians and their allies, particularly the Theban body called Holland and Germany to support the cause of Quakerism. In 1681, "the sacred band," fought in a manner worthy of the last contest in defence Charles II., in consideration of the services of his father, and sundry debts of ancient liberty. They were defeated. " The sacred band," 400 in numdue to him from the crown at the time of his decease, granted Penn and his ber, inseparable in death, fell together, loaded with glorious wounds, and the heirs, by letters patent, the province lying on the west side of the river Del- liberty of Greece expired with them. Philip soon after assembled a congress aware, in North America, and made them absolute proprietors and gov- at Corinth, and was named general of the confederate Greeks in the war PIN PIT 119 to be undertaken against Persia. But in 336 he was assassinated at A2Ege, at Delphi, where centuries afterward the iron chair was shown on which and that war was reserved for his greater son, Alexander. he sat while chanting the hymns he had composed in honor of the god. He died at the age of 80. The enthusiastic admiration of Greece for him Philip of Orleans, (1674-1723,) Regent of France. He had for his tutor increased as the glory of Thebes gradually vanished into the mists of the the infamous Dubois. Louis XIV. showed great distrust and suspicion of past. When Alexander took Thebes, and razed it to the ground, he gave the duke of Orleans, and very grave suspicions arose among the people strict orders to his soldiers that no damage should be done to the house when the dauphin, the duke and duchess of Burgundy, and their eldest son where Pindar had lived and died. all died almost suddenly, and within a year. Philip's life was endangered, and the public excitement was unbounded. On the death of Louis XIV., Pisistratus, an Athenian citizen, who usurped the sovereignty of his country. in 1715, the duke of Orleans had himself proclaimed regent with absolute He was ambitious, eloquent, and courageous; and, pursuing the policy power, and at once adopted a policy in most respects the reverse of that of which has so often succeeded in democracies, he gained over the lower Louis. He protected the Jansenists, abandoned the cause of the Stuarts, classes of citizens by his affability and unbounded liberality. He made maintained peace, and reformed the finances, adopting the schemes of the no attempt to abolish the wise laws of Solon, but confirmed and extended Scotchman Law. Plots were formed against the regent, in which Cardinal their authority; and, though he was twice expelled, he regained the soverAlberoni took a leading part, but they were foiled; and in 1719 war was eignty, and continued to exercise it, not as the oppressor, but as the father declared against Spain, which was soon closed by an advantageous peace. of his country. He died B. C. 527, leaving two sons, Hippias and HipparFrance, however, was distracted with domestic disquietudes and calamities, chus, to inherit his power. He established a public library at Athens, and and the example of the regent hastened the decline of religion and the collected and arranged the Homeric poems. A disgraceful passion occacorruption of morals. The influence of Dubois as first minister was sioned Hipparchus to commit an outrage against Harmodius and Aristosupreme, and the regent sacrificed everything to him. In 1723, Louis XV. giton, in consequence of which he was assassinated by them in the tumult came of age and assumed the government, making the duke of Orleans his attending the celebration of a great festival. His brother Hippias, inprime minister. But the duke died suddenly the same year. }formed of this event, strengthened his own power with greater vigilance and became vigorous in his administration. The Athenians, discontented Philip the Bold. See CHARLES THE BOLD. with this tyrannical suspicion, called in the aid of the Lacedoemonians, and Pindar, (518-442.) He was a native of Bceotia, sprung from a family who Cleomenes, king of Sparta, drove out the usurper, who sought refuge in the for several generations had shown a special talent for music and poetry. court of Persia. This happened in 510 B. c., in the same year that the His brilliant genius soon made him known wherever the language of Tarquins were driven from Rome and the Pythagorveans from the towns Hellas was understood. He was invited to Syracuse by Hiero, where he of Southern Italy. remained about four years,the brightest ornament of this poetical society. Pitt, William, (1759-1806,) Prime Minister of England. In 1780 he was Though his usual residence was at Thebes, yet he made frequent journeys returned to the House of Commons, and three years later, Pitt, although to be present at those assemblies and festive celebrations which his verse at that time only in his 24th year, assumed the station of prime minister. commemorated and adorned. These were the epinician odes composed in The French Revolution broke out, and produced agitation in every neighhonor of the victor at one of the four great games of Greece, the Olympian, boring state. War against free principles was declared on the one side, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. These odes show throughout how deeply while on the other the friends of reformation saw themselves confounded his character was tinctured with a reverential feeling toward the objects of with ignorant visionaries. Under this state of things a vigilant eye and religious worship. He made frequent pilgrimages to the temple of Apollo a steady hand were obviously necessary; and whatever opinions may be _~~~~~~~ i I;l I, I I, 1 I, I I_ II - I 120 PIZ PLI formed by different parties, certain it is that he displayed talents, energy, Plato. Literature had attained the greatest splendor since the time of Socand perseverance almost unparalleled in the world's history. At length rates, who first knew and acknowledged that man has no insight into the he, in 1801, resigned office; but in 1804, once more resumed his post at the nature of things, and that the sum of all wisdom is the knowledge of ourtreasury. Returning to power as a war minister, he exerted all the energy selves. Socrates himself left absolutely nothing in a written form. His phiof his character to render the contest successful, and found means to en- losophy is revealed to us in the works of his disciples, Plato and Xenophon. gage the two great military powers of Russia and Austria in a new coali- In the dialogues of Plato we find Socrates brought forward as leading the contion against Napoleon; which was, however, dissolved by the battle of versations, and his opinions and biography are so closely interwoven with Austerlitz. But his health was now in a precarious state; and hereditary them that we cannot tell whether the light that shines on us comes from this gout, aggravated by public cares and a too liberal use of wine, had under- or that side of the twin-star Socrates and Plato. These dialogues, which have mined his constitution, and he died January 23d, 1806. Pitt was a min- come down to us complete, are unrivalled in their union of the philosophic ister of commanding powers, both as a financier and an orator: his elo- and poetic spirit; the depth of the philosopher and the rigorous exactitude quence, though not so imaginative as that of Burke, or so captivating as of the logician are blended with the highest splendor of the imagination that of his father, was more uniformly just and impressive than either; of the poet. In range of speculation they are unparalleled. Out of Plato, while the indignant severity and keenness of his sarcasm were unequalled. says Emerson, come all things that are still written and debated among A Life of Pitt has been published by Earl Stanhope. men of thought. Pizarro, Francisco, (1475-1541,) the conqueror of Peru. He embarked, in Plautus, T. Maccius, (B. C. 225-184,) the most celebrated Roman comic poet. 1510, with some other adventurers, for America; and, in 1524, after having He spent the greater part of his life at Rome, where at one time he is said distinguished himself under Nuiez de Balboa on many occasions, he asso- to have been reduced to the necessity of grinding corn with a hand-mill for ciated at Panama with Diego de Almagro and Hernandez Lucque, a priest, a baker. He gained immense popularity with his countrymen by his numerin an enterprise to make fresh discoveries. In this voyage they reached the ous comedies, based, many of them, on Greek models, but made his own -coast of Peru, but being too few to make any attempt at a settlement, by a bold treatment and clever adaptation of them to Roman audiences. Pizarro returned to Spain, where all that he gained was a power from the Twenty of his comedies are still extant out of the twenty-one pronounced court to prosecute his object. However, having raised some money, he was genuine by Varro. One hundred and thirty were current under his name. enabled again, in 1531, to visit Peru, where a civil war was then raging HiIs plays were still acted in the reign of Domitian, and some of them have between Huascar, the legitimate monarch, and his half-brother Atahualpa, been imitated by modern dramatists. There are several English translations the reigning inca. Pizarro, by pretending to take the part of the latter, of Plautus. was permitted to march into the interior, where he made the unsuspecting wasperittdomrchintteiteror whereemadthPliny the Elder, (23-79 A. D.,) one of the most celebrated writers of ancient chief his prisoner; then, extorting from him, as it is said, a house full of precousmetas b wayof anso, h hadhimtrie fo a peteded on- Rome. As an inquirer into the works of nature he was indefatigable, and he precious metals by way of ransom, he had him tried for a pretended con- lothsifinaatateptogtfyishrtfrkowde.Bngt spiray~aneondenedhmtobeurntallownghifirstobesrangld~as lost his life in a last attempt to gratify his thirst for knowledge. Being at spiracy, and condemned him to be burnt, allowing him first to be strangled, as Msnmwt le hc ecmadd nAgs 4h.D 9 i _ Misenum with a fleet which he commanded, on Auoust 24th, A. D. 79, his a reward for becomingaaChristian. In January, 1535, the conqueror laid the Y arwrorbeoming aChrisi.nJuy,1535,the conqueror laid the sister desired him to observe a remarkable cloud which had just appeared. founatin ofLim, a cle i h City of the Kings. In 1537 a confoundation of LimaY a"g- Pliny discovering that it proceeded from Mount Vesuvius, ordered his galtest arose between him and Almagro, who was defeated and executed. The leys to sea, to assist the inhabitants on the coast, while he himself steered son and friends of Almagro, however, avenged his death, and, on June 26th, as near as possible to the foot of the mountain, which now sent forth vast........... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~as near as possible to the foot of the mountain, whmch now sent forth vast 1541, Pizarro met with the fate -he so richly deserved, being assassinated in quantities of burning rock and lava. Pliny and his companions landed at his palace at Lima. Pliny and his companions landed at POL POL 121 Stabise, but were soon obliged to leave the town for the fields, where the century. Its boundaries were enlarged by his son and successor, Casimir danger, however, was equally great, from the shower of fire which fell upon III., surnamed the Great, who having ceded Silesia to the king of Bothem. In this state they made the best of their way to the shore; but Pliny, hernia, compensated himself by adding Red Russia, Podolia, Volhynia, and who was very corpulent, fell down dead, suffocated probably by the noxious other provinces to his dominions. Casimir, having no children, resolved vapors. The eruption which caused his death was that in which the cities to leave his crown to his nephew Louis, son of his sister and of Charles of Herculaneum and Pompeii were destroyed, in the first year of the empe- Robert, king of Hungary, (see Genealogy, VIII.,) and with this view he ror Titus. Pliny wrote several works which have perished, but his name summoned a national assembly at Cracow, which approved the choice he and fame are preserved by his great work, entitled "Natural History," in had made. This proceeding, however, enabled the Polish nobles to inter37 books, one of the most precious monuments of antiquity extant. Its fere in the succession of the crown, and to render it elective, like that of contents do not answer to its title, but are immensely various in character. Hungary and Bohemia; so that the Polish constitution became a sort of It is a laborious compilation, from almost innumerable sources, of facts, aristocratic republic. The kingdom, or as the Poles themselves called it, observations, and statements on almost all branches of natural science, on republic of Poland, required from this peculiar constitution the greatest the fine arts, on inventions, and other subjects. vigor and ability in the prince who governed it. The only class of Poles that enjoyed any political rights was the nobles, comprising some 100,000 Plutarch, (46-120 A. D.,) the celebrated Greek biographer and moralist, was thtejydaypliclrgs was then c soe a native of Chseronea, in Beotia. He visited Italy, and spent some time families. The rest of the population was composed either of serfs, who at Rome lecturing there on philosophy, as early as the reign of Domitian. were entirely at the disposal of their masters, or the inhabitants of towns, at Rome, lecturing there on philosophy, as early as the reign of Domitian. who, though free, could neither hold public office nor exercise any legislaHis great work is entitled "Parallel Lives," and consists of biographies tire power. The diet, chosen 0nly by the nobles, possessed the whole of forty-six eminent Greek and Romans, arranged in pairs, each pair ac- tive power. The diet, chosen only by the nobles, possessed the whole power of the government; it elected the king, made the laws, and even companied by a comparison of characters. They are written with a moral ow r the e led thin mdtheaw, a eve took a part in the executive administration. NJotwithstanding, however, purpose, and present, not orderly narratives of events, but portraitures of ta the eec ive amntti.N thsng owe that the diet possessed such extensive powers, it lay at the mercy of any men, drawn with much graphic power, with great good sense, honesty, and tte e o s eten ws la the er of single member, who, by virtue of what was called the " Liberum Veto," kind-heartedness. "Plutarch's Lives," as tested by modern criticism, are not igl royiru of wi eto might annul its proceedings. Since the establishment of this elective historical authorities; they were written with a practical, not a critical aim. ghann itrn inetesab en o seecti government the internal affairs of Poland had been constantly subject to They set before us the most famous types of Greek and Roman character as oren intern r of Poland a ee ant b t understood by a careful, learned, imaginative, and philosophical writer of forein interference. The throne of Poland was rendered vacant by the Trajan's time. To Englishmen, beside their intrinsic value, they possess death of Augustus II., February 1st, 1733. Frederick Augustus, son and the special interest of having been Shakspeare's main authority in his successor in the Saxon electorate, also became a candidate for the Polish great classical dramas. They were accessible to him in North's version; crown. This prince had married a daughter of the late emperor Joseph I. and the correspondence between the Plays and the Lives is traceable in Her eventual claim to the Austrian succession, as child of the elder brother, incident upon incident, personage after personage, and in some places might be considered preferable to that of the daughter of Charles VI., the incident upon incident, personage after personage, and in some places almost line after line, and word after word. Few books of ancient or present emperor, who therefore extorted from Frederick Augustus a renunmodern times have been so widely read, so generally admired, as tese ciation of his pretensions, through his wife, to the Austrian succession, modern times have been so widely read, so genlerally admired, as these ~~~~~~~~~~~~~"ives." ~~and, in return, engaged to assist him to the Polish throne. In the mean "Lives." time, Stanislaus Leczinski, whom Charles XII. had invested with the soyPolish Election in 1734. Poland had first begun to emerge into import- ereignty of Poland in 1704, (now become father-in-law to Louis XV.,) was ance in the reign of Wladislaus Loktek, in the early part of the 14th a second time chosen king. But the emperor, assisted by the Russians, 16 122 POM PON obliged the Poles to proceed to a new election, and the elector of Saxony greeted him with the title of imperator. After further successes in Sicily was raised to the throne, under the name of Augustus III., Stanislaus, as and Africa, he received the surname of Magnus. He subsequently joined formerly, being forced to abandon his crown. Lewis XV. thought himself the demnocratic party, and had some great measures of reform carried; the injured in the person of his father-in-law, and, determined to be revenged chief of which were the restoration of the tribunes, and a change in the on the emperor, he entered into an alliance with the kings of Spain and constitution of the law courts. In 67 he was invested with the command Sardinia, and a war was begun which has been called the war of the Polish of the expedition against the pirates of the Mediterranean, and in forty succession. (See Appendix, page 208.) days he had swept them from the sea. The next year Pompey was appointed to the chief command against Mithridates, whom he defeated. He received Polybius, (204-122 B. c.,) the Greek historian. He was one of the thousand the submission of Tigranes of Armenia, and made Pontus a Roman province. Achkeans carried to Italy, in 168, on the charge of not having assisted the He next conquered Syria and Judea, took Jerusalem after a three months' Romans against Perseus. He lived in the house of 2Emilius Paulus, and siege, and intruded into the Holy of Holies. After regulating the affairs became the intimate friend of his son Scipio, whom he accompanied to of the East, he returned to Italy, and in 61 had the honor of a third trithe siege of Carthage. His great work is a general history of the affairs umph. By the refusal of the senate to confirm his arrangements in the of Greece and Rome from B. c. 220 to B. c. 146, prefaced by a summary East, he was induced to join the party of Csesar, and formed with him and view of early Roman history. Five only of its 40 books are now extant, Crassus the alliance known as the first triumvirate. He also married, for but these are among the most important literary remains of antiquity; for his fourth wife, Julia, the daughter of Caesar. In 55 he was consul with Polybius spared no pains to ascertain facts, studied and travelled exten- Crassus, and Spain was assigned him for his province; but his popularity sively, had practical acquaintance both with politics and war, and insight and influence were waning. The death of Julia loosened his alliance with into the relations of things. His aim was didactic, and a large part of Caesar, and by the death of Crassus the triumvirate was dissolved. During his history consists of disquisitions. the disorders which followed the death of Clodius, Pompey was made sole consul, rejoined the aristocratic party, and resolved on war with Caesar. As Caesar advanced to Rome, Pompey quitted it, and soon after left Italy, Pombal, (1699-1782,) a Portuguese statesman. He aimed to secure the and established himself at Dyrrachium, where he frustrated Caesar's attempts throne of Joseph Emmanuel against the factions and conspiracies which to blockade him. The great final conflict took place on the plain of Pharsurrounded it, and gave new life to industry and commerce. When, in salia, B. c. 48, when Pompey was defeated, and fled to Egypt. He was 1755, the people were stunned by the great earthquake of Lisbon, he con- murdered by order of the ministers of the young king immediately on his tributed powerfully to the revival of courage and activity. Pombal intro- arrival. His body was left on the sands, and his head taken to Caesar, who duced many reforms and changes in the government; but as his measures shed some manly tears at the sight, and had it burnt with fitting honors. were frequently severe and arbitrary, he made many enemies, and on the death of the king, in 1777, he was disgraced, and exiled to his estates, Pontine Marshes drained. These marshes were situated in the south of where he died. Pombal has been called the Portuguese Richelieu. Latium, at the foot of the Volscian mountains, extending from the neighborhood of Cisterna to the sea at Terracina. They occupy a space of about Pompey, (Cneius Pompeius Magnus,) the Triumvir, the great rival of 30 miles in length by 7 or 8 in breadth; and are separated from the sea on C. Julius Caesar. He served under his father in the Italian campaigns, and the west by a broad tract of sandy plain, covered with forest, which is also at 23 years of age, as an adherent of the aristocratic party, he raised three perfectly level, and intermixed with marshy spots, and pools and lagoons legions and joined Sulla, who, for his successes against the Marian forces, of stagnant water, so that it is almost as unhealthy as the regular marsh..~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ I. I... I. I I'.....']I POP POP 123 As early as 312 B. C. the Appian Way appears to have been carried through of things. Not touches of natural emotion, but the titillation of wit and the midst of the marshes, and a canal conducted along with it from Forum fancy make up the charm of his poetry. Appii to Terracina, which canal became also much resorted to as a mode of traffic. Various attempts were made in ancient times to drain the Pontine Popes, Return of the, to Rome, (1376.) After the Popes had succeeded marshes. The first of these was in B. C. 160, by the consul Cornelius Cethe- in subjecting all the princes and people of the Western world to their gus, which would seem to have been for a time successful; but the result spiritual authority, they began to acquire temporal dominion in Italy. obtained was but a partial one; and we find them relapsing into their former This involved the court of Rome in projects, in the pursuit of which the state before the close of the republic, so that the drainage of the Pontine foundations of its greatness were utterly neglected; for its reputation marshes is noticed among the great public works projected by the dictator diminished in proportion as it approached to the character and principles Cesar, which he did not live to execute. i displayed in the courts of temporal princes. The papacy had never sustained a severer shock than that which it received in the course of the conPope, Alexander, (1688-1744,) the celebrated poet. At the age of 12 he tests between Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair of France. Imprisoned, removed with his parents to Binfield, in Windsor Forest, where his father insulted, deprived eventually of life by the violence of Philip, a prince exhad purchased a small estate. Here he wrote his "Ode on Solitude," the communicated, and who had gone all lengths in defying and despising the first-fruits of his poetic genius. It was here also that he first met with the papal jurisdiction, Boniface had every claim to be avenged by the inherworks of Spenser, Waller, and Dryden, the latter of which he studied as itors of the same spiritual dominion. When Benedict XI. rescinded the his model. At the age of 16 he wrote his "Pastorals," which procured bulls of his predecessor, and admitted Philip the Fair to communion him the friendship of the principal wits of the time. Pope then under- without insisting on any concessions, he acted perhaps prudently, but gave took his translation of the "Iliad," which he published by subscription, a fatal blow to the temporal authority of Rome. Benedict XI. lived but a and cleared by it above ~5,000. Part of this sum he laid out in the pur- few months, and his successor, Clement V., at the instigation, as is comchase of a house at Twickenham, whither he removed in 1715. After com- monly supposed, of the king of France, by whose influence he had been pleting the "Iliad," he undertook the " Odyssey," for which also he ob- elected, took the extraordinary step of removing the papal chair to Avitained a liberal subscription. He was, however, materially assisted in gnon. In this city it remained for more than seventy years; a period which these works by the learning and abilities of others. Envious writers of Petrarch and other writers of Italy compare to that of the Babylonian the minor class made frequent splenetic attacks on him, and in 1727 he captivity. The majority of the cardinals were always French, and the vented his resentment in a mock heroic, entitled " The Dunciad," in which Popes were uniformly of the same nation. Timidly dependent upon the he exposed to ridicule many persons who had given him no offence. The court of France, they neglected the interests and lost the affections of works on which his fame chiefly rests are (besides the Dunciad) the."Rape Italy. Rome, forsaken by her sovereign, nearly forgot her allegiance: of the Lock," the "Epistle of Eloisa," the "Essay on Man," the "Moral what remained of papal authority in the ecclesiastical territories was exEssays," and the "Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot." Pope, with talent enough ercised by cardinal legates, little to the honor or advantage of the Holy for anything, might deserve to be ranked among the most distinguished See. The residence of the Popes at Avignon gave very general offence to prose writers of his time, if he were not its greatest poet; but it is in the Europe, and they could not themselves avoid perceiving the disadvantage latter character that he falls to be noticed in the history of our literature. of absence from their proper diocese, the city of St. Peter, the source of He was emphatically the poet of the highly artificial age in which he lived; all their claims to sovereign authority. But Rome, so long abandoned, and his excellence lay in the accordance of all his tastes and talents, of his offered but an inhospitable reception; Urban V. returned to Avignon, whole moral and intellectual constitution, with the spirit of that condition after a short experiment of the capital; and it was not till 1376 that the _ I..... I J,. I,.,... I, I.......... I 124 PYR PYR promise, often repeated and long delayed, of restoring the papal chair to of Saccara, about 12 miles above the apex of the Delta, standing in five the metropolis of Christendom, was ultimately fulfilled by Gregory XI. groups, the most celebrated of which is the group of Gizeh. They are.................... quadrilateral buildings; the horizontal length of the sides gradually Porphyrius, (233-305 A. D.,) the itter and eloquent antagonist of Chris- diminishes as the buildings ascend; they often end at the top in a fat tianity. He represents the last impotent struggles of expiring paganism against victorious Chritianity. Herwat a mostreloquent defender ofaglost superficies; their four sides are turned toward the four cardinal points of the cgaunse. itoapeas fromthentem e of antagonist and f at compass. When a king commenced his reign, a small isolated hill of rock cause. It appears from the testimony even of antagonists, and from what we have left of his writings, that Porphyrius was a man of great abilities was xed upon for his tomb, and a chamber excavated in it, with a passage m communicating with the surface. Around and over this a course of and very extensive learning. His principal work was a book against the our a the o e Christians. Of the nature of this work we are not able to judlge as it h as. ac rtins O n of t. k, king began the building of his pyramid as soon as he ascended the throne; -not come clown to us. It was publicly destroyed by order of the emperor he only designed a small one, to insure himself a complete tomb, even were Theodosius. The attack was, however, sufficiently vigorous to call down desned a Ptolem.. m~~~~he destined to be but a few years upon the throne. But with the advanupon him the fiercest maledictions and most vorulent abuse. His nrame was upon him the fiercest maledictions and most virulent abuse. His name was cing years of his reign, he increased it by successive layers, till he thought employed as synonymous with everything silly, blasphemous, impudent, that he was near the termination of his life. If he died during the erection, and calumnious. then the external covering was alone completed, and the monument of death Probus, Marcus Aurelius 3lerius, Roman Emperor, was born at Sir- finally remained proportionate to the duration of the life of the king. If, mium, in Pannonia, became a ruler of the East, and in 276, was made in the course of centuries, all the other conditions which determine our emperor by the army there; obtained several victories over the barbarians, calculations had equally remained, then, as by the rings of a tree, we might reigned with honor to himself, bat was at length slain by his mutinous even now have been able to calculate the years in the reigns of particular troops, in 282 A. D. kings by the coatings of the pyramids. The sacred guardian of the field Ptolemmus, a celebrated astronomer and geographer. He was author of a of the pyramids is the great Sphinx, hewn from the rock, to spare, as a "Syntax of Astronomy," but usually called the "Almagest," the name Greek inscription says, each spot of cultivable land. He represents, pergiven it by the Arabian scholars. Its theories, including that of the haps portrays, the reigning king, and the thick lips may indicate Ethiopian central position and stability of the earth, and that of "epicycles" to blood. The lion's body represents the monarch's might - the human explain the movements of other heavenly bodies, held their ground till the head, his wisdom.. The rock from which the figure is cut, broke the view true system was expounded by Copernicus in the middle of the 16th cen- of the pyramids, and to convert it into the Sphinx was a stroke of Egyptury. The work is still valued for its catalogue of stars, corrected from tian genius. the earlier one of Hipparchus. Ptolemy also wrote a great work on geography, chiefly consisting of lists of places in various countries, with lati- Pyrrhus, (B. c. 318-272), King of Epirus, one of the greatest warriors of tudes and longitudes, and some notices of objects of interest. For 13 ancient times. His father, aIEacidas, was deposed in 320, and Pyrrhus was centuries it was an authority, and was only superseded after the great geo- brought up by Glaucias, an Illyrian prince, and by his aid was placed on graphical discoveries of the 15th century. the throne in 306. Expelled a few years later, he was received at the court ~~Punic Wars. See Appendix, page 187of Antigonus, king of Syria, became the friend of his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, and fought with distinction at the battle of Ipsus, (301,) where Pyramids, The. The Pyramids are the royal tombs of the rulers of the Old Antigonus fell. Pyrrhus then went to the court of Ptolemy Soter, king Empire. There are still about 40 pyramids near Memphis, on the plain of Egypt, as a hostage for Demetrius, and there married Antigone, daughter PYR PYT 125 of the queen Berenice. With the aid of Ptolemy he recovered his king- one being a daughter of Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse. One of his three dom, (296,) agreeing to share the sovereignty with Neoptolemus, who had sons succeeded him as king of Epirus; and one of his three daughters been king since the expulsion of Pyrrhus. But he soon had his colleague became the wife of Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse. put to death, and began to form projects of conquest. Failing in the attempt to get the crown of Macedonia, he carried on war with his old Pythagoras, (B. C. 580-504,) the celebrated Greek philosopher, was born at friend Demetrius, the successful competitor, joined the league of Seleucus, Samos. He travelled extensively, especially in Egypt, and was initiated Ptolemy, and Lysimachus, and in 287 became king of Macedonia. He in the most ancient Greek mysteries. He attached great importance to reigned seven months, and was then expelled, and retired to his Epirote mathematical studies, and made several important discoveries in geometry, dominions., After several years of peace, he passed over to Italy (281) to music, and astronomy. Aversion to the tyranny of Polycrates, in Samos, assist the Tarentines against the Romans. He turned the city from a play- is said to have been the cause of his quitting that island, after his return ground for idlers into a camp, and compelled the citizens to become soldiers from the East; and he ultimately settled at Crotona, one of the Greek and help to fight their own battles. In the spring of 280 the Roman legion cities of Southern Italy. There he set himself to carry out the purpose of first came into hostile collision with the Greek phalanx, at the battle of instituting a society through which he might to some extent give embodiHeraclea, on the Siris; and the consul Lsevinus was defeated by Pyrrhus, ment and practical shape to his ideas. It was at once a philosophical school, whose elephants played an important part in the conflict. The loss of a religious brotherhood, and a political association, and was composed of Pyrrhus was very heavy, and he made, through his great minister Cineas, young men of the noblest families, not exceeding 300 in number. Pythaproposals of peace to the senate. These were rejected, chiefly in conse- goras himself was chief or general of the order. The doctrines he taught, quence of the spirited appeal of the old censor Appius Claudius. Pyrrhus the discipline and observances he established, and the ultimate objects of marched into Latium, passed Praeneste, and, when within about twenty the society are wrapped in mystery. Similar societies were founded in miles of Rome, returned to Tarentum. He received there the famous em- other cities of Italy, and through all of them Pythagoras exerted a conbassy, headed by Caius Fabricius, respecting the release of the Roman cap- siderable influence on political affairs, and especially in opposition to tives. In 279 he again defeated the Romans, under the consuls P. Sulpicius democratic and revolutionary movements. This became at length the and P. Decius Mus, at Asculum, but with very great loss, especially of his occasion of a popular rising against the Pythagoreans at Crotona. The Greek troops; so that he gladly took the first occasion of once more pro- house in which they were assembled was burnt, many perished, and the posing peace. The consuls Q. Emilius and C. Fabricius (278) having com- rest were exiled. Similar tumults with similar results took place in other municated to him an offer made by one of his attendants to poison him, cities, and Pythagoras himself is believed to have died soon after at Metaand sent the traitor back, Pyrrhus dismissed all his prisoners without ran- pontum. Among the doctrines of this extraordinary man are the followsom, made a truce, and passed with his army into Sicily, where for two ing: that numbers are the principles of all things; that the universe is an years he assisted the Greeks against the Carthaginians. After great suc- harmonious whole, (Kosmos,) the heavenly bodies by their motion causing cesses, he failed in the attack on Lilybseum, became unpopular, and returned sounds, (music of the spheres;) that the soul is immortal, and passes succesto Italy. The war was renewed, and ended in the following year (275) sively into many bodies, (metempsychosis;) and that the highest aim and with the total defeat of Pyrrhus, by the consul Curius Dentatus, near blessedness of man is likeness to the Deity. He was regarded with the Beneventum. He took back to Epirus the small remnant of his forces; highest veneration, as a superhuman being and a favorite of Heaven, and invaded Macedonia, and again became kiiig; attacked Sparta insuccess- he probably encouraged such belief. And so far as respects his aim to fully, and was killed in a night attack on Argos, by a heavy tile thrown train his followers to a wise, noble, rational, and religious life, it is evident from a housetop by a woman, B. C. 272. Pyrrhus married several wives, that he was successful, and his influence on some of the greatest philoso 126 RAM REG phers of later times was very great. He left no written account of his Xenophanes the high distinction of starting the problem of physical doctrines: they were first committed to writing by Philolaus. Pythagoras science — the study and interpretation of nature as an object governed by is said to have been the first who took the title of philosopher, and the first unchanging laws, instead of a variety of personal agencies, as conceived who applied the term Kosmos to the universe. He shares with Thales and by the religious faith of earlier generations. Rabanus Maurus, (830 A. D.,) Abbot of Fulda, opposed bitterly the doe- quity contains but one exact mention of him, and this it owes to Tacitus; trine of transubstantiation. This term was about this time first used by and it has required all the progress of modern science applied to the Paschasius Radbert, a monk of Corvey. A more subtle opponent of this researches of the past, to enable some of our contemporaries to exhume doctrine was John Scotus, of Erigena, a philosopher of a singularly subtle the real name of the Egyptian hero. He is the Sesostris of Herodotus. mind, who fathomed the very abysses of human thought. (See ScoTus, It has but lately been ascertained how the Greeks had come to write a ERIGENA.) name so different from that of Rameses. This royal name, in its most Rabelais, Frangois, (1483-1553,) the celebrated French wit and satirist, complete form, reads Ramesesou. From this form are derived several He was at first a monk, but in consequence of having been punished for abbreviations, Sesou, Sesesou, and Ra-Sesesou, all used indifferently to some indecorous behavior, he quitted the Benedictine order, studied med- designate Rameses Mei-Amoun. The Egyptians had known a number of icine at Montpellier, and for a time practised as a physician. He subse- kings whose names ended in the word ra, sun, (pronounced ri.) Sometimes quently obtained, through the influence of his patron, Cardinal du Bellay, it was written before the word, sometimes after it. In consequence of this whom he accompanied to the court of Rome, the rectory of Meudon. He custom, Ra-Sesesou was often written Sesesou-Ra (pronounced Sesesouri); was author of several books; but the only one by which he is known is the and it was in this form that it was repeated to Herodotus, who transformed romance called " The Lives, Heroic Deeds, and Sayings of Gargantua and Sesesouri into Sesostris. The date assigned to him varies from 1500 to 1250. Pantagruel," an extravagant satire upon monks, priests, popes, and ped- In the twelfth dynasty (about 2250 B. c.) we meet with a king whose name, ants, in which much obscenity and absurdity are blended with learning,| Sesortasen, presented some analogy to that of Sesostris. He was also a wit, and humor. Rabelais was a conscientious teacher of his flock, and it conqueror. Many historians consider him the Sesostris of Herodotus. was his pleasure to instruct the children in sacred music. His house was (See SESOsTRIS.) the resort of the learned, his purse was always open to the needy, and his Reconquest of Calais. See CALAIS. medical skill was employed in the service of his parish. Regent of Orleans. See PEIILIP OF ORLEANS. Rameses Mei-Amoun, or, the Great, the great Egyptian conqueror, whose victorious march extended eastward to the confines of India; and then Regulus, Marcus Atilius, a Roman general, celebrated for his patriotism diverging toward the north, he turned back again by a long elliptical and devotion in the service of his country, was made consul a second time curve, and debouched upon the European shores of the Propontis. He about 250 B. c., and with his colleague, Manlius Vulso, commanded in the was the true prototype of Alexander the Great -like him, an indefatigable first war against Carthage. Made prisoner by the Carthaginians, he was promoter of the mixture of races-and the diffusion of ideas. (See, for his sent to Rome with an embassy, that peace might be procured on favorable reign and monuments, Appendix, page 170.) The written history of anti- terms, and bound himself, by an oath, to return if the terms were rejected. — ~~~. ii.. i 1 iii iiiiiiiiiiii iii1111ii'1i ii iiiiIiiiii RIC RIP 127 He, however, considered it his duty to advise the continuance of the war; till 1614, when he was chosen deputy to the states-general. Having atwhich being determined on, no entreaties or supplications could prevent tracted attention by his eloquence, he was charged to harangue the young him from fulfilling his solemn engagement; and the Carthaginians, on his king, and was named almoner to the queen-mother, Mary of Medici. Two return, put him to death. years later he became secretary of state for war and foreign affairs. He ~Republic,:rench. See FRENCHI REPUBLIC. Ihad at this time the protection of the queen's favorite, the marshal D'Ancre; after whose assassination, and the exile of the queen to Blois, he Richard II., (1366-1400 A. D.,) King of England, was the son of the Black was banished from the court, first to his diocese, and then to Avignon, Prince, and succeeded his grandfather, Edward III., in 1377. (See Gene- where he employed himself in writing theological works. He afterward alogy, I.) Richard showed no small courage and presence of mind on the managed a formal reconciliation between the king and the queen; was outbreak of an insurrection provoked by the poll-tax. Meeting the insur- created cardinal in 1622; and in 1624 took his place in the council of state gents, with their leader, Wat Tyler, in Smithfield, he persuaded them to as first minister, a post which he held for eighteen years. He made disperse. This conduct gained him the confidence of the nobility, and himself absolute master of France, owning neither colleagues nor equals. augured well for his reign; but, though gifted with great talents, Richard His history for the rest of his life is the history of France, the government was by no means adequate to the discharge of the royal functions; he was of which he chiefly contributed to make an absolute monarchy. In workprofligate, and governed by his favorites. Among them was the earl of ing out his policy, whether domestic or foreign, he was unscrupulous as to Suffolk, who was made by Richard lord chancellor. On the king's refusal means. He broke the power of the nobility, put many of them to death, to remove his favorite from office, the king himself was deprived of power, and imprisoned many more; he suppressed the Calvinists as a party in the (1386,) and the administration intrusted to a council of regency, at the head state by his severe measures, and besieged and took Rochelle in 1628; of which was Richard's uncle, the duke of Gloucester. The king resumed while at the same time, to humiliate the house of Hapsburg, he aided the the government in 1389, when he made the celebrated William of Wykeham Protestants of Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. Richelieu, chancellor. The famous quarrel between the dukes of Hereford and Nor- meanwhile, like some other despotic ministers, distinguished himself by a folk took place in 1398, when both were banished by the king. After the liberal patronage of letters and the arts. In 1635 he founded the French death of Lancaster, in the following year, Hereford (now duke of Lancas- academy; he greatly improved the royal printing-office; built the Palais ter) returned, professedly to claim his estates, which had been seized by Cardinal, since called Palais Royal, and rebuilt on a larger scale the Richard; he was joined by the Percys and other nobles, and on Richard's Sorbonne. By the imposition of additional taxes he excited in his latter return from Ireland, made him prisoner at Flint, and compelled him to years general discontent, and conspiracies were formed to assassinate him. resign the crown. Richard was sent to the Tower, then to Pomfret Castle, He died in 1642, having recommended Cardinal Mazarin as his successor. where he is commonly said to have been murdered. But nothing is cer- The remains of Richelieu were interred in the chapel of the Sorbonne, tainly known of his end, and there are strong grounds for believing that but were exhumed with others in the first years of the Revolution, and flung he soon escaped from Pomfret and lived in Scotland till 1417 or 1419. away, the head only being accidentally preserved. Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, (1585-1642,) Cardinal, Duke de, Ripperda, John William, (1680-1737,) Baron de, a celebrated adventurer. first minister of France under Louis XIII. Destined at first for the army, He served some time as colonel of infantry in the Dutch army;, and in 1715 he turned to the Church on his brother's resignation of the see of Luqon, was sent on a mission to Spain, where he acquired such an ascendency over and was consecrated bishop of the see in 1607. He attended punctually Philip V. that the monarch took him into his service, made him chief to his episcopal functions, especially aiming at the conversion of Calvinists, minister, and created him a duke. At length he fell into disgrace, and was 128 ROB ROM| imprisoned in the castle of Segovia, whence he escaped in 1728, and came and his friends St. Just, Couthon, and Le Bas, were arrested and sent to to England. In 1731 he went to Morocco, where he was favorably received the Luxemburg prison. In the night, however, he was set free by the keeper, by Muley Abdalla, declared himself a convert to Mohammedanism, took and conducted to the hall of the Commune of Paris, where Henriot, cornthe name of Osman, and obtained the chief command of the Moorish army mander of the national guard, and others, were waiting to receive him. at the siege of Ceuta. But the Moors being defeated, he fell into disgrace; Meanwhile his enemies proceeded to action. Barras and other commissionand, retiring to Tetuan, he there died in 1737. ers, directing the military of Paris, seized the fallen tyrant and his associates; and he entered his solitary room with apparent indifference. Le Bas, Robespierre, Frangois Maximilien Joseph Isidore, (1759-1794,) one of having provided a pair of pistols, killed himself with one of them; and the most violent of the French revolutionists. He was a lawyer by pro- Robespierre, taking the other, put the muzzle to his mouth, intending to fession, and distinguished himself greatly at the bar. At the convocation blow out his brains, but the ball only fractured his lower jaw. On the of the states-general, in 1789, Robespierre was chosen deputy. He joined next day, July 28th, 1794, he and his associates were guillotined. The fall the Jacobin Club, and soon became one of its most influential members. of Robespierre is the revolution of 9th Thermidor. It is the close of the His voice was raised against martial law, against the frequent punishment Reign of Terror. The name of Robespierre is abhorred. But the lapse of of death, and against slavery; and so invincible appeared to be his justice time has calmed the natural agitation of terror and hate, and made it possiand integrity, that he obtained the title of "The Incorruptible." The ble to be fair to him. It is now admitted that, while good qualities and flight of the king in 1791 gave Robespierre an opportunity of announcing great qualities are scarcely discernible in him, he has seemed worse than he clearly his republican views. In June of that year he was named public was. He was not guilty of all the atrocities charged on him; some of his accuser, an office which he held till 1792. In the discussions respecting colleagues surpassed him in cruelty; the terror became more terrible during the fate of the king, he vehemently demanded his death, even without the his retirement; and it was his hope and purpose to put an end to it. A form of a trial, as already condemned by the people. Robespierre was at "Life of Robespierre" has been written by G. H. Lewis. this time one of the chiefs of the party named the Mountain, who were earnestly opposed by the Girondists. The influence of Robespierre pre- Romanows, The, in Russia, (1612 A. D.) The great men and nobles of the vailed, and the Girondists perished by the guillotine at the close of May, Russian empire, wearied with the confusions that prevailed, assembled for 1793. He had now virtually the power of a dictator, for in the Jacobin the purpose of deciding who should govern Russia. They passed three days Club, in the Commune of Paris, in the Committee of Public Safety, and in in fasting and prayer. At length the nobles and the deputies of the states the Convention he was supreme: the " Reign of Terror " had begun. The united their votes in favor of a boy of fifteen. Michaila Romanow, a son of dictator set himself now to the establishment of a new worship. The Con- the archbishop Philaretus, and grandson, by the mother's side, of the czar vention decreed "the Existence of the Supreme Being," and, on the 8th of Ivan Vasilievitsch, was raised to the throne; and it was resolved that the June, 1794, Robespierre, in person, celebrated what he impiously termed czars should thenceforward be nominated from the family of Romanow, and "The Feast of the Supreme Being." But, powerful and secure as he invested with the sole power of the administration. Michaila ascended appeared, his tyranny and mysterious denunciations had alarmed many of the throne of an humiliated empire: all the institutions of Ivan, and all those who had been most intimately connected with him, and a conspiracy the useful regulations that Boris attempted to introduce, had vanished; was formed for his destruction. Instead of acting with his accustomed the exhaustion was universal, and the influence of Poland and Sweden predecision, he secluded himself for more than a month; and when he again dominant. The young czar conducted his measures for the restoration of made his appearance in the National Convention, Tallien and others openly the power of his kingdom, chiefly in a peaceable and imperceptible manner. accused him; and, amidst cries of " A bas le tyran I " he, with his brother, The grandson of this Michaila Romanow was Peter the Great. The house ROU RUB 129 of Romanow gave eight rulers to Russia, and died out in 1730 with Peter II. the pen, contributed to spread calumnies, pasquinades, and caricatures (See Genealogy, XII.) against the author, who retired to Geneva. Here he published "Julie, ou Rome, Foundation of, (about 750 B. c.) About 14 miles up from the mouth la Nouvelle H6loise," containing many new ideas about education. This of the river Tiber, hills of moderate elevation rise on both banks of the was followed, in 1762, by " Emile, ou de l'Education;" which was anathstream, higher on the right, lower on the left bank. With the latter group ematized by the archbishop of Paris, and ordered to be burnt by the Parliament of Paris and the authorities of Geneva. His famous "Contrat there has been closely associated, for at least 26 centuries, the name of the lial" appeared soon afterward, and this bold thof Geneva. His famous " Contrat Romans. From various settlements on these hills the city of Rome arose. Social" appeared soon afterward, and this bold though superficial specuThe founding of a city, such as the legend assumes, is of course to be lation on the condition and destiny of man and society alarmed and irrireckoned altogether out of the question: Rome was not built in a day. But the serious consideration of the historian may well be directed to the changes of place, to escape real or fancied persecution, for his mind was inquiry in what way Rome could so early attain that prominent political now completely under the tyranny of the morbid habit of suspecting all position which it held in Latium, so different from what the physical his friends of insulting and conspiring against him. His last days were character of the locality would have led us to anticipate. This cannot have spent at Ermenonville, where he died suddenly, in 1778. Rousseau was been the result of mere accident. The Tiber was the natural highway for the author of many works besides those we have noticed, all of them exhibthe traffic of Latium; and its mouth, on a coast scantily provided with iting his peculiar warmth and energy of style, and vigor of thinking. That harbors, became necessarily the anchorage of seafarers. Moreover, the he exercised a great influence over the opinions of his age at the period of Tiber formed from very ancient times the frontier defence of the Latin the French Revolution, there can be no doubt; but his works, with all stock against their northern neighbors. There was no place better fitted their fascination of splendid and passionate eloquence, have no place for an emporium of the Latin river and sea traffic, and for a maritime among the lights that men love and walk by. His social and political frontier fortress of Latium, than Rome. It combined the advantages of a theories have no basis more solid than his personal feelings; and these he strong position and of immediate vicinity to the river; it commanded both interpreted falsely banks of the stream down to its mouth; it was so situated as to be equally convenient for the river navigator descending the Tiber or the Anio, and Rubens, Peter Paul, (1577-1640,) the most distinguished painter of the for the seafarer with vessels of so moderate a size as those which were then Flemish school e received an excellent education; and, after studyg for the seafarer with vessels of so moderate a size as those which were then in his own country, he went to Italy, where he improved himself by copyused; and it afforded greater protection from pirates than places situated in his own country, he went to Italy, where he improved himself by copyimmediately on the coast. ling the works of the best masters, but chiefly Titian. While in Italy he was employed by the duke of Mantua, not only as an artist, but on an Rome, Burning of. See Appendix, page 184. | embassy to Madrid. In 1620 he was employed by the princess Mary de' Rousseau, Jean Jacques, (1712-1778,) French philosopher. It was not Medici to adorn the gallery of the Luxemburg with a series of paintings till 1750 that he manifested his splendid literary talents. In that year illustrative of the principal scenes of her life. While thus engaged, he he gained the prize offered by the Academy of Dijon, on the question, became known to the duke of Buckingham, who purchased his museum. " Whether the revival of learning has contributed to the improvement of Hie was afterward employed by the infanta Isabella and the king of Spain morals," taking the negative side of the question. From this period his in some important negotiations, which he executed with such credit as to pen became fertile and popular; but the appearance of his celebrated be appointed secretary of the privy council. On coming to England with " Letter on French Music," (1753,) in which he pointed out its defects, a commission from the infanta, he obtained the favor of Charles I. While excited a general storm. Singers and connoisseurs, who could not wield there he painted the fine picture called " Peace and War," " William the 17. -II I_ I.. II III~1III! 130 SAM SAV Silent," and the picture of " Charles I. as St. George;" for which he was of his art that ever existed. His works are very numerous and very diverknighted, and received a chain of gold. Rubens, beyond all comparison, sified in subject. There are nearly a hundred in the picture gallery at was the most rapid in execution of the great masters; and, according to Munich. The "Descent from the Cross," at Antwerp, is perhaps his Sir Joshua Reynolds, he was the greatest master of the mechanical part i masterpiece. S. Salamis, Battle of, (480 B. C.) Salamis is an island lying between the bute. It was at the instance of her citizens that the common treasure was western coast of Attica and the eastern coast of Megaris, and forming removed from Delos to Athens. But this friendship with Athens was the southern boundary of the bay of Eleusis. It is separated from the turned into bitter enmity. Samos openly revolted, and a large force was coasts both of Attica and Megaris by only a narrow channel. It is chiefly despatched from Athens against it, under the command of 10 generals, two memorable on account of the great battle fought off its coast, in which the of whom were Sophocles and Pericles. After nine months, Samos was Persian fleet of Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks, (480 B. c.) The battle reduced to complete subjection. took place in the strait between the eastern part of the island and the Sardanapalus, (B. C. 950.) The true Sardanapalus was the mightiest concoast of Attica. The Greek fleet was drawn up in the small bay in front of queror of the Assyrian empire; and instead of falling a victim to the the town of Salamis, and the Persian fleet opposite to them, off the coast of of the Atc.TeatewsinsebyexsfoteAtccswoh power of the king of Babylon, it was he who first added Babylonia to the Attica. The battle was witnessed by Xerxes from the Attic coast, who had Assyrian empire. To use the words of his monuments, his conquests erected for himself a lofty throne on one of the projecting proclivities of ere pushed to Lebanon and the rings of all the chief were pushed to Lebanon and the Great Sea, and the kings of all the chief Mount IEgaleos. Phcenician cities paid him tribute. Among them was Ethbaal, the father Sallustius, Caius Crispus, (B. C. 86-35,) a Roman historian, distinguished of Jezebel. This fixes his date. Sardanapalus is the first known of the equally for his talents and profligacy. His name was expunged from the Assyrian kings who left behind them those great works of architecture, list of senators in consequence of his extravagance and shameless debau- which, lately disinterred from their mounds of shapeless ruin, have restored cheries; but being restored by Julius Caesar, and made governor of Nu- the monarchy to its true place in the history of the world; for while midia, he there amassed an enormous fortune by acts of rapine. His these palaces confirm by their magnitude the traditional splendor of the Histories of the Jugurthine War and the Conspiracy of Catiline bear Assyrian kings, the scenes portrayed in sculpture on the walls exhibit a testimony to his genius; but the rigid morality paraded in his writings vivid picture of their life in war and peace. forms a strange contrast to the vices of his life. forms a strange contrast to the vices of his life. Savonarola, Fra Girolamo, (1452-1498,) the great Florentine preacher and Samnite Wars. See Appendix, page 185. political reformer. Of a deeply reflective and even ascetic temper, which was confirmed by the frivolity and corruptions of the court of the princes Samos, (440 B. C.) The word denotes a height, especially by the sea-shore. of Este, he lived there in his youth a sad and solitary life; praying, fastSamos is a large island in that part of the 2Egmean which is called the ing, and studying the Bible and the works of Thomas Aquinas. At the Icarian sea. In the maritime confederacy which was organized after the age of 23 he secretly left home and entered the Dominican order at battle of Salamis, under Athenian rule, Samos seems to have been the Bologna. The presentiment that he was called to some extraordinary most powerful of the three islands which were exempted from paying tri- mission had been long fixed in his mind, and gave a tone to his preaching. SAV SC}I 1i1 He distinctly announced the idea which pervaded all his discourses as it lation, by Leonard IHorner, appeared in 1863. Perhaps the truest estimate ruled his life — "The church will be scourged and regenerated, and that of his character is that presented in " George Eliot's " fine story of Romola, quickly "-and produced the most extraQrdinary impression on the crowds in which Savonarola has a prominent place. who listened to him. He spoke with the fervor and authoritative tone of a prophet, and acquired almost unbounded influence, both political and Saxe, Maurice, (1696-1750,) Count de, Marshal of France, was a natural social. The invasion of Italy by the French, under Charles VIII., ap- son of Augustus II., king of Poland. After an unsuccessful attempt to peared to be the fulfilment of the alarming warnings repeatedly uttered by get himself elected duke of Courland, he took service in the French army, Savonarola, who was twice sent ambassador to Charles. After the expul- distinguished himself in the campaigns of 1733-5, and was made lieusion of Piero de' Medici, successor of Lorenzo, in consequence of his tenant-general. In the war which followed the death of Charles VI., disgraceful submission to the French, to whom he gave up some of the (see Appendix,) Count Maurice took a distinguished part. He captured chief cities of the republic, Savonarola rose higher and higher, was real Prague, defended Alsace, and in 1743 was named marshal of France. In though not nominal head of the state, restored the democratic form of the following year he held a command in Flanders. One of his most brilgovernment, reformed taxation, abolished usury, passed a general amnesty, liant achievements was his victory over the English and Hanoverian forces and improved the administration of justice; not a sword being drawn nor at Fontenoy, in 1745. He was at the time " nearly dead with dropsy;" any blood shed, and not even a riot taking place. Great social and moral could not sit on horseback, except for minutes; was carried about in a changes gave the city a new aspect; but these fruits of mere legislation wicker bed, and had a lead bullet in his mouth all day, to mitigate the were very transitory. Meanwhile the Pope, Alexander VI., was persuaded intolerable thirst. Saxe was a man of great size and strength; intrepid, by the banished Piero de' Medici to send an order to the magistrates of self-possessed, and, as a commander, famed for his ingenuity and dash; he Florence to prohibit his preaching, which they did in March, 1498. Then was also one of the most dissolute men of his age. followed the famous "ordeal by fire," the immediate result of which was the loss of his credit with the populace. He returned to San Marco, of Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von, (1759-1805,) one of the most which he had been prior since 1491, and, with a few faithful friends, illustrious German poets. After having studied medicine, and become awaited the inevitable end. An attack was made on the convent by his surgeon in a regiment, he, in his 22d year, wrote his tragedy of "The enemies; he and his friends were seized and imprisoned; and after re- Robbers," which at once raised him to the foremost rank among the peated examinations with brutal torture, they were hung and then burnt dramatists of his country. But some passages of a revolutionary tendency in the Piazza at Florence, May 23d, 1498. The most contradictory judg- having incurred the displeasure of the duke of Wurtemberg, Schiller left ments have been passed on this extraordinary man, and there are points in Stuttgard by stealth, and made his way to M:[annheim, where, after various his life which must probably remain insoluble problems. But one thing wanderings and many hardships, he got his tragedy of "Fiesco " brought is certain, that he was a man of rare sincerity and intensely in earnest. out on the stage. The tragedies of" Cabal and Love" and "Don Carlos" It is noteworthy that the results of his action do not appear to have lasted were his next productions. In 1787 he repaired to Weimar, where he was beyond his own lifetime, nor his influence to have been more than local. welcomed with great warmth by Wieland and Herder. Here he made also Many of his sermons remain, and are sufficient to confirm the reports of the acquaintance of Goethe, which soon ripened into a friendship only his marvellous power as a speaker, and to testify to his clearness of dissolved by death. In 1789 he was appointed to a chair of history in the spiritual vision, his profound scorn for mere shows, his deep and tender university of Jena, and beside lecturing to crowded audiences, he published human affections, and his high principles of morality. The best account his "History of the Thirty Years' War," and engaged in various literary of him is Villari's History of his Life and Times, of which an English trans- enterprises, which had great influence on the literature of Germany. He enterpr ises, whch adgretifuneonteltrtr o emn~~ 132 SCI SCI settled at Weimar, in order to direct the theatre in conjunction with could never understand how the constitution of the republic should in his Goethe, in accordance with their mutual tastes and opinions; and here he case be binding; so confident in his own greatness that he knew nothing at intervals published the works which, together with those above men- of envy or of hatred, courteously acknowledged other men's merits, and tioned, have immortalized his name. Among these are "Wallenstein," compassionately forgave other men's faults; an excellent officer and a " Mary Stuart," " Joan of Arc," and " William Tell." There is a Life of refined diplomatist, uniting Hellenic culture with the fullest national feelSchiller by Thomas Carlyle. ing of a Roman; an accomplished speaker, and of graceful manners — Publius Scipio won the hearts of soldiers and of women, of his countryScipio Major, (234-183 B. c.,) Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major, men and of the Spaniards, of his rivals in the senate, and of his greater the conqueror of Hannibal. He is said to have saved his father's life at Carthaginian antagonist. the battle of the Ticinus, and by his courage and decision to have prevented the desertion of the young nobles after the defeat at Cannre. At Scipio Minor, (185-129 B. c.,) Publius Cornelius Scipio AEmilianus Afrithe age of 24 he was chosen to command in Spain, and laid siege to the canus Minor, the conqueror and destroyer of Carthage. He was the son city of Carthago Nova, taking it the same year. During the next three of AFmilius Paulus, and the adopted son of P. Scipio, son of Africanus years, Scipio made himself master of all Spain except the town of Gades. the elder. In youth he had the advantage of the instructions and friendIn 206 he returned to Rome, and was chosen consul for the next year. ship of Polybius, who, exiled from Greece, was permitted to live in the Sicily was given to him as his province; and having attracted by his char- house of ~Emilius Paulus. Scipio was an industrious student of literature, acter and success an army of volunteers, he crossed, in 204, into Africa. and early proved himself singularly free from the common vices of senHannibal was recalled to oppose him, and the second Punic war was termi- suality and covetousness. He began his military service in Spain in 151; nated by the total defeat of Hannibal at the battle of Zama, October 19th, gained great reputation soon after in Africa, in the third Punic war; and 202. Peace was signed the next year, and Scipio, on his return home, had in 148, although not of fit age, was chosen consul. The next year he went the most splendid triumph which had yet been seen, and received the sur- to Africa, and at once commenced the siege of Carthage, which was heroname Africanus. Having accompanied his brother Lucius to the Syrian ically defended. It was entered by the Romans in the spring of 146, and war as lieutenant in 190, they were accused of misappropriation of moneys utterly destroyed. In 134 he was again consul, with Spain for his province, received from Antiochus. Although the charge was not fully sustained, and his great achievement there was the siege and capture of Numantia. his popularity had waned, and he left Rome never to return, and died at his On his return to Rome he lost his popularity by his bold resistance to the villa, at Liternum, B. C. 183, the same year in which Hannibal died. A proposed reforms of the Gracchi. At last, in 129, he was found dead in his special charm lingers around the form of that graceful hero; it is sur- bed. The history of Rome presents various men of greater genius than rounded, as with a dazzling halo, by the atmosphere of serene and confi- Scipio Minor, but none equalling him in moral purity, in the utter absence dent inspiration in which Scipio always moved. With quite enough of of political selfishness, in generous love for his country, and none, perhaps, enthusiasm to warm men's hearts, and enough of calculation to follow in to whom destiny has assigned a more tragic part. Conscious of the best every case the dictates of intelligence; not naive to share the belief of the intentions, and of no common abilities, he was doomed to see the ruin of multitude in his divine inspirations, nor straightforward enough to set it his country carried out before his eyes, and to repress within him every aside, and yet in secret thoroughly persuaded that he had a genuine pro- serious attempt to save it. It was his lot to fight for his country on many phetic nature; raised above the people, and not less aloof from them; a a battle-field, and to return home uninjured, that he might perish there by man steadfast to his word and kingly in his bearing, who thought that he the hand of an assassin; but in his quiet chamber he no less died for Rome should humble himself by adopting the ordinary title of a king, but who than if he had fallen beneath the walls of Carthage..... _........ A _r. l _....II I.. I I.. ll I I l l I Il I I _ I..... _ _ II. SCO SCO 133 Scott, Sir Walter, (1771-1832,) the great novelist. In 1802 appeared his lysis appearing in 1831, he visited Italy, but his strength continued to "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border," which, by its vivid resuscitation of decline, and he hastened back to his native land. He lay for a short the past, startled and delighted the world. " It was," says Carlyle, " a well time totally insensible, and died at Abbotsford, September 21st, 1832. His from which flowed one of the broadest rivers; a collection of materials eldest daughter, Sophia, married J. G. Lockhart, who published his from which some of his best works were composed." His first original biography. [ work as a poet was "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," 1805. It made him immensely popular, and was rapidly followed by "Marmion," " The Lady Scottish Succession, (1290, A. D.) (See Genealogy, II.) Alexander III., of the Lake," " Don Roderick," " Rokeby," " The Lord of the Isles," etc. king of Scotland, died in 1286. His queen (sister of Edward I.) and all his But after a run of about ten years, these metrical romances of chivalry began children had gone before him. None of them had left any progeny except to lose their magical influence, and society recognized in Byron a more Margaretha, who had been married to Eric, king of Norway. Her child, potent enchanter than Scott. Meanwhile the latter had enjoyed a full tide the granddaughter of Alexander III., whom chroniclers call "the Maid of worldly prosperity-had been appointed, in 1806, one of the principal of Norway," had thus become queen of Scotland. She died on her arrival clerks of the court of session, had entered into a business partnership with from Norway, at Orkney, in 1290, shattering every hope that had been his printers, the Ballantynes, and become owner of an estate and built a built upon her future union with Edward's son. The various competitors mansion at Abbotsford, on the Tweed. Resolved to adapt himself to the for the throne at once began a struggle for its possession, and Edward was public taste, he discontinued writing poems, and began the long series of appealed to by the bishop of St. Andrews "to come to the borders and his prose tales, in 1814, with "Waverley." It was published anonymously, enable the faithful men of the realm to choose him for their king, who by as were the rest of the series; and although they made him the widest lite- right ought to be so." Edward looked upon this as a favorable opporturary reputation, and brought him immense wealth, the mystery of their nity for uniting under one sceptre the British Isles, and demanded, thereauthorship was kept up for years. " Guy Mannering," " The Antiquary," fore, that the strongholds of Scotland should be surrendered into his keep" The Black Dwarf," "Old Mortality," "Rob Roy," and " The Heart of ing, in order that he might deliver the kingdom to him whose right it should Mid-Lothian," were published in swift succession before 1819, and for seven appear. Of thirteen, who claimed the royal crown, two only seemed to years longer his rapid pen was at work in the same field. In the com- possess any solid reason in their claim. They were John Baliol of Gallomercial crisis of 1826 the bankruptcy of the publishing firm of Constable way, and Robert Bruce of Annandale, both descended from David of Hun& Co. took place, which drew with it that of Ballantyne & Co. Scott's tingdon, the brother of William the Lion. (See Genealogy, II.) Bruce liabilities amounted to above ~140,000, and the fruits of his labor and the was nearer to the royal stock; Baliol more in the direct line. On the rewards of his ambition were gone. With rare courage and a healthy pride appointed day (10th of May, 1291,) Edward commanded the attendance he faced the hard fact, saw there was no remedy but one, and resolved to of all the claimants in the parish church of Norham, and demanded, try that. "Time and I," he said to his creditors, " against any two I " And as a preliminary, the recognition of his claims as lord paramount of the he worked harder than ever, till his health broke down under the severe kingdom of Scotland. Unless these were admitted he could have no legal strain. It was during these years that his "Life of Napoleon," "Letters claim to sit in judgment on the question. The chief claimants of the on Demonology," " History of Scotland," etc., were written. His debts were Scottish crown agreed to bow to Edward's judgment as their liege lord and greatly reduced in his lifetime, and were subsequently completely dis- superior. Edward now submitted the consideration of the respective claims charged by the profits of his works. The same year in which bankruptcy to 104 commissioners, 40 of whom were chosen by Baliol, 40 by Bruce, and overtook him he lost his wife, and, quitting Abbotsford, took lodgings in 24 Englishmen by the king himself. After the lapse of more than a year Edinburgh, and applied himself to his fresh task. Symptoms of para- these lords gave their decision in favor of John Baliol, the undoubted suc[ 134 SEN SEN cessor to the crown, who, upon renewing his oath of fealty to England, was to the senate. He soon after lost the favor of the emperor, who coveted put in possession of the kingdom. his money; and by the emperor's permission, he quitted Rome for the country. In A. D. 65, Seneca was accused of taking part in the conspiracy Scotus Erigena. For some ages, Ireland was the chief seat of learning in country... 65, Seneca was accused of taking part in the conspiracy of Piso, his intimate friend, and was ordered to put himself to death. He Christian Europe; and the most distinguished scholars who appeared in opened a vein in each arm, then in his legs, but the blood flowed very slowly; other countries were mostly either Irish by birth, or had received their education in Irish schools. WVe are informed by Bede that, in his day, the education in Irish schools. We are informed by Bede that, in his day, the a dose of hemlock had no effect; and at last his tortures, which he bore with stoical fortitude; were ended by suffocation in a warm bath. His writings earlier part of the Sth century, it was customary for his English fellow-.were very numerous, and many are still extant; among them are treatises countrymen of all ranks, from the highest to the lowest, to retire for study v, a "De Ira," " De Consolatione," 124 Letters to Lucilius, 10 tragedies, and a and devotion to Ireland, where they were all hospitably received, and sup-, 10 tragedies, and a remarkable work entitled "Qusestionum Naturalium, Lib. VII." Seneca plied gratuitously with food, with books, and with instruction. The glory remarkable work entitled ", attached himself chiefly to the Stoic school, but adopted also some principles of this age of Irish scholarship and genius is the celebrated Joannes Scotus, from other systems. His works abound in quotable maxims and sentiments, or Erigena, either appellative equally proclaiming his true birthplace. He his lanuae is lucid and vigorous, but he is over-fond of antithesis. His his language is lucid and vigorous, but he is over-fond of antithesis. Hts is supposed to have first made his appearance in France about the year 845, style, like his conduct at his death, had a theatrical affectation about it. and to have remained in that country till his death, which appears to have style,,.is works have been very much read, and very frequently republished. taken place before 875. Erigena's principal work is his " Dialogue on the His been very much read, and very frequently republished. Division of Nature," which is remarkable for its Aristotelian acuteness Sennaherib, (B. c. 700.) The reign of Sennaherib, the son of the usurper and extensive information. In one place he gives concise and able definia eevnmo Inl he gives concise and abledSargon, is at once the most interesting, in an historical point of view, of all tions of the seven liberal arts, and expresses his opinion on the composition the Assyrian annals, and that at which the empire reached the highest in the Assyrian annals, and that at which the empire reached the highest of things. In another part he inserts a very elaborate discussion on arithmetic. Ie also details a curious conveisation on the elements of things, pitch of prosperity. It included the whole of Western Asia, from the I metic. He also details a curious conversation on the elements of thin' s, river HaTlys and the Mediterranean, to the desert of Iran, and from the on the motions of the heavenly bodies, and other topics of astronomy and and the physiology.3 The* subtle * specu s of E a Caspian sea and the mountains of Armenia, to Arabia and the Persian gulf. physiology. The subtle speculations of Erigena have strongly attracted the e restored Nineveh to its position as te roal residence, rebuilt the city.He restored Nineveh to its position as the royal residence, rebuilt the city notice of the most eminent among the modern inquirers into the history and its palaces, by the labor of hosts of captives, and with materials conof opinion and civilization, and they attribute to them a very extraordinary tributed by all the subject kings and states; and a d a palace exceeding influence on *be'philosopy of his own and of succeeding times. Itributed by all the subject kings and states; and added a palace exceeding g influence on the philosophy of his own and of succeeding time~s. in size and magnificence all that had been erected by former kings. It was Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, Roman philosopher, and tutor to the emperor amidst the ruins of this edifice that Mr. Layard made the most important Nero, was the son of M. Anneus Seneca, an eminent rhetorician, and was of his discoveries; and in the sculptures that lined its walls we see the life born at Corduba, in Spain, about the beginning of the Christian era. How of Assyria when it was most flourishing. A second palace built by Sennafar the philosopher strove to correct the vices of the emperor, or whether herib is buried beneath the mound by the name of which (Nebbi-Yanus, he did not rather wink at or even pander to them, cannot perhaps be ascer- Prophet Jonah,) tradition bears her witness to Jonah's mission to the Ninetained. But the philosopher grew immensely rich, had a palace sumptuously vites. In the third year of his reign, the king crossed the Euphrates and furnished at Rome, country-seats and splendid gardens, and an enormous quickly subdued the whole country. His successes provoked the resistance amount of ready money. After long profiting by the favor of Agrippina, of the king of Egypt. This seemed an excellent opportunity for Hezekiah, he took her son's part against her; probably sanctioning, tacitly, if not the king of Judah, to shake off the Assyrian yoke. But when Sennaherib expressly, her murder by her son; and wrote Nero's letter of justification had taken Ashdod, the key of the military route to Egypt, he turned his __,.._,__= _.:,... _~_.... ~... _,... EL ~.. SER SFO 135 arms against rebellious Judah, and it was from before Lachish that he sent circumstances, would perhaps have become the regenerator of his country the summons to which Isaiah replied by the prophecy of his destruction. - by the treason of the wretched band of emigrants whom he was conAt this crisis he was called away by the advance of the Egyptian army, demned to lead against his native land. and it seems to have been in his camp near Pelusium that his army was Sesostris, or rather Sesortasen, is shown, by the remains of temples he dswept down byi the,very miracle that Isaiah had predicted founded, to have ruled the whole of Egypt, from the Delta to the second Septimus Severus, (146-211,) Roman Emperor, was born at Leptis, in cataract. An obeliak of his still stands at Heliopolis. He extended his Africa, and was raised to the throne on the death of Pertinax, 193. He conquests into Ethiopia. His memory was held in such honor as to cause had to contend wvith several rivals; first, Didius Julianus, whom he put fresh temples to be reared to his memory many centuries after his death. to death; then Pescennius Niger, whom'he defeated at Issus; and at a Undoubtedly there were in the first extracts from Manetho some words of later period, Albinus, whom he defeated near Lyons, in 197.c Severus had praise following his royal name, as there were after several others; and in the preceding year taken Byzantium, after two years' siege. He car- this circumstance, joined to the similarity of names, induced the chronolried on a successful war in the East, and in 208 visited Britain, made war ogists to place the Sesostris of the Greeks just there. He is, however, not on the Caledonians, and built the great wall across the north of England, the Sesostris spoken of by Herodotus. This Sesortasen was indeed a king from the Solway to the Tyne. As a monarcnh he was cruel; and it has been who was victorious on the frontiers, but his armies had never penetrated said that he never performed an act of humanity or forgave,a fault. He into Asia. The Sesostris of Herodotus is the famous Rameses Mei Amoun. was a man of letters, and composed a history of his own reign. (See this.) Sertorius, Quintus, (B. C. 72,) a distinguished Roman general. Hie served Sforza, Ludovico, (1451-1510,) the last Duke of Milan, and the immediate under Marius in the Cimbric war, afterward in Spain, and was made cause of the invasion of Italy by the French. The succession of Naples qu.estor, B. 0. 91. Appointed praetor in 83, he went soon after to Spain, was again to involve Italy in war. The pretensions of the house of Anjou where his courage and skill as a soldier were well known. He had, how- had descended to the count of Maine, by whose testament they becamre vested ever, to retire before the forces of Sulla, and went to Africa; but, on the in the crown of France. (See Genealogy, VIII.) Louis XI., however, invitation of the Lusitanians, returned and put himself at their head to gave himself no trouble about Naples. But his son and successor, Charles fight for independence. His progress was rapid: he made himself master VIII., was anxious to visit the sunny south. At that time the central of a great part of Spain, established a senate, founded a school at Osca for parts of Lombardy were held by Ludovico Sforza, who had usurped the the education of young Spaniards in Greek and Roman learning, and, to duchy of Milan. A revolution would be the probable result of this usurincrease the superstitious reverence of the people for his person, gave out pation. In these circumlstances, Sforza excited the king of France to unthat he had communications with the gods through the white fawn which dertake the conquest of Naples. In relieving himself from an immediate always accompanied him. Metellus Pius was sent against him in 79, but danger, Sforza overlooked the consideration that the heir of the king of could effect nothing; two years later, Pompey joined Metellus; but Serto- France claimed that duchy of Milan which he was compassing by usurparius, re-enforced by Perperna, held out against both till 72. He entered tion and murder. It was in the month of August, 1494, that the French into negotiations with Mithridates, which caused fresh alarm at Rome. But army began to pass over the Alps, and, after marching across Lombardy; his influence and popularity were shaken by his despotic acts, and espe- arrived upon the territory of Florence. No resistance was made, Charles cially by the massacre of all the scholars at Osca; and he was assassinated VIII. entered Rome almost without drawing a sword, and, on the 22d of by Perperna, his ally, at a banquet, B. C. 72. So ended one of the greatest February, 1495, made his solemn entry into Naples. Alarmed at the rapid men that Rome had hitherto produced - a man who, under more fortunate conquest of the French, he joined the league of the Pope, the emperor, the 136 SHA SOB king of Spain, and the princes of Italy, against Charles, who, however, "Romeo and Juliet," and his "King John," and his "Richard II.," and his succeeded in fighting his way back to France. In 1499 the French re- "Henry IV.," and his " Richard III.," all certainly produced before 1598, turned to Italy, under Louis XII., and conquered the whole of the Milanese are still the most universally familiar compositions in English literaterritory, of which he took possession as heir of his grandmother, Valen- ture, no other dramatic work that had then been written is now popularly tina Visconti. Ludovico succeeded in re-entering Milan in the following read or familiar to anybody, except to a few professed investigators of the year, but was besieged in Novara and betrayed to the French, who carried antiquities of our poetry. But Shakspeare is not merely a dramatist. Apart him with other princes of his house to France; and he passed the rest of altogether from his dramatic power, he is the greatest poet that ever lived. his life as a prisoner at the castle of Loches. His surname, the Moor, was His sympathy is the most universal, his imagination the most plastic, his given him, either because of his swarthy color, or in allusion to his device, diction the most expressive ever given to any writer. His poetry has in the mulberry-tree - in Italian, El Moro. itself the power and varied excellences of all other poetry. While in grandeur, and beauty, and passion, and sweetest music, and all the other Shakspeare, William, (1564-1616.) Of the life of this chief of poets we higher gifts of song, he may be ranked with the greatest - with Spenser, know almost nothing with any certainty. It is certain that in his youth and Chaucer, and Milton, and Dante, and Homer he is at the same time he went toLondon, and lived there many years, leaving his wife and chil- more nervous than Dryden, and more sententious than Pope. In whose dren at Stratford; that he gained an honorable position as actor, play-writer, handling was language ever such a flame of fire as it is in his? His wonand shareholder in the Blackfriars and afterward in the Globe Theatre; en- derful potency in the use of this instrument would alone set him above all joyed the favor and patronage of Queen Elizabeth, James I., and the earl other writers. of Southampton, the warm friendship of Ben Jonson, and the highest respect and admiration of his associates, not only for his pre-eminence as Shapoor, the great King of Persia, and bitter enemy of the Byzantine ema poet, but for his honesty, geniality, and worth as a man. The first col- pire. His martial character showed itself first in his invasion of Yemen, lected edition of Shakspeare's plays was the folio of 1623. The works of about 326. After the death of the emperor Constantine, he began the war Shakspeare have become to a large part of the world one of the primal with the Romans, which was carried on through almost his whole reign, necessities of life. In no other man's books, probably, is to be found so against Constantius II., Julian, and Jovian. Nine great battles were much truth, wisdom, and beauty. Great to all men, he is greatest to the fought, in two of which Constantius commanded in person, the Romans great, and the homage of the highest intellects of the world is silent- usually being defeated. In 363 he attempted to avert by negotiation the ly or with eloquent speech yielded to him. The myriad-minded man, threatened invasion of his dominions by Julian, but his overtures were the greatest intellect who in our recorded world has left record of himself despised, and Julian advanced to Antioch, passed the Euphrates and the in the way of literature, the poet of the human race, the melodious priest Tigris, took several towns, burnt his own fleet, and soon after commenced of a true catholicism —such are some of the phrases in which other great his retreat. Shapoor pursued and harassed the Romans, and, in a battle men have striven to express their sense of his superiority. Ben Jonson, fought soon after, Julian was killed. A treaty of peace was made with Milton, Dryden, Pope, and, in our own day, Coleridge, De Quincy, Carlyle, Jovian, and Shapoor obtained the five provinces beyond the Tigris. and Emerson have led the chorus of his praise. The revolution which his Smalcaldian War. See Appendix, page 200. genius wrought' upon the English drama is placed in the clearest light by comparing his earliest plays with the best which the language possessed Sobieski, John, (1629-1696,) King of Poland, one of the greatest warriors before his time. He has made all his predecessors obsolete. While his of his age. John distinguished himself very greatly in the continual wars "Merchant of Venice," and his "Midsummer Night's Dream," and his with Cossacks and Tartars, Swedes, Russians, and Turks, and attained the SOC SOL 137 dignity of grand-marshal of Poland. One of his most memorable exploits religious mission to fulfil, and that a divine voice habitually interfered to was the grand victory won in 1667 over the combined Cossack and Tartar restrain him from certain actions. Instead of encouraging profitless spechosts, in a battle or series of battles which lasted seventeen days. He had ulations upon nature, he turned the thoughts of men to themselves, their only 20,000 men to oppose to 100,000, and with them he saved Poland from actions, and their duties. Yet even on these things he did not dogmatize: destruction. Sobieski was elected king of Poland, as John III., in 1674, instead of asserting and imparting, he questioned and suggested, showed and had the arduous task of raising the country from a state of extreme and led the way to real knowledge. He ruthlessly compelled ignorance and depression and embarrassment. The emperor Leopold, in dread of the pretence to own themselves, and thus drew on himself the hatred of many. Turks, sought in 1682 the aid of all the Christian powers, among them He was attacked by Aristophanes, in his comedy of the " Clouds," as the that of Poland; but Sobieski, whose title Leopold had refused to acknowl- arch-sophist, the enemy of religion, and corrupter of youth; substantially edge, in turn refused to make an alliance with him. In the following year, the same charges as those on which he was prosecuted twenty years later. however, he did so, and Vienna being besieged by 200,000 Turks under the He was charged with not believing in the gods which the state worshipped; grand-vizier Kara Mustapha, and the imperial family having fled, So- with introducing new divinities, and with corrupting the youth. Death bieski hastened to relieve the city with 200,000 men; and came in sight was proposed as the penalty. He was condemned by a majority of six of the besieging host on the 11th of September. The next day he totally only; but his speech in mitigation of the sentence raised the majority defeated them, and became master of their camp, artillery, and immense against him to eighty. Thirty days elapsed between his sentence and its treasure. The victory filled trembling Europe with joy, and immortalized execution, in pursuance of the law that no criminal must be put to death Sobieski. His last years were saddened by the failure of all his attempts during the voyage of the sacred ship to Delos. During that period to introduce reforms into the government. The nobles invariably opposed Socrates had the society of his friends, and conversed with them as usual; their constitutional anarchic " veto," and the patriot king confessed him- the last conversation being on the immortality of the soul. He refused self powerless to save his country. the offer of some of his friends to procure means of escape for him; drank Social War in Greece. See Appendix, page 225. the hemlock cup with perfect composure, and so died, in the 70th year of Social War in Greece. See Appendix, page 22.5. his age. Socrates opened a new era in philosophy, and without founding Socrates, (B. C. 468-399,) the great Athenian philosopher. He was one of a system, he originated, by rousing men to reflection and leading them the disciples of Anaxagoras, and soon gave himself up entirely to philoso- toward self-knowledge, a vast movement of intellect, which produced, first phy. He led an active social life, married, served his country as a soldier, Platonism and the Aristotelian logic, and then all the systems, even condistinguishing himself by his courage and extraordinary endurance at the flicting ones, which rose into more or less importance during ten successive siege of Potideea and at the battle of Delium. At Potidcea he saved the centuries. Our primary authorities for the life and teaching of this exlife of his pupil Xenophon. He appears to have scarcely ever held any traordinary man are Xenophon's Memorabilia and Apology of Socrates, political office, and seems to have inclined rather to the aristocratic than to and Plato's Dialogues, in which he forms the great central figure. (See the democratic party. But it was as a teacher that Socrates made himself Grote's admirable account of him in his History of Greece.). the foremost man of Athens, and perhaps of the ancient world. He wrote no book, he did not establish a school, nor constitute a system of philoso- Solway Moss, (1542 A. D.) Toward the close of this year a war broke phy. But he almost lived abroad, and mixed with men familiarly; and in out between England and Scotland. James V., king of Scots, was under the street or any place of public resort, where listeners gathered around the influence of the Catholic party, and encouraged his subjects to make him, he talked, and questioned, and discussed, not for pay, but from the depredations upon the English border. Henry VIII. hereupon prolove of truth, and a sense of duty. He was persuaded that he had a high claimed war against James, and the duke of Norfolk plundered the 18 1:3,8 SOP SPA Scottish border. James sent an army of 10,000 men into Cumberland to Eumenides, to die within its hallowed precincts, unseen by mortal eye, and revenge this insult; but they were without organization, and being sud- thus to bring about the great solution of destiny by death. The third denly attacked by a small body of English not exceeding 500 men, a shout (Antigone) carries on the tragic story of the house, the civil war between was raised that the duke of Norfolk was upon them with the army of the the sons of (Edipus, their mutual slaughter, and the punishment of Tweed. A moment's thought would have shown them that Norfolk could Antigone for burying the corpse of her brother Polynices, against the prohinot be within 30 miles of Carlisle; but his name caused a panic. Few or bition of Creon, who has succeeded to the throne. And here occurs the none in the whole multitude knew the ground, and 10,000 men went blun- memorable collision between a sacred duty founded on natural instincts dering like sheep, in the darkness, back upon the border. But here a fresh and hallowed by antique usage, with the presumed binding sanction of the difficulty arose. The tide was flowing up the Solway. They had lost the law of God written on the heart, on the one side., and the edicts of power on route by which they had advanced in the morning, and had strayed toward the other. Both are pushed to extremes, and double destruction is the conthe sea. Some flung away their arms and struggled over the water; some sequence. This character of Antigone is the gem of the Athenian stage. were drowned; the main body wandered at last into Solway Moss, a morass between Gretna and the Esk, where the whole army were either killed or Spanish Armada, (1588.) Philip II., king of Spain, whose sailors had lately made prisoners. The king of Scots, hearing of this disaster, abandoned beaten the Turks at Lepanto, whose soldiers had still more recently conhimself wholly to despair, and died three weeks afterward (December, 1542,) quered Portugal, who owned, besides his dominions in Europe, the golden in the flower of his age, leaving the crown to an infant of a few days, Mary, soil of the Americas and some of the richest islands in African and Asian queen of Scots. seas, resolved, during the reign of Elizabeth, upon the invasion of England. For this resolve he had, among others, three especial reasons: the execuSophocles. The three great tragic poets of Athens were singularly con- tion of Mary, queen of Scots, against his remonstrances; the support given nected together by the battle of Salamis. AGschylus, in the heroic vigor by Elizabeth to the insurgents in the Netherlands and in France; and of his life, fought there; Euripides was born in Salamis on the day of the plundering of his ships and colonies by English pirates. In the the battle, and Sophocles, a blooming boy of 16, danced to the choral song summer of 1588, 132 vessels rode at anchor in the Tagus, prepared for of Simonides, in which the victory was celebrated. Sophocles carries this the destruction of the English throne. This fleet, known as the Invincible rhythmical movement, in which he first appears to us, through his whole Armada, was to be joined off the coast of Holland by the duke of Parma, life. Elegance, proportion, finished art are the characteristics of the man with thirty-five thousand troops. Every effort was made for the defence and.the poet, but within these limits he shows an orderly force and even of England. Elizabeth acted with a courage worthy of the most heroic of sublimity of genius. He holds the highest rank as a dramatic artist, though her predecessors. The English fleet was placed under the command of perhaps in original power a little inferior to AEschylus. The greatest of the Lord Howard of Effingham, while under him served Drake, Hawkins, and works of Sophocles are the three plays on the fates of the house of CEdipus. Frobisher. Storms delayed the Spanish armament, and, on its arrival in the They embody his powerful conception of destiny. In the first (CEdipus channel, a succession of able attacks on the part of the English prevented Tyrannus) the plot is the most artfully contrived of all the Greek tragedies; its junction with the troops of the duke of Parma. The decisive attack events following one. another with breathless rapidity, and leading to the was made by fire-ships in Calais roads, (28th of July, 1588.) Weakened inevitable catastrophe, which cast CEdipus down from his knightly state, by the loss of several vessels, the Spanish admiral resolved to return homean unconscious and self-convicted parricide. The second (CEdipus Colo- ward. As the channel was in the possession of the English, the armada neus) ends with the mournful and mysterious death of the dethroned, blind, sailed round the north of Scotland. When near the Orkneys, it encounand wretched (Edipus, who hath sought the grove and shrine of the tered severe storms, and so many of the vessels were disabled or wrecked SPE SPI 139 on the coasts of Ireland, Scotland, and the adjacent islands, that scarcely Sidney, and whom he celebrates under the title of the "Shepherd of the one-half of the fleet returned to the shores of Spain. Ocean." Sir Walter persuaded him to write the " Faerie Queen," the first part of which was printed in 1590, and presented to Queen Elizabeth. In Spanish Succession War. (See Genealogy, IX.) The expected death of SpanihSucessionWa. (Seenaog1591, Spenser published the second part of the "Faerie Queen;" but the Charles II., (son of Philip IV.,) who was childless, had led to questions as poem, according to the original plan, was never completed. About this to the succession to his dominions, which threatened to disturb the peace to the e, te time Spenser presented to the queen his "View of the State of Ireland," of Europe. Among the claimants for the succession, the principal were This intebeing then clerk of the council of the province of Munster. This i ntethe dauphin of France, son of Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of Philip resting and masterly work was not printed till 1633. Spenser is one of the IV.; the electoral prince of Bavaria, grandson of Margaret Theresa, second the, arhdkCalefusrawosig most purely poetic of all poets. Yet, as it is with Milton, so it is with daughter of Philip IV.; and the archduke Charles of Austria whose right him: his name is spoken with a proud admiration, and his " Faerie Queen" was by his grandmother, daughter of Philip III. This prince, who was.zn~~~~~'..,. is not read. Some, like Hume find it more a task than a pleasure to read also a descendant in the direct male line from Joanna, the daughter of Ferthis poem. Others, like Pope, find it charming in old age as well as in dinand and Isabella, had been named heir by Philip IV. The conditions of the arrangement concluded between William I. and Louis XIV., known youth. Milton, in his "Areopagitica," speaks of "our sage and serious the arrangement concluded between William III. and Louis XIV., known poet, Spenser, whom I dare be known to think a better teacher than Scotus as the First Partition Treaty, were that Naples and Sicily should be assigned or Aquinas." And an eminent modern critic asserts that "the shaping to the dauphin, that the archduke Charles should succeed to Milan, and spirit of imagination was never possessed in the like degree by any other that the electoral prince should inherit the crown of Spain, the Netherthat the electoral prince should inherit the crown of Spain, the Nether- writer; nor has any other evinced a deeper feeling of all forms of the beaulands, and the Indies. The death of the young elector, however, frus- tiful; nor have words ever been made by any other to embody thought trated this arrangement, and led to the conclusion of the Second Partition with more wonderful art." Hisverse is exquisitely melodious, and the Treaty, by which it was agreed that the archduke Chgrles should succeed moral tone of his poetry is of the noblest nd purest. to Spain, the Netherlands, and the Indies, and the dauphin to the Italian states, including Milan. The knowledge of these arrangements induced states, including Milan. The knowledge of these arrangements induced Spinola, Ambrose, (1569-1630,) a celebrated Spanish general. At the age Charles to bequeath his dominions, undivided, to Philip, the younger son of 30 he entered the service of Philip III. taking command of a body of of the dauphin. The confederacy concluded by William with the emtroops which he had raised and undertook to pay. He first served in peror Leopold, known as the Grand Alliance, had been formed with the object landers, and in 1604 he took Ostend, after a sie of three years, for of,efeati this arrngement, nd of preenting union ofthe Frenc Flanders, and in 1604 he took Ostend, after a siege of three years, for of defeating this arrangement, and of preventing the union of the French ich lie as made comander-in-chief of all the Spanish troops in the which lie was made commander-in-chief of all the Spanish troops in the and Spanish monarchies. It was left, however, for the successor of Wil- where he was opposed by Low Countries, where he was opposed by Maurice of Nassau. During a liam, by the aid of the military genius of Marlborough, to carry out the.I~~~~~~~~~~~~', ~~cessation of operations, Spinola went to Paris, and in an interview with object of the confederates. (See Appendix, page 205.) object oftheconfderates.(e i, pe05.t Henry IV., the king asked him what were his plans for the ensuing camSpenser, Edmund, (1553-1599,) one of the most illustrious English poets. paign. The general, without hesitation, entered into a detail of his proIn 1580 he accompanied Lord Grey de Wilton, viceroy of Ireland, as his jects, and Henry communicated to Maurice the direct contrary, as he could secretary, and procured a grant of 3,028 acres in the county of Cork, out not believe that Spinola had revealed to him his real intentions. Findof the forfeited lands of the earl of Desmond; on which, however, by the ing, however, that the Spaniard was as good as his word, he exclaimed, terms of the gift, he was obliged to become resident. He accordingly fixed "Others deceive by telling falsehoods, but this man by speaking the truth." his residence at Kilcolman, in the county of Cork, and was there visited He was subsequently employed in Italy, where he made himself master of by Sir Walter Raleigh, who became his patron after the death of Sir Philip the city of Casale; but not being able to subdue the citadel, owing to im 140 ST. A ST. A prudent orders sent him from Madrid, he exclaimed, "They have robbed protection of Lewis the Pious. That prince embraced the faith of Christ, me of my honor," and fell a prey to chagrin, in 1630. not only as the price of succor in the contest for his throne, but in zeal and sincerity. The return of Harold to Denmark seemed to the Danish St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, (340-397.) While yet a youth he pleaded prince and to the pious emperor too favorable an opportunity to be causes with so much eloquence, that Probus, prefect of Italy, chose him neglected for the promulgation of the Gospel in that heathen kingdom. A one of his council, and afterward nominated him governor of Liguria, zealous and devoted missionary was invited to undertake the perilous which office he held five years. In 374, Auxentius, bishop of Milan, died; adventure. This was nschar, a pious monk. He stayed in Denmark two and so fierce was the contest in the election of a successor to the vacant years without much success. But whatever was his success in Denmark, see, that the governor wascalled upon to quell the tumult. This he the more remote regions of the north suddenly opened on the zealous attempted by persuasion in the great church; and at the conclusion of his missionara. An embassy from Sweden announced that many of that address, a voice in the crowd exclaimed, "Ambrose is bishop." This cir-. was voiinecrd eadimede Ambrose is dcr nation were prepared to accept Christianity. Anschar did not hesitate at cumstance was considered as a divine direction, and Ambrose was declared once to proceed to this more distant and unknown scene of labor. In the to be the object, not only of the popular choice, but of divine selection founded: Anschar,. mean time the archbishorc of Hamburg had been founded: Anschar His first efforts were directed to the extermination of Arianism, which wasvested with metropolitan power over all the was ralsed to the see, and invested with metropolitan power over all the then making great progress. He also successfully resisted the pagans, who northern missions. But the Northmen had learned no respect for Chriswere attempting to restore their ancient worship. When Maximinus in- tinity. They surprised Hamburg..tmanty. They surprised Hamburg. The town was burned, and Anschar vaded Italy, and actually entered Milan, Ambrose remained at his post, to hardly escaped with his life. He returned however again to his see, and l, hardly escaped with hs lfe. He returned however again to his see, and assuage the calamities produced by the invading army. When, in conseassuage. the. caamtespod t, ieven went again to Sweden, where, thanks to his labors, Christianity was quence of a tumult at Thessalonica, Theodosius sent an order for a general tore. the falorsionoth kig finally admitted as a tolerated religion. The final conversion of the kingmassacre, Ambrose went to the emperor, remonstrated with him on his.'........ ~dom, however, was not achieved tin above a century and a half later barbarity, and prevailed on him to promise that the command should be, revoked. The mandate was, however, carried into execution, and 700 St. Athanasius, (296-373,) Bishop of Alexandria, and one of the most celepersons were slaughtered in cold blood. Shortly afterward, when Theo- brated doctors of the Church. He spent some time with St. Anthony in dosius was about to enter the great church of Milan, Ambrose met him at the desert, took a leading part at the council of Nice, defending the orthothe porch, and sternly forbade him to appear in the holy place. The em- dox dogma, and combating Arius with great zeal and acuteness, and was peror pleaded the example of David: "You have imitated David in his chosen bishop in 326. For nearly half a century he sustained with crime, imitate him in his repentance," was the reply; and Theodosius was unshaken fidelity, through all changes of outward fortune, the part he had excluded from the service of the church for eight months, and then was chosen of champion of the Catholic doctrine. Condemned by councils, compelled, not only to perform penance, but to sign an edict which thrice exiled, alternately supported and persecuted by the emperors, a ordained that an interval of thirty days should pass before any sentence of wanderer at Rome, at Milan, in Gaul, and in the Egyptian desert, he death or of confiscation should be executed. remained true to himself, exercised an almost unparalleled influence, and St. Anschar, (850 A. D.,) the Apostle of Scandinavia. From the earliest spent the last ten years of his life at Alexandria, where he died. His times Christianity had made some efforts to reach those northern regions works fill three volumes folio. There is no ground for attributing the from which issued forth the terrible pagans. A providential event opened Athanasian creed to this eminent bishop. Denmark to her exertions. A contested succession to the throne of that St. Augustine, (354-430,) Bishop of Hippo, the greatest of the Fathers of kingdom had driven one of the princes, Harold, to the court and to the the Latin Church. Augustine took an active part in the Church contro_~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,tegets fteFteso ST. B ST. B 141 versies of his age. His influence over the Western church was immense tinued. The large cities of the provinces, Rouen, Lyons, etc., caught the and lasting; he completed what Athanasius began, and, by his earnestness infection, which the queen-mother took no steps to prevent, and France and logical clearness, determined the form of the Catholic doctrine. His was steeped in blood and mourning. works are very numerous, but the best known are his "Confessions," and works are very numerous, but the best known are his "Confessions, and St. Benedict, (480-543,) the founder of the Benedictine Order, was born at the " City of God." The writings of this father were the special study of bNursia, in the duchy of Spoleto. Of a wealthy and pious family, he was both John Wickliffe and Martin Luther. sent to pursue his studies at Rome; but, dissatisfied with the sterile instrucSt. Augustine, or Austin, (?-605,) styled the Apostle of the English, was tion, and shrinking with religious horror from the vices of the city, he sent by Pope Gregory I. with a few monks to preach the Gospel in Eng- quitted it, and retired to an inaccessible cavern. The monk Romanus land. He landed in 597; and so rapid was his success, that in 602 the alone visited and supplied him with food. Temptation assailed him in the Pope made him archbishop of Canterbury. Elated by the success of his most perilous shapes, but he triumphed over it. His hiding-place was dismission, he endeavored to bring the Welsh bishops, who were descendants covered, and he was induced to become abbot of a neighboring monastery, of the British converts of the second century, under the jurisdiction of the from which, however, he soon withdrew. His fame had spread, and many Church; but they asserted their independence, and 1,200 monks of Bangor were attracted to his retreat; and in a short time twelve fraternities were were soon after put to the sword. settled amidst the romantic scenery of Subiaco. At length, by the malice St. Bartholomew, (1572 A. D.,) the Massacre of the Protestants. The event and persecution of a priest, Florentius, Benedict was driven from Subiaco, bearing this name was all expression of the feelings with which Protestant- and established himself on Monte Casino. The old temple of Apollo and ism was regarded in France in the first age after the Reformation. After the its grove were destroyed, and in their place arose the famous Benedictine death of her husband, Henry II., Catherine de' Medicis had an incessant |monastery, the centre of the system which rapidly spread over the west of struggle during the reigns of the boy-kings, her sons, for the supreme power. Europe. The whole life of Benedict was adorned with acts of fervent It seemed within her grasp but for the influence which the Protestant leader, piety, and the deep impression which he produced on the world was mainly the Admiral Coligni, had acquired over the mind of Charles IX., who, owing to the completeness with which he personally embodied and set during the absence of Catherine, had listened to Coligni, and agreed to an forth the highest religious ideal of the age. In his later years he had a expedition against the Spaniards, (that was, against Catholicism.) From memorable interview with Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, who sought his this moment the death of the Protestant leader was determined upon. The counsel as an oracle. opportunity of the marriage between Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.) and St. Bernard, (1091-1153,) Abbot of Clairvaux, was born of a noble family the king's sister Margaret was seized upon. This marriage was hailed by in Burgundy. He was carefully trained by pious parents, and sent to study the Protestants with delight. They considered it as a pledge of future at the university of Paris. At the age of 23 he entered the then recently concord. But on the 22d of August, Coligni was shot at from a window; founded monastery of Citeaux, accompanied by his brothers and above his party were highly indignant at this outrage, and threats of vengeance twenty of his companions. He observed the strictest rules of the order, were heard: these were used by the king's relatives to convince him that and so distinguished himself by his ability and acquirements that he was he and all about him were in danger of immediate destruction, if he did chosen to lead the colony to Clairvaux, and was made abbot of the new not permit a general massacre, The order was given. The house where house; an office which he filled till his death. His fame attracted a great Coligni lay wounded was first attacked, and all its inmates murdered. All number of novices, many of whom became eminent men. Among tihem the streets in Paris rang with the dreadful cry, "Death to the Huguenot." were Pope Eugenius III., six cardinals, and many bishops. In 1128 he About 30,000 persons were butchered. All that day (August 24th) it con- prepared the statutes for the order of Knights Templars. Popes and; i I I I _, l ll II I.~ I I,-'' " 3 II IJ l'" _o II I 142 ST. C ST. P princes desired his support, and submitted their differences to his caused him to be deposed at a synod held at Chalcedon in 403. His depoarbitration. He was the chief promoter of the second crusade. At the sition gave so much offence to the people, by whom he was greatly beloved, council of Vezelai, in 1146, he spoke as if inspired, before the king and the that the empress was obliged to interfere for his reinstatement. He soon, nobles of France, and with his own hand gave them their crosses. He however, provoked her anger by opposing the erection of her statue then preached the crusade in Germany, persuaded the Emperor Conrad to near the great church; and, in 404, another synod deposed him, and join it, and refused the command which was offered him. His prediction exiled him to Armenia. He sustained his troubles with admirable courage; of success was falsified. Bernard was the vehement adversary of Arnold but being ordered to a still greater distance from the capital, where his of Brescia, and of Abelard. He steadily refused the offers of several enemies feared his influence, he died while on the journey. His voluminarchbishoprics and other dignities, preferring to remain abbot only. His ous works, consisting of sermons, commentaries, treatises, etc., abound character and his writings have earned him the title of last of the fathers. with information as to the manners and characteristics of his age. Thirty The power and tenderness and simplicity that characterizes his sermons years after his death his remains were removed to Constantinople with and other works have secured him the admiration of Protestants and great pomp, and he was honored with the title of saint. Catholics alike. Dante introduces him in the last cantos of the "Paradise" St.Ignatius. See LoYOLA. with profound reverence and admiring love; and Luther studied his writings with the same feelings. The best English biography of St. Bernard St. Jerome, one of the Fathers of the Church. He was a native of Dacia, is written by J. C. Morrison. who in 382 visited Rome, and was made secretary to Pope Damasus; but 5 A. D......... three years afterward he returned to the East, accompanied by several St. Boniface, (680-755 A. D.,) the Apostle of Germany, was born in England. i He came a on but under the sanction of Pope Gegory II. he went female devotees, who wished to lead an ascetic life in the Holy- Land Hebec a6 mo!nk, but under the sanction o...f Pope Gregr he w.ent. Jerome was one of the most learned of the fathers, and took a leading part about 716 to Germany, and there devoted himself for the rest of his life to in the religious controversies of his age. His writings are very numerous, the task of Christianizing the uncivilized tribes; not without great sucthe!~~~~~~~~ ts o..... Crsinzg tenvietb;owthe most important being his Commentaries on various parts of the Bible cess. He founded churches, schools, and monasteries, and reclaimed vast The Church owes to him the Latin translation of the Bible well known tracts of waste and brought them under cultivation. He was massacred under the name of the Vulgate. His style is singularly pure and classical. with a band of his converts by the barbarians, in 755. D, He died in 420, superintendent of a monastery, at Bethlehem. At the death St. Chrysostome, John, (347-407 A. D.,) Patriarch of Constantinople, was of Jerome, Latin Christianity had produced three of her great fatherscalled Chrysostome, which signifies "golden mouth," on account of his the founders of her doctrinal and disciplinarian system - Jerome, Ambrose, eloquence. He was born at Antioch about the middle of the 4th century, Augustine; Jerome, if not the father, the faithful and zealous guardian and was intended for the bar; but being deeply impressed with religious of her young monasticism, Ambrose of her sacerdotal authority, Augustine feelings, he spent several years in solitary retirement, studying and medi- of her theology. tating with a view to the Church. Having completed his voluntary proba- St. Louis. See Louis IX. tion, he returned to Antioch, was ordained, and became so celebrated for the eloquence of his preaching, that on the death of Nectarius, patriarch St. Polycarp, one of the Apostolical Fathers of the Church, and a Christian of Constantinople, he was raised to that high and important post. He martyr, who was a disciple. of the apostle John, and by him appointed exerted himself so zealously in repressing heresy, paganism, and immo- bishop of Smyrna. He made many converts, enjoyed the friendship of rality, and in enforcing the obligations of monachism, that Theophilus, Ignatius, and opposed the heresies of Marcion and Valentinus; and during bishop of Alexandria, aided and encouraged by the empress Eudoxia, the persecution of the Christians under Marcus Aurelius, he suffered mar STR STU 43 tyrdom with the most heroic fortitude, A. D. 166. His short "Epistle to Struensee, John Frederick, (1737-1772,) first minister of Christian VIT. the Philippians " is the only one of his writings that has been preserved, of Denmark. He was brought up to medicine, and became in 1768 phxvsician to the king of Denmark, whom he accompanied on his tour to GerSt. Thomas d Becket. See BECKET. many, France, and England. Soon after the marriage of Christian with - the princess Caroline Matilda of England, Struensee became a favorite of See!e. See ADDISON. |the young queen, and, through her, finally prime-minister. Taking advantage of the imbecility of the monarch, he gradually came to direct the Stein, (1757-1831,) a distinguished Prussian statesman. His great abilities t L 1771831 a * Pru n ss ga ailis whole affairs of government. He endeavored to introduce reforms in the having become known, he was, in 1786, appointed to the important situahaving become known, he was, in 1786, appointed to the important situa- law and the administration most of which were ignorantly and violently tion of president of all the Westphalian chambers, in which office he labored v assiduously till 1804. In that year he was made minister of finance and opposed. His monopoly of power at length aroused the jealousy of the princip-al nobility, who, aided by the young queen's mortal enemy, the trade, in which he remained till 1806, when he resigned and retired to his principal nobility, who, aided by the young queen's estates at Nassau. The king however, recalled him soon after thpeace queen dowager, entered into a conspiracy to destroy him and his party, estates at Nassau. The king, however, recalled him soon after the peace which they effected in the following manner: A scandalous charge wp.as of Tilsit, and it was then that he planned and executed those great yet which they effected in the following manner: A scandalous charge was of v~~~~ Tilsit,. 1 > ~made against Queen Caroline Matilda, that she cherished a guilty passion cautious social reforms which laid the foundations of the restored monarchy. for the hated minister; and on the night of the 16th of January, 1772, the Ere long his patriotic spirit and great abilities excited the jealousy of Napoleon, who had him exiled. On the approach of the French emperor to |conspirators suddenly aroused the king in his bed, and, making him believe Dresden, on the eve of the Moscow campaign, he went to St. Petersburg, that his life was in danger, obtained his order for arresting the queen, Dresden, on the eve of the ~ioscow campaign, he went to St. Petersburg, Struensee, and all their adherents. The result was that they were tried where his firmness and energy were of great service in supporting the empe- ror Alexander through that crisis. After the occupation of Saxony by the and convicted as traitors on the most preposterous charges. Struensee. I.. 1 made a cowardly confession. Tile queen, too, confessed her guilt, but it is allied forces, he was placed at the head of the central administration, and,, difficult to admit the truth of it. Struensee was beheaded and quartered; put forth all his energies in keeping alive the patriotic enthusiasm which displayed itself on all sides. But the principles proclaimed at the first and the queen, who was confined in the castle of Cronenburg, would have Peace of Paris did not meet his views for the political organization of the probably shared a similar fate, had not a British feet appeared in the.3a!tic, and conveyed her to Zell, where she died in 1776. German people, and he withdrew in disappointment to his estate., and conveyed her to Zell, where she died in 1776. Strabo, a celebrated Greek historian and geographer, was born at Amasia, Stuart, Mlary, (1542-1587), Queen of Scots, famous for her beauty and wit, in Cappadocia, about B. c. 50, and travelled through Greece, Italy, Egypt, her crimes and her fate, was daughter of James V., king of Scotland, sueand Asia, endeavoring to obtain the most accurate information in regard ceeded her father in 1542, eight days after her birth, and, before she was six to the geography, statistics, and political condition of the countries which years old, was sent to the court of France. In 1558 she married Francis, he visited. The time of his death is unknown, but he is supposed to have then dauphin, and, in the next year, king of France. On his death in died after A. D. 20. His great work, in seventeen books, contains not only 1560 she returned to Scotland. After rejecting several proposals of mara description of different countries, but the chief particulars of their history, riage, she married her cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, in 1565. Darnnotices of eminent men, and accounts of the manners and customs of the ley being excluded from any share of the government by the advice (as lihe people. It contains nearly the whole history of knowledge from the time suspected) of Rizzio, an Italian musician, Mary's favorite and secretary, of Homer to that of Augustus. There is an English translation by Hamil- he suddenly surprised them together, and Rizzio was slain in the queen's ton in Bohn's Classical Library. presence, in 1566. An apparent reconciliation afterward took place; a, u~~~~~~~~~Mg-.V 144 STU SUG new favorite of the queen appeared in the earl of Bothwell; and in Feb- in abundant measure. The coldness, the measured reserve, the perseverance ruary, 1567, Darnley, who had continued to reside separately from the and sagacity of the Tudors, however, were, often to the detriment of their queen, was assassinated, and the house he occupied was blown up with fortunes, wanting to the Stuarts. With these qualities and manners, even gunpowder. In the month of May following, Mary wedded the earl of had several members of the Stuart family had less leaning toward the Bothwell, who was openly accused as the murderer of the late king. Scot- Catholic creed, the sentiments of the rigid Protestant party in England land soon became the scene of confusion and civil discord. Mary was made would have little congeniality. Influenced by such predilections, and by a captive, and committed to custody in the castle of Loch Leven. After earlier family ties, they formed foreign connections; at first allied themsome months' confinement she effected her escape, and, assisted by the few selves with Spain, and subsequently fell under the influence of France, and friends who still remained attached to her, made an effort for the recovery these foreign connections led to their downfall. of her power. The battle of Langside insured the triumph of her enemies; and, to avoid falling again into their power, she fled to England, and sought Suetonius, Tranquillus, Caius, a Roman historian, who lived in the first the protection of Queen Elizabeth, a step which created a very serious and second centuries of our era. He was the son of a Roman officer, embarrassment for Elizabeth and her ministers. For eighteen years Mary became an advocate at Rome, and afterward secretary to the emperor was detained as a state prisoner; and, during the whole of that time, she Hadrian. Suetonius was the friend of Pliny the younger. He wrote numerwas recognized as the head of the Catholic party, who wished to see a ous works, of which four are extant. - The most important is his "Vita-, princess of their faith on the throne of England. Mary, despairing of Duodecim Coesarum," (Lives of the Twelve Cnesars,) which contains a large recovering that of Scotland, countenanced their plots. She was accordingly mass of curious and valuable facts, and though not systematically or rhetried for a conspiracy against the life of the queen of England, condemned, torically composed, but chiefly anecdotic, is esteemed impartial and trustand suffered decapitation, February 8th, 1587, in the castle of Fotheringay, worthy. It has passed through a great number of editions, and has been where she had been long confined. The character and conduct of Mary, translated into almost all European languages. His other extant works queen of Scots, have been made the subject of much controversy; the popu- are notices of grammarians, rhetoricians, and poets. An English translar view, both in Scotland and England, making her the "unfortunate' lation of Suetonius is included in Bohn's Classical Library. Mary, almost a suffering saint, sentimentally brooding over her calamities, and refusing to admit her crimes and follies. Froude, who has told her Suger, Abbe, first minister to Louis VI. and Louis VII. of France, was story once more in the third volume of his " History of the Reign of Queen born of an obscure family in the 11th century, and was brought up at the Elizabeth," has made this view no longer tenable. The verdict of Burton, abbey of St. Denis, where he was the companion of Louis VI. On the in his new "History of Scotland," is no less severe and decisive, accession of this prince to the throne, in 1108, Suger became his confidential adviser. He was named abbot of St. Denis in 1122, and assumed Stuarts in England, (1603-1714.) The great-grandson of Margaret Tudor, the usual pomp of high-church dignitaries; but the preaching of St. Bereldest daughter of Henry VII., succeeded in 1603 to the throne by the nard induced him to renounce it. He had a large share in the conduct appointment of Elizabeth, as well as by the right of succession. The of the government, both in home and foreign affairs, and showed great crowns of the two kingdoms were thus united, though Scotland still retained practical wisdom. Louis VII. continued him in the same office. He a separate parliament. This dynasty gave eight rulers to England. (See endeavored to prevent the young king going on the crusade, but failing, Genealogy, I.) From the unfortunate Mary down to Queen Anne, the last accepted the regency during the absence of Louis. In his old age he of this dynasty who reigned in England, we find almost all the Stuarts wished to promote a crusade, and even proposed to raise an army and be endowed with intelligence, imagination, refinement, and amiable qualities its general. This mad project was crossed by his death in 1152. The SUL SUL 145 Abbe Suger left a Life of his master, Louis VI., and an account of the senate, restoring to it the importance and jurisdiction which it had lost, principal events of his administration. established military colonies, and gave the rights of citizenship to a very large number of slaves. The main object of his policy and legislation Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, (B. C. 138-78,) Dictator of Rome. He was of a was to revive at least the spirit of the old civil and political restrictions. patrician family, was well educated, and showed in his youth an equal love But the whole artificial structure which he raised was overthrown within for literary and for sensual pleasures. His first active service in war was ten years. Sulla resigned the dictatorship in 79. Little more than a year in 107, when, as quoestor of Marius in Africa, he negotiated with Bocchus after his retirement, in the 60th year of his life, while yet vigorous in the surrender of Jugurtha to himself, and thus shared the honor of closing body and mind, he was overtaken by death; after a brief confinement to a the war. Jealousy sprang up between Marius and Sulla, which subse- sick-bed, the rupture of a blood-vessel carried him off, (78 B. C.) He was quently ripened into the bitterest personal and political enmity. Sulla writing at his autobiography two days even before his death. nevertheless acted as legatus to Marius in the war with the Cimlbri and Teutones; but soon transferred his services to Catulus, the fellow-consul Sully, Maximilien de Bethune, Duke of, (1559-1641,) a celebrated French of Marius, (101.) After a period of retirement he was named pretor for statesman and warrior, prime-minister of Henry IV. At an early age he 93, and increased his popularity by the exhibition of a hundred African entered the service of the king of Navarre, afterward Henry IV. of France, lions in the circus. Sulla took a distinguished part in the Social war, and to whom he ever continued to be firmly attached. He distinguished himcaptured Bovianum, the capital of the Samnites. His rivalry with Marius self on several occasions by a bravery approaching to rashness. But his reached its highest point in 88, when Sulla was consul and was charged abilities as a diplomatist and financier were far more remarkable. In with the conduct of the war against Mithradates. Marius, with the aid 1597 he was placed at the head of the department of finance. In this of the tribune P. Sulpicius, got the command transferred to himself, and capacity, Sully established order and the strictest economy in all branches Sulla fled from Rome to his camp at Nola. Superseded even there, he of the administration; revised the funds of the state, and quickly abolished boldly marched on Rome, made himself master of the city, and proclaimed many vexatious imposts. Agriculture became the object of his particular Marius and eleven of his adherents traitors. Surrounded by difficulties care, and, inspired by the security of his administration, he almost doubled and dangers, he quitted Rome early in 87, and passed into Greece, to carry the price of land, by causing the fall of the interest of money. Tillage and on the war with Mithradates. He besieged Athens, took and pillaged it; pasturage, said Sully; these are the breasts from which France is nourished, won two victories over Archelaus, the general of Mithradates, at Chberonea the true mines and treasures of Peru. Manufactures not the less attracted and Orchomenos; passed the Hellespont, and early in 84 concluded a Sully's attention: he gave them a powerful impulse by suppressing the tax peace. After defeating Fimbria, who was sent to supersede him, he of a percentage upon all merchandise sold. Sully retained to the end the returned to Athens, and arrived in Italy in 83. During his absence his confidence and friendship of Henry IV., who unfolded to him his grand prorivals had gained the upper hand, and his forces were inferior in numbers jects for the establishment of a balance of political power and the religious to theirs. But by successive victories, and by bribery for desertion, he pacification of Europe. His labors as minister of finance were attended vanquished them, and in 82 was once more master of Rome. He was with the happiest success; and the revenues of the state, which had created dictator, and took fearful vengeance by a proscription of the been reduced to complete dilapidation by the combined effect of civil popular party, thus establishing a reign of terror, under which thousands anarchy and war, were by his care restored to order. With a revenue of were put to death and their estates confiscated. He celebrated his con- 35,000,000, he paid off, in ten years, a debt of 200,000,000, besides laying quest of Mithradates by a magnificent triumph, and assumed the surname up 35,000,000. Though frequently thwarted in his purposes by the rapaof Felix. He reduced the tribunate to a mere name, reconstituted the city of the courtiers and mistresses of the monarch, he nobly pursued his 19 146 SWI SYL career, ever distinguishing himself as the zealous friend of his country, and its radiance." The Drapier's Head became a favorite sign; his portrait was not the temporizing minister of his master. His industry was unwearied. engraved, woven upon handkerchiefs, and struck upon medals. His health He rose every morning at four o'clock, and after dedicating some time to was quaffed at every banquet, his presence everywhere welcomed with blessbusiness, he gave audience to all who solicited admission to him. After ings by the people. They bore with all the infirmities of genius, all the the death of Henry IV., Sully retired from public affairs, and died in peevishness of age. In vain did he show aversion to those who revered 1641. His highly important and interesting "Memoirs" were translated him; in vain did he sneer at the "savage old Irish." No insult on his into English by Charlotte Lennox. part could weaken their generous attachment. Even at this day this grateful feeling still survives; and all parties in Ireland, however estranged Supremacy Act. See ACT OF SUPREMACY. on other questions, agree in one common veneration for the memory of Swift, Dr. Jonathan, (1667-1745,) Dean of St. Patrick's, a celebrated politi- Swift. cal, satirical, and miscellaneous writer, was born at Dublin. In 1688 he Sylvester I., whose name is inseparably connected with the conversion of came to England, where Sir William Temple received him with great kindthe emperor Constantine the Great, became Pope in 314 A. D. According ness, and made him his secretary. During his residence with that statesness, and made him his secretary. During his residence with that states- to the legend, the first of the Christian emperors was healed of the leprosy, man he had frequent interviews with King William, who offered him a troop and purified in the waters of baptism, by Sylvester, the bishop of Rome; and purified in the waters of baptism, by Sylvester, the bishop of Rome; of horse, which he declined, his thoughts being directed to the Church. of horse which he declined, his thoughts being directed to the Church. and never was physician more gloriously recompensed. His royal proselyte After some time he quarrelled with his patron, and went to Ireland, took withdrew from the seat and patrimony of St. Peter; declared his resolution orders, and obtained a prebend. In 1701 he entered on public life as a of founding a new capital in the East; and resigned to the Popes the free political pamphleteer. He also published, anonymously, his humorous Rome lyaTub, and the Battle of the Books " On the accession of |and perpetual sovereignty of Rome, Italy, and the provinces of the West. This memorable donation was introduced to the world about 450 years later, queen Anne he visited England, where he lived during a greater part of Queen Anne he visited England, where he lived during a greater part of by an epistle of Adrian I., who exhorts Charlemagne to imitate the liberher reign; became intimate with Harley and Bolingbroke, and exerted himality and revive the name of the great Constantine. This document is now self strenuously in behalf of their party, taking a leading share in the Tory periodical, the "Examiner," while with his battery of pamphlets and pas- with which Constantine actually did invest the Church, the right of holding with which Constantine actually did invest the Church, the right of holding quinades, replete with bitter sarcasm or bold invective, he kept up a con- landed property, and receiving it by bequest, was far more valuable to the landed property, and receiving it by bequest, was far more valuable to the stant and galling fire on their political adversaries. A bishopric in England l te g. o t o. h. a; bt t. oy p t h m Christian hierarchy than a premature and prodigal endowment, which would was the grand object of his ambition; but the only preferment his ministerial friends could give him was the Irish deanery of St. Patrick's, to which he was presented in 1713. It was about this period that Swift made his strength, made them objects of jealousy to the temporal sovereign. he was presented in 1713. It was about this period that Swift made his first great efforts to better the condition of Ireland. He published a " Pro- Sylvester II., Pope, (Gerbert,) was a native of Auvergne. He was of an posal for the universal Use of Irish Manufactures," which rendered him obscure family, but received a superior education, and became very distinhighly popular, and when his celebrated "Drapier Letters" appeared, in guished as a teacher. His attainments in science procured him the repuwhich he so ably exposed the job of Wood's patent for a supply of copper tation of a magician. Among the numerous useful inventions attributed coinage, he became the idol of the Irish people. Believing that Swift had to Gerbert is the balance-clock, which was in use till the adoption of the delivered them from a great public danger, their gratitude to him knew no pendulum, in 1650. Gerbert was tutor to Otto III., and subsequently head bounds, nor ended even with his powers of mind. " The sun of his popu- of the school of Rheims, which he made one of the first in Europe. Robert, larity remained unclouded, even after he was incapable of distinguishing afterward king of France, was among his pupils. In 902 he was named TAM TAM 147 archbishop of Rheims, was deprived after three years, and, in 998, through first French Pope. Died, at a great age, 1003. The tomb of Sylvester in the influence of Otto III., was named archbishop of Ravenna. He was the Lateran church was opened in 1648, and his remains, invested with the called to the papal chair on the death of Gregory V., and administered the robes of office, were in perfect preservation; but a touch dissolved them affairs of the Church with much prudence and moderation. He was the into dust. T. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, the celebrated Roman historian. He early dis- Baghdad, Ormuz, and Edessa, and subdued all the country along the tinguished himself as an advocate, and was made prwtor and consul, course of the Tigris and Euphrates. He next conquered Turkestan and (97 A. D.) Under Trajan, Tacitus enjoyed great distinction, and lived on Kipza, or Western Tartary, penetrating even into the eastern and southern terms of friendship with the younger Pliny. It was at this period that he provinces of Russia, exciting alarm at Moscow, and destroying the cities published the " History of Rome, from Galba to the death of Domitian," of Azof, Serai, and Astrachan. In 1398 he undertook the conquest of part of which only has escaped the ravages of time. This work was India, which was facilitated by the internal anarchy and weakness.Qf:the followed by the " Annals," from the year of Rome 767 (A. D. 14) to the death country. The Mogul host crossed the Indus at Attok, traversed the Punjab, of Nero, (A. D. 68.) He also wrote the " Life of Agricola," " The Manners and besieged Delhi; into which city, after a great victory over the sultan of the Germans," and a " Dialogue on Oratory." No name stands higher Mahmoud, Timur made a triumphal entry. He advanced a hundred miles as historian than that of Tacitus, and his writings are a rich store-house of beyond Delhi, crossed the Ganges, and reached the famous rock of Coupele. political and philosophical wisdom. He displays a profound acquaintance Tidings of the ambitious schemes of the Ottoman sultan, Bajazet, reached with human nature, and with the subtlest influences that affect human Timur on the Ganges, and he returned to Samarcand. After a short character and conduct. His style is remarkable for conciseness, vigor, interval of repose he assembled his army at Ispahan in preparation for his apparent abruptness, and occasional obscurity; and his writings, like all great expedition against Bajazet. In 1400, Timur invaded Syria, defeated the productions of great minds, charm most those who study them best. the Mamelukes near Aleppo, and sacked that city; marched thence to They have been translated into almost every European language. The Damascus, where he was nearly defeated, but getting possession of the city exact date of his death is not known. by a perfidious promise, he sacked and destroyed it. Baghdad shared the same fate, and on its ruins was reared a pyramid of 90,000 heads. In 1402 Tamerlane, properly Timur Beg, (1336-1405 A. D.,) the great Tartar (Mogul) he made a swift march through Anatolia and began the siege of Angora. sultan and conqueror, was born at Sebzar, 40 miles to the south of Samar- Bajazet hastened to the relief of the city, and in the memorable battle cand, in 1336. At an early age he entered on the career of a soldier, and which took place July 28th, Timur won his greatest victory and made his by his exploits and professions attracted the hopes of his countrymen as rival his prisoner. While his subordinates overran the country as far as their deliverer from foreign invasion and tyranny. In 1370, Tamerlane, the Bosphorus, Timur besieged and took Smyrna, and put the inhabitants who traced remotely his descent to Zenghis-Khan, was crowned sovereign to death. He was already meditating the conquest of China, and preparaof Zagatai, made Samarcand his royal seat, and set out on the path of tions were made for the expedition while he was slowly returning to conquest which he hoped was to lead him to the monarchy of the world. Samarcand. There he celebrated his triumph in 1404, and received the After easily making himself master of Carismia and Candahur, Timur ambassadors of Egypt, Arabia, India, Tartary, Russia, and Spain. In invaded Persia, defeated Shah Mansur, near the city of Shiraz, took January, 1405, he set out at the head of his army for China; but near -~~~~~~~~~~~~ 148 TAR TAS Otrar he was surprised by death, 1st April, 1405. His last ambitious Narbonne, Carcassonne, and the country on the farther side, as far as the design was thus crossed, and the immense dominions he had conquered Rhone and Lyons. Many old and flourishing cities were destroyed by and ruled with absolute power, without ministers or favorites, fell to pieces, them, and new ones built on the same territory. In other respects they and became the scenes of new wars and miseries. The history of Timur established the constitution of things which they found; only, the comwas written in Persian by Sheref-eddin, from authentic records'kept by the mander of the Faithful held the place of the king. The national assemsecretaries of the sultan, and was translated into French by Petis de la blies, the nobles, courts of judicature, and the laws remained. The Croix, in 1772. Timur is said to have composed commentaries on his own Christians obtained a toleration for their worship, and were only forbidden life and political institutions, which have been translated from the Persian to speak against the faith of Islam. into English and French, and published under various titles. There are many other lives of this Tartar hero. Samarcand is still full of grand Tasso, Torquato, (1544-1594,) one of the greatest poets of modern Italy, ruins; the green stone is still shown from which Timur issued his decrees; the author of " Jerusalem Delivered." He studied law at the university and so deeply is his image impressed on the hearts of the people that now, of Padua, but had no heart for it, and vexed his father by liking poetry after the lapse of four centuries and a half, they speak of him as if he had better, and writing it. He entered the service of Alfonso, duke of Ferrara, bntilst. died, and scrupulously obey his posthumous commands. who admired his poetical compositions, and made him his familiar asso(. r ciate. Tasso the while had fallen in love with the fair princess Eleonora, Tarik, the Arabian conqueror of Spain. Spain and the south of France the duke's sister, and had addressed to her many love-songs, some of them were yet, in 710 A. D., under the dominion of the Visigoths, whose power overpassing the line of true delicacy. It appears probable that Alfonso by would have been invincible if they had known how to obey their rulers. some means became possessed of some of Tasso's verses to Eleonora, and But the throne was shaken by faction; their kings were not accustomed to that this was the cause of his subsequent treatment of the poet. The latter, govern by the maxims of tyrants, or they would have been more able to however, was of a very irritable temper, and on some occasions did not restrain suppress sedition. No sooner had Rodrigo hurled from the throne and himself from passionate and offensive outbreaks. On one such occasion, put out the eyes of King Vitiza, who held his nobles under an iron sceptre, in 1577, the duke had him arrested and confined in a convent, alleging that than a Spanish count invited Musa, the Arabian governor of Africa, across he was mad; but Tasso made his escape, and visited Sorrento and Rome. the straits. Musa intrusted to his general, Tarik, an army of Arabs, He soon after begged and obtained leave of the duke to return to Ferrara; Moors, and Berbers. At the spot where he passed the strait, a rocky hill but it was on condition of submitting to the rules of the physicians, and he rises 1,400 feet above the sea, which it overhangs with a precipitous cliff was not permitted to see the princess. Again he left Ferrara, went to toward the north and east, while the side which faces the extreme point of Mantua, Urbino, and Turin, but was induced to return early in 1597. His Europe has a more gradual descent. This height Tarik fortified: it was his demeanor was so violent that he was once more arrested and confined in a rock - Gebel-al-Tarik, or Gibraltar; and he thence extended his incursions mad-house, where, after a time, he appears to have been kindly treated, through the country. At length (713) a battle took place at Xerez, where and was allowed to write and to receive the visits of his friends. Among Rodrigo fought for the crown, the freedom, and the faith of the Visigoths, those who came to see him were Montaigne, the great French essayist. against Tarik, Islam, and the ferocity of the Moslems. Long and bloody Through the intercession of several sovereigns- the Pope, the emperor, was the contest. The flower of the army, perished, together with their the duke of Mantua, and the grand-duke of Tuscany - on his behalf, he king, and the kingdom of the Visigoths, divided and without a master, fell was liberated in 1586, and went first to the court of Mantua. He could under the yoke of the Mohammedans. The latter extended their arms not rest, but moved from place to place - now at Naples, now at Rome, from sea to sea, and across the Pyrenaean bulwark: they conquered then at Florence -and in 1594 he was called to Rome, to receive at the TEM TEN 149 hands of Pope Clement VIII. the laurel crown. But soon after his taken the Cross and were unaccustomed to Asiatic warfare, being stationed arrival he fell ill, and by his own desire he was removed to the monastery between them. But the Templars were the most distinguished of the of St. Onofrio, where he died. Tasso's masterpiece is the " Gerusalemme Christian warriors. By a rule of their order no brother could be redeemed Liberata," an epic poem in 24 books on the events of the great crusade for a higher ransom than a girdle or a knife; captivity was therefore equiand the recovery of Jerusalem from the Saracens. It was published in valent to death, and they always fought with Spartan desperation. The 1581, and the savage attacks made on it by the critics wounded the sen- Beauseant, the banner of the Templars, was always in the thick of the sitive poet severely. It nevertheless won immense admiration, passed battle. It was thought that enough could never be done for so devoted through seven editions in the first year, and took its place among the and useful an order, and riches and privileges were heaped upon them. great poems of the world. It is constantly reprinted, and has been trans- When they finally returned from Palestine (after the taking of Acre by *lated into almost all the languages of Europe. There are five or six the Mamelukes in 1291) they are said to have possessed more than 9,000 English translations, the earliest by Fairfax, and the most recent those by manors in Christendom. The Paris Temple was the centre of the order, Wiffin (1830) and Sir J. K. James, (1865.) Tasso was induced by the its treasury, and the chapters-general were held there. All the provinces adverse criticism of his great poem to remodel it and make it more what of the order were its dependencies. This great power had made them first the critics said it should be. He altered almost every stanza, added four envied, then hated. It wounded the pride of the French king, Philip IV., cantos, and called it "Gerusalemme Conquistata." But its life was gone. while their immense wealth tempted his cupidity. Before they had any The melancholy, altered manuscript is preserved in the Imperial Library, suspicion of his design, he caused all the Templars in his kingdom to be Vienna. Among his other works, which are numerous, are " Rinaldo," his seized and thrown into dungeons. Then commenced a frightful prosecuearliest poem; "Aminta," an exquisite pastoral drama; "I1 Torrismondo," tion against them, where torture furnished the evidence, and where the a tragedy; many short poems, dialogues, and other prose pieces. men of the law won over by Philip filled the places of judges. The king confiscated the property of his victims, while, at the same time, he stained Templars, The Knights. Nothing can more strikingly evince the ascendency their characters with horrible imputations without legal proofs. The Temof Europe than the resistance of the Frankish settlements in Syria against plars perished by the sword, by hunger, and by fire, retracting in the face the whole power of the Moslems. Several of their victories were obtained of execution the confessions which torture had torn from them. Jacques against such disparity of- numbers that they may be compared with what- Molay, their grand-master, rendered himself illustrious by his courage; ever is most illustrious in history or romance. These, however, were less he protested his innocence in the middle of the flames, and it is said due to the descendants of the first crusaders than to those volunteers from that he summoned both his persecutors (the king of France and Europe whom martial ardor and religious zeal impelled to the service. It the Pope) to appear before God within a year. Both died within that was the penance commonly imposed upon men of rank to serve a number of period. years under the banner of the Cross. Thus a perpetual supply of warriors was poured in from Europe. Of these defenders, the most renowned had Tennyson, Alfred, (1809-,) Poet-Laureate. Tennyson did not publish anyenrolled themselves in one of the three ecclesiastical military orders, to thing till 1830, when "Poems, chiefly Lyrical," appeared, and from 1842 wit: 1st, the Knights of the Hospital of St. John; 2d, the Knights Tem- the steady and rapid growth of his fame may be traced. It was at once plars; 3d, the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary. (See this.) The Knights apparent that the author of the "Mort d'Arthur." "Locksley Hall," the Templars were associated with the Knights Hospitallers in defence of the "May Queen," and the " Two Voices," was entitled to take the first rank holy places, and both performed the greatest public services. In battle, among English poets. He has also written " The Princess, a Medley," "In the two orders took by turn the van and the rear, those who had newly Memoriam," "Maud, and other Poems," "The Idylls of the King," and 150 TER TEU "Enoch Arden." A fine sense of natural beauty and a marvellous faculty English translations of Terence by Colman and H. T. Riley. The latter, of word-painting adorn his poems with landscape pictures which need fear in prose, forms part of Bohn's Classical Library. comparison with those of no English poet. "Locksley Hall" is a grand Tertullianus, Quintus Septimus Florens, the first and one of the most celehymn of human progress, in which the discoveries of science, the inven- brated of the Latin Fathers, flourished about A. D. 210. He was born at Cartions of art, the order and movement of society, the sublime hopes and thage, became an eminent rhetorician, and was converted to the Christian belief of religion, blend in a magnificent vision of the age, and are sung religion. He lived to a great age, and wrote a very large number of works, with the rapture of a prophet to the noblest music. In Maud, the commonest some of which were early lost. The most important of his extant works newspaper details of the meanness, the cheating, the cruelty, the crime his "Apology for Christianity," was addressed to the Roman magistrates in and misery, so rife among us, supply food to the indignation of the man, 198. In his "Testimony of the Soul," he endeavors to work out the idea whose temperament and circumstances make him look on the darker of the preconformity of the human soul to the doctrine of Christ. His aspects of the time; and the same man finds in the topics of the day the works are of four classes, apologetical, practical, doctrinal, and polemical. comfort and the hope that restore him to sanity and peace with himself They are characterized by vast learning, profound and comprehensive and the world. It is this wide range of thought, this sympathy with mod- thought, fiery imagination, and passionate partisanship, leading into exagern life in all its characteristic phases, that is Tennyson's distinguishing geration and sophistry. His style is frequently obscure. "IHe had to quality, and that, in combination with his formal poetic skill, renders him create," says Neander, "a language for the new spiritual matter, and that the favorite poet of the cultivated classes. out of the rude Punic Latin, without the aid of a logical and grammatical Terence, (Publius Terentius Afer,) (195-158 B. c.,) the celebrated Roman education, and in the very midst of the current of thoughts and feelings comic poet. He was born at Carthage, and became the slave of a Roman by which his ardent nature was hurried along." The study of Tertullian senator, who gave him a good education and set him free. He acquired had a marked influence on Cypriai, who used to ask his secretary for his the patronage and friendship of Laelius, and Scipio Minor, and was as- works in the words " Da magistrum," Hand me the teacher. The doctrine sisted by them in the composition of his plays. The first of these exhibited of the millennial reign of Christ was taught in one of the lost works of this was the "Andria." This was followed by the "Hecyra," or The Step- father. mother, the "Heauton Timorumenos," or Self-tormentor, the "Eunuchus," Teutonic Knights. (See TEMPLARS.) The orders of the Temple and of the "Phormio," and the "Adelphi," or The Brothers, acted at the funeral St. John owed, the former their foundation, the latter their power and games of 2Emilius Paulus, (160.) These plays are imitations, with certain wealth, to noble knights. They were military and aristocratic brotherchanges of plan and structure, of the works of the Greek comic poets hoods, which hardly deigned to receive, at least in their higher places, any Menander and Apollodorus. Terence, who closely followed Plautus in time, but those of gentle birth. The first founders of the Teutonic order Were had little in common with him in character or in fortunes. He aims far honest burghers of Lubec and Bremen. After the disasters which followed less at exciting laughter by bold, coarse jests, but more at the develop- the death of Frederick Barbarossa, (see this,) when the army was wasting ment of the plot and the painting of the delicate shades of character. away with disease and famine before Acre, these merchants ran up the sails His plays lean to the instructive and sentimental, and contain passages of of their ships into tents to receive the sick and starving. Duke Frederick deep pathos and refined wit. They are also remarkable for the purity of of Suabia saw the advantage of a German order, both to maintain the their Latinity and the variety of their metre. After the appearance of German interests and to relieve the necessities of German pilgrims. Their his six comedies, Terence left Rome for Greece, and is said to have trans- first house was in Acre. But it was not till the mastership of Herman von lated there above a hundred of the comedies of Menander. There are Salza that the Teutonic order emerged into distinction. It is the noblest THE THE 151 testimony to the wisdom, unimpeached virtue, honor, and religion of maintenance, and he settled at Magnesia. There he died, in 449, and a Herman von Salza, that the successive Popes, Honorius III., Gregory IX., splendid monument was erected to him in the public place. His bones Innocent IV., who agreed with Frederick in nothing else, nevertheless vied were, however, carried, it is said by his own desire, to Athens. For an with the emperor in the honor and respect paid to the master Herman, and earnest vindication of the character of this great Athenian from some of in grants and privileges to his Teutonic Knights. The order, after being the gravest charges usually brought against him, see Cox's "Tale of the withdrawn from the Holy Land, had found a new sphere for their crusading Great Persian War," part ii., ch. 6. valor: the subjugation and conversion of the heathen nations to the southeast and the east of the Baltic. Thus was Christendom pushing forward Theodora, (900 A. D.) The Latin Church had indeed preserved her purity its borders. in the ten persecutions; but when she came forth from the catacombs to take possession of the Basilicas, a change for the worse was soon remarked. Themistocles, (B. C. 514-449,) the illustrious Athenian statesman and gene- She struggled for 300 years against paganism; she struggled for 300 years ral. His aim was mainly the greatness and security of Athens, but this longer against Arianism; she then conquered heathen Germany and her perhaps in order that he might have the wider field for his personal influ- old Scandinavian and Hungarian oppressors. At last she had to conquer ence and action. He saw the necessity of naval supremacy for Athens, the licentiousness and lawlessness which prosperity had engendered in her and succeeded in getting a decree for applying the produce of the silver own bosom. The beginning of the 10th century marks the darkest period mines of Laurium to the building of ships. When Xerxes invaded Greece in the history of the Church. At that time she had not only lost all comin 480, Themistocles had the command of the fleet, and by his advice the manding authority, but could not even maintain outward decency. During citizens abandoned Athens with their families, and went to Salamis, AEgina, this time rose into power the infamous Theodora, with her daughters, who, and Troezen. On the appearance of the Persian fleet off Salamis, he could in the strong language of contemporary historians, disposed for many years scarcely dissuade the Peloponnesians from leaving; and at the last moment, of the papal tiara, and, not content with disgracing by their own licentious in order to save the Greeks in spite of themselves, he resorted to the strat- lives the chief city of Christendom, actually placed their profligate paraagem of sending a secret message to Xerxes, which induced him to make mours or base-born sons in the chair of St. Peter. an immediate attack. The Greeks were thus compelled to cease debating, and fight; and the great victory of Salamis was won. His fame among Theodoric the Great, (455-526.) Since the death of Attila, the Ostrohis countrymen was now established. In the following year, under his goths had re-established their ancient independence. They now inhabited direction the Athenians undertook the rebuilding of their walls and the the country between the Danube and the Save. They received a tribute fortifications of Piroeus. A Spartan embassy was sent to hinder the work; from the emperors of the East, and in return gave them hostages for the but Themistocles, by his clever, unscrupulous diplomacy, thwarted Sparta, maintenance of peace. Of this nation was the young Theodoric. At Conand the supremacy of Athens was secured. His influence, however, began stantinople h8 derived the same advantage from the remains of the old to wane. He was accused of enriching himself by exacting contributions Roman institutions, which Philip of Macedon had drawn from the lessons from the islands which had supported the Persians, and of receiving bribes of the conqueror of Leuctra. When Theodoric, in his 18th year, returned for political services; he indulged also in the habit of boasting of his services to his country at the head of 6,000 warriors, he attacked, without the to his country. In 471 he was banished from Athens, and went to Persia. knowledge of his father, and defeated the armies of a Sarmatian king. The He obtained the confidence of the king, Artaxerxes, and promised to render Goths, assuming new courage, demanded to be led into regions where they him a great service, requesting a year's delay. The king gave him a pension, might dwell with greater freedom, and obtain the reward of arms. Theudin Oriental fashion - three towns, Magnesia, Myus, and Lampsacus - for his mir, the father of Theodoric, accordingly passed the boundaries of Illyricum. 152 THE THE He obliged the imperial court to make considerable additions to those tribu- defeat of the Romans, and the death of Valens at the battle of Adrianotary recompenses with which it was accustomed annually to reward the valor ple, in 378, Theodosius was called by Gratian to assume the government of the Gothic youth. Theudmir on his death-bed declared Theodoric to be of the East, and to take the conduct of the Gothic war. He fixed the most worthy, who accordingly was chosen to be his successor. The his headquarters at Thessalonica, and by prudent and cautious measures emperor Zeno spared nothing in order to conciliate the young prince, and gradually weakened the Goths and delivered the empire. The revolt of at length came to the resolution of formally surrendering Italy to Theodoric, Maximus and the murder of Gratian soon followed, and the former was after recommending to his patronage the Roman senate, which now groaned recognized as emperor of the West by Theodosius. But, subsequently, under the sway of the Heruli. Immediately the Ostrogoths, under the the latter took arms in the cause of Vfalentinian, defeated Maximus near guidance of their chief, now in his 24th year, set out, with all their herds Aquileia, and had him put to death, in 388. From that time the empire and the whole of their property, from the Danube and the Save, and remained in tranquil obedience to the two emperors, Theodosius and Valapproached the confines of Italy. Theodoric twice defeated the Italian entinian, until the murder of the latter by his own courtiers. The assasarmies; he entered the Venetian country, and Odoacer fled to Rome. This sins were conquered by Theodosius at the foot of the Alps, though not city, in the 15th year after the subversion of its empire, shut its gates without difficulty. From this time Theodosius reigned alone, with moderagainst Odoacer, who took refuge in Ravenna. The senate and people of ation and ability, and displayed a great knowledge of mankind and of the Rome received Theodoric with respect. He re-established the court, the peculiar character of his age, together with a wise indulgence to its ruling salaries, and the distributions of bread as they had been conducted under prejudices; but, unfortunately for the empire, his reign terminated in the the emperors. Humanity, temperance, and prudence elevated Theodoric course of a few months. Before his death he divided the empire between above all other barbarian kings. By family alliances he became the relative his two sons, Arcadius receiving the East, and Honorius the West, (395 and friend, by his power and wisdom the protector of all the kings of the A. D.) (See Appendix, page 192.) West. He had an army always ready for maintaining public tranquillity and undertaking necessary enterprises. The former was his chief object; Thermopylee, (480 B. c.,) the Hot Gates, a celebrated narrow pass, leading and on that account he wrote to the young kings, with the authority of a from Thessaly into Locris, and the only road by which an enemy can penfather: "All of you have proofs of my regard for you. You are youthful etrate from northern into southern Greece. It lay between Mount CEta warriors, and it is my office to give you counsel. Your disorderly proceed- and an inaccessible morass, forming the edge of the Maliac gulf. Therings occasion me vexation. It is not without concern that I observe you mopyle is immortalized by the heroic defence of Leonidas, the Spartan give yourselves up to the government of your passions." Theodoric caused king, who considered that the example of an heroic sacrifice would be the Pavia, where he often resided, as well as several other Italian cities, to be greatest service he could bestow upon the land of his fathers: he disdained ornamented with magnificent architecture; and he was more proud of the the few years of life which yet remained to him, and resolved to gain imarts and learning which yet flourished in his kingdom than of the power mortality in the memory of all great men who should by similar necessities of his arms. be reminded of his fate. When he learned that the Persians had discovered a footpath by means of which they had ascended the height above Theodosius, (A. D. 346-395,) the Great, Emperor of the East, was a native him, he performed sacrifice, adorned with his royal vestments, to the gods of Spain. He was the son of the general of the same name who was of Lacedaeinon, supped with his 300 warriors clothed in their best attire, and appointed to the command in Britain in 367. Theodosius accompanied rushed upon the hosts of the Persians. Four times he pursued the flying his father in his campaigns, and was made governor of Mcesia, which enemy, but was at length overpowered by numbers. Leonidas fell with province he saved by a victory over the Sarmatians. After the great his 300 companions, and merited the inscription that was placed on his _ i i _ -_= THU TIB 153 tomb: "Stranger, go and relate at Lacedsemon, that we all fell here in the name of this youth, who afterward became the historian of the great obedience to the laws of our country." Peloponnesian war, which, after 27 years' duration, ended with the downTi;omas h Becket. See BECgKET. |fall of Athens, (431-404 B. c.) Thucydides, in recording the period of the Athenian sway, from the last battle against the Persians to the 22d year Thomas d Kempis. See KEMPIS. of the Peloponnesian war, (411 B. c.,) has displayed such profound thought, Thrasybulus, an illustrious Athenian, had a command in the fleet at Samos such knowledge of men and of states, and at the same time so powerful, in B. C. 411, and not only prevented the establishment of an oligarchical so majestic an eloquence, that as an historian he is ever preferred to all others, and as an orator he rivals the fame of Demosthenes. Every closer government in that island, but took a leading part in the overthrow of the thers, and as an orator he rivals the fame of Demosthenes. Every closer tyranny of the Four Hundred at Athens. He distinguished himself at the study of Thucydides opens to our view a greater perfection of art. Herobattle of Cyzicus, recovered for Athens the towns of Thrace, and took part dotus is more fascinating, but the manner of Thucydides is more noble in the battle of Arginuse, in 406. He was chosen with Theramenes to and exalted. Thucydides neither attained during his life nor desired to in the battle of Arginusa-, in 406. He was chosen with Theramenes to visit the wrecks after the fight, and to save all the men they could; but attain the fame of a popular historian: he wished rather to be studied being prevented by stormy weather, the generals were impeached. Ban- thoroughly than to become of a sudden generally applauded, and wrote ished from Athens by the Thirty Tyrants, he resolved in his retirement more for the few than for the many. at Thebes to attempt the deliverance of his country. With a small band Tiberius, (B. c. 42-37 A. D.,) the second Roman Emperor. After the death of fellow-exiles, and a small supply'of arms and money from the Thebans, of fellow-exiles, and a small supply of arms and money from the Thebans, of Augustus, whose step-son he was, he secured carefully the good will of he seized, in 403, the fortress of Phyle, within twelve miles of Athens; the soldiers, and sufered himself to be entreated by the senate to accept the soldiers, and suffered himself to be entreated by the senate to accept defeated, with his increased force, the troops sent against him, and four the chief honors, which for many years he had sought by every means days after marched by night into the Pireus, where the people gladly days after marched by night into the Pireus, where the people gladly During his reign a new system of government gradually displayed itself. pjoined him. He won another victory at Munychia, and the Tehirty were Tiberius was a chief of no mean acquirements in military tactics, and, in deposed, a new college of Ten being appointed. The Ten, however, were the arts of dissimulation, a rival of his predecessor. He had all the faults equally hostile to Thrasybulus, and asked the aid of Sparta. Lysander of Augustus, and none of his virtues. The vigilance of Augusts was of Augustus, and none of his virtues. The vigilance of Augustus was blockaded the exiles in Pirseus, and Pausanias, the Spartan king, marched at length fatiguing to Tiberius; but he wanted courage to abolish the into Attica, as if to support him. But he used his influence as mediator, forms which recalled the memory of ancient times and institutions; and and a treaty waocueewehprisnehforms which recalled the memory of ancient times and institutions; and and a treaty was concluded between the opposing parties, under the gua- he preferred to destroy, under various pretences, all who, either by their rantee of Sparta. The exiles returned, and soon after a complete amnesty, X rantee of Sparta. The exiles returned,.and oon after a complete amnesty personal qualities in the senate, or by preponderating influence elsewhere, was granted to the partisans of the Thirty. Thrasybulus worked quietly Tiberius felt himappeared able or desirous to attain to public honors. Tiberius felt himfor many years for the good of Athens, and was once more called to com self under restraint until he had seen the end of the noble Germ self under restraint until he had seen the end of the noble Germanicus, mand the fleet in 389. After many successes, he was murdered the same the chief object of his anxious vigilance, who perished not without suspiyear by the citizens of Aspendus, in Pamphylia. cion of poison; but he afterward loosened the rein more and more to his Thucydides, (471-400 B. c.,) the historian of the Peloponnesian war. atrocious passions. He had formed himself a cabinet or secret council of While Herodotus was reciting his history at Olympia, (456 B. c.,) he ob- twenty chief senators; of these, eighteen were put to death by his comserved a young man beside him who betrayed marks of strong emotion; he mand, and the nineteenth destroyed himself. From this time the Roman was struck with the intelligent aspect of his countenance, and counselled history puts on a gloomy aspect; the great names of antiquity were exterhis father to give him the education of a philosopher. Thucydides was minated, or we observe them, with far keener regret, disgraced by their 20 154 TIT TRA posterity. Now we hear the mandates of the hoary tyrant, inspired by a administration of the finances became to every wealthy citizen a guarantee black policy, issue from the inaccessible palaces of Caprese, the abodes of of his security; and under this reign the treasury was the resource of the sensual vice; now in the capital we behold the turbulent fury of a sense- unfortunate. Vespasian was just; Titus was the delight of mankind and less youth on the pinnacle of the world: all the laws of reason and of the one of the mostvirtuous of the human race. Titus was belovedbythe Romans, former ages were obscured and trodden down by the new code of treason; and those the Romans loved ever died young. Fate, indeed, did not always the provinces were exhausted by the cupidity of governors, and laid waste require that they should suffer; but the career of Titus was not only brief, by the incursions of barbarians. but clouded in its latter years by a series of public disasters. The city was visited, in the first place, by a terrible conflagration, which raged unchecked Tilly, John Szerclas, (1559-1632 A.D.,) the famous commander-in-chief for three days, and was second only in extent to that, hardly yet repaired, for three days, and was second only in extent to that, hardly yet repaired, of the imperial armies in the Thirty Years' War. He first served in the of Nero. The capitol itself fell once more a prey to the flames. Again Spanish army in the Netherlands, next in the imperial army, and about Rome suffered from a pestilence, in which 10,000 persons perished daily. 1607 was appointed commander-in-chief of the Bavarian army. To this The great eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of CamThe great eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Campost was added that of commander-in-chief of the forces of the Catholic pania, was perhaps more alarming, though the loss it inflicted might be League. In this capacity he greatly distinguished himself during the much less considerable. A less popular prince might have been accused Thirty Years' War. After conquering the Upper Palatinate, he won the of himself setting fire to the city, and even the eruption and pestilence great battle of Prague against the Bohemians, in November, 1620; and, might have been imputed to the divine vengeance on his crimes. But in after several other victories, defeated the duke of Brunswick near Munster, this case, the Romans were willing to charge the national sufferings on in 1623, and was made count of the empire. After the disgrace and dis- national sins. Titus expired on the 13th of September, 81, having not missal of Wallenstein, Tilly was appointed, in 1630, commander-in-chief quite completed his fortieth year. During the course of his short reign of the imperial armies, and at the same time was created field-marshal. of the imperial armies, and at the same time was created field-marsal of two years and two months, he had religiously observed the principle In the following spring he besieged and took Magdeburg, which he gave which he had proclaimed on accepting the chief priesthood, that the hands up to pillage and massacre for three days, and then destroyed. After being of God's first minister should be kept free from the stain of blood. victor in thirty-six battles, he was at length defeated near Leipsic, by Gustavus Adolphus, and severely wounded, in September, 1631. His career tavus Adophus, and severely wounded, in September, 1631. His career Trajan, (52-117.) After Domitian had been assassinated, his successor, closed with the battle on the banks of the Lech, in which he was again closed with the battle on the banks of the Lech, in which he was again Nerva, a venerable old man, confided the cares of government, which were defeated by Gustavus, and, being mortally wounded, died the next day, too heavy for himself, to Trajan. During more than 200 years, the senate April 6th, 1632, at Ingolstadt. Tilly was never married, and lived as, to Trajan. During more than 200 years, the senate was accustomed to hail every new emperor with the exclamation, "Reign abstemiously as an ideal monk - a smnall taciturn, authoritative man, who was accustomed to hail every new emperor with the exclamation, "Reign absghtemftiously> aa ideal monk, a small, I a fortunately, as Augustus; virtuously, as Trajan! " He was the greatest of fought fanatically for the Catholic Church. the Caesars since the time of the dictator, and the best of them all, since Titus, (40-81, A. D.) Under Vespasian, Rome obtained a respite of nine he had no civil war, no injustice to reproach himself with. Never was a years from internal convulsions. The most enterprising of the factious monarch so enterprising, so great in his designs, so persevering in the comchiefs had fallen in the wars, and the more fortunate of them hailed the pletion of them, and at the same time so little anxious for external enjoyment of repose. Although the emperor had to thank the army for splendor; so gracious to all the citizens, and on such terms of equality his throne, he permitted himself to be formally invested by a decree of the with his friends. Trajan extended the bounds of the empire, which had been senate. Rome was restored to rest, and as soon as military discipline was maintained with difficulty since the time of Augustus, beyond the fruitful re-established, the Parthians submitted to a treaty of peace; a regular plains and mountains of Dacia, which included Moldavia and Transyl TRO TUL 155 vania; the emirs of the Arabian desert acknowledged his commands; and which, in contempt of the rights of the royal princes of France, the crown at length Crassus was revenged, and the plans of Coesar were accomplished. was bestowed in perpetuity on Henry and his descendants. This treaty He conquered the Parthian residence of Ctesiphon; he sent ships to India; which could not come into effect until the death of Charles VI., was and his age alone prevented him from renewing the exploits of Alexander. immediately sealed by the marriage of her daughter to Henry. The This illustrious conqueror, as he walked through the streets of Rome, per- regency of the kingdom, during the malady of the king, was to be mitted every citizen to accost him with freedom. When he delivered his intrusted to Henry V., with the title of regent; and he swore that he sword to the captain of his guard, he said, " For me, if I govern well; would maintain the jurisdiction of the parliament, as well as the rights of against me, if I would become a tyrant! " During his reign, which lasted the peers, the nobles, the cities, towns, and communities of France, and to 19 years, only one senator was capitally punished, and he had been found govern the kingdom according to its laws and customs. This treaty was worthy of death by his colleagues. The legal system of Rome was brought received with favor by the Parisians, equally tired of the yokes of the to perfection under his guidance, and he ornamented the city and the Armagnacs and the Burgundians, and was solemnly approved of by the empire with magnificent buildings, and founded an extensive library. All shameful states-general, convoked in the capital and presided over by the the nations, whose wounds he healed, revered him as a vice-regent of the king. But Henry V. took upon himself the task of destroying the new beneficent gods, and their tears were his most eloquent panegyric. From people whom he ought to have governed, and it was through his cruelties Cilicia, where he died, his body was conveyed to Rome; it was received that the heart of the French people was restored to the dauphin. by the senate and people, carried in pomp into the city, and deposited in the forum named after him, under that column, 140 feet in height, on Tullus Hostilius. The earliest demonstrable boundaries of the Roman which his exploits are inscribed. That column yet defies the impotence of community were in the landward direction, about five miles distant from time, as the name of Trajan rises above the oblivion and indifference in the town; and it was only toward the coast that they extended as far as which history has involved the multitude of kings. the mouth of the Tiber, at a distance of somewhat more than 14 miles Triumvirate, The First. A reconciliation having been effected between from Rome. Larger and smaller tribes surrounded the new city. It seems Pompey and Crassus through the intervention of CTesar, the three entered to have been at the expense of these neighbors that the earliest extensions.into a compact....is rog te in t n of the Roman territory took place. The Latin communities situated on inoacmatto oppose the aristocracy. This "union of talent with the Upper Tiber and between the Tiber and Anio appear to have forfeited reputation and wealth, by means of which the one party hoped to rise, the their independence in very early times to the arms of the Romans. By other to retain, and the third to win," is called the First Triumvirate. The theirse onquests thpendence Roman territory waearly times prto the arms of the Romansbout 1y90 alliance, which these three persons ratified by their oaths, remained long a sue mles. Ather e aly ae no Rm arm a secret, and it was only during COesar's consulship (59 B. c.) that it square miles. Another very early acievement of the Roman ams was became matter of public notoriety from the unanimity they displayed preserved in the memory of posterity with greater vividness than those in all their political resolutions, obsolete struggles. Alba, the ancient sacred metropolis of Latium, was conquered and destroyed by Roman troops. Rome gained, in consequence Troyes, Treaty of. The assassination of John the Fearless, in 1419, made of that event, the right to preside at the Latin festival - a right which was peace between the factions of the Armagnacs and Burgundians impossible. the basis of the hegemony of Rome over the whole Latin confederacy. Philip the Good, the new duke of Burgundy, in order to avenge his father, While the Latin stock was thus becoming united under the leadership of offered the crown to Henry V., and the guilty Isabeau, unworthy queen Rome, and was at the same time extending its territory on the east and and still more unworthy mother, negotiated between her unconscious hus- south, Rome herself, by the favor of fortune and the energy of her citizens, band and Henry V. the shameful treaty of Troyes, signed in 14u20, by had become converted from a stirring commercial and agricultural town 156 ULP ULP into the powerful capital of a flourishing province. Temples and sanctu- Tyre, (Tyrus,) the most celebrated and important city of Phoenicia. It was aries arose on all the summits -above all, the federal sanctuary of Diana built partly on an island and partly on the mainland. That part of the city oi the Aventine; and, on the summit of the stronghold, the far-seen temple which lay on the mainland was called Old Tyre, extended for seven miles of father Diovis, who had given to his people all this glory, and who now, along the shore, and was situated in one of the broadest and most fertile when the Romans were triumphing over the surrounding nations, tri- plains of Phcenicia. The island on which the new city was built is the umph.ed along'with them over the subject gods of the vanquished. largest rock of a belt that runs along this part of the coast, containing about 40 acres. The smallness of this area was, however, compensated by Turenne, Efenri de la Tour d'Auvergne. Viscount, (1611-1675,) the great French general. In his fourteenth year he was sent to Holland, where he the great height of the houses of Tyre. The powerful navies of Tyre were French general. In his fourteenth year he was sent to Holland, where he learned the art of war under his uncles, Maurice and Henry of Nassua. Sent received and sheltered in two roadsteads and two harbors, one on the north, t i h e 6 was apnthe other on the south side of the island. The insular situation of Tyre, to Paris as a hostage, in 1630, he was appointed to a command in the French army. One of his most famous exploits was the conduct of the the height and strength of its walls, and the command which it possessed retreat after the battle of Marienthal, in 1645. About three months later of the sea seemed to render it impregnable, and hence the Tyrians, when he gained the victory of Nordlingen, over the imperialists. In 1653 began, -his splendid campaigns in the Netherlands, where Cond commanded The only method which occurred to the mind of that conqueror of overagainst him, and which only terminated with the, peace of the Pyrenees, coming the difficulties presented to his arms by the site of Tyre, was to against him, and which only terminated With the peace of the Pyrenees, concluded in 1659, soon after the defeat of Cond6 at the battle of the con, Dunes. In 1660 he was named by Louis XIV. marshal-general of the bestowed upon the mole, Tyre was not captured by means of it. But a armies of the king. After the death of his wife, he6 renounced Protestant- breach was made in the walls by battering-rams fixed on vessels; and while armies of the king. After the death of his wife, he' renounced Protestantism, and was received, in 1688, into the Catholic Church —a change he is this was assaulted by means of ships provided with bridges, simultaneous attacks were directed against both harbors, which were successful, and said to have long meditated. Turenne was again called to active service in 1672. In this war he had for his opponent Montecuculi, (see this.) and Alexander entered the city. Provoked by the long resistance of the Tyin 1672. In this war he had for his opponent Montecuculi, (see this,) and he carried the war into the heart of Germany with brilliant success; but rians, and the obstinate defence still maintained from the roofs of the houses, the Macedonian soldiery set fire to the city, and massacred 8,000 of the sullied his reputation by the devastation of the Palatinate, in which thirty inhabitants. The remainder were sold into slavery to the number of villages were burned. This great man, whose private life was as pure as 30,000, and 2,000 were crucified in expiation of the murders of certain his military career was glorious, was shot while making preparation for an engagement near Salzbach, July 27th, 1675. He was buried in the tomb Iacedonians during the course of the siege. of the kings at St. Denis. Ulphilas, (311-381,) Bishop and Apostle of the Goths. He appears to have ing and ministrations, but by successfully conducting important negotiabegun his pious labors among the West Goths, in the reign of Constantine, tions between them and the Roman empire. The most memorable service and to have continued them through great part of the reign of Valens. He rendered to his countrymen by Ulphilas was the translation of the Bible won the love and confidence of his people by his blameless life and reli- into their language, for which he had first to devise an alphabet. He omitgious earnestness, and did them important service not only by his teach- ted the four Books of the Kings, lest their warlike spirit should excite too'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~m w'h sp! shoul exit too VAS VEG 157 much the naturally fierce disposition of the people. A volume containing called the "Codex Argenteus." The version of Ulphilas possesses very the Four Gospels of this Gothic version, very imperfect, was discovered in high interest and importance as the most ancient monument of the Teua monastery near Cologne, and, after singular fortunes, found a permanent tonic family of languages. rest in the university of Upsala. It is bound in silver, and is therefore V. Valois in France. (See Genealogy, III. and VII.) Charles IV. of France soldiers made use of their weapons. This version somewhat resembles the having died without male issue, the parliament was summoned to decide fable of the wolf and the lamb; and it is hardly probable that a defencebetween the candidates for the throne. The two principal were Philip of less multitude should have provoked a contest with a body of well-armed Valois, grandson of Philip III. and cousin-german of the last three kings troops. But however this may be, a dreadful slaughter ensued. Between of France, and Edward III., king of England, son of Isabella, sister of those forty and fifty persons were killed on the spot, and upward of one hunprinces. The interpretation already twice given during twelve years to the dred more were wounded, many of whom subsequently died of the injuries Salic law then received a third and last sanction. Women were declared they had received. Guise sent for the mayor of Vassy, and severely repto be deprived of all right to the crown, which the parliament solemnly rehended him for allowing the Huguenots to meet; and when that magisawarded to Philip of Valois, who thus became the ancestor of the Valois. trate pleaded that he had only acted in conformity with the existing edict, They ruled France from 1328 until 1589, when they died out with Henry the duke, drawing his sword, furiously exclaimed: "Detestable edict I III. The accession of the house of Valois to the throne of France gave with this will I break it." This massacre was the prelude to the religious rise to the sanguinary wars between France and England, which lasted for wars in France. more than a hundred years. (See Appendix, page 198.) Vega, Lopez de, (1562-1635,) a celebrated Spanish poet. After studying Vasco de Gama. See GAMA, at Alcala, he entered into the service of the dukeof Alva, at whose instance he wrote the heroic pastoral of "Arcadia." Soon after this he married; Vassy, Massacre of, (1562 A. D.) The duke of Guise, travelling with his but, on the loss of his wife, he embarked in the armada prepared for the brothers to Paris, passed through Vassy, a town which formed part of the invasion of England. In the course of this voyage he wrote a poem called dower of Mary Stuart. It was governed by Antoinette de Bourbon, Mary's "Hermosura de Angelica," to which, when published, he added the " Dragrandmother and mother of the Guises, who expressed much annoyance gontea," an invective against Drake and Queen Elizabeth. In 1620, Lopez at the Calvinists having established a conventicle in a barn not far from married a second time, and again became a widower, on which he entered the parish church. Either through chance or design, Guise entered Vassy into the order of St. Francis. He still, however, cultivated poetry, and with his troops on a Sunday, when a congregation of more than 1,000 Hu- scarcely a week passed without seeing a drama from his prolific muse. He guenots were assembled in the barn for worship. The scene that ensued wrote above a thousand plays after his entrance into the order. Honors has been differently described by Catholic and Protestant writers. The flowed in upon him, and he was idolized by the whole nation. At his former assert that the Huguenots were the aggressors; that some of Guise's death, which happened in 1635, the highest honors were paid to his men had strayed to the spot from mere curiosity; and that, a tumult remains, and all the poets of the age vied in rendering tribute to his having arisen, the duke was struck on the cheek with a stone before his memory. — II I.... I II I I. I I I 158 VEN VIN Venice. The celebrated name of Venice or Venetia, was formerly diffused as a curb to keep in check the surrounding tribes, and above all to interover a large and fertile province of Italy, from the confines of Pannonia to rupt the communications between the two most powerful enemies of Rome the river Addua, and from the Po to the Rhoetian and Julian Alps. Before in southern Italy. At the same time the southern highway, the Appian the irruption of the barbarians, fifty Venetian cities flourished in peace Way, which Appius Claudius had carried to Capua, was prolonged thence and prosperity, among which Aquileia and Padua were the most renowned. to Venusia. The foundation of Venusia put the seal to the conquest of Many families from these and other neighboring cities had fled from the central Italy. sword of the Huns, and found a safe though obscure refuge in the neighboring islands. At the extremity of the gulf, where the Adriatic feebly imitates Verres, Caius, the rapacious proprietor of Sicily. He went thither B. c. the tides of the ocean, near a hundred small islands are separated by shal- 73, and the island was left at his mercy during the following years. low water from the continent, and protected from the waves by several By his unbounded avarice and the unscrupulous cruelty and tyranny with long slips of land, which admit the entrance of vessels through some secret which he gratified it, the island was completely desolated, and the inhaband narrow channels. Till the middle of the 5th century these remote and itants reduced to want and despair. It was resolved to prosecute him, and sequestered spots remained without cultivation, with few inhabitants, and the conduct of the proceedings was intrusted to Cicero. All attempts of almost without a name. But the manners of the Venetian fugitives, their the friends of Verres to get it out of Cicero's hands, and to put it off, failed; arts and their government, were gradually formed by their new situation. and by mere weight of testimony, without flourish of oratory, the case was In the beginning, their only treasure consisted in the plenty of salt, which decided against him. He quitted Rome before sentence was actually passed, they extracted from the sea; and the exchange of that commodity, so essen- his own advocate, Hortensius, giving up the defence. Verres settled at tial to human life, was substituted in the neighboring markets to the cur- Marseilles, and was afterward proscribed by Antony. There are seven rency of gold and silver. A people, whose habitations might be doubtfully orations of Cicero against Verres, of which only two were spoken. assigned to the earth and water, soon became alike familiar with the two Vespasian, Titus Flavius, (9-79,) Roman Emperor. He began life as a elements. They penetrated into the heart of Italy by the secure though soldier, and served in the Roman armies, gradually rising to distinction laborious navigation of the rivers and inland canals. Their vessels, which In 66 he was charged by Nero with the conduct of the Jewish war. He were continually increasing in size and number, visited all the harbors of was still engaged in it when Nero died; and while the civil war was going the gulf; and the marriage, which Venice during many centuries annually on between Otho and Vitellius, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, A. D celebrated, was contracted in her early infancy. Since the beginning of 69 He returned to Italy, leaving the conduct of the Jewish war to his the 9th century (about 810 A. D.) it became the commercial metropolis of son Titus, and applied himself to the re-establishment of order and the the Adriatie. |son Titus, and applied himself to the re-establishment of order and the the Adriatic. improvement of the administration. He contented himself with the outward life of a private citizen, and contributed the force of his own example Venusia, (290 B. c.,) a city of Apulia, situated on the Appian Way, about 10. Ven.u> 1.. >. >;si^ 1 1. > a,.toward the introduction of a simpler mode of life and purer morals. The miles south of the river Aufidus. In 290 the whole of the Samnites were toward the introductio of a simpler mode of life and purer morals. Jewish war ended in 70, and the next year Vespasian and Titus had a finally forced to become subjects of Rome, and the strong fortress ofn joint triumph. The expedition under Agricola to Britain took place during Hatria was established in the Abruzzi, not far from the coast. But the the reign of this emperor. Vespasian died, leaving two sons, Titus and most important colony of all was that of Venusia, whither the unpreceDomitianus, who both became emperors. (See TITUS.) dented number of 20,000 colonists was conducted. That city, founded at the boundary of Samnium, Apulia, and Lucania, on the great road between Vinci, Leonardo da, (1452-1519,) the great Italian painter and sculptor. Tarentum and Samnium, in an uncommonly strong position, was destined He showed in his boyhood a rare intelligence, and especially a wonderful l~~~~~~~~~~~.i i VIN VIR 159 faculty for drawing. His rapid progress and extraordinary powers made "I swear his master despair of himself and give up painting entirely. Leonardo That never faith I broke to my liege lord, offered his services when about thirty years old to Ludovico il Moro, duke Who merited such honor; and of you, of Milan. He was at that time a master, not only in painting, but in If any to the world indeed return, Clear he from wrong my memory, that lies sculpture, architecture, music, engineering, and mechanics. His accom- Yet prostrate under envy's cruel blow." plishments included also a vast knowledge of anatomy, botany, mathematics, and astronomy. His proposal was accepted by the duke. One of Virgil, (Publius Virgilius Maro,) (B. C. 70-19,) the great Roman epic poet. the services he rendered to Milan soon after his settling there was the The small estate which he inherited from his father was assigned with the establishment of an academy of arts, (1485.) His first public work, and neighboring lands to thesoldiers of Octavianus, and the poet was disposhis greatest, as a sculptor, was the model of an equestrian statue of Fran- sessed. But through the influence of Maecenas it was restored to him; cisco Sforza, father and predecessor of Ludovico. The last great work and the first of his Eclogues is supposed to be the expression of his gratiexecuted by Leonardo at Milan was the famous picture of the " Last Sup- tude to Octavian. Virgil was of feeble health, and appears for the most per," which he painted in oil. It was the greatest achievement of paint- part to have led a private, retired life. Horace was his most intimate ing the world had up to that time seen; and by it Leonardo showed himself friend. In B. C. 19, Virgil visited Greece, and meeting Augustus at Athens, the first Italian painter who broke through the traditional forms and set out with him for Rome. But his health, long failing, at last gave way, worked freely and directly after nature. | and he only lived to reach Brundusium. The principal works of Virgil are the "Bucolics," also called "Eclogues," the "Georgics," and the Vinea, Peter de, (11.90-1249 A. D.,) from a low condition, raised himself, 11,Eneid." The Georgics are the most finished and the most pleasing of by his eloquence and legal knowledge, to the office of chancellor to the his works. In the "A neid," Virgil imitates Homerwithoutrivallinghim, emperor Frederick II.; whose confidence in him was such that his influ- and treats very learnedly of the adventures of AEneas after the fall of Troy, ence in the empire became unbounded. The courtiers, envious of his and of his settlement in Latium. With the ancent legends he associates exalted situation, contrived, by means of forged letters, to make Frederick the glory of Rome and of the emperor, his patron. The works of Virgil believe that he held a secret and traitorous intercourse with the Pope, who...' w hbelieve tat he held a secret and traitorous intercourseq wi thie Pope, who became school-books within a short time of his death, and were the subject was then at enmity witlh the emperor. In consequence of this supposed of numerous commentaries in after times. His high place in medieval crime he was condemned to be paraded through all the cities of the Nea- times appears om the fact that Dante calls him his master, and represents politan kingdom, and to be tormented before death. Peter was taken to th the San Miniato in Tuscany, and there his eyes were put out. He was led through the villages, mounted on an ass; while a crier shouted, " Behold Viriathus. Viriathus was a man of humble origin, who, when a youth, had Master Peter de Vinea, the chief councillor of the emperor, who betrayed bravely defended his flock from wild beasts and robbers, and in manhood his master to the Pope! See what he has gained by his dealings. Well endeavored to deliver his countrymen from their Roman oppressors. He may he say,' How high was I once, and how low am I brought!'" But was at first successful, and was at one time recognized as lord and king of Peter resolved to cheat Frederick of the pleasure of parading him through all the Lusitanians. Viriathus knew how to combine the full dignity of the towns of Apulia. On the road to Pisa, he dashed out his brains against his princely position with the homely habits of a shepherd. No badge disa pillar, to which he had been chained. Dante, born not long after this tinguished him from the common soldier. The soldier recognized the gentragedy, and living close to its scene, has cleared the good name of the eral simply by his tall figure, by his striking sallies of wit, and, above all, great statesman, who was just to all but himself: by the fact that he surpassed every one of his men in temperance as well 160 WAK WAK as in toil, sleeping always in full armor, and fighting in front of all in Voltaire, in 1750, accepted the often-renewed invitation of Frederick II. to battle. It seemed as if in that roughly prosaic age- one of the Homeric settle at his court. His residence at Potsdam, where he had a munificent heroes had appeared: the name of Viriathus resounded far and wide pension and the key of a chamberlain, was fruitful chiefly in jealousies, through Spain; and the brave nation conceived that in him at length it dissensions, and all kinds of uneasiness, and ended, after three years, by had found the man who was destined to break the fetters of alien domina- the flight of Voltaire. He settled at length at Ferney, near the Genevese tion. But as his troops, after the wont of Spanish insurrectionary armies, territory. There he passed the last twenty years of his life, unwearied in suddenly melted away, he was obliged to make peace with the Romans. writing, and at the same time active in promoting the interests of the vilThree of his confidants procured permission from Viriathus to enter into lage, which, under his fostering care, grew up into a neat little town, and negotiations for peace with the Roman commander, and employed it for became the seat of a flourishing colony of watchmakers. As the home of the purpose of selling the life of the Lusitanian hero to the foreigners in Voltaire, Ferney became the centre of attraction for the most distinguished return for the assurance of personal amnesty and further rewards. On their persons of all countries. At the age of 84, he once more visited Paris; return to the camp, they assured Viriathus of the favorable issue of their and his whole journey and his reception there was one continuous triumph. negotiations, and in the following night stabbed him while asleep in his He was everywhere attended by crowds, occupied the director's seat at tent, (139 B. c.) the Academy, was crowned at the theatre, and then, exhausted by the excitement and loss of sleep, took opiates, and, after great suffering, fell into Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet de, (1694-1778,) the celebrated French a lethargy, and so died, May 30th, 1778. The works of Voltaire range over author, distinguished as a poet, historian, and philosopher. In 1728 he almost all subjects. In addition to those already named, we may mention published his celebrated epic poem, "La Henriade," under the title of La "Histoire de Charles XI!.,"" Sibcle de Louis XIV.," ".Si'ecle de Louis Ligue, and applied himself to other literary labors. A new epoch opened I XV." His life, especially in its relations with Frederick the Great, is very in Voltaire's life when, in 1736, he was flattered by a letter from Frederick, fully treated by Carlyle in his "History" of that monarch; and no more prince royal of Prussia, afterward Frederick the Great. These two remark- profound, lucid, and fair estimate of Voltaire and Voltairism is to be found able men first met after the accession of Frederick to the throne, in 1740. in English literature than is presented in Carlyle's masterly "Essay." Wakefield, Battle of, (1460 A. D) Richard, third Duke of York, was the and then asserted his right to the crown. On his return to England, he only son of Richard, earl of Cambridge, and Anne, daughter of Roger Mor- had an interview with the king, Henry VI., and was appointed protector timer, through whom and her mother Philippa he traced his descent from of the kingdom in 1454. But reconciliation of the two houses was imposLionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III. (See Genealogy, I.) sible, and in the following year the wars of the Roses began. After five At the death of his father, executed for conspiracy in 1415, he was intrusted years of fluctuating fortune, the duke was defeated and killed at the battle to the guardianship of the countess of Westmoreland, and ten years later of Wakefield December 31st 1460. His head was placed over the gates the attainder was set aside, and he succeeded to the title of the duke of of York for a time, and then his remains were interred, first at Pomfret, York. He took a very important part in pullic affairs, and was for some and ultimately at Fotheringay. He was father of Edward IV., Richard III., time virtually sovereign. He went, in 1449, as lord lieutenant to Ireland. and George, duke of Clarence. His daughter Margaret was married to He won the esteem and support of the Irish by his good administration, Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Wakefield is situated on the Calder, WAL VWAL 161 in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The battle was fought at Sendal Castle, and in co-operation with the army of the League, under his rival Tilly, he two miles to the south of the town. fought a successful campaign against Count Mansfield and Bethlen Gabor. Wallace, William, (1270-1305.) When the independence of Scotland was He conducted a second memorable campaign against the Danes in the foldespaired of by the greater nobles, there arose a patriotic hero from among lowing year, negotiated the Peace of Lilbeck, and was invested with the the lesser barons, William Wallace of Ellerslie. Originally but a leader duchy of Mecklenburg. His enemies, jealous and profoundly irritated, of guerillas, a successful dash on Scone drew the eyes of all Scotland upon not only by his success, his enormous wealth, and accumulated dignities, him, and drove many of the Scottish nobles to rejoin the national standard. but also by his haughty and despotic behavior, pressed their accusations Thus strengthened, he attacked the English, and in the famous battle near against him with so much vehemence that, in 1630, he was deprived of his Sterling (1297) they were completely routed and driven across the border. command. He retired silently to his estates,just as Gustavus Adolphus Every keep disgorged its English garrison, and Wallace - William the was on the point of invading Germany. The victories of the great Swede Conqueror, as his heralds styled him - assumed the title of Custos i.egni and the death of Tilly left no choice for the emperor but to pray his disConqueror, as his heralds styled him -assumed the title of Custos Regni. < Scotire. But in the following year, (1298,) being beaten by Edward near missed general once more to take the commnd. Wallenstein, after some Falkirk, and left alone by the Scottish nobles, who all submitt d to the prudent show of reluctance, agreed to do so on condition of being absolute English sovereign, he was finally betrayed into the hands of his foe, after a glorious career of nearly eight years. Sent to London, he was tried at camp at Nirnberg, whose citizens enthusiastically supported him, WallenWestminster and found guilty. He was dragged at the tails of horses to stein intrenched himself in a strong position opposite NUrnberg, intending West Smithfield, and there hanged on a high gallows, torn open before he by a tedious blockade to wear out his strong foe. The Swedes intercepted was dead, beheaded, and quartered. His head was set upon a pole at Lon- a large convoy from Bavaria, on its way to the imperialists, captured the was dead, beheaded, and quartered. His head was set upon a pole at London Bridge, his right arm was sent to Newcastle, his left arm to Berwick, whole of it,. a.nt and pestilence af his legs to Perth and Aberdeen. But if King Edward had had his victim's i armies, and Gustavus, having been re-enforced, made an attack on Wallenhis legs to Perth and Aberdeen. But if King Edward had had his victim's body cut into inches, and had sent every separate inch into a separate stein's lines, ion and repeated town, he could not have dispersed it half so'far and wide as his fame. assaults, Wallenstein remained unconquered within his lines, and the Swedes Wallace will be remembered in songs and stories while there are songs and had to retire. Fifteen days later the latter broke up their camp and marched stories in the English language; and Scotland will hold him dear while toward Bavaria; Wallenstein immediately breaking up and burning his her lakes and mountains last. camp, and marching toward Saxony. They next met at the memorable battle of Lutzen, fought in November. Gustavus fell early in the battle, Wallenstein, (1583-1634,) the great general of the imperialists in the but Wallenstein was defeated. The conduct of his officers was rigorously Thirty Years' War. He received the best education the age could give investigated, and many were punished with death. Wallenstein next him. Bent on a military career, he served his first campaign against the marched into Silesia., then into Bavaria, carrying on negotiations with Turks in Hungary, and displayed his dashing courage at the siege of France and other courts, and evidently aiming at a high place in the Gran. Marrying soon after, he spent the next ten or eleven years on his empire. Fresh accusations were urged against him; his officers signed, at estates, growing richer and richer, till at last he became the richest noble- Pilsen, a declaration of their fidelity to him; and the emperor declared man in Bohemia. On the outbreak of the war in Bohemia, he was him a rebel, and ordered his capture, alive or dead. His estates were conappointed quartermaster-general of the imperial army, and he not only fiscated; some of his trusted officers were traitors; and on the 25th of served the emperor with his sword, but also with his purse. In 1626, at February, 1634, the great commander was murdered in the castle of Egra. the head of a large army raised by his own efforts and at his own expense, His memory has been cleared of the long-credited charge of treason against 21 162 WAR WAR the emperor, and it is certain that his fall was brought about by the intrigues at once the mightiest English noble of bis time and the favorite of the and lies of his personal enemies. The story of Wallenstein furnished people. The story of his life would be also that of the Wars of the Roses, Schiller with the subject of his splendid trilogy, " Wallenstein's Camp," in which he is the most prominent figure. A family alliance with Richard, "The Piccolomini," and " The Death of Wallenstein," well known through duke of York, father of Edward IV., led him to take the side of the house Coleridge's magnificent translations. of York, and his dashing courage at the battle of St. Albans, in 1455, when he led the van, chiefly decided the victory of the duke of York. He was Walpole, Sir Robert, Prime MinisterofEnglalld, (1676-1745.) His natural Walpole, Sir Robert, Prime Minister of England, (16761745.) His natural then appointed to the important post of governor or captain of Calais, indolence would probably have overpowered and kept down his natural indolence would probably have overpowered and seen thkept down his natural which, with a short interval, he held till his death. The war really broke abilities, had he not been a third son, and seen the necessity of labor for out in 1459, when the Lancastrians were beaten at Bloreheath. But a few out in 1459, when the Lancastrian's were beaten at Bloreheath. But a few his bread. He was educated as one intended for the Church, and used to months later, victory returned to the side of Lancaster, and York had to say of himself afterward, that had he taken orders he should have been, i seek a refige in Ireland. The cause of York seemed now hopelessly lost. archbishop of Canterbury instead of prime-minister. But at the age of t in landy l But, in 1460, WTarwick landed with an army in Kent; was joined by large 22 he found himself, by the death of his brothers, heir to the family estate, numbers, marched on London, and, on July 10th, defeated he Lacasnumbers, marched on London, and, on July 10th, defeated the Lancaswith a double advantage - the inheritance of an elder, and the application trians at Northampton, and took Henry VI. prisoner. Queen Margaret of a younger son. He entered parliament in 1701. In 1708 he was escaped, and raised an army, with which she defeated the duke of York at appointed secretary of war; in 1709, treasurer of the navy. On the dis- Wakefield, in December and the earl of Warwick at St. Albans in Febsolution of the Whig ministry, he was dismissed from all his offices, expelled the house, and committed to the Tower, oi the charge of breach of trust the house, and committed to the Tower, on the charge of breach of trust Edward, now duke of York, compelled the royal army to retire to the and notorious corruption. This was looked upon as a mere party proceednorth, and occupied London, where Edward was at once proclaimed king. ing, by a majority of the people, and, on the accession of George I., the ing, by a majority of the people, and, on the accession of George I., the Warwick defeated the Lancastrians at Lowton, and was rewarded for that Whigs being again in the ascendant, Walpole was made paymaster of the and other important services by various appointments and large grants of forces, and subsequently prime-minister. In consequence of disputes with a forces, and subsequently prime-minister. In consequence of disputes with forfeited estates. But Warwick and his family did not long retain the his colleagues, however, he was induced to resign in 1717. His reputation favor of the king. Edward married, in 1464, Elizabeth WoodvilIe, and as a financier drew all eyes toward him on the occurrence of the disasters jealousies naturally grew up between the Nevrilles and her relations. Other arising from the bursting of the South-Sea bubble, and Walpole was again causes probably contributed to the alienation, which was shown in 1467 made premier. He then held office for more than twenty years, in spite made premier. He then held office for more than twenty years, in spite by the king's depriving George Neville, archbishop of York, of the great of incessant attacks from political enemies of the most splendid talents. and in 1470 by the alliance of Warwick with Queen Margaret, and seal, and in 1470 by the alliance of Warwick with Queen Margaret, and War, Seven Years. See Appendix, page 209. the marriage of her son, Prince Edward, to Arine Neville, younger daugh-.War, Thirtyr Years. See Appendix, page200.ter of the great earl. Warwick then invaded England with a fresh force, War, Thirty Years. See Appendix, page 200. proclaimed and restored Henry VI., and, with the duke of Clarence, Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, (1428-1471.) He was Edward's brother, entered London in triumph. The Nevilles were reinstated the eldest son of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury, and having, by his in their dignities and offices, and Warwick was appointed in addition lord marriage with Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, become possessor of high admiral. But once more the tide turned; Edward, landing in Yorkthe immense estates of the Warwick family, was created earl of Warwick. shire, in March, 1471, was joined by Clarence and the archbishop of York, His personal character and great abilities, his enormous wealth and lavish and won the decisive victory of Barnet, April 14th, at which the king-maker expenditure, and his extended and important family connections made him and his brother, Lord Montague, were killed. WAS WEB 163 Wasa, House of, in Sweden. Gustavus Wasa was the son of Eric Wasa, British under Lord Cornwallis, by the American and French armies. It duke of Gryshohn, a descendant of the old royal family of Sweden. Hav- was completely successful; Cornwallis being compelled to capitulate. ing formed the project of delivering his country from the yoke of Denmark, The struggle was virtually at an end. In 1783 the British evacuated New lhe was seized and imprisoned by Christian I. But he escaped, and reached York, peace was signed, and the independence of the States acknowledged. Dalecarlia; gradually roused the peasants against the foreign despot; took Washington resigned his commission, and received the warmest acknowlUpsala and other towns in 1521, and received the title of regent from the edgment from congress of the great services he had rendered to his states. In 1523 he was proclaimed king, took Stockholm, and expelled country. After several years of retirement-full, however, of activity, not Christian. IIe did not at first, however, accept the title of king, and was for private ends alone- Washington was elected, in 1789, first President of not crowned till 1528. In a national council, the following year, he pro- the United States. To this high office he was re-elected in 1793, and was cured the abolition of the Catholic religion in Sweden, and established succeeded by John Adams in 1797. He took leave of the nation in a proProtestantism. In 1544 the kingdom was declared hereditary in his family. claination worthy of him, and died in December, 1799. He was tall and He was an able ruler, and exercised almost absolute authority; rendering of noble and graceful bearing; a man of singular good sense (which it has very great services to his country, in its legislation, its manners, its educa- been said was his genius) and of consummate prudence; above all, true, tion, and its commerce. At his death, in 1560, he left his country at peace, iiflexibly just, and absolutely brave. He was a man of action, not of words, the treasury full, with a fine fleet, and the frontier towns fortified. His and his success was as perfect as his task was singular and difficult. No direct descendants ruled in Sweden until 1818, although it had become example is to be found of a purer, more unselfish devotion to the service extinct in the male line, in 1632, by the death of Gustavus Adolphus. (See of one's country than that furnished by the career of Washington. l Genealogy, XIV.) G y Webster, Daniel, (1782-1852,) one of the greatest statesmen and orators Washington, George, (1732-1799,) first President of the United States of the United States. After finishing his legal studies, he was admitted of America. He served his first campaign against the French, in to practice in 1805; and in 1806 he settled at Boston. His professional 1754. During the contests which arose between the colonies and the fame increased rapidly; and soon he held the first rank both in the Masparent state, Washington firmly opposed the right of taxation claimed sachusetts courts and in the supreme court of the United States. Ma.ny of his by the latter. He was a member of the first congress in 1774, and in forensic arguments have been published, and hlave attracted much praise the following year was named commander-in-chief of the continental for the subtlety and closeness of reasoning and the great extent of legal army. His first task was the reorganization of the army, the difi- learning which they display. But it is as a statesman that Daniel Webster culty of which was seriously increased by the want of discipline, the won his chief celebrity. He took his seat in Congress in 1813, and from unfriendliness of the officers, and the interference of the civil powers. that time till his death he was prominently before the world as one of the The first important operation undertaken was the fortifying of Dorchester mightiest leaders of the Whigs. When he was first elected to congress, war IIeights, near Boston, in 1776, which led to the evacuation of the city by was raging between America and England, and Webster at once attracted the British, who, however, soon gained possession of New York. In 1777 attention by his fervent eloquence in urging his countrymen to attack the battles of Brandywine and Germantown were fought, and the Ameri- England by sea, and also by the historical knowledge and full acquaintance cans were defeated in both. In1 1778 an alliance was formed with the French, with international law which he displayed in the debates respecting the and Philadelphia was evacuated by the British. In 1781 a mutiny broke communication between America and France as to the Berlin and Milan out in the A:nerican army, which was promptly quelled. In the autumn decrees. Probably his personal advantages did much to insure his suce," of that year a joint attack was made on Yorktown, then held by the as an orator. His figure was comnzdig; his coteane wa 164 WEL WES able even in repose, but when animated by the excitement of debate it became a member of Peel's cabinet, and supported that able statesman "spake no less audibly than his words." His gestures were vehement, through all his plans of commercial reform. Meanwhile, years came on without being undignified; and his voice was unrivalled in power, in apace. Still "the Duke" appeared regularly in his place in the House clearness, and in modulated variety of tone. On various occasions he was of Lords, and took part in every discussion of importance. In his 88th an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency. In 1841 he became secretary year, hardly three months before his death, he delivered his last speech in of state under President Harrison; and during this administration he parliament. It has been truly said that he knew no dotage. settled with Lord Ashburton the great question of the "Boundary Line," Wesley Joh (17031791 of Wesleyan Methodism. In 1730, which had more than once threatened to embroil England and the United I oe thea n e o Penill ain bece while at Oxford University, he and his brother, with a few other students, States. In 1850, on the accession of President Fillmore, he again became In, onheccesiooPrsidnt, heagainformed themselves into a society for the purpose of mutual edification in secretary of state, in which office he remained till his death. In 1852 he f t i secretary of state, in whih offie he remained till his death. In 1852 he religious exercises. So singular an association excited considerable notice, again became a candidate for the presidency; and, to gain the favor of the and among other nicknames bestowed upon themembers, that of MethodSouthern States, he abandoned the opinions he had long maintained on the iss was applied to them. Wesley, with some others, chiefly Moravians, question of slavery, though in this case his sacrifice of principle was in went to Georgia, in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the vain; and it is conjectured that disappointment hastened his end. Indians. After a stay there of two years, he was compelled to leave the country in consequence of a love affair. He therefore returned to EngWellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, (1769-1852,) the famous British land. In the following year he commenced itinerant preaching, and commander and statesman the conqueror of Napoleon. He entered the, cd th cqr of Nap. He entered.............. the gathered many followers. Wesley was indefatigable in his labors. His army before he was 18, and gained his first laurels in India. His military ins or society, though consisting of many thousands, was well organized, and he genius was first fully established by the great battle of Assaye, (1803,) which broke forever the Mahratta power n India. The chief theatre of preserved his influence over it to the last. In Wesley's countenance mildwhic broke forever te p. in Ia. Te c tness and gravity were blended, and in old age he appeared extremely venhis glory, however, was Spain, whither he was sent in 1809 to assist the ess and gravity were blended, d erable; in manners he was social, polite, and conversible; in the pulpit Spaniards against the French. On the 28th of July, 1809, he gained the erable; in manners,, great battle of Talavera, the first of a series of brilliant victories crowned he was fluent, clear, and argumentative. by the decisive battle of Vittoria, which completed the expulsion of the Westphalia, Peace of, (1648 A. D.) The Thirty Years War was terminated French from the Peninsula. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, Wel- by the peace of Westphalia, on the 24th of October, 1648, after negotiations lington was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied forces. Fortune which had lasted between four and five years. The objects of this peace was once more with him, and he gained his crowning victory at Waterloo, may be divided into two heads: the settlement of the affairs of the empire, (June 18th, 1815,) which changed the destinies of Europe, and hurled and the satisfaction of the two crowns of France and Sweden. With Napoleon from his throne to a prison and an early grave. It was not till regard to Germany, a general amnesty was granted; and all princes and some time after this that Wellington took any prominent part in the persons were restored to their rights, possessions, and dignities. But the internal politics of Great Britain. In 1828 he was made prime-minister, most important article of the treaty was that by which the various in which position he lost his popularity by his violent opposition to the princes and states of Germany were permitted to contract defensive alliReform Bill. He had to resign in 1830. He was not only hooted at in the ances among themselves, or with foreigners, provided they were not streets, but even personally attacked. The popular demand having been against the emperor, or the public peace of the empire —conditions easily complied with, the general excitement abated, and in 1834 he was again evaded. By this article, the federative system was consolidated, and everyplaced for a short time at the head of the administration. In 1841 he thing was referred to the footing on which it stood in the year 1624, hence WIL WIL 165 called the decretory or normal year. The independence of the Swiss afterward. The order established was that of death; famine and pestiSweden, besides raising up a counterpoise to the power of the emperor in estates, and of all offices both in church and state; William assumed the Germany itself, had succeeded in aggrandizing themselves at the expense feudal proprietorship of all the lands, and distributed them among his of the empire. Sweden, indeed, in the course of a few years was to lose followers, carrying the feudal system out to its fullest development; garher acquisitions; but France had at last permanently seated herself on the risoned the chief towns, and built numerous fortresses; and converted Rhine; the House of Austria lost the preponderance it had enjoyed since many districts of the country into deer-parks and forests. The most the time of Charles V., which was now to be transferred to her rival, and extensive of these was the New Forest in Hampshire, formed in 1079. HIe during the ensuing period France became the leading European power- a ordered a complete survey of the land in 1085, the particulars of which post which she mainly owed to the genius and policy of Cardinal Riche- were carefully recorded, and have come down to us in the "Domesday lieu. With the peace of Westphalia begins a new era in the policy and Book." The attempt was made to supersede the English by the Normanpublic law of Europe. French language, which was for some time used in official documents. In his latter years, William was engaged in war with his own sons, and with William I., the Conqueror, (1027-1087,) King of England, was the son of the king of France; and in August, 1087, he burnt the town of Mantes. Robert, duke of Normandy, and succeeded to the duchy at the age of Injured by the stumbling of his horse among the burning ruins, he was eight. On the death of Edward the Confessor, king of England, William carried to Rouen, and died in the abbey of St. Gervias, 9th of September. made a formal claim to the crown, alleging a bequest in his favor by Edward, and a promise which he had extorted from Harold. His claim William the Silent, (1533-1584,) Prince of Orange, founder of the Dutch being denied, he at once prepared for an invasion of England; effected a Republic. William possessed, in the county of Burgundy, the extensive landing at Pevensey, September 28th, 1066, while Harold was engaged in estates of Chalons; and in Flanders, those by which the ancient house of opposing the Norwegians in the north, and fortified a camp near Hastings. Orange had been rewarded for its services to the dukes of Burgundy; at The decisive battle of Hastings was fought October 14th, 1066; Harold the same time he was royal stadtholder (for Philip II.) in the provinces was defeated and slain, and the Norman conquest was commenced. Wil- of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht. He appeared, in declaring himself on liam's rival, Edgar Atheling, was supported by some of the leading men the side of the national rights, to hazard in every respect more than he for a short time, but they all made submission to William at Berkhampstead, could hope to gain; especially if we consider the irresolution, the dissenand on the following Christmas-day he was crowned at Westminster. The sions, and the inconsiderable resources of the multitude, and the jealousy first measures of the new king were conciliatory, but served merely as a of their leaders. William was not one of those enthusiastic heroes who show for a short time. The inevitable conflict was not long deferred. inflame a people for the establishment of independence; he possessed by Early in 1067, William went to Normandy. Tidings of revolt recalled no means an impassioned character, but, on the contrary, an unruffled him, and he was occupied through most of his reign in the conquest of tranquillity of mind, a cool understanding, and a native perception of the country. Of the military events the most terribly memorable is his right, which he maintained with great perseverance. As his only object campaign in the north in 1069, when he mercilessly devastated the whole was the public good, and as he sacrificed his own interests to those of Holdistrict beyond the Humber with fire and slaughter, so that from York to land, he succeeded in uniting the different parties in pursuit of one object Durham not an inhabitated village remained, and the ground for more -independence. By his capacity and his virtues he acquired their confithan sixty miles lay bare and uncultivated for more than half a century dence; and he was now equally inaccessible to the temptations and to the 166 WIL WOR menaces of the court. He was neither dismayed by the sword of Alva nor the Boyne. The principal aim of the king thenceforth was to humble deceived by the arts of Requesens, nor perplexed by the boldness or by the France, and he spent much of his time abroad, engaged as leader of the artifices of Don Juan of Austria. When Philip II. committed the task of army of the confederates. In 1697 he was recognized (by the Peace of reducing this country to obedience to Alexander Farnese, (see Parma,) Ryswick) as king of England. Three years before he had lost his queen, William found means to frustrate both his power and his military talents. a great personal sorrow, but the throne was secured to him by the provisions The prince at length succeeded, by means of the compact concluded at of the Bill of Rights. He was, however, very unpopular with his subjects, Utrecht, (1579,) in uniting seven provinces of opposite constitution and and hostile intrigues, conspiracies, and projects of assassination troubled his circumstances, in one republic. The constitution of the United Nether- reign. Whigs, Tories, and Jacobites alike distrusted him. He continued lands was simply that of a league for mutual defence against all enemies to take an active part in the affairs of Europe, and especially in the negotiwhatsoever, and as this is necessarily a lasting cause of union, so the con- ation of the famous Partition Treaties for the disposal of the dominions federacy was declared to be permanent. Before the new republic was of the Spanish king. He was provoked to prepare a new war against securely settled, the prince of Orange fell by assassination, (1584.) Though France by the recognition by Louis XIV. of the son of James II. as king, born to great possessions, he left behind him nothing but debts, as he but this project was set aside by his death. The reign of William III. had endeavored to secure no other fortunes for his sons than such as they forms one of the great epochs of the Constitutional History of Englandmight acquire for themselves by their virtue and abilities. (See Motley's the Revolution; the main feature of which is the final recognition by law "Rise of the Dutch Republic.") of those great principles of regulated liberty for which the statesmen and heroes of the Commonwealth had contended. The character of William William III., (1650-1702,) King of England, was the son of William II., has been both extravagantly lauded and passionately depreciated. His Prince of Orange, by his wife Mary, daughter of Charles I. (See Gene- taciturn cold manner, his preference for his foreign friends, and the way in alogy, I.) In 1672, during the serious peril of the republic from the which he stood aloof from both the political parties, naturally excited preaggressions of Louis XIV., he was installed in the office of stadtholder. judice and ill-will against him. But it is not possible to doubt his great Though only 22 years of age, he showed himself the worthy descendant intellectual and moral qualities, clear-sightedness, courage, decisiveness, and of William the Silent, founder of the republic; and in two campaigns indomitable energy and persistency of purpose. One dark stain on his drove the French out of the Dutch territory. In 1677, William had married character is ineffaceable: he distinctly sanctioned the atrocious massacre Mary, daughter of James, duke of York, afterward James II., and this of Glencoe, devised by the master of Stair. William III. died at Kenalliance gave him far greater importance as head of the league subse- sington Palace, in consequence of a fall from his horse, 8th of March, 1702, quently formed against France, and as leader of the Protestants of Europe. and was buried at Westminster Abbey. When the arbitrary measures of James II. became intolerable to his subjects, the hopes of the friends of freedom naturally turned to William, and he Wordsworth, William, (1770-1850,) the English poet, who was born and accepted the call sent him to come and save their rights and liberties. He lived the greater part of his life among the lakes in Cumberland and Westlanded at Torbay, 5th November, 1688; arrived in London in December; moreland. Southey's subsequent retirement to the same beautiful country, and by the convention, assembled in January, 1689, the crown was offered and Coleridge's visits to his brother poets, originated the name of the "Lake to William and Mary, and was accepted by them. Resistance was made School of Poetry " by which the opponents of their principle distinguished in Scotland, but ended with the defeat of Dundee at Killiecrankie; while the three poets, whose names are so intimately connected. This principle a more serious conflict raged in Ireland, in which James II. and William was that the real or natural language of any and every mind, when simply in a personally took part, and which was closed by the victory of the latter at state of excitement or passion, is necessarily poetical. We cannot say that WOR WOL 167 Wordsworth's theory of poetry has been altogether without effect upon his spent a large sum of money on the erection of his great water-works at practice, but it has shown itself rather by some deficiency of refinement in Vauxhall, and died in April, 1667. His character, abilities, and inventions his general manner, than by very much that he has written in express con- have been admirably illustrated by Dicks, in his work entitled "The Life, formity with its requisitions. We might affirm, indeed, that its principle Times, and Scientific Labors of the Second Marquis of Worcester." It is as much contradicted and confuted by the greater part of his own poetry includes a reprint of the " Century of Inventions." as it is by that of all languages and all times in which poetry has been written, or by the universal past experience of mankind in every age and Wolsey, Thomas, (1471-1530,) Cardinal Archbishop of York, and minister country. Wordsworth is a great poet, and has enriched our literature with of state under Henry VIII., was the son of a butcher at Ipswich. After much beautiful and noble writing, whatever be the method or principle finishing his education at Oxford, he became tutor to the sons of the marupon which he constructs, or fancies that he constructs his compositions. quis of Dorset; was subsequently domestic chaplain to the archbishop of His " Laodamia," his "Lonely Leech-gatherer," his "Ruth," his "Tintern Canterbury; and, on going to court, he gained the favor of Henry VII., Abbey," his " Feast of Brougham," the " Water-Lily," the greater part of who sent him on an embassy to the emperor, and on his return made him the "Excursion," most of the Sonnets, and many of his shorter lyrical pieces dean of Lincoln. In 1514 he was advanced to the see of Lincoln, and the are nearly as unexceptionable in diction as they are deep and true in feeling, year following to the archbishopric of York. Insatiable in the pursuit of judged according to any rules or principles of art that are now recognized by emolument, he obtained the administration of the see of Bath and Wells, the critics. It is part, and a great part, of what the literature of Germany and the temporalities of the abbey of St. Alban's, soon after which he has done for our literature within the last 60 years, that it has given a wider enjoyed in succession the rich bishoprics of Durham and Winchester. By scope and a deeper insight to our perception and mode of judging of the these means his revenues nearly equalled those of the crown, part of which poetical in all its forms and manifestations; and the poetry of Wordsworth he expended in pomp and ostentation, and part in laudable munificence has materially aided in establishing this revolution of taste and critical for the advancement of learning. He founded several lectures at Oxford, doctrine, by furnishing the English reader with some of the earliest and where he also erected the college of Christ Church, and built a palace at many of the most successful or most generally appreciated examples and Hampton Court, which he presented to the king. He was at this time in illustrations of the precepts of the new faith. His noble autobiographical the zenith of power, and had a complete ascendency over the mind of poem, " The Prelude," or the " Growth of the Poet's Mind," was a posthu- Henry, who made him lord chancellor, and obtained for him a cardinalship. mous publication. His nephew, Canon Wordsworth, published the "Me- He was also nominated the Pope's legate; and aspired to the chair of St. moirs of Wordsworth." Peter. In this he failed, and a few years later he lost all the power and possessions he had gained. His advice in the matter of the king's divorce Worcester, Edward Somerset, Marquis of, (1601-1667,) distinguished as from Queen Katharine, the ruinous taxation he had imposed, and the the inventor of the steam-engine. He spent some years in foreign travel, enmity of some powerful persons, combined for his overthrow. lHe was then gave himself up to his favorite mathematical and mechanical studies, deprived of everything, and sent to live in retirement. Although the and in 1641 entered into the service of Charles I. In 1650 he drew up his king restored him to some of his offices soon after, and he returned to his famous "Century of Inventions," which was first printed in 1663. Among| see of York, a charge of treason was brought against him. In 1530 he them is that for which he is deservedly remembered, "an admirable and was apprehended at York, but was taken ill, and died at Leicester on most forcible way to drive up water by fire;" which was in fact a steam- his way to London, exclaiming, "Had I but served my God as faithfully engine. Although it was seen by eminent persons, the invention seems to as I have served my king, he would not have given me over in my gray have been little thought of, and the inventor was equally slighted. He hairs." An account of his life was written by his gentleman-usher, 168 XEN XEN George Cavendish, portions of which are appended to Galt's "Life of executed in his latter years, with the assistance of a few friends, and which, Wolsey." though taken from the Latin medium, instead of the original Hebrew and Greek, and though performed in a timid spirit with regard to idioms, is a Wyckliffe, John, (1324-1384,) was a learned ecclesiastic and professor of valuable relic of the age, both in a literary and a theological view. Wycktheology in Baliol College, Oxford, where, soon after the year 1372, he liffe was several times cited for heresy and brought into great personal began to challenge certain doctrines of the Church. In contending against danger; but partly through accidental circumstances, and partly through these, and also against the worldly life of many of the prelates, he pro- the friendship of the duke of Lancaster, he escaped every danger, and at duced many controversial works, some of which were in English. But his last died in a quiet country parsonage. There is a good Life of Wyckliffe greatest work was a translation of the Old and New Testaments, which he by Dr. Robert Vaughan. X. Xenophon, the amiable pupil and biographer of Socrates, continued the which pervades their writings. Xenophon affords an excellent model of Greek history from the period where the narrative of Thucydides termi- perspicuity in narration. His piety and his love of justice so win the hearts nates. In a short outline he has preserved to future times the course of of his readers, that they forgive him when he puts his philosophy even into events, from the sea-fight near the Arginusae (406 B. C.) to the battle of the mouths of barbarous chieftains, whose thoughts were never so perspicuMantinea, (362 B. c.) We have also from him a biographical memoir of ously arranged. His work was completed in advanced age, and some parts the Spartan king Agesilaus, an analysis of the Lacedaemonian and Athenian of it may therefore want the last polish. The good reception which he constitutions, and an account of the retreat of the 10,000 Greeks. (See found at Sparta, when the turbulent democrats of Athens had driven him Anabasis.) His style is not less lively, and still more simple than that into exile, gave him a particular attachment to the former commonwealth, of Herodotus. The only ornament of both is the refined moral feeling which philosophers were generally inclined to regard with esteem.'I1I~~VI1 r~~~~CM~rUVI~ ~IVIV bIIVIIIYIIJ ~L~~~~~~-~V~ YV ~Vt ......s.! i, "..,. i i i. i 1 1 1 i, -.... 1. THE CRADLE OF THE HUMAN RACE. Syrian, Israelite, and Arabic nations. Hence they are called collectively the Semitic race. T IHE cradle of our race was in Asia. It arose in that region which extends 3. The Aryan speech is the common mother of the Indian, Persian, and Eurosouthward as far as the 40th degree of north latitude. On the north, this pean languages. It was originally spoken by a small tribe settled probably on district was bounded by what was then the open North Sea, with the Ural as an the highest elevation of Central Asia. Those men were the true ancestors of our island; on the east, it was surrounded by the Altai and the Chinese Himalaya; race. We are by nature Aryan, not Semitic. A deep sense of diversity has on the south by the chain of the Paropamisus, extending from Asia Minor to always severed and still severs the Aryan from the Semitic nations. Eastern Asia; and on the west by the Caucasus and Ararat. We have, therefore, a primeval country, containing on an average 11 degrees of latitude and 40 3. THE HISTORICAL RACES. degrees of longitude. In this garden of delight, (Eden,) with its four streams, The civilization of the human race is principally due to two great families of the Euphrates and Tigris on the west, the Oxus and Jaxartes on the east, man- nations: the Semitic and the Aryan. They occupy the four western peninsulas kind spent its infancy. of the Ancient World.' They are: 1. India with Persia; 2. Arabia; 3. Asia Minor; and 4. Europe. Both races once spoke the same language, which we 2. THE HUMAN RACE AND ITS DIVISIONS. may call the Semitico-Aryan, the language of primitive Asia. During this Semitico-Aryan period, some settlers migrated from Asia into the lower part of The one great barrier between man and the brute is language. It is the natu- the Nile valley. They were the ancestors of the Egyptians, whose language and ral, the spontaneous, the inevitable result of man's organization. Originally, religion retained to the last, vestiges of the original identity of the Semitic and " the whole earth was of one language and of one speech." At this stage, of Aryan races. All historical nations are either Aryan or Semitic, except Egypt, which the old Chinese is the deposit, there prevailed a grand simplicity in the the oldest of all. expression of the external phenomena. Every syllable was a word, that is, a sentence: the judgment of man about external objects, according to their prop- 4. THE OLDEST HISTORICAL NATION. erties, represented artistically, in a musical and an architectonical shape. The The real history of a nation never recedes much farther back than its oldest natural accompaniment of this language was universal gesticulation, and after- contemporaneous authorities. For nations only obtain historical consciousness ward picture-writing, the portraiyal, not of sounds, but of the objects. and historical experience when they begin to produce monuments, especially This stream of undivided speech divided itself into three mighty arms: written monuments, to bear witness to posterity of what is occurring. MonuThe Turanian; 2, the Semitic; and 3, the Aryan. ments form tile dial-plate of history; until they exist, the present alone belongs 1. The name Turanian is used in opposition to Aryan, and is applied to the to a nation, not the past -it exists without a history. It is in this that exists languages spoken by the nomadic races of Asia. These nomadic or Turanian the claim of priority of the history of Egypt above all other histories. In Egypt races are opposed to the agricultural or Aryan races., we have the earliest contemporaneous authorities, and that the most direct, which 2. The Semitic speech is the common mother of the languages spoken by the exist; namely, monumental authorities. History begins with Egypt. THE EASTERN WORLD. EGYPT. Egyptian history subdivides itself into three comprehensive periods: I C. The Empire of the Sesortasens, (about 2250.) It is as remarkable from its I. The Old Empire, which ended about 2100 B. c,. (Dynasties I.-XIII.) sudden rise as its speedy downfall. (Dynasties XII.-XIII.) The largest and It is divided into three subdivisions: most splendid edifice and the most useful work in Egypt, the Labyrinth and A. The Empire of the Pyramids. The greater part of the pyramids were erected Lake Moeris, were executed during this period. The invasion of the Shepherds, during this period, (before 2500 B. c.,) which marks the culminating point of the about 2100 B. c., coincides with its close. Old Empire. (Dynasties I.-IV.) II. The Middle Empire, (2090-1580 B. c.,) a period of 511 years, during B. The Empire of the Obelisks. The oldest obelisks belong to this period, which which Egypt was tributary to the Hyksos or Shepherd kings. No great historical mark the decline of the Old Empire. (Dynasties V.-XI.) These obelislis were monuments exist of this period. pillars formed of a single block of granite, square at the base, and terminating III. The New Empire, (1580-525 n. c.,) comprising Dynasties XVIII.-XXVI. in a point. Their height differed from 50 to 180 feet, with a base from 5 to 25 feet. The deliverance of Egypt from the Hyksos had proceeded from Upper Egypt. 22 169 170 APPENDIX. Thebes had been the centre of the resistance against the invaders. A Theban subjugated kingdom of Judah. Under his successors great changes were beginking (Amosis) drove them finally from Egypt. The whole of the country was then ning in Asia. The'powerful kingdom of Assyria was already preparing to supunited under one king, who justly claimed the title of lord of the "two regions," plant the rule of the Egyptians in Syria. Before they had succeeded in this, Egypt that is, of Upper and Lower Egypt. Thebes remained their residence. It is di- itself had succumbed to southern conquerors, who succeeded to the inheritance of vided into four divisions: the Sheshonks. After a bloody struggle, Sabaco, the Ethiopian, became king of A. The Egyptian ascendency in Western Asia, (1500-1200.) The Pharaohs of Egypt, (715 B. c.) His successor Tirhako re-established Egyptian rule in Asia. this period (Dynasties XVIII.-XXI.) are not buried in the Pyramids, but in the Napata, in Nubia, was his capital. Necropolis of Thebes. The most remarkable kings belong to the 19th dynasty, D. The transition period and final fall of the national Egyptian Empire, (650which began with Rameses I., whose son Sethos and grandson Rameses II. were 525 B. c.) The marriage of Psammetichus with an Ethiopian princess resulted employed during their long reigns in extending the conquests of Egypt and in in the restoration of the native Egyptian line of Saite kings in his person. This recording them on the numerous and splendid monuments they erected in every restoration had, however, been effected by means of Greek mercenaries, who conpart of the country. The reign of Rameses II. is especially remarkable. It tinued to guard the new ruler and his empire. This excited the jealousy of the lasted 66 years. He inherited from his father a mighty empire and an army native troops, who withdrew into Ethiopia and settled beyond Meroe. accustomed to fight and to conquer. With it he subdued Nubia, Mesopotamia, and During this period, Egypt witnessed a revival of its ancient prosperity, and began Palestine, but he left behind him an exhausted and debilitated kingdom. The once more to aspire to the possession of Syria. The taking of the strong town greatness of this Pharaoh then must depend upon his edifices. These certainly of Ashdod gave Psammetichus a firm footing. His successor Necho conquered are marvellous. It was, above all, in the two great capitals of his empire, in the whole of Syria. Josiah, king of Judah, wishing to ingratiate himself with Memphis and in Thebes, that the monumental splendor of Rameses struck the the Babylonians, ventured to oppose him in the valley of Megiddo, but in vain. observers of antiquity. His principal building is the great house of Rameses, Pressing forward to the Euphrates, he attacked and took Carchemish, which (Ramesseum,) on the western side of Thebes. It was formerly known as the guarded the passage of the river. The whole of Syria submitted to him, and for Memnonium. Here it was that Rameses erected the largest of all the colossi, the three years he remained in the undisturbed possession of his conquests. Then sitting figure of himself, about 40 feet high from the seat. The structures of the Babylonians began to bestir themselves, and the Egyptians were driven forKarnac, which contained among them the first temple of the Egyptian Empire, ever out of Asia. Under Necho's grandson, Apries, the Babylonians conquered date also from his reign. Egypt itself. The race of Psammetichus was destroyed, (570 B. c.,) and Amasis, B. The decline and fall of the Egyptian ascendency, (1200-1000 B. c.) The a Babylonian dependant, raised to the throne of the Pharaohs. After Babylonia sceptre finally passed into the hands of warlike high-priests, who gained the had been absorbed by the Persian monarchy, Egypt had to submit to the same throne through the influence of Assyrian conquerors. These invaders re- fate. Amasis was succeeded by his son Psammenitus, whose reign was cut short stricted the powers of the Pharaohs more and more within the limits of the by the conquest of Cambyses, in 525 B. c. sacerdotal office and their sovereignty to the district of Tan (Tanis, Zoan) in This put an end to the New Empire of Egypt, which had been nothing but an N. E. Egypt. abortive attempt at a real restoration of national life. In reviewing it, we see C. The restoration of the Egyptian ascendency, (1000-650 B. c.) Sheshonk, that it exercises a controlling influence on the affairs of the world only intermitprince of Bubastis, in Lower Egypt, was a great conquering warrior, who threw tently, and the most brilliant conquests are often immediately succeeded by the off the Assyrian yoke, and extended Egyptian influence through southwestern deepest degradation. We feel that everything depends on the reigning individual: Asia. He ransacked Jerusalem in the 5th year of Rehoboam, and when he made popular life is only exhibited in a state of suffering or in mere mockery, often an addition to the palace at Thebes, he set up the genuine Jewish figure of the simply as a negation. THE THREE EMPIRES IN TEHE VALLEY OF THE EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS. I. Chaldceea. The Chaldoean monarchy is rather curious from its antiquity than illustrious 2. Urukh, the architect, the mighty temple-builder. from its great names or admirable for the extent of its dominions. 3. Chedor-laomer, the soldier, the mighty conqueror, who, nearly 20 centuries Less ancient than the Egyptian, it claims the advantage of priority over every before our era, marched an army a distance of 1,200 miles, from the shores of the empire which has grown up upon the soil of Asia, and it stands forth as the great Persian gulf to the Dead sea, and held Palestine and Syria in subjection for 12 parent of Asiatic civilization. The great men of this empire are three: years. 1. Nimrod, the founder, the mighty hunter before the Lord. He is the forerunner of all those great Oriental conquerors who from time to ANCIENT HISTORY. 171 time have built up vast empires in Asia, which have in a larger or a shorter space counsel of his despair, and, after all means of resistance were exhausted, burned successively crumbled to decay. himself in his palace, (625.) The conquerors divided the empire between them. The downfall of the Chaldaean Empire seems to have been the result of a great B invasion by Arabs, after it had lasted above 7 centuries. II. Babylonia. The history of the Babylonian Empire commences with Nabopolassar, who II. Assyria. mounted the throne in 625 B. c., and ruled 21 years. Babylon enjoyed her new position at the head of an empire too much to endanger it by aggression, and The independent kingdom of Assyria covered a space of at least a thousand her peaceful attitude provoking no hostility, she was for a while left unmolested years; but the empire can only at the utmost be considered to have lasted six by her neighbors. Media could be relied upon as a firm friend; Persia was too centuries and a half, (1270-625 B. c.,) and the Assyrian ascendency in Western weak, Lydia too remote to be formidable. In Egypt alone was there a combinaAsia 5 centuries, (1150-650 B. c.) tion of hostile feeling with military ardor such as might have been expected to The limits of the dominion varied considerably within these 5 centuries, the lead speedily to a trial of strength. But while Psammetichus lived, Babylon had empire expanding or contracting according to the circumstances of the time and little to fear; he being an aged and wary prince, whose years forbade his engaging the personal character of its ruler. The extreme extent appears not to have in any distant enterprise. Psammetichus died in 610 B. c., and was succeeded by been reached until almost immediately before the last rapid decline set in, the his son Necho, who was in the prime of life, and who in disposition was bold and widest dominion belonging to the time of Asshur-bani-pal, (about 666 B. c.,) the enterprising. He crossed his frontier and invaded the territories of Nabopoconqueror of Egypt, of Susiana, and of the Armenians. At that time Assyria lassar, (608 B. c.,) and established his dominion over the whole tract between was paramount over the portion of western Asia included between the Mediter- Egypt and the Euphrates. Necho enjoyed his conquests for the space of at least ranean and the Ilalys on the one hand, the Caspian sea and the great Persian three full years. At length, (605 B. c.,) Nabopolassar resolved to intrust his desert on the other. The southern boundary was the desert and the Persian gulf. forces to Nebuchadnezzar, his son, and to send him to contend with the EgypThe northern boundary of Armenia was its utmost northern limit. Assyrian tians. He rapidly recovered the lost territory, (battle of Carchemish, on the left authority was at that time also acknowledged by Egypt. bank of the Euphrates,) recovered the old frontier line, and pressed on into Egypt To prevent rebellion in this extended territory, wholesale deportation of the itself. But his father's death compelled him to pause, to conclude a hasty arrangeinhabitants was resorted to. In the most flourishing period of their dominion - ment with Necho, and to return to his capital. This Nebuchadnezzar is the great the reigns of Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esarhaddon, (721-667,) -it prevailed monarch of the Babylonian Empire, which, lasting only 88 years, (625-538 B. c.,) most widely and was carried to the greatest extent. Chaldteans were trans- was for nearly half the time under his sway. This great monarch, who had ported into Armenia; Israelites into Assyria and Media; Arabians, Babylonians, already recovered Syria, crushed rebellion in Judsea, took Tyre, and humiliated Susianians, and Persians into Palestine. Thus, rebellion was in some measure Egypt. These victories were not without an effect on his home administration, kept down, and the position of the sovereignstate was rendered so far more secure; and on the construction of the vast works with which his name is inseparably but this security was gained by a great sacrifice of strength, and when foreign associated. He adopted the Assyrian system of forcibly removing the whole invasion came, the subject kingdoms, weakened at once and alienated by the population of a conquered country. Crowds of captives were settled in various treatment which they had received, were found to have neither the will nor the parts of Mesopotamia, and it seems to have been chiefly by their exertions that power to give any effectual aid to their enslaver. the magnificent series of great works was accomplished which formed the special In 625, Assyria was simultaneously attacked by the Medes from the east and glory of the Babylonian Empire, (the wall of Babylon, the hanging gardens, the Susianians from the south, the Median king Cyaxares directing the movements many canals, palaces, temples, etc.) The most remarkable circumstance in of both. To meet this double danger, Saracus, the Assyrian king, determined on Nebuchadnezzar's life was his lycanthropy, which consists in the belief that dividing his forces; and while he intrusted a portion of them to Nabopolassar, one is not a man, but a beast. The great king became during seven years a to defend the south, he himself made ready to receive the Medes. But Nabo- wretched maniac; then suddenly the king's intellect returned to him, and his last polassar saw in his sovereign's difficulty his own opportunity, and, instead of days were as brilliant as his first. He died 561 B. c. Five years afterward the marching against the enemy, he secretly negotiated an arrangement with Cyax- power passed from the house of Nabopolassar, which had held the throne for 70 ares, agreed to become his ally, and obtained the Median king's daughter as a years. The last king of the Babylonian Empire was the usurper Nabonadius, bride for Nebuchadnezzar, his eldest son. Cyaxares and Nabopolassar then who,.(558 B. c.,) after the fall of Babel, surrended himself and his empire to joined their efforts against Nineveh, and Saracus, unable to resist them, took Cyrus, who incorporated Babylonia with the Persian Empire. 172 APPENDIX. THE EMPIRES ON THE PLATEAU OF IRAN. Thie Median and Medo-Persian Enmpires. We have seen in the Assyrian history that two considerable empires arose Cyaxares died 593 B. c., after a reign of 40 years, leaving his crown to his son at the same time (625 B. c.) out of the ashes of Assyria: the Babylonian Astyages, who had neither his father's enterprise nor his ability. During a reign and Median. These empires were established by mutual consent; they were which lasted at least 35 years, he abstained almost wholly from military enterconnected together by the ties of affinity which united their rulers. For once prises, and thus an entire generation of Medes grew up without seeing actual in the history of the world, two powerful monarchies were seen to stand side service, which alone makes the soldier. Cyrus, the vassal king of Persia, saw by side, not only without collision, but without jealousy or rancor. Baby- his opportunity, pressed his advantage, and established the supremacy of his lonia and Media were content to share between them the empire of western nation, before the unhappy effects of Astyages's peace policy could be removed. Asia. To Cyaxares, the founder of the Median Empire, the conquest of Assyria He waited till Astyages was advanced in years, and so disqualified for comdid not bring a time of repose. His successes did but whet his appetite for power: mand; till the veterans of Cyaxares were almost all in their graves; and till the he engaged in a series of wars, and subdued to himself all Asia to the east of the Babylonian throne was occupied by a king who was not likely to give Astyages Halys. The advance of his western frontier to this river brought him in con- any aid. He was successful in bringing about the substitution of Persia for tact with the Lydian power, which stood at the head of a confederacy of the Media as the ruling power in western Asia. The fall of the Median Empire (558 states of western Asia. B. C.) was due immediately to the genius of the Persian prince; but its ruin was With a vast army drawn from various parts of inner Asia, Cyaxares invaded prepared and its destruction was really caused by the short-sightedness of the the territory of the western confederacy, and began his attempt at subjugation. Median monarch. During a conflict between the two armies an ominous darkness fell upon the com- Lydia and Babylonia shared very soon the fate of the Median Empire, to which batants. The sun was eclipsed. Amid the general fear, a desire for reconciliation afterward, under the reign of Cambyses, were added Egypt and Ethiopia. On the seized both armies. It was agreed that the two kings of Media and Lydia should ruins of those arose the Persian monarchy, the geographical extent of which swear friendship, and that, to cement the alliance, their children should intermarry. was far greater than that of any one of those which had preceded it. By this peace the three great monarchies of the time -the Median, the Lydian, While Persia proper is a comparatively narrow and poor tract, extending in its and the Babylonian - were placed on terms of the closest intimacy. The crown greatest length less than 8 degrees, the dominions of the Persian kings covered princes of the three kingdoms had become brothers. From the shores of the a space 56 degrees long, and more than 20 degrees wide. The boundaries of ZEgean to those of the Persian gulf, western Asia was now ruled by intercon- Persia at the time of its greatest extent were-East: the desert of Thibet, the nected dynasties, bound by treaties to respect each other's rights, and perhaps to Sutlej, and the Indus; -south: the Indian sea, the Persian gulf, the Arabian lend each other aid in important conjunctures. After more than 5 centuries of and Nubian deserts; -west: the Greater Syrtis, the Mediterranean, the ~gean, almost constant war and ravage, after 50 years of fearful strife and convulsion, and the Strymon river;-north: the Danube, the Black sea, the Caucasus, the during which the old monarchy of Assyria had gone down and new empires had Caspian, and the Jaxartes. Within these limits lay a territory the extent of taken its place, this part of Asia entered upon a period of repose which stands which from east to west was little less than 3,000 miles, while its width varied out in strong contrast with the long term of struggle. From the date of the peace between 500 and 1,500 miles. Its entire area was probably not less than 2,000,000 between Alyattes and Cyaxares, (610 B. c.,) for nearly half a century, the three of square miles. (The area of the United States is more than 3,000,000 of square kingdoms of Media, Lydia, and Babylonia pursued their separate courses with- miles.) It was thus more than four times as large as the Assyrian Empire. For out quarrel or collision. the Persian history, see CYRUS, DARIUs, and the following war tables. THE HELLENIC WORLD. THE SOYTHIAN EXPEDITION. Cause. The desire of Darius of annexing Thrace to the Persian Empire, as a before Thrace could be conquered. Hence the Scythian expedition was no first step to embrace in his dominion the lovely isles and coasts of Greece. insane project of a frantic despot, but a well-concerted plan for the furtherance But on the right flank of an army invading Thrace lay the formidable power of a great design and the permanent advantage of his empire. of Scythia, the ancient enemy of southwestern Asia. This had to be subdued Duration. A few months, (508 B. c.) ANCIENT HISTORY. 173 Theatre of war. The western shore of the Black sea and the basin of the Don. wounds of the population; the desolated places were rebuilt, but the history of March of Darius. Darius collected an army of nearly 800,000 men, and a Ionia closed for ever. fleet of 600 ships, chiefly from the Greeks in Asia Minor. Campaign. Sailing to Ephesus, the confederates marched up the valley of the I-He crossed the Bosphorus, marched through Thrace, crossed the Great Balkan, Cayster, crossed 1Mount Tmolus, and took the Lydian capital Sardis at the first onset. and passed the Danube by a bridge (which the Ionian Greeks had made) just It caught fire during the plundering and was burnt. Aristagoras and his troops above the apex of the Delta, and so invaded Scythia. The natives retired on hastily retreated; but were overtaken before they could reach Ephesus, and his approach, endeavoring to destroy his army by depriving it of provisions. suffered a severe defeat from the Persians. The expedition then broke up: the But the commissariat of the Persians was, as usual, well arranged. Darius Asiatic Greeks dispersed among their cities; the Athenians and Eretrians sailed remained for more than two months in Scythia without incurring any important home. losses. Consequences. The failure of the expedition was forgotten for the glory Attempts had been made during his absence to induce the Greeks, who guarded of its one achievement, the burning of Sardis, one of the chief cities of the the bridge over the Danube, to break it, and so hinder his return, but they were Great King. Everywhere along the coast of Asia Minor revolts broke out. If a unsuccessful. (See MILTIADES.) Darius recrossed the river, and met on his return great man had been at the head of the movement a successful issue might probamarch through Thrace no opposition. bly have been secured; but Aristagoras was unequal to the occasion; and the Before passing the Bosphorus he commissioned Megabazus to complete the struggle for independence, which had promised so fair, was soon put down. reduction of Thrace, and assigned him for that purpose 80,000 men, who remained After the subjection of the western coast of Asia Minor, Persia concentrated her in Europe, while Darius and the rest of his army crossed into Asia. strength upon Miletus, the cradle of the revolt and the acknowledged chief of the cities. A large fleet was collected in her behalf by the Ionian towns. This fleet, THE IONIAN REVOLT. the combined strength of Ionia, was totally defeated in the battle of Lade, and soon afterward Miletus herself fell. The flames of rebellion were everywhere Real cause. A national'spirit had gradually grown up among the Greek ruthlessly trampled out; and the power of the great king was once more firmly cities which were scattered along the coasts of Asia Minor. The Scythian expe- established over the coasts and islands of the Propontis and the Egean sea. dition had greatly developed this. Six hundred Greek ships had formed a united One thing remained, however: to take vengeance upon theforeigners (Athenians and fleet, on the fidelity of which the fate of the whole Persian army had depended. Eretrians) who had dared to lend their aid to the king's revolted subjects, and had borne This had made them conscious of their strength, and awakened a deep-felt desire a part in the burning of Sardis. for national independence. Immediate cause. Histiaus, the Persian governor (tyrant) of Miletus, who THE PERSIAN WARS. had been rewarded with a grant of land in Thrace, having become an object of Cause. The participation of the Athenians and Eretrians in the revolt of suspicion to the king, was recalled to Susa, and his son-in-law Aristagoras was Cause. The participation of the Athenians and Eretrian in the revolt of made governor of Miletus in his room. The failure of an attempt on Naxos the Ionians. having rendered the security of this appointment precarious, Aristagoras per- Duration. About 50 years, (500-449 B.C.) suaded the Ionians to revolt. Theatre of war. The Archipelago, with the surrounding countries, especially Duration. About six years, (500-494 B. c.) Greece. Theatre of war. In the original revolt appear to have been included only Object of the war. The extension of Persian supremacy over Greece. the cities of Ionia and IEolis, but the war spread gradually over the whole Result of the war. The complete independence of Greece. of the western part of Asia Minor. Number of wars. Four: I., under Mardonius, 492; II., under Datis and Parties. The Asiatic Greeks, (especially Ionians,) aided by Athens and Ere- Artaphernes, in 490; III., under Xerxes, in 480. IV. The aggressive war against trea, against the Persians. the Persians, 478-449. Remark. Aristagoras had sought assistance in European Greece. Repulsedirst attept in 492. Coplete filue of te ersins. from Sparta, he applied to Athens, (the mother-state of Miletus,) and to Eretria, (which had received valuable aid from Miletus in her great war with Chalcis.) Duration. Ten months. The help he obtained was not very important. Athens promised 20 ships; Eretria, Theatre of war. The northern shores of the Archipelago. Mount Athos. 5 ships. The whole power of the Persian Empire was against them. Commander. lardonius, son-in-law of King Darius, a young, inexperienced Object of the war. The liberation of the Asiatic Greeks from Persian man. supremacy. Campaign. He marched westward from the Hellespont, through Thrace. Result of the war. Annihilation of the Greek fleet; destruction of Miletus. When he had arrived at the Strymon, he ordered his fleet to sail around Mt. Athos. Remark. All Ionia sank into servitude. Its soft skies helped to heal the On this journey it suffered a terrible shipwreck, in which 300 vessels perished, 174 APPENDIX. and the shores of the Strymonian bay were covered with innumerable Persian the armada (the fleet of more than 3,000 sail and the army) united. After a short corpses. As the land army at the same time suffered greatly from the hostilities rest both divisions advanced, and encountered the enemy about the same time. of the Thracians and the rough character of the country, Mardonius returned. Battles. On land: near the pass of THIERMOPYLZE, (the gate of Greece,) Result. It interrupted for a brief space of time (2 years) the great inter- defended by Leonidas, who was slain with all his companions, whereupon Xerxes national struggle between Greece and Persia. advanced without opposition into Attica and burned Athens, (July, 480.) On sea: near Artemisium, where, after three naval conflicts, the Greeks were II. Second attenmpt in 490, and second failure of the Persians. forced to retire, (July, 480.) They reassembled again at SALAMIS, where, on the 20th of September, 480, they met the Persian fleet for the fourth time. At ThDuratre of war. The Cyclades, (southern Archipelago,) Eubmonths.a and eastern Salamis the Greeks were completely victorious. ATheatre of war. The (Syclades, (southern Archipelago,) Euboea and eastern | Result. Brilliant and incontestable as the victory had been, yet it had not in Attica. reality brought about any decisive result. The proportion between the opposing Commanders. Persian: Datis and Art aphernes. Grek: Iniltiades. naval forces was not changed, (both had lost about one-fifth,) and the land forces Campaign. The fleet sailed from the bay of Issus in a westerly direction; of the Persians remained unhurt. Naxos was sacked, but on the sacred isle of Delos a grand act of homage was But Xerxes had lost all confidence in his troops, and his troops in him. He performed to the divinities of the island. All the world was to perceive that the returned to Asia with the remainder of his fleet and the greater part of the land Persian king had no thought of despoiling the Hellenic national divinities of their forces. Mardonius was left behind, with 300,000 men, to complete the conquest. honors; the ancient festivals uniting the two shores were to be restored with new Second campaign, in 479, by Mardonius. splendor. Then they sailed to Euboea, entered the Euripus, and displayed their In the spring of 479, Mardonius marched from Thessaly southward. In July, forces before Eretria. Treason opened the gates: Eretria was converted into a Athens is again occupied by the Persians, who, after ravaging Attica, return to heap of ruins and its citizens reduced to slavery. The Persians quitted the Boeotia, where they were received with open arms by the inhabitants, and Marsmoking ruins and crossed to the opposite shore of the channel, where the plain donius naturally already fancied himself the satrap of a country incorporated of Marathon opened before them. with the Persian Empire. Battle. MARATIION, (September 12th, 490.) Here the Persians were met Battle. In September, 479, near PLATE.A, Mlardonius is attacked by the by the Athenians, under Miltiades, and completely defeated. The Athenians lost Greeks, under Pausanias, and totally defeated. only 192 men. Near their graves was erected a monument of victQry, the first Result. The victory of PLATIEE was the first decisive victory of the whole of the kind on Greek soil, and the battle-field of arathon became a sanctuary war; for Marathon and Salamis had only broken the courage of the enemy, while of the country. (See MARATHON and rMgILTIADES.)f here his power, together with that of his allies, was annihilated. Therefore, the Result. oliticl ad intellectual regeneration of Athens. day of Plataese is the real day of the salvation of Hellas; the danger has passed reaway, and thus ends a decennium of Greek history, which far surpasses all its [,III. Third attempt, in 480, and third falture of the Persians. previous periods in events of an extraordinary nature and of momentous results. Duration. 2 years, (480 and 479.) Theatre of war. Greece, from the Hellespont to the Tsthmus of Corinth. IV. The aggressive War against the Persians. Commanders. Persian: Xerxes, Mxardonius, Greek: Leonidas, Eurybiades, Cause. The hatred of the Greeks against the Persians, on. account of their THEMISTOCLES, Aristides, Pausanias. endeavors to enslave Greece. First campaign. Critalla, in Cappadocia, was the gathering-place of the Duration. About 30 years, (478-449 B. c.) nations dwelling between the Indus and the Mediterranean, who, to the number Theatre of war. The islands and coasts (northern and eastern) of the of 900,000, marched from there to Sardis, where, in the autumn of 481, they went Archipelago. into winter quarters. Before marching farther on, three great preparatory works Object of the war. The expulsion of the Persians from Thrace, the Greek were undertaken and successfully completed. islands and the colonies of Asia Minor. I. Magazines were established on the Thracian coast. Result of the war. The Athenians become the ruling power in the ArchiII. The Hellespont was bridged over, Xbetween Sestus and Abydos.) pelago. They impose on Ionia and the island a yoke which was more invidious III. The isthmus was cut through, which combines the peninsula of Athos and not less oppressive than that of the Persians. with the mainland, so as to guard the fleet against shipwreck. Commanders. Greek: Pausanias, Aristides. Cimon. Then the army marched from Sardis through the Troad to the Hellespont, Battles. The double victory by sea and land on the Eurymedon, in 466, where thence along the southern coast of Thrace, straight across the ridge of Chalcidice, the Persian fleet was completely annihilated by Cimon. into the corner of the Thermuean gulf. In its innermost recess both divisions of Persia ceases to be a maritime power. ANCIENT HISTORY. 175 Synchronistic temanak. SALAIA IS. HII1IERA. II. The Sicilian Expedition. At the same time.that the Persian hosts were endeavoring to annihilate Duration. Three years, (415-413.) Greece, the Carthaginians (allies of the Persians) threatened with annihilation Cause. The help of the Athenians was invoked by the inhabitants of Egesta, the flourishing Greek colonies in Sicily. One of the grandest political combina- in Sicily, against Syracuse, the great Doric town of the west. Alcibiades pertions simultaneously directed the Asiatic hosts against Greece and the Cartha- suaded them to grant the desired assistance. ginian hosts against Sicily, to extirpate, at a blow, liberty and civilization from Theatre of war. The south-eastern part of Sicily. The surroundings of the face of the earth. The victory remained with the EIellenes. The battle of Syracuse. SALAMIS saved and avenged Greece, and on the same day the rulers of Syracuse Object of the war. The conquest of Sicily, and the erection of a maritime and Agrigentum vanquished the immense Carthaginian army at HIMERA so empire in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, with Athens for capital. completely that the war against the Greek colonies in Italy was thereby termi- Result of the war. The complete destruction of the naval power of the nated. Athenians, which was the immediate cause of their ruin. Commanders. Athenian: ALCIBIADES, Nicias, Lamachus, Demosthenes. PELOPONNESIAN WARS Spartan: Gylippu. Causes. 1. The increasing jealousy between Athens and Sparta, created by Battles and siege. Syracuse was besieged in vain by the Athenians, who the transfer of the hegemony (presidency of the Greek confederacy) to Athens. either perished or were taken prisoners. This calamity, important in the his2. The discontent of the Athenian allies, who were treated as vassals by tory of the art of war, has been ably described by Thucydides in its most melanAthens. The Athenian admiral sailed annually round the Archipelago to receive choly circumstances. the tributes and survey the general posture of affairs, and only the shadow and name of liberty remained. III. The Decelian Wtar. Immediate causes of hostilities. Interference of Athens in the affairs of Corinth, a sovereign member of the Greek union. Corinth instigates the Cause. The resentment of lcibiades led him to incite the Spartans to attack Peloponnesian states to declare war aginst Athens. Cause. The resentment of Alcibiades led him to incite the Spartans to attack PelopDuration. Twenty-seven years, aga(41-40st Athens. the Athenians, who had just lost their armies and fleets. They invaded Attica, D~uration. Twenty-seven years, (431-404 B.c.).and seized upon Decelia, whence they molested the whole territory. Theatre of war. Northern coasts of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean. seized upon Decela, wence they molested the whole territory. Object of the war. Humiliation of Atens. Theatre of war. Attica, Northern Archipelago, the Hellespont. Object of the war. Humiliation of Athens. Result of the war. Destruction of the Athenian sovereignty. Object of the war. The breaking up of the Athenian supremacy. Parties. I. T Y rDsrco he Athenian party-democrati l pwer -. The* 1 *Result of the war. The complete humiliation of Athens. The city was Parties. I The Athenian party -democratic- nav all power —Iohians. The dismantled, the harbors destroyed, the navy never thereafter to exceed 12 greater part of the islands and coast of the Archipelago, Thessalians and Acar- the harbors destroyed, the navy never thereafter to exceed 12 nanians. II. The Spartan party - aristocratic —land power —Dorians. The ips. part of the Peloponnesus and the ion-maritime states* of Hellas. Remark. In the 75th year after the battle of Salamis, the sovereignty of greate,' part of the Peloponncsus and the non-maritime states of Hellas.v Division. Three. I. The 10 years war; II The Sicilian expedition; III. The Commanns received this c alamitous termination Decelian war. Commanders. Athenian: Thrasybulus, Alcibiades, (who was recalled,) I. he Ten Years War_.,Cozon. Spartan: LYSANDER, Callicratidas. Battles. The Athenians gained two naval battles, the first near Cyzicets, Duration. 10 years, (431-421 B. c.) (410;) and the second near the Arginusian islands, (406.) But LYSANDER anniTheatre of war. The coasts of Greece, especially of Attica and the Pelo- hilated the Athenian fleet in 405, near XLGOS POTAMOS, (on the Hellespont.) ponnesus. Result of the defeat at A2gos Potamos. Then the enemy appeared in Character of the war. The Peloponnesians invade Attica, ravage the coun- the Pirveus: the people made a courageous resistance; and it was only the try, and besiege Athens. The Athenians retaliate by ravaging the coasts of the extremity of famine that forced Athens to demand peace of Sparta. The SparPeloponnesus. The greatest calamity of Athens was the great plague which tans held a council of all the confederates, who, after 27 years of warfare, had broke out in the second year, and carried off Pericles. destroyed the empire of Athens. On this occasion the Beeotians and Corinthians Great commanders. Athenians: PERICLES, Cleon. Spartans: Archidamzus, insisted that the city should be burned, and all the people sold into slavery. Brasidas. But Sparta resolved that she never should suffer a city to be destroyed by the Battle. Amphipolis, in 422, where the Athenians were defeated. hands of Greeks which had acted so noble a part in the defence of their comREesult. Both generals having fallen in the engagement. a truce for 50 years mon country. Athens ceased to be a political power, but destroyed she was not. was negotiated by Nicias, it being stipulated that each party should be placed in On the contrary, the groves of the Lyceum and the Academy were the seat of a the position which it had occupied before the commencement of the war. more glorious empire than the fate of arms can bestow or take away. 176 APPENDIX. THE CORINTHIAN WAR. THE WARS THAT LED TO THE MACEDONIAN Cause. The Persians kindled a war against the Spartans in Greece, in order SUPREMACY, to force them to withdraw from Asia, where they had been making predatory CALLED: THE SACRED WARS. excursions under their king Agesilaus. Duration. Seven years, (394-387.) I. The Phocian War, or frst Sacred W.ar. Theatre of war. Boeotia, the Archipelago, Asia Minor. Cause. The hatred of the Thebans, who sought for new opportunities of Parties. The confederated states of Corinth, Argos, Athens, Thebes, and quarrel with Sparta, was the real cause of the war. The Amphictyonic council Thessaly, AGAINST Sparta. at Delphi (see Dict.) had condemned the Phocians to pay a fine for having occuObject of the war. To break down the tyranny of Sparta. pied the lands of Apollo. They refused to pay it, and, in conjunction with the Result of the war. Great ascendency of Sparta by land. They become the Spartans, who also had been fined for the seizure of the Cadmea in 382, took rulers of Greece. possession of the temple of Delphi, and used its treasures to equip an army. Commanders. Spartan: Lysander, Agesilaus, Antalcidas. Athenian: Conon, Duration. Nearly 10 years, (3655-346 B. c.) Chabrias, lphicrates. Theatre of the war. Central Greece, and Thessaly. Battles. Gained by the Confederates: Haliartus, (395,) Cnidus, (394.) Gained Parties. Phocians, Spartans, and the tyrants of Pherae, (in E. Thessaly.) by the Spartans: Coronea, (394,) Lech/eum, (393.) Thebans, Locrians, and almost all the nations of northern Greece. Peace. The inglorious peace of Antalcidas, 887. The Greek cities in Asia Object of the war. Thebes hoped to recover its supremacy, which it had Minor and the island of Cyprus were abandoned to the Persians. This peace was gradually lost since the death of Epaminondas. an incident of mournful import in Greek history. It inaugurated the power of Result of the war. Rise of the Macedonian supremacy. Persian gold on the internal affairs of Greece. Commanders. The three brothers, Philomelus, Onomarchus, and Phayllus, who were finally conquered by PHILIP OF MACEDON. Peace. The Phocian cities were deprived of their walls, the inhabitants disTHE WAR BETWEEN THEBES AND SPARTA, persed, restitution of the Delphic treasure enforced, and the two votes of the Cau The eiure 382) of the ade of Thebes by Phoebidas, a Spartan Phocians in the Amphictyonic council given to PHILIP OF MACEDON. Cause. The seizure (382) of the Cadmea of Thebes by Remark. The treasures of Delphi, circulating in Greece, were as injurious out the Spartan garrison. general. It is recovered by Pelopidas and the Theban exiles, (379,) who drive to the country as the ravages which it underwent. A War springing out of priDuratit the Spartan garrison. vate passions, fostered by bribes and subsidiary troops, and terminated by the Theatre of war. Byoetia, Peloponnesus, and Thessaly. interference of foreign powers, was exactly what was requisite for annihilating Parties. Thebes, with Athens and the maritime states. Sparta, with the the scanty remains of morality and patriotism still existing in Greece. inland states. & Object of the war. The breaking of the power of Sparta. 11. The Locrian War, or second Sacred War. Result of the war. General exhaustion. This war prepared the way for Cause. PHILIP OF MACEDON causes the Amphictyons to impose a fine on the the Macedonian usurpation. Locrians of Amphissa, and to intrust the levying of it to him. Thebes and Commanders. Theban: EPAMINONDAS and Pelopidas. Spartan: Agesi- Athens stir up Greece against him. laus and Cleombrotus. Duration. Two years, (339, 338.) Battles. Gained by the Thebans: LEUCTRA, (371,) Mantinea, (362.) Theatre of war. Boeotia. Peace. In consequence of the general exhaustion, a universal pacification Object of the war. To free Greece from Mlacedonian influence. was made in 361. Result of the war. The independence of Greece for ever extinguished. Remark. With Epaminondas (who had fallen at Mantinea) the influence Battle. CHAERONEA, in Beotia, in 338. The Athenians and their allies of Boeotia was extinguished. Agesilaus, the last hero of Sparta, died soon after fought in a manner worthy of the last contest in defence of ancient liberty. him. The maritime power of Athens (after a short revival about 304) had sunk They were defeated. again into insignificance, and the best Greek armies had suffered in the last Remark. Philip was now absolute master of Greece. He was, however, very battles an irrecoverable loss. There remained not in any of the states a citi- anxious, by some great exploit in harmony with the national feeling, to keep his zen capable of uniting the divided republics by the pre-eminence of his moral army employed, and prevent the Greeks from reflecting on their calamity. He powers. resolved therefore to avenge the gods, formerly insulted by Xerxes, and to inflict punishments on the successors to his throne for the contumelies he had offered l ower.,_...,"I_"..... ANCIENT HISTORY. 177 to the Greeks. In the midst of these preparations, the king was assassinated perance, having scarcely completed his 32d year. His children being yet infants, by a young man in revenge for an injury inflicted on him, (336.) his chief generals provided each for himself, and only thought of conciliating the greedy soldiery. His family fell a sacrifice to the ambition of his generals, ALEXANDER TIHE GREAT, who for themselves obtained no other boon than a life of perpetual alarms and a violent death I. Alexander's Great War against Persia..rI. Immediate Results of Alex~nder-Is Death. ALEXANDER THE GREAT ascended the throne of Macedonia in 336. He For a few brief years a Greek ruler had held in his hand the whole intellecwas only 20 years old when, by the destruction of Thebes, which had rebelled, tual vigor of the Hellenic race, combined with the whole material resources of he deprived the Greeks of the hope of re-establishing their independence, (335.,) the East. After his death, the work to which his life had been devoted-the He then marched from Pella and overran Asia as far as the Ganges, (334-326.) establishment of Hellenism in the East- was by no means destroyed; but his Chronological Table of Alexander's Campaiyas in Western Asia. empire had barely been united when it was again dismembered, and amidst the constant quarrels of the different states that were formed out of its ruins, the 834. Alexander crosses the Hellespont and conquers the Persians at the GRA- diffusion of Greek culture in the East was prosecuted on a reduced scale. NICUS. 8833. He subdues the western and southern provinces of Asia Minor, and con- V. The States sprung fromn Alexander's Empire. quers for the second time the Persians at ISSUS. In the course of time Alexander's empire was changed into a system of Hel332. He conquers Syria, Phoenicia, and Cyprus, takes Tyre, and makes him- leno-Asiatic states. self master of Egypt, where he founds ALEXANDRIA. Under the protection of the Sarissse, Greek civilization peacefully domiciled 331. He returns to Asia, crosses the Euphrates, and defeats the Persians for itself everywhere throughout the ancient Persia. The officers who had divided the third time at ARBELA. - Murder of Darius Codomannus. last king of the the heritage of their great commander, gradually settled their differences, and Persians, by one of his own officers, (Bessus.) Asia was indifferent concerning a system of states was established, consisting of: the name of her master, and, after the third battle and the death of the king, A. 3 EMPIREs. 1. Macedonia. 2. Asia. 3. Egypt. Persia fell prostrate before the conqueror. 13. 8 STATES OF THE SECON1) RANI, the principal among which were., 1. AtroII. Inditcan C ~amnkpaixgrn. patene. 2. Galatia. 3. Pergamus. C. 3 CONFEDERACIES. 1. The ltolians. 2. The Acheans. 3. The Mercantile The north-eastern limits of the Persian Empire havinghbeen reached, Alexander i/le conceived the design of making himself king of all Asia, the extreme boundariesE THREE EMPIRES of which were, as he supposed, at no great distance. With this view he undertook an expedition against the Indians: crossing the Indian frontier in the 1. Macedonia. spring of 327, he fought his way to the Hyphasis, one of the rivers of the Punjhb. ACEDONIA, (capital, Pella,) was a military state, compact in form and with The increasing discontent of his soldiers forced him here to change from an its finances in good order. Greece was in general dependent on it, and its towns eastern to a southern advance. Sailing down the Hydaspes and Indus. he arrived received Macedos ian garrisons; especially the three important fortresses of at the Indian ocean..From here the fleet, under Nearch us, sailed t hroufgh the Demetrias in Magnesia, Chalcis in Euboea, and Corinth on the isthmus, " the three Persian gulf to the mouth of the Euphrates and Tigris, while Alexander himself But the strength of the state lay above all in its original fetters of the Hellenes." But the strength of the state lay, above all, in its original accompanied the bulk of the army through the Iranian deserts to Babylon, which domain, the province of edonia. Here still existed he.ade the capital of hisempire.,domain, the province of MIacedonia. Here still existed a goodly proportion of he made tne capit~al of 11X empire. the old national vigor which once had produced the wairriors of Marathon. THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER reached now from the Adriatic sea to the Indus, and from the steppes of central Asia to the Indian ocean. 2. Asia, or the Empire of the SeleucidcI. | 11I. LCharactesr of Alexanlder's Adcnministration.I ASIA, (capital, Seleucia,) was nothing but Persia superficially remodelled and Hellenized; a rather loose aggregate of states in various degrees of dependence, He protected the conquered from oppression, showed proper respect to their of insubordinate satrapies, and of half-free Greek cities. religion, and left the civil government in the hands of the native rulers who had hitherto possessed it. 3. Egypt, or the Empire of the Ptolenies. The fundamental principle was to alter as little as possible in the internal EoYPT, (capital, Alexandria,) formed a consolidated and united state, in organization of the countries. which the intelligent state-craft of the first Ptolemies, skilfully availing itself of In the midst of his labors he perished, (323,) either by poison or by intem- ancient national and religious precedent, had established an absolute government. 23....I I Illlll.I ll IIl I III'l................................................... 178 APPENDIX. The rural population in Egypt was wholly passive; the capital was everything, C. THE THREE CONFEDERACIES. and that capital was a dependency of the court. It was one of the peculiar advantages of Egypt, that its policy did not grasp at shadows, but pursued definite and attainable objects. The energy of the northern Greek character was still unbroken in.Etolia, The Ptolemie'never tried to found an universal empire, and never dreamt of although it had degenerated into a reckless impatience of discipline and control. conquering India; but by way of compensation, they drew the whole traffic They might have been of great service to the G(reek nation, had they been able to between India and the Mediterranean from the Phoenician ports to ALEXAN- give up their thorough hostility to Macedonia and to the Achuean confederacy. DRIA, and made Egypt the first commercial and maritime state of the world, and the mistress of the eastern Mediterranean and of its coasts and islands. 2. The Achaean Confederacy. B. THE THREE PRINCIPAL STATES OF THE SECOND RANK. In the Peloponnesus, the Achaan league had united the best elements of Greece proper in a confederacy based on civilization, national spirit, and peaceful pre1. Atropatene. paration for self-defence. But the unfortunate variances with Sparta and the A series of small independent states, stretching from the southern end of the lamentable invocation of Macedonian interference in the Peloponnesus made it Caspian sea to the Hellespont, filled the whole of northern Asia Minor. so completely dependent on Macedonia, that the chief fortresses of the country All these states were fragments of the great Persian Empire, and were ruled soon received Macedonian garrisons, and the confederacy annually took the oath by Oriental, mostly old Persian, dynasties. The most characteristic among these of fidelity to the Macedonian king. was the remote mountain land of Atropatene, (to the southwest of the Caspian sea,) the true asylum of ancient Persian manners, over which even the expedi- 3. The Mercantile Cities. tion of Alexander had swept without leaving a trace. The most independent position among the intermediate states was held by the 2. Galatia. 1"league of the Greek cities." They were spread from the Propontis to Rhodes, mostly on the eastern side of the Archipelago. Three of them, in particular, had In the interior of Asia Minor was the Celtic state of Galatia. There, three after Alexander's death regained their full freedom, and by the activity of their Celtic tribes had settled, without abandoning either their native language and maritime commerce had attained to respectable political power, and even to conmanners, or their constitution and their trade as freebooters. These rude but siderable territorial possessions; namely, BYZANTIVM, CYZICUS, and RHODES. vigorous barbarians were the terror of the effeminate surrounding nations, and a. BYZANTIUM, the mistress of the Bosphorus, rendered wealthy and powerful even of the rulers of Asia themselves, who agreed at last t.o pay them tribute. by the transit dues which she levied, and by the important corn-trade carried on with the Black sea. b. CYzIcvs, on the Asiatic side of the Propontis, was the great outlet for the In consequence of bold and successful measures of opposition to these Gallic products of the interior of the Asiatic peninsula. hordes, Attalus, a wealthy citizen of Pergamus, received the royal title from his c. THE RHODIANS had, by their favorable position for commerce and naviganative city, and bequeathed it to his posterity. This new court was, in miniature, tion, secured the carrying trade of all the Eastern Mediterranean; and their wellwhat that of Alexandria was on a grand scale- A well-filled treasury contributed handled fleet enabled them to become the champions of a neutral commercial greatly to the importance of these rulers of Pergamus. Attalus, the founder of policy. The Rhodians emphatically supported the Greek maritime cities in their the dynasty, was the Lorenzo de' Medici of antiquity, and remained throughout struggles with their sovereigns, and so became the acknowledged head of the life a wealthy citizen. The family life of the Attalid house contrasted favorably league of the mercantile towns in the Eastern Archipelago. with the disorders and scandals of nobler dynasties. ROMAN HISTORY. A. DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION. the public records were destroyed by the Gauls, and that the oldest annals oqf the com-. ega monwealth were compiled more than a century and a half after the destruction of the records, (that is, more than 5 centuries after the foundation of Rome in 750.) a. Character of the history of Regal Rome. What is called the history of the kings and early consuls of Rome is to a great extent fabulous. It is certain that more than 360 years after the foundation of Rome, The community of the Roman people arose out of the junction of ancient clan-. l I I I I l lllll....... kIlIIIIIIllIIIIIIIII ROMAN HISTORY. 179 ships. Whoever belonged to one of these clans was a citizen of Rome. These state. Death alone terminated his power. If he had not himself nominated a citizens appointed from their own rank a leader, (rex,) who was the master in the successor, the citizens assembled, unsummoned, and designated a temporary household of the Roman community. This regal office was constituted by elec- king, (interrex,) who could only remain in office five days. This interrex could tion; but the citizens did not owe fidelity and obedience to the king until he had not himself nominate the new king; but he nominated a second interrex for other convoked the assembly of freemen capable of bearing arms and formally chal- five days, who then designated the new king. lenged their allegiance. Then he acquired in its entireness that power over the Thus "the august blessing of the gods, with which renowned Rome was community which a father had over his children; and, like him, he ruled for life. founded," was transmitted from its first regal recipient in regular succession to As the house-master was not simply the greatest, but the only power in the his six followers in office. house, so the king was not merely the first, but the only holder of power in the c. The seven Kings of Rome. Name. Date. Length of Reign. Character, Buildings erected by them. Relation to Predecessor. ROMULUS................................... 753-716 37 the founder. the first wall. NUMA POMPILIUS........................... 715-672 39 the religious lawgiver. TULLUS HOSTILIUS............................ 672-640 32 the conqueror. the senate house. ANcvs MARcIus........................... 640-616 24 the second religious lawgiver. the oldest bridge and the prison. grandson of Numa. the great cloaca. TARQUINIUS PRISCUS.................,..... 616-578 38 the builder. the circus. the temple of Jupiter. SERVIUS TULLITS.............................. 578-534 44 the civil lawgiver. the ringwtall. TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS...................... 534-510 25 the tyrant. son of Tarquinius Priscus. d. The reformed Constitution of Servius Tullius. Thus there grew up by the side of the citizens a second community in Rome: Origin of the Plebeians. At all times there existed side by side with the THE PLEBEIANS. citizens in the Roman community, their bondmen, who were called, either, Plebeians admitted to military service. The first step toward the amal1. Listeners, (clients,) from their being dependants on the several households. gamation of these two parts of the Roman people was made by the constitution 2. Or, the multitude, (plebs,) as they were termed negatively with reference to which bears the name of Servius Tullius. By this Servian constitution, the duty their want of political rights. of military service, instead of being imposed on the citizens as such, was laid The elements of this intermediate stage between the freeman and the slave upon the possessors of land, whether they were citizens or plebeians. Service in were in existence in the Roman household from the earliest times. The Roman the army was changed from a personal burden into a burden on property. The arrangecitizens were the protectors; the plebeians were the protected. The number of ment was as follows: these protected was continually augmented by two causes: Formation of the Army. Infantry. Every freeholder, from his 17th to his 1. By the Latins, who, by the provisions of the Latin league, had the right of 60th year, was under obligation of military service. They were divided, accordsettling at Rome. ing to the size of their farms, into five summonings, (classes.) The owners of a 2. By the conquest of the neighboring towns, the greater part of whose popu- normal farm formed the first class. A normal farm contained as much land as lation was transferred to Rome. could be properly tilled with one plough. The proprietors of such a farm were The burdens of the war fell exclusively on the old citizens, while the plebs obliged to appear at the gathering of the militia in complete armor. The four shared in the results of victory without having to pay for it with their blood. following ranks, of smaller landholders, (the possessors of i, i, i, or j of a normal The result of this was that the number of the plebeians was constantly on the farm,) were required to fulfil service, but not to equip themselves in complete increase, and liable to no special diminution, while that of the citizens (who were armor. Almost the half of the properties were normal farms. exposed to all the dangers of war) was, at the utmost perhaps, not decreasing. The proprietors of either 3, i, or 4 of a farm amounted to scarcely one-eighth 180 APPENDIX. of the freeholders. Those, however, who owned A of a farm amounted to fully action. The two first consuls were Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius one-eighth of the whole number. The sixth rank contained those who owned no Collatinus. The year was henceforth (until 541 A. D.) named after them. property whatever, the proletarii. They had to supply workmen and musicians for the army as well as a number of substitutes, who marched with the army c. The Dictator. unarmed, and when vacancies occurred took their places in the ranks, equipped This doubling of the plenary power of the magistrate in reality applied only with the armor of the sick or of the fallen. to the ordinary presidency of the community. Ill extraordinary cases the consuls Cavalry. They chose for the cavalry the most opulent and considerable pro- were superseded by a "master of the people," (magister populi,) or commander, priet rs among the citizens and the plebeians. A certain amount of landed pro- (dictator.) In the election of a dictator the community bore no part at all, his pertr seems to have been regarded as involving an obligation to serve in the nomination proceeded solely from one of the consuls. There lay no appeal from cavalry. This consisted of 1,800 horse, or 18 centurise, (100 men forming a his sentences unless he chose to allow it. As soon as he was nominated, all the centuria.) other magistrates became legally powerless and entirely subject to his authority. e. Division of the Roman people according to the constitution of Servius Tullius. To him as to the king was assigned a "master of the horse," (magister equitum.) The intention was that the dictator's authority should be distinguished from that.A. Cavalry divided into 18a centuriu. r of the king only by its limitation in point of time, the maximum duration of his 2d class I" 20 " r 1st class containing 80 centurites office being six months. The first dictator, Titus Larcius, was appointed in 501 B. Infantry, divided into 168 centuries, sub- 2d class i' 20 B. C., when Rome was threatened with a Latin war. 3d class " 20 " divided into 4divided into th class " 20 " d. The assembly of the militia, comitia centuriata. 5th class " 28 " By this revolution, all the political prerogatives were transferred to the assembly of A. Campfollowers, divided, into 7 cent. uri. the militia, (the comitia centuriata,) so that the plebeians now received the rights As the population increased, the number of the centureas was not augmented, as they had previously borne the burdens of citizens. The small beginnings of the but the number of persons in each centuria- was increased. Each centuria had constitution of Servius Tullius attained such a development that the comitia centuone voice in the assembled levy of the militia, which was called the comitia cen- riata came to be regarded as the assembly of the sovereign people. With it rested: turiata, (the meeting of the companies.) One right was granted to this assembly: I. The decision on appeals in criminal causes. that of assenting to the declaration of an aggressive war. II. The nomination of magistrates. II. The Political Revotlution of 510 B. C. III. The adoption or rejection of laws. a. The Expulsion of the Kings. | The Roman const~itution placed in the hands of the king a formidable poswer, The object of the division of the Roman people into 193 centuries, or companies, which was felt perhaps by the enemies of the land, but was not less heavily felt had been the amalgamation of the patricians and plebeians: this object had been by its citizens. Abuse and oppression could not fail to ensue from it, and, as a obtained; but one of the consequences of this amalgamation was that the patrinecessary consequence, efforts were made to accomplish its limitation. The cians (old citizens) converted themselves into a gentile nobility, which bore from earliest achievement of this, the most ancient opposition in Rome, consisted in the first the stamp of an exclusive and wrongly privileged aristocracy. the abolition of the life tenure of the presidency of the community; in other The plebeians (new citizens) remained excluded from all public magistracies words, in the abolition of the monarchy. | and public priesthoods, and could not legally intermarry with the patricians, although they were admitted to the position of officers and senators. After the b. The two Consuls. expulsion of the kings, the vacancies in the senate were so extensively filled up with plebeians, that out of 300 senators more than half (164) were plebeians. In the room of one president holding office for life, two annual rulers now were with plebeians, that out of 800 senators more than half (164) were plebei placed at th head of the Roman. The. one lie-in was r. by Henceforth the internal history of Rome is nothing but the struggle of the plebeplaced at the head of the Roman community. The one life-king was replaced by ians to gain perfect equality in every respect with the patricians. two year-kings, who called themselves generals, (prestores,) or judges, (judices,) or merely colleagues, (consules.) The supreme power was not intrusted to the III. The Social Revolution of 495 and 494 B. C. two magistrates conjointly, but each consul possessed and exercised it for himself, as fully as it had been possessed and exercised by the king. The royal office was not broken up into parts, neither transferred from an individual to a committee, Cause. The aristocracy, which ruled Rome since 510, had struck a threefold but simplry doubled, and by that course, if necessary, neutralized through its own blow at the smaller landholders: ROMAN HISTORY. 181 I. They were deprived of the use of the common pasture. c. The struggle between Patricians and Plebeians. II. The taxes were increased. III. The distributions of land were entirely stopped. | The institution of the tribunes was in reality the organization of the civil war. To all this was added the farming on a large scale by means of slaves. This Parties. A. The original settlers, old citizens, the patricians, the rich; whose crushed the small farmers entirely. They sank more and more in debt, and object was the annihilation of the tribunate. became from actual freeholders mere nominal proprietors with actualpossession. B. The later settlers, new citizens, the plebeians, the poor; whose avowed...... from actual freeholders me~e nominal proprietors wit.ctual.....'Iion. object was the restriction of the consular and extension of the tribunician In this position the small farmer knew nothing of property but its burdens: t was the restriction of the consular an extension of the tribunician this threatened to demoralize and politically to annihilate the whole farmer class. power. ImmediateCause.Wheni49atelywas called forth for a dangerous Among many attempts to annihilate the tribunate, that of 491 was especially Immediate Cause. When in 495 the levy was called forth for dangers remarkable. Gais Marcius was a brave aristocrat, who derived his surname imprisoned for debt were liberated. This was conceded The farmers took theirp impricsonedfr dhe ws ali. ceded. The farmers took their vtribunes for proposing, during a season of scarcity, that corn should be displaeso ind theiranksand Thelp endured atosuret. ho vhicedt out ry.e aThe peace,which had een achieved by their exertions brought back their tributed among the people on condition of their renouncing the tribunate, he prso and theirchains. Theyendured bwhat could not be changed. But whenI fled from the city. He returned, however, at the head of a Volscian army. prion and their chins. They endured aohen he was w on the torpoint of conquering the city of his ancestors for the public in the following year the wr was renewed, the consul's word availed no longer. foe, the earnest appeal of his mother touched his conscience..He expiated his It was not till Manius Valerius was nominated dictator, that the farmers, from foe, the earnest appeal of his mother touched his conscience. He expiated his their confidence in him, were induced to march against the enemy. The victory first treason second and bo death was again with the Romans; but when, after the campaign, the dictator would d. The first Agrarian Law of Spurius Cassius, in 486. carry out his promises, (to alleviate the debtor's burdens,) he was prevented by the senate. The army still stood in its array before the gates of the city. When SpuTrius Cassius, a noble-minded patrician, tried to make an end to the civil disthe conduct of the senate became known, it abandoned its general and its encamp- sensions by striking at the root of the evil. He attempted to break down the meat, and marched into the district of Crustumeria, between the Tiber and the financial omnipotence of the rich. He proposed to have the public domain Anio. measured, and to leave part of it for the benefit of the public treasury, while The Secession. The plebeians occupied a hill, and threatened to establish the rest was to be distributed among the poor. in this, the most fertile part of the Roman territory, a new plebeian city. The The nobles rose as one man; the rich plebeians took part with them; even the senate gave way; the dictator negotiated an agreement; the citizens returned commons; the poor, were dissatisfied because he wanted to give to the Latin conwithin the city walls, unity was outwardly restored, and the mount beyond the federates their share in the distribution of the land. Cassius had to die. There Anio was henceforth called the Sacred Mount. was some truth in the charge that he had usurped regal power, for he had Results. The consequences of this secession were felt for many centuries: endeavored to exercise the chief kingly duty, to protect the poor against the rich. it was the origin of the tribunate of the plebs. By the side of the two patri- The law of Cassius was buried along with him, but its spectre thenceforward cian consuls were placed two plebeian tribunes. incessantly haunted the eyes of the rich, and again and again it rose from the tomb against them, till the conflicts to which it led destroyed the commonwealth. b. The Tribunes of the Multitude, (Tribuni Plebis.) The Legal eolution X]IF. The Legal Ievolution. They originated from the military tribunes, (commanders of a division,) and a. The Law of the X. Tales. derived from them their name; but constitutionally they had no further relation a. e Law of the ables. to them. The want of any written code of laws for the plebeians induced the tribune In respect to power the tribunes of the multitude stood upon a level with the Caius Terentilius Arsa to propose a commission to prepare a code of public laws. consuls, but the consuls were necessarily patricians, and the tribunes necessarily Ten years elapsed ere this proposal was carried into effect. At length, in the plebeians. year 453, the preparation of a legal code was resolved upon, and an embassy was The consuls had the ampler, the tribunes the more unlimited power, for the despatched to Greece to bring home the laws of Solon. On its return, (451,) there consul submitted to the prohibition and the judgment of the tribune, but the were elected from the nobility ten men (decemvirs) for drawing up a code of tribune did not submit himself to the consul. The power of the. consuls was law. These decemvirs, after having been bound not to infringe the sworn liberessentially positive, that of the tribunes essentially negative. Thus, in this ties of the commons, were clothed for one year with irresponsible authority. remarkable institution, absolute prohibition was in the most stern and abrupt They made a series of legal provisions, divided into 10 sections, which, after fashion opposed to absolute command. they had received the assent. of the nation, were engraved on 10 tables of brass, The number of the tribunes was originally 2, then 5, and afterward 10. and affixed in the forum to the rostra in front of the senate-house. But as a 182 APPENDIX. supplement appeared necessary, decemvirs were again nominated, in 450, who 2. That concessions to the plebs were inevitable in the issue; and, added two more tables. 3. That, if turned to due account, they would result in the abrogation of the Thus originated the first and only legal code of Rome, the law of the twelve exclusive rights of the patriciate. tables. The plebeian aristocracy knew also what would be the inevitable result of all b. Political significance of the Law of the XII. Tables. this - their decisive preponderance in the state. They seized, therefore, this powerful lever, (the power of the tribunes,) and The real political significance of the measure resided less in the contents of began to employ it for the removal of the political disabilities of their order. its legislation than in the formal obligation now laid upon the consuls to adminis- The two fundamental principles of the patricians were: ter justice according to its' forms of procedure and its rules of law, and in the 1. The invalidity of marriage between patricians and plebeians. public exhibition of the code of laws, by which the administration of justice was 2. The incapacity of plebeians to hold public offices. subjected to the control of publicity, and the consul was compelled to dispense Both were annulled about 444 B. c.: the admittance of the plebeians to the equal and common justice to all. public offices continued to be refused in name, but was conceded to them in reality, although in a singular form. c. Prolongation of the rule of the Decemvir. reality, although in a singular form. During the rule of the decemvirs, neither consuls nor tribunes were elected. b The Military Tribunes with consular power. The patricians, apprehensive that when consuls were elected, the power of the Every year (from 444-367 B. c.) a law had to be passed declaring whether consuls tribunes should be also revived, prolonged the power of the decemvirs in order should be elected for the succeeding year or not. If no consuls were to be elected to wait for a favorable moment to revive the consulate without reviving the their place was filled by military tribunes with consular powers, and consular duration tribunes. of office. But every one serving in the militia might attain the place of an officer: d. Fall of the Decemvirs. by granting the consular powers to the chief officers of the army, who might be A former tribune, Lucius Siccius Dentatus, a veteran of 120 battles, was found plebeians, the supreme magistracy was opened up alike to patricians and pledead in front of the camp, murdered, as was whispered, at the instigation of the beians. But now the exclusive possession of the supreme magistracy could no decemvirs. A revolution was fermenting in men's minds; and its outbreak was longer be defended, it seemed advisable to divest it. of its financial importance, hastened by the unjust sentence pronounced by Appius in a trial about the free- and by means of patrician censors (appraisers) and quvestors, (paymasters,) to dom of the daughter of Virginius -a sentence which induced the father himself keep at least the budget and the state chest under the exclusive control of the to plunge his knife into the heart of his daughter, in the open forum, to rescue patriciate. They succeeded with the censorship, but the qu.estorship was soon her from certain shame. On receiving intelligence of this event, all the plebeians thrown open to the plebeians, (421 B. c.) abandoned their camps and leaders, (this happened in the midst of a war with c. The Censorship, 435 B. C. the Sabines,) and proceeded once more to the Sacred Mount, where they again nominated their own tribunes. Still the decemvirs refused to resign their power, The adjustment of the budget and of the taxation rolls, which ordinarily took and the army appeared with its tribunes in the city, and encamped on the Aven- place every fourth year, and had hitherto been managed by the consuls, was in tine. Then, at length, when civil war was imminent, the decemvirs renounced 435 intrusted to two appraisers, (censors,) nominated from among the patricians, their dishonored power. The decemvirs were impeached, the consulate was for a period of 18 months. This new office gradually became the palladium of revived, and with it the power of the tribunes. No attempt to abolish this the patricians, on account of the right belonging to it of filling up vacancies in the magistracy was ever from this time forward made in Rome, (450.) senate and in the companies of the horse, (the knights.) V. The Elqualization of the Patricians and Plebeians. d. The Licinian Rogations - Plebeian Consuls. a. The Plebeian Aristocracy and the Tribunate. During these political struggles, social questions had lain altogether dormant; although the public domain was ever extending in consequence of the successful The institution of the tribunes originated in social rather than political dis- wars, and although pauperism was ever spreading more widely among the content, and the wealthy plebeians admitted to the senate were no less opposed farmers. to it than the patricians themselves; for they shared in the privileges against At lengtk an honest attempt was made to relieve the poor, by the tribunes which the movement was mainly directed. But this league of the rich (patri- C. Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius. cians and wealthy plebeians) by no means bore within it any security for its They submitted the following proposals (known as the Licinian rogations): permanence. Three things had now (449) become perfectly clear to them: 1. To abolish the military tribunes with consular power, and to lay it down as 1. That the tribunate of the plebs could never be set aside. a rule that at least one of the consuls should be a plebeian. ROMAN HISTORY. 183 2. To open up to the plebeians admission to one of the three great colleges of B. DEVELOPMENT OF TI[E ROMAN TERRITORY. priests. 3. To allow no citizens to maintain upon the public pastures more than a hun- I. Consolidation of Latiumn. dred oxen and five hundred sheep, or to occupy more than 300 acres of the pub- a. The league of the three nations: Romans, Latins, and Hernici. lic lands by squatter-right., 4. To oblige land-owners to employ in the labors of the field a number of free The great achievement of the regal period was the establisnment of the soverlaborers proportioned to that of their rural slaves. eignty of Rome over Latium. 5. To procure alleviation for debtors by deduction of the interest which had The danger from Etruria, which had reached its highest development about 500 been paid, from the capital. l B. c., induced the Latin nation to adhere to the continued recognition of the Abolition of privileges. social reform, civic equality-these were the three Roman supremacy, after the expulsion of the kings. The permanently united Abolition of privileges, social reform, civic equality —these were, the three nation was enabled, not only to maintain, but also to extend on all sides its power. great ideas of which it was the design of this movement to secure the recognition. The conquests en a bled, not only to m aintain period were at the expense of Rome's After a struggle of eleven years they became finally law, (867.) | The conquests of the earlier republican period were at the expense of Rome's After a struggle of eleven years they became finally law, (367'i.) eastern and southern neighbors. Three nations were conquered during that time: With the election of the first plebeian consul, (366,) the patriciate ceased, both The abines, dwelling between the Tiber and the onquered during that tio. in fact and in law, to be numbered among the political institutions of Rome. I. The Saui, dwelling next to the bines, on the Upper Anio. II. The Equi, dwelling next to the Sabines, on the Upper Anio. e. The Prsatorship. III. The Volscians, dwelling on the Tyrrhene sea. The Sabines were soon conquered, but the struggle with the lEqui and Volsci Under the pretext that the patricians were exclusively cognizant of law, the lasted more than a century. administration of justice was detached from the consulate when the latter had to be thrown open to the plebeians, and for that purpose there was nominated a third b. Spurius Cassius the father of the league. consul, or, as he was commonly called, a praetor. In like manner, the judicial police duties were assigned to two patrician oediles, (ediles curules.) renewal, consolidation, and extension of the ancient league between Rome and Latium. He is known as the author of three works to which Rome owed all her f. Final equalization between the two orders. future greatness: The plebeians were admitted to the dictatorship in 356 B. c., to the censorship 1. lIe renewed the league with the Latins in 493. in 351 B. ac., and to the proetorship in 337 B. a. 2. He concluded the league with the Hernici in 486. The struggle between the patricians and plebeians was thus substantially at 3. He procured, at the price of his own life, the enactment of the first agrarian an end. The patriciate, however, by no means disappeared because it had become law. (See page 181, col. 2, d.) an empty name. The less its significance and power the more purely and exclu- By his two treaties he had, so far as was possible, repaired the losses occasioned sively the patrician spirit developed itself. to the Roman power by the expulsion of Tarquinius, and had reorganized that confederacy to which, under her last kings, Rome had been indebted for her g. The Senate. greatness. The wound was healed at the very critical moment, before the storm We have seen how, during these struggles between patricians and plebeians, the of the great Volscian invasions burst upon Latium, and, thanks to the league, authority of the supreme magistrate had been continually divided, and thereby the Volscians were not only driven back, but even conquered, (383.) weakened, so that the consuls were nothing but the presidents and executives of the senate, which, from a body solely meant to tender advice, had become the c. Attempts to dissolve the league. central government of the state. But the more decided the successes that the league of the Romans, Latins, and Every matter of permanent and general importance, and particularly the whole Hernici achieved against the Volsci and other surrounding nations, the more that system of finance, depended absolutely on it. Called to power through the free league became liable to disunion. The main cause of this was the very subjugachoice of the nation; confirmed every five years by the stern moral judgment tion of the common foe: forbearance ceased on one side, devotedness ceased on of the worthiest men; holding office for life; embracing in its body all that the the other, from the time that they thought that they had no longer need of each people possessed of political intelligence and practical statesmanship- the Roman other. The open breach between the Latins and Hernici on the one hand, and senate was the noblest embodiment of the nation; and in consistency and political the Romans on the other, was especially occasioned by the capture of Rome by sagacity, in unanimity and patriotism, the foremost political corporation of all the Celts in 390, and the momentary weakness which supervened. The struggle times —an assembly of kings, which well knew how to combine despotic energy was long and severe, but terminated, however, with the renewal of the treaties with republican self-devotedness. Never was a state represented in its external between Rome and the Latin and Hernician confederacies, in 358 B. C. They subrelations more firmly and worthily than Rome in its best times by its senate. mitted once more, and probably on harder terms, to the Roman supremacy. I.,,. ^ |,,,..,,...,,..,,,. 11 i I..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ml I 184 APPENDIX. IL. The Wars between Rome and Veii. finally had entered the Italian peninsula. It was the Celtic nation, and their first a. ETlhe war of 483 till 474. [pressure fell on the Etruscans, from whom they wrested place after place, till, after the fall of Melpum, (396 B. c.,) the whole left bank of the Po was in their Twelve miles to the north of Rome was situated the wealthy and powerful city hands. of Veii, the old antagonist of Rome. A furious war raged between the two rivals For a moment, however, it seemed as if the two nations (Celts and Romans) from 483-474 B. c. The Romans suffered in its course severe defeats. Tradition by whom Etruria saw her very existence put in jeopardy, were about to destroy especially preserved the memory of the catastrophe of the Fabii, who had under- each other. This turn of things the Romans brought upon themselves by their taken the defence of the frontier against Etruria, and who were slain to the last own arrogance. man capable of bearing arms, at the rivulet of the Cremera, (.477.) But by the The Celtic swarms very rapidly overflowed northern Italy and besieged Cluarmistice for 400 months, which terminated the war, Rome recovered its ground, silm, and so humbled were the.Etruscans that they invoked help from their bitter and the two nations were restored in the main to the state in which they had stood enemies, the Romans. during the regal period. b. The war with Veii about Fidenw. b. The Cells and the Romans. When the armistice expired, in 445, the war began afresh, but it took the form The Romans declined to send assistance, but despatched envoys. These envoys of border frays, which led to no material result. At length the revolt of Fidenge, sought to impose upon the Celts by haughty language, and., when this failed, they (10 miles from Rome, on the left bank of the Tiber,) which expelled the Roman thought they might with impunity violate the law of nations in dealing with bargarrison, murdered the Roman envoys, and submitted to Lars Tolumnius, king of brians: in the rank of the Clusines they took part in a skirmish, and in the Veii, gave rise to a more considerable war, which ended favorably for the Romans. courSe of it one of them stabbed a Gallic officer. Redress being refused, the Fidenae was retaken, and a new armistice for 200 months was concluded in 425 B. a. Gauls broke up the siege of Clusium and turned against Rome. It was not. till the Gauls had crossed the Tiber and were at the rivulet of the Allia, less than 12 c. The fall of Veii. miles from the gates, that a Roman military force sought to hinder their passage, When this armistice expired, toward the end of 408, the Romans resolved to on July 18th, 390. The Romans were defeated. undertake a war of conquest in Etruria; and on this occasion the war was carried on not merely to vanquish Veil, but to crush it. c. The Catastrophe. The history of this war and of the siege of Veii rests on little reliable evidence. Not only was the overthrow complete, but the disorderly flight of the Romans Legend and poetry have taken possession of these events as their own, and with carried the greater portion of the defeated army to the right bank of the Tiber. reason; for the struggle in this case was waged with unprecedented exertions for The capital was thus left to the mercy of the invaders; the small force that was an unprecedented prize, left behind was not sufficient to garrison the walls, and three days after the battle It was the first occasion in which a Roman army remained in the field summer the victors marched through the open gates into Rome. They murdered all they and winter, year after year, till its object was attained. met with, and at length set the city on fire on all sides, before the eyes of the It was the first occasion on which the community paid the levy from the Roman garrison in the Capitol. The Celts remained for 7 months beneath the resources of the state. rock, an(i the garrison already found its provisions beginning to fail, when the It was the first occasion on which the Romans attempted to subdue a nation of Celts received information as to the Veneti having invaded their recently acquired alien stock, and carried their arms beyond the ancient boundaries of the Latin land. territory on the Po, and were thus induced to accept the ransom money that was Veii succumbed, in 396 B. C., to the persevering and heroic energy of Marcus offered to secure their retreat. When the Gauls had again withdrawn, the city Furies Camillus, who first opened up to his countrymen the brilliant but perilous arose out of its ruins, and Rome again stood in her old commanding position. career of foreign conquest. Veii was destroyed, and the soil was doomed to perpetual desolation. IF. VLe Consolidation of- Central Italy. The statement that the two bulwarks of the Etruscan nation, Melpum and Veii, a. Latins and Samnites. yielded on the same day, (the former to the Celts, the latter to the Romans,) may The Samnite nation had been for centuries in possession of the hill country be merely a melancholy legend, but it at any rate involves a deep historical truth. which rises between the Apulian and Campanian plains. The all of the Etruscn The double assault on the north and on the south, and the fall of the two fron-een the Apuhan and Campanian plains. The fall of the Etruscan power, and the decline of the Greek colonies (about 450 B. C.) made room for tier strongholds, were the beginning of the end of the great Etruscan nation. them toward the west and south; and now one Samnite horde after another marched I.I. T-he Burningq of Rone. down to the southern coasts of Italy. Campania was first occupied, Lucania soon a..The Celts and the Etr uscans.afterward. The Greeks of Lower Italy tried to resist the pressure of the barbaa. The (Celts and the Etrusscans. rians. But their union no longer availed. One Greek city after another was A new nation had been for some time knocking at the gates of the Alps, and occupied or annihilated by the Samnites. Tarentum alone remained thoroughly I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Ta.nu alne I~a'e hruhy ROMAN HISTORY. 185 independent and powerful. When we compare the achievements of the two great Duration. About two years, (343-341 B. c.) nations of Italy, the Latins and the Samnites, before 343 B. c., the career of Theatre of war. Campania. conquest on the part of the latter appears far wider and more splendid than that Parties. A. The Romano-Latin league with the people of Capua. B. The of the former. Samnites, with the Volscians and other tribes. But the character of their conquests was essentially different. From the fixed Commander. Marcus Valerius Corvus, the Roman commander. urban centre which Latium possessed in Rome, the dominion of the Latin stock Battles. Mount Gaurus and Suessula, both gained by the Romans. spread slowly on all sides, and lay within limits comparatively narrow. But it Result. Capua was left in the hands of the Romans, Teanum in the hands planted its foot firmly at every step, partly by the founding of fortresses, partly of the Samnites, and the upper Liris in those of the Volscians. by the Romanizing of the territory which it conquered. It was otherwise with Causes of peace. Two. 1. A mutiny among the Roman army stationed at Samnium. There was in its case no single leading community, and therefore no Capua. 2. The breaking out of the great Latin war. policy of conquest. Every Samnite horde which had sought and found new settlements, pursued a path of its'own. They filled a large space, while yet they Between the First and Second Samnite War. showed no disposition to make it thoroughly their own. Instead of Samnitizing the Hellens, they became Hellenized. They could not resist the dangerous charm II. The Great Latin War. of Hellenic culture, but adopted Greek manners, and also Greek vices. The old Cause. The refusal of the Romans to admit the Latins to the full rights of monatain home of the Samnites alone remained unaffected by these innovations, Roman citizens. which powerfully contributed to relax still more the bond of national unity, which Duration. Nearl three years, (340-338 B. c.) from the first was loose. Through the influence of Greek habits a deep schism Theatre of war. Campania and Latium. took place in the Samnite stock. The civilized Samnites of the plain were accus- Parties. A. omans, in alliance with the Sarnies. B Latins, in alliance tomed to tremble, like the Greeks themselves, before the ruder tribes of the Partes A ansn alliance with the Samnites. B. mountains, who were continually penetrating into Campania and disturbing the with the Campawar. To make an end to Rome' degenerate earlier settlers. Rome was a compact state, having the strength of Result of the war. The dissolution of the Latin league. It was transall Latium at its disposal; its subjects might murmur, but they obeyed. formed from an indeprndent poliation on into a mere association for The Sanite stock was dispersed and divided, and while the confederacy in formed from an independent political confederation into a mere association for Samnium proper had preserved unimpaired the manners and valor of their ances- treat comander. Titus Manlius TORqUATUS, the Roman general. tors, they were on that very account completely at variance with the other Sam- Battle. The decisive battle was fought in 340, near TRLFANUM, on the Liris. nite tribes. It was this variance between the Samnites of the plain and the Saunnites of Coplete victory of the Rorlans. the mountains that led the Romans over the Liris, and became the immediate Peace. Instead of the one treaty between Rome on the one hand, and the cause of the Samnite war. Lat.in confederacy on the other, perpetual alliances were entered into between Rome and the several confederate towns. b. The Wars between Rome and Samnium..11. Second, or Great Samnite War. Number of wars. Three wars, of which the second was the most remark- Cause. The Romans demanded satisfaction from Paleopolis and Neapolis, able. Between the first and second Samnite war, falls the Latin war. the present town of Naples, for depredations committed by them in Campania. Duration. More than half a century, 53 years, (43-290 B. c.) This was refused by the advice of the Samnites, who actually threw a strong Theatre of war. Central Italy. garrison into P alkeopolis, to defend it against the Romans. Hereupon the Romans Parties. A. The Latins, under the leadership of Rome. B. The Italian declared ar, nominally against the inhabitants of PaRwopolis, in reality against tribes of central Italy, especially the Samnites. the Samnites. Question at issue. Shall Italy become united and civilized, or is it doomed Duration. About 22years, (326-304. c.) to remain a loose collection of shepherd tribes? Theatre of war. Central Italy. Result. Centralization of central Italy under Roman supremacy. Parties. A. The Romans allied with the Latins, Campanians, and Apulians; the inhabitants of the Italian plains. B. The Samnites, allied with the mountain I. Birst Sannite War. tribes of central Italy, and the Etruscans, and even the Gauls; the inhabitants of Cause. The surrender of the city of Capua (on Samnian soil) by its own the Italian mountain districts. inhabitants to the Romans, that they might be protected by them against their Commanders. A. Roman: Marcus PAPIRIUS CURSOR, Quintus FABIUS own kinsmen. MAXIMus. B. Samnite: Caius'PoNTIUS TELESINUS. 24 186 APPENDIX. Battles. A. Gained by the Romans: VADIMONIAN LAKE, (310,) TIFERNUM, Result. Every resource of Samnium was exhausted. Rome is no longer (305.) B. Gained by the Samnites: CAUDINE PASS, (321.) merely the first, but already the ruling power in Italy. Result. The fall of the chief stronghold of Samnium, (Bovianum, in 305,) terminated the twenty-two years' war. The Samnites sued for peace. The vic- FL. The Roman Territory at the close of the Samnite PWars, in 290. tory of Rome was complete, and she turned it to full account. Consequences of the Roman victory. Their first endeavor was to com- The compact Roman domain at the close of the Samnite wars was bounded: plete the subjugation of central Italy by military roads and fortresses, and by that North: by the Ciminian forest. East: by the Abruzzi. South: by the river means to separate the northern and southern Italians into two masses, cut off, in Clanis. The two advanced posts of Luceria and Venusia isolated their opponents a military point of view, from direct, contact with each other. on every side. The region which separated Samnium fronm Etruria was penetrated by two military roads, both of which were secured by new fortresses. The northern V. Struggle between Pyrvhus and Rnome. road, which afterward became the Flaminian, covered the line of the Tiber. The southern, afterward the Valerian, ran along the Fiucine lake. The Appian road, Cause. Assault on a Roman squadron in the harbor of Tarentum, where secured Apulia and Campania. they had anchored against the stipulations of a treaty. An embassy, sent by the These roads served to connect together a series of road-fortresses, (Latin colo- Romnans to demand satisfaction, having been insulted by the Tareutines, war was nies.) By their means Samnium would be in a few years entirely surrounded, immediately proclaimed. isolated from the rest of Italy, and completely in the grasp of Rome. Duration. Five years, (280-275 B a.) Theatre of war.. Lucania and Apulia. IV. Condition of Italy between the Second and Third Satnite nWar. Parties. A. Rome. B. Tarentum, aided by King Pyrrhus and the south Italian IJ2~ Cond~itiost of Italyr betu~eelz the Seco~zd woz& TJ~iP~d SCC~~~I~ite T~ nations. The high-spirited Samnite nation perceived that such a peace was more ruin- Commanders. A. Roman: Fabricius and Manius Curius. B. Tarentine: ous than the most destructive war, and it acted accordingly. The Celts in north- Pyrrhus, Cineas, Milo. ern Italy were just beginning to bestir themselves again. Battles. A. Gained by RoME.: Beneventum, (275.) B. Gained by PYRRHUS: Several Etruscan communities were still in arms against the Romans. All Heraclea, (280,) Asculum, (279.) central Italy was still in ferment, and partly in open insurrection. The fort- Sicilian campaign. From 278-276, (during two and a half years,) Pyrrhus resses were still only in course of construction. was absent in Sicily, where, as son-in-law to the deceased Agathocles, he was The way between Etruria and Samnium was not yet completely closed, invited to take the command of a Siculo-Greek army. In this capacity he drove Perhaps it was not yet too late to save freedom. But if so, there must be no the Carthaginians to the extreme west of the island. Unable to take their last delay. stronghold, Lilybtaum, he lost the confidence of his allies, and returned to The difficulty of attack increased, the power of the assailant diminished with Italy, where his mercenaries were defeated by Manius Curius Dentatus, at Beneevery year by which the peace was prolonged. ventum. Five years had scarce elapsed since the contest ended, and all the wounds Results. 1st. Rome absolute mistress of Italy. 2d. The superiority of the must still have been bleeding which the twenty-two years' war had inflicted on Roman militia over the Greek phalanx completely proved. the rural communes of Samnium,when, in 298, the Samnite confederacy renewed the struggle. VI. United Italy, (B. c. 21O.) F. Third Samnite War. | In 270 the whole of Italy was united under the suprenmacy of Rome. With this union of the Italian nations was connected the rise of a new name common Cause. The Samnites invade Lucania, which was in alliance with Rome. to them all - Ist. That of-' the men of the toga," (togati,) which was their oldest They refuse to evacuate it. designation in Roman state law. 2d. Or that of the "Italians," which was the Duration. About nine years, (299-290 B. c.) appellation for them originally in use among the Greeks, and thence came to be Theatre of war. Lucania, central Italy, Etruria. universally current. Parties. A general league of the Italian nations against Rome. The various nations inhabiting the peninsula were first led to feel their unity Great commanders. Roman: Quintus FABIUS Maximus, Publius DECIUS through their common resistance to the Celts; and it is probable that the repelMus. Samnite: Caius PoNTIUS Telesinus. ling of the Celtic invasions played an important part as a reason for centralizing Battle. Great overthrow of the allied Samnites, Etruscans, Umbrians, and the military resources of Italy in the hand of the Romans. When the Romans Gauls, at Sentinum, in Umbria. Self-devotion of Decius Mus. took the lead in the great national struggle, and compelled the other Italian ROMAN HISTORY. 187 nations to fight under their standards, that unity obtained firm consolidation C. THE PUNIC WARS. and recognition in state-law wand the name Italia, which originally pertained only to the modern Calabria, was transferred to the whole land of these wearers I. Situation of Rome and Carthage, on the eve of the great of the toga. struggle. The earliest boundaries of this great armed confederacy led by Rome, or of the Carthage and Rome were, when the struggle between them began, on the whole new Italy, reached on the western coast as far as the district of Leghorn, south equally matched. of the Arnus; on the east, as far as the AEsis, north of Ancona. But while Carthage had put forth all the efforts of which intellect and wealth were capable to provide herself with artificial means of attack and defence, she Position of United taly about 270 B. C. was unable in any satisfactory way to supply the fundamental wants of a land army of her own. Tlhis Italy had become already a political unity; it was also in the course of That Rome could only be seriously attacked in Italy, and Carthage only in becoming a national unity. A lready the ruling Latin nationality had assimilated to itself the Sabines and Libya, no one could fail to see; as little could any one fail to perceive that CarVoAlready the ruling Latin nationality ad assimilated to itself the Sabines and thage could not in the long run escape from such an attack. Volscians, and scattered, isolated Latin communities (the Latin colonies or road- Fleets were not yet, in those times of the infancy of navigation, the heirloom fortresses) over all Italy; these germs were merely developed when, subse- of nations, but could be fitted out wherever there were trees, iron, and water. quently, the Latin language became the mother tongue of every one entitled to It was clear, and had been several times tested in Africa itself, that even powwear the toga. erful maritime states were not able to prevent a weaker enemy from landing. The singular cohesion which that confederation subsequently exhibited under When Agathocles had shown the way thither, a Roman general could follow the the severest shocks, stamped their great work with the seal of success.o the severest shocks, stmped their great work with the seal of success. same course; and while in Italy the mere entrance of an invading army began From the time wh en the threads of this net, drawn as sRkilfully as firmly the war, the same event in Africa put an end to it, by changing it into a siege, around all Italy, were concentrated in the hands of the Roman community, it in which even the most obstinate and heroic courage must finally succumb. became a great power, and took its place in the system of the Mediterranean states. states... II. General Sumnzary of the Wars. The other Mediterranean states were Carthage, Egypt, Macedonia, and Asia, (the empire of the Seleucidae.) Number. Three, of which the second we the most important. Theatre of war. The countries around and islands within the western basin Connection of the conquered States with Rome. of the Mediterranean. The Italian states were divided into three classes: Parties. The Indo-European race against the Semites. Question at issue. The supremacy over the countries surrounding the 1. Nations which had been admitted to the privilege of Roman citizenship. Mediterranean. 2. Nations which were admitted as allies of Rome. Mediterranean. m3. The subjectnations. Result. Rome mistress of the Mediterranean. 3. The subject nations. The Italian towns were also divided into three classes: IlcY, 7irst P~un/ic WTar. 1. liniczipia: towns which had been admitted to the privilege of Roman citi- III First Pni War. zenship. Cause. The Mamertines of Messana (Oscan mercenaries, a horde of adven2. Colonies. a. Latin colonies, or road-fortresses. b. Burgess colonies, or turers and plunderers, who were the common enemies of mankind,) apply for maritime fortresses. aid from Rome against the Carthaginians and King Hiero. These colonies contained a double population: Duration. Twenty-three years, (263-241.) I. The original inhabitants, now vassals of Rome, and occupiers of a portion Theatre of war. Sicily, Africa, and the seas surrounding Sicily. only of the estates which had formerly been their own. Parties. A. United Italy under the leadership of Rome, allied with SyraII. The new colonists, who formed, not only the garrison of the fortress, but cuse. B. The Carthaginians. who had also the entire administration of the town in their hands. Divisions. I. 263-257. War in Sicily; success of the Romans; duration, 8. PrsEfectures were towns to which a praefect, or magistrate charged with seven years. - II. 256-250. War in Africa; defeat of the Romans; duration, the administration of the laws, was sent out every year from Rome, for the pur- seven years. -III. 249-241. War around Lilybeum; the Romans retrieve their pose of maintaining the supremacy of the Roman code. losses; duration, nine years. Commanders. A. Roman: Duilius and Regulus. B. Carthaginian: Hamilcar Barcas. Battles. Naval battles gained by the Romans: Myls, (260;) Ecnomus, 188 APPENDIX. (256;) iEgmtian isles, (242.) Gained by the Carthaginians: Drepanum, (249.) 4 years, (215-211.) Gradual recovery of the Romans. Land battle gained by the Romans: Panormus, (251,) the greatest engagement 4 years, (211-207.) Hannibal cdifined to Southern Italy. of the war. 4 years, (206-201.) Gradual retreat of Hannibal. Cause of peace. The Carthaginians fail to send commissary stores to their 2 years, (203-201.) The African war. Sicilian garrisons. Contemporaneous war in Spain, (218-206.) Condition of peace. Cession of Sicily and of all the small islands between Commanders. I. Rome: The Scipios, especially Scipio Major, Fabius CuncItaly and Sicily. tator, (the Delayer,) Marcellus, Claudius Nero. Result. This great conflict had extended the dominion of Rome beyond the II. Carthaginian: The three sons of Hamilcar Barcas, Hannibal, Hasdrubal, circling sea that encloses the peninsula, and had changed entirely her political Mago. system. The purely Italian policy had been gradually changed to the policy of Hannibal's march. From Carthago Nova, in south-eastern Spain, into Italy, a great state. (5 months.) From Carthagena to Emporium, (in north-eastern Spain.) From A land army and the system of a civic militia no longer sufficed. It had been Emporium, across the eastern part of the Pyrenees, through southern France, to necessary to create a fleet, an(, what was more difficult, to employ it. the ford of the Rhone near Orange. Along the eastern side of the Rhone to Vienne. That mighty creation, however, was but a grand expedient. The naval service From Vienne eastward to Montmeillan on the Isbre. Along the right bank of continued to be little esteemed in comparison with the high honor of serving in the Isbre to Scez. From Scez, over the Little St. Bernard, to Morgez on the Dorea the legions; the naval officers were for the most part Italian Greeks; the crews Baltea. Along the left bank of the Dorea Baltea to Ivrea, and from thence to Turin. were composed of subjects, or even of slaves and outcasts. Nevertheless, the Battles. Gained by Hannibal: Ticinus, (218,) Trebia, (218,) Trasimenus, Roman fleet, with its unwieldy grandeur, was the noblest creation of genius in (217,) Can-n, (216.) this war; and, as at its beginning, so at its close, it was the fleet that turned the Gained by the Romans: Nola, (215,) Metaurus, (210,) Zama, (202.) scale in favor of Rome. Cause of peace. Carthage exhausted. At the close of the first Punic war, the Italian confederacy united the various Conditions of peace. Ist. The surrender to the Romans of all her ships civic and cantonal communities, from the Apennines to the lonian sea, under the of war, (exe. 10.) hegemony of Rome. 2d. To pay, within 50 years, 10,000 talents, ($15,000,000.) During the 23 years that intervened between the first and second Punic war, 3d. To undertake no war without the consent of Rome. Italy was extended to its natural boundaries. The boundary of the Alps was Result of the war. 1st. The conversion of Spain into two Roman provreached, in so far as the whole flat country on the Po was either rendered sub- inces. ject to the Romans or was occupied by dependent allies. 2d. The union of the kingdom of Syracuse (conquered by Marcellus in 212) with the Roman province of Sicily. IV. Events between the First and Second Punic War. 3d. The establishment of a Roman instead of the Carthaginian protectorate 1st. The war of the mercenaries against Carthage; suppressed, after fearful over Numidia. horrors, by Ilamilcar, in its third year. 4th. The conversion of Carthage from a powerful commercial state into a 2d. The Carthaginians are obliged to surrender Sardinia and Corsica to the defenceless mercantile town. Romans. In other words, it established the uncontested hegemony of Rome over the 3d. To indemnify themselves for this loss, the Carthaginians had commenced western region of the Mediterranean. the subjugation of Spain. 4th. Their progress was stopped by the conclusion of a treaty with the Romans, Events between the Second and Thid Pnic War, 201in which the Carthaginians were pledged not to pass the river Iberus, (Ebro,) and 150 B. C., a period of 50 years. to respect Saguntum as an ally of Rome. 1st. The Macedonian wars. F. Second Punic War. a. The first Macedonian war, (213-205,) instigated by Hannibal, was contemporaneous with the second Punic war. The Romans excited the Altolians against Cause. The taking of Saguntum by Hannibal, (219.) Macedonia, to prevent its sending assistance to Hannibal. Duration. Seventeen years, (218-201 B. c.) b. The second Macedonian war (200-197) was undertaken in order to punish Theatre of war. Italy - Spain —Africa. Philip of Macedonia for the assistance he had given to Carthage. The war Parties. I. Rome. II. Carthage, aided by all the different Italian nation- ended with the victory of the Romans at Cynoscephale, (197.) Philip was comalities with the exception of the Latins. pelled to renounce the hegemony of Greece. Freedom of Greece proclaimed by Divisions. 4years, (218-215.) Victorious career of Hannibal from Spain the Romans. to Capua. c. The third Macedonian war, (171-168.) Complete conquest of Macedonia in ROMAN HISTORY. 189 consequence of the battle at Pydna, (168.) Macedonia divided into four inde- I Theatre of war. South-eastern France, and north-western Italy. pendent districts. Twenty years later it was made a Roman province, (148.) Commander. Roman: Caius MARIUS. Barbarian: Teutoboch. Polybius dates from the battle of Pydna the full establishment of the universal Battles. Two Roman victories, near Aquae Sextive, (102 B. c.,) and near Verempire of Rome. The whole civilized world thenceforth recognized in the Roman celloe, (101 B. c.) senate the supreme tribunal, whose commissioners decided in the last resort Results. The human avalanche, which for 13 years had alarmed the nations between kings and nations. from the Danube to the Ebro, from the Seine to the Po, rested beneath the sod, 2d. War with Antiochus III., of Syria, (192-190 B. c.,) between the second or toiled under the yoke of slavery: the homeless people of the Cimbri and and third Macedonian war. (See ANTIOCHUS THE GREAT.) their comrades were no more. 3d. Continual wars in Spain. A brilliant victory over the Celtiberi (195 B. C.) placed the whole of Spain, north of the Ebro, at the disposal of Marcus Porcius II. The, or Soc Cato, who commanded the inhabitants of all the towns to demolish their walls Cause. The refusal of the Romans to admit the Italian confederates to the on the same day. full right of citizenship. II. Third Pu.i...r. / Duration. Nearly four years, (91-88 B. O.) Theatre of war. Ist. Northward in Picenum; 2d. In central Italy; 3d. In Cause. The Carthaginians had made war without permissions of the Romans, the south, in Samnium and Campania. (against the treaty of peace.) Parties. All the Italian nations, with the exception of the Latins, Etruscans, Duration. Five years, (150-146 B.C.) c and Umbrians, against Rome. Theatre of war. The immediate vicinity of Carthage. Commanders. Roman: SULLA, Marius, Pompeius Strabo. Italian: Quintus Parties. The Romans, with the Numidians, against Carthage. Silo, C. Papius. Commanders. Roman: Scipio Minor. Carthaginian: Hasdrubal. Result. The Italians acquire the Roman citizenship. Result. Destruction of Carthage. The whole of the Carthaginian Empire (except that portion that belonged to Numidia) became a Roman province, under III. The Three Wars against Mithradates. the name of Africa, with Utica for its capital. I. Cause. The murder of 80,000 Romans in Asia, by order of Mithradates. The real gainers by the destruction of the first commercial city of the West Duration. Four years, (87-84 B. C.) were the Roman merchants, who flocked in troops to Utica, and from that as Theatre of war. Greece and the northwestern part of Asia Minor. their head-quarters began to turn to profitable account the whole of north- Parties. The nations of western Asia and the Greeks, against the Romans. western Africa, which had hitherto been closed to them. Commanders. Roman: Sulla, Fimbria. Asiatic: Mithradates, Neoptolemus, and Archelaus. VIII. JugIurth,*ne Wac~r. -Battles. Gained by Sulla, Chweronea and Orchomenus. Cause. The usurpation of Numidia by Jugurtha, the grandson of Masinissa. Conditions of peace. Mithradates was forced to evacuate the western part Duration. Seven years, (112-106 B. c.) of Asia Minor, to deliver up 70 men-of-war, and pay 2,000 talents ($3,000,000) Theatre of war. Numidia, the north-western part of Africa. as an indemnity for the expenses of the war. Parties. The native African element against the foreigners,.(the Romans.) Result. After four years of war, the Pontic king was again a client of the Commanders. Roman: Metellus, Marius, Sulla. African: Jugurtha, Bomilcar. Romans, and a single and settled government was restored in Greece, MacedoBattles. Roman victory on the Muthul. nia, and Asia Minor. Results. Capture and execution of Jugurtha. Complete conquest of Numi- II. Cause. The violation of the Pontic frontier by the Roman governor, dia, which, however, was not incorporated with the Roman state. The western Murena. part was given to Bocchus, king of Mauretania, to reward his betrayal -of Jugur- Duration. Three years, (83-81 B.C.) tha. The eastern portion was given to Gauda, the only surviving grandson of Theatre of war. The northern part of Asia Minor. Masinissa. - Battle. The Romans under Murena defeated near the Halys. D. TH!ONOIATO F H SOE O H Result. The Roman forces are withdrawn from all Cappadocia. D. THE CONSOLIDATION OF THE SHORES OF THE' MEDITERRANEAN. | The principal Wars between the Second and Third Miithradatic War. 1. The war against Sertorius, (80-72 B. c.) (See SERTORIUS.) I. The War with the Cimbri and Teutones. 2. The servile war, or the war of the gladiators and slaves, (73-71 B. c.) They Cause. The refusal of the Romans to grant them a tract of land in Gaul. were defeated in two decisive battles by Crassus, in the second of'which, SparDuration. Thirteen years, (113-101.) tacus, their commander, lost his life. 190 APPENDIX. 3. The war against the pirates, (75-67 B. c.) Pompey, in two short campaigns, The other was expected to break down every barrier which opposed the com(of 40 and 49 days,) cleared first, the western, and then the eastern Mediterra- plete union of the Italian population in a single sovereign nation. nean, almost without a battle. Duration. More than one. hundred years, (133-30.) Theatre of war. The countries surrounding the Mediterranean. Third Mithradatic War. Result. The Roman Empire. Cause. Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia, and brother-in-law of Mithradates, Number of wars. Eleven. bequeaths his dominions to the Romans, who form them into a new province. I. The Gracchi, (133-121.) (See GRACCHI.) Mithradates sends an army in Bithynia to drive them out. II. Marius and Sulla, (88-86.) (See these.) Duration. Eleven years, (74-64 B. c.) III. The Marian party and Sulla, (88-79.) (See SULLA.) Theatre of war. Asia, west of the Tigris. IV. The war against Sertorius, (80-72.) (See this.) Commanders. Roman: Lucullus and POMPEY. Asiatic: Mithradates and V. Catiline's conspiracy, (66-62,) suppressed by Cicero, (the Catiline orations.) Tigranes. If Catiline really had any object at all, unless we suppose the crimes themselves Battles. Roman victories near Tigranocerta, (69,) and Artaxata, (68.) to have been his object,.it must have been that of making himself tyrant, and Result. Western Asia becomes subject to the Romans. of becoming a second Sulla. Catiline was defeated and killed in Etruria by Petreius. E. THWE CIVIL WARS. / VI. Caesar and Pompey, (49-48.) (See these.) Cresar master of Italy in 60 days; Pompey flies to Greece; Caesar forces Afranius and Petreius to capitulate The grand feature of the civil contests in the Roman commonwealth was, in Spain; but loses two legions, under Curio, in Africa, where they are defeated throughout, the struggle of one favored class to maintain its exclusive privileges by the Pompeian party, under Varus and King Juba; returns to Rome; is apagoainst another of a different origin, but blended with it in one body politic. pointed dictator, an office which he holds only eleven days; crosses over into The first phase of this struggle was that between the patricians and plebeians, Greece; suffers a considerable loss at Dyrrhachium, but wins the decisive battle strictly so called: when this contest terminated in the admission of the inferior of Pharsalia, (B. c. 48.) class to substantially equal privileges, peace was for a time obtained. But the VII. The Pompeian party and Caesar, (48-45.) Caesar crosses over into Africa; progress of external conquest gradually created a similar distinction of classes defeats the Pompeians at Thapsus, (B. c. 46;) returns to Rome, and celebrates upon a larger scale. The citizens of Rome, patrician and plebeian, whether his four triumphs over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Juba. living in the city or established in colonies, jealously maintained the distinctive VIII. The civil war of Mutina, (44-43.) Antony is defeated, and joins Lepidus privileges, lucrative and influential as they were, which they enjoyed as such. in Transalpine Gaul: Octavianus obtains the consulate. He soon deserts the The conquered states of Italy, admitted into alliance and a certain limited com- party of the senate, and enters into negotiation with Antony and Lepidus. munion with Rome, but refused the complete franchise and its privileges, now They form the second triumvirate. Hideous proscriptions, merciless and wholestood in an analogous relation to the Roman people with that of the ancient sale butcheries: 300 senators and 2,000 knights proscribed. plebeians to the patricians. The social wars formed the crisis of the long strug- IX. Civil war between the oligarchy and the republicans. Double battle of gle for these privileges, and terminated in the enfranchisement of the Italians. Philippi. Death of Brutus and Cassius, (B. c. 42.) The fall of Brutus and CasHowever, it was still in the power of the Roman, or exclusive party, to neutralize sius was a final death-blow to the cause of the old Roman aristocracy. these concessions to a considerable extent; and then it was that the Italians X. Perusian war, (B. c. 41-40.) Quarrels of the oligarchy among thembegan, like the plebeians of old, to look for allies among the ranks of their oppo- selves. Octavian had experienced considerable difficulty in arranging the distrinents. Marius himself, the great leader of the foreign party, was an Italian; bution of lands among his veterans, the original proprietors requiring indemnibut many of his adherents were Romans, hostile to the domination of the old fication, and the soldiers themselves being dissatisfied with their allotments. At aristocratic families, and anxious, by whatever means, to obtain an ascendency the instigation of Fulvia, L. Antonius, brother of the triumvir, came forward for themselves. The contest, as is usual in such cases, gradually lost the charac- as the champion of these discontented spirits, but was compelled to surrender at ter of a domestic and foreign, and acquired much of that of an aristocratic and Perusia, which is reduced to a heap of ashes, (41.) Antony and Octavianus are popular struggle. Thus, during the success of the aristocratic party under reconciled. Peace of Brundusium. (See this.) Sulla, they tried to impose checks upon the influence of the plebeians, who had XI. Octavian and Antony. Final rupture between them, brought to a crisis become almost identified with the Italians, or rather absorbed in their multi- by Antony's ill treatment- of his wife, Octavia, whom he divorces. Antony iude. Pompey succeeded to the post of Sulla at the head of this party, while defeated at the battle of Actium, (B. c. 81;) he deserts his army, which surrenders Coesar assumed the leadership of the other. The one fought for the integrity of to Augustus, after in vain waiting seven days for Antony's return. Death of the senate, and such exclusive privileges as were still enjoyed by the old aristo- Antony and Cleopatra. Egypt made a Roman province. Octavianus Csesar cratic families of Rome, of whom the senate was still almost entirely composed. sole master of the state, (B. C. 30,) and end of the republic..,i ROMAN HISTORY. 191 THE EMPIRE. A MONARCHY WITH REPUBLICAN FORMS. I. The Constitut-ion of the Emnpire from 30 B. C.-300 A. D. His provinces yielded an incomparably larger revenue than those of the senate,.. The imperial prerogative, a. The levy of the army. Augustus was the cor- but it may nevertheless have been insufficient to maintain the armies, which were m. of 47 legions, besidesth auxiliarey tfoops amouting altogetherto about. stationed in fortified camps in those provinces. These fortified camps were dismander of47 legions, besides the auxiliary troops, amounting altogether toabout tributed as follows: Three legions were sufficient for Britain. The principal 450,000 men. Over these forces the senate had not the least control, not even treg a o he e n e n on ite 1 eins T strength lay upon the Rhine and Danube, and consisted of 16 legions. The over the levying of the troops. b. The censorial, tribunitial, and pontifical defence of the Euphrates was intrusted to 8 legions. With regard to Egypt, authority. His edicts and ordinances had the force of laws.. V V ahi. T Hs enate almtd bydiaugustus toh0 moremb. o t lws. on tedg Africa, and Spain, as they were far removed from any important scene of war, I...Hue senate, limitecl by Augustus ton60mmers. It was on tne d.gniry.av of The senate, thated Augustus a s ors0 founded Ithei on.empir a.n a single legion maintained the domestic tranquillity of each of those great provof the senate that Augustus and his successors founded their new empire; and nce they affected on every occasion to adopt the language and principles of patri- s. cians. In the administration of their own powers they frequently consulted the II. The Roman Enmperors from 3Q B. C. unti 190 A. D. great national council, and seemed to refer to its decision the most important concerns of peace and war. Rome, Italy, and the internal provinces were subject to Seventeen emperors ruled the Enpire during the first220 years of its existence. the immediate jurisdiction of the senate. With regard to civil objects, it was the supreme court of appeal; with regard to criminal matters, a tribunal constituted The five emperors of the Julian house, for the trial of all offences that were committed by men in any public station, or Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero. that affected the peace and majesty of the Roman people. Every power was derived from their authority, every law was ratified by their sanction. Their Explosion of the Augustanl peace by simultaneoso revolts in allpart of the empire at the regular meetings were held on three stated days in every month, the kalends, death of Nero. the nones, and the ides. The debates were conducted with decent freedom, and The three emperors proclaimed by the legions, (68, 69.) the emperors themselves, who gloried in the name of senators, sat, voted, and divided with their equals. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. III. The magistrates. a. The ancient magistracies. The consuls were generally The three lavii (69-96.) elected every two months, and retained merely the privilege of presiding in the The three Flavii, (69-96.) senate and a share in the jurisdiction. The other officers of the republic were Vespasianus, Titus, and Domitian. also retained, but with some alterations in their functions. b. New officers. Three new officers were created, who were entirely under the control of the The three statesmen, (9fi-138.) emperor: Nerva Trajan and Hadrian. 1. The prefect of the city, (prefectus urbi,) to whom the public order in Rome, was confided. The three Antonines, (138-192.) 2. The commanders of the guard, (prtefecti prtetorio,) who took precedence Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius Anioninus, Commodus. immediately after the emperor, and were in some respects his lieutenants even in civil affairs. During this long period of 220 years, the dangers inherent to a military govern3. The prmfectus annonve, who superintended the supply of corn. nwent were, in a great measure, suspended. The soldiers were seldom roused to IV. The Empire. Rome, instead of being itself the state, became merely the that fatal sense of their own strength, and of the weakness of the civil authority, capital of a more extended empire. The ordinary boundaries of this empire, which was, before and afterward, productive of such dreadful calamities. Caligwhich it sometimes exceeded, were, in Europe, the two great rivers of the Rhine ula and Domitian were assassinated in their palace by their own domestics; the and the Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy desert of Syria; in convulsions, however, which agitated Rome on their death were confined to Africa, likewise the desert. It thus included the fairest portions of the earth the walls of the city. But Nero involved the whole empire in his ruin. Exceptsurrounding the Mediterranean sea. This empire was divided into two distinct ing only this short, though violent, eruption of military license, (68-69 A. D.,) parts: Italy and the provinces. The division of the provinces was made in such the two centuries from Augustus to Commodus passed away unstained with a manner that those in which no regular armies were kept were assigned to the civil blood, and undisturbed by revolutions. The emperor was elected by the senate; whereas those in which armies were stationed belonged to the emperor. authority of the senate and the consent of the soldiers. 192 APPENDIX. MED)IEVAL HISTORY. I. FROM THE DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNTIL THE CRUSADES, A. CHRISTENDOM. dients, chiefly Franks, (in the northeast,) Burgundians, (in the southeast,) and Visigoths, (in the south, from the Loire to the Pyrenees.) I. Division and Subdivisiont of the Roma*n Empire. 2. SPAIN. This diocese was overrun at first by three barbaric tribes-the After the death of the emperor Theodosius, (395 A. D.,) the Roman Empire, Vandals, (in the south,) the Suevi, (in the north,) and the Alans, (in the middle which had already existed four centuries, was divided into two parts: of the peninsula, from sea to sea.) Subsequently, however, the Visigoths, crossI. The Greek Empire, or the Empire of the East —capital, CONSTANTINOPLE — ing the Pyrenees from Gaul, subdued all the three, and converted Spain into a which, as being the more important, was inherited by Arcadius, the elder son of Visigothic kingdom. Theodosius. 3. AFRICA. The conquerors of this important diocese were the Vandals, It contained two prefectures. a. The prefecture of the east, subdivided into who, crossing from Spain, made themselves masters of the country from the Pilfive dioceses, (Thrace, Asia, Pontus, the East, and Egypt.) b. The prefecture of lars of Hercules to Carthage. illyricum, subdivided into two dioceses, (Macedonia and Dacia.) 4. ITALY. Successive invasions had left numerous barbaric deposits among II. The Latin Empire, or the Empire of the West - capital, ROMiE- assigned to the feeble Latin natives of the central diocese — Visigoths, Franks, Vandals, the younger son of Theodosius, Honorius. It contained two prefectures. a. The Alemanni, Huns, etc. prefecture of Italy, subdivided into three dioceses, (Italy, Western Illyricum, 5. WESTERN ILLYRICUM. Having been among the first portions of and Africa.) b. The prefecture of Gaul, also subdivided into three dioceses, the Western Empire overrun by Alaric in his march from Thrace to Italy, the (Gaul, Spain, and Britain.) addition to the native population of this diocese consisted chiefly of Visigoths. Beyond the pale of this organized society, surrounding the great basin of the 6. BRITAIN. Abandoned by its Roman garrisons as early as the year Mediterranean, there existed a great barbaric society, also divided into two parts 410 A. D., this island became a prey to the Anglic and Saxon sea-rovers, whom -the Germanic or Teutonic half, geographically adjoining the western; and the the native Romanized Britons were obliged to call in to defend them against the Scythian or Slavonic half, geographically adjoining the Eastern Empire. Picts and Scots of the northern districts. The Britons, from the Channel to the The transition out of ancient into modern times consisted in nothing else than Friths of Forth and Clyde, were speedily subdued by the new-comers. in the violent amalgamation of these two societies. In this process of amalgama- As soon as this intermixture of the two societies had taken place, they began tion, however, the whole of the two opposed masses were not engaged at once. to act upon each other, and the result of this is modern society. It was chiefly the western portion that was first involved... IV. The States which preceded the Empire of Charlemagne. II. The Great Migrations. The determining cause of the precipitation of the German races on the Latin A. EMPIRES IN ITALY. L. The Italian Empire, established by German Empire was the sudden invasion of Europe (375 A. D.) by the Mongolian nation mercenaries under Odoacer. of the Huns. Subduing the Slavonic region of Europe, and establishing there a Extent. Italy to theAlps. Capital.Ravenna. Duration. Eighteen years, Hunnish empire, which superseded that of its previous conquerors, the Goths, (476-493.) (See oDOACER.) these fearful Asiatic invaders produced a violent agitation among the Germanic (476-493.) (See ODOACER.) peoples, and pressed them westward, as it were, in a mass -Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, Suevi, Alemanni, Franks, and Anglo-Saxons, altogether. The agitations produced in Europe by the Huns, and the consequent eruptions of the Ger- Extent. Italy to the Alps, and also the eastern shore of the Adriatic and the mans into the provinces of the Western Empire, were protracted over a whole country between the Alps and Danube. century. The aspect of the Latin Empire after the Germanic invasions were con- Capital. Ravenna. Duration. Sixty-four years, (490-554.) (See THEOssORIC.) cluded - that is, in the latter half of the 5th century- may be represented as follows: III. The Byzantine.dominion in Italy. III. The Settlements of the Barbarians. Extent. During 14 years (554-568) the whole of Italy; then it was confined 1. GAUL. In this diocese, the effect of successive invasions had been to to Ravenna and its district, Rome with its attached duchy, Genoa, Padua, Apulia, superinduce upon the native Gallo-Roman population a medley of new ingre- Calabria, and Naples. MEDIIEVAL HISTORY. 193 Capital. Ravenna, the residence of the lieutenant of the Byzantine emperor, were reunited again under Clothaire, the youngest of the sons of Clovis, who surcalled exarch: hence the name given to these Byzantine possessions, of the Exar- vived all his brothers and their descendants. It was again divided in 567. (See chate of Ravenna. BiUuNEIIILDA.) IV. The Empire of the Longobards. Extent. At first the valley of the Po: gradually they extended their empire over the whole of Italy, with exception of a few strips of land on the coast. They Extent. From the Ebro to the Raab, and from Benevento to the Eider. confined the exarchate within the limits of Calabria and the district around including all France, Germany, parts of Hungary, Italy, and Spain, besides some Naples, and even laid claim to the sovereignty of Rome and its territory. of the islands of the Mediterranean. Capitals. Rome and Aix-la-Chapelle. Capital. Pavia. Duration. One hundred and six years, (568-774.) (See A. THE WARS OF CHARLEMAGNE. I. Conquest of Lombardy. ALnoIN.) Cause. The king of the Lombards, Desiderius, had taken possession of the patriB. EMPIRES IN AFRICA.. The Vandal Empire in Africa. nlony of St. Peter, (the grant of Pepin.) Extent. The whole of the northern coast of Africa, from the Atlantic to Duration. A few months, (774 A. D.) Cyrenaica, and also the Balearic islands, Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily, (first the Result. Overthrow of the kingdom of the Lombards. Charlemagne is prowhole of Sicily, but since 493, only the north-western part.) claimed king of Italy. II. %Vars with the Saxons. Cause. The resistance of the Saxons to the Capital. Carthage. Duration. One hundred and five years, (429-534.) II. Wars with the Saxons. Cause. The resistance of the Saxons to the (See GENssErc.) introduction of Christianity into their country. Duration. Thirty-two years, (772-804.) II. The Byzantirne dominions inz Africa. Result. The Saxons are incorporated in the Empire of Charlemagne, and are Extent. The whole of the northern coast, from the Atlantic to the Red sea. Christianized. Capital. Carthage. Duration. One hundred and sixteen years, (534-650.) III. War in Spain. Cause. The Arabic governor of Saragossa asked and obtairned the assistance of Charlemagne against Abder-rhaman. II~. The Arabian dominion in Africa. (See below, under ISLAM ) Duration. A few months, (778 a. D. C. EMPIRES IN SPAIN. I. The Vandal Empire in Southern Spain. Result. The- country between the Ebro and the Pyrenees was conquered by (Vandalitia = Andalusia.) Charlemagne and annexed to this empire, under the name of the Spanish March. Etent. The country south of the Sierra ea. Capital. Hispalis. IV. War with the Avars. Cause. Duke Tassilo, of Bavaria, (son-in-law of the conquered Lombard king.) united with the Avares, and raised the standard Duration. 20 years, (409-429.) of rebellion. II. The Suevic Empire. Duration. Thirteen years, (788-801 A. D.) Extent. At first (from 409-429) Galicia, then Southern Spain, Vandalitia, but Result. Bavaria was incorporated with the Frankish Empire, and the country at length they were again confined to Galicia. Capital. HIlspalis. Duration. of the Avares (between the Ens and Raab) was conquered and transformed into 176 years, (409-585.) the Avaric March. firf. The Visigothic Empire. | V. Charles, the son of Charlemagne, subdued the Danes and Wilses. Remark. The wars of Charlemagne were totally different from those of the Extent. At first, only the country between the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean, previous dynasty. They were not dissensions between tribe and tribe, or chief and the Ebro; since 585, the whole of Spain. and chief, nor expeditions engaged in for the purpose of settlement or pillage. Capital. Toletum. Duration. 126 years, (585-711.) They were systematic wars, inspired by a political purpose and commanded by a IV. The Caliphate of Cordova. (See ABASSI)ES, and Appendix, page 195.) public necessity. Their purpose was that of ending the invasions. He repelled the Saracens. The Saxons and Slavonians, against whom merely defensive D. EMPIRES IN GAUL. I. The Burgundian Empire. arrangements were not sufficient, he attacked and subjugated in their native Extent. The valley of the Rhone. Duration. 126 years, (407-533.) forests. B. CORONATION OF CHARLEMAGNE AS EMPEROR OF THE II. The EEmpire of the Franks, under the MlTerovingians. WEST. Pope Leo III. induced Charlemagne to visit Rome, and to chastise his Extent. The country between the Rhine and the Loire. Capital. Paris. enemies. In return for the assistance thus afforded, Charlemagne, on Christmas Duration. 266 years,(486-752.) (See CLovIs.) After his death, the empire was day of the year 800, was crowned by the Pope Emperor of the West. As divided among his four sons, Thierry, Chlodomer, Childebert, and Clothaire, who such he also assumed a lofty station at the side of the Roman pontiff in spiritual fixed their respective residences at Metz, Orleans, Paris, and Soissons. They affairs: a Frankish synod saluted him as regent of the true religion. The entire 25 194 APPENDIX. state of which he was the chief now assumed a color and form wherein the wild piratical race ealled the Normans, or Northmen, who availed themselves of spiritual and temporal elements were completely blended. The union between the distracted condition of the empire to make descents on the coasts, especially Emperor and Pope served as a model for that between count and bishop. Not of western France. (See NORMANS IN FRANCE.) only was the secular power to lend its arm to the spiritual, but the spiritual to aid The history of the Normans connects the two great European events of the the temporal by its excommunications. The great empire reminds us of a vast middle ages, the migrations and the crusades. On the coasts of France, where neutral ground in the midst of a world filled with carnage and devastation; where they conquered the country which still bears their name, (Normandy,) and then an iron will imposes peace on forces generally in a state of mutual hostility and in England, Italy, and Sicily, and finally in Asia, they were the last northern destruction, and fosters and shelters the germ of civilization; so guarded was it emigrants, who settled by force of arms in southern regions. Their conquest of on all sides by impregnable marches. England, in 1066, was accompanied by an immigration of the conquering nation; C. THE SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE. (See GENEALOGY, X ) and hence was the cause of universal change in its language, manners, and conThe sovereign power becomes enfeebled under the descendants of Charlemagne; stitution, and the origin of the long connection and the long warfare that suband the chieftains of the various provinces acquire a power so nearly approach- sisted between England and France in the middle ages. (See WILLIAM THE CONing to sovereignty as to be scarcely distinguishable except in name, rendering QUEROR.) only a nominal obedience to the sovereign. B. ISLAM. VI. Commencement of the history of Germany, France, and I. The four first Caliphs, (631-661, A. D.) Italy, as separate states, at the partition of the Carlovingian The impulse communicated to the Arabian race by the enthusiasm of MohamEmpire, at Verdun, 843 A. D. med (see this) did not cease with his death. The whole nation had been roused Immediately after the death of Louis the Pious, son and successor of C.arle- to an unexampled pitch of religious zeal, and were eager to continue the work magne aquarrel arose eamonghis sons aboutthe Pinheitanuce Lothar, as emperor which Mohammed had begun. Accordingly the reigns of the caliphs — as the claiming the whole. A battle was fought in 841, near the village of Fontenay, in successors of Mohammed in the conjunct spiritual and temporal sovereignty of which Lotharwas defeated. The war, however, continued until 843, whenLothar Arabia were called were one long series of invasions, wars and conquests, undertaken for the express purpose of adding new countries to the Mohammedan found himself compelled to conclude with his brothers the famous treaty of Verdun. The for first cliphs were:dan In this partition treaty, the Teutonic principle of equal division among heirs Empire. The four first caliphs were: law of Mohamme who collected the triumphed over the Roman one of the transmission of an indivisible empire: the Abu-Bekr, (632-e34,) the father-in-law of Mohammed, who collected the practical sovereignty of all three brothers was admitted in their respective terri- sayings of Mohammed into a book, called the Koran. Under him yria and Msotories, a barren precedence only reserved to Lothar with the imperial title which potamia were subdued. he already enjoyed. A more important result was the separation of the Gallic mar, (634-643,) another father-in-law of Mohammed. Under him Egypt was and German nationalities. Their difference of feeling took now a permanent conquered, and the whole of the northern coast of Africa was overrun. shape: modern Germany proclaims the era of 843 the beginning of her national Othman, (643-656,) a son-in-law of the Prophet, who conquered Persia. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~existence. Ali, (656-661,) another son-in-law of the Prophet. (See FALL OF THE FATII. Charles the Bald received Francia Occidentalis, or Neustra and Aquitaine, MITES.) (the country west of the Scheld, Meuse, Saone, and Rhone.) A corrupt tongue Thus, before the middle of the 7th century, or within 80 years after the death was spoken here, equally removed from Latin and from modern French. of Mohammed, the whole of the immense tract of country lying between Algiers II. Lothar, who, as emperor, must possess the two capitals, Rome and Aix- in Africa, and Cabul in Central Asia, was covered by a race of Arabian warriors, la-Chapelle, received a long and narrow kingdom, stretching from the North sea burning with religious fervor, and zealous for the propagation of their faith and to the Mediterranean. It had no national basis, and soon dissolved into the sep- their language over the entire surface of the world. The capital of this great arate sovereignties of Italy, Burgundy, and Lotharingia, or Lorraine. empire and the seat of the caliphate was the town of Kufa, on the Euphrates; III. Lewis received all east of the Rhine -Franks, Saxons, Bavarians, Austria, Mecca, however retaining its pre-eminence as the sacred or holy city, whither Carinthia, etc. Throughouei t ofthese regions Fermank was spoken. BavariansA a, all true Moslems were to go in pilgrimage, and toward which they were to turn The Germans were divided at that time in five separate nations: the Franks, in prayer. Suabians, Bavarians, Saxons, and Lorrainers, each under its own duke. II. The Ommaiad Caliphs, (660-750, A. D.) VII. The.ormnans. A. THE FOUNDER OF THE RACE. (See MOAWIYAH.).B. THE INTERNAL REGULATIONS. The three new kingdoms were soon disquieted by intestine commotions, the Under these caliphs the political centre of the empire was transferred to quarrels of their sovereigns with one another, and perpetual contests with a Damascus. Here the caliph resided, while his emirs or commanders led his MEDIT JEVAL HISTORY. 195 troops in new directions, and governed distant provinces in his name. Cadis or E. CHARLES MARTEL. But at the hour of the greatest need, Provijudges were likewise appointed to administer the laws of the Koran in a few of dence raised up a champion for Christendom. This was Charles Martel, who was the principal cities; and in every town there were preachers, who, acting as the summoned by the Franks, (whose virtual ruler he had been for 17 years,) and deputies of the caliph in his spiritual capacity, read and expounded the Koran even by his rival, Eudes of Aquitaine, to place himself at the head of the nation. on Fridays in buildings called mosques. A separate class of functionaries, called He obeyed the summons, gathered a large army, and came up with the Saracens mizfis, prepared such new laws as were necessary to carry out the provisions of between Tours and Poitiers. A desperate battle ensued, which was protracted the Koran. over seven days; but on the 7th day the Saracens were defeated with great C. GREATEST EXTENT OF THE CALIPHATE. The Mloham- slautghter, Abder-rhaman himself being slain on the field. This great victory medan Empire attained its fullest extent in the reign of Walid I. (705-715.) In (October, 732, ) arrested forever the progress of the Mohammedan arms in western the reign of his predecessor the Arabian arms had been carried into Morocco Europe, and procured for Charles the expressive surname of "the Hammer," and the Atlantic coast of Africa; and his emir, Okba, had even meditated the by which he is known in history. invasion of Spain. That great exploit, however, was reserved for Musa, the While the bravery of the Franks thus struck a blow at the Saracen power in governor of Africa, under the caliph Walid. (See TARIK.) Meanwhile, other Europe, the Sarcen Empire was losing strength from internal causes. The incaemirs. of the caliph Walid were extending his power in Asia. Bokhara, Turkis- pacity of the later caliphs of the Ommaiad dynasty brought on a revolution at tan, and other countries lying east of the Caspian were rapidly subdued; and Damascus; and after a short contest a new dynasty seized on the caliphate. under one bold leader, the Arabians even penetrated into northern India. In the caliphate of Soliman, the successor of Walid. (715-717,) the greater portion III. The Abassides, (150-1258, A. D.) of Asia Minor was conquered by the Arabs, who even proceeded to lay siege to A. THE DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE OF THE CALIPHS. The Constantinople. naime is derived from their ancestor Abbas, one of the uncles of Mohammed. The incompetence, however, of Soliman and his successors, Yezid II. and TIes- A bloody persecution was begun by the first caliph of this dynasty against all the ham, (720-743,) arrested the progress of the Arabic conquests. Ommainads, one of whom (Abder-rhaman) succeeded in escaping to Spain. Here The wondrous spread of the power of the Arabs over so large a portion of the the Saracens, who took the part of the persecuted dynasty, received him with earth, and especially their daring invasion and conquest of Spain, had struck open arms, and accepted him as their king. (See ABAssIDES.) Thus there arose mingled admiration and terror into the soul of all Christendom. As it was known two distinct Mohammedan powers in the world. to be their intention to propagate their faith with the sword as far as they could, B. THE CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 1. The Arabic Empire proper, extendit did not seem improbable that they would cross the Pyrenees, invade Gaul, and inc in a long tract westward, from India to the shores of the Atlantic, and overrun all Central Europe. governed by the Abasside caliphs through their emirs. The capital of this D. THE ARABS IN GAUL. With the exception of some mountainous empire was transferred to Bagdad, (on the western bank of the Tigris,) which districts in the western Pyrenees, the whole of the Spanish peninsula fell under had been built on a magnificent scale, by Al Mansur, and soon became the the power of the Arabs, or, as they now began to be called, the Saracens, (that capital of the commercial enterprise and civilization of the Eastern world. is, Eastern people,) or Moors, (that is, men of Mauritania.) But in the year C. THE CALIPHS OF CORDOVA. 2. The Saracen kingdom of Spain, 718, Al-haur, the fifth emir in succession from Tarik, ventured on an incursion extending from Gibraltar to the river Aude in Languedoc, and governed by a into Gaul. His successor repeated the incursion, took Carcassone'and Narbonne; branch of the house of the Ommaiads. Their capital was the ancient city of and had almost obtained possession of Toulouse, when he was defeated and slain Cordova, after which the kingdom was named the caliphate of Cordova. After (721) by an army of Goths and Franks under the command of Eudes, the duke this partition of the Arabic Empire, scarcely any new conquests were made by of Aquitaine, whose power was then nearly supreme in the south of France. the Arabs. This defeat, however, was only a temporary check to the Saracens. Again and D. CHARACTER OF THE ARABIC INVASIONS. The Arabic again they invaded Gaul, and in a few years their language and their religion invasions are not to be regarded as a mere series of violent or barbaric exploits, prevailed over a large tract to the north of the Pyrenees, and the vineyards of that produced no good effects. On the contrary, they were a service to the Gascony and the city of Bordeaux were possessed by the sovereign of Damascus cause of civilization. From the Arabs, and especially from those of Spain, and Samarcand. Even these limits did not satisfy them. In the year 728, modern Europe has derived, among other things, the numeral characters, the Abder-rhaman was appointed by the caliph to the emirship of Spain. Full of |art of paper-making, cotton manufacture, the art of preparing the finer kinds of the conquering spirit of his race, he resolved that not only France, but all leather, peculiar methods of tempering steel, and the use of rhyme in metre. Europe, should be included within the sway of the Moslems. Accordingly, Much of the spirit of modern romance and chivalry may also be traced to these invading France (732) at the head of the largest Mohammedan army that had Orientals, who also set the example of commercial enterprise to the European ever been assembled in Europe, he pushed on, defeating all before him, as far as nations by their bold navigation of the Eastern seas. the river Loire. 196 APPENDIX. II THE CRUSADES. I. The Seven Crusacdes, I siderable portion of the East into a dominion held by Latin princes, and governed The Crusades are usually reckoned as seven in number the first and greatest according to the principles of western feudalism. Three distinct Christian soverbeginning in 1096, and the last and least terminating in 1291. eignties were formed: THE F"IRST CRUSADE. Cause. The taking of Jerusalem by the I st. The kingdom of Jerusalem, conferred on Godfrey of Bouillon. (See this.) Turks, who compelled the Christians to pay a heavy tax for the privilege of visit- 2d. The principality of Antioch, conferred on Bohemond of Tarentum. ing the Holy City. This excited throughout Christendom a general desire to 3d. The principality of Edessa, in Mesopotamia, conferred on Baldwin, the make Palestine a Christian kingdom. brother of Godfrey. Preahers of the Orueade. Pope Urban II and Peter the Hermit; TE SECOND CRUSADE. Cause. The taking of Edlessa by the Duration. About four years, (11096-1100.) Fatlmites of Egypt. All Christians were put to the sword, or sold as slaves. Leader. When Pope Urban II. announced the Crusade at Clermont, in Novem- Preacher of the Crusade. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux. (See ST. BERber, 1095, he secured to himself the leading position in the enterprise, by nam- NAD.) ing the bishop Adhemar of Puy as his legate and representative with the army, Duration. About three years, (1147-1149.) and by officially announcing to the Greek emperor Alexius the forthcoming help Leaders. Emperor Conrad III., and Louis VII., king of France. against the Turks. The march to Constantinople. The two armies marched down the Danube The march to Constantinople. The crusade was opened by the march of to Constantinople, in the summer of 1147. The policy of the Greek court was about 300,000 men, who, in four bands, marched through central Europe, Hun- now hostile to the crusade, and the Greek emperor, Manuel Comnenus, did every gary, and the Danube countries to Constantinople. They were led by Walter the thing to ruin the enterprise. Penniless, Peter the Hermit, Gotschalk, and others. The fate of these four Prom Constantinople to Damascus. Misled by Greek scouts, the arny bands was terrible. The Hungarians and Bulgarians, through whose territory of Conrad was cut to pieces by the Turks near Iconium; that of Louis was wrecked these crusaders marched, were indignant at the ravages which they committed, among the defiles of the Pisidian mountains. The relics of the two armies made and, after harassing them indirectly, openly attacked them. Two bands only their way into Syria, where, in co-operation with the Christian princes of Antireached Constantinople, and crossed over into Asia, where they were ultimately och and Jerusalem, they laid siege to Damascus. cut to pieces by the Turks. The result of the Second Crusade. The crusade was a total failure. The regular army consisted of six different divisions, led by Godfrey of Bouil- They were unable to take Damascus, and in 1149, Conrad and Louis returned to ion, Hugh of Vermrandois, Stephen of Blois (and Robert Curthose), Robert of Europe, having lost in two years about a million of men. Flanders, Bohemond of Tarentum (and Tancred), and Raymond of Toulouse. THE THIRD CRUSADE. Cause. The taking of Jerusalem by SalaIn the autumn of 1096, the first princely troops arrived at Constantinople; others din in 1187, which put an end to the kingdom of Jerusalem. followed in rapid succession, till the spring of 1097, some by water, some by Preacher of the Crusade. William, archbishop of Tyre. land. The northern French mostly came through Italy and Epirus, the Proven- Duration. About four years, (1189-1198.) gals through Dalmatia, and the Lorrainers through Hungary. Leaders. Emperor Frederick I., King Philip Augustus of France, and King Prom Constantinople to Jerusalem. In May, 1097, the crusaders held Richard I. of England, (Coeur de Lion.) their first muster in the plains of Bithynia. From thence they marched toward The march to Acre. The emperor marched from Ratisbon along the Nicaea, which fell into their hands, July, 1097. The crusaders then marched Danube, fought his way through the dominions of the Greeks, (now undisguisedly amid fatigue and hardship diagonally across Asia Minor, and at length turned hostile to the crusaders,) and advanced through Asia Minor, where he was the north-eastern angle of the Levant, and marched down the course of the drowned, (see FREDERICK I.;) only a part of his army reached Syria, where it Orontes upon the most important and best fortified of all the Syrian towns, Anti- joined the remains of the army of the kingdom of Jerusalem. They marched och; seven months were consumed in its siege. At length, (June, 1098,) they and laid siege to Acre. Soon the French and English monarchs arrived with took it, to be besieged in their turn by 200,000 Saracens. On the 28th of June, their fleet, and to the crusaders, thus assisted, Acre surrendered, after a siege this vast host was defeated before the walis of Antioch, and the way was then of 23 months, (July 12th, 1191.) open- to Jerusalem. The siege of Jerusalem began June 7th, 1099: it was taken Result of the Third Crusade. The taking of Acre was the sole result of the by storm July 15th, 1099. - third crusade. Rivalries and jealousies sprang up among the Christian leaders, The political results of the First Crusade. The restoration of the best especially between the kings of France and England. Philip abandoned the part of Asia Minor to the Greek Empire,.and the conversion of Syria and a con- crusade and returned to France. The lion-hearted Richard remained some time MEDIIEVAL HISTORY. 197 longer, and at last agreed to a truce with Saladin. the terms of which were on Theatre of war. The Delta of the Nile. Damietta was taken, but the cruthe whole honorable to the Christians, and creditable to the liberality and tole- saders were soon afterward defeated at Massourah, where Louis was made prisrance of the Mohammedans. oner with nearly the whole of his army, by the sultan of Egypt. They were, however, THE FOURTH CRUSADE. Cause. The desire of getting again pos- allowed to ransom themselves. This provoked the rage of the body-guard of the session of Jerusalem, which had been, ever since 1187, in the power of the Ayou- sultan, who was murdered. This made an end to the Ayoubite dynasty in Egypt. bite sultans of Egypt. Result of the Sixth Crusade. After the murder of the sultan, the MainePreacher of the Crusade. Fulco of Neuilly. lukes — Tatar slaves who had served as the sultan's body-guard — appointed Duration. About three years, (1202-1204.) their own commander, Ibek, to the Egyptian throne, (1250.) The result of the Leaders. Dandolo, doge of Venice, Thiebault of Champagne, Simon of Mont- sixth crusade, therefore, was the establishment of the Mameluke power in Egypt. fort, Boniface of Montferrat, Baldwiu of Flanders, etc. They ruled Egypt until 1517. The march to Constantinople. The crusading armament assembled at THE SEVENTH AND LAST CRUSADE. Cause. The conquest of Venice. The doge Dandolo exerted himself to persuade the crusaders to turn the greater part of the Christian possessions by the Mamelukes. their arms in the direction of Constantinople before proceeding to the Holy Land. Duration. Hardly one year, (1270.) They were the more easily persuaded to do this because hopes were held out Leader. Louis IX., king of France. that their interference might tend to bring about a reconciliation between the Theatre of war. Tunis, where Louis IX. first landed, and where a pestilence Latin and Greek Churches. They went first to Zara, in Dalmatia, which had carried off himself and the greater part of his army. revolted from Venice, and from thence to Constantinople, which was finally Result of the Seventh Crusade. After this defeat, the Pope failed in all taken, (1204.) his endeavors to excite any enthusiasm for the holy war. One Syrian fortress Result of the Fourth Crusade. The conquest of the Byzantine Empire, after the other fell into the hands of the victorious Mussulmans, until at length, of which the crusaders hastened to avail themselves. Baldwin, count of Flanders, and last of all, the dearly won Acre (Ptolemais) was captured, after an obstinate was elected to the dignity of Emperor of the East, one-fourth part of the terri- resistance, in 1292, just at the time when Pope Boniface VIII. took the first steps tories of the empire accompanying that dignity. Thus was founded the Latin toward his great conflict with Philip the Fair, king of France, which resulted in Empire, which lasted from 1204-1261. The remaining three-fourths (over which the deepest humiliation of the Papal power. The system of Gregory VII. declined Baldwin was feudal sovereign) were divided among the powers who had taken simultaneously in Europe and in Asia. the chief part in the crusade - the Venetians taking the greater part, and the French and Italian nobles taking the rest. The only lasting result of this cru- II. General Results of the Crusade sade was an enormous extension of Venetian commerce. THE FIFTH CRUSADE. Three different exledit[ions bear the name of A. POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES. I. To the hierarchy. 1. The the Fifth Crusade.. exaltation of the Papal power as the leader and originator of plans which the 1st. An abortive expedition for the recovery of the Holy Land, by Andrew, temporal sovereigns were called on to execute. 2. The authority of the Pope king of Hungary, in 1217. over the bishops was increased. 3. The wealth of the Church was increased by 2d. An expedition for the conquest of Damiett.a in Egypt, by John of Brienne, t.he many opportunities it had of purchasing at a cheap rate the lands of the which was taken, but lost again in 1221. crusaders. 3d. The crusade of Emperor Frederick II. (See this.) II. To the sovereigns. Increase of the estates belonging immediately to Result of the Crusade of Emperor Frederick II. After the departure the crown. of Frederick, the Christians in Palestine enjoyed the fruits of his military III. To the nobility. The spirit of aristocracy developed itself in the prowess and wise policy, living in quiet and prosperity in the cities and territo- formation of the knightly character. ries which Frederick had compelled the sultan of Egypt, to cede. This prosper- IV. To the citizens. The growth and prosperity of the cities were proity, however, was suddenly put an end to by the violent irruption into Syria moted by the absence of the nobles. and Egypt of a new race of conquerors - the Charismian Turks, from the bor- V. To the peasants. A fiee peasantry was gradually taking the place of ders of the Caspian, (1244.) These invaders carried all before them, established the serfs. themselves in Syria, and burned and pillaged Jerusalem, after defeating the B. CONSEQUENCES TO TRADE, etc. I. To maritime enterChristian forces. The fruit of the crusades was thus once more lost. prise. The north Italian republics (especially Venice, Genoa, and Pisa,) obtained THE SIXTH CRUSADE. Cause. The taking of Jerusalem by the possession of most of the seaports and islands of the eastern basin of the MediCharismian Turks. terranean, and of the Black sea, the command of the latter securing to their Duration. One year, (1248-1249.) merchants a monopoly of the northern trade, and a considerable share in that of Leader. Louis IX., king of France. (See ST. LouIs.) Asia. 198 A.PPENDIX. II. To manufactures, etc. The mulberry, as food for silkworms, Indian 1. The Mongolian Empire, stretching from China to Russia, and consisting of a corn, (Turkey wheat,) and the sugar-cane, were brought before the notice of miscellany of populations governed by pagan khans. western agriculturists; new drugs were introduced to the medical practice of 2. The restored Greek or Byzantine Empire, under Paloeologus and his sucEurope by the knowledge acquired of the state of medicine among the Arabs; cessors. and it was the same with other arts. 3. The Mohammedan nations, governed either by Turks tributary to the Mongol conquerors, or by independent Turkish dynasties. Of these dynasties the IIIX. The Division of the East at the end of the 13th Century. most powerful was that of the Mamelukes of Egypt, who successfully disputed Before the end of the crusades the caliphate of Bagdad had been destroyed by Syria with the Mongols. They became masters of Syria, and did not cease their the Mongolians, (1258,) and the Latin Empire by the Greeks, (1260.) The East exertions till they had rooted out of that country every vestige of Christian colowas therefore, at the end of the 13th century, divided into thlree parts: nization, and expelled the last relics of the crusades, (1291.) MODERN HISTORY. I. THE TRANSITION PERIOD. _I. The Anglo-Scotch War. Great battles. Gained by the English: Cregy, (1346,) Poitiers, (1356,) AzinCause. The refusal of John Baliol to acknowledge Edward I. as his feudal court, (1415.) superior. II_. The IWar of the Roses. Duration. Thirty-three years, (1296-1328.) Cause. The claim of Richard, duke of York, to the English crown. (See Theatre of war. Southern Scotland. YORK, and GENEALOGY, I.) Object of the war. The union of Great Britain under the English sovereign. Duration. Thirty years, (1455-1485.) Result of the war. The independence of Scotland. Periods. 1st period, (1296-1307.) Success of the English. The times of The house of war. England, orthe white roses, and the house of Lancaster Wallace, the hero of Stirling. 2d period, (1307-1328.) Reverses of the English. or the red roses. The times of Bruce, the hero of Bannockburn. Object of the war. To place the house of York upon the English throne. Great battles. Gained by the English: Stinbar, (1296.) Falkirk, (1298.) At length, after the throne had been uneasily occupied for 24 years by three Gai~ned by the Scotch: Stirling, (1297.) Bannockburn, (1314.) princes of the house of York —Edward IV., (1461-1483;) Edward V., (1483,) and Richard III., (1483-1485,) -peace was restored to England by the accession II. The Anglo-French Struggle. of Henry VII. (See BOSTORTH FIELD.) Cause. The claim of Edward III. to the throne of France. (See VALOIS IN Result of the war. The extermination of the ancient nobility of England. FRANCE, and GENEALOGY, III.) Periods. ]stperiod, (1455-1460.) The times of York. (See this.) 2dperiod, Duration. One hundred and fourteen years, (1339-1453.) (1460-1471.) The times of Warwick the king-maker. (See this.) 3d period, (1471Theatre of war. Western Europe, from the mouth of the Schelde, (in Flan- 1485.) The times of Gloucester, (Richard III.) ders,) to the Ebro, (in Spain.) Great battles. The bloodiest battle of the whole war was the battle of TowParties. The English and the Flemish against the French.. >v.- ton Field, (1461,) in which the Lancastrians were totally defeated, and which Object of the war. The union of England and France under the Plant~ta- gave the crown to the house of York, (Edward IV.) Other battles of this war genets. were: St. Albans, Bloreheath, Northampton, Mortimer's Cross, Barnet, TewksResult of the ~w~ar. Consolidrattion of France. The Plantagenets lose 1all |bury, gained by the Yorkists; Wakefield and Bosworth, gained by the Lancastrians. their French possessions except Calais. Periods. 1st period, (1339-1368.) Success of the English. The times of the Black Prince. 2dperiod, (1368-1380.) Reverses of the English. The times of Cause. The claim of Charles VIII., king of France, to the throne of Naples, Du Guesclin. 3dperiod, (1380-1415.) The exhaustion of both parties. 4thperiod, bequeathed to his father, Louis XI., by Charles of Maine. (See GENEALOGY, (1415-1429.) Success of the English. The times of Henry V. and Bedford. 5th VIII.) His successor, Louis XII., had also a claim to Milan as grandson of Valenperiod, (1429-1453.) Final expulsion of the English. tina Visconti. MODERIN HISTORY. 199 Duration. Twenty-three years, (1494-1516.) Theatre of war. Especially central Italy. Sack of Rome, in 1527, by the Theatre of war. The whole of Italy. imperialists. Parties. The French against the Spaniards. The different Italian states Object of the war. To break down the power of the emperor. allied themselves sometimes with the one, sometimes with the other. Result of the war. The emperor is more powerful than ever. Object of the war. To bring Italy under French influence. Parties. The Pope, the Venetians, and Sforza had formed a league against the Result of the war. Italy comes entirely under Spanish influence, and emperor, with Francis I., then at Cognac. Hence its name, the League of Cognac. becomes partly even a Spanish province. Commanders. On the Spanish side: The constable of Bourbon. (a FrenchPeriods. 1st period, (1494-1496.) The expedition of Charles VIII. Conquest man; ) DIED DURING THE SAOK or ROME; George Frundsberg (a German;) and and loss of Naples. 2dperiod, (1499-1500.) The expedition of Louis XII. Con- Andreas Doria, (a Genoese. ) On the French side: Lautrec, St. Pol. quest of Milan. 3d period, (1501-1504.) Naples entirely lost to France; it Peace. At Cambray, in 1529. It was founded on the treaty of Madrid. becomes a Spanish province. 4th period, (1508-1513.) The times of Julius II. Francis was released from his obligation to surrender Burgundy, and on the He endeavors to drive both French and Spanish from Italy. 5thperiod, (1515- other hand renounced all his pretensions in Italy, and engaged not to counte1516.) The expedition of Francis I. nance any practices against the emperor either in Italy or Germany. Francis Great battles. Gained by the French: Fornova, (1495;) Novara, (1500;) abandoned all his allies, both in Italy and the Netherlands, while Charles did Agnadello, (1509;) Ravenna, (1512;) Marignano, (1515.) Gained by the Spanish: not desert a single one, and obtained a pardon for the constable's family and Garigliano, (1503.) adherents. Great commanders. French: Gaston de Foix and Bayard. Spanish: Con- Remark. Thus were virtually terminated the great wars of the French in salvo de Cordova. Italy, which had lasted thirty-six years. In these wars the French had repeatedly displayed a capability of making rapid and brilliant conquests, without the power V. The Wrars between the Emnperor Charles V,4 and Francis I., of retaining them, or turning them to any substantial advantage. King of -France. THE THIRD WVAR. Cause. The emperor takes possession of Milan on the death of Sforza, in 1535. Causes. 1. The occupation of Naples by the Spanish. 2. The occupation Duration. Three years, (1536 —1538.) of Navarre by the Spanish. 3. The occupation of Milan by the French. 4. The Theatre of war. Piemont and Provence. occupation of the duchy of Burgundy by the French. Object of the war. To drive the Spaniards out of Milan, and to obtain posDuration. Twenty-three years, (1521-1544.) session of Savoy. Number of wars. Four. Result of the war. The Spaniards retain Milan, but Francis obtains Savoy THE FIRST WAR. Cause. The refusal of Francis I. to cede Milan to and part of Piemont. Sforza, who had been confirmed in his claims upon it by the emperor, the feudal Parties. Francis, in league with Sultan Soliman, against the emperor. sovereign of Milan. Peace. The 10 years truce of Nice, (1538.) Converted soon afterward (1539) Duration. Six years, (1521-1526.) into a "perpetual peace " by the treaty of Toledo. Francis retains Savoy and Theatre of war. Lombardy; also Provence and Picardy. part of Piemont, Charles the rest of Piemont. Charles promises to invest Francis Object of the war. To drive the French out of Italy. with Milan. Result of the war. The French driven out of Italy. THE FOURTH WAR. Cause. Charles refuses to invest Francis with Parties. The emperor, in league with the Pope, England, and Venice, against Milan. France. Duration. Three years, (1542-1544.) Battles. Gained by the Spaniards: Bicocca, (1522,) and Pavia, (1525.) Fran- Theatre of war. Northern France, (Picardy and Champagne.) cis is taken prisoner. Object of the war. The division of France between the emperor and Peace. At Madrid, in 1526. Francis renounces forever all claims to Milan, Henry VIII. of England. Genoa, and Naples, and promises to restore the duchy of Burgundy to the Result of the war. Every thing remained as before. emperor. Parties. The emperor, in league with Henry VIII. of England. Francis I., Remark. Between the first and second war falls the Turkish war of 1526, in league with the Turks. and the battle of Mohacz. (See this.) Peace. At Crespy, near Laon, (1544.) Each party was to restore the places THE SECOND WAR. Cause. The refusal of Francis to give up the taken by either since the treaty of Nice. Francis and the emperor should co-opeduchy of Burgundy. rate in restoring the union of the Church; that is, should enter into an alliance Duration. Three years, (1527-1529.) against the Protestants, and should defend Christendom against the Turks.' ---. Ai-'-~~"-......'-' I.. II I I I ~ 200 APPENDIX. II, RELIGIOUS WARS. I. Smalcaldian lWar. The first Reli~gious War of Germany. princes in possession. The elector of Brandenburg, on the death, in 1613, of his Cause. The Protestant princes of Germany, with the Saxon elector at their brother, the margrave Ernest of Brandenburg, who governed Juliers for both Cause. Thea Protestant princes of Ger manSxy,) awnth tfre b aon elector at the the princes in possession, placed the government of it in the hands of his own son, head, had met at Smalcalde, (in Upper Saxoniy,) and formed a league for the George William. This arrangement was by no means satisfactory to the count defence of their liberties, (December, 1530.) During the fourteen following years, there had been little interference with the religious liberties of the Germans. But palatine of Neuburg, ad his son Wolfgang; and the latter now took a step unexpected even by his father. in 1545, the emperor Charles V. prepared to restore Catholicism in Germany by The count paltine had consented to the marrige of his son with gdalen force of arms. He began by calling a diet at Worms, at which resolutions were sister of Mximilin of Bavaria, the head of the Catholic league. In the spring passed forbiddingthe dissemination of Anti-Catholic tenets. The Protestant princes, of 1614, Wolfgng occupied Dseldorf, drove out the officers of the Brndeburg seeing that Charles was now in earnest, renewed their league, and took up arms. government, and seized as many other places as he could; then he publicly Durationl. Seven years, (1546-1552.) |government, and seized as many other places as he could; then he publicly Duration. Seven years, (1546-1552.) Theatre of war. South-western Germany and Saxony. embraced the Roman Catholic faith. s y l In order to maintain himself in Diisseldorf, and to gain possession of the Object of the war. The annihilation of the political and religious liberties whole of the Cleve inheritance, he solicited the emperor to call the Spaniards of the members of the German Empire. into Germany. In answer to this request, Spinola marched into Germany and Result of the war. The liberties of the members of the empire are placed took possession of Juliers and Wesel. ut as this as a regular attack on the on a secure basis. allies of Holland, Prince Maurice, who was in the neighborhood with a small Parties. The emperor, in league with the Pope, against the German Protest- allies of Holland, Prince Maurice, who wns in the neighborhood with a small ants under John Frederick, duke of Saxony, and Philip, landgrave of Hesse- army, immediately occupied in the name of the house of Brandenburg, Rees, C(t~~~~~~~~~~~assel.' ~Emmerich. Kranenburv, and Gennep. Thus a German territory, disputed by GrCassel. German princes, was occupied by the Spaniards for one p'larty, and by the Dutch rehat battle. The emperor defeats the Protestents at.uhlberg, (1547,) for the other. The t'wo great parties, each assisted by foreigners, were in array where he captures tihe two Protestaont leaders. against each other, ready to begin the strife, which was destined to last more than aurice oftheir kinsan, ony. Thioms victory he owed in p art to the treachnferredy of 30 years, and devastate the fairest parts of central Europe. The dispute about rice their kinsman, on whom, as avreward for his conduct, Charles conferred the the lev inhance wa fina the convention of Di2selectorate of Saxony. (His descendants still occup)y the Saxon throne.) Osten- seldorf, by which the territories of the late duke were equally divided between sibly taking part with the emperor, Maurice still kept up a secret alliance with the two claimllts - BRANtDE:NBUI receiving for his share, Cleves and the counties the Protestants, and so arranged matters that their cause did not become entirely of Marc and llavensbcrg, and NEuBuno obtaining Juliers, Berg, and Ravenstein. desperate. At length, he threw off the mask, and placed himself at the head of,, the league. He conducted the war with such consummate skill that, after various III. The Thirty Years War. reverses, Charles was obliged to submit. Peace. At Passau, (see this.) This treaty, which placed the religious liber- General cause. The division of the German Empire into three distinct parties of Germany on a secure basis, was confirmed by a solemn declaration made ties, Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. These parties were mutually animated at Augsburg, in 1555, and entitled the Peace of Religion. with religious hatred, and ready to take arms against each other on the most trifling pretext. II. The Cleve Succession. trifling pretext. Particular causes. 1. The dissolution of the empire, the result of the spirit On the 25th of March, 1609, had died, without issue, John William, duke of of religious faction, (no diet having been convened since 1613.) 2. The unceasJuliers, Cleve, and Berg, count of La Marck and Ravensberg, and lord of Raven- ing ground of quarrel furnished by the church lands, which Protestants had stein. Numerous claimants to this succession arose. The question of this suc- seized, and which were reclaimed by Catholic princes or prelates. 3. The corcession derived its chief importance from the circumstance that though Pro- rupt and reckless policy of the ministers of Rudolf II. 4. The smouldering testantism had spread around them, the dukes of Cleve had always remained hate of half a century kindled by the troubles of Bohemia. firmly attached to the orthodox Church, thus constituting one of the few large Immediate cause. The order issued by Emperor Ferdinand to shut up the Catholic powers among the temporal princes of Germany. new churches which the Protestants had erected at Braunau and Klostergrab, The emperor Rudolf II., evoked the cause before the Aulic Council, as the produces an outbreak at Prague; -the delegates, at the instigation of Count proper tribunal in all feudal disputes. Before a definitive judgment was pro- Thurn, the head of the Protestant party in Bohemia, throw Slawata, Martinitz, nounced, two of the claimants, the elector of Brandenburg and the count pala- and Fabricius out of the window of the council chamber in the Hradschin at tine of Neuburg, jointly occupied the Cleve inheritance, and assumed the title of Prague, (May 23d, 1618.). Under the conduct of Thurn, a regular revolt was Prge My 3,11.. U n e.h odc fTurarglrrvl a MODERN HISTORY. 201 now organized in Bohemia; a revolutionary government was appointed, and Great commanders. Catholic: Tilly and WALLENSTEIN. Protestant: Manssteps were taken to form a union with the Protestants of Austria and Hungary. feld, and Christian of Brunswick. Duration. Thirty years, (1618-1648.) Decisive battles. Catholic victories at the bridge of Dcssau, and near Lutter Theatre of war. Central Europe. It was the first general European war. on ite Biirenhery. Character of the war. The great, German revolution. Peace. In order to prevent a. junction of the Swedes and Danes, a peace was Object of the war. The annihilation of the house of Habsburg. concluded at Lubeck, (1629,) between the emperor and the king of Denmark, on Result of the war. The material and political annihilation of Germany. terms exceedingly favorable to the latter, who received hack all the territories Parties. A. Catholics: The emperor, the Liga, Spain, Belgium, Italy, and of which he had been deprived by Wallenstein and Tilly, on pledging himself Poland. B. Protestants: The evangelical states of Germany, Holland, England, never to become a party to any confederacy against the emperor. Denmark, and Sweden. In 1632, Catholic France joins the Protestants, and thus changes the character of the war, (from a religious to a political war.) Result of the Conquest of Northern Germany. Division. 1. The Bohemian-Palatine period, (1618-1623.) 2. The Danish The emperor, elated with his victory, began a crusade against the Protestants period, (1625-1629.) 3. The Swedish period, (1630-1635.) 4. The French of Germany, beginning with those of Bohemia. Many of the leading men of period, (163441648.) Bohemia were executed; hundreds of Bohemian families were exiled; and the Catholic worship was restored in the Bohemian territory. The emperor's designs, First Division. The Bohemian-Palatine Period, however, extended beyond Bohemia. He aimed at the reduction of all the GerCause. The Bohemians renounced their allegiance to Ferdinand II., and con- man princes to the same position as the nobles of other countries; and, as a step ferred the crown of Bohemia on Frederick V., elector palatine, son-in-law of to the accomplishment of this, he ordered the restoration of all the church lands James I of England. Frederick V. was at that time the leading Protestant that had been seized by laymen subsequently to the treaty of Passau. Even prince in Germany. Ile ruled one winter in Bohemiia, 619-20: hence his the Catholics, many of whom had shared in the distribution of the church lands, name, the Winterking. Frederick's army is utterlay routed on the White mnn- resisted this decree, and began to be alarmed at the immense power which the tam, near Prague, (Nov. 8th, 1620.) Frederick's flight to Holland. ie is placed house of Austrita was assuming in the empire, under the pretence of zeal for the under the ban of the emipire. All his states are confiscated,. restoration of the Catholic Church. It was, however, carried into effect with Duration. Nearly six years, (1618-1623.) great severity by Wallenstein. But the discontent excited by his proceedings Theatre of war. Western Germany. was expressed by the estates of the empire so loudly and unequivocally as to Object of the war. The restoration of Frederick V. to his paternal inherit- compel the emperor to dismiss Wallenstein from his service, (September, 1630.) ance. (the palatinate.) Third Divisiom. The Swedish Period. Result of the war. Devast tion of western Germany. Frederick a fugitive. The Catholics victoriots. The vacant electorate was conferred on Maximilian of Causes. a. The plain of Wallenstein to extend the domination of the empire to Bavaria., whose appointment gave the Catholics a majority in the electoral college. the Baltic. 6 b. The exclusion of the Swedish ambassadors from the congress of Great commanders. Catholic: Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Spinola. Pro- Lubeck. c. The assistance given to the Poles (the bitter enemies of Gustavus lestant: Mansfeld, Baden-Durlach, Christian of Brunswick. Adolphus) by the imperialists. Decisive battles. Hochst, (1622;) Stadt Lohn, (1623;) both gained by the Duration. Six years, (1630-1635.) Catholics. Theatre of war. The whole of Germany. Second Division. The Danish Period. Object of the war. The humiliation of the imperial house of Habsburg. The erection of a Protestant empire. Cause. The election of Christian IV., king of Denmark, as chief of the Result of the war. Germany becomes the general battle-field of Europe. circle of Lower Saxony. He declares his determination to put an end to the The thorough devastation of Gernany. quartering of troops and other burdens, with which some of the states belonging Great commanders. Imperialists: Tilly, Wlallenstein, Piccolomini, Gallas. to that circle were oppressed, contrary to the peace of religion and the laws of Anti-imperialists: GUsTAvus ADOLPius, Bernhard of Weimar, Horn. the empire. Decisive battles. Gained by the Imperialist Nordhingen, (1634.) Gained by Duration. About five years, (1625-1629.) the Anti-imperialists: Breitenfeld, (1631;) Littzen, (1632.) Theatre of war. Northern Germany. Peace. At Prtgue, (1635.) In order to oppose the Swedish and French Object of the war. To restore the Winterking (Frederick V.) to his states. troops, the emnperor was obliged to make separate terms with the Germ-an ProResult of the war. Devastation of northern Germany. The Catholics vie- testants. By the terms of this peace, the operation of the Restitution Edict was torious. deferred for 40 years. 26 202 APPENDIX. Fourth Division. The French Period. Duration. Four years, (1642-1645.) Cause. Richelieu influences the Swedish government not to accede to the Theatre of war. England. peace of Prague. The elector of Saxony had by an express article of this peace Character of the war. Partly religious, partly political. pledged himself to assist in driving the Swedes from Germany. Richelieu wishes Object of the war. To bring the government of England under the conto prevent their expulsion. trol of the house of commons. Duration. Nearly 14 years, (1635-1648.) Result of the war. The government under the control of the army. Theatre of war. Two different theatres of war in Germany. In the east, Great commanders. Royalists: Prince Rupert, Newcastle, Falkland, Monthe Swedes; in the west, the French. trose. Anti-royalists: Fairfax and Cromwell. Character of the war. The war has lost its religious character. It is a Decisive battles. Marston Moor (1644) and Naseby, (1645,).both gained by purely political struggle. Cronmwell. Object of the war. The political annihilation of the German Empire. b. Second Civil War. Result of the war. The policy of France and Sweden is entirely successful. t en to a Great commanders. Imperialists: Von Werth. Anti-imperialists: Bernard Cause. The refusal of the parliament to treat any longer with Charles. of Weimar, Baner, Wrangel, Tolrstenson, Cond6, Turenne. Duration. Six months, (March-August, 1648.) Decisive battles. Gained by the Imperialists: Duttlingen, (1643.) Gained Theatre of war. The northwest of England. by the Anti-imperialists: Wittstock, (1636;) Leipsic, (1643;) Jankau, (1645;) Object of the war. An army of 14,000 Scotchmen crosses the border with Allerheim, (1645.) the intention of reinstating Charles on his throne. Peace. See PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. Result of the war. Trial and execution of the king, (1649.) Decisive battle. The Scots defeated at Preston by Cromwell. IV. Civil Wars in England. Remark. The first acts of the Commons, after the execution of the king, aI. First Civil War.were the abolition of the office of royalty, and of the house of lords, the sale of a. First oCivl War. the church and crown lands, and the punishment of some of the more distinImmediate causes. 1st. The religious fury excited by the encourage- guished rovalists. A council of state was appointed, of which Bradshaw was ment which the king and queen gave to Catholicism. 2d. The discovery of the the president, Milton the foreign secretary. Cromwell was made lieutenant-general. conspiracy of some of the leading persons in the king's party to march the England was declared a commonwealth. The house of commons, reduced to army to London and subdue the parliament. 3d. The insane step of the king in a small number of members, was nominally the supreme power of the state. In entering the house, to claim the surrender of the five leaders of the party opposed fact, the army and its great chief governed everything. Cromwell had made its to him. 4th. The refusal of King Charles I., to give the control of the militia choice. lie had kept the hearts of his soldiers, and had broken with almost to parliament. every other class of his fellow-citizens. III. THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. A. DURING THE ADMINISTRATION OF MAZARIN. I. The Franco-Spanish War. Object of the war. The extension of the French boundaries; especially Cause. The elector of Trbves had admitted French troops in his fortresses, the acquisition of Belgium.. and had named Richelieu his coadjutor, a step by which that cardinal might have Result of the war. France gains Artois in the north, and Rousillon in the eventually secured a vote as one of the electors of the empire. The elector had, south. on account of these proceedings of his, been put under the ban of the empire, Parties. France allied with the Swedes and the Dutch, against the Spanish and in March, 1635, a Spanish corps surprised Trbves, and carried off the elector and the Austrian Habsburgs. a prisoner to Antwerp. Richelieu immediately demanded the elector's liberation Commanders. Spanish: Piccolomini, Gallas, von Werth, Mercy, CONDf, from the governor of the Netherlands. On the refusal of this demand, war (after 1652.) French: Bernard of Weimar, La Force, TURENNE. was openly declared by a French herald at Brussels, (May, 1635.) Decisive battles. Four victories of the French under CONDIe: Rocroy, (1643;) Duration. Twenty-four years, (1635-1659.) Freibulrg, (1644;) Nordlingen, (1645;.) and Lens, (1648.) Defeat of the Spanish Theatre of war. The confines of the French and Spanish Empires, (Spain, army under Condd by TTnRENNE, at Dunkirk, (1658.) Italy, Rhine countries, Belgium.) Peace. The peace of the Pyrenees, (November, 1659.) The conditions were | ZS,, Or 1 al _ *,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ MODERN HISTORY. 203 almost entirely in favor of France, which gained nearly the whole of Artois, and Decisive battles. English victories: Off Lowestoff, on the Suffolk coast, (1665.) several towns on the Franco-Belgian frontier. In the south the French boundary Dutch victories: Between Dunkirk and North Foreland, (1666,) Chatham, (1667.) was extended to the foot of the Pyrenees. Peace. At Breda. The English retained New York and New Jersey, while It was stipulated that Cond6 should submit to the king with the assurance of a Surinam and the isle of Polerone in the Moluccas remained to the Dutch. The pardon and the government of Burgundy, and that Louis XIV. should espouse Navigation Act was so far modified that all merchandise coming down the Rhine Maria Theresia, eldest daughter of Philip IV., king of Spain. (See GENEAL- was allowed to be imported into England in Dutch vessels; a measure which renoGY, IX.) dered the Dutch masters of a great part of the commerce of Germany. 11. Anglo-Dutch FWars. a. First Anglo-Dutch War. Cause. The passing of the Navigation Act, (October 9th, 1651,) intended to I. Condition of France dzring the first part of the Reign of cripple the carrying trade of the Dutch. Louis XIJV. Duration. Nearly two years, (May, 1652-April, 1654.) Duration. Nearly two years, (May, 1652-pri, 154.) E The territory of France was not quite so extensive as at present, but it was heatre of war. The narrow seas. (English channel, straits of Dover, large, compact, fertile, well placed both for attack and for defence, situated in a southern part of the German ocean.) happy climate, well inhabited by a brave, active, and ingenious people. The Object of the war. To force England to take back the Navigation Act. state implicitly obeyed the direction of a single mind. The great fiefs, which sResult of the war..ollnd impoverished. England master of the narrow three hundred years before had been in all but name independent principalities, Grseas. had been annexed to the crown. Only a few old men could remember the last Great comminders. English: Blake, Monl. Dutch: Tromp, De Ruyter. meeting of the states-general. The resistance which the Huguenots, the nobles, Decisive battles. Twelve great battles, and many smaller encounters. Off and the parliament had offered to the kingly power had been put down by the Por/land, off the North Forland, off the Teel, (all English victories.) two great cardinals (Richelieu and Mazarin) who had ruled the nation during Peace. At Westminster. Tle Navigation Act remains in force-Holland 40 years. The government was now a despotism, but, at least in its dealings has to strike its flag to England. The Act of Seclusion. Remark. The Navigation Act, which had caused this war, prohibited all with the upper classes, a mild and generous despotism, tempered by courteous manners and chivalric sentiments. The means at the disposal of the sovereign nations from importing into England, in their bottoms, any commodity which nations from importing into England, in their bottoms, any commodity which were, for that age, truly formidable. His revenue - raised, it is true, by a severe was not the growth and manufacture of their own country. By this law the was not the growt~h aud manufacture of their own country. by thils law the and unequal taxation, which pressed heavily on the cultivators of the soil-far Dutch were the principal sufferers, because they subsisted chiefly by being the army, excellently disciplined, and [ @ @ n S n To 2 - exceeded that of any other potentate. His army, excellently disciplined, and general carriers and factors of Europe.' general carriers and factors of Europe commanded by the greatest generals then living, already consisted of more The Act of Seclusion, which was the result of the English victories, excluded than 120,000 men. Such an array of regular troops had not been seen in Europe for ever the house of Orange from the chief magistracy, and from the command since the downfall of the Roman Empire. Of maritime powers, France was not since the downfall of the Roman Empire. Of maritime powers, France was not of the armies of the Dutch republic. the first. But though she had rivals on the sea, she had not yet a superior. 6. Second Anglo-,Dutch Wfrar. Such was her strength during the last forty years of the 17th century, that no enemy could singly withstand her; and two great coalitions, in which half Cause. The war was entered into both by the English court and people from Christendom was united against her, failed of success. interested motives, though of a different kind. The king (Charles II.) encouraged it as a pretence to get subsidies from his parliament, and also as a means to IL The Wars of Louis XIV. place his nephew, the prince of Orange, at the head of the Dutch republic. The king's brother, the duke of York, was incited to encourage the war by the a. General Summary. prospect of employment, and the hope of distinguishing himself as an admiral. Cause. The marriage of Louis XV. with Maria Theresia, eldest daughter of Lastly, the English nation was envious of the commercial prosperity of the Dutch. Philip IV. of Spain, which gave him a claim to the Spanish monarchy. (See Duration. Nearly three years, (1665-1667.) GENEALOGY, IX.) Theatre of war. The narrow seas, (that portion of the German ocean and Duration. Nearly a half century, (1667-1715.) English channel, which separates England from Holland.) Theatre of war. The whole of south-western Europe. Object of the war. The annihilation of the Dutch commerce. Object of the wars. To make France the ruling power in Europe, and to Result of the war. Mutual exhaustion. extend its boundaries as far as possible. Great commanders. English: The duke of York, and Monk. Dutch: De Result of the wars. The utter exhaustion of France. Ruyter, Tromp, Wassenaar. Number of wars. Four. I. The war of devolution, (1667-1668.) II. The 204 APPENDIX. war with Holland, (1672-1678.) III. The war of the league of Augsburg, Parties. France, England, Cologne, and Miinster, against Holland-after (1678-1697.) IV. The Spanish Succession War, (1702-1715.) 1674. France, with Sweden, opposed to the greater part of Europe. b. The War of lDevolution. } Great commanders. Firench: Cond6, Turenne, Vauban, Luxembourg, DuCause.LuisV hd mrri n 1, Mri. dquesne. Dutch: William of Orange, l)e Ruyter. Gernan: Montecuculi. Cause. Louis XIV. had married, in 1660, Maria Theresia, daughter of Philip Campaigns. Early in May, 1672, the French marched against Holland. With IV. of Spain. The dowry was fixed at 500,000 crowns, and Philip made it a the assistance of their allies from Cologne and Miinster, they occupied in a few condition that his daughter should renounce for herself and her descendants weeks the provinces of Gelderland, Utrecht, Over-Yssel, and part of Holland. every right she mighthave to the succession. n the death of Philip IV., (1668,) Despair lent strength to the vanquished. They opened their dikes and laid Louis, without paying attention to the renunciation made by Maria Theresia, the country under water, for the purpose of compelling the French to evacuate immediately set up claims in her name to Flanders, to the exclusion of the it. Europe also rose in favor of Holland. The emperor Leopold, the kings of rights of Charles II., the younger child of Philip IV. Iis pretext was that Spain and Denmark, the elector of Brandenburg, etc., leagued themselves against the dowry of the queen not having been paid, her renunciation was null and Louis XIV., who was not only compelled to abandon his conquests, (in the winter void, and he set up with respect to Flanders a right of devolution, which resulted and spring, 1673-74,) but had to defend himself against the greater part of Europe. from a custom in force in parts of the Low Countries, which gave the paternal Louis in person entered Franche-Comte, which was conquered within two heritage to children of the first marriage, in preference to those of the second. months, (May and June, 1674.) Cond6 opposed the prince of Orange in BelMaria Theresia, his wife, was a child of her father's first marriage, while Charles gium. Indecisive battle of Senef, (August, 1674.) II. was a child of the second. Turenne held the imperialists in check by a series of brilliant manceuvres on Duration. One year, (May, 1667-May, 1668.) the Rhine. He burned 27 towns and villages in the palatinate, and conquered Theatre of war. Belgium and Franche-Comt6. Elsass. (See TURENNE.) Object of the war. The incorporation of Belgium and Franche-Comt4 Decisive battles. On land, gained by Turenne: Fzntsheim, (1674;) Tiircklcleim, with the French monarchy. (1675.) On sea, gained by Duquesne: Off Palermo, (1676.) Result of the war. French Flanders united with the French monarchy. Peace. At Nimwegen. (See this.) The Peace of Nimwegen is the culminatFrance was thus established in the heart of Belgium, and able to push forward ing point of Louis XIV.'s glory. But France now became the object of a jealousy in a moment to the gates of Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp. excited by the pride of Louis, the pernicious counsels of Louvois, and the natural Parties. Louis XIV., against the government of his brother-in-law, Charles II. restlessness of the French people; which, after some time, produced misfortunes Great commanders. French: Turenne, Vauban, Louvois, Cond6. that embittered the last days of the French monarch with repentance and regret. Campaigns. 1st. Louis enters Flanders, (May 18th, 1667,) which he conquers within three weeks. 2d. Louis enters Franche-Comt6, (February, 1668,) d. Position of Louis XIV. after the Peace of Nimwegen. which he conquers within two weeks. The works executed by Colbert, Louvois, and Vauban; the conquests of Cause of peace. Europe became alarmed at these rapid successes, and a Turenne and Cond6; the halo of a brilliant literature; the eloquence of Bostriple alliance was formed against Louis between Holland, England, and Sweden. suet, Bourdaloue, Fl6chier, and FFnrlon; the writings of Corneille, MoliBre, John de Witt became the soul of this league, and it forced the king to sign the Racine, Boileau, La Fontaine, and so many other celebrated men; the protreaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. found works of the great thinkers and moralists, such as Pascal, Descartes, Peace. May 1st, 1668, at Aix-la-Chapelle. Spain cedes to France the places Malebranche, La Bruybre, and La Rochefoucauld; the marvellous art.istic procaptured in Belgium, and Louis XIV. restores Franche-Comt6. ductions of the sculptors Girardon, Puget, Coysevox, and Couston; the artists c. T~he War with Holland. Lesueur, Nicholas Poussin, Claude Lorraine, and Le Brun, and the architects Perrault, the two Mansards, and Le Notre; the scientific discoveries of the great Cause. The desire to punish Holland for the part it had taken in the triple mathematicians of this period, in the first rank of whom may be placed Pierre alliance, which had robbed Louis of the fruits of his campaign of 1668. Of- Fernlat; and finally, the labors undertaken by the astronomers Picard and Casfended by some medals which represented the United Provinces as the arbiters of sini, for the purpose of measuring the globe -throw an incomparable lustre Europe, and irritated at the impertinence of certain gazetteers, the king seized upon the first portion of the reigsn of Louis XIV., and contributed to lead posupon these frivolous pretexts and declared war upon the Dutch. terity to apply to the monarch the epithet of Great, and to speak of the age in Duration. Nearly seven years, (1672- -, 1678.) which he reigned as the age of Louis XIV. Theatre of war. The middle and lower part of the Rhine valley, Belgium, and Franche-Comtf. e. The Wlar of the League of Augsburg. Object of the war. The annihilation of Holland. Causes. The main grounds assigned for declaring war were: 1st. That Result of the war. Holland did not lose a foot of ground in Europe. France the enperor intended to conclude a peace with the Turks, in order that he might reached its natural frontier on the east, the Jura. turn his arms against France. 2d. That he had supported the elector pala MODERN HISTORY. 205 tine in his unjust hesitation to do justice to the claims of the duchess of Orleans, duke of Anjou, grandson of his eldest sister, Maria Theresia, and second son of 2d. T';Ht he had deprived Cardinal Furstenberg, an ally of France, of the arch- the dauphin of France. (See GENEALOGY, IX.) Louis XIV. knew that to accept bishopric of Cologne. this testament was to expose France to a new war with Europe. He could not Durat.ion. Ten years, (1688 —1697.) resist, however, his desire to place so brilliant a crown on the head of his Theatre of war. Belgium, Piemont, Rhine countries, and north-eastern Spain. grandson; and therefore, after some hesitation, he accepted the will, recogObject of the war. Louis XIV. wanted to extend his boundaries, and nized the duke of Anjou as a king, under the title of Philip V., and sent him to replace James II. on the English throne. The allies intended to break down Spain with the memorable words: " There are no longer any Pyrenees." the power of France, and reconquer the countries lost in the preceding war. Duration. Fourteen years, (1702-1715.) Result of the war. The prince of Orange is acknowledged as king of Eng- Theatre of war. Italy, Belgium, Rhine countries, Spain. land. The power of Louis XIV. is shaken to its foundations by this long and Object of the way, To prevent the house of Bourbon from ascending the bloody war. Spanish throne. Parties. The emperor, the princes of the empire, Spain, Holland, and Savoy, Result of the war. The house of Bourbon ascend the Spanish throne. against France. Parties. Louis XIV. against the emperor, the empire, IHolland, and England. Great commanders. French: Luxembourg, Catinat, Vendome, Bouffiers, Great commanders. French: Catinat, Vendome, Berwick, Villars. The Tourville. The Allies: William of Orange, Waldeck, Evertsen. Allies: Prince Eugene and Marlborough. Decisive battles. Gained by the French: Fleurus, (1690;) Steenkerk, (1692;) Decisive battles. Gained by the French: Almanza, (1707;) Villa Viciosa, Neerwinden, (1693;) Marsaglia, (1693.) Gained by the Allies: La Hogue, where (]710;) Denain, (1712.) Gained by the Allies: Blenheim, (1704;) Ramillies, the French navy was destroyed. In 1689 took place the second burning of the (1706:) Oudenaarde, (1P708;) Malplaquet, (1709.) palatinate. Causes of peace. A revolution which took place in the English court. The Cause of peace. The utter exhaustion of France forced Louis to enter into duchess of Marlborough offended Queen Anne, and her disgrace led to that of her negotiations for peace. He first of all succeeded, in 1696, in detaching from the husband. The opposite party (the Tories) came into power, and, for the purleague the duke of Savoy, who gave his daughter in marriage to the duke of Bur- pose of completing the ruin of Marlborough, they inclined the queen toward gundy, grandson of Louis XIV. Secure on the side of Italy, the king marched peace. The death of the emperor Joseph assisted them in their designs. The considerable bodies of troops into Flanders, and carried on the war actively in archduke Charles, his brother, (see GENEALOGY, IX.,) the competitor of Philip V., Catalonia, where Vendome achieved the important conquest of Barcelona. These obtained the imperial crown, and incurred, in his turn, the reproach of aspiring events hastened the progress of the negotiations for peace. to universal monarchy. From this time England was no longer interested in Peace. It was signed at length at Ryswyk, (September 20th, 1697,) the prin- supporting his claims to the throne of Spain, and agreed to a truce with France. cipal conditions of this treaty were: 1st. The king of Spain regains many places Peace. At Utrecht, (1713.) Its principal provisions were, that Philip V. in Belgium. 2d. The prince of Orange is acknowledged as king of England. should be acknowledged as king of Spain, but that his monarchy should be dis3d. France restores all her recent conquests and all the additions to her territory membered. Sicily was given to the duke of Savoy, with the title of king. subsequent to the peace of Nimwegen, save Strasburg and the domains of the The English obtained Minorca and Gibraltar; France also ceding to them Elsass. Hudson's bay, Newfoundland, and St. Christopher. Remark. Thus terminated this vast war, in which the two parties had dis- Louis XIV. guaranteed the succession to the English throne to the Protestant played, on land and sea, forces incomparably greater than modern Europe had line, and promised to demolish the port of Dunkirk. The elector of Brandenever seen before in motion. The armies acquired frightful proportions: France, burg was recognized as king of Prussia. in order to maintain herself against the coalition, had nearly doubled her mili- The emperor made peace at Baden, (1714,) by which he obtained Belgium, the tary status since the war with Holland. The result of these gigantic efforts had Milanese, and the kingdom of Naples, dismembered from the monarchy of Spain. been to her a barren honor: alone against almost all Europe, she had continued Remark. France preserved its frontiers by the Peace of Utrecht; but its to conquer; but she had conquered without increasing her power. For the first immense sacrifices had opened an abyss, in which the monarchy was finally time, on the contrary, since the accession of Richelieu, she had lost ground and engulphed. receded in the work of her territorial completion. She found herself, in 1697, Louis did not long survive the peace of Utrecht. He died at Versailles. on much within the limits of 1684, and returned to the limits of 1678, except that the first of September, 1715. He had lived 77 years, reigned 72, governed 54. she had acquired a great defensive position, Strasburg, in exchange for offensive It was the longest as the greatest reign of French history. positions, which was advantageous to a true policy. France prospered under Louis XIV., as long as he continued the idea of Richef. The Spanish Succession War. it lieu; it suffered, then declined, when he became unfaithful to it. Cause. Charles II., king of Spain, had nominated as his successor, Philip, 206 APPENDIX. IV. EASTERN EUROPE, DURING THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. THE SCANDINAVO-SLAVONIAN WARS. I. Position of Sweden. Duration. Two years, (1656-1658.) During the wars of Louis XIV. in western Europe, a series of wars scarcely Theatre of war. Denmark. less important in their effects, and even more extraordinary in their circum- Object of the war. The establishment of a Scandinavian empire that stances, had been going on in the north and east, involving Sweden, Denmark, should command the Baltic. Poland, and Russia. At the beginning of this period, Sweden was the great Result of the war. The conviction that Denmark without allies cannot power in the north. The peace of Westphalia had rewarded Sweden for the withstand Charles X. exertions of Gustavus Adolphus, by ceding to her Pomerania, and other districts Parties. Denmark in alliance with John Casimir of Poland, the emperor, and the on the Baltic, and giving her three votes in the German diet. The ambition of czar. Sweden without allies, and with Holland and Brandenburg as covert enemies. Sweden, being once aroused, now appeared, under the first three kings of the Great commanders. Charles X., Wrangel. Bipontine house, to menace all neighboring states more than under Gustavus Campaign. The Swedes cross the ice, (beginning of 1658,) and march toward Adolphus himself. Copenhagen; before they reached the capital, however, the Danes asked for peace. II. The Wars of Charles X. Cause of peace. The elector of Brandenburg and the Dutch were both preCharles X., (1654-1660,) king of Sweden, was the cousin and successor of paring to come to the relief of Denmark. Christina, only daughter and heir of Gustavus Adolphus. (See GENEALOGY, XIV.) Peace. At Roskild, (March, 1658.) By this treaty Denmark was isolated from her allies, as each party agreed to renounce all alliances contracted to the a. The Swedish Succession War. prejudice of the other, and the Baltic was to be closed to the fleets of the eneCause. John Casimir II., king of Poland and son of Sigismund, (who had mies of either power. been dethroned, in Sweden, in 1604,) annoyed at seeing the Swedish crown pass c. The Second War between Sweden and Denmark. into a foreign house, protested against the accession of Charles X. into a foreign house, protested against the accession of Charles X. Cause. The king of Denmark was charged with not having fulfilled all the DuTheatre io n. Six years, (16541660.) conditions of the treaty of Roskild; with being the cause of the oppression of Object of the war. To prevent the crown of Sweden from passing from the Protestants in Livonia by the Russians; with being the cause of the taking the house of Vasa. of Thorn by the Poles; and with having promoted the election of Leopold, the Result of the war. The crown of Sweden is confirmed to the heirs of enemy of Sweden, as emperor of Germany. Charles X., and an end is put to the pretensions of the Polish Vasas. Duration. Two years, (August, 1658-June, 1660.) Parties. John Casimir II., of Poland, against Charles X., of Sweden. Frede- Theatre of war. Denmark, especially the island of Zealand. rick William, the great elector, and Alexis, czar of Russia, are sometimes on the Object of the war. Denmark was to be annihilated as an independent side of the one, sometimes on the side of the other of the contending parties. kingdom, and to be reduced to the condition of a Swedish province. Great commanders. Charles X., the Pyrrhus of the north. Frederick Result of the war. Sweden had to restore all her Danish conquests. William, the great elector. Parties. Denmark, assisted by the Dutch, Brandenburg, and Poland, against Decisive battles. Sobota, utter defeat of John Casimir, (1655;) Warsaw, Sweden. Poles again defeated, (1656.) Campaign. Charles X. blockaded Copenhagen; but he was blockaded at the Cause of peace. The death of Charles X. same time, at sea, by the Dutch and Danish fleet, and on land, by the army of the Peace. At Oliva, (1660.) John Casimir renounced his claim to the Swedish allies. crown, but was allowed to retain the title of king of Sweden, which, however, Causes of peace. 1st. England, France, and the Dutch republic entered was not to be borne by his suceessors. All Livonia beyond the Dwina was ceded iinto an agreement to enforce the peace of Roskild. If the belligerent monarchs to Sweden. ^tdid not agree to a peace within a fortnight after the receipt of the demands of Remark. The treaty of Oliva is as celebrated in the northeast of Europe as this new convention, the fleets were to be employed against the party or parties the peace of Westphalia in the southwest. refusing. 2d. The death of Charles X. Peace. The treaty of Copenhagen. It was essentially a confirmation of the b. The First War between Sweden and Denmark. treaty of Roskild. Cause. Frederick III., of Denmark, had concluded a treaty with the Dutch Remark. This was the first attempt in European policy to coerce a conquerrepublic, for the defence of the Baltic navigation. ing nation by forcing upon it a treaty. MODERN HISTORY. 207 III. The Wars of Charles XI. had deposed Augustus from the throne of Poland. He was deposed, in 1704, and The participation of the Swedes in the war of Louis XIV. against Holland a Polish nobleman, Stanislaus Leczinski, elected in his stead. Finally he comand Brandenburg occasioned the loss of their German possessions, (after the pelled Augustus to sign an ignominious peace, in which he abjured his alliance an rnebr casoe h oso terGra osssos atrte with the czar and resigned his claims to the Polish crown. (Peace of Altranbattle of Fehrbellin, in 1675,) but most of these were afterward restored, (in with the czar and resigned his claims to the Polish crown. (Peace of Altran1679,) by the peace of St. Germain-en-Laye. This was soon followed by the B. AGAINST PETER THE GREAT. Charles XII. turned now his peace of Lund, between Denmark and Sweden, by which Sweden also recovpeace of Lund, between Denmark and Sweden, by which Sweden also recov- attention toward the only remaining member of the hostile league, Peter the ered all that she had lost. Thus Sweden, through the aid of France, concluded, Grttetion t, cowar of Russia. Heremaining member of the hosmatch. When he league, Peter the without any loss of territory, a war which had threatened her with dismem- Great, czar of Russia. Here, he met hussians retreated before him as far berment, veterans into the interior of Russia, the Russians retreated before him as far as Smolensk, where winter and want of provisions compelled Charles to arrest IF. The WCars of Charles XII. his march. In the following spring, he struck off toward the Ukraine, where a. The Attack. Mazeppa, hetman of the Cossacks, had promised to join him. This step ruined Cause. Livonia - a province the possession of which had been a subject of him. In the Ukraine, he found the Russians masters, and was joined but by the wrecks of the Cossack army. Here he was attacked and defeated by the Ruscontest for ages between Poland, Russia, and Sweden- was seized by Augustus wrecks of the Cossack army. Here he was attacked and defeated by the Rus II. of Poland. sians under Czar Peter, at Pultowa, (July 8th, 1709,) the first battle ever gained Duration. Nineteen years, (1700-1718.) by the Russians over regular troops. Theatre of war. The eastern part of Europe, from the shores of the Baltic d. The Misfortunes of Charles GII. to the shores of the Black sea. to the shores of the Black sea. Charles XII. seeing his fortunes annihilated, fled to the Turkish frontier. He Object of the war. The dismemberment of Sweden and the division of its reached it with great difficulty, and threw himself upon the hospitality of the territories. sultan Ahmed III., who assigned him Bender (on the Dniester) as a place of resiResult of the war. Sweden loses the greater part of her German possessions. dence. All Charles's arrangements were now reversed, and Augustus II. replaced Russia becomes the predominant power in the northeast. on the Polish throne. A new alliance was formed between Peter the Great, Parties. Augustus II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland, Peter the Augustus II., and Frederick of Denmark, and each carved out for himself that Great, czar of Russia, and Frederick IV., king of Denmark, against Charles XII. part of the Swedish dominions which he liked best. of Sweden. Russia took Ingria, Livonia, and Carelia, and other districts on the Baltic. Campaigns. The Swedish king and his brother-in-law, the duke of Holstein, Denmark took Holstein-Gottorp and Schonen. were simultaneously attacked by three armies. 1. A Danish army entered Schles- Poland took some districts contiguous with it. wig. 2. A Russian army marched toward Narva. 3. An army of Saxons and The allies were prevented from dismembering Sweden altogether, only by the Poles entered Livonia. bravery of the Swedes in defending their territories, and by the unwillingness b. The Repulse of the Invaders. of the European diplomatists to permit an act so injurious to the balance of power. 1. Charles XII. turned first against Denmark. He landed on Zealand, and forced In 1714, Charles XII. returned from Turkey, and immediately began the war. the Danes to respect the rights of the duke of Holstein in Schleswig. (Peace The three allies again took the field to oppose him; and were joined by Prussia of Travendahl, 1700.) Thus did Charles finish his first war in the course of a and England, both of which powers were resolved that the insane ambition of few weeks, without fighting a single battle. the young Swede should not again have scope. The allies were successful. 2. Three weeks after the peace of Travendahl, Charles XII. was marching Charles finally invaded Norway, which he wished to wrest from Denmark. toward Narva, near which town he defeated the Russian army with a small force, But he was killed by a ball at the siege of Frederickshall, (December 11th, 1718.) and made its chief officers prisoners. (November, 1700.) 3. Finally, (July, 1701,) he compelled the Poles to raise the siege of Riga, and e. Final Settlement of the North. drove them out of Livonia. Two treaties definitely settled the long contest of the north: 1. The treaty of Stockholm was concluded, in 1720, between Sweden, Great Britain, Prussia, and c. The Retaliation of Charles XII. Denmark. By it, Sweden ceded part of Pomerania to Prussia, and recovered in A. AGAINST AUGUSTUS II. He directed his vengeance chiefly return some of her other continental territories. against Augustus II., whom he followed into his own dominions, beating him 2. The treaty of Nystadt was concluded, in 1721, between Sweden and Rusagain and again, at Warsaw and Klissow, (1702,) Pultusk, (1703,) and Fraustadt, sia. By it, Sweden renounced all claim to the Baltic provinces conquered by (1706.) He openly announced his resolution not to desist from the war until he Russia, with the exception of Finland, which the czar restored. 208 APPENDIX. V. EASTERN EUROPE DURING THE REIGN OF E]MPEROR CHARLES VI. I. The Austro-Turkish War. Theatre of war. Although Poland was the subject of the quarrel, Germany Cause. The Morea (the southern peninsula of Greece) wrested from the and Italy were the chief scenes of the campaigns; for as Russia was too disVenetians by the Turks, (1715.) IThe Venet~ians implore and receive the assist- tant to be attacked, the western allies turned the brunt of the war against the ance of the emperor. German emperor. Duration. About three years, (1716-1718.) Object of the war. The restoration of Stanislaus Leczinsky to the Polish Theatre of war. The valley of the Lower Danube. throne. Object of the war. To drive the Turks out of the Morea, and to restore it Result of the war. Stanislaus renounces his claim to the crown of Poland, to the Venetians. w receiving as an indemnification the dtchy of Lorraine, with an understanding, Result of the war. This war gave a mortal blow to the poner of Venice that after his death it should revert to France. inRtesh t E the war..This war gave a mortal blow to the power of Venice Parties. France took up the cause of Stanislaus; Spain and Sardinia leagued Parties. The emperor, with the Venetians, against the Turks, with the Hun- with France. Russia took up the cause of Frederick Augustus; the German garian malcontents under Ragoczy. emperor leagued with Russia. Gra coemmander. PRINCE EUGENE, commander of the imperial forces. Great commanders. Prince Eugbne, against the French marshals Villars Great commander. PRINCE EUGENE, commander of the imperial forces. and Berwick, the last of those great commanders who bad adorned the reign Battles. Peterwardein, (1716;) Belgrade, (1717;) both gained by Prince ofer the last of those reat commanders who had adorned the reinXIV Eugene. Peace. at Passarowit (1718,) the conditions of which were as follows Cause of peace. The reverses experienced by the emperor had led him to Peace. At Passarowitz, (1718,) the conditions of which were as follows: desire peace, which England and Holland offered to mediate. That the emperor should retain all the territories wrested from the Turks during desre eace. At Vienna, (1738.) The arrangements of the peace of Utrecht the war, (the Banate, Servia, and a portion of Wallachia, Bosnia, and Croatia;) (1718 ) were greatly modified: 1. Don Carlos (see GENEALOGY, VI.) was acknowlthe Turks, on their part, retaining the Morea, which Charles had fruitlessly endeavored to recover for Venice. edged king of the Two Sicilies, (Charles III.) and became thus the founder of the Remark. This is the period of the celebrated "' Letters" of Lady Montague, Bourbon dynasty at Naples. 2. Augustus III., elector of Saxony, was acknowlthe wife of Sir Wortley Montague, the English ambassador at Constantinople. edged king of Poland. 3. Stanislaus received the duchy of Lorraine, with the proviso that after his decease it should be attached to France. 4. Franois of. II. Tlh~e ar of the Polish Successio~n. Lorraine received the grand-duchy of Tuscany. 5. Charles Emanuel III., king of Sardinia, received certain portions of Lombardy. 6. France guaranteed the Cause. The double election of Stanislaus and Frederick Augustus as king pragmatic sanction, (the succession of the emperor's only child, Maria Theresia, of Poland. (See POLISH ELECTION.) Stanislaus had been elected by a majority to the hereditary dominions of the house of HIabsburg.) of the Polish nobles, but was driven from his kingdom by the Russians. Thus terminated a war for which the question of the Polish succession afforded Duration. Nearly five years, (1734-1738.) only a pretence. VI. THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. I. Condition of the Prussian Army at the Accession of Under the care of Prince Leopold of Dessau, the Prussian infantry were Frederick the Great. trained to the height of discipline, the result of which was to make the Prussian The care which Frederick William had bestowed on the army proved of the army act with the precision of a machine. The infantry tactics were especially greatest benefit to his successor and to the Prussian nation. Two causes had improved by introducing the cadenced step, the secret of the firmness and swiftcompelled him to keep up a considerable army: ness of the Roman legions. From morning to night the Prussian soldiers were First. The great Northern War, which had threatened to sweep Frederick engaged in this exercise, and in the uniform and simultaneous use of their William into its vortex at the commencement of his reign. weapons. Second. The independence of his dominions was threatened by the aug- II. The Wars of Frederick the Great. mentation of the power of his neighbors. I. By tlo accession of the elector of Hanover to the throne of Great Britain. a. Generat Summary. II. By the accession of the elector of Saxony to the throne of Poland. Cause. Frederick II. ascended the throne, determined to raise Prussia to III. By the growth of Russia into a large military power. the rank of one of the great powers of Europe; and he regarded aggrandizement...!i__.............. - _ MODERN HISTORY. 209 as the means by which he must effect it. He gave himself but little trouble Decisive battles. Gained by the allies of Miaria Theresia: Simpach, (1743;) respecting the justice of his undertakings; but he was distinguished from the Dettingen, (1743.) Gained by the enelies of Maria Theresia: Fontenoy, (1745.) common herd of conquerors by having one fixed object. Cause of peace. General exhaustion, Duration. Nearly a quarter of a century, (1740-1763.) Peace, In 1748, at Aix-la-Chapelle. (See this.) Theatre of war. Central Europe. Object of the wars. The possession of Silesia by Prussia. d. Wars con temporary uith, andforming part of the Auetrian Succession War. Result of the wars. Prussia one of the great powers of Europe. Silesia a A. SECOND SILESIAN W R.l Cause. Maria Theresia had sucPrulssian province. ceeded in making a league with Great Britain, Russia, Saxony, Sardinia, and Number of wars. 1. The first Silesian war, (1740-1742.) 2. The Austrian the states-general. Frederick II., afraid that this league might be turned against succession war, (1741-1748.) 3. The second Silesian war, (1744-1746.) 4. The him, resolved to oppose to it a double league, one with France, and one with the seven years war, or third Silesian war, (1756-1763.) states of the empire.'Duration. Two years, (1744-1745.) b. The First Silesian War. Theatre of war. Bohemia, Silesia, Saxony. Cause. The refusal of Maria Theresia to recognize Frederick's claim to some Object of the war. To prevent the recovery of Silesia by Maria Theresia.. Result of the war. Prussia retains Silesia. portions of Silesia. Commanders. Frederick II. and Schwerin. Duration. About two years, (1740-1742.) iive battle. Ga Theatre of war. Silesia and Bohemia. Theatre of war. Silesia and BX3ohemia. 3Decisive battles. Gained by Frederick II.: Hohenfriedberg, (1745;) KesObject of the war. The possession of some principalities in Silesia. selsdorf, (1745.) Result of the war. Frederick gets Silesia pCause of peace. The British cabinet threatened to withdraw its subsidies Result o the war ties. to Maria Theresia, unless she made peace -with Prussia. Parties. Frederick II. (allied with Bavaria and France) against Maria Theresia. Peace. At Dresden, (1745.) It confirmed Frederick in the possession of Commanders. Schwerin and Frederick II. Silesia and Gatz. B. ANGLO-PRENCH WAR. Cause. During six years Great Britain Dtoriea.3Dcis.ive battles. M~llollwitz, (i741;) ehotusitz, (1"141;) both brussian contributed her share to the Austrian succession war, largely subsidizing Maria Peace. At Breslau, (1742.) Upper Silesia, Lowvr Silesia, and Glatz are Theresia, and also taking a direct part. This led to a declaration of war between ceded by Maria Theresia to Frederick, on condition of his withdrawing from the Great I3oitain and nrancet and to a series of land and ssa'battles between the alliance against her. forces of the two nations.. Duration, Nearly five years, (1744-1748.) c. The Austrian Succession War. Theatre of war. Germany, Belgium, Scotland, and England. The war extended also to the Indian and American colonies of the two countries; and in Cause. The emperor Charles VI. had left no son to succeed him. As early as 1713, he had published an arrangement known as the Pragmatic Sanction, securing these distant p art s the naval superiority of Britain gave her the advantage. the Austrian states, in default of male heirs, to his eldest daughter, Maria Theresia,t he arre ton the th and her descendants. He had secured the adherence of all the leading powers Result of the wa rance agrees to abandon the cause of the Stuarts to this arrangement. Nevertheless, on his death, (October, 1740,) her right to the. France, resorting t inheritance was contested by Bavaria, Spain, and Si'Ixony, who claimed to have landing of the young Pretender. France, resorting to the most.inheritance was contested by.avaria, Spain, and Saxtony, who claimed to have direct mode of attack on her adversary, prompted and assisted the famous rebelgreater right than Maria Theresia. (See GENEALOGY, IX.). ( Duration. Eight years, (1741-1748.) eacelon t i-la-Chapelle. (See CULLON.) Theatre of war. The whole of Germany. Object of the war. To deprive-Maria Theresia of her inheritance. Result of the war. Maria Theresia retains nearly the whole of her inherit- e. The Seven Years War, or the Third Silesian War. ance. Causes. The desire of Maria Theresia to reconquer Silesia, and the general Parties. France, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony, against Maria Theresia, dislike of the European rulers to Frederick the Great. assisted by England and Holland, (after 1743.) Frederick II., of Prussia, joins Duration. Seven years, (1756-1763.) I the enemies of Maria Theresia, in 1744. Theatre of war. Not only the whole of central Europe, but also India and Commanders. Austrian: Khevenhiiller and Prince Charles of Lorraine. North America. French: Saxe, (see this,) Belleisle, Noailles. Object of the war. The partition of the Prussian monarchy. 27....-........._ _- -..... 210 APPENDIX. Result of the war. Prussia takes rank as one of the five great European Parties. The French, assisted by the Indians. against the English. powers. (The other four are: Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and France.) Commanders. French: MONTCALM. Dieskau, Villiers, Jumonville, etc. Fn qParties. Austria allied with France, and also with Russia, Saxony, Bavaria, lish: WOLFE, Washington, Braddock, Williams, Johnson, Amherst, Abercrombie, and the rest of the empire. Prussia allied with England, and four of the smaller Bradstreet, Prideaux, etc. German states, (Hesse-Cassel, Brunswick, Gotha, and Lippe.) Battles. Thirteen battles were fought-seven of which were gained by the Commanders. On the Austrian side: Charles of Lorraine, Daun. On the English. Einglish victories: Great Meadows, (1754;) in Nova Scotia, (1755;) Fort Prussian side: Frederick II., Ferdinand of Brunswick, Seidlit.z-Schwerin. Edward. (1755;) Louisburg, (1758;) Frontenac, (1758;) Niagara, (1759;) QueDecisive battles. Gained by Austria or her allies: Kollin, (1757;) Hoch- bec. (1759.) French victories: Fort Necessity. (1754;) Fort Duquesne, (1755;) kirch, (1758;) Kunersdorf, (1759.) Gained by Prussia or her allies: Lowositz, Lake George, (1755;) Oswego, (1756;) Fort William Henry, (1757;) Ticonde(1756;) Prague, (1757;) ROssBACH, (1757;) Leuthen, (1757;) Zorndorf, (1758;) roga, (1758.) Minden, (1759;) Pfaffendorf, (1760;) Torgau, (1760.) Peace. At Paris. (February, 1763.) France ceded to England Canada and Peace. At Hubertsburg, (1763.) Maria Theresia renounced all pretensions its dependencies, including the Great West, the island of Cape Breton, and all she might have to any of the dominions of the king of Prussia, and especially the other islands in the gulf, and the river St. Lawrence. France ceded also to to those which had been ceded to him by the treaties of Breslau and Berlin. England a portion of Louisiana, the remainder of which was ceded by France to Spain, to recompense her for the cession of Florida to England..f. Fl'rench-Indian War, (Old French War.) Remark. Louisiana was retroceded by Spain to France by the treaty of Cause. The Great West was claimed both by France and England. France Madrid, (March, 1801). Napoleon, judging with good reason that its possession had, since 1750, erected a chain of forts from Lake Erie to the mouth of the Mis- was too burdensome to France, and fearing that it might soon fall into the hands sissippi, and had forbidden Englishmen to trade with the Indians. In 1753, all of the English, sold it to the United States, (during Jefferson's administration,) English traders found in the disputed territory were imprisoned by the French in 1803, for the sum of $11,250,000, besides the assumption on the part of the in their fort on Presque Isle, (now Erie, Penna.) The remonstrances of the Eng- United States of some claims of our citizens against the Government of France. lish government not being heeded, George Washington (then in his 22d year) was sent with 400 men against the French, (at Fort Duquesne, near Pittsburg.) g. Development of the British Power. He surprised and captured a body of the enemy, but was soon in his turn attacked During the greater part of this struggle, the chief conduct of the war and obliged to surrender, (July, 1754.) Ile was, however, allowed to return with depended on the energetic activity of two kindred souls-Frederick the Great his men to Virginia. After his return no English flag was seen west of the and William Pitt. The brief ministry of Pitt (1757-1761) was a glorious Alleghanies. one in the annals of Britain. His spirit seemed to be breathed into the British Duration. Nearly ten years, (1754-1763.) The formal declaration of war navies in all seas, and the British armies in all parts of the world. The French against France was not made before May, 1756. were driven back across the Rhine. The settlements of the French in Africa Theatre of war. The valley of the St. Lawrence, Nova Scotia, western were seized; in America, the whole of Canada and other possessions were Pennsylvania. wrested from the French by a series of victories, in one of which the brave Object of the war. To make France the ruling power in North America. Wolfe lost his life; and in India, the astonishing exploits of Clive shattered the Result of the war. England the ruling power in North America. French power, and transferred the empire of the East to Great Britain. VII. THE WARS OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. LI. Th~ee American Wcacr for I~ndelpendence. trie, Stark, Warren, Gates, Greene, Sullivan, Pickens, Wayne, Lee, Campbell, Morgan, Arnold, (the traitor,) LAFAYETTE, Steuben, De Kalb, Kosciusko. Cause. The attempt of England to tax the colonies without their being rep- English: Gage, Howe, Clinton, Carlton, Burgoyne, Prevost, Tarleton, Rawdon, resented in parliament. Cornwallis. Duration. Eight years, (1775-1783.) Battles. Forty-three battles were fought; eighteen were gained by the Theatre of war. The Atlantic coast of North America. Americans, and two were indecisive. Twice during this war a British army had Object of the war. To force the colonies to submit to taxation without to surrender to the Americans: Burgoyne at Saratoga to Gates, (October, 1777,) representation. and Cornwallis at. Yorktown to Washington, (October, 1781.) The eighteen AmeriResult of the war. The independence of America. can victories: In 1775, Lexington and Ticonderoga; in 1776, Fort Moultrie and Commanders. American: WASHINGTON, Parker, Allen, Montgomery, Moul- Trenton; in 1777, Princeton, Fort Schuyler, Bennington, (two,) Stillwater, (fol MODERN HISTORY. 211 lowed by Burgoyne's surrender,) and Fort Mercer; in 1778, Monmouth and Commanders. French: Dumouriez, Jourdan, Pichegru. The Allies: Coburg Rhode Island; in 1779, Kettle Creek, Stony Point, and Paulus Creek; in 1780, and Kalkreuth. King's Mountain; in 1781, Cowpens and Yorktown. The British victories: in Battles. Gained by the French: Watlignies, (1793;) Fleurus, (1794.) Gained 1775, Bunker's Hill and Quebec; in 1776, Long Island, White Plains, and Fort by the Allies: Aldenhoven, (1793;) Neerwinden, (1793.) Washington; in 1777, Ticonderoga, Brandywine, and Germantown; in 1778, the Peace. At Bale, (1795,) with Prussia and Spain. massacre of Wyoming and Cherry Valley, and the capture of Savannah; in 1779, Remark. The occupation of the left bank of the Rhine, the conquest of the Sunbury, Brier Creek, Stono Ferry, and Savannah; in 1790, Monk's Corner, Austrian Netherlands, the establishment of the Batavian republic as an humble Charleston, Sanders' Creek, and Fishing Creek; in 1781, Guilford, Hobkirk's Hill, ally of France, and the detachment of Prussia from the coalition, were the importNinety-six, and Fort Griswold..The two indecisive battles: Stillwater, (1777,) and ant consequences of the campaign of 1794. Eutaw Springs, (1781.) Cause of peace. The surrender of the British army under Cornwallis at c. The Grand Coalition after the Peace of Bale. Yorktown. Peace. At Paris, (January, 1783.) England consented to acknowledge the Duration. Two years, (1796-1797.) Peace. At Paris, (January, 1783.) England consented to acknowledge the Cause. The refusal of Austria and Engnland to accede t o the Peace of Bale. independence of the United States of America. Duration. Two years, (1796-197.) Remark. The principal injury England sustained was the addition of $500,- Theatre of war. Southern Germany and northern Italy. 000,00() to her national debt; for a few years served to convince even the most Object of the war. To force the emperor and England to acknowledge the skeptical that the trade with America as an independent empire was far more French republic. valuable than it had ever been while she remained a dependent colony. Result of the war. Acknowledgment of the French republic. Parties. Austria, the German Empire, England, Naples, and Sardinia, against I1. The Wars of the.First Coalition against France. France. Commanders. French: Jourdan, Moreau, Napoleon Bonaparte. German: a. The Austro-Prussian Coalition. Archduke Charles, Beaulieu, Wormser. Cause. The declaration of Pillnitz (declaring the readiness of Austria and Campaigns. The German campaign of the French is a complete failure. Prussia to adopt measures for the emancipation of Louis XVI.) was considered The French defeated at Amburg and Wurzburg. Masterly retreat of Moreau. a cause for war by the French revolutionists. They force Louis XVI. to declare The Italian campaign REVEALS THE GENIUS OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. war against the emperor Francis II., who confides the whole conduct of this war First campaign directed by Napoleon. The young general gained a to his ally, Frederick William II., king of Prussia. series of successes so rapid and so brilliant as to strike the allies with dismay, Duration. About one year, (1792.) and to attract the regards of all Europe. The victories of ilfontenotte, Dego, JlilleTheatre of war. Champagne, Belgium, Savoy. siino, Ceva, and Mo6ndovi asserted the superiority of the French, who, by the Object of the war. To restore the royal power in France. famous victory of the Bridge of Lodi, became masters of Lombardy. Mantua Result of the war. The decapitation of the king, and the proclamation of alone remained to the Austrians. Bonaparte besieged it. Two Austrian arllies the republic. sent to relieve the town were met by Bonaparte and defeated —the one at Parties. Prussians, Austrians, and Sardinians, against the French repub- Arcola-the other at Rivoli-and Mantua finally surrendered, (February, licans. 1797.) It was in vain that the Austrians sent their greatest commander, the Commanders. French: Dumouriez and Custine. Allies: Ferdinand of Archduke Charles, to retrieve what had been lost. He was obliged to retire; Brunswick. and Bonaparte led his army across the Alps, and prepared to march to Vienna. Battles. The French victories of Valmy and Jemappes. Cause of peace. in consequence of insurrections in the Tyrol and the Venetian states, Bonaparte concluded first an armistice and then a peace. b. The Grand Coalition against France. Peace. At Campo Formio, (1797.) The emperor ceded the Austrian Nether-.Cause. The execution of Louis XV. lands to France, and recognized the Cisalpine republic, (Lombardy, with a part Duration. Three years, (1793-1795.) of the Venetian territory, Modena, and the three legations.) France was also to Theat re of war. The valley of the Rhine and Belgium. (1793-179.) possess the Ionian islands, with some of the Venetian settlements in Albania. Object of the war. The restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne. Remark. Thus the revolution had proved itself stronger than Europe. The Result of the war. The recognition of the French republic as a European ancient political system of the continent had been shaken to its foundations. Result of the war. The recognition of the Fl~ench republic as a European power. [II, Bonaparte's Expedition against Egypt and Syria. Parties. All the European powers, (except Sweden, Denmark, Turkey, and. the Swiss,) headed by England, against the French republic. Cause. The Turkish monarchy was believed to be on the eve of extinction, 212 APPENDIX. and the French wished to secure a share of its spoils: the possession of Egypt Object of the war. The restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne. would augment the French power and commerce in the East, and would be a sure Result of the war. Napoleon Bonaparte absolute master of France. step toward the ruin of England. Egypt being the great commercial highway Parties. England, Russia, Turkey, Austria, and Naples, against France. to India, it was conceived that the conquest of this country would inflict an irre- Commanders. French: Napoleon Bonaparte, Moreau, Dessaix, Berthier, parable blow upon the power of Britain. Soult, Massena. Allies: Suwarow, Archduke Charles, Melas. Duration. Four years, (1798-1801.) Campaigns. I. In Italy: The French driven out of Italy by Suwarow, (1799.) Theatre of war. Egypt and Palestine. In the spring of 1800, Bonaparte's famous campaign of forty days, crowned by Object of the war. To make Egypt a French province. the victory of MARENGO, (June 14th, 1800.) II. In Germany and Switzerland: Result of the war. The scientific conquest and rediscovery of Egypt. The French driven back by Archduke Charles; but in the fall of 1800, Moreau Parties. The French, against the Mamelukes, Turks, and English. drove the Austrians back to the Inn, and gained the decisive victory of HOIIENCommanders. French: Napoleon Bonaparte, Berthier, Kl6ber, Dessaix, LINDEN, (December 3d, 1800.) III. In the Netherlands: An attempt was made MIenou. Allies: Nelson, Sir Sicdlney Smith, Achmet, Djezzar, Abercrombie. to bring back the prince of Orange to Holland, but the incapacity and dilatoriCampaign. The jdurney to Egypt: The French fleet, with 40,000 men, leaves ness of the duke of York occasioned the failure of the whole undertaking. Toulon, lMay 19th, 1798; they seize Malta and disembark at Alexandria, on Peace. At Luneville, (in February, 1801,) between France and Austria. All July 2d. On the first of August, however, the French fleet is utterly destroyed the territory on the left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France, and the Austrian in the bay of Ano30ui by the English, under Nelson. This victory gives the possessions of Italy were limited as before. The emperor also recognized the English the complete command of the Mediterranean sea. The canpaign in four republics (Batavian, Helvetian, Ligurian, and Cisalpine,) as states affiliated Egypt: After many fatigues, the French army reached Cairo, which they occupied to France. The other powers gradually followed the example of Austria, and after the BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDs, (July 21st, 1798.) Bonaparte proceeded now after considerable negotiation the celebrated Peace of Amiens (see this) was conto arrange a new government in Egypt, and convert it into a dependency of France. eluded. He did not despair of being able to rouse the Oriental populations in his favor, and to establish a new empire. The Porte having declared war against France V. War of the Third Coalition against France. in consequence of these proceedings, Bonaparte marched into Syria. His hope was that the Syrians would rally round him, and that thus, with a power increas- a. The War. ing as he went, he might reach Constantinople through Asia Minor. He stormed Jaffa, but was foiled in his attempts on Acre, the key of Syria, (defended by Sir Cause. The English government complained of the non-fulfilment of the Sidney Smith.) In May, 1799i Bonaparte retreated from Palestine back into conditions of the peace of Amiens, and declared war. Egypt. Having defeated the Turkish army, which had landed at ABOUKIR, Bona- Duration. Three years, (1803-1805.) parte quitted Egypt, in August, 1799. He left Kl6ber in command of the army, Theatre of war. Southern Germany, northern Italy, the Atlantic. who, after gaining the victory of Heliopolis, was assassinated. The French were Object of the war. The overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte. obliged to evacuate Egypt by the Anglo-Turkish army, in the latter part of 1801. Result of the war. Napoleon the undisputed master of Western Europe. Peace. The Porte being assured of the evacuation of Egypt by the French, The house of Austria completely excluded from Italy. the preliminaries of a peace with France were signed at Paris, October 9th, Parties. England, Russia, and (at a later period) Austria and Sweden, 1801, but they were not converted into a definitive treaty till after the conclusion against France. Prussia remains neutral. of the peace of Amiens. All the Turkish possessions were restored; the French Commanders. French: Napoleon, Bernadotte, Murat, Massena, Ney, Davoust, were to enjoy all their former privileges of navigation and commerce, and par- Lannes. Allies: Nelson, Mack, Archduke Charles, Kutusow, Bagration. ticularly were to have the right of entering the Black sea. Decisive battles. At the battle of the three emperors, at AUS1ERLITZ, (December 2d, 1805,) Napoleon defeated the combined Austrians and Russians in the IV. War of the Second Coalition against France. most signal manner. Before this (October 21st, 1805,) the French fleet had been annihilated off Cape TRAFALGAR, by the English, under Nelson, (who was shot Cause. The violent proceedings of the French government, (the Directory.) during the engagement. See NELSON.) They had changed by force of arms: I. The Papal States into a Roman republic; Peace. At Presburg, (December 23d, 1805.) The emperor Francis acknowland II. The Swiss Confederation into a Swiss republic. The German Empire was edged Napoleon's dignities as emperor of the French and king of Italy, and deprived of all its possessions on the left bank of the Rhine, and Piedmont was ceded to him, as king of Italy, the Austrian possessions of Venice and Dalmatia. taken from the king of Sardinia. Francis ceded also the Tyrol to Bavaria, and his possessions in Suabia to the Duration. Three years, (1799-1802.) electors of Bavaria, Wiiitemberg, and Barden, all of whom were declared indeTheatre of war, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. pendent sovereigns, Bavaria and WUiirtemberg with the title of king. MODERN HISTORY. 213 b. Consequences of the Battle of Austerlitz and the Peace of Presburg. form the new kingdom of Westphalia, which was bestowed on Napoleon's youngCreation of kingdoms and principalities by Napoleon, at the expense, for the est brother, Jerome Bonaparte. The forfeited territories in the southeast (pormost part, of the Empire, and his federative system of thrones and dignities in tions of ancient Poland) were erected into a new state, called "the duchy of support of his own. The crown of Naples was given to his brother Joseph, the Warsaw," the sovereignty of which was conferred on Napoleon's new ally and Dutch republic was made a kingdom for his brother Louis, (father of Napoleon favorite, the new king of Saxony. The remainder of Prussia was given back to Frederick William, with this important reservation, that the French armies still III.,) and Murat, his brother-in-law, was made grand-duke of Cleves and Berg, cntinued to occupy it till the contributions imposed ha he French armies still (which he exchanged later for the crown of lS'aples.) continued to occupy it till the contributions imposed should be paid. (which he exchanged later for the crown of Naples.) On July 12th, 1806, the German Empire was dismembered, sixteen princes in the south and west of Germany separating themselves from the empire, and c. Consequences of the Peace of Tilsit. The Continental System. forming the Rhenish confederacy, of which Napoleon declared himself the pro- All the enemies of Napoleon had been vanquished or gained over; but Engtector. This was virtually a dissolution of the German Empire; and feeling it land, though left alone, continued the struggle. Napoleon resolved to ruin her to be so, and at the same time obliged to submit, the emperor Francis, by a deed by destroying her commerce. By a decree issued from Berlin, (November 21st, dated August 6th, 1806, renounced the imperial crown of Germany, and assumed 1806,) he declared the whole of Great Britain to be in a state of blockade, prothe new title of Francis I., emperor of Austria. Thus, after an existence of hibited all intercourse, ordered the confiscation of all British property, and the nearly a thousand years, ended the empire of the German Coesars. arrest of all British subjects within the bounds of the empire, and authorized'VI. JVar of the Fourth Coalition against France. the capture of all vessels that had come from a British port. a. The War. d. The Ellforcement of the Continental Systenm. Cause. The insolent and overbearing conduct of France, and the unmeas- RUSSTA and PRUSSIA acceded to the continental system immediately after the ured contempt shown by her for Prussia, leads Prussia to declare war against peace of Tilsit; Spain and Austria in the beginning of 1808. Napoleon. PoPE PIUS VII. refused to give his sanction to a system which he declared to Duration. One year, (1806-1807.) be inconsistent with Christian principles. Hereupon Rome was occupied by Theatre of war. Thuringia. French troops, (February, 1808.) Object of the war. To restore the Prussian monarchy to its former inde- DENMAnr was preparing to accede to the continental system and put her fleet pendence. at Napoleon's service, when an English expedition appeared before Copenhagen Result of the war. Prussia is reduced to the rank of a second-rate power. and demanded the surrender of the fleet, as a guarantee of Denniark's neutrality Parties. Prussia, Russia, Saxony, England, and Sweden, against Napoleon. till the conclusion of peace. This having been refused, Copenhagen was bomCommanders. French: Napoleon, Lannes, Davoust., Ney, Augereanu, Murl1at barded and the Danish fleet captured, and taken to England. Hereupon DenBernadotte. Allies: the duke of Brunswick, the king of Prussia, Hohenlohe, mark acceded at once to the continental system. Bliicher, Tauenzien, Millendorf. SWE:EnN refused to accede to the continental system. In consequence of this Decisive battles. Two great battles, fought on the same day, (October 14th, it was invaded by Russia, and Finland was detached from the Swedish crown, 1806,) the one at JENA, where Napoleon in person defeated Prince Hohenlohe, (1807.) the other at AUERSTADT, where Dalvoust defeated the duke of Brunswick, decided PORTUTGAT, summoned to join the commercial league against Britain, yielded so the fate of the campaign, and placed Prussia at the mercy of the conqueror. far as to close her ports against British ships, but refused to confiscate the propThe French entered Berlin, (October 25th.) A Russian army of 90,000 nien came erty of British residents. To punish the regent of Portugal for this, Marshal to the rescue of the Prussians. On the 14th of June, 1807, Napoleon gained a Ju2not, with a French army, invaded Portugal, (October 19th, 1807.) The royal decisive battle over the combined Russians and Prussians at Friedland, and the family fled to Brazil. Lisbon was then occupied by the French; and the whole French army entered Tilsit on the eastern frontier of Prussia. country was treated as a conquered province, and a levy of twenty millions of Peace. At Tilsit, (July, 1807,) between France and Russia, to which the dollars exacted from it. poor Prussian monarch gave his unwilling assent. Prussia was stripped of nearly one-half of her territories. VII. The _Peninsuclar'[ ytr. b. Prussia after the Peace of Tilsit. | Causes. 1. The occupaction of Portugal by the French. 2. The entrance of a large army into Spain, under pretext of protecting that country against an Of the forfeited territories of Prussia, those on the left bank of the Elbe, English invasion. 3. Family troubles in the royal house, the end of which was together with portions of the territories of Brunswick and Hesse-Cassel went-to that the aged king (Charles IV.) ceded his rights in Spain to Napoleon. (The 214 APPENDIX. heir to the throne, Ferdinand, was sent as a prisoner to Valenqay.) 4. The parted with a portion of her territories, containing three and a half millions of crown of Spain, under a fixed constitutional charter, was then conferred on Joseph souls. Some of these districts were given to Bavaria; and Carniola, part of Bonaparte. (Murat was appointed his successor in the kingdom of Naples.) Croatia, and Carinthia, with Trieste for a capital, were ceded to Napoleon himDuration. Six years, (1808-1813.) self. They were governed as an independent state, of which Marmont was Theatre of war. The whole of the peninsula of the Pyrenees. governor. Object of the war. To drive the French out of the peninsula of the Pyre- Remark I. An interesting episode in this war was THE REVOLT IN THE nees. TYROL. The separation of the Tyrol from Austria and its annexation to BavaResult of the war. The French driven from the peninsula. ria, (by the peace of Presburg, in 1805,) had roused an intense spirit of patriotParties. The Spaniiards and Portuguese, assisted by the English, against the ism among the mountaineers. Revolting (April, 1809) from Bavaria, and demandFrench. ing to be reunited to Austria, the peasants, under various popular leaders. Commanders. Anglo-,Spanish: WELLINGTON, Dalrymple, Beresford, Baird, (Andrew Hofer and Speckbacher,) drove the Franco-Bavarian garrisons out of PALAFOX, Castanos. Firech: Junot, Kellermann, Lefbbvre, Soult, Massena, their country. Even after the battle of Wagram had made all resistance hopeMarrmont. less, the Tyrolese peasants continued the war. But French armies were poured Decisive battles. Anglo-Sqpanish victories: Baylen, (1808;) Vimeira, (1808;) into their country, and the patriotic bands were dispersed. Some of the leaders Talavera, (1810;) Salamanca, (1812;) Vittoria, (1813.) Frenchvictozies: Guenes, escaped; but Hofer was seized, carried to Mantua, and there shot, January 5th, (1808;) TDidela, (1808;) Somo Sierra, (1808;) Ocano, (1809.) 1810.) End of the war. By the act of December, 1813, Ferdinand (eldest son of Remark II. After the peace of Schbnbrunn, which seemed to have consoliCharles IV.) was acknowledged by Napoleon as king of Spain and the Indies, dated his power, Napoleon resolved to strengthen and to perpetuate his dynasty and the integrity of Spain was recognized as it existed before the war. At first by a marriage with an Austrian archduchess. His overtures being accepted by this was under condition that the English should evacuate the Spanish territory, the emperor Francis, Napoleon was married to the emperor's daughter, Maria but soon the Spanish princes were informed that they could return to their coun- Louisa, (April, 1810.) try without any conditions whatever. -IX. The _Franco-Russian TWa'r. VIII. The Franco-Austrian War. Cause. The incorporation of the Hanseatic towns (Hamburg, Bremen, and Cause. The events in Spain had aroused a spirit of resistance in Austria, Libeck) with France was considered by Czar Alexander as an' act prejudicial to and as soon as she had completed her preparations, the Austrian minister deliv- the power of Russia in the Baltic. Alexander retaliated by making some relaxaered to the French government a declaration, in which were enumerated all the tions in favor of British commerce, contrary to the stipulations of the contiinsults and injuries Austria had suffered at the hands of France since the peace nental system. Russia complained also of the annexation of Galicia to the duchy of Presburg. of Warsaw, and of the continued occupation of Prussia by French troops. Duration. Seven months, (April-October, 1809.) Duration. Hardly six months, (June-December, 1812.) Theatre of war. Southern Germany. Theatre of war. Western Russia. Object of the war. To drive the French out of Germany. Object of the war. To destroy Russia; and make ONE UNIVERSAL EMPIRE Of Result of the war. Napoleon absolute master in Germany. Austria entirely Europe. Napoleon said: "I~must make one nation out of all the European states, paralyzed. and Paris must be the capital of the world. There must be all over Europe but one Parties. Austria, allied with England, against France and the confederacy of legislative code, one court of appeal, one currency, one standard of weights and measthe Rhine. uZes." Commanders. Austrian: the archdukes Charles, John, and Louis. French: Result of the war. Total destruction of Napoleon's army and influence. Napoleon, Eugine Beauharnais, Bessieres, Oudinot, Lannes, Lefbbvre. Parties. Western Europe, (excluding Great Britain, Spain, and Sweden,) Decisive battles. Eckmiihl, WAGRAM. against Russia. On the 21st and 22d of May, 1809, Napoleon was defeated for the first time Strength of both parties. Napoleon's forces amounted to nearly 700,000 near the villages of Aspern and Esling, by the archduke Charles. men, (among whom were 400,000 Frenchmen,) divided into five distinct armies; Peace. At Schtinbrunn, (October, 1809.) Austria was surrounded by power- the Russian forces to nearly 400,000 men, divided into three distinct armies. ful states, and all her military efforts were paralyud. On the south she lost the Commanders. French: Napoleon, Davoust, NEY, Oudinot, Murat, Eugbne defiles which communicated with Italy and the Tyrol, and the means of defence Beauharnais, Junot, St. Cyr, Macdonald. French allies: Poniatowski, (Poles;) offered by a natural frontier. On the west she was deprived of the excellent Schwartzenberg, (Austrians;) York, (Prussians); Russian: Wittgenstein, Barline of operations formed by the Inn. In addition to a large levy of money, she clay de Tolly, Bagration, Tormassof, Kutusow. MODERN HIISTORY. 215 The march to Moscow. On the 24th of June, 1812, the Niemen was crossed Theatre of war. Northern Germany, Belgium, France, Spain. by 400,000 men of the invading army. The Russians slowly retired before them, Object of the war. The liberation of Europe from the despotism of Napoleon. devastating the country in the route of their march. The results of this were more Result of the war. Destruction of the empire of Napoleon. formidable to Napoleon than he had expected. He found, however, no difficulty in. Parties. Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, and afterward Austria, against taking possession of Lithuania, the capital of which he entered on the 28th of June. France. Meanwhile the Russians had fallen back to the Dnieper and the Dwina. Napo- Commanders. French: Napoleon, NEY, Eugbne Beauharnais, Maison, Augeleon crossed the Dnieper and arrived at Smolensk on the 16th of August. The reau, Soult, Oudinot, Macdonald, Vandamme, Davoust. Allies: Wittgenstein, Russians had retreated in good order, leaving little else than the blazing ruins. BLUCHER, Scharnhorst, Schwartzenberg, Bernadotte, WELLINGTON, Moreau. Napoleon continued the pursuit, and on the 7th of September the two main armies met and engaged in battle at BORODINO, on the river Moskwa. The French b. Campaign of 1813. were victorious, and on the 13th of September entered Moscow. (See BURNING Spring campaign. Battles of Liitzen and Bautzen, gained by Napoleon over or Moscow, page 106.) On the 19th of October, or five weeks after his first the allies under Wittgenst.ein and Bliicher. Napoleon consented to an armistice, entry into Moscow, he gave the order for retreat. (from June 4th until August 10th,) in the hope that Austria would eventually The retreat from Moscow. Now began one of the most disastrous marches join him against the allies. The armistice having expired, Austria openly joined of which there is any record in history. Napoleon's plan was to retreat toward the allies, and the war was resumed. Smolensk, but the main army of the Russians was between him and Smolensk. Fall campaign. Napoleon had hardly 350,000men to oppose against not less He was defeated by them at Miaro-Jaroslavitz and Wiazmsa. Ney was now placed than 700,t)00 men of the allies, divided into three grand armies: 1st. The army in commannd of the rear, with instructions to offer as stubborn a resistance to of Bohemia, under Schwartzenberg, in whose camp were the three allied monarchs the Russians as possible, so as to gain time for the advanced portions of the of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 2d. The army of Silesia, under Blicher. 3d. army. On the 6th of November, the Russian winter set in suddenly with more The army of the north, under Bernadotte. than its usual severity. It was not till the 9th that the wreck of the army The army of Bohemia marched upon Dresden, and Napoleon (engaged in drivreached Smolensk, when it appeared that not more than 36,000 fighting men ing the army of Silesia beyond the Katzbach) was compelled to proceed by forced remained. Ten days later, (at Orcha,) not more than 12,000 men were fit for marches to that city. On August 27th, 1813, Napoleon gained his last victory on duty, who were here joined by a reserve corps of 50,000 men. Napoleon reached German ground at DRESDEN. This battle was one of Napoleon's most splendid the Berezina with about 60,000 men. successes. So entire was the defeat. of the allies that if Napoleon had offered to In THE PASSAGE OF THE BEREZINA, (November 26th and 27th,) more than negotiate, he might have been able to detach Russia or Prussia from the coalition. 20,000 men perished. Hardly 40,000 reached Wilna. Not more than 30,000 reached Several great victories (Katzbach, Culm, Grossbeeren, Dennewitz,) gained about the Niemen, which xwas crossed December 13th, the remnant of the army of the same time by the allies, neutralized the effects of the triumph at Dresden. 400,000 men that had crossed the river six months before. Retreat of the French, who abandon the line of the Saale and the Elbe, and conNapoleon had left his army (on the 5th of December, at Smorgoni) in a sledge, centration of their forces at Leipsic in conjunction with the Saxon troops. GREAT accompanied only by his secretary, and hastened to Paris by the nearest route, BATTLE OF LEPSIC, " the battle of the nations," UTTER DEFEAT OF NAPOLEON, (16th, Nhere he arrived on the 18th of December. 17th, and 18th of October, 1813.) Napoleon retreats with the remains of his Ney, the bravest of the brave, is the hero of the retreat from Moscow. army. Not more than 40,000 are led across the Rhine. Consequences. The impression produced on all Europe by the results of the Russian expedition was prodigious. It seemed as if fortune had now deci- c. Consequences of the Battle of Leipsic. sively turned against Napoleon, and as if the nations had only to exert a little strength to complete his ruin. Prussia was the first to stir. 1. Dissolution of the confederation of the Rhine, of the kingdom of Westphalia, and the grand-duchies of Frankfort and Berg. X. TWar of the Fifth Coalition agqainst Fraunce. 2. The surrender of all the French garrisons in Germany, except Hamburg, (which held out under Davoust, until May 26th, 1814.) a. General Summary. 8. The reconquest of Holland by Billow, and proclamation of the prince of Orange as sovereign of the Netherlands. General cause. The failure of Napoleon's Russian campaign. 4. Invasion of Denmark (in alliance with Napoleon) by Bernadotte, and forced Immediate cause. The Prussian general York, instead of obeying Napoleon's surrender by Denmark of Norway to Sweden. order to cover the retreat of the left wing of the French army under Macdonald, 5. Restoration of the Tyrol and Illyria to Austria. concludes a treaty of neutrality with the Russians under General Diebitsch. 6. Alliance of Murat, king of Naples, with Austria, for the expulsion of the Duration. About one year, (March, 1813-April, 1814.) French from Italy. 216 APPENDIX. 7. Treaty of neutrality with Napoleon formed by Switzerland, as yet too weak WiUrtemberg, and Denmark, and many of the smaller German princes, and by to throw off the French yoke. plenipotentiaries acting for Great Britain, (Lord Castlereagh, and afterward the Bliicher with his army crosses the Rhine at Mannheim, Caub, and Coblentz, duke of Wellington;) Austria, (Metternich;) France, (Talleyrand;) Spain, Por(December 31st, 1813.) Declaration previously (December 1st) of the allied tugal, and Sweden. The five principal European powers, (Russia, Prussia, Great sovereigns at Frankfort; peace offered to Napoleon; the boundaries of France Britain, Austria, and France,) exercised the greatest weight in the congress. to be the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees; rejected by Napoleon. On the whole, Alexander, emperor of Russia, was the chief man in it, and his will was most potent in influencing the decisions. d. Campnaign of the Allied Armies in Fra.nce. Decisions. The chief subjects of debate were: ITALY, TIIE NETHERLANDS, POLAND, GERMANY, ENGLAND, and SWEDEN. Parties. The three great armies, (of Bohemia, Silesia, and the North,) the A. ITALY. Austria recovered Lombrdy, and received the Venetian territoAustrians in Italy under Bellegarde, the British and Portuguese under Welling- A. ITALY. Austria recovered Lombardy, and received the Venetian terr ton in the south of France, the Anglo-Sicilian and Spanish armies about Cata- res, (in exchange for Belgium.) Sardinia, Tuscany, and the Papal States were lonia.amouta o. m n of mn anst N, w. restored; and beside the Pope and Tuscany in central Italy, there were, as before, lonia, amounting to more than one million of men, against Napoleon, who could to be some petty sovereignties. Murat was left for the present in possession of hardly muster 300,000 men. hardly muster 300,000 me. Naples, which he was soon to lose by his own act. Campaign. Along the whole eastern and north-eastern frontier of France Naples, which he was soon to lose by his own act. B. THE NETHERLANDS. Holland and Belgium were erected into the kingwas scattered the invading host, slowly moving in distinct bodies inward, till dm of the NtheRlands in favor of the prince of Orange with the title of Wilthey should be concentrated at Paris. Napoleon set out from Paris on the 23d lim I.; though warning voices already proclaimed the danger of uniting two of January, to assume the command in person. His genius as a general was countries so different in language, customs, and religion. never more conspicuous than now, and the amount of his success with his small C. POLAND. All those portions of Old Poland which Prussia had seized in means was prodigious. the three partitions, had been formed by Napoleon (1807) into the duchy of WarBetween the 1st and 18th of February he defeated the allies in SEVEN pitched saw. Nearly the whole of this duchy was mnde into a new European state, battles, (Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry, Vauchamp, Nanzis, Villeneele, (Chmpubert, and Montmiereau,) and FORCED THErry, Vauchmp, Nnis, Ville- called the kingdom of Poland, to be possessed forever by the emperors of Russia neuve-e-ote and ontereu,) an FOCED THEM T RETREAT. as an appendage of their empire, though politically distinct from it. Th6 extent Result of the February campaign of 1814. Treaty of Chumontrch of this new kingdom was about one-sixth of the territory and population of Poland 1st., 1814,) between the four allied powers, (Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and prior to the three partitions. Cracow was recognized as an independent republic. Russia.) They saw that only a firm agreement among themselves would prevent D. GERMANY. 1. A federative constitution was established for Germany, a peace which would throw away all the fruits of their victory at Leipsic. The with a diet to be held at Frankfort-on-the-Main. The kings of Denmark (for allied armiesform a junction, and march upon Paris. Battle close to Paris, and Holstein) and the Netherlands (for Luxemburg) were to be members of the storming of the heights of 11fontmartre by the allied armies. The allies enter Paris, confederation. The number of states was limited to thirty-eight, each of which March 31st, 1814. March 31st, 1814. was required to send representatives to the federal diet. Peace. Treaty of Fontainebleau, (April 11th, 1814,) between the allies and Prussia obtained Posen and Swedish Pomerania, Westphali., the Rhine provNapoleon, who abdicates and retires to Elba. Peace of Paris, (May 30th,) inces, and a part of Saxony. between the allies and France. France reduced to her boundaries of 1792. E. ENGLAND had Malta Heligoland, (tken from Denmark.) a portion of Return of the house of Bourbon. -Louis XVIII, (see GENEALOGY, VII.,) assumed the colonies which she had conquered in the war, Hanover (with the addition the throne of his forefathers, not as an absolute monarch ruling solely by heredi- of East-riesland) as a German kingdom, and the protectorate of the republic tary right, but, as a constitutional king, bound in the exercise of his power by of the lonian isles. certain laws and forms. Remark. This peace lasted only eleven months, (April 11th, 1814-March 1st, F. SWEDEN obtained Norway at the expense of Denmark. 1815.) XII. The Hundred Days. X1-. Conffress of Vienna..XI. Congress of Viena. Cause. Many had received the new order of things with distrust, which was It was agreed to refer the settlement of all those questions, territorial and other, continually increased by reactionary decrees. The army, stationed in obscure which the. fall of Napoleon left pending, to a grand congress of sovereigns and garrisons, bemoaned its old eagles, which were now replaced by the fleurs-de-lis, their plenipotentiaries, to be held at Vienna. This Congress was opened on the and wrathfully hid the tricolor under the white cockade. It became the most 25th of September, 1814. formidable focus of discontent, and, instead of doing all in its power to attach it Duration. About eight months, (September 25th, 1814-June 9th, 1815.) to itself, the government was constantly putting measures into execution which Principal members. The emperor of Russia, the kings of Prussia, Bavaria, could not fail to alienate the soldiers. [Ik..... m l i._ _ i. ~ i i.i l ~i i MODERN HISTORY. 217 Immediate cause. Napoleon escaped from Elba with 1,200 of his veterans, to America. Finding the coasts too strictly blockaded by British cruisers to give and landed at Frejus, near Cannes, (March 1st, 1815.) him a chance of escape, he was obliged to surrender to Captain Maitland, of the Duration. Four months, (March 1st, 1815-June 29th, 1815.) Bellerophon. On board of this vessel he was carried to England, where, howTheatre of war. Belgium. ever, he was not permitted to land, but having been transferred to another shipObject of the war. Napoleon wished to recover his throne. of-war, was immediately, by the orders of the British government, conveyed to Result of the war. Napoleon loses not only his throne, but even his liberty. St.. Helena. (See NAPOLEON.) Second occupation of Paris by the allies, (July, Parties. Napoleon against united Europe. Enormous forces raised by the 1815.) allies, amounting to no less than 986,000 men, (England supplies subsidies, in all Peace. Second treaty of Paris, (November, 1815,) by which France is allowed $55,000,000.) Against this huge force, Napoleon could only command about to retain Elzass and Lorraine, but gives up four fortresses on the border; and 220,000 men, consisting partly of the troops he found on entering France, partly agrees to pay a contribution to the expenses of the war of $140,000,000, and to of disbanded veterans, called again to his standard. restore the works of art of which she had pillaged nearly every capital in Commanders. The Allies: Wellington, Bliicher, Billow, Ziethen. The French: Europe. Occupation of France by the troops of the allied sovereigns till 1818. Napoleon. Ney, Soult, Grouchy. Remark. In order to secure the permanence of that peace which had now, From Cannes to Paris. Napoleon advanced by forced marches through the to all appearance, been perfectly established in Europe, the emperors of Russia midst of populations amnong whom he hoped to find the most sympathy for him- and Austria, and the king of Prussia, formed what, was called a HOLY ALLIself and his cause. Grenoble and Lyons opened their gates in succession. The ANCE, (September 26th, 1815;) that is, an alliance by which they pledged themsoldiers everywhere responded to the appeal of their old general; Ney's corps selves to regulate their future conduct by the principles of Christianity, to rule followed the example; Ney himself was induced to do the s.ame. In fact, the as men responsible to Heaven, and to assist each other as brothers in any new battalions despatched against the emperor served only to augment his escort. European emergency that might arise. All the powers eventually joined this Louis XVIII. found himself compelled to fly from Paris, (March 20th,) and on alliance except Great Britain. the evening of the same day Napoleon entered the capital. At Paris. Napoleon proclaimed that he returned witha new system of home XIII. Anglo-Ameri.can War. and foreign policy; that, in harmony with the wishes of the people, he desired a free constitution; that he intended to resign his project of a great empire, since Causes. English aggressions on American commerce, and impressment of the movement in Europe in favor of peace and the independent existence of American sailors on the high seas as British deserters. nations had arrested him in his course of victory. Fouche, Carnot, Camba- Duration. Nearly three years, (June, 1812-February, 1815.) c6res, and his own brother, Lucien, were the ministers on whom he chiefly relied. Theatre of war. Principally along the borders of the United States and A new constitution prepared by them was solemnly proclaimed and sworn to in Canada. the presence of a vast assembly in the Champ de /lai, (June 1st, 1815.) Parties. The United States against Great Britain. The last campaign. Napoleon left Paris for Belgium, June 12th. The Eng- Commanders. American: Army - Dearborn, Hull, Van Rensselaer, HARRIlish and Prussian armies, under Wellington and Blicher, already stood upon the soN, Hampton, Clay, JACKSON. Navy-PERRY, MCDONOUGH, Decatur, BainBelgian frontiers, and Napoleon determined to attack them before the Austrians bridge, Porter, Hull, Jones. British: Army - Brock, Proctor, Prevost, Drumand Prussians could come up. He resorted to his old strategy of attacking one mond, Ross, Packenham. Navy - Downie, Barclay, etc. army after the other, and endeavoring to separate Wellington and Bliicher. On Battles. On land the operations of the American army were frequently June 15th, the French crossed the Sambre, defeated Ziethen, took Charleroi, and unsuccessful, but. at sea the American navy gained imperishable glory, (Perry's compelled the Prussians to retire to Ligny. victory on Lake Erie, and McDonough's victory on Lake Champlain.) Although At LIGNY, (June 16th,) Bliicher was routed with immense loss by Napoleon. America had only 8 frigates, 8 sloops, and 170 small gunboats to fight the colosThe British, meanwhile, on the same day, (June 16th,) stood their ground at sal navy of England, nevertheless, out of 20 naval engagements, 15 proved to be QUATRE BRAS. Wellington, however, hearing of Bltcher's defeat, fell back with American victories. his whole army upon WATERLOO, and here Napoleon came up to give him battle, Land battles: Gained by the Americans. In 1813: York, Fort Meigs, Fort (June 18th, 1815.) The English, after bravely fighting throughout the day, were George. Sackett's Harbor, Fort Stephenson, NEAR THE THIAMES. In 1814: Chipbeginning to waver toward evening, when Bi.icuERn appeared on the field, and peway, LUNDY's LANE, Fort Erie, PLATTSBURG, North Point, Fort McHenry. In in conjunction with WELLINGTON, completely routed the French army, which fled 1815: NEW ORLEANS, (fought after the signing of the peace.) Gained by the in disorder, pursued by the Prussians. English: in 1812, Queenstown; in 1813, Freuchtown; in 1814, BLADENSBURG, Immediate results of the Battle of Waterloo. Bliicher arrived on the followed by the BURNING OF WASHINGTON by the English. 22d of June, at Paris, where Napoleon had a second time abdicated (in favor of Peace. At Ghent, (December, 1814.) The treaty of peace said nothing about his son.) Napoleon set out for Rochefort, (June 29th,) with a view of escaping the aggressions on American commerce and impressment of sailors on the high 28 2i8 APPENDIX. seas, which had caused the war; but, it was tacitly understood that there would languages, and having different laws and customs, to wit: Slavonians, Roumans, be no further difficulty on these points. Albanians, and Greeks. But the Greeks, the smallest in point of number of all these races, comprising hardly more than one million of souls, have alone sucXIV. The WTar of Spanish Indepenidence in Amterica. ceeded, by means of European sympathy, in asserting their entire independence of the Turks. The first insurrectionary movements broke out. in 1821, but the Causes. The ruinous nature of the mercantile system which was forced by patriot army was betrayed in the hands of the Turks, and the Greeks seemed Spain on its colonies. It was prescribed by Spain what produce the colonists should resigned to submit to their conquerors. cultivate. All kinds of manufacturing industry were strictly forbidden. They Cause. The revolting cruelties practised by the Turkish government, even were prohibited, under pain of death, firom trading with any nation except Spain. on those who ad taken no part in the insurrectionary movement of 1821 - espeThe American and French revolutions remained not without effect on the Spanish cially the hanging of the patriarch of Constantinople and his bishops over the colonies. A spirit of disaffection to the mother country, and a desire for inde- principal door of their cathedral. pendence began to spread from colony to colony. Duration. Nearly fifteen years, (1810-1825.) Duration. Seven years, (1822-1828.) Duration. Nearly fifteen years,.1810-1825.) Theatre of war. The coasts and islands of Ancient Greece. Theatre of war. It gradually spread through the whole of Spanish America, of the war. To liberate the Greeks from the Turkish dominion. except the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. Spanish America, at the beginning Result of the war. The erection of the kingdom of Greece. of the war, consisted of four vice-royalties, (Mexico, New Granada, Peru, and Parties. The Greeks assisted by Englnd France, and Russia against TurBuenos Ayres,) and five general-capitanates, (Guatimala, Venezuela, Chili, Cuba, key and Egypt. The Greeks assisted by volunteers from all Euro and Porto Rico.) > | key and Egypt. The Greeks were also assisted by volunteers from all Europe. and Porto Rico.) All the educated men in Europe were seized with what was called the PhilhelParties. The royalists or adherents of the mother country assisted by Spain, lenic fever against the patriots, who received assistance from the United States and Great Commanders. Greeks Ypsilanti, Mavrocordato, Noto Bozzaris. Allies: Bommanders. Patriots:SIMON BOLIVAR, (see this,)rit Mirandaaain. Byron, Stanhope, Codrington, Heyden, De Rigny, Maison. Turks: Sultan MahCommanders. Patriots: SIMON BOLIVAR, (see this,) Miranda, Rosas, moud I., Ibrahim Pacha, Redschid Pacha. Carera, Paez, Santander, Sucre, Iturbide. Royalists: Morillo, La Torre. Remarkable siege. The garrison of Missolonghi compelled by famine to Decisive battles. Gained by the Americans: Bochica, (1819;) Carabobo, surrender, (April, 1826.) (1821;) Junin, (1828;) Ayacucho, (1824.) Decisive battle. The total destruction of the Turco-Egyptian fleet, (OctoResults. The chief results were, that Bolivar achieved the independence of ber 26th, 1827,) at Navarino. Venezuela and Granada, which were erected into the republic of Colombia, (De- Consequences of the battle of Navarino. The Sultan declared all treacember, 1819.) In the previous May, Buenos Ayres had been constituted into the ties at an end; and though he consented to allow the Greeks an amnesty, he Argentine republic. The independence of Chili and Peru was also secured by altogether rejected the idea of recognizing their independence. Hereupon, the the aid of Bolivar, and the republic of Bolivia was established in Upper Peru, three protecting powers declared Greece an independent state, and settled its (August, 1825.) In Mexico, Iturbide, who had become leader of the insurgents northern boundary along a line drawn from the gulf of Volo to the gulf of Arta. after the death of Hidalgos, Morelos, and Mina, caused himself to be proclaimed The Greeks invited Capo d'Istris, a native of Corfu, who had served with dis. emperor, in 1822, but was dethroned in the following year, when the republic tinction as a political agent of Russia, to be their president, (1828.) Capo d'Isof Mexico formed a leagte with Colonbia. The independence of Colombia, trias (whose severity had rendered him exceedingly unpopular) having fallen by Mexico, and Buenos Ayres was recognized by Great Britain, January 1st, 1825. the hand of an assassin, (1831,) the great powers nominated, as hereditary king In Paraguay, (a theocratic state, founded by the Jesuits, in the 17th century,) of Greece, Prince Otto, of Bavaria, (1832.) He ruled Greece under the name Dr. Francia ruled as despot from 1810 to 1837. of Otto I., from 1833 until 1862, when he was deprived of his throne by an insurrection. He was succeeded by George I. (See GENEALOGY, XIV.) XETS. The Wars for thie Independence of G(reece, a. The Liberation of Greece. b. The Turco-Russian War. That the Turks should have so long maintained their empire in Europe over Cause. The battle of Navarino naturally had enraged the Sultan He people so much more numerous than themselves, must perhaps be ascribed to the ordered the ambassadors of the three powers to leave Constantinople. To Ruscircumstance that these peoples are composed of various races unfitted to com- sia the Porte gave particular cause of offence by refusing to carry out the stipubine in any general political object, and that the Turk, as a man, is far superior lations of Akierman, and by an offensive firman. The emperor Nicholas, in conto those over whom he rules. Exclusive of Armenians and Jews, the European sequence, declared war against the Sultan, (April 26th, 1828.) subjects of the Sultan were composed of four distinct races, speaking different.Duration. About eighteen months, (1828-1829.) MODERN HISTORY. 219 Theatre of war. Turkey in Europe, and Asia Minor. XVI. The 3Mexican WTar. Object of the war. The annihilation of the Turkish Empire. Result of the war. The establishment of Russian influence in the north Cause. The annexation of Texas to the United States, in 1845. (MAoldavia and Wallachia,) and in the south (Greece) of Turkey. Duration. Two years, (March, 1846-February, 1848.) Parties. Russia against Turkey. France and England remained idle spec- Theatre of war. Mexico. tators of this war, though a French army, under General Maison, was despatched Object of the war. The recovery of Texas by the Mexicans. to occupy the Morea. Result of the war. Mexico loses New Mexico and California. Commanders. Russian: Wittgenstein, DIEBITSCH, Paskiewitsch. Parties. The Mexicans against the United States. Campaign. The Russians, under Wittgenstein, crossed the Pruth, in May, Commanders. American: TAYLOR, SCOTT, and Wool. Mexican: Santa Anna, captured Braila and Varna, but were unable to pass the Balkan. This, however, Arista, Ampudia, Morales, Valencia. was effected in the following summer by General Diebitsch, who, having taken Battles. Eleven battles were fought. The Americans were always victoriShumla, crossed the mountains and appeared before Adrianople, which immedi- ous. In 1846: Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterey. In 1847: Buena ately surrendered. The Russians had also been successful in Asia. Vista, Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Cherubusco, Molino del Rey, ChapulPeace. The Porte, seeing the inutility of further resistance, signed the tepee. peace of Adrianople, (September, 1829.) Cause of peace. The taking of the city of Mexico by the Americans, on Conditions of peace. 1. Russia received some districts near the Caucasus, the 14th of September, 1847, made an end to the war. with the fortress of Anopa. 2. The independence of Greece was recognized. Peace. At Guadalupe Hidalgo, (February, 1848.) New Mexico and Califor3. The independence of Servia was guaranteed. 4. The hospodars of Moldavia nia were ceded to the United States, and, in return, the Mexican government and Wallachia were to be appointed for life, and no Turks were to reside in was to receive $15,000,000 for the ceded territory. those principalities. VIII. THE EUROPEAN REVOLUTION OF 1848, A. FRANCE. I. General Causes. II. The Revolution. The European states had gradually ranged themselves into two classes. In a. The Political Revolution. the first class were the constitutionally governed states: Great Britain, France, The king, on opening the chambers, December 27th, 1847, plainly intimated Spain, Portugal, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and his conviction that no reform was needed. In consequence of this, very sharp some of the minor German states. debates took place on the address, and the opposition determined to have a There was another class of states, however, including Russia, Austria, Prussia, colossal reform banquet in the Champs Elysees, on February 22d, 1848; but it some of the minor German states, and all the Italian states, in which the theory was forbidden by Guizot. The parliamentary liberals resented this act of power, was that the right of ruling and making laws belonged absolutely to certain and tlhe republicans seized the opportunity. Barricades were erected in the dynasties, who, although morally bound to consult the interest of the governed streets of Paris, and Louis Philippe was obliged to abdicate, and flee with his populations, were not responsible to their subjects for their manner of family to England. doing so. France was declared once more t.o be a republic, and a provisional government In all such absolutely governed states, there was a chronic strife between the was established under Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, Arago, etc. people and their rulers. It was evident that a conflict was in preparation between the opposed principles of absolutism and representative government. The year b. The attempted Social Revolution. 1848 witnessed the outbreak of this movement. It began in France, where the The same dangerous elements were again afloat as in the first revolution, and attempts of Louis Philippe and his prime minister, Guizot, to render the govern- if they did not gain the ascendency, it was because the higher and middle classes, ment gradually independent of the nation, and to follow the footsteps of the instructed by experience, actively opposed them. Fifty-one communist clubs absolute empires, created a deep-felt discontent, which was increased by the were established in Paris. The ultra-democrats, Cabet, Blanqui, and Raspail, unprecedented scarcity of the years 1846 and 1847. Disturbances broke out in formed a sort of triumvirate, and incited these clubs to proceed to extremities, several places, and the liberal party began to agitate an electoral reform. in order to establish a red republic under Ledru-Rollin. But the citizens and,i - I,,, i,.I,_,.I..., 220 APPENDIX. National Guards were on the alert; 100,000 National Guards assembled to pre- nand IT. (1835-1848,) may be said to have consisted in an incessant war between serve the peace, and the communist party were overawed. From this day, the central government and the four following elements of revolt: (April 16th, 1848,) the extreme party was defeated. 1. GERMAN LIBE:RALISM, or the longing for political freedom and constitutional government, which existed chiefly among the young men of the educated classes. c. The Great Socialistic Outbreak. They were full of democratic opinions, and anxious for a revolution which would The revolutionists of February had pronounced it to be the duty of the state destroy the existing despotism. race in to provide employment for its citizens, and had followed up this declaration by 2. MAGYARISM, or the desire of the Magyars (the ruling race in Huary) to the establishment of national workshops with a view to the organization of i free their country from all foreign (Austrian) influence. They did not regard labor. Thus the state was converted into a naster-manufacturer, to whose ser- themselves as a portion of the Austrian Empire at. all, but as a separate nation, vice, as the pay was good and the superintendence not over-strict flocked all the whose hereditary sovereign chanced also to be the hereditary sovereign of Ausvice, as the pay was good and the superintendence not over-strict, nocKecall tnhe i. ~ ~....... lazy, skulking mechanics of Paris and its neighborhood. They soon numbered a. The re were two pares, who wished to concede polity. l rigt to none but 80,000, to be maintained at the public expense. for the ruin of private tradesmen, a. The Old Mgyar Party, who wished to concede politica i ht t An attempt of the government to dismiss part of these workmen produced one tthe Magyar nobles, they being, as it were, a governing caste in the midst of SlaAn attempt of the government to dismiss part of these workmen produced one vonians and other serfs. of the bloodiest b-attles Paris had yet seen, (300 barricades thrown up and b. The New Hungarian Party, who thought the independence of Hungary could 16,000 people killed and wounded.) The battle began on June 23d, and lasted four days; but the insurgents were at length subdued by the superior force of only be maintained by admitting all inhabitants of Hungary alike to political the troops of the lin.e and the National Guards. rights, and forming Magyars, Slavonians, and other races into one powerful the troops of the line and the National Guards. i.'.~'....'- General Cavaignac, who had been appointed dictator during the struggle, now. IAAN PATROTSM, their the attempt of the inhabitants of the Lombrdolaid down his office, but was appointed chief of the Executive Commission, with 3.'..................... aei dlown his offesd ut was appointedy chief of the Eecutive Commission, wit Venetian kingdom to free themselves of the rule of the detested foreigners, (Austhe title of president of the council. tarians.) They continually formed conspiracies for overthrowing their rule; and IIIL T~he eaction. it was only by a vigilant system of police and by keeping large garrisons in'.CL; b7Le Reacio'. ]Venice, Milan, Mantun, Verona, Peschiera, Legnano, etc., that the Austrians The fear which socialism had inspired, had produced among the more educated were able to maintain their authority. classes a reaction in favor of monarchy. A new constitution was prepared, by 4. SLAVISM, or SLAVONIAN NATIONALITY, or the longings of the various Slavowhich France was declared a republic, headed by a president, elected every four nian populations of the empire (Bohemians, Moravians, Croatians, Illyrians,) to years by the direct suffrages of all the electors, in whom was vested the sole free themselves fronl German rule. John Kollar, of Pesth, a man of poetical executive authority. The legislative authority was committed to a single assembly and fervid, and, at the same time, of scholarly mind, first propounded the doctrine of 750 members, elected by all Frenchmen who had attained their twenty-first of Panslavism, or the union of all the 80 millions of Slavonians, (one-fifth of year. which belonged to Austria,) whether Russians, Bohemians, Servians, or CroaFor the presidency became candidates, Louis Napoleon, (Napoleon III., see tians, into one Slavonian Empire. GENEALOGY, VII.,) Cavaignac, Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, and Raspail. As privy-chancellor of state, Metternich acted in all matters for the emperor. In his address to the electors, Louis Napoleon promised order at home, peace A man of pleasing manners, and highly cultivated mind, it was his object to abroad, a reduction of taxes, and a ministry chosen from the best and most able govern despotically, and yet to let the despotism be as little felt as possible. men of all parties. The peasantry and the common soldiers were his chief sup- This system of paternal government might have succeeded in a small state. In so porters. The election took place, December 10th, when Napoleon obtained five large an enipire, however, the personal manner of the ruler could not penetrate and a half million of votes, while Cavaignac, who stood next, had only about one far; and hence it was only by harshness and severity on the part of the resident and a half million, and the other candidates but very small numbers. Napoleon officials, by arrest of discontented individuals, and by employing military forces was installed in the office which he had thus triumphantly won, December 20th, collected in one part of the empire to keep down revolt in another, that the vari1848. ous provinces and populations could be held together. The French revolution produced an insurrection of the different nationalities subject to the Austrian B. *|aensned.taneogtthGm pasftoioAUSTRIA.o~T I sway. The whole strength of that vast, but ill-compacted empire, seemed to colB. AUSTRIA. lapse in a single day. It was not enough that the German parts of its dominions L. Genera Causes. had constitutional government conceded to them. The Hungarian, Slavonian, and Italian subjects had- their separate quarrels with the Austrian government, and The political history of Austria, under the rule of Metternich, as prime min- seized the opportunity of separate action. ister, first for Francis I., (1815-1835,) and then for his son and successor Ferdi- MODERN HISTORY. 221 II. The Austro-lungarian RevolZution. by the national guard, and the minister of war (Latour) sacrificed to the fury of the populace, a second time quitted his capital, and fled to Olmiitz. A revoa. The Outbreak and its Consequences. lutionary government was organized, consisting of the democratic leaders of the When the news- of the French revolution arrived in Hungary, KossUTH carried, Viennese diet, assisted by some members of the Frankfort parliament, (among them, Robert Blum.) The military command was intrusted to Bem, a Pole of in the diet at Pesth, an address to the emperor-king, (March 3d,) demanding a G lca. For t en days, Be maintai ne d the defence against the united a Pole of Galicia. For ten days, Bemr maintained the defence against the united armies national government, purged from all foreign influence. Metternich prepared of Windishgritz and Jellachich, (80,000 men,) who had laid siege to the city in to resist this demand by military force. The insurrection of the Viennese, how- the nme of thez and Jellachich, (80,000 men,) who had laid siege to the city in ever, having driven Metternich into exile, and compelled the Austrian emperor the Hungarians, in whose f they had made the revolution, would come to grant a constitution to his German subjects, the Hungarians gained the day. to their relief. They did come, but too late. When the Hungarian army, under The archduke Stephen was named Hungarian palatine, and Kossuth was appointed secretary of the treasury, (March 18th.) The hopes of the German democrats rgey appeared before Vienna, on the 30th of October, 1848, the bombardment ere now fixed upon Vienna, wherethepeopof thie city was at an end, and Windischgriitz was already entering it. The were now fied upon Vienna, where the people strength obtained the master consent- Viennese were subjected to the usual consequences of an unsuccessful revolt: were supported by Kossuth with the whole strength of Hungary. After consentBlum and others were shot or hanged, and Bern escaped with difficulty. But a ing to the establishment of a constituent imperial diet, the emperor had fled to the revolution now ensued at court, and on December 2d, 1848, the emperor FerdiTyrol, and Kossuth, through his partisans, ruled as effectually in Vienna as in nad IV. abdicated in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, the present emperor. Pesth. (See GENEALOGY, XVI.) b. Panslavism and the beginning of the reaction. e. The Austro-llungarian War. The sixteen millions of Slaxvonians subject to Austria. thought the time at hand Cause. The refusal of Hungary to acknowledge the abdication of Ferdifor realizing their Panslavic dreams. A congress of deputies, professing to rep- nand IV. and the accession of Francis Joseph. resent all the Slavonian populations of Europe, (with the exception of Russia,) Duration. Nine months, (December, 1848-August, 1849.) met at Prague, in May, 1848. PALACKY, the historian of Bohemia, was the soul Theatre of war. Hungary and Transylvania. of this movement. Object of the war. The annihilation of the Hungarian liberties and indeThe people of Prague, tired of the oratory of this congress, broke out in insur- pendence. rection, (June 11th.) The suppression of this insurrection by Prince Windisch- Result of the war. Total subjugation of Hungary. griitz, was the first reactionary triumph of the imperial arms, and this was fol- Parties. The Hungarians, against the imperial government, which was aslowed by a rising of the southern Slavonians in favor of the emperor. sisted by the southern Slavonians and Russians. Commanders. Hungarian: Gorgey, Bem, Dembinski, Klapka, Perczel, Damiac. The South-Slavonian reaction. nich, and Guyon. Imperial: Windischgriatz, Jellachich, Welden, Haynau. Russican: Paskiewitsch and Riidiger. The Croat chief, Jellachich, who had been made ban (governor) of Croatia by san: Paskiewitsch and Rildiger. the emperor, put himself at the head of this movement. Campaign. The task of reducing Hungary was intrusted to Windischgri-itz, Jellachich, at thhe head of 65,000 Croats and other Slavonians, invaded Hun- who soon entered Pesth without opposition, (January 5th, 1849.) But now the tide turned. Battle after battle was fought, and for four months Hungary was gary, (September llth,) avowedly as an officer of the emperor intrusted with the the scene of a war far more terrible and gigand for four monthat Europe had ta'sk of reducing the Hungarians to obedience. But on the 29th of September, se The successes of the Hungarians were such Tnf'.1~ *. T. 1 r* _ known since the days of Napoleon. The successes of the Hungarians were such a Hungarian army met the advancing Croats under Jellachich, defeated, it and as to astonish the world. as to astonish the world. By the month of April, the Austrians had been driven drovwhen it became kntoward the Austrian frontier. Great was the excitement at Vienna, from Hungary, and the Hungarians had chosen Kossuth as their governor. wh.e.xc...,Viennai in tse lacf hic was thinpll reeappoardt city. the Vienna itself was threatened. Austria now accepted the aid of Russia. Toward excitement was increased when an imperial decree appeared, dissolving the Hungarian diet., placing Hungary under martial law, and appointing Jellachich the close of April, a Russan army, entering Hungary from the north, began to co-operate with fresh Austrian and Croatian armies.. Even against this overgovernor of the country. The Viennese, recognizing in this blow struck at the Hungarians, a blow struck at their own liberties, rose in insurrection. whelining force, the Hungarians kept up a brave defence till the 13th of August, 1849. on which day Gorgey surrendered to the Russians. Result. -Hung:ry was now at the mercy of the victors. At first there wore rumors that the Russian emperor meant to keep the country, and proclaim its On the 6th of October, 1848, the revolt broke out in Vienna. The emperor, independence of Austria, with one of his own sons as king. The czar, however, after the march of the imperial troops against the Hungarians had been opposed resigned Hiungary back into the hands of the Austrian emperor, whose agents 222 APPENDIX. (especially Haynau) distinguished themselves by the most horrible acts of cru- German nation, promising them a national representation, and inviting them to elty, perpetrated in his name, by way of vengeance. attend a preliminary parliament, in which a representative system was to be prepared. It was opened in the church of St. Paul, at Frankfort, March 81st, 1848, III. The Lombardian_ Revolution. where it was agreed that a general constituent assembly should be held at Frankfort, to which deputies should be sent (one for every 50,000) from every part of Germany. It assembled on the 18th of May, for the purpose of giving Germany a constitution. Various schemes were propounded. The more extreme liberals C. GERMANY. advocated that of a great federal republic. The prevailing opinion, however, was in favor of a revived German Empire, and the archduke John (uncle of the I. General Causes. emperor) was elected imperial vicar. The diet of the confederation held then its last sitting, (July 12th,).and handed over its power to the imperial vicar. Liberal ideas had been spontaneously making progress in Germany. The The German parliament, which was now the supreme authority in the empire, French revolution of 1830 had agitated the minor states, and had obliged the wasted its time on abstract and speculative questions, and no results of practical governments of the majority of these states to grant constitutions to their sub- importance followed its deliberations. They elected by a small majority the jects. These constitutions were after the model of that of France; but the king of Prussia hereditary emperor, (March 28th, 1849;) a dignity, however, German princes soon found the means of imitating Louis Philippe, and practi- which Frederick William IV. declined to accept. After this election Austria cally neutralizing the constitutions as much as possible by all kinds of restrio- withdrew her representatives from the parliament, which example was soon foltions on the press, and on popular liberty. The consequences of this were a lowed by Prussia and Saxony. That assembly was also reduced, by the volunwide-spread discontent. tary desertion of other members, to little more than 100 persons, who, deeming The French revolution set all Germany in a blaze; in the smaller states the themselves no longer secure in Frankfort, transferred their sittings to Stuttgardt. excitement displayed itself in a desire for German unity. Here they deposed the imperial vicar, and appointed a new regency, consisting of five members. But, as they began to call the people to arms, they were disII. The Revolution. persed by the Wiirtemberg government, (June 18th, 1849.) a. The Humiliation of the Sovereigns. II. ThLe Reaction. Revolutionary symptoms first appeared on the banks of the Rhine. At Mannheirn, the people assembled and demanded the freedom of the press, the arming The constituent assemblyfor Prussia, which was opened at Berlin on the 22d of of the people, and a GERMAN PARLIAMENT. In the smaller states everything was May, 1848, had expired on the 5th of December, of the same year. Like the at once conceded. The governments of the middle states (Bavaria, Saxony, and Frankfort parliament, it had done nothing but talk. The king, retracting the Hanover,) alone opposed any resistance to the people, till Austria and Prussia were constitution of 1848, announced that he had a new one in preparation, which was likewise observed to be in confusion. Then, all over Germany, the sovereigns promulgated and sworn to, in February, 1850; since which time the Prussian began bowing before their subjects, making speeches to them, promising to govern king has ruled nominally as a constitutional monarch, but really with much of them on new principles, and asking oblivion for the past. the absolute power which he possessed prior to 1848. In Berlin, King Frederick William IV. granted not only all demands, but Meanwhile, in the rest of Germany also, matters were gradually resuming (after a riot, in which 200 people lost, their lives) put himself at the head of the their ancient course. The question of the German constitution, however, still people. remained a cause of disunion. Austria, backed by the influence of Russia, An attempt was even made to place the king of Prussia at the head of the succeeded in re-establishing the federal constitution with the Frankfort diet, as German national movement. On the 21st of March, the army had assumed the arranged in 1815. The *ussian government now endeavored, in opposition to German cockade in addition to the Prussian, and the king rode through the city Austria, to form a new confederation, of which Prussia was to be the presiding decorated with the three German colors, (black, red, and gold.) A proclamation power, and which was to consist of all the German states, except Austria. With was issued declaring that Prussia rises into Germany. These proceedings pro- this view a German parliament was convoked at Erfurt, (March 20th, 1850,) duced a bad impression in Germany, and were nearly everywhere received with which. however, after a few sittings, indefinitely adjourned. Frederick Wilunconcealed scorn. liam IV. made another attempt to form a separate league, by summoning a conb. The German ~Parlinament. gress of princes, at Berlin, in May. At the same time, Austria had summoned the diet of the confederation to meet at Frankfort, which was attended by repreThe leaders of the opposition in the various German representative assemblies sentatives from all the states except Prussia and Oldenburg. Thus, two rival held a meeting at Heidelberg, (March 8th,) and published a proclamation to the congresses were sitting at the same time: one at Berlin, to establish a new conA_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ MODERN HISTORY. 223 federation under Prussian influence; and one at Frankfort, to maintain the old the Two Sicilies, the grand-duke Leopold in Tuscany, and the dukes of Modena one, under the supremacy of Austria. The quarrel between Prussia and Austria and Parma, could only keep their thrones by giving or promising constitutions. was brought to an issue by the disturbances in Hesse-Cassel, where the elector But, besides thus yielding to the revolutionary force within their own dominions, openly outraged the constitution by proceeding to levy taxes on his own author- these sovereigns found themselves obliged to join in a common enterprise for ity, in consequence of which the people rose in revolt, and drove him from his driving the Austrians out of Lombardy and Venice, so as to gratify the longdominions. cherished desire of all the Italians to see their native land entirely liberated The diet at Frankfort resolved to support the elector against his subjects; from foreign thraldom. It was with hesitation that most of the Italian princes while Prussia took up the opposite side, and moved a large military force toward joined in the league agains# Austria - a power to which they were all indebted. the Hessian frontier. A collision appeared inevitable, when hostilities were Charles Albert, of Sardinia, alone took up the cause with spirit. He boldly averted by Russian interference and a change of the cabinet at Berlin. To put undertook to lead the Italians in a war with Austria. an end to these disputes, conferences were opened at Dresden, (December, 1850.) Prussia was induced to acknowledge the Frankfort diet; and the ancient state b. The Austro-Italian War. of things, after three years of revolution and disturbance, was re-established in Cause. The hatred of the italians against the Austrian domination. Duration. Eighteen months, (February, 1848-August, 1849.) D. ITALY. Object of the war. To drive the Austrians out of Italy. Result of the war. The Austrian domination in Italy seems to be fixed I. General Causes. firmer than ever. Parties. The united Italians against the Austrian empire. The arrangements made by the congress of Vienna with respect to Italy, were Great commanders. Austrian: RADETZKY, (then 82 years old,) Nugent, such as to leave the Italians universally dissatisfied. At length, a formidable Clam, Giulay, Archduke Albert. Italian: CHARLES ALBERT, (called the Sword secret society was established among them, with a view to combine the disaffected of Italy,) Chrzanowski, Pepe. in all the states in one common effort against the native despots and the Aus- Decisive battles. Gained by the Austrians: Monte Berici, (near Vicenza,) trians. The conspirators called themselves Carbonari. About the year 1831, CUSTOZZA, Vallegio, Mostaza, and NOVARA. Gained by the Italians: Goito, Carbonarismt was superseded by a new form of Italian patriotism, of a more ener- Rivoli, Somma Campagna. getic character. It arose in Piedmont, under the auspices of a number of Genoese Results of the battle of Novara. Abdication of Charles Albert in favor youths, who organized themselves into a body called YouNa ITALY. Their leader of his son, Victor Emanuel, (the present king;) armistice and submission of and founder was MAZZINI, whose view was: that the freedom of Italy, both Sardinia. from domestic and foreign tyranny, could only be attained by a union of all the Peace. At Milan, (August 6th, 1849.) The principal terms were: payment separate states into one nation -all merging their separate names in the one by Piedmont of the expenses of the war, and evacuation by them of Lombardy, common name of Italians, and under this name forming a single powerful Euro- Parma, Piacenza, and Modena, and withdrawal of their fleet from the Adriatic. pean nation. But the conspiracy having been prematurely discovered, the Pied- Everything was replaced on the ancient footing. montese government took steps for breaking it up. Many of the chief agents Siege of Venice. The Venetians, who had associated themselves with were arrested and put to death; others escaped to Great Britain, (1833.) From Charles Albert, resolved, notwithstanding his defeat, to continue the war of indethat time, no considerable attempt at insurrection was made. The Austrians in pendence on their own account; and raising their ancient republican standard northern Italy, and the native dynasties throughout the rest of the peninsula, of St. Mark, they constituted themselves into a republic, under a triumvirate, continued to rule by military force and the terrors of a secret police system. of whom the most influential member was MANIN. After Lombardy was again The accession of Pope Pius IX., (1846,) however, was hailed by the Italians as subdued, Radetzky proceeded to invest Venice. (summer, 1848.) It was not the dawn of a new day; and immense expectations were formed from the liberal reduced by the Austrians till August 22d, 1849, partly by bombardment, partly acts of the first year of his pontificate. In the midst of this excitement the through the effects of famine. news of the French revolution passed through the Italian populations. III. The Reaction. IL Thpe Rtevolution. II. The.Revolution, a. The kingdom of the T1wo Sicilies. a. The Ilumiliation of the Sovereigrns. The defeat of Charles Albert was a heavy blow to Italian freedom; and the Instantly, as in Germany, all the native despotisms fell before the blast of this Italian sovereigns availed themselves of it to begin a reactionary policy within news. Charles Albert in the Sardinian states, Ferdinand II. in the kingdom of their respective states. Ferdinand II. (King Bomba) set the example. _ _ 224 APPENDIX. As early as May, 1848, he had contrived, after a fearful massacre in the streets, bitter hatred of the demagogues, was assassinated, (November 15th, 1848.) Upon to become master of Naples. After the battle of Custozza, (July 24th, 1848,) he this the mob attacked the Pope in the Quirinal, and murdered his secretary, Caropenly professed his determination to restore despotism throughout his dominions. dinal Palma. The Pope succeeded in escaping, and betook himself to Gaeta. The The constitution was annulled, the cabinet disbanded, and its members imprisoned Roman parliament, having in vain implored him to return, proceeded to establish a or driven into exile. provisional government. At length, (February 5th, 1849,) was opened at Rome After Naples had been reduced, Sicily continued in a state of rebellion. In a general Italian constituent assembly, which began by deposing the Pope as a July, 1848, the Sicilians chose Ferdinand, brother of Victor Emanuel, for their temporal prince, and proclaiming the Roman republic, (February 8th.) A triking; but that prince declined to accept the proffered crown. umvirate having been chosen to conduct the executive of the republic, MAZZINI Filangieri, with a Neapolitan army, landed at Messina, and captured that became chief triumvir. But soon a reaction commenced. The Austrians began town, after a sanguinary struggle. In the spring of 1849, Filangieri reduced to enter central Italy; while France and Spain also despatched troops to the Pope's Catania and Syracuse, and on the 23d of April he entered Palermo, thus putting aid. A division of 6,000 French troops, under General Oudinot, landed at Civita an end to the rebellion. Vecchia, (April 25th.) After having experienced a signal defeat before the walls ~~~~~~b. Rome. ~of Rome from Garibaldi's volunteers, it began the siege. Oudinot captured Rome, b. Rome., after a two-months' siege, on the 3d of July, 1849. The French remained excluIn the Roman States, the reaction was brought about by the demagogues. The sive masters of the city till April, 1850, when the Pope returned, and re-estabPope continued to govern the Romans according to the constitution he had lished his government under their protection. granted them. His principal adviser was Count Rossi, who, having incurred the ADDENDA. The Olynthian War. Social War in Greece. Cause. The endeavor of Olynthus to force into its confederacy the cities of Acantlus and Apol- Cause. The invasion of the.,.tolians into Messenia (in the Peloponnesus) had led to the total Ionia, which, jealous of Olynthian supremacy, and menaced in their independence, applied to Sparta, defeat of the Acheaen forces, who had marched to the assistance of the Mlessenians. The Achaans then in the height of its power, to solicit intervention. now saw no hope of safety, except through the assistance of Philip V., the king of Macedonia, who Duration. Three years, (383-379 B. C.) readily listened to their application, and declared war against the.tolians. Theatre of war. The region around Olynthus, a town which stood at the head of the Toronaic J)uration. About three years, (220-217 B. C.) gullf, between the peninsulas of Pallene and SithOnia (north-western part of the REgRan sea.) Theatre of war. The Peloponnesus and central Greece. Parties. The Spartan confederacy against the Olythian confederacy. Parties. The Achi-ans, assisted by Philip V., king of Macedon, against the Etolians, assisted Object of the war. The dissolution of the Olynthian confederacy. by the Spartans. Result of the war. The Olynthian confederacy is dissolved. Sparta, by crushing the Olyn- Object of the war. To put a stop to the predatory excursions of the ~tolians, who for thian confederacy, virtually surrendered the Thracian Greeks to Macedonia. Never again did the years had carried on a system of organized robbery. opportunity occur of placing Hellenism on a firm, consolidated, and self-supporting basis, round the Result of the war. The Etolian confederacy remains as it was before, the curse of coast of the Thermaic gulf. Greece. Colnmanders. Spartan: Eudamidas, Agesipolis, Polybiades. Calnpaign. Philip V. inflicted a severe blow upon the IEtolians, (218 B. C.,) by an unexpected Peace. The Olynthians were reduced to such straits that they were obliged to sue for peace march into the interior of their country, where he surprised their capital, THssatue. and, breaking up their own federation, enrolled themselves as sworn members of the Lacedvemonian Cause of' peace. The desire of Philip to turn his arms against the Romans, made him conconfederacy, under obligations of fealty to Sparta. clude peace with the Etolians. Reinark. The expedition of the Spartans to Olynthus led incidentally to an affair of much lRemark. The long-discussed alliance between Carthage and Macedonia had been delayed by greater importance. Phoebidas, the brother of Eudamidas, was appointed, in 383 B. C., to collect the this social war. It was only after the splendid victory of Hannibal at Trasimenus, (217,) that Demetroops, which were not in readiness at the time of his brother's departure, and to march toward trios of Pharos found Philip disposed to listen to his proposal to cede to Macedonia his Illyrian posOlynthus. On his way through Boeotia, he encamped in the vicinity of Thebes, where he was visited sessions -which it was necessary, however, to wrest in the first place from the Romans -and it was by Leontiades, one of the polemarchs, and some other leaders of the Spartan army in Thebes. In only now that the court of Macedonia came to terms with Carthage. order to annihilate the democracy, Leontiades persuaded Pheebidas to take possession of the Cadmea, Macedonia undertook to land an invading army on the east coast of Italy, in return for which she (the citadel of Thebes,) which Leontiades was willing to surrender into his hands. received an assurance that the Roman possessions in Epirus should be restored to Macedonia. The Alexandrian Library. The Egyptian Ptolemies founded the vast library of Alexandria, which was afterward the emula- rowed of the Athenians the works of 2Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, caused them to be transcribed tive labor of rival monarchs. in the most elegant uanner; retained the originals for the Alexandrian library, and returned to the It was begun by Ptolemy Soter (306-285 B. c.) in the Museum, which stood near the royal palace, in the Athenians the copies which had been made of them, with 15 talents (talent $1250) for the exchange. quarter of the city called Brucheium, and was hence called the Bruchleium library. When this build- The library continued in all its splendor until Caesar's Alexandrian war, when the oldest (the Bruing had been completely occupied with books to the number of 400,000 volumes, a supplemental library cheium) portion of the collection was destroyed by order of Caesar. But the library in the Serapeum was erected within the Serapeum, or temple of Serapis; anid the books there placed gradually increased still remained, and was augmented by subsequent donations, particularly by that of the Pergamean to the amount of 300,000 volumes; thus making in both libraries a grand total of 70),0e0' volumes. library, (amounting to 200,000 volumes,) presented by Mark Antony, in 34 B. c., to Cleopatra. The measures adopted by the Ptolemies to bring together this collection were rattiler curious. After various revolutions, during which the collection was sometimes plundered and sometimes They caused all books imported into Egypt by foreigners to be seized and sent to the Museum, where re-established, it was utterly destroyed by the Saracens, under the orders of the caliph Omar, about they were transcribed by persons employed for the purpose; upon which the copies were delivered to 638 A. D. "If," said the caliph, "these writings of the Greeks agree with the Koran, they are useless, the proprietors, and the originals deposited in the library. Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 B. c.) bor- and need not be preserved; if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." Robert the Devil22 1. WILLIAM the COXNQUTEROR, 1087 2WILLIAM II., 1100 oi ENTRY I., 1133 Adela G EN A O G C L TA L E paiai n PLANTAGENET M__ athild-a Th4nmeSoTheruerHEelNinedineai ciptas OF THlE Tl ae ftl yate r rnei oUfcdCIia 5 HENRY II., 118S9R U 1 RS OE e L ADTenesotieclletlglksaeltnicome RIcn'A-s 1, 11I99 7 JOIIN, 11216 Th eatswrttnaferte aiesidiat heyerFfthi 8 H ce~~~a III., 1272 ~~~From. 1066 until 17,dah 91 EDWAID III 37I., V.0 I~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The Black Prince ~~~~~Clarence York LAN~A'STER 12 RtJcm'oI,10A liip 130 IENRY IV., 1413 JohnI Beoaufort atrS AR Roger Morthnwer- 14 lHENRY V., 1 4 22 JohnGenT D RortI Annse - _ Earl of Ca. bridgea 15 THENRY VI., 1471 Maro-uretbl _____________ laoou br I YVORK Eedward.aneI 16 EDWARD IV., 1483 IS EscIuAsRD II,18 ass 11EwAD DV., 1483. Elizsebetleh - 19 IIExaac VII., 150 ae I 20 ITEince VIII, 1547 Mraeh _____JmsI 22 MARE, lO5sS 23 EILIZA.xn1, 160 21 EDWA7Rr VI., I53J c 2-5 CRIARLES I., ][649 1hsel The infers of England during thiss epoch are divided into five distinct dynasties: I. Tile race of the Conquaeror fromt 1066-1154 with 4 icings. 20 CnArLSs II., 143 5 27 JAMIES II, 17031 Ma"ry Spi xPk f1 G EPI the older Plantagence4- with S kinige. IL. The Plantagenets frons 1154-14S5 with 141 kiuli)- su~bcivided ilu-te the House of Launcaster with 13 kisego. 29 ANNE, 1714 The Pretender 28 MARY,iy 1694-25 AVILLIAIIII, 7. 0 tle I,11 theG House of Yorlk Sithi 3 kins.i ecnI.,16 l1t. The Tudlors~ fron 1485-16-33 wvi h 5 int ern - 1IT. The Stuarts from 1603-1714 with 7 rulers. Charles Eudward Cardihnal of York FEOIR rneo ae Y. Th)e Gaeuclils, fromt 1714- v wi th:, ruer 226 THE SCOTCH SUCCESSION IN 1290. D)AvmD L, 1153 I M.ALCOLM IV., 1165 WILLIAM THE LION, 1214 DAVID, EARL OF 11UNTINGDO'N, 1219 AA______Foi l,19 ALEXANDER II., 1249 MARGARET, 1222 ISsA11LIA AAWlimI,12 I I I I~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I I ALEXANDER III., 1285 IOEVOIGOIL MARJORY Brucecor atnsFoi V,13 Eric of Norway ___MAROARET, 1283 Johsn Batiol, 11295 Mai0 __________ The Black Comym Bruce, Earl of CaricJhnfat WianI.,15 Maid of Norway, 1290 Edward Baliol, 1342 The Re tChmyn, 11306 The BruIce, 29~O'SV Cutohlad,16 The descendants of David I. of Scotland, in the male line, aro printed in small capitals. Thse 5 competitors for Ithe Scotch crown are printed in italic; they are: John Baliol, The Re Uemyn, Bs#eeJh ~s~t ~F David, 1374)Mroy____WTXSUR All other names are printed in common type. The kings of Scotland are marked RERII,10 THE CLAIMS TO THE ENGLIHCONOLAYJNGEYNDRBLASTAT III ~~~~~~~THE FRENCH SUCCESSION IN 132.8. IVEDADH P11ILIP III., 12S5 ~~~~~~~~The rulers of Egland aye pvhated in small -capitals. JhnBA OR,1@Riar,45 I ~~~~~~The mulers -of Scotland are ariced PHIIPTV. 1314 CHA1RLES OF VALOIS Edscard I., 1306I Louis X., 1316 PHILIP V., 1322* CHARLES IV., 1327 ISABELLA__ Edward I11, 1328 PHILIP VI., 1350I JANE JANE MARGARET BLAc HEI Edward UTl., 1377 * OHN. 1364I CHARLES THE BAD PHILIP LoUIS.II PHILIP Tohnz of- Gaunt, 1399 * CIIARLES V., 1380JmsI.S53-Mraeh,139__Duls,15 ER.VI ay,13 er,13 admll,16 NAVARRE BUYRGUNDY FLANDERS ORLEANS fcr~,11 HRE I,12 I I 11 James V., 1542 Margaretha, 158EI. E rni.163 Ewr orea,15 Al h ecnants of Philip III. are printed in small capitals, except the English HCrV, 1422 CATHARINA *CHARLES VII1., 146A ____ kin-S. Mary Stuart, 15S17 Darnley, 111~~~~~~~~~~~~~MayStar,157 _ Drle, 57 lsreo 17 CtarnaJneOry 15 kngs * THm,,,y VI, 1471 All the descendants of Edward I. are printed in italic. King of England and France. JaeI,165WSymu The French kinubs are marked Jae*. U. |V GENEALOGY OF THE HOUSE OF GUELPH. 227 11OO -1870. GUELPH IV., 1101 hIENRY THE BLACK, 1127 HENRY THE PROUD, 1139 HENRY THE LIoY, 1195 WILUAM, 1213 OTTO THE CHILD, 1252 ALBERT I., 1279 ALBERT 1I., 1318 lMAGNUS, 1369 MAGNUS TO0QUATUS, 1373 BEERNARD, 1434 FnEDERICK, 1478 0TTO, 1471.BR(U.JViSWI TCK lHENRY, 153.]R-ANOVlERt ERNST RE' CONFESSOR, 15416 HIENRY, 1598 VWILLIA.M, 15 92 AUGUST, 16 6 GEORGE, 1 641 3ERDINAND ALBERT I., 697 ERNST AUGUST, 1698 FERDIN..ND ALB ERT II., 1735 1 George I., 1727 CHARLES, 1780 2 George II., 1760 CHEARLES WILLIA.I, 1806 FREDERICK, PRINCE OF WALES, 175 1 FREDERICK WILLIAM, 1815 3 George III. 1820 CHARLES WILLIAM dec~laread inGca:pablbe of rldll ngl i11 1830 4 George IV., 1830 5 Williamn IV., 1837 EDWARD, DUKE OF IENT, 1820 ERNST AUGUST, 1851 ADOLF FREDERICK, 1850 Victoria GFORHTE V deposed 1866 Sovereigns of Great Britain in this type. Those who ruled both over Great Britain and Hanover are marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5..... =.~...-__. ~_....... 228 * IUGH CAPET, 996 GENEALOGICAL SURVEY* ROBERT, 1033 V OF TILE HOUSE OF *1HENRY I., 100RoetDkeo BRUNY 17 P~inu I., 1108 V~~ADI er,16 C A PE Ty Extintinte6heer LEWIS VI., 1137EueHeryConofPR GA.IN ALL ITS BRANCHES.TeOlrLieougnd *LEWIS VII., 1180 DRUPxicti 311Aloz lnrqe,15 987-1870. PHI1LIP AueUsru~, 12,23 BeoExtienocBttgn *LENVIS V1II.,,12263AfosII,13 *Lewis IX,1270 Robert of AR.TOIS AN3O aooI. 28 5AfnoII,18 See GenealyVI PiT-Lip MI., 1285 R obert of'Ciermont Robert II 6e,12 *PHIIui IV., 1314 Charles of VALOIS Lewis of BO'URBON Philip maaiad7Afni V,15 * LEWIS X, 1316 *PIIILIP V., 132213 *CHIRLES, 1V., 13ffI-7 *PHII-P VL, 1350 Jre ortIIJoanPthl,16 See Genealogy, VII and VIIII eJoOiN, 1364 Jobn John Joan rta.Fednn,18 10JhteBsad,43 Lewis ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Pl~vlipFothdecnatofJ n l Valz~~o Anjon Burg-nniiy IIBatrseGnloyXV See Genealogy, VIII John Charles Francis 31lontpenie Extinctin19'Charles The names of the French kin-s. are marked*AnoofaareC d SeG elgyVI The names of the Spanish kings are marked tt -'The names of tse Portnguese kings are marked 1-10. *HENR,\Y IV., 1610 All other names are printed iu commou type.: The names of the different Capetingiaia families are printed in bold-faced capitals.,0LEWIS XIII., 1643Gatno 0LEWIS XIV., 1715 tt Philip ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Piipo OLA The Duke of Burgundy t hlpY,14 ei ~~ Lew~~~~~~s XV., 1774 if~~~~~~~~~~~~t Lewis I., 1724 if FerdinandVI,15ifCalsI.,78PhipLwshlp ThEWI Dauphi 7Cals7V,11 F nn IFriad glt I tf Charles IV., IS'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ *Lewis X-VI., 1793 LEWIS XVIII., 1824 * CHARLES X., 1836 if Ferdinand VII., 1833BoCaosFacsILwsILwsPIL,15 Lewis XVIT DJuke~ of Berry ttIfael II Louisa Jh ednn ICalsLwsik fO-en I I i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _Duke of MontpensierNALSUCARA E FRANCE SPAIN H hugh CAPET, 996 2 VII I Robert, 1033 GENEALOGICAL TABLE * Henry 1., 1060 OF THE E2~ ~ Philip L, 110S~ The names of the kings are marked * Lewis VI., 1137 R U L ER' 3 F F * A N C1E The names of the houses in this type. * Lewis VIII., ilSOFrom 987 until 1870. The names of the connecting links iN TillS TYrE. *Philip IL., Augustus, 12231 The dates written after the names indicate the year of their death. ~ Lewis VIII., 1226 *Lewis IX., 1270:- Philip III., 128 ROBERT OF CLERMONT LEwis oF BOURBON * Philip IV., 1314 CHARLES Or VALOlIS- a ~ Lewis X, 1,[ * Philip., 132- Charles IV, 1327 * Philip VI., 1350 * John, 1364 L * Charles V, 1380 J _______________ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~FRAN CIS * Crles VI., 144229 LEWIS OF ORLEANS bCHARLES ICharles TI.. 1462 CHARIEs the Poet JOHN oF AN GOUl7]hETl ANTO, oF NAVARRE ~ Lewis XI., 1483 * Lewis XII, 151i5 CHARLES * Henry IV., 1610 Henry I CHARLES BUONAPAR.TE, 1785 * Clharles VIII., 1498 * Francis I., 1547 * Lewis XIII., 1643 hENRY II * Henry II., 1559 [ * ~~~~~~ Lewis XsIi., 11ln, ~oF ORLEANS8 The GREAT COND~ ARMAND OF CONT][I Lewis XIV., 1715 1 O NAPOLEON I., 1S21 LEwsIS 184G JEROME, 1860 Francis II., 1560 *Charles IX., 1374 *HecIry ill., 1589 I[I [ The DA PHIN The REGEN HtRY JULIUS FRANCIS LEWIS, KING OF IEOLAN] NAPOLEON II., 1832 NAP>OLEON Ili PRINCE NAPOLEON I I __________ The DUKE OF BURGUNDY LEWIS LEWIs III. LEWIS ARMAND I IIII The PRINCE IMiPERIAL VICTOR LEWIS * lewis XV., 1774 LEWIS PHIsinr LEwIs IENRY LEWIS FRANCI The PAUFUIN ECALITEl LEWIS JosEFH The dynasty of Capet is divided into 4 houses: [ I___________ [ [ I. The Older Capets from 987-1327 with 14 kings a The Older Valois from 1327-1498 with 7 kilgs * Lewis XVI., 1793 * Lewis XVIII., 1824 * Charles X., 1836 * Lewis Philip, 150 LEWIS hENRY I I I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ II. The Valois from 1327-1589 with 13 kings sub-divided ilto b Valois-Orleans from 1498-1515 with 1 king LEWIS XVII The DUKE OF BERRY The DUKE oF ORLEANS The PURR OF ENGUIEN } [ ~ ~~~~ Slhot by order ot III. The Bourbons from 1589-1830 with 7 kings c Vahois-AnlouICume from 1515-1589 with 5 kings The PURE OF BORDEAUX The CJUNT or I IV. The Orleans from 1830-1848 with 1 king 2 3 0 GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE DESCENDANTS OF LEWISVIIKNOFFAC.II PHILIP AUGUSTUS, 1223 *LEWIS YIII., 1226 *Lewis IX., 1270 Phi-lip III., 1285 ROIBERT 0F OLE 0 T, 1317 *Philip IV., 15`14 CHARLES OF YALOZS Lzwi-s oF, BIO RBON~, 1-341 *Lewis X., 13016 *Philip V., 1322 C Ciarles IV., 1 0.7 C slip VI., 1350 Rmp. 1r~ISTO 36 12 HAREStI.,130 Johni, 1364 Empeo A HE I, 1308'CResMRL,10 13RORT143JHOFDrao,33 5Charles V., 1380 a Levwis or, ANJOUI, 1384 PHILIP OF BURGUINDY, 14,04 AlBERT OF 1Habsburg, 135 Jw FBHMA 36tCALSRBR14 HRE,12 HR,14 Ei,16 ChCarlslIe,142YbLeis I141422JHNTHEFERwES, 41ILE.OD,1384ALE 133 Ep.CHALEEIVE378RLLESSSERA141329AD W, 343JOND38 MA1AETH, 112 15 HALESII., 38 Charles VII., 1461 cLewis III., 1434 d THE GOOD R1ENE', 1480 CHARLES or, MAINE, 1472 PHILIP THE GOOD, 1467 ERNST, 1424 ALBERT,13 m 3IMN 47 fMRAIEWI1 AILU,11 7JA I,13 *Lewis XI., 1483 cJOHNs 1471 JOLAINDE MARGARETA 1482 f CHALES, 1481 CHARLES TOE BOLD 14 7 A~mp. FREDERICK 1493 V, Enip. ABRT II,13 __jELABB,44 declares Louils XI. his1 I ~~~~~~~heirI ___ *Charles VIII., 1498 M AR _____.P. MJAXIMILIAN, 1519 CASIMIIR IV., or Poland, 1492=f ESABEH 55v-LAiLU,13 PHIeLiv I., 15606 t LXDIsL& us, 1516 Poijili Rings Enmp. CHARLES'V., 5558 V, MP. VFERP.DINAND'k I., 1564==ANNA, 1547 f LEWss II., 1526 Archduke of Auastria heiresi of Bohemnia and Huangary The kings of France are marked *No. 11-1'' are the Neapolitan kings from the older house of Anjoul. This table sos stedseto hre.(hog i rnmte)fo h ~ruda ue n rmLli X The rulers of Hungiiry are marked jt a-f arc the titular kings of Naples from the younger houso of Anjou.2dho HugrbeaenidwthB em,adbth ihAsrasteyretl. Ix THE SPANISH AND AUSTRIAN.SUCCESSI( SHOWING ALSO THE DESCENT OF THE PRESENT RULE RS, 01 Ute. rulers of Savoy Sardinia, or Italy are marked f The kin-s of France are marked Tbe kings of Spain are marked ft The emperors of Germany are marlied Emp. The ruiera of' Bavaria are -marked The kiilgs of Bavaxia are marked froin 1-1'V,first TMee of Saroy, 1451 ff Yerdlinand the Catholic, 1516 A))w(7Qzm TWI.. La-, I 465 11hilip,:1497 J` Ilitilibert 11., 11504 f Charles.111., 155X ft Emp. CH ARLES, I. (V.) 155& 1 1 f Einanuel Phili rt, 1580 tt PHILIP'll, 159S ---------- tt, PHILIP M., 1621 Charles Erizannel the Great, M-10 f T7ict6r- Anadeus I., 1637 Francis of CARIGNAN, 1656 *LouisXIII AN,.NA-MAR1.k PHILIP IAT., 1665 Charles Enanuel'fl., 1675- E"naaWphilibert, 1709 Etigene, 1763 Lou4s M.N., 1715 MAPjA TnEREq1A'jfi-S3 CHARLES 11., 1700 MAnGARETI Lo is Dauphin, 171111 fr Victcvr Awt(cdetn"; 1-T., 1732. Sp., Victor-Amadevs-1-41 Pr'nceEuge)?e,17.1 t Charles Einanuel _711, 173.1 Louis, 177S,- I 4 12- E11A.P., JOSEF,, 1711 1 1 Victor Am adpus 111, 1796 1780 Charles E)nanuel, 1800 U e k of Ilabsbarg,' h Chas. E;zanztel I'Tr,-ISIL9 f Vicft)rEnizanuel 1,1824 t Otarleps RH' - IS31 The descentlants of Fred' ric'" i tbel rnafe line- are printed fn small capital'I Charle's Albert, 1849, Kinig" of'Sardinim The descendants of Aniadeus VIL, first Duke of Savoy, are printed in italics. The descendants of Ernest of AVIttelsbach are printed in common type. t T7ictor E)nanztel, Ring of Italy The pretenders to the S anish crown in 1-700 were: Victor Amadeus TY., Duke of Sav( I p Philip of Bourbon, Duke of Anjoi Humbert They are printed, In. boldfaeedl italics.. Charles of Habtsburg, Archduke c Savoy, Sardinia, Italy 232 GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE RULERS OF GERMANY FROM 800UNTIL1254. X _........I....... ] I CHARLEMAGNE, 814 I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ II LEwis THI PIOUS, 840 III LOTHA.R I., 855 IV LEWIS THE GERMAN, 876 V CHARLES THE BALD, S77 CARLOMN, SSO LEWIS, SS2 VI CHARLES THE FAT, SSS lledwig Otto The SAXON VI ARNULF, 899 Conrad The FRANCONIAN or SALIAN 10 HENRY I., 936' I I 8 LEWIS THE CulL ), 911 9 C0sA.o 1.. 918 We. 9l erner XI OT GEAT, 9O73 Henry!I r- --- ____________ Conrad - Luitgarde XII OTTO II., 983 Henry The rulers of Germany during this epoch are divided into four distinct dynasties: Otto XIII O0o 1II., 1*02 XIV IHERY II., 1024 I. The CARLOVINGIAN dynasty from 800- 911 with 8 rulers. Henry II. The SAXON dynasty from 918-1021 with 5 rulers. X CONRAD I., 1039 XV CoNR~AD IT., 1039 II. The SALIC dynasty from 1024-1125 with 4 rulers. XVI ENRY Irrr 1056 /~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~V Hkl tENRY III., 1056 IV. The STABIAN dynasty from 1137-12-54 with 6 rulers. XVII HlENRY IV., 1106 XVIII HENRY V., 1125 Agnes Frederick of HOHENSTAUFEN or SUABIA XIX LovRAR THE SAXON, 1137 Henry the Black Gertrude Henry the Proud Jludith = Frederick 20 CONAD III., 1152 IHenry the Lion XXI FREDERICK BARBAROSSA, 1190 The Great Guelph, the lineal ancestor ] of Queen Victoria. E X P/ A NA TA I 0.Nc. XXII HENRY VI., 1197 23 PHILIP,120S The names of the rulers are printed in small capitals. I XXIV FREDERICK II., 1250 The names of the dynasties are printed in bold-faced capitals. The r.amines of the connecting links are printed in common type. 25 CONRAD IV., 1254 The dates written after the names indicate the year of their death. Colla The numbers Written before the names indicate the succession. The emperors are marked by the Roman notation. 233 XI GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE EMPERORS OF GERMANY FROM 1272 UNTIL 1806. Wenceslaus of BOEiII'[A Henry of 1TXEMBT'RGB 27 OTTOCAR, 1278 27 RUDOLFOF RABSBUBfG X AN IO. 30 HENRY VII, 1313 Wenceslaus IV 29 ALBERT I., 1308 The names of the ruler p ted in laital The names of the dnser s are printed in h c ali capitals. John ___________ Elisabeth 31 FREDERICK, 1330 Albert If The names oitheconeatin ntis are printed in comon type. l The da ri 32 CHARLES IV., 1378 JOHN lENRT Albert III Leopold Thenumbers written efore the names indicate the succession. ______________________ __ _| The emperors (actually crowned) are marked by Roman notation. 33 WENCESLAUS, 1419 IXXXV SIGISMUND, 1437 35 JOBST OF MORAVI., 141I Albert IV Ernst Elizabeth - 36 ALBERT II, 1439, XXXV11i FREDERICK III., 1493 38 MIAXnIJAN IL, 1519 I Philip XXXIX CHARLES V., 1558 40 FERDINAND I., I5t| gee Spanaish kings 41 MAXIMILIAN II., 1576 Charlesf tyria The six intercalary Emperors: EW~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~mperor. Rn~~~~ival~. 42 RUDOLF II., 1612 43 MAT!rIAS, 1619 44 FERDINAND I., 1637 snsperor. B~iral.I 25 Conrad IV. William of Holland. 45 FERDIAND III., 1657 26 Richard. of Cornwall. Alfonso of Castile. 2S Adolf of Nassau. I 31 Lewis IV. Frederick e i 31ewsV.PrdrkTheresaSobieski _____ Emanuel of XBAVARIA -Maria 47 Jo I., 1711 48 CHARLEJOS[F I., 1740 Charlesof LLORRAI.,;E 32 Charles IV. GUnther of Selhwartzburg.. Tr S k V. of _ _ Ja si 34 Rupert. 34 Rupert. 49 CHARLES VII., 1745 ___________ Maria Amalia Maria Theresia ________ 50 Fa~acisaITra1c65 The'Emperors of Germany duri.g tlhis epoch are divided into three dynasties, (besides the ine- 1 JOSEF II., 1790 2 LEOPOLD II., 1792 calary emperors:) I I. The Luxembwrcr dynasty from' 1308-1437 withfi 5 rulers. 53 FACS II., 1832 II. The Hfabsburg dynasty frnom 1438-1740 with 16 ruler. F IV Francis Charles IlL. The lor.raine dynasty from 1745-1806 with 4 rulers. adicted 1848 Abdication of Francis II. in 1806. Since then we have Emperors of Au tria' marked FRACS Jos -~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Rudolf 234 GENEALOGY OF THE HOUSE OF' HABSBURG. XII 1Q18-1740. Emp. RUDOLF I., 1291 Emp. ALBERT I., 1308 ALBERT II., 1358 LEOPOLD, 1386 ERNST, 1424 Emp. FREDE R1CI III., 1493 Emp. MAXIMILIAN I., 1519 The Spanish Habsburgs PHILIP I., 1506 The Austrian Ilabsburgs tt Emp. Charles V., (I) 1558 tt Philip II., 1598. Emp. Ferdinand I., 1564 tt Philip III., 1621 Emp. Maximilian II., 1576 Charles of Styria tt Philip IV., 1665 Eanp. Rudolf II., 1612 Emp. Matthias, 1619 Emp. Ferdinand II., 1637 tt Charles II., 1700 Emp. Ferdinand III., 1657 Extinct Emp. Leopold I., 1705 Emp. Josef I., 1711 Emp. Charles VI., 1740 Extinct 235 XIII GENEALOGY OF THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN, 1400-1870. FREDERICK I., 1440 ALBERT ACHILLES, 1486 EXPLANAT 11O N. _____________ The rulers of Brandenburg are printed in small capitals. JOHN CICERO, 1499 EREDERICr The rulers of Prussia are printed in capitals. The rulers of both Brandenburg and Prussia are marked with a number. JOACHIM I., 1535 ALBERT The elector-dukes with an Arabic figure. JOACHIM II., 1j71 ALBERT FREDERICK The kings with a Roman figure. WILLIAM THE SILENT JOHN GEORGE, 1598 a MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS FREDERICK IV LOUISA JULIA.NA FREDERICK IHIERY JOAcHIM FREDERICK, 1608. KING JAMES I I JOHN SIGISMlJND, 1619 ELIZABETH FREDERICK V., OR THE WINTERKINGS 2 GEORGE WILLIAM, 1640 SOPHIA - ERNEST AUGUST LOUISA OF ORANGE 3_ FREDERICK WILLIAM, TILE GREAT ELECTOR, 1688 SOPIzIA DOROTHEA G- EORGE I SOPIIA CHARLOTTE ~ — IV FREDERICK I., 1713 GEORGE II SOPHIA DOROTHEA - = V FREDERICK WILLIAMI I., 1740 VI FREDERICK TEIE GREAT, 1786 AUGUST WILLIAM, 1758 This table shows also thle relations of Frcderick I the Great with the kings of Great Britain and the VI I FREDERICK WILLIAM II., 1797 family of Orange. VIII FREDERICK WILLIAM III., 1840 IX FREDERICK WILLIAM IV., 1801 X KING WILLIAM THE CROWN PRINCE FREDERICK WILLIAM IIEDERICR UT1LI.IAM, b. 18j9 FREDERICK WILLIAM, b. 1859 236xv GENEALOGY OF THE HOUSE OF OLDENBUIRG,17-80 105 CHRISTIAN OF OLDENBURG, 1481 106 JOHN, 1513 108 FREDERICK I., 1533 107 CHRISTIAN II., 1559__ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1L09 CH1RISTIA N III., 1559ADL,1814Ostus AS,56 1110 FREDERICK IL., 1588 JOHN, 16822 JH DL,11 4 rcXV,17 4 onII,19 4 re X,11 111 CHRISTIAN IV., 1648 ALEXANDER, 1627 FEEIKIL 6914Sgsue 112 FREDERICK III., 1670 AUGUSTUS PLiFni, 16175 49 Mlichael iRO2ITA-NOW, 16415 ~RSINABR,19 113 CHRIITIAN V., 1699 LEWIS FREDERICK, 17 28 50 Alexis, 1676 114 FREDERICK IV., 1730 PETER AUaUSTUS, 1775 51 1Feodor, 1682 5? Iwan, 1696 53 Peter the Great, 1725 _ 54L Catharina L., 1727 115 CHRISTIAN VI., 1746 56 ARISE 1., 1740 Catharin Atexis, 171S 59 Elisalseth, 1.762 Anna -CY-ARLES FREDERC,13 CRARLES ANTON, 1759 57 Anna II., 1764 55 Peter IT., 1 730 60 PETER III., 1762 _____61 CataiaI.19 ___ _____ 116 FREDERiICK V., 1766 -58iwo iuL, 1764 62 PanU 1.S10115GSTnSII,79 16CHREXII,88 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ FRED ERICK, 1 8 6_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 5 G S A U V. 8 7P T R FR D R C, 1 2 117 CHRISTIAN VII., 1808 FREDERICK, 1805 WILLIAM, 1831 63 ALEXANDER I., 11825 61 NIOUS185AUTI,88 118 FREDERICK VI., 1839 119 CHRISTIAN'VIII., 1848 ENEO s. 17CalsXVBR A OT 120 FREDERICK VII., 1863 121 CHRISTIAN IX 65 ALXNE IP.E FREDERICK ALXNRG G~RNDAGMAK A~ —---- Crown Prince of Denmark Princess of W~ales ALEANDR 59oharesXVeece~u The lineal descendants of CHRISTIAN of Oldenburg occupying 5 thrones of Eslrope, are printed in email capitals. The lineal descendants of Michael Ilomanotv until they. merge by marriage in the house of Oldenbutrg, are printed in italic. The inel dscedans o Gutavs Wsa nti thy merge by marriage in the house of Oldenbuirg, are printed in commo ye The names of the dynasties are printed in bold-faced capitals. The numbers written after the name indicate the year of their deoath. (Denmark, 105-1121 The numbers in front, the order of succession in< Russia, 49- 65 Sweden, 141-159-Charles, XIV., ]Bernadotte, was a French general, who in 1810 was adopted by the childless Charles XTII. XV 237 GENEALOGY OF THE RULERS OF SPAIN, SINCE THE ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF TRASTAAIARA IN 1368. IIErN-RY II, OF T7IASTA.I-ARAIA, 13779 JOHN I., OF CASTILE, 1390 IIENRY IlI, OF CASTILE, 1406 FERDINAND I., OF ARRAGON, 1416 JOHN II, oF CASTILE, 1454 JoHN Il., OF ARRAGONO, 1479 HENRY IV., 14.74 ISABELL =_ _ __ ____ FERDINAND THE CATIIOLIC, 1516 M-IAXIMIILIAN' OF H.ABS7B JRG; CRnAz JOAX --- = _ =______ ___ ==: — 7 PHILJ I., 1506; $? CHARLES I., (~) 1558 tt PHILIP II., 1598 -F PHILIP IIl, 1621 f PHILIP IV., 1665 Lt CBHPALES IL, 1t700 LM Theresia -- Louis XI~., of BOTTRBON Louis, Dauphin ft PHIIP V., 1746 tt Louxs I., 1724 tt FERDINAD VIYL, 1759 it CHARLES III., 1788 tt CHARLES IV., 1819 tt FERDINAND YII., 1833 The Kings of Spain during this period are divided into three dynastiesI ISABELL II I. The TRASTAJ3RL4RA dynasty from 1368-1516 with 5 rulers. abdicated 1869 II. The BA4BSB URG dynasty from 1516-1700 with 5 rulers. III. The JIOURBON dynasty from 1700-1869 with 7 rulers. EXPLANATION. The names of the kings of Arragon or Spain are printed in small capitals. The names of the dynasties are printed in bold-faced italic capitals. The names of the connecting links are printed in common type. The dates written after the names indicate the year of their death. 238 XVI THE KINGS OF PORTUGAL FROM 1384- 1870. Continued from Genealogy VI House of Avis 10 JOHN THE BASTARD, 1433 louse of Braganza...................................................................... ft Ferdinand, 1516 Isabella 11 EDWARD I., 1438 ALfONSO. FERDINAND, 1470 12 ALFONSO V., 1481 FERNRNDO I tt Philip the Fair = Joan Maria 14 EMANUEL THE GREAT, 1521 13 JOHN II., 1495 FERNANDO II I JAMES ff Clhalles V., 1558S _ ISABELLA, 1539 15 JOHN III., 1557 LEWIS, 1555 17 CARDINAL HENRY, 1580 EDWARD, 1540 BEATRICE, 1537' Charles III., 1563 THEODoSIIS I I 11I1III Emanuel Philibert, 1580 Anna of Austria - tt IS Philip II., 1598 M.ARIA, 1545 JOHN, 1554 I THE PRIOR OF CR:TO, 1595 Ottavio Farnese lPretender Il l l~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ Pretender tt 19 Philip 111, 1621 Don Carlos, 1568 16 DoM SEBASTIAN, 1578 Alexander of Parma MAmRIA CATHARINA IV JON, 182 P~retender -tt 0 Philip IV., 1665 11 Rannecio of Parma ~~~~~~~~~~~~~I ~~~~~~~~~~Prl'etender ft Charles II, 1700 TEDOS, 30 21 JOHN IV., 1656. I lI 22 ALFONSO VI., 1683 23 PEDRO II., 1706 24 JOHN IV., 1750 25 JOSEF I., 1777 The kings of Portugal are marked 10-31. 26 MARIA I., 1816 - 26 PEDRO III., 1786 The descendants of John the Bastard are written in small capitals. This table shows the pretenders for the Portuguese crown, in 1580, after the death of the 17th king, Cardinal Henry, without issue. 27 JOHN VI., 18 They were- I. The Prior of Crato, grandson of Emanuel the Great, by bastard descent. II. Rtanuccio of Parma, great grandson of " " " "female descent. I. Emanuel Philibert of Savoy, " " " " female descent. 2 ERO IV. 1834 DON M 186 28 P,-DaoI. 84 Io. mr,1 IV. John of Braganza, lineal descendant of John the Bastard, by bastard descent. Philip II., king of Spain, grandson of Emanuel the Great, became king of Portugal, and during 60 years (1580-1640) the whole of the I pelsinsula of the Pyrenees was united under one ruler. The Portuguese revolution of 1640 brought to the throne the house of Braganza, which occupies the throne still. 29 MARIA II., 1853 DON PEDRO II Thle younger branch rules in Brazil. _ Brazil The dotted line indicates bastard descent. 30 PEDRO V., 1861 31 LEWIs I CHARLES ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I..........